Issuu

INVESTIGATING HUMANITIES

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

FOR THE VICTORIAN CURRICULUM

Adrian De Fanti // James Sach // Sharon Davis // Julie Bover // Kevin Gould // Arthur Moore Michael Adcock // Alan Cizzio // Sammy Coburn // Brady Driscoll // Ben Hoban // Sam Koehne Despina Polatidis // Stephen Powell // Lyndon Pratt // Danielle Raffaele Kriketos // James St. Julian

Shaftesbury Road, Cambridge CB2 8EA, United Kingdom One Liberty Plaza, 20th Floor, New York, NY 10006, USA 477 Williamstown Road, Port Melbourne, VIC 3207, Australia 314–321, 3rd Floor, Plot 3, Splendor Forum, Jasola District Centre, New Delhi – 110025, India 103 Penang Road, #05–06/07, Visioncrest Commercial, Singapore 238467 Cambridge University Press & Assessment is a department of the University of Cambridge.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

We share the University’s mission to contribute to society through the pursuit of education, learning and research at the highest international levels of excellence. www.cambridge.org

This publication is in copyright. Subject to statutory exception and to the provisions of relevant collective licensing agreements, no reproduction of any part may take place without the written permission of Cambridge University Press & Assessment. First published 2025 20 19 18 17 16 15 14 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Cover designed by Denise Lane (Sardine) Cover illustration by Adrienne Shelford Text designed by Loupe Studio Typeset by QBS Learning Printed in Singapore by Markono Print Media Pte Ltd

A catalogue record for this book is available from the National Library of Australia at www.nla.gov.au ISBN 978-1-009-62412-1

Additional resources for this publication at www.cambridge.edu.au/GO

Reproduction and Communication for educational purposes The Australian Copyright Act 1968 (the Act) allows a maximum of one chapter or 10% of the pages of this publication, whichever is the greater, to be reproduced and/or communicated by any educational institution for its educational purposes provided that the educational institution (or the body that administers it) has given a remuneration notice to Copyright Agency Limited (CAL) under the Act. For details of the CAL licence for educational institutions contact: Copyright Agency Limited Level 12, 66 Goulburn Street Sydney NSW 2000 Telephone: (02) 9394 7600 Facsimile: (02) 9394 7601 Email: memberservices@copyright.com.au

Reproduction and Communication for other purposes Except as permitted under the Act (for example a fair dealing for the purposes of study, research, criticism or review) no part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, communicated or transmitted in any form or by any means without prior written permission. All inquiries should be made to the publisher at the address above.

Cambridge University Press & Assessment has no responsibility for the persistence or accuracy of URLs for external or thirdparty internet websites referred to in this publication and does not guarantee that any content on such websites is, or will remain, accurate or appropriate. Information regarding prices, travel timetables and other factual information given in this work is correct at the time of first printing but Cambridge University Press & Assessment does not guarantee the accuracy of such information thereafter. Please be aware that this publication may contain images of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people who are now deceased. Several variations of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander terms and spellings may also appear; no disrespect is intended. Please note that the terms ‘Indigenous Australians’ and ‘Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples’ may be used interchangeably in this publication. Cambridge University Press & Assessment acknowledges the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples of this nation. We acknowledge the traditional custodians of the lands on which our company is located and where we conduct our business. We pay our respects to ancestors and Elders, past and present. Cambridge University Press & Assessment is committed to honouring Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples’ unique cultural and spiritual relationships to the land, waters and seas and their rich contribution to society.

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Contents x

About the authors How to use this resource

xiv

Introduction: What do we need to know about and do when learning about First Nations Peoples?

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Part 1: History Chapter 1: Overview: How did the world change from 600 CE to 1750 CE? 1.1 Setting the scene: What was the ‘pre-modern’ world?

1.2 How did significant individuals and events between 600 CE and 1750 CE transform the world? 1.3 What were the key features of the pre-modern world?

1.4 End of investigation review: How did the world change from 600 CE to 1750 CE?

5 9 16 22

INVESTIGATION 1: Europe and the Mediterranean world (c.600–1750 CE)

Chapter 2: How did the medieval period change Europe? 2.1 Setting the scene: Pandemic!

26 30 32 36 42 48 54 58 63 68 72 78

2.2 What were the key events of the medieval period? 2.3 How did the medieval period begin?

2.4 How did William of Normandy conquer England? 2.5 How was society structured in medieval Europe?

2.6 How did the lives of women, knights and the clergy compare in medieval Europe? 2.7 What was health and medicine like in the medieval period? 2.8 How was crime punished in the medieval period?

2.9 How did the technology of warfare develop over time? 2.10 How did the Black Death affect medieval Europe? 2.11 What changed because of the Black Death?

2.12 End of investigation review: How did the medieval period change Europe?

Chapter 3: How did the Ottoman Empire change Europe and the Mediterranean world?

Go online to access the interactive lesson review and more!

3.1 Setting the scene: What is left after an earthquake? 3.2 What were the key events in the Ottoman Empire? 3.3 How did the Ottoman Empire expand? 3.4 What did the Ottoman Empire achieve? 3.5 What was life like in the Ottoman Empire?

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Contents

iii

3.6 What were the perspectives of subject peoples? 3.7 What made Suleiman the Magnificent a significant individual? 3.8 What were the significant challenges to Ottoman authority? 3.9 End of investigation review: How did the Ottoman Empire change Europe and the Mediterranean world?

Chapter 4: How did Renaissance Italy change Europe and the Mediterranean world?

4.10 What do historians say about the Renaissance in Italy?

83 86 88 94 100 106 111 117 124 129

4.11 End of investigation review: How did Renaissance Italy change Europe and the Mediterranean world?

134

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

4.1 Setting the scene: How can a famous painting give us a window into Renaissance Italy? 4.2 What were the key events in Renaissance Italy? 4.3 What was the Renaissance?

4.4 How did the Renaissance spread?

4.5 What was the significance of Renaissance science and technology? 4.6 What was the significance of Renaissance art?

4.7 What was the nature of power and authority in Renaissance Italy? 4.8 Why was Michelangelo a significant individual?

4.9 Why was Lucrezia Borgia a significant individual?

Go online to access the interactive lesson review and more!

Chapter 5: How did the Spanish change the Americas? 5.1 Setting the scene: What was the Spanish reaction to Aztec rituals?

5.2 What were the key events in the Spanish conquest of the Americas? 5.3 What was life like in the Americas before the Spanish invasion? 5.4 What was the role of religion in Aztec society? 5.5 What was daily life in Aztec society like?

5.6 Who were the significant European explorers?

5.7 Who were the significant individuals in the Aztec Empire?

5.8 What were the consequences of the Spanish arrival for the Aztec Empire? 5.9 How did the Spanish defeat the Aztec Empire?

5.10 What was the significance of Moctezuma’s death? 5.11 How did the Aztec Empire come to an end?

5.12 What were the significant challenges and developments in Aztec society? 5.13 End of investigation review: How did the Spanish change the Americas?

Chapter 6: What was the historical significance of the Vikings? 6.1 Setting the scene: How did the Viking age begin? 6.2 What were the key events in Viking history? 6.3 What role did geography play in the lives of the Vikings?

139 142 144

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Contents

6.4 How was Viking society governed in their homelands?

149 154 159 165 170 176 182 187 192

6.5 What roles did women have in Viking society and warfare? 6.6 What were the significant beliefs, values and practices of the Vikings? 6.7 What was the significance of Viking weaponry and warfare? 6.8 How did the Vikings expand their influence? 6.9 What were the consequences of contact and conflict with other societies? 6.10 Who was Leif Erikson and did the Vikings ‘discover’ the Americas? 6.11 How did the Viking Age end and what legacy did it leave?

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

6.12 End of investigation review: What was the historical significance of the Vikings?

Chapter 7: How did the modern world emerge in Europe?

Go online to access the interactive lesson review and more!

7.1 Setting the scene: why was the printing press a significant invention?

7.2 What were the key events in the emergence of the modern world in Europe? 7.3 How did England change under Henry VIII?

7.4 How did England change under Elizabeth I?

7.5 How did Peter the Great change Russian society?

7.6 How did Peter the Great change how Russia related to Europe?

7.7 What was the significance of the Enlightenment in science and thinking?

7.8 What was the significance of the Enlightenment in politics and revolution?

7.9 End of investigation review: How did the modern world emerge in Europe?

Investigation 2: Asia and the Paciﬁc region (C.600–1750 CE)

Go online to access the interactive lesson review and more!

Chapter 8: What contributed to the rise and fall of Angkor and the Khmer Empire? 8.1 Setting the scene: How was Angkor ‘discovered’?

8.2 What were the key events in the Khmer Empire’s history?

8.3 How and where did Angkor and the Khmer Empire develop?

8.4 What were the significant beliefs, values and religious practices of the Khmer Empire? 8.5 What were the key political and military features of the Khmer Empire? 8.6 What social groups were there in the Khmer Empire? 8.7 What was everyday life like in the Khmer Empire?

8.8 How did the Khmer build such a vast empire in floodplains and forests? 8.9 What role did a significant individual like King Suryavarman II play in the Khmer Empire? 8.10 What caused the decline of Angkor and what is the legacy of the Khmer Empire? 8.11 End of investigation review: What contributed to the rise and fall of Angkor and the Khmer Empire?

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Contents

Chapter 9: How did Japan change under the shoguns? Setting the scene: What was combat like in medieval Japan? 198 9.2 What were the major events and changes in Japanese history? 200 9.3 What were the effects of Japan’s geography and environment on the development of its society? 202 9.4 What were the social structures of Japanese society and how did they affect the lives of individuals? 207 9.5 What were the values of samurai and did they change over time? 213 9.6 What caused the major shift from rule by an emperor to rule by a shogun? Part 1: the Classical period 217 9.7 What caused the major shift from rule by an emperor to rule by a shogun? Part 2: the Feudal period 221 9.8 Perspectives on power and authority: How did governments in medieval Japan try to maintain power? 227 9.9 What were the roles and achievements of samurai women in shogunate Japan? 231 9.10 How did contact with the outside world change Japanese society? 235 9.11 End of investigation review: How did Japan change under the shoguns? 240

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

9.1

Go online to access the interactive lesson review and more!

Chapter 10: How did the Mongols influence the world?

10.1 Setting the scene: How did the Mongol Empire control the Silk Road? 10.2 What were the key events in Mongol history?

10.3 What was the social structure of the Mongols? 10.4 What was life like for the Mongols?

10.5 What were the significant achievements in Mongol society?

10.6 What was the perspective of the peoples conquered by the Mongols? 10.7 What were the achievements of Genghis Khan?

10.8 What were the significant challenges and developments in the Mongol Empire? 10.9 End of investigation review: How did the Mongols influence the world?

Go online to access the interactive lesson review and more!

Chapter 11: How did Polynesians come to settle the Pacific? 11.1 Setting the scene: Voyages into the unknown

11.2 What were the key events of the Polynesian expansion into the Pacific? 11.3 How did Polynesian Peoples settle the Pacific?

11.4 What are the key elements of daily life in Polynesian societies? 11.5 How were Polynesian societies structured? 11.6 History puzzle: From the east or the west? 11.7 How were Polynesians affected by colonisation? 11.8 What were the significant achievements of the Rapa Nui?

11.9 What were the significant challenges and developments on Rapa Nui? 11.10 End of investigation review: How did Polynesians come to settle the Pacific?

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Contents

Part 2: Geography

INVESTIGATION 1: Landscapes and landforms

Chapter 12: What are landscapes and landforms? 250 253 257 262 267 272 274

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

12.1 Setting the scene: Interconnection and change in the Great Barrier Reef 12.2 What are landscapes? 12.3 What are landforms?

12.4 How are landforms created?

12.5 How are landforms and landscapes important to Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples? 12.6 Fieldwork at a local coastal site

12.7 Fieldwork at a local riverine site

Chapter 13: What are coastal and riverine landscapes and landforms, and how do they form and change?

13.1 Setting the scene: What is the spiritual, aesthetic and cultural value of riverine landscapes and landforms for Aboriginal people? 13.2 What are the causes of coastal change?

13.3 What kinds of coastal landforms are caused by erosion?

13.4 What kinds of coastal landforms are caused by deposition?

13.5 What is the spiritual, aesthetic and cultural value of landscapes and landforms for Aboriginal people?

277 280 285 290

294 299 304 309 315 319 324 328 332 335 339 343

13.6 What are the human causes of coastal landform change? 13.7 How do humans manage coastal landform change?

13.8 What are the causes of, impacts of and responses to coastal hazards? 13.9 What are riverine landscapes and landforms?

13.10 What natural processes create landforms in the upper course of a river?

13.11 What natural processes create landforms in the middle course of a river? 13.12 What natural processes create landforms in the lower course of a river?

13.13 How do humans cause and manage landform change in riverine landscapes? 13.14 What are some of the causes and impacts of flooding? 13.15 What are some responses to flooding? 13.16 End of investigation review: Landscapes and landforms

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Contents

vii

INVESTIGATION 2: Changing nations

Chapter 14: What are the causes and consequences of urbanisation? 14.1 Setting the scene: What happens in Vegas stays in Vegas 14.2 What is urbanisation? 14.3 Why is urbanisation increasing? 14.4 What are the impacts of urbanisation?

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

14.5 Case study: Why is Jakarta sinking?

350 352 356 360 365 369 372 378 383

14.6 What is urban concentration and how does it vary? 14.7 How are urban settlements distributed? 14.8 How do cities grow?

14.9 How does urban growth in the United States compare with Australia?

Chapter 15: Is the rate of migration sustainable? 15.1 Setting the scene: Crossing the Mediterranean 15.2 What is international migration?

15.3 What are the impacts of international migration in Australia and how are they managed? 15.4 What is internal migration and to what extent is it happening in China? 15.5 Where are people moving within Australia?

15.6 How sustainable are Australia’s urban places into the future? 15.7 Fieldwork: Evaluating the success of urban management 15.8 End of investigation review: Changing nations

388 391 396 402 407 412 416 418

Part 3: Economics and Business

INVESTIGATION: What is the connection between business success and work?

Chapter 16: How are businesses and work changing in Australia? 16.1 Setting the scene: Why are some people unemployed despite wanting to work? 16.2 What types of businesses are there in modern Australia? 16.3 What are market opportunities for businesses? 16.4 How do businesses set goals and strategies? 16.5 What is enterprise and how do businesses gauge success? 16.6 What makes an entrepreneur successful? 16.7 What key skills do workers need and why do people work? 16.8 What are the wages and conditions of work?

426 430 436 440 444 448 454 461

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

viii

Contents

16.9 How is the nature of work changing?

465 469 474 476

16.10 What are some predictions about the future of work? 16.11 Research task: Is a basic income for all Australian households a fair idea? 16.12 End of investigation review: How are businesses and work changing in Australia?

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Part 4: Civics and Citizenship

INVESTIGATION: Australia’s political structure, democracy and citizenship

Chapter 17: How do Australian citizens engage with Australia’s political and legal systems? 17.1 Setting the scene: Westralia!

482 486 493 500 505 509 514

17.2 What are the key principles and features of Australia’s Constitution? 17.3 What is your role in Australia’s political system? 17.4 How is Australia’s court system structured?

17.5 How has the High Court influenced the law?

17.6 What are the different types of laws in Australia and how are laws made? 17.7 What is the story of Waltzing Matilda and why is it significant?

17.8 What do Australia’s national emblems represent and how has multiculturalism influenced Australia? 518 17.9 End of investigation task: How can we maintain a strong Australian society?

523

17.10 End of investigation review: How do Australian citizens engage with Australia’s political and legal systems?

525 Glossary 528 Index 541 Acknowledgements 000

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Contents

About the authors

Julie Bover

Julie Bover (she/her) (co-author: Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Histories and Cultures) is a teacher and the co-founder of Goorlil Consulting. Julie has taught in early childhood and primary schools for over 10 years and has two degrees in education from the University of Canberra. She works hard to make schools and workplaces welcoming for everyone, especially First Nations students and LGBTIQA+ people. Julie also helps guide organisations that support gender diversity and fairness in schools. Together, Julie and Sharon Davis use their knowledge and experiences to help make education better for all students.

Alan Cizzio

Alan Cizzio (he/him) (contributing author: Geography skills videos) Alan Cizzio is a senior Geography and Humanities teacher with 15 years of experience teaching at various high schools in the Hunter Valley. He has been at his current school for a decade. Alan is the co-creator of the Geography Explained Online YouTube channel and has made over 50 instructional videos about geography skills for the stages 4, 5, and 6 syllabuses. He is currently on the council of the Geography Teachers Association of NSW and ACT. Alan has been recognised in New South Wales State Parliament for his services to public education.

Sammy Coburn

Sammy Coburn (she/her) (contributing author: Geography skills videos) is a classroom teacher at a public school in the Hunter Valley. She has worked in New South Wales public schools for 10 years including in remote communities. Sammy is the co-creator of the YouTube channel Geography Explained Online and the Geography Revised Online Workspace. She is a council member of the Geography Teachers Association of NSW and ACT as well as the Brock Rowe recipient for excellence in Geography teaching (2020). Sammy has been recognised in New South Wales State Parliament for her contributions to public education.

Sharon Davis

Sharon Davis (they/them) (co-author: Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Histories and Cultures) is from the Bardi and Kija Peoples in the Kimberley, Western Australia. Sharon is the co-founder of Goorlil Consulting and passionate about making education better for everyone. Sharon has degrees in Education, including one from Oxford University in the UK. They work with governments, Aboriginal communities, national boards and groups to make schools safer and more inclusive for First Nations people. Together, Sharon and Julie use their knowledge and experiences to help make education better for all students.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES Michael Adcock

Dr Michael Adcock (he/him) (contributing author: History) is a History teacher who has taught junior classes in the government school system, and senior classes in the VCE and the International Baccalaureate in the private school system. He has also presented lectures to adult audiences such as the History Teachers’ Association of Victoria, the National Gallery of Victoria, the Lyceum Club and the Melbourne Club. He has conducted history and art travel tours for Academy Travel, Sydney, specialising in the history of Paris, and in the Russian Revolution, with visits to Moscow and St Petersburg. Michael has published books on the French Revolution with the HTAV and with Cambridge University Press.

Adrian De Fanti Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

About the authors

Adrian De Fanti (he/him) (lead author: Geography) has taught Geography and Mathematics at secondary schools for over 15 years. In addition to his senior teaching lead, Adrian is his school’s Timetabler and Digital Learning Coach. Adrian has a particular interest in integrating technology into the Geography curriculum, including using Geographic Information Systems to analyse spatial data, tracking change over time using satellite imagery and collecting data in the field using geospatial technology. Adrian is also an active member of the Geography Teachers Association of Victoria, where he regularly presents professional development sessions and revision lectures and writes a range of classroom resources.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Adrian De Fanti

Brady Driscoll (she/her) (contributing author: History) is the Co-Head of Humanities at her current school. She has worked in Victorian schools for seven years and has experience teaching History, English and English Language Years 7–12. She has worked in curriculum development across multiple domains, and is passionate about history education for Years 7 and 8. Brady won a scholarship for the Gandel Holocaust Studies Program for Australian Educators.

Brady Driscoll

Tisha Eggleston (she/her) (contributing author: History) is Head of History at her current school. She has been teaching for over 20 years in secondary schools in Australia and the United Kingdom. Tisha is an experienced teacher of History, English, Literature, English Language and Philosophy, working with curriculums including the General Certificate of Secondary Education in the UK, the Victorian and Australian Curriculums and the International Baccalaureate. She is dedicated to promoting the value of History for all students to foster critical thinking and empathy in our society.

Tisha Eggleston

Dr Kevin Gould (he/him) (lead author: Economics and Business) is an education management consultant, specialising in strategic planning and curriculum design. He is an advocate for a Maple Business Program in schools, whereby Business and Society studies are presented as an integrated alternative to STEM. Previously, Kevin was Foundation Principal of a senior secondary business college in Melbourne and Sydney. Prior to that, he was Head of the Business Department at the VCE top-ranked Taylors College at the time. His writings benefit from over 30 years school teaching and university lecturing in Economics, Management, Business, Politics and Mathematics.

Kevin Gould

Richard Leo (he/him) (contributing author: History) is a highly experienced educator in History and Geography with over 20 years of experience in both the higher education and secondary school sectors having taught in schools across both South Australia and Queensland. He has published several articles and peer-reviewed book chapters. Richard has lectured in both Education and History at Christian Heritage College in Brisbane and also acts as an Education Advisor, specialising in intercultural and interfaith pedagogies, for Together for Humanity, an inclusive educational organisation that works with school communities to foster intercultural understanding.

Richard Leo

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

About the authors

Arthur Moore (he/him) (contributing author: Civics and Citizenship) is a senior secondary school teacher based in Melbourne. Before entering teaching, he served briefly in the Australian Army and later volunteered with national and international nongovernment organisations, including Save the Children in Beijing. He has contributed to publications focused on Australian and international security. His prior experience also includes teaching undergraduate and postgraduate politics at the University of Melbourne. A lifelong learner, Arthur is passionate about education’s ability to transform lives.

Arthur Moore

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Despina Polatidis (she/her) (contributing author: Geography) is a Geography and Humanities teacher at her current school. She has worked in Victorian schools for seven years and has experience teaching Geography, Legal Studies and English across Years 7–12. Prior to teaching, Despina practised law in Australia and the United States and was the recipient of the Blake Dawson Waldron Prize for International Environmental Law. She has previous experience as a Victorian Curriculum and Assessment Authority assessor for Geography and as a committee member of the Geography Teachers Association of Victoria. Despina is passionate about the importance of fieldwork in Geography education and was a recipient of the Alex Lyne Fieldwork Award for Years 9 and 10.

Despina Polatidis

Dr Stephen Powell (he/him) (contributing author: History) has taught year 7–12 History/ Humanities under the Australian Curriculum and the International Baccalaureate in Canberra for over a decade. Stephen holds a PhD in Modern History, and before entering teaching had a career in the public service, specialising in international negotiations. He has lived and worked in Victoria, Tasmania, the ACT, Samoa and the United States. Stephen won a scholarship for the Gandel Holocaust Studies Program for Australian Educators. His research and writing interests lie primarily in 20th-century history.

Stephen Powell

Lyndon Pratt (he/him) (contributing author: History) is an experienced teacher, specialising in Humanities and Literature. He works to inspire a love of the Humanities in students at his current school. Lyndon has written for the History Teachers Association of Victoria journal Agora on Australian History, and has experience teaching Humanities from Years 7 to 12. This includes Modern History Units 1 and 2 and Australian History Units 3 and 4.

Lyndon Pratt

Alison Quin (she/her) (contributing author: History and First Nations Advisor for the series) is descended from the Tagalak people of the Gulf Country of Far North Queensland. Alison has worked in First Nations education through her career, starting as a high school teacher and moving into community-led education initiatives. Her vision is for all students in Australia to learn about and through the two knowledge traditions of this continent – First Nations and Anglo-Australian – to create a future that respects and empowers this country and its many peoples.

Alison Quin

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

xii

About the authors

Kara Taylor

James Sach (he/him) (lead author: History) is currently Head of Pedagogy & Curriculum at his school, having previously been Head of Department. He has taught Humanities for over 10 years, including Geography, Politics and History. Having presented at many history conferences, in 2023 James received the History Teachers Association of Victoria Award for Excellence in History Teaching by a Secondary Teacher. James is currently a HTAV board member.

James Sach

Adrienne Shelford (she/her) (cover illustrator) is a Maori-British illustrator and designer who strives to ensure all feel represented in her world of illustration. Graduating from Manchester School of Art, she began her career in textile design, and soon after set up her own small business. Since then, she has worked with clients globally, helping turn their ideas into reality and bringing diversity and inclusivity to their brands.

Adrienne Shelford

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Kara Taylor (she/her) (contributing author: History) is a passionate History/Humanities teacher and has been teaching for the past 17 years. Kara teaches in rural Victoria and is an active member of the History Teachers Association of Victoria. Kara has presented for the HTAV over a number of years on many topics including teaching Indigenous History, and has written for the HTAV journal, Agora. Kara has tutored for the LaTrobe University Education department and was awarded the HTAV Award for Excellence in History Teaching by a Secondary Teacher in 2019.

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

About the authors

xiii

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Introduction: What do we need to know about and do when learning about First Nations Peoples? Sharon Davis and Julie Bover

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

FPO

1268716253

FPO

873110964

FPO

Student version: This document. Teacher version: An extensive teacher resource is available in the Online Teaching Suite.

Starting your learning journey Humanities is about exploring the connections between people, places, cultures and histories. For Australians, it’s a chance to engage with the stories and cultures that shape our nation’s identity. By learning from these perspectives, we expand our understanding of the humanities, think critically, appreciate diverse experiences and work towards a more inclusive future. Understanding Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander perspectives is essential

to truly knowing Australia. For a long time, First Nations Peoples’ stories and experiences were left out of the history taught in schools, creating an incomplete view of Australia’s past. By starting with this introduction, we can begin to fill in the missing parts of history and make sure the voices of First Nations Peoples are heard. This helps all Australian students understand who we are as Australians.

What is cultural safety? Cultural safety ensures that people feel respected, valued and supported in their identity, culture and history.

It creates environments where individuals can confidently engage without fear of judgement, exclusion or discrimination.

cultural safety ensuring people feel secure, respected and supported in their cultural identity. This concept can only be validated by individuals from the culture experiencing it.

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Introduction: What do we need to know about and do when learning about First Nations Peoples?

to inequality. Importantly, cultural safety can only be confirmed by those from marginalised groups who experience the space or interaction.

Cultural safety involves addressing power imbalances, systemic injustices and racism to create inclusive spaces where everyone feels they belong. It goes beyond recognising diversity by reflecting on and challenging behaviours, practices and biases that may contribute

As June Oscar AO, former Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Social Justice Commissioner, explains: ‘Cultural safety is about creating environments where Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples feel safe and secure in their identity, culture and community.’

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

This is especially important when engaging with Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people, whose cultures represent the world’s oldest continuing traditions.

Why do we need cultural safety?

systemic racism discrimination embedded in the rules, policies and practices of society

Since 1788, the arrival of the British and the doctrine of terra nullius led to dispossession for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander communities. Policies that separated families, restricted access to lands, and silenced voices have caused deep and lasting harm. Racism – whether interpersonal, institutional or systemic – continues to impact many aspects of life today. Cultural safety is a response to

these challenges, offering a way forward by creating spaces that are inclusive and respectful. Wherever people are in Australia, they are on Aboriginal and/or Torres Strait Islander land. Acknowledging this is a starting point for understanding the connections between histories, cultures and Country.

What does cultural safety look like in the classroom? Creating cultural safety in the classroom means making it a place where all students, especially those from Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander communities, feel respected, valued and able to express their identity without fear of judgement or discrimination. Here are some actions you, as students, can take to help foster cultural safety in your learning environment: 1

Be an active listener

• Listen without interrupting: Pay close attention when Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander People share their stories and perspectives. • Ask questions thoughtfully: If you are curious about something, frame your questions respectfully.

For example, ask, ‘Would you be open to sharing more about that?’ rather than assuming or making uninformed statements.

Challenge racism and stereotypes

• Speak up: If you hear hurtful or disrespectful comments about someone’s culture or background, respectfully challenge them. For example, say, ‘That comment could be hurtful – let’s think about how we can rephrase it.’ • Think critically about language: Use respectful and accurate terms when discussing Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander histories and cultures. Avoid stereotypes or deficit-focused language.

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

xvi

Introduction: What do we need to know about and do when learning about First Nations Peoples?

Reflect on your actions and privilege • Practice critical self-reflection: Think about your own assumptions and biases. For example, ask yourself: • Do I give everyone an equal chance to contribute in group discussions?

Respect and learn about cultures • Acknowledge Country: Begin your day or class by showing respect for the Traditional Owners of the land. You can deliver an Acknowledgement of Country or support others who do. • Participate respectfully: Explore the significance of important dates like NAIDOC Week with an open mind and willingness to learn.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

• Have I unintentionally dismissed someone’s perspective because it was different from my own?

• Celebrate: Recognise and share the achievements of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander People across different fields, from science to art.

Activity: Reflect and respond

1 Reflect on the phrase, ‘Wherever you are in Australia, you’re on Aboriginal and/or Torres Strait Islander land’. What does this mean to you? 2 Why is cultural safety important in schools and communities? 3 Think about a time when you saw an example of cultural safety. What made it successful, and what could have been done better?

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Introduction: What do we need to know about and do when learning about First Nations Peoples?

xvii

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES Image: An illustration of French medieval knights on horseback, c.1350s, drawn on vellum (animal skin), from the Bibliothèque nationale de France, Paris

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Part 1

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

History

QR code

Watch the video for an introduction to History in Year 8 and the historical skills and concepts you will be working with.

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

CHAPTER 1

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Overview: How did the world change from 600 ce to 1750 ce? LESSON TITLE

1.1

Setting the scene: What was the ‘pre-modern’ world?

1.2

How did significant individuals and events between 600 ce and 1750 ce transform the world?

1.3

What were the key features of the pre-modern world?

1.4

End of topic review: How did the world change from 600 ce to 1750 ce?

Image: A drawing of Vikings travelling by longship, created by the Abbey of Saint-Aubin in France, c.1100 ce

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

1.1

Setting the scene: What was the ‘pre-modern’ world? Low-res

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Learning intention In this lesson, you will be introduced to some of the societies that existed during the pre-modern period (600 ce to 1720 ce).

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

Think, pair, share

1 Think: Think back to the ancient cultures and societies you learned about last year, and list the key aspects of their societies (e.g. development of laws or writing). 2 Pair: Pair with the person next to you and compare your lists. What did you miss on yours? 3 Share: Share your list with the class and add any new ideas to your list.

HIBERNIA

Hadrian’s Wall

BRITANNIA Londinium

BELGICA LUGDUNENSIS

ine

Atlantic Ocean

GERMANIA

Ca sp ian NORICUM Se P RHAETIA a DACIA AN N I AQUITANIA DA LLY ON Danube Black Sea NARBONENSIS LM RIA IA AT IA ITALY PONTUS ARMENIA LUGDUNENSIS CORSICA THRACE Byzantium Tigris R. Rome MACEDONIA PARTHIAN GALATIA ME Tarentum SO EMPIRE BAETICA SARDINIA CAPPADOCIA PO TAM Pergamum Athens Eup hrat I es R A SICILIA ACHAEA . Syracuse Babylon Carthage MAURITANIA SYRIA CYPRUS NUMIDIA CRETE JUDAEA Mediterranean Sea Jerusalem Alexandria AFR Cyrene ICA CYRENE EGYPT ARABIA Ni le Re R dS ive Key ea r 1500 km 0 CE Roman Empire, c.117 GAUL

Rhone R.

Source 1.1.1 The Roman Empire at its largest, c.117 ce. What ancient cultures lived in this area?

…

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Chapter 1: How did the world change from 600 ce to 1750 ce?

medieval refers to the period of European history from about 476 to 1500 ce, which was also called the Middle Ages

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

emperor a ruler of a society

We use the term ‘pre-modern’ for the period in history from around the 5th century ce to the early 18th century. Medieval Europe emerged after one of the great human civilisations collapsed. For more than 1000 years (753 bce – 476 ce), the Roman Empire ruled much of Europe, northern Africa and western Asia (see Source 1.1.1). Using great feats of engineering, the Romans built roads that connected their empire and cities that had adequate sanitation and access to water. They ruled through conquest and war, and used a complex political system. Around 200 ce, however, problems began to emerge. A series of ineffective emperors in Rome weakened the power of the empire, which was under constant attack along its borders by outsiders, known to Romans as barbarians.

barbarian a member of a people not belonging to Rome

Latin the language of ancient Rome and its empire

power vacuum a situation that exists when a leader has lost control of an area, and no one has replaced them

Dark Ages the period in European history from about 476 ce to about 1000 ce, after the end of the Roman Empire; the first part of the medieval period

In 410 ce, Rome lost control of Britannia (England) and Rome itself was attacked by the Visigoths (Source 1.1.2). In 430 ce, Spain and North Africa fell from its grip. In 450 ce, Gaul (France) was invaded by Attila the Hun and his barbarian armies. In 476 ce, Rome itself was destroyed when it was captured by the German Prince Odovacar. The great empire was broken up and parts were taken over by a range of different barbarian tribes.

Source 1.1.2 The Sack of Rome by the Visigoths 410, painting by Joseph-Noel Sylvestre, 1890. How do the men climbing the statue compare to the statue itself?

…

The empire had grown large and difficult to manage, and Germanic tribes from the north began to recapture towns they had previously controlled. Over the next two centuries these tribes began to attack Italy itself. The destruction caused in these raids by groups such as the Huns, Franks, Lombards, Visigoths and Vandals led to ‘vandal’ eventually becoming a word for someone who destroys property.

Why was the fall of the Roman Empire significant?

Rome was a cultural centre of knowledge, technology and literacy. Education was a valued commodity. Many wealthy Romans could read and write Latin, and Roman art and culture were rich and complex. When Rome was conquered, war broke out all over Europe as leaders of different tribes sought to fill the power vacuum left by the end of Roman rule. In the next centuries, Roman culture and knowledge began to disappear. The period that followed has long been known as the Dark Ages.

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Cambridge Investigating Humanities for the Victorian Curriculum 8

Were the Dark Ages really ‘dark’? The spread of Christianity In 323 ce, Christianity was made the official religion of the Roman Empire. When the Roman Empire fell in 476 ce, Christianity remained strong in southern Italy. Over the next four centuries, Christian missionaries spread the religion beyond Italy and across Europe.

monasteries Christian communities of religious people called monks or nuns, and the buildings where they lived and worked

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

For centuries, historians called this period the ‘Dark Ages’ because the advancement of knowledge in Europe seemed to come to a halt after the Roman Empire collapsed. In truth, the Dark Ages were not so ‘dark’. Christian monasteries around Europe were building libraries to save and store Roman and Greek knowledge, in a world filled with warfare, destruction and looting. Knowledge was still valued; it was just that few people had the education to access it. Today, the medieval period (476–1500 ce) is known as the era that reshaped Europe into a society that was vastly different from the Roman Empire. Two key factors played roles in how Europe became more modern: Christianity and feudalism.

The birth of feudalism

When barbarian leaders captured lands from the Romans, they began to establish their own societies that they could control and protect from invasion. To build their societies, they needed people to provide labour and pay taxes. These leaders appointed themselves as princes or lords and provided protection, food and housing for their workers. This system of living became known as feudalism.

Islam and the Byzantine Empire It took time for new societies to develop in Western Europe after the fall of the Roman Empire. But in the east, some of the power of Rome transitioned into the Byzantine Empire. Based in Constantinople in modern-day Turkey, a succession of Byzantine emperors managed to hold back the destructive bands of barbarians and protect their borders. While growth was slow in Western Europe, in Eastern Europe and the Middle East commerce, trade, science and architecture thrived and brought great wealth to Constantinople. Its people lived in relative peace and prosperity for centuries.

In 570 ce, the Prophet Muhammad was born in the small Arabian desert town of Mecca. By 615 ce, he had experienced a series of revelations that he took as messages from God. Muhammad began teaching people the value of charity and that life should be devoted to the service of Allah (God) so they could gain access to heaven. In 622 ce he was exiled from Mecca by local authorities. This event marks the first year of the Muslim calendar. Muhammad continued teaching Islam and soon became the leader of the town of Medina, after converting its inhabitants. By the end of the next decade, most of the Middle East’s population followed Islam. Source 1.1.3 on the next page shows the extent of the Islamic and Byzantine empires.

Christianity the religion based on the person and teachings of Jesus Christ, and its beliefs and practices; the dominant faith in medieval Europe feudalism the medieval social system that organised people into categories, from the monarchy down to the poorest member; the king granted land to the nobility in exchange for loyalty and service, and every level of society gave something to those above them, forming a hierarchy

Islam a religion that follows the teachings of 7th-century Prophet Muhammad, as recorded in the Quran; followers of Islam are called Muslims

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Chapter 1: How did the world change from 600 ce to 1750 ce?

Atlantic Ocean

AVARS

FRANKS

Black Sea

M BA

Constantinople

Mediterranean Sea

Acre Jatta

Sea

ARMENIA

Antioch SYRIA Damascus Jerusalem

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

SPAIN

pian Ca s

MAGYARS

BERBERS

EGYPT

PERSIA

Pe r

sia

Medina

Key

ea dS Re

Islamic Empire c.1000 CE

Expansion of Seijuk Turks into Byzantine Empire c.1000–1097 CE Byzantine Empire c.1097 CE

Mecca

ulf

ARABIA

Arabian Sea

1500 km

…

Source 1.1.3 The Islamic and Byzantine empires in c.1097 ce. How much smaller is the Byzantine Empire

compared to the Roman Empire, shown in Source 1.1.1?

Lesson 1.1 review

Go online to access the interactive lesson review and more!

Online quiz

Review questions

DOC

Research task

Teachers can assign tasks and track results

1.1 Review questions 1 2 3 4

How long did the Roman Empire rule Europe? What are some reasons why the Roman Empire struggled to control its lands? Which group of barbarians lent its name to the modern word for a person who destroys property? In your opinion, which of the two key factors most affected Europe’s development towards the end of the Dark Ages? Why?

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Cambridge Investigating Humanities for the Victorian Curriculum 8

1.2

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

How did significant individuals and events between 600 ce and 1750 ce transform the world? Learning intention

In the last lesson, you were introduced to some of the societies that existed during the pre-modern period in Europe. In this lesson, you will learn about individuals and events that had significant impacts on societies during this period.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

See, think, wonder

1 See: What do you see? Closely analyse the images in Source 1.2.1 and read the text that follows. 2 Think: What do you think? What is Angkor Wat? What two kinds of physical evidence remains to suggest that Suryavarman II was an important person when Angkor Wat was built? 3 Wonder: What do you wonder? How can we tell from the information provided that Suryavarman II left a lasting legacy linking the ancient and modern worlds? Angkor Wat is a huge temple complex in Cambodia. It was built in the 12th century under King Suryavarman II of the Khmer Empire. Angkor Wat is the biggest religious building in the world, covering 400 acres, and is a great example of ancient Khmer architecture. Originally, the temple was dedicated to the Hindu god Vishnu and later it became Suryavarman II’s tomb. The walls of the

temple are decorated with long carvings that tell stories from famous Indian epics such as the Mahabharata (see Investigating Humanities 7, Chapter 6). There are also beautiful bas-relief carvings of Suryavarman II and dancing angels (called apsaras). The temple still looks amazing today, but when the towers were covered in gold it must have looked even more spectacular.

bas-relief a type of art in which shapes are cut from the surrounding stone so that they stand out slightly against a flat surface

… Source 1.2.1 (Left)

Angkor Wat in Siam Reap, Cambodia, today. (Right) A bas-relief carving of King Suryavarman II, a leader of the ancient Khmer Empire who reigned between 1113 ce and c.1150 ce Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Chapter 1: How did the world change from 600 ce to 1750 ce?

Significant individuals and events Leif Erikson (c.970–1020) Leif Erikson was a Norse explorer from Iceland, known for being one of the first Europeans to set foot in North America, nearly 500 years before Christopher Columbus. Around the year 1000, Leif and his crew landed on the shores of what is believed to be modern-day Newfoundland, which they called Vinland after the wild grapes they found there. His voyages are significant because they represent the Vikings’ incredible seafaring skills and their role in expanding European knowledge of distant lands. Leif Erikson’s exploration of North America highlights the adventurous spirit of the Vikings and their extensive travel routes, which stretched from Greenland to Europe and beyond. His journeys are a key part of Viking history, showing their influence far beyond Scandinavia.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

trade the buying and selling of goods

Between 600 ce and 1750 ce, the world went through major political, social and cultural changes, driven by the actions of powerful individuals and the unfolding of world-changing events. This period, stretching across the medieval period and into the early modern era, saw the rise and fall of empires, the birth of new religions, the expansion of trade routes, and the development of political systems that still influence our lives today. Key figures played pivotal roles in shaping events: from the Viking explorations that expanded understanding of Europe’s geography, to the development of legal frameworks like the Magna Carta, to the Ottoman Empire’s expansion, which reshaped the cultural and religious fabric of the Middle East and Europe. Leaders such as Leif Erikson and Suleiman the Magnificent not only influenced their societies but also left legacies that we can still feel.

…

Source 1.2.2 Leif Erikson discovers America by Hans Dahl (1849–1937). This painting was created over 800 years after Erikson’s landing. How is he remembered here?

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

King John of England (1166–1216)

Suleiman was the 10th and longestreigning Sultan of the Ottoman Empire, ruling from 1520 to 1566. He expanded the empire to its peak, conquering vast territories in Europe, Asia and Africa. Suleiman was not only a powerful military leader but also a great lawmaker, reforming the empire’s legal system and earning the title ‘The Lawgiver’. His reign marked the golden age of the Ottoman Empire. Today the regions he controlled still have many cultural and religious relics from his era.

Magna Carta a 1215 document describing the limits to the powers of the monarch that a group of barons forced King John of England to sign; it means ‘Great Charter’ in Latin

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

King John is best known for being forced to sign the Magna Carta in 1215. His reign was marked by conflicts with English nobles over his oppressive taxation and arbitrary justice, which finally led to their rebellion. The Magna Carta, a direct result of this tension, laid down key principles that limited the power of the monarchy and guaranteed rights for subjects. These principles later influenced democratic legal systems across the world, making King John’s reign a turning point in the history of government by constitution.

Suleiman the Magnificent (1494–1566)

Ottoman Empire an Islamic empire founded in the late 13th century in the area of modern-day Türkiye

…

Source 1.2.3 Portrait of Suleiman the Magnificent by Titian, c.1530

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Chapter 1: How did the world change from 600 ce to 1750 ce?

Key features of the medieval period

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

The period known as the Middle Ages, or the medieval period, began with the 5th-century fall of the Western Roman Empire in 476 ce and lasted until the 15th century. The Middle Ages can be divided into three main periods: the Early Middle Ages (or Dark Ages), the High Middle Ages and the Late Middle Ages. This period in history saw the development of social structures like feudalism, economic progress through the establishment of trade routes, and political battles over land linked to the religions of diﬀerent cultures. The end of this era saw the beginnings of the Renaissance and the Age of Exploration. Religion

762 ce

Source 1.2.4 Silver coin depicting a Viking drakar (longship), Sweden

…

Christianity and Islam experienced a period of growth, with both faiths expanding in Europe, the Middle East and Africa. Hinduism expanded from India to other areas. In SouthEast Asia, the Angkor Empire built Angkor Wat, a Hindu temple which was later adapted to Buddhism. The main religions of Japan were Shintoism and Buddhism.

Baghdad established as the Islamic capital

800 ce

Charlemagne is crowned Roman Emperor

570 ce

900 ce

Birth of Muhammad, the prophet of Islam

Polynesian migration to and settlement in Niuē from Sāmoa

1066

476 ce

The Battle of Hastings

700 ce

The overthrow of the last Western Roman Emperor begins the medieval period

Polynesian expansion throughout the Pacific begins

793 ce

Vikings attack Lindisfarne monastery, England

802 ce

Vikings settle at Vinland (Newfoundland), Canada

The Angkor (Khmer) Empire in South-East Asia begins

Contact and conflict

One of the key conflicts of the medieval period was the Crusades, a series of military campaigns against the Islamic empires by Western European Christians. In addition, territorial expansion by Europeans led to contact with other peoples, but also conflict, as Indigenous Peoples in the Americas, Africa, Australasia and the Pacific fought to retain their land.

c.1000

Feudalism

Feudalism, a system where society is divided into a hierarchy, flourished during the medieval period. The system was based on ownership of land. The owners of land across medieval Europe (kings or lords) gave portions (fiefs) in exchange for loyalty and service; this could have been military service, produce from the land or monetary payments.

Trade routes Societies benefited from trading with each other. The Italian city-states of Venice and Genoa were important ports on the Mediterranean, the Vikings established trade routes through Scandinavia and Russia to Constantinople, and the Silk Road connected Europe and China. Ultimately, a network over 6500 km long linked Europe, Africa and Asia. Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Cambridge Investigating Humanities for the Victorian Curriculum 8

Voyages of discovery Improvements in ship-building technology enabled the Vikings to explore northern Europe, and the Polynesians to expand across the Pacific. Many European powers supported expeditions to discover new territories and sea-based trade routes that would be faster than the overland routes. Christopher Columbus’s voyage to the Americas was sponsored by the Spanish.

Renaissance Humanism

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

The Renaissance (rebirth) in Europe from the 14th century saw a shift from a medieval world view to renewed interest in the knowledge and culture of the ancient Greeks and Romans, in part brought about by the Crusades. To this was added new discoveries made by seafaring and land-based explorers.

The scientific revolution

One result of the Renaissance was a focus on scientific knowledge, building upon the teachings of classical scholars as well as more recent discoveries in the Islamic world. In addition to artists such as da Vinci, astronomers challenged medieval Catholic beliefs about the nature of the universe, while Isaac Newton conducted experiments on the force of gravity.

…

Source 1.2.5 The foetus in the womb, c.1511, one of Leonardo da Vinci’s anatomy drawings

1453 ce

1206 ce

Founding of the Mongol Empire

(Turkish) Ottoman Empire captures Constantinople and overthrows the Byzantine Empire

1347 ce

The Black Death (bubonic plague) reaches the Mediterranean Sea

1543 ce

1492 ce

Christopher Columbus reaches the Caribbean

1095 ce

First Western European Christian Crusade

1291 ce

The ninth Crusade fails

A Portuguese ship is wrecked off the south-west tip of Japan

1434 ce

The Medici family control Florence, one of the centres of the Renaissance in Western Europe

The Enlightenment

1513 ce

The Portuguese cross the Indian Ocean to China, via Africa and India

In the 18th century, Enlightenment philosophers encouraged a belief in reason and natural law as governing forces in the world. They rejected religion as superstition and encouraged a focus on science and technology. The American and French revolutions promoted Enlightenment values as the guiding principles of their societies.

1750 ce

Industrial Revolution begins

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Chapter 1: How did the world change from 600 ce to 1750 ce?

Concepts and skills builder 1.2 Working with chronology

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

1 Imagine you are a historian creating a timeline of the Roman Empire’s history. What key events would you include to show how long it ruled Europe? 2 Based on the map on page 5, what might have been the biggest challenge for people living in distant parts of the Roman Empire under Roman rule? 3 Think about the changes that occurred at the end of the Dark Ages. How might life have been different for an ordinary European before and after this period? 4 The Ottoman Empire and the Christian kingdoms of Europe had many differences. What do you think might have been the biggest source of misunderstanding or tension between them?

Historical concepts and skills: causes and consequences, change and continuity, chronology, historical significance

Connections between past and present The connections between key historical events or developments and modern life can be seen in areas from politics to culture, economics and even religion.

shared history, the principles of the Magna are the basis of much of the legal system. They have influenced the development of human rights laws around the world.

One significant example is the expansion of the Ottoman Empire, which influenced religion and culture across vast areas, particularly in the Middle East and Europe. The Ottoman Empire allowed a blending of Islamic and Christian traditions. Cities such as Istanbul became hubs of cultural and religious diversity. Today, you can see evidence of this influence in the religions, architecture and multicultural societies of former Ottoman territories. Islamic religious holidays such as Ramadan continue to be celebrated widely in these regions, a legacy of the empire’s former governance.

Source 1.2.6 1225 version of Magna Carta issued by English King Henry III, held in the UK’s National Archives, London. At this time, the average person would not have been able to read. So why have a written document?

…

Similarly, the Magna Carta, signed in 1215, laid the groundwork for modern democratic principles, particularly the rule of law and individual rights (Source 1.2.6). It influenced modern political systems, especially in Western democracies where the document’s core principles – such as the right to a fair trial – are the foundation of constitutions and legal systems. In the United Kingdom and Australia, via our

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Cambridge Investigating Humanities for the Victorian Curriculum 8

and constitutional monarchy, and affects how governments work globally. It has important features that help to make governments accountable and transparent.

Westminster system a system of government that began in Britain, in which there is a ceremonial head of state, ministers with executive power responsible to a parliament that can make laws (the legislative), and a separate justice system (judiciary)

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

The Westminster system is another important development that came from British political traditions and has been adopted by many countries, including Australia, Canada and India. This system is based on parliamentary democracy

…

Source 1.2.7 The House of Representatives in the Australian Parliament follows the Westminster system, which can trace its origins to the Magna Carta.

Lesson 1.2 review Online quiz

Review questions

DOC

Research task

Go online to access the interactive lesson review and more!

Teachers can assign tasks and track results

1.2 Review questions

1 a How did Suleiman the Magnificent contribute to the expansion of the Ottoman Empire? b What were some of the lasting impacts of his rule on the regions he controlled? 2 Why is the signing of the Magna Carta by King John in 1215 considered a turning point in the development of legal rights and government by written constitution? 3 What was the significance of Leif Erikson’s journey to North America, and how did Viking exploration influence the broader world during this period? 4 Describe two features of the modern world that reflect key historical developments described in this chapter. Explain how they link the present and the past. 5 Read the timeline and write what you think are the three most significant changes that took place between 600 ce and 1750 ce.

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Chapter 1: How did the world change from 600 ce to 1750 ce?

1.3

What were the key features of the pre-modern world?

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Learning intention In the previous lesson you learned about significant individuals and events of the pre-modern world. Now, you will learn about key features of the societies that existed at those times.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

See, think, wonder

hierarchy a system in which people or things are arranged in levels according to their importance

In the pre-modern period, many societies had a structure that was a hierarchy.

…

Source 1.3.1 Samurai in the Edo period walking through a town. An illustration in Santo Kyoden’s book of manners and customs Shiji-no-yukikai (published in 1798). The people second and fourth from the left are the samurai. Samurai could kill a commoner for the slightest insult and were widely feared by the Japanese population.

1 See: What do you see? Analyse Source 1.3.1 and its caption, from a book on Japanese history. 2 Think: What do you think? What does it suggest about the role of the famous samurai and the strict structure of Japanese society in the Edo period (1600–1868 ce)? 3 Wonder: What do you wonder? In the situation shown in the drawing, do you think the men brawling to the right of the image may have been in more danger than they realised?

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Cambridge Investigating Humanities for the Victorian Curriculum 8

Common social structures for land or wealth, and they played a key role in managing local affairs and defending the kingdom. At the bottom of the hierarchy were peasants, serfs and labourers. Peasants worked the land and produced food, while serfs were bound to the land they worked and had limited freedom. These groups formed the largest part of society, providing essential resources like food and labour. In some societies, there were also merchants and artisans, who played a vital role in trade and the production of goods, but they often held a lower status than nobles.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

In pre-modern societies, social structures were often hierarchical. This means that people were divided into different classes or groups based on their wealth, birth and occupation (Source 1.3.2). At the top of these hierarchies were kings, emperors, or rulers who held the most power. They owned large amounts of land and controlled the military, law and government. Beneath the rulers were nobles and lords. These were wealthy landowners who governed smaller regions and pledged loyalty to the ruler in exchange for protection and privileges. Nobles often had knights who served them in exchange

Source 1.3.2 A poster showing a social hierarchy as a pyramid that represents the levels or ‘classes’ in society. At the top we can see King Leopold II of Belgium.

…

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Chapter 1: How did the world change from 600 ce to 1750 ce?

Uncommon social structures Some medieval and pre-modern societies were quite different in their social organisation. Here are a few examples of societies that differed from the typical feudal model:

The Mongol Empire

The Iroquois Confederacy was a Native American society in what is now the northeastern United States. It had a unique social structure that lacked a rigid class system, and emphasised equality, consensus and cooperation. Power was shared among different tribes, and decisions were made collectively by councils of tribal leaders. Women held significant influence in political decisions.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Genghis Khan ruled the Mongol Empire during the 13th century. The Mongols valued merit and military ability over noble birth, meaning that even lower-status individuals could rise to positions of power based on their skills in battle. Loyalty to the Khan and fighting ability were more important than traditional class structures.

The Iroquois Confederacy

Concepts and skills builder 1.3 Asking historical questions

Brainstorm in groups of three or four:

• Why do we need to ask questions about the past?

Consider one broad historical event or topic from the period between 600 ce and 1750 ce:

• The Viking invasions of England • The signing of the Magna Carta • The expansion of the Mongol Empire • The Age of Exploration (e.g. Christopher Columbus’s voyages)

Write three meaningful historical questions about your topic, such as:

• Causes (Why did this happen?) • Consequences (What changed because of this?) • Perspectives (How did different groups of people experience this event?) • Connections (How does this event relate to things we see in the world today?)

Historical concepts and skills: causes and consequences, historical questions

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Cambridge Investigating Humanities for the Victorian Curriculum 8

The world transformed goods such as silk, spices, and precious metals, and bringing wealth to those who controlled these routes. Traders and merchants often migrated to new regions to take advantage of rich opportunities, establishing communities in foreign lands and linking distant cultures. Trade by sea also increased, especially with the Indian Ocean trade network, and this encouraged further exploration. For instance, Arab traders sailed to East Africa, South-East Asia and beyond, creating trading ports that attracted settlers from different parts of the world.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Between 600 ce and 1750 ce, there were huge shifts in populations and territorial boundaries, with different regions of the world being transformed as people moved and explored new lands. These changes were driven by a range of factors, including trade, war, religion, technological advances and the search for new resources.

Silk Road a network of over 6400 km of trade routes, active from the 2nd century bce until the mid-15th century ce, that increased economic, cultural, political and religious interactions between the Eastern and Western worlds

A major cause of migration and exploration during this period was the expansion of trade routes. The Silk Road was a network of routes that connected Europe to Asia, allowing exchange of

Indian Ocean trade network a group of sea trade routes that stretched across all of Afro-Eurasia; the dominant trade network in the world from about 800 ce to 1500 ce

…

Source 1.3.3 The city of Baghdad between 767 and 912 bce. This was a key stop along the Silk Road. How would being at the centre of the Silk Road have helped Baghdad become rich?

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Chapter 1: How did the world change from 600 ce to 1750 ce?

across vast territories in Asia and Europe. Mongol invasions led to widespread displacement of people, as well as the creation of new trade routes and cultural exchanges. The development of new navigational technologies during the Age of Exploration (15th–17th centuries) was another crucial factor. European explorers like Christopher Columbus, Vasco da Gama and Ferdinand Magellan undertook daring voyages in search of new trade routes and territories. The invention of the compass, improved ship designs and better maps allowed explorers to sail farther than ever before. European nations sought new routes to Asia for trade and to establish colonies, leading to the exploration of the Americas, the circumnavigation of Africa and increased contact with Asia.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Christian Crusades a series of military expeditions launched from Christian Europe against the peoples of the Near East

Religion played a significant role in migration and expansion. The spread of Islam in the 7th and 8th centuries, for example, led to the rapid expansion of Islamic empires across North Africa, the Middle East and parts of Europe. Muslim rulers conquered territories and encouraged their subjects to migrate there, creating new cities and influencing the culture. The Christian Crusades (1096–1291) were a series of religious wars aimed at reclaiming Jerusalem from Muslim rule. These wars similarly led to large-scale movements across Europe and the Middle East, as soldiers, pilgrims and settlers travelled to the Holy Land.

Age of Exploration the great period of exploration by sea from the latter half of the 15th to the 16th century compass a device that shows due north, used for navigation

Political conflict and conquest also drove population movements. The Mongol Empire, established by Genghis Khan in the 13th century, was one of the largest empires in history and resulted in the migration of nomadic Mongol tribes

…

Source 1.3.4 The influence of Islamic rule can be seen in the architecture of the Alhambra Palace, Granada, Spain.

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Cambridge Investigating Humanities for the Victorian Curriculum 8

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES …

Source 1.3.4 Christopher Columbus map, from the workshop of Bartolomeo and Christopher Columbus, Lisbon, c.1490. How would you read a map like this?

Lesson 1.3 review Online quiz

Review questions

DOC

Research task

Go online to access the interactive lesson review and more!

Teachers can assign tasks and track results

1.3 Review questions

1 What role did religion play in shaping lives in pre-modern societies? Provide examples from different regions. 2 What were the roles of different social classes within feudalism? Draw a pyramid to show how the roles related. 3 What impact did trade routes, such as the Silk Road and the Indian Ocean trade network, have on the development of cities? 4 In what ways did technological advancements, such as the compass, influence exploration?

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Chapter 1: How did the world change from 600 ce to 1750 ce?

1.4

End of investigation review: How did the world change from 600 ce to 1750 ce?

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Access the Interactive Textbook for a range of digital tools to help you review this topic, including:

• chapter summary • Auto-marked chapter test • Scorcher timed competitive quiz

Brain dump

What have you learned about the medieval world? Copy and complete the table to explain your understanding. Aim for two points per topic.

Topic When was the medieval period? What were some of the key events that changed the medieval world? What were the key features of pre-modern societies?

What I have learned

Practice questions 1

What were the main reasons for the fall of the Roman Empire, and how did this impact the development of medieval Europe?

Describe the hierarchical social structure in medieval Europe. What roles did peasants and serfs, nobles, and kings play in this system?

Choose one significant event between 600 ce and 1750 ce (such as the rise of the Ottoman Empire or the signing of the Magna Carta). Explain how this event affected politics or culture across a wide area.

Explain how the development of new navigational technologies during the Age of Exploration (15th–17th centuries) influenced European exploration and territorial expansion.

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Cambridge Investigating Humanities for the Victorian Curriculum 8

Suleiman the Magnificent

A A king who was forced to sign the Magna Carta, limiting his power and establishing principles of law.

Leif Erikson

B A powerful Ottoman ruler who expanded the empire and reformed its legal system.

King John of England

C One of the first Europeans to set foot in North America, around the year 1000 ce.

Create a simple timeline that includes the following events:

Extended response: The role of religion

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Match each historical figure on the left to their achievements on the right.

• the fall of the Roman Empire (476 ce)

• the rise of the Byzantine Empire • the signing of the Magna Carta (1215 ce)

• the birth of the Prophet Muhammad (570 ce)

• the beginning of the Age of Exploration (late 15th century)

In a paragraph response, answer the following question:

‘How did religion influence the social, political, and cultural structures of the pre-modern world?’ Provide examples from at least two different regions or societies.

Write a short description of each event’s historical significance.

Response to chapter inquiry question: How did the world change from 600 ce to 1750 ce? Write a paragraph in response to the inquiry question. Include the following key terms: • feudalism • hierarchy

• Dark Ages

• Christianity • Islam

• Silk Road

• Age of Exploration.

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Chapter 1: How did the world change from 600 ce to 1750 ce?

INVESTIGATION 1

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Europe and the Mediterranean world (c.600–1750 ce)

OVERVIEW

[In this topic you will] … learn about the characteristics of societies in the 6th to 18th centuries, including continuity and change in systems of government, social organisation, ideas and religion, the causes and consequences of trade, war and expansion, and the experiences and perspectives of individuals and groups in the varied societies of Europe and the Mediterranean world. Source: Adapted from VCAA, Victorian Curriculum V2.0, ‘History’, ‘Band description – Levels 7 and 8’

TOPIC OPTIONS

CURRICULUM GOALS

For this Investigation you must choose at least one of:

• How do we know about the past? • Why do societies change? • What makes a society? • What factors influence where

Medieval Europe – Chapter 2 Ottoman Empire – Chapter 3

Renaissance Italy – Chapter 4

The Spanish and the Americas – Chapter 5 Vikings – Chapter 6 Emergence of the modern world in Europe – Chapter 7

societies are established?

• How do people understand their world?

• What were the consequences of contact between societies?

• Why are there different

interpretations of the past?

Source: VCAA, Victorian Curriculum V2.0, ‘History’, ‘Band description – Levels 7 and 8’ Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

CHAPTER 2

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

How did the medieval period change Europe? Low-res

LESSON TITLE

2.1

Setting the scene: Pandemic!

2.2

What were the key events of the medieval period?

2.3

How did the medieval period begin?

2.4

How did William of Normandy conquer England?

2.5

How was society structured in medieval Europe?

2.6

How did the lives of knights, the clergy and women compare in medieval Europe?

2.7

What was health and medicine like in the medieval period?

2.8

How was crime punished in the medieval period?

2.9

How did the technology of warfare develop over time?

2.10

How did the Black Death affect medieval Europe?

2.11

What changed because of the Black Death?

2.12

End of investigation review: How did the medieval period change Europe?

Image: Joan of Arc at the siege of Orléans. The siege occurred in 1428–1429, during the Hundred Years War between England and France. Painting by French artist Jules-Eugène Lenepveu,1890

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

2.1

Setting the scene: Pandemic! Learning intention

…

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

In this lesson, you will investigate a single event from the medieval period, and consider how you can use sources about that event to understand people’s experiences then.

Black Death a plague pandemic of the 14th century

pandemic a disease that is widespread across a whole country, several countries or the world

medieval refers to the period of European history from about 476 to 1500 ce, which was also called the Middle Ages (Latin for ‘medium’ or ‘middle’)

Source 2.1.1 People dig graves for victims of the Black Death pandemic in Tournai, Belgium, c.1350. The picture

was drawn by a monk who lived there.

The Black Death

From late 1347, people across Europe suddenly began falling sick. First, they felt an itch on their neck, groin or armpit. Then the itch became a painful swelling as big as an apple and full of pus, known as a bubo. The victim soon lost their appetite and energy and felt too feverish to do anything. Within a few days, the swelling turned from red to purple, and finally to black. There was little hope for people who caught the disease. Soon, they

would die and be buried with many other unfortunate victims.

This terrible experience was called the bubonic plague, or the Black Death. The Black Death arrived in Italy, and quickly spread from town to town and city to city, to become a pandemic across medieval Europe. At least one-third of the population were killed, in what was one of the greatest disasters in human history.

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Cambridge Investigating Humanities for the Victorian Curriculum 8

and stood with their neighbours in village churches to pray for help from God. They gathered in local markets to buy their family food and other goods, some of which may have been transported from distant lands. Few people had medical knowledge, so well-meaning friends and relatives did what they could to help the sick, and cleaned out the houses of the dead. No-one really knew at the time that this way of life made the pandemic worse, because the Black Death was caused by bacteria carried by infected fleas and was spread through close contact.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

At the time, people knew what the Black Death did, but they did not know exactly what caused it. Was it carried by ‘sick’ air or water? Could you catch it from touching someone, or from thinking about getting sick? Some people blamed sailors who travelled from China to Italy. Some suspected the disease came from anyone who dressed or worshipped in a different way. Other people thought the plague was a punishment from God, and began to blame themselves. In medieval Europe, people were regularly in close physical contact. Many lived in small houses in crowded towns,

Eyewitness to tragedy

Giovanni Boccaccio was a talented writer and poet who was 35 years old when the plague arrived in his home city of Florence, Italy. In 1348, he witnessed the mysterious arrival of the disease and worried that life would never be the same again. As he sat at his writing desk, he recorded what he saw (Sources 2.1.2 and 2.1.3).

Florence was a busy trading city of around 120 000 people before the Black Death.

However, while Boccaccio watched, ‘normal life’ seemed to disintegrate. He saw some neighbours who had once been friendly stay in their houses and keep their distance. He saw others who tried to help, but their treatments made little difference. He also saw people who thought they were going to die anyway, so they decided ignore the rules of behaviour that they had once lived by, and party. It started to look like the end of the world.

The plague … showed its first signs in men and women alike by means of swellings either in the groin or under the armpits, some of which grew to the size of an ordinary apple and others to the size of an egg … few of the sick were ever cured, and almost all died after the third day of the appearance of the previously described symptoms.

… This pestilence was so powerful that it was transmitted to the healthy by contact with the sick, the way a fire close to dry or oily things will set them aflame. And the evil of the plague went even further: not only did talking to or being around the sick bring infection and a common death, but also touching the clothes of the sick or anything touched or used by them seemed to communicate this very disease to the person involved.

…

Source 2.1.2 Giovanni Boccaccio’s 1348 account of the plague, The Decameron, translated by Mark Musa and Peter Bondanella, 1982

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Chapter 2: How did the medieval period change Europe?

Brother abandoned brother, uncle abandoned nephew, sister left brother, and very often wife abandoned husband, and – even worse, almost unbelievable – fathers and mothers neglected to tend and care for their children as if they were not their own.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Many ended their lives in the public streets, during the day or at night, while many others who died in their homes were discovered dead by their neighbors only by the smell of their decomposing bodies. The city was full of corpses … when all the graves were full, huge trenches were dug … and they were packed in there with dirt, one on top of another, like a ship’s cargo, until the trench was filled. …

Source 2.1.3 Giovanni Boccaccio’s 1348 account of the plague, The Decameron, translated by Mark Musa and Peter Bondanella, 1982

Following the routes of trade, the Black Death spread, infecting every major population centre of Europe, and many across Asia and North Africa. Boccaccio was lucky to survive. In just three years, the pandemic killed more than 70 000 people in Florence. It left behind broken families and frightened survivors, facing the task of cleaning up and rebuilding their lives.

Go online to access the interactive lesson review and more!

Major events such as pandemics, natural disasters and wars often mark the end of one age and the start of a new era. In some ways, the Black Death marks the end of the medieval period. In this chapter, you will learn about what made medieval Europe the way it was, before the pandemic changed life as people knew it.

Lesson 2.1 review Online quiz

Review questions

DOC

Research task

Teachers can assign tasks and track results

2.1 Review questions 1 2 3 4 5

List the ways in which the Black Death affected its victims. Explain how the way people lived in medieval times helped to spread the Black Death. Discuss how people reacted to the plague, according to Giovanni Boccaccio. What else would you like to explore about life in medieval Europe? Make a list. Compare sources 2.1.1 and 2.1.4, showing two pandemics 670 years apart. What do they suggest might be similar about the experiences? What seems to be different? You may also draw on what you remember as an eyewitness of how people lived through the COVID-19 pandemic.

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Cambridge Investigating Humanities for the Victorian Curriculum 8

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES …

Source 2.1.4 A cemetery worker digs graves for the victims of the COVID-19 pandemic in Brazil, May 2021. Brazil suffered the second-highest COVID death toll in the world, partly due to a lower rate of vaccination.

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Chapter 2: How did the medieval period change Europe?

2.2

What were the key events of the medieval period?

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Learning intention

Last lesson you looked at the Black Death. In this lesson, you will look at the significant events that took place in medieval Europe.

Lesson Starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

See, think, wonder

Look at Sources 2.2.1 and 2.2.2.

1 See: What expressions do the two faces have? 2 Think: What do they make you think about the subjects? What do you think the artists might have wanted to convey? 3 Wonder: What do you wonder about the times they were made?

…

Source 2.2.1 Tomb of King Edward III of England; he led England at the start of the Hundred Years’ War, in 1337

1187

800 ce

c.630–750 ce

537 ce

The Hagia Sophia is built in Constantinople (capital of the Eastern Roman Empire)

The ‘Arab Conquest’ wins territory from the Eastern Roman Empire and establishes Islam as the official religion in those places

Charlemagne becomes the ruler of the Holy Roman Empire

476 ce The Western Roman Empire falls

The Prophet Muhammad is born, establishing the world religion of Islam

The First Crusade of armies from Europe to the ‘Holy Land’ of the Middle East begins

1066

793 ce 570 ce

1096

Middle Eastern leader Saladin recaptures Jerusalem from Christian armies

The ‘Viking Age’ begins, with the first Viking raid on a British monastery, at Lindisfarne

William of Normandy wins the Battle of Hastings, becoming King of England, changing the island nation forever

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Cambridge Investigating Humanities for the Victorian Curriculum 8

1453 The Hundred Years’ War ends as English forces are finally forced from France

1431 Joan of Arc leads French armies into battle and inspires great victories; when captured by the English, Joan is burned at the stake as a heretic

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

…

Source 2.2.2 Renaissance scientist and artist Leonardo da Vinci started painting his Mona Lisa around 1503.

1415

1347–1351

1215

1337

The Magna Carta is created in England, introducing ideas of justice, democracy and human rights

The Hundred Years’ War between England and France begins

The Black Death spreads from Italy and kills one-third of the population of Europe

1381

1346

1271

Italian explorer Marco Polo travels the Silk Road and develops links between China and Europe

The English gain the upper hand in the Hundred Years’ War at the Battle of Agincourt

English soldiers first use the longbow to defeat the French at the Battle of Crécy

1378 A split occurs within the Catholic Church, creating two popes

The Peasants’ Revolt breaks out in England, with workers fighting for better conditions

Lesson 2.2 review Online quiz

Review questions

DOC

Research task

Go online to access the interactive lesson review and more!

Teachers can assign tasks and track results

2.2 Review questions

1 Use the timeline to list countries and empires that were involved in significant medieval events. 2 Research and write about one of the significant events shown on the timeline. Describe the causes of this event as well as its consequences.

Making thinking visible 3 Based on what you have read so far, brainstorm a list of questions about medieval Europe. You can use some of these question stems to help you: who …?, why …?, when …?, how many …?, what if …? Come back to these questions as you finish each section of the chapter. Which questions can you answer now? Would you update any questions based on your new knowledge?

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Chapter 2: How did the medieval period change Europe?

2.3

How did the medieval period begin? Learning intention

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

In this lesson, you will learn about some of the effects of the end of the Western Roman Empire.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

See, think, wonder

Look closely at Source 2.3.1.

…

Source 2.3.1 The Hagia Sophia was built as a Christian cathedral in Constantinople, capital city of the Eastern Roman

Empire, in the 6th century ce. No building as large would be constructed anywhere in the world for the next 900 years.

1 See: What do you see? 2 Think: What does it make you think? 3 Wonder: What do you wonder?

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Cambridge Investigating Humanities for the Victorian Curriculum 8

The fall of the Western Roman Empire However, around 200 ce, the empire began to weaken. From within, Rome was troubled by ineffective emperors, who had made the empire too big to manage. From outside, Rome came under attack by nonRoman armies, known as barbarians (the Roman word for anyone not from Rome). Roman rule was never popular among European tribes, but most lived in peace until Germanic tribes started reclaiming towns they had previously controlled. Over the next two centuries, barbarian groups, including the Huns, Franks, Lombards, Visigoths and Vandals, began to cause widespread destruction.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

The medieval period is usually said to begin with the collapse of a great civilisation – the Roman Empire. The Romans had ruled much of Europe, northern Africa and western Asia from the 6th century bce to the 5th century ce (Source 2.3.2). They ruled through conquest and a complex political system, with a powerful emperor in Rome and local governors, all of whom represented the wishes of the empire. Rome had seemed all-powerful. It was a centre of knowledge, technology and literacy, with many wealthy Romans able to read and write Latin. Across Europe, people of many different cultures and languages all came under the control of the one empire. Rome imposed taxes, laws and the common language of Latin on the people, and in return built advanced roads, cities with impressive engineering, sewerage and access to water.

HIBERNIA

In the 5th century ce, the Roman Empire shrank. By 410 ce, Rome had lost control of Britain, and the Visigoths attacked the city of Rome itself. By 430 ce, Spain and North Africa were lost, and in 450 ce, Gaul (France) was invaded

Latin the language of ancient Rome and its empire

Hadrian’s Wall

BRITANNIA Londinium

BELGICA LUGDUNENSIS

ine

Atlantic Ocean

GERMANIA

Ca sp ian NORICUM Se PA RHAETIA a DACIA N AQUITANIA DA ILLY NON Danube Black Sea NARBONENSIS LM RIA IA AT IA ITALY PONTUS ARMENIA LUGDUNENSIS CORSICA THRACE Byzantium Tigris R. Rome MACEDONIA PARTHIAN GALATIA ME Tarentum S EMPIRE BAETICA OP SARDINIA CAPPADOCIA O T Pergamum Athens AM Eup hrat I es R A SICILIA ACHAEA . Syracuse Babylon Carthage MAURITANIA SYRIA CYPRUS NUMIDIA CRETE JUDAEA Mediterranean Sea Jerusalem Alexandria AFR Cyrene ICA CYRENE EGYPT ARABIA Ni le Re R dS ive Key ea r 1500 km 0 Roman Empire, c.117 CE GAUL

Rhone R.

…

Source 2.3.2 The Roman Empire at its greatest extent, c.117 ce. Can you name the modern nations that exist today in the area once ruled by Rome?

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Chapter 2: How did the medieval period change Europe?

Roman culture was rich, but with the Empire’s fall, Europe was no longer under one ruler. Instead, there was widespread war, as tribal leaders fought for power. The new leaders did not value Roman culture and knowledge. There was no longer a central capital city to promote architecture, engineering, science and learning, or to connect cultures through transport and trade. Therefore, historians

who saw Rome as a shining light in human achievement described the end of Rome as the start of the Dark Ages.

For you, perhaps, there will follow a better age. this slumber of forgetfulness will not last forever … When the darkness has been has been dispersed, our descendants can come again in the former pure radiance.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Dark Ages the period in European history from about 476 ce to about 1000 ce, after the end of the Roman Empire; the first part of the medieval period

by Attila the Hun. Finally, in 476 ce, the German Prince Odovacar captured Rome, marking the end of the great Empire.

…

Source 2.3.3 Francesco Petrarca, known as Petrarch, who coined the term ‘Dark Ages’, in 1343

Concepts and skills builder 2.3

Research activity: significance, and continuity and change

Use the videos in the Interactive Textbook or scan the QR codes below to explore the following topics about the early medieval period. Form a small team and become the experts on your assigned topic, and then teach your classmates about it. 1 Copy this table into your book. Respond to the questions assigned to you for your topic. Group video topic Islam and the Byzantine Empire

1 How … How did Islam develop from the 6th to 8th century ce?

2 What … 3 Explain … What was the relationship Explain the challenge between Islam and the Islam posed to Byzantine Empire? Christianity in Europe.

How was life during the Dark Ages different from life during the Roman Empire?

What did Christianity do to help end the Dark Ages?

How did Charlemagne become more powerful?

What were Charlemagne’s Explain why Charlemagne biggest achievements? was significant.

FPO

Response Were the Dark Ages a myth? FPO

Response Charlemagne: King of the Holy Roman Empire

Explain how feudalism helped end the Dark Ages.

FPO

Response

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Cambridge Investigating Humanities for the Victorian Curriculum 8

2 Form new groups of three students, with an expert on each topic in each group. Each ‘expert’ takes a turn to teach the group about their topic. Other members take notes. 3 Now, as individuals, answer the following question in a detailed paragraph: ‘The Dark Ages were not really dark’. To what extent do you agree with this statement? Support your points with examples.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Historical concepts and skills: causes and consequences, continuity and change, historical significance

Lesson 2.3 review Online quiz

Review questions

DOC

Research task

Go online to access the interactive lesson review and more!

Teachers can assign tasks and track results

2.3 Review questions

1 Identify when and why the Roman Empire ended. 2 Explain why the term ‘the Dark Ages’ has been used. 3 Explain what happened after the Roman Empire, by completing the following sentences: a People called the early medieval period the Dark Ages, because … b People called the early medieval period the Dark Ages, but … c People called the early medieval period the Dark Ages, so … 4 Explain what Charlemagne achieved in the 9th century ce.

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Chapter 2: How did the medieval period change Europe?

2.4

How did William of Normandy conquer England?

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Learning intention

In this lesson, you will learn about a medieval invasion that changed the course of history for Britain.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

See, think, wonder

Look closely at Source 2.4.1.

1 See: What do you see? 2 Think: What does it make you think? 3 Wonder: What do you wonder?

…

Source 2.4.1 Norman (French) cavalry charge the Saxon (English) shield wall, as shown in the Bayeux Tapestry. The scenes were woven on cloth within a few years of the Norman victory. What do the soldiers wear and carry to protect their bodies?

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Cambridge Investigating Humanities for the Victorian Curriculum 8

The Battle of Hastings was fought on 14 October 1066. It pitted the Anglo-Saxon King Harold Godwinson against the invader William, Duke of Normandy. The prize was the throne of England. What happened would change the course of history.

To understand the Battle of Hastings, you first need to understand why a Viking king, a French duke and an English lord each believed that he should sit on the throne of England.

Claims to the throne England, was unmarried and had no children. He died without an heir. The Viking king of Norway believed that he had been promised the throne, but so did an Anglo-Saxon man called Edward. Edward seized the throne. King Edward had no children either, and when he died in January 1066, there was a three-way squabble. A Saxon lord called Harold took the throne, but a Norman duke and the king of Norway both challenged him, claiming that the throne had been promised to them.

noble a person born into a family with high social or political status and privileges, often with a title (e.g. lord, baron, sir or lady)

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

What is the best way to choose a good ruler? Should they have to pass a test, help the most people or win the most votes? In medieval Europe, almost all rulers were born into their roles. Their families were said to be nobles, and above the ordinary people. Typically, powerful men inherited the privilege and responsibility of leadership because they happened to be their father’s heir. It was a problem, then, if a great ruler like a king died without an heir to take his throne. In 1042, the Viking Harthacnut, who was the king of Denmark and of

The last Viking invasion

In late 1066, two armies tried to invade England, to put their contender on the throne.

King Harold heard rumours that William, Duke of Normandy, was planning to invade, so he began preparing defences in the south of England. However, in September 1066, Harald Hardrada, King of Norway’ suddenly invaded the north of England near York, with 300 ships full of Viking warriors. He was helped by the King Harold’s own brother Tostig, who had become a traitor. When news of the Viking invasion reached him, Harold marched his army

incredibly quickly to the north. His speed meant that he could use the element of surprise, and he defeated the Vikings at the Battle of Stamford Bridge on 25 September. So many Vikings were killed that only 24 of their 300 ships were needed to transport the survivors home. That defeat marked the end of what is known as ‘the Viking Age’.

heir a person entitled to take the property or rank of another person when that person dies; in medieval times, usually the eldest son Vikings seafaring raiders and traders from Scandinavia, who had great power over northern Europe in the 9th and 10th centuries ce

Anglo-Saxons a Germanic people who settled across England from the 5th century ce and spoke Old English; often shortened to just ‘Saxons’ Normans a people of Frankish and Viking origin who settled in northern France from the 10th century ce

The Saxon victory was quick, but costly. King Harold lost up to one-third of his best soldiers. The worst thing that could possibly happen next for him was another invasion. That is exactly what happened!

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Chapter 2: How did the medieval period change Europe?

Concepts and skills builder 2.4 Analysing historical perspectives

…

Source 2.4.3 Duke William

Source 2.4.4 King Harald Hardrada

Godwinson of Wessex

Harold has been the king of England for 9 months. Now in his mid-40s, he is a wealthy nobleman and the best Saxon soldier, who commanded the former king’s army. His army stopped rebels from taking Edward’s throne, including Harold’s own father. Edward is married to Harold’s sister. However, his family has no ‘royal blood’ or experience on the throne. To thank him for his loyalty, when Edward was lying on his bed about to die, he chose Harold as the next king. English noblemen agreed, and he became their ruler. Harold wants to keep Saxon (English) people on the English throne.

…

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

…

Source 2.4.2 Earl Harold

of Normandy

William is a duke of the small state of Normandy in northern France, aged in his late 30s. An excellent organiser of soldiers, William is inspiring and ambitious. He is a distant relative of King Edward. Normans had helped to defend the King Edward from Saxon rebels. In the 1050s, Edward promised to leave his throne to William. William also saved Harold Godwinson’s life in northern France in 1064. In return, Harold promised to be loyal to William and support his claim to the English throne. William is a natural leader, even though he is from a foreign land and speaks a foreign language.

of Norway landing in England

Around 50 years old, Harald has been the king of Norway for 20 years and is a great warrior. He led Viking expeditions across the Byzantine Empire, Russia and the Middle East. Hardrada means ‘hard ruler’. He is a distant relative of the Vikings who had been kings over England and Scandinavian countries combined from 1016 to 1042. He remembers the broken promise of 1042 that the king of Norway would be the next to sit on the English throne. Vikings are proud of their cities across the British isles. Viking relatives living in northern England - and even Harold Godwinson’s own brother Tostig - want him to take the throne back for the Vikings.

1 Identify the main reason for the claim to the English throne of (a) Harold, (b) William and (c) Harald. 2 Explain why both Harold Godwinson and William of Normandy claimed that they had been promised that they would become the next king. 3 Discuss which man had the strongest or best claim to the throne, in your opinion, and give reasons. 4 Analyse what the contest to become king showed about how people became rulers in medieval times. What made someone a good potential leader? How is this similar to or different from today?

Historical concepts and skills: using historical sources

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Cambridge Investigating Humanities for the Victorian Curriculum 8

The Battle of Hastings cavalry (on horses) and many archers (with bows and arrows). It was such an impressive force that some people at the time thought there were 150 000 invaders. William’s invaders had time to build a temporary fort, feast on food raided from local farms, and move inland near the town of Hastings. There, they waited for a fight.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

The rumours were true. William was planning to invade England. He had been making preparations for weeks, but bad weather prevented him from sailing. Once the wind changed on 28 September, the Normans could start sailing their boats across the English Channel. They unloaded an army of around 12 000 professional soldiers, including 3000

…

Source 2.4.5 The Normans land near Pevensey, south England, on 28 September 1066, as shown in the Bayeux Tapestry. What equipment can you see them unloading?

Amazing but true…

The Bayeux Tapestry, a primary source about the Norman invasion, uses wool embroidered on cloth 70 metres long and 50 centimetres high and its details include 626 humans, 190 horses, 32 ships and 33 buildings.

Once King Harold heard about the Norman invasion, he marched his army from Stamford Bridge to the south. They covered 320 km in less than five days. It was a hard march, carrying heavy weapons, including shields, armour and axes they had taken from the Vikings. Estimates put Harold’s army at around 8000 troops, although some sources at the time said he had up to 140 000. Only one-third of the soldiers were housecarls (professional soldiers). The other two-thirds were the fyrd (farmers and part-time soldiers), who were required to join the army to defend the king. They were all infantry.

The fight, which took place on 14 October 1066, became known as the Battle of Hastings. The Normans attacked with archers in the front row, several rows of spearmen on foot behind, and knights mounted on horses (cavalry) at the rear. They wore chain mail armour, which they knew was protection against arrows but not much help against axes. In the morning, the Saxons had the upper hand, because they were on high ground and their shield wall held tight against Norman charges.

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Chapter 2: How did the medieval period change Europe?

A rumour spread that William had been killed, and the Normans lost their

discipline and started to run away. Then, they saw that he was alive after all.

Baring his head and lifting his helmet, he cried, ‘Look at me. I am alive, and with God’s help I will conquer …’ At these words they recovered their courage. He rushed forward at their head, brandishing his sword … the Normans surrounded some thousands who had pursued them and destroyed them in a moment, so that not a single one survived.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

…

Source 2.4.6 An account of the battle, written in 1073 by a friend of William, the Norman priest William de

Poitiers, from David and Chibnall, The Gesta Guillelmi of William of Poitiers, Oxford, 1986, p. 131

Around midday, the Normans used a new tactic. This time they pretended to retreat, but when the Saxons chased them, they turned and attacked.

Ultimately, the Norman tactics worked. Their axes cut through Saxon armour and their arrows fired over the shield wall and into the lines of defenders.

…

Source 2.4.7 The Normans are inspired by William’s courage, as shown in the Bayeux Tapestry. Where is William?

Clue: look for the soldier who is lifting up the visor of his helmet to show his troops that he is still alive.

In the afternoon of the battle, a Norman arrow struck King Harold. According to the Bayeux Tapestry, it may have struck him directly in the eye, and killed him while his troops watched on. His part-time soldiers and farmers fled towards London, but the professional soldiers fought on until every last one was dead. The Saxon army was no more. William, Duke of Normandy, was now known as William the Conqueror.

On Christmas Day 1066 he was crowned King William I in Westminster Abbey. He brought with him from France a new system for managing and controlling the land, called feudalism. Under the feudal system, William placed his most trusted noblemen in positions of power, and brought all of England under his control. He was the last person to successfully invade England.

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Cambridge Investigating Humanities for the Victorian Curriculum 8

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES …

Source 2.4.8 The death of King Harold, as shown in the Bayeux Tapestry. Can you see him trying to pull an arrow

out of his eye?

Lesson 2.4 review Online quiz

Review questions

DOC

Research task

Go online to access the interactive lesson review and more!

Teachers can assign tasks and track results

2.4 Review questions 1 2 3 4

Identify where and when the two major battles of 1066 took place, and who won them. Explain why the Norman invasion started at a difficult time for the Saxon defenders. Explain which army – Saxon or Norman – was better equipped for the Battle of Hastings. Watch the animated version of the Bayeux Tapestry at http://cambridge.edu.au/redirect/####. Choose three significant moments and discuss why they were significant.

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Chapter 2: How did the medieval period change Europe?

2.5

How was society structured in medieval Europe?

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Learning intention

Having learned how the Normans won the Battle of Hastings, in this lesson, you will learn about how William the Conqueror introduced a new way to structure society, which changed Europe.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

What makes you say that?

…

Source 2.5.1 A modern artist’s impression of the medieval village of Wharram Percy, which flourished from the 12th to the 14th century after William the Conqueror gave the land to one of his loyal Norman lords

1 What do you think were the key features of a successful medieval village? 2 What do you see in Source 2.5.1 that makes you say that?

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Cambridge Investigating Humanities for the Victorian Curriculum 8

The king’s land A nobleman ruled his land from a castle or grand manor house and became rich and powerful. Castles were often placed at the top of a hill because it made them easier to defend. Like the king, the nobility wore rich clothes and hunted wild animals for sport, but only where the king gave them permission to do so. In return, nobles had to be loyal to the king, were responsible for local law and order, and collected taxes for the king. In times of war, noblemen had to organise soldiers for the king.

castle a large, fortified building designed for defence, storage and to live in feudalism the medieval social system that organised people into categories, from the monarchy down to the poorest member; the king granted land to the nobility in exchange for loyalty and service, and every level of society gave something to those above them, forming a hierarchy

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

When he took the throne of England, William the Conqueror ruled the land. In a sense, whoever sat on the throne owned everything. You could tell they were the ruler, by their shiny crown and the rich robes they wore, with precious stones sewn into the cloth. But one person alone cannot manage all the cities, towns, villages and farms of a country, so the king divided up the land into parts. He gave parts of the land to his most trusted Norman noblemen.

The feudal system

This way of managing the land was called the feudal system. Under feudalism, everyone had a place in the hierarchy. Each level of society promised to serve and make payments to the level

above them, and in return they received protection, land or shelter, and food. King William introduced this system to England, and it was used in most of medieval Europe.

peasant a poor farmer of low status who rented land and usually grew their own food

Amazing but true…

William the Conqueror knew exactly how much land there was to manage across England, because in 1086 he sent officers around England to do a complete survey. They checked every corner of the country and made a list of all the landowners, peasants, farmland, buildings and animals, and recorded what they were worth and how much tax should be paid. This list, covering 13 418 communities, was compiled in the Latin language in the Domesday Book, which can still be used today to find the history of villages and towns across England.

Filler image to come

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Chapter 2: How did the medieval period change Europe?

Concepts and skills builder 2.5 Analysing historical perspectives and interpretations

King

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Fief and Peasants

Loyalty

Military aid

Church officials and nobility

Food

Protection

Homage

Knights

Food

Shelter

Military service

Shelter

Protection

Farm the land

Pay rent

Peasants and serfs

…

Source 2.5.2 The feudal hierarchy, shown as a pyramid of power. Serfs and peasants were at the bottom of society and served their local knight; several knights served one local lord; and all the lords served the king.

1 2 3 4

Consider Source 2.5.2. Identify the level of the feudal hierarchy that had the most people. Explain what peasants gave to their local knights, and what they received in return. Explain what the pyramid suggests about the role of the Christian Church in feudal society. Compare the hierarchy with a power structure with which you are familiar, such as your school. Who takes the places of the king, nobility, knights and peasants? What is similar and what is different between the two systems?

Historical concepts and skills: using historical sources

The feudal hierarchy vassal a person who holds land or a position granted by a superior, to whom they owe loyalty

Feudalism organised society in a stable way (Source 2.5.2). Each person knew who they worked for and who they had to protect. Many people became a vassal to

someone else. Below the king or queen and the nobility, there were three main roles in society: those who fought, those who prayed, and those who worked.

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Cambridge Investigating Humanities for the Victorian Curriculum 8

…

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Those who fought: king, nobles and knights

Source 2.5.3 According to medieval stories, Arthur was a great king of Britain, whose loyal knights fought many

brave battles. Historians think that Arthur was mostly fictional, to show what people hoped for in a king. Why do you think these knights sit at a round table, and not a long one with the most important men at the head?

High on the feudal pyramid were those who fought. The king was expected to lead his army during war, supported by the nobles he had placed in charge of fiefs. The nobility – a lord, earl, duke or baron – lived in luxury and had the role of collecting food and taxes from the peasants in the villages under their control. Similarly, knights lived well in times of peace, often in grand manor houses. However, if the country went to war, the nobles had to assemble their knights and round up fighting-age men from the village to form an army of foot soldiers.

Those who prayed: clergy

The clergy were members of the Christian religion. The upper clergy included bishops, who led religious practice in cities with large cathedrals, were often from a noble family and lived comfortable lives. The lower clergy included monks, nuns and priests, who helped the poor in the villages and worked alongside the peasants, helping them in their daily lives, baptising babies, marrying young lovers and burying the dead. Many villages were near monasteries (run by male monks) or convents (run by female nuns). These acted not only as churches for people to pray in, but also markets, libraries and charities for the local communities.

fief land owned by the king and rented to a vassal nobility people who were ‘highborn’ into powerful families, and lived a life of privilege knight a man who served his king, queen or lord as a soldier on horseback foot soldiers poorly trained peasants who left their farms to fight on foot clergy religious workers of the Christian Church cathedral a large church and place of worship, usually in the centre of a town or city

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Chapter 2: How did the medieval period change Europe?

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES …

Source 2.5.4 The monastery and town of Mont-Saint-Michel, on the northern coast of France, which was an important centre of prayer and learning in the 12th and 13th centuries. What features kept the monks of Mont-Saint-Michel safe?

Those who worked: artisans and peasants

artisan someone who does skilled work with their hands

Craftsmen and artisans were essential members of the medieval village. They had a slightly better life with a higher status than peasants and farmers, because their roles required a special skill. They were known by their trades, which became common surnames. The Bakers cooked the bread that people ate at every meal, the Brewers made the beer that people drank (water was often unsafe), and the Smiths crafted farming equipment, as well as metal swords and armour for knights and for other villagers in times of war. Other jobs in the feudal village included: • bailiff: manager of daily life and law and order in the village on behalf of the noble owner

• ploughwright: looked after the village farming equipment • herbalist: used plants to make medicines.

Peasants were at the bottom of the pile. They did almost all the hard physical work, tending the fields and farms of the noble to grow food for the village and for the noble to sell. The poorest peasants were serfs, who were tied to work for the noble for life. They could not leave the village, move house or marry without permission. They worked in the fields all day, slept on dirt floors in the few clothes they owned, and shared their houses with the farm animals they tended. Typically, they only wore one item of clothing, which was a blanket of coarse wool, tied up with a belt of rope.

• swineherd: looked after the lord’s pigs, possibly for pay

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Cambridge Investigating Humanities for the Victorian Curriculum 8

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES …

Source 2.5.5 An illumination from a 14th-century Italian book, showing the jobs on the land over the 12 months of a year. In which month did new lambs arrive?

Lesson 2.5 review Online quiz

Review questions

DOC

Research task

Go online to access the interactive lesson review and more!

Teachers can assign tasks and track results

2.5 Review questions

1 Draw your own version of the feudal pyramid. 2 Identify an example of how members of each of the three main social groups (those who fought, those who prayed and those who worked) helped their society be safe and successful. 3 Explain how the feudal system worked for a nobleman during(a) peace and (b) war. 4 Explain why some peasants had better lives than others.

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Chapter 2: How did the medieval period change Europe?

2.6

How did the lives of women, knights and the clergy compare in medieval Europe?

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Learning intention

Having learned how the feudal system structured medieval society, in this lesson you will compare the lives of different groups of people.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

Step in, step out, step back

Choose one of the people depicted in Source 2.6.1, and answer these questions.

1 Step in: What do you think this person might feel? 2 Step out: What would you like to learn so that you can understand this person’s perspective better? 3 Step back: What do you notice about your own perspective and what it takes for you to see somebody else’s perspective?

…

Source 2.6.1 A painter’s impression of a medieval queen dubbing a man, in a ceremony to show that he has become a knight. He kneels to show his obedience to the crown. Some kings and queens still use this ceremony to give special people titles, such as ‘sir’ or ‘baroness’.

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Cambridge Investigating Humanities for the Victorian Curriculum 8

Women and respected figure with a luxurious but busy life. However, peasant women laboured in the fields alongside the men. It was not unusual for a girl to be married by the age of 14, and women were encouraged to have many children who could work for the family.

…

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Women of the medieval period did not have equal rights with men. The quality of a woman’s life depended heavily on who her father was and the man she was married to, and their places on the feudal pyramid. A woman who married a noble became the ‘Lady of the Manor’, a trusted

Source 2.6.2 A group of noblewomen in the grounds of a castle as one prepares to shoot a stag with a bow and

arrow, c.1450

Medieval knights

Knights were skilled fighters, riders and the protectors of the nobles, the king and the Church. The horse and armour required to be a knight cost more than most peasants earned in a lifetime. In the early medieval period, knights were criticised for their rough treatment of peasants. However, in the latter half of the era, they developed a code of chivalry.

The code meant they swore an oath to protect the weak, defend the Church and be kind to women. Most knights lived in a manor house or small castle, and were responsible for the villagers nearby. A knight usually had a page who was a young apprentice aged 7 to 10 who was training to be a knight.

chivalry the medieval code of conduct for knights, which said how they should behave according to religious, moral and social rules page a boy aged from 7 to 10 who trained to become a knight

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Chapter 2: How did the medieval period change Europe?

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES …

Source 2.6.3 English knights come to the aid of King Henry V, when French knights attacked him during the Battle

of Agincourt, 1415. Can you see how knights showed which family they represented with colours and symbols?

Concepts and skills builder 2.6a

Analysing historical perspectives and interpretations To fear God and maintain His Church To serve your lord in valour and faith To protect the weak and defenceless To give aid to widows and orphans To refrain from unnecessary giving of offence To live by honour and for glory To despise money as a reward To fight for the welfare of all To obey those placed in authority

To guard the honour of fellow knights To reject unfairness, meanness and deceit To keep faith At all times to speak the truth To persevere to the end in any enterprise begun To respect the honour of women Never to refuse a challenge from an equal Never to turn the back upon a foe.

…

Source 2.6.4 A modern translation of the code of chivalry for knights, originally written in French as ‘The Song of Roland’ in 1098 ce. Adapted from multiple sources

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Cambridge Investigating Humanities for the Victorian Curriculum 8

1 Identify how many rules of chivalry were about fighting, and how many were about other activities. 2 Identify how many rules of chivalry told knights what they must do (rather than what they must not do), and explain what this shows about the expectations placed on knights. 3 Select one rule that you think may have been developed to make sure that knights did not use their strength and weapons unfairly. Explain why you think that. 4 Discuss whether the code of chivalry is relevant today, when there are no knights. To what extent does it offer rules for a good life?

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Historical concepts and skills: using historical sources

The clergy

The clergy were among the few medieval people who could read and write. Members of the clergy, especially monks in monasteries, created manuscripts for their libraries. These books were often Christian bibles, and they were ‘illuminated’ (decorated) with gold, silver and other colourful paint. Monks used techniques borrowed from scholars in the Middle East to create these books by hand. Each page took hours, or sometimes even days or weeks, to create. Books in Europe were handmade until Johannes Gutenberg invented the printing press in 1440.

…

Source 2.6.5 An illumination from the Gospel of Matthew, in the Book of Kells, created in an island monastery near Scotland and Ireland around 800 ce

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Chapter 2: How did the medieval period change Europe?

Concepts and skills builder 2.6b Research activity: historical significance Use the videos in the Interactive Textbook or scan the QR codes below to explore the following topics about different groups in medieval Europe. Form groups of three, with one group member responsible for each topic. 1 Copy this table into your book and respond to the questions assigned to you for your topic. 1 How … How did a woman’s life depend on her family?

2 What … What influence did religion have on the way women were seen and treated?

3 Explain … Explain the significance of women in medieval society.

How did the code of chivalry guide a knight?

What did some one need to do to become a knight?

Explain the significance of knights in medieval society.

How was the clergy divided?

What were the different roles of the clergy?

Explain the significance of religion in medieval society.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Group video topic Medieval women FPO

Response

Knights

FPO

Response

The clergy FPO

Response

2 Watch the video and complete the questions for your topic. Then each take a turn to teach the other members of your group about the topic. Take notes on what your other group members say. Historical concepts and skills: historical significance

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Cambridge Investigating Humanities for the Victorian Curriculum 8

Lesson 2.6 review Online quiz

Review questions

DOC

Research task

Go online to access the interactive lesson review and more!

Teachers can assign tasks and track results

2.6 Review questions

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

1 Describe the code of chivalry. 2 Explain whether you would classify a member of the lower clergy living in a medieval village as being on the same level as a peasant or on the level of other, more privileged members of the clergy. 3 Explain the life of a knight by completing the following sentences: a A knight had a good life, because … b A knight had a good life, but … c A knight had a good life, so … 4 Explain what determined what sort of life a woman had in medieval times.

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Chapter 2: How did the medieval period change Europe?

2.7

What was health and medicine like in the medieval period?

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Learning intention

Having learned about the lives of different people in medieval society, in this lesson you will learn about what happened when people fell ill.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

See, think, wonder

Look closely at Source 2.7.1.

…

Source 2.7.1 A 12th-century illustration of how to do operations on the skulls of

patients suffering from major headaches. This is from an Italian book about surgery.

1 See: What do you see? 2 Think: What does it make you think? 3 Wonder: What do you wonder?

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Cambridge Investigating Humanities for the Victorian Curriculum 8

The dangers of falling ill to treat. People often got food poisoning, because there was no cool storage. In villages, cities and farms, people lived very close together and disease spread easily. The lack of sewerage systems meant human waste was never far away and airborne illnesses could spread quickly between people. For peasants, poor health was a fact of life.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Medieval Europe had medicines and doctors, but there was nothing like the quality of hygiene and medical care that we have. Therefore, people’s lives were shorter. There were four very dangerous times in a person’s life, when death was common: when you were born, were injured, gave birth or caught a disease. Frankly, it was best not to get sick in medieval Europe.

Peasants

A peasant’s life was dirty. Peasants were constantly in the fields, working in the hot summers and cold winters, and sharing a dirt-floor hut with farm animals, so it was difficult to stay clean and healthy. Skin infections were common and very difficult

Wealthier classes

For the wealthier classes, bathing was a way to show you were not poor. So, the nobility took great care to appear washed and dress in clean clothes, with the work this required all being done by servants. However, this did not keep away all disease.

Medieval medicine

People who could afford medical care had their urine examined for imbalances or consulted astrologers, believing that the planets could cause illness. Village herbalists mixed up remedies from leaves, roots and flowers. People without money, like most peasants, relied on prayer and the holy touch of clergy, hoping God would save them from death. The stories of those who did so and survived reinforced the power of the Church and religion. A limited understanding of the human body and disease meant that death from illness was not uncommon. Many people believed that illness was God’s way of purifying the soul, and if death came as a result, it was God’s will. In some parts of Europe, there were medical schools. Doctors tried to

diagnose what was wrong with a sick person by inspecting their urine and faeces. Some major surgeries were done, using methods that were often developed first in Muslim countries. Surgeons performed tooth extractions, limb amputations and a process known as trepanning. Trepanning involved puncturing a patient’s skull to relieve pressure, using alcohol to sterilise the wound and relieve pain. If blood poisoning was suspected, bloodletting – draining blood from a patient’s veins – was common because it was believed to remove impurities.

Historians and archaeologists are still discovering other ways that people tried to treat their illnesses in medieval times. Some of them are still used today because they work, and others are best avoided.

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Chapter 2: How did the medieval period change Europe?

Purpose Effective? To heal illnesses by removing ‘excess’ blood, often done with Unlikely, except in some rare leeches (blood-sucking worms) or by cutting veins conditions Herbal remedies To treat various conditions, e.g. sage (epilepsy), chamomile Some were more effective than (headaches), coriander (fever), anise (stomach problems), others tormentil (indigestion), vetch (appetite suppressant), watercress (scurvy), rosemary (nightmares) Ointments To cure skin and muscle conditions. Some were weird! Some were more effective than ‘Treat gout by baking an owl, grinding it into a powder and others; animal-based cures were mixing it with pig fat, then rub on the affected areas …’ unlikely to help Anaesthetic To put a patient to sleep during surgery. A blend of Dangerous: if mixed incorrectly, hemlock, henbane and opium poppy could put a person to could result in death sleep for three days Amulets (lucky To protect against illness, based on the belief that sickness Unlikely charms) and prayers could be caused by evil spirits or punishment by God Trepanning (drilling To release pressure or ‘evil spirits’ and treat conditions such May have worked; highly risky a hole in the skull) as headache Stitching To stitch up patients’ wounds. Surgeons used silk from Effective if the materials were clean China. The silk eventually dissolved, like modern stitches The theory of the To balance the body’s four humours (blood, phlegm, black Unlikely four humours bile, and yellow bile)

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Remedy Bloodletting

Concepts and skills builder 2.7 Asking questions about historical sources

Low-res

…

Source 2.7.3 Surgical instruments in the Al-Tasrif (The Method of Medicine), written by a Muslim Source 2.7.4 A French manuscript surgeon and translated into Latin of Giovanni Boccaccio’s for use across Europe by the Decameron, c.1353, illustrating the 13th century use of leeches for bloodletting …

…

Source 2.7.2 A doctor treats an eye infection with a sharp instrument

1 Identify two methods to treat patients that are shown in these sources. 2 Explain what the sources suggest about medieval surgery that is similar to and different from surgery today. 3 Choose one source and develop at least five questions that you would ask, to know more about the source and its topic. Use these starters: Who …? Why …? When …? How many …? What if …? Historical concepts and skills: historical questions, using historical sources Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Cambridge Investigating Humanities for the Victorian Curriculum 8

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES …

Source 2.7.5 Patients with various illnesses line up to have leeches suck their blood, 16th century. What did they

hope would happen?

Lesson 2.7 review Online quiz

Review questions

DOC

Research task

Go online to access the interactive lesson review and more!

Teachers can assign tasks and track results

2.7 Review questions

1 List some ways in which medieval life made falling ill more likely than it is today. 2 Explain three sorts of people who patients went to for help when they were sick or injured. 3 Discuss two medieval remedies that were unlikely to be effective. What did people hope for, and what might have happened? 4 What did bathing and having clean clothes suggest about a person’s status? Discuss if this would affect their health. 5 Research whether the plants that herbalists used to make remedies in the medieval period are still used today. Which herbs are used to help treat health conditions? What does this show about medieval medicine?

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Chapter 2: How did the medieval period change Europe?

2.8

How was crime punished in the medieval period?

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Learning intention

You have seen what happened when people fell ill in medieval times. In this lesson, you will learn about what happened when people broke the law.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

See, think, wonder

Look closely at Source 2.8.1.

…

Source 2.8.1 A medieval prisoner is stretched on a rack as punishment

1 See: What do you see? 2 Think: What does it make you think? 3 Wonder: What do you wonder? Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Cambridge Investigating Humanities for the Victorian Curriculum 8

Crimes and trials All civilisations have developed their own systems of laws and punishments for crimes. What was declared to be a crime, how it was investigated, and how it was punished, revealed the beliefs and values of that society.

• Ordeal by water involved tying the person’s hands and throwing them into a river. If they floated, that was taken as a sign that God rejected them, and they were guilty. If not, they were innocent, but they drowned.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

In medieval Europe, feudalism shaped the legal system. There were no police forces, but people were certainly being watched. Bailiffs who represented the lord or knight in their village could be very strict. Neighbours who had a falling out could accuse each other of crimes, and the consequences could be severe.

signs that it was healing, they were pronounced innocent. If not, they were judged guilty.

Until the 12th century, the feudal lord or knight managed law and order in the towns and villages under their control. In the early medieval period, once an accusation had been made, the local noble or knight usually oversaw the ‘trial’. In England, for example, most minor crimes were dealt with by manor courts. The accused person and their accuser would both give evidence, and the person above them in the feudal hierarchy would decide whether the accused person was guilty or innocent. In some parts of Europe, rather than examining the evidence, brutal methods were used to test whether the accused was guilty. There were several versions of ‘trial by ordeal’. • Under ordeal by fire, the person had to hold a burning hot rod of metal in their bare hands. Then, after a few days, if their hand showed

• Ordeal by combat was available for knights and nobles. If they won a fight to the death, they were considered innocent. Trial by ordeal was phased out after the pope banned it in 1215.

Later, laws became more centralised under the feudal king. The idea of trial by jury may have started with the Holy Roman Emperor Charlemagne (742–814 ce), whose ‘trial by panel’ involved a group of educated men listening to the evidence and then deciding on a person’s guilt. Henry II (1133–1189) introduced the first trials by jury in England.

Types of crime

Most medieval people were poor and had few possessions. Therefore, minor theft was a common crime. Also, traders were often accused of being dishonest in their prices or weights. At the other end of the scale, the most serious crimes were acts of violence, treason (because that went against the feudal system) and witchcraft (because that went against the Church).

manor court a court of law overseen by the lord of a particular area treason the crime of doing something that harms your country, especially by helping its enemies witchcraft the practice of magic, especially for what was considered evil purposes

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Chapter 2: How did the medieval period change Europe?

Concepts and skills builder 2.8

…

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Claim, support, question

Source 2.8.2 Two knights agree to follow the rules of a trial by combat, France, 15th century. Whoever won would

be found not guilty.

1 2 3 4

Who participated in a trial by combat? Make a claim about how fair trial by combat was. List reasons and provide evidence to support your claim. Propose at least three questions that you could ask, to think differently about your claim.

Historical concepts and skills: historical questions, using historical sources

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Cambridge Investigating Humanities for the Victorian Curriculum 8

Punishments punishment, or even have one hand cut off. If you failed to attend church on a Sunday, you could be whipped. If you cheated a customer or a neighbour, you might be humiliated by being tied up in the centre of town.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Illegal acts were punished. The guilty were often punished in public, for example in the central square of a village, to deter other people from committing such a crime. If you were found guilty of theft, you might be given extra work, physical

…

Source 2.8.3 A 13th-century picture from France of a village punishment. What might have been the purpose of placing a criminal in the ‘pillory’, where neighbours could throw stones at them?

Serious crimes, such as treason against the monarchy, were punished severely. The accused was sometimes hanged upside down, cut open while still alive, and then had all four limbs torn off. Those accused of witchcraft were asked to repent their sins and accept the

teachings of Christianity. If they did not repent, they were sometimes tied in a sack and thrown into a river, or tied to a wooden pole above a log fire and burned alive. Many women were falsely accused of being witches and suffered during this time.

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Chapter 2: How did the medieval period change Europe?

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES …

Go online to access the interactive lesson review and more!

Source 2.8.4 Three women accused of witchcraft are burned to death in a marketplace in Germany

Lesson 2.8 review Online quiz

Review questions

DOC

Research task

Teachers can assign tasks and track results

2.8 Review questions 1 2 3 4

Explain how arrangements for law and order worked until the 12th century. Identify three forms of trial by ordeal, and how they worked. Explain why medieval punishments were often done in a public space. Explain the typical punishments for a minor crime such as theft.

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Cambridge Investigating Humanities for the Victorian Curriculum 8

2.9

How did the technology of warfare develop over time?

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Learning intention

Having learned about medieval social roles and laws, in this lesson, you will consider the technology of warfare.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

Parts, purposes, complexities

Look closely at the castle in Source 2.9.1.

…

Source 2.9.1 The ruins of Bodium Castle in England, built in the 15th century

1 Parts: What are its pieces or components? 2 Purposes: What do you think each of these parts does? 3 Complexities: How is it complicated?

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Chapter 2: How did the medieval period change Europe?

Defence Stone castles In the 12th and 13th centuries, stone replaced wood in castle construction. Stone castles took much longer to build, but they were stronger than the earlier models. Palisades were Wooden fort

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Castles became a dominant feature of the medieval landscape between 1000 and 1500 ce (Source 2.9.2). Kings and members of the nobility built them to defend their lands. Castles were built for three main purposes: as a base from which the nobleman and his soldiers could manage the lands and villages of his fief, as a strong-walled place of refuge during an attack, and as a family home for the nobleman. Also, a grand castle displayed the wealth and power of the family who owned it.

Motte

The first castles

Gateway

The first castles were made of earth and wood. In the 10th and 11th centuries, the main form of Great hall castle was motte and bailey. This was the style of castle that William the Conqueror and his Normans built across England. The motte was a huge mound of soil, on top of which sat a wooden keep, or tower. A lower section inside a tall palisade (wooden fence), known as the bailey, was for soldiers, their Drawbridge families, and animals. If the castle was under attack, the attackers first had to cross a moat filled with water, then break down the palisade of the bailey, and if they made it that far, chase the defenders up Outer bailey the motte and over an upper palisade. Wooden castles could be built quickly, but they were easily burned down.

Motte and bailey

Bailey

Keep

Moat

Stone keep

Towers

Inner bailey

Outer gate

Drum tower Inner wall Outer wall Gatehouse

Concentric …

Source 2.9.2 Three types of medieval castle. What layers of defence did each type of castle use to create a safe inner zone (bailey)?

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Cambridge Investigating Humanities for the Victorian Curriculum 8

replaced by tall stone curtain walls, and the keep was often a multi-storey stone tower. The lord and family lived on the upper floors, their soldiers and servants below, and food and supplies were stored underground. Defenders could fire arrows at attackers through narrow slit windows known as loopholes.

The age of castles was brought to an end in the 16th century, when attacking armies developed powerful cannons that used gunpowder to fire heavy cannon balls, big enough to smash holes in stone walls.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

From the 14th century, stone castles were being built larger and stronger.

They sometimes had multiple layers of curtain walls, arranged in concentric patterns. The inner wall was higher than the outer wall, so the inner bailey was very well protected.

Attack

When armies attacked, they used both handheld weapons and larger technology that took several soldiers to operate. Archers firing arrows with longbows could cover long distances, and the weapons could be quickly reloaded. A later development was the crossbow, which was more powerful and could pierce armour, but took a long time to reload. When the lines of soldiers were close together, various weapons were used in hand-to-hand combat. Spears could be carried by foot soldiers and knights mounted on horses. Longswords were used to thrust at enemies, daggers to stab, and battle axes to slice.

As castles became stronger, so too did the weapons that were used against them. An attacking army surrounded the castle, and laid siege to it. Their goal was to place maximum pressure on the defenders, and possibly starve them out. Large siege weapons were used to break down the castle defences. These were versions of siege weapons that had been used since ancient times. A belfry was a platform on wheels, which allowed invaders to enter over the top of castle walls. A trebuchet was a giant catapult, which several soldiers wound back, to fire heavy rocks at the walls (Source 2.9.3). Eventually, cannons fired by gunpowder were developed, which gave the attacking side a real advantage.

siege when enemy forces surround a town or castle and cut off its supplies to try to force a surrender

…

Source 2.9.3 A drawing of a French trebuchet, a weapon used in castle sieges in the 13th century

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Chapter 2: How did the medieval period change Europe?

Concepts and skills builder 2.9 Researching medieval combat techniques for attack and defence Imagine you work for a wealthy nobleman. The queen has given a large fief to your nobleman to manage. The nobleman has questions. How can he defend his people and lands, when nearby enemies are developing new forms of attack? You need to present ideas to him about what he should build and buy. In pairs, research two topics each and report back.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

A good starting place for your research is with the information at http://cambridge.edu.au/redirect/#### about medieval weapons. Topic 1 Castle

a What sort of castle should I build? b How would it work to strengthen our defences, and what attacks might it face? The development of castles Siege weapons

…

Source 2.9.4 Dover castle under siege in 1216

Source 2.9.5 A French siege tower at Dover

Topic 2 Soldiers

a What sort of equipment should I buy for my knights? b How would it work to strengthen their defences, and what attacks might they face? A knight’s amour The English longbow

…

Source 2.9.6 A knight in armour

Source 2.9.7 A longbow, c.1500 ce

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Cambridge Investigating Humanities for the Victorian Curriculum 8

Topic 3 Weaponry

Source 2.9.8 A 14th-century crossbow

…

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

a What sort of weapons should I buy for my knights? b How would it work to strengthen their defences, and what new technology might they face? The crossbow Gunpowder cannons

Source 2.9.9 A 14th-century cannon

Historical concepts and skills: communicating, historical significance

Lesson 2.9 review Online quiz

Review questions

DOC

Research task

Go online to access the interactive lesson review and more!

Teachers can assign tasks and track results

2.9 Review questions 1 2 3 4

Describe why kings and nobles built castles. Explain the advantages and disadvantages of three different forms of castle. Explain the purpose of two different forms of handheld weapons. Explain the purpose of two different forms of siege weapons.

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Chapter 2: How did the medieval period change Europe?

2.10

How did the Black Death affect medieval Europe?

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Learning intention

In this lesson, you will return to where the chapter started. Deadlier than any weapon or technology, the Black Death swept through Europe, killing millions in its path.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

Think, puzzle, explore

Buried with my own hands five of my children in a single grave. Many corpses were buried so superficially that the dogs dug them up and devoured them. No bells. No tears. This is the end of the world.

…

Source 2.10.1 Eyewitness Agniolo di Tura, from Siena, Italy, quoted in Daniel Cohen, The Black Death 1347–1351, 1974, p. 33

1 Think: What do you think you know about the Black Death? 2 Puzzle: What questions or puzzles do you have about the Black Death? 3 Explore: How might you explore your puzzles about the Black Death?

image to come

…

Source 2.10.2 People dig graves for victims of the Black Death pandemic in Tournai, Belgium, c.1350. This source

was also shown in Lesson 2.1.1. How has your understanding of the Black Death changed since then?

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Cambridge Investigating Humanities for the Victorian Curriculum 8

Confusion and blame wells. Despite the lack of any evidence, in the German city of Strasbourg in 1349, approximately 2000 Jewish people were burned on a platform in the city cemetery. When the pandemic was at its worst, people lived in a state of shock. The Black Death caused chaos across Europe. Religion played a vital role in medieval life, so when the Black Death struck it made many people question the will of God. Why had they been abandoned? What had they done wrong to deserve this? The lower clergy were dying in large numbers because they tended to the sick, and the wealthy clergy had mostly fled to a safe distance. Some people decided to create their own strange religious practices, marching through the streets and whipping (flagellating) themselves to beg God to take pity on humanity (Source 2.10.3).

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

People who saw the Black Death pandemic tear through the cities of Italy in 1348 and across Europe saw their world fall apart. However, eyewitnesses like Agniolo di Tura and Giovanni Boccaccio, who you read about at the start of the chapter, didn’t know what really caused the plague. With modern science, we know that the Black Death was spread by tiny bacteria called Yersinia pestis, carried by fleas that lived on rats, that could also pass from person to person through their breath. At the time, people developed their own theories. One theory was that people were being killed by traitors who were poisoning their water supply. Another was that God was punishing people for their sins. Some people blamed non-Christian religious minorities for deliberately spreading the Black Death, by poisoning

…

Source 2.10.3 Medieval illustration of flagellants, people who whipped themselves to show God they were sorry for what people had done. They believed that God had sent the plague as a punishment.

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Chapter 2: How did the medieval period change Europe?

Concepts and skills builder 2.10 Mapping a historical event Create a map to show how the Black Death spread.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

1 Start with the map template in the Interactive Textbook, and mark the following medieval trade routes: a the Silk Road b Rhine, Danube, Po and Seine rivers c the Atlantic, Black and Mediterranean seas 2 Annotate your map with arrows and details from the following timeline, to map the pandemic’s path. When 1346 (autumn) 1347 (spring) 1348 (autumn) 1348 (autumn) 1348 (late autumn) 1348 (summer) 1348 (autumn) 1348 (autumn) 1349 (spring) 1349 (July) 1349 (summer) 1350 (spring) 1353 (late autumn)

Where the plague spread Along the Silk Road routes to Kaffa with Mongol soldiers The port of Messina, Sicily, southern Italy The southern French port of Marseilles The Spanish port of Coruna, probably carried on a ship from France Normandy in northern France Two major ports in England: Weymouth in the south and Bristol in the west London, England Oslo, Norway Wales and the north of England Southern Germany Denmark and Sweden Northern Germany Moscow, Russia

3 When you have finished your map, go to http://cambridge.edu.au/redirect/#### to watch a parody song about the plague, ‘Fleas on Rats’. How many of the places on your map does it mention? Historical concepts and skills: causes and consequences

Fear

The following sources show some ways in which the Black Death made people scared and suspicious.

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Cambridge Investigating Humanities for the Victorian Curriculum 8

‘When it took hold in a house, it often happened that no-one remained who had not died. And it was not just that men and women died, but even sentient animals died. Dogs, cats, chickens, oxen, donkeys, and sheep showed the same symptoms and died of the same disease.’

‘They kept guards in the cities and villages, and permitted the entry of no-one who was not well known. And if powders or unguents were found on anyone the owners, for fear that they were poisons, were forced to swallow them.’ …

Source 2.10.4 French physician Guy De Chauliac, 1348

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

…

Source 2.10.5 Marchione di Coppo Stefani, Florence, Italy, 1348

‘This horrific disease does not just kill the sinful, it kills the innocent too. If this is the work of God, then he is indiscriminate in his judgements.’ …

Source 2.10.7 Historian Ian Mortimer, A Time Traveller’s Guide to Medieval England, 2008

…

Source 2.10.6 The Sedlec Ossuary Church in Czechia, constructed using the bones of 40 000 plague victims

Source 2.10.8 Henry Knighton, an Augustinian priest at St. Mary’s of Leicester, England, 1348

Source 2.10.9 Khaldun of Tunis, an Islamic historian and philosopher, north Africa, 1348

…

‘Civilisation decreased with the decrease of mankind. Cities and buildings were laid waste, roads and way signs were obliterated, settlements and mansions became empty, dynasties and tribes grew weak. The entire inhabited world changed.’

…

‘The Scots heard that the plague was killing their enemy, the English. They felt God was punishing England. So they gathered in the forest of Selkirk, near the border, planning to invade England. However, the monstrous plague suddenly came upon them and within a short space of time around 5000 died.’

Lesson 2.10 review Online quiz

Review questions

DOC

Research task

Go online to access the interactive lesson review and more!

Teachers can assign tasks and track results

2.10 Review questions

1 Summarise when and where the Black Death spread, in two sentences. 2 Identify two ways that Christians responded to the plague. 3 Explain how people’s attitudes to life in cities and towns changed because of the plague, using sources from this lesson as evidence. 4 Analyse how the pandemic spread fear as well as disease, using sources from this lesson.

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Chapter 2: How did the medieval period change Europe?

2.11

What changed because of the Black Death?

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Learning intention

Having learned about how the Black Death spread and how confused and scared people were, in this lesson you will learn how Europe changed because of the Black Death.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

See, think, wonder

Look closely at Source 2.11.1.

…

Source 2.11.1 A group of rebellious peasants kill a knight during one of the ‘peasant rebellions’ that broke out after the Black Death, in this case in Wurttemberg, Germany

1 See: What do you see? 2 Think: What does it make you think? 3 Wonder: What do you wonder?

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Cambridge Investigating Humanities for the Victorian Curriculum 8

Disruption The peasants’ demands for better working conditions created a crisis in the feudal system. People who had spent their lives respecting and obeying those ‘above’ them were now challenging their authority. In 1351, lords of grand English estates were so concerned about the demands for higher wages that King Edward III issued a law called the Statute of Labourers (Source 2.11.2). The law was designed to put things back the way they were before the Black Death, and set a maximum wage. It was not completely successful.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

The Black Death caused a catastrophic disruption to medieval society. People questioned how things were. Peasants were dying by the millions, so there were few workers left to farm the land and pay tax. Lords and knights found that their manors and estates were left to go to ruin, as peasants dropped dead in the fields. For centuries under the feudal system, landowners could rely on peasants to work their lands, in return for food, protection and shelter. Now, would that continue, if there were so few workers available? Those who were lucky to be left alive after the pandemic faced a different world. For some of them, the eventual consequences of the plague were positive. In villages, where one-third of the peasants had died, the surviving two-thirds were able to become a little more comfortably. They took over the abandoned plots of land and houses. On manor estates, where one-third of the peasants were no longer available to work, the surviving two-thirds realised how much the nobility needed them. Some even questioned whether they should remain loyal and obedient to their feudal lord. They could demand more pay, better housing and freedom of movement. If their lord refused to make changes, the lord of a nearby estate might give them work and provide better conditions.

In 1381, a huge rebellion happened across England. Peasants and artisans were still angry about the Statute of Labourers. Now, they were even angrier about the introduction of a new payment, called a poll tax, that everyone across the country – even the poorest – would have to pay to the king.

They started a Peasants’ Revolt, and their leader Wat Tyler brought thousands of armed peasants to London. The mob took over major buildings, including palaces, the Tower of London and London Bridge. This would have been unthinkable before the Black Death. After the rebels killed two of the king’s most senior men, the king agreed to meet them, and to make changes to the tax. The rebellion ended after the Mayor of London murdered Wat Tyler during a meeting with the king.

Because a great part of the people and especially of the workmen and servants has now died in [the plague], some … are not willing to serve unless they receive excessive wages … We, considering the grave inconveniences which might come from the lack especially of ploughmen and such labourers, [declare that workers] shall take only the wages … which [they were paid before the Black Death].

…

Source 2.11.2 Excerpt of Edward III’s Statute of Labourers, 1351

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Chapter 2: How did the medieval period change Europe?

Concepts and skills builder 2.11

…

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Claim, support, question

Source 2.11.3 King Richard II travels by boat to meet the leaders of the Peasants’ Revolt in 1381.

1 Make a claim to say what Source 2.11.3 shows about who had power during the Peasants’ Revolt. 2 List reasons and evidence you can provide to support your claim. 3 Propose at least three questions that you could ask, to think differently about your claim. Historical concepts and skills: historical questions, using historical sources

New life after death After the Black Death, millions had died. The work of peasants was valued more, and people started to challenge the thinking behind the feudal system. However, the Church and the privileged classes – kings, queens and nobility –

still held enormous riches and power. Therefore, Europe did not change immediately. The cracks that had begun to form in feudal society would lead to greater change in a gradual way.

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Cambridge Investigating Humanities for the Victorian Curriculum 8

they were rich or claimed to be above everyone else. Artists showed this idea by making skeletons and death a feature of their works (Sources 2.11.4 and 2.11.5).

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

The Black Death had made people question the world around them. The pandemic suggested that death was more powerful than anyone, even if

…

Source 2.11.4 Dance of Death, an illustration from 1493. What might be the message of showing Death making everyone dance into their graves?

… Source 2.11.5 The

Triumph of Death, a painting from 1562. What might be the message of showing an army of skeletons attacking everyone, from kings to the poor? Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Chapter 2: How did the medieval period change Europe?

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES …

Source 2.11.6 In Siena, Italy, work on the town’s cathedral paused during the Black Death, when 50 per cent of the population died. The building has never been finished, and stands as a reminder of the power of death.

The decline in population meant people were able to rise out of their position in the feudal pyramid. Peasants could become skilled craftsmen and craftsmen could become wealthy merchants. Already, wealthy merchants could buy their way into nobility.

Eventually, then, the Black Death was partly responsible for inspiring a revival of

Source 2.11.7 The Medici family was so wealthy that they commissioned painters to recreate scenes from over a thousand years before from the Bible, with themselves pictured in the scenes. Here, the Virgin Mary holds the child Jesus, sitting with the brothers Lorenzo and Giuliano de Medici.

…

One such family of wealthy merchants was the Medici family of Italy. They had made their fortune as traders from the countryside and moved to Florence soon after the Black Death died out. Involving themselves in finance, politics, trade and art, the Medici family became one of the most powerful and wealthy families in Europe. Four of them went on to be pope and two were queens of France. Most famously, the Medici family promoted culture, by being patrons of great artists, including Michelangelo, Botticelli and Leonardo da Vinci.

learning and culture. This period of revival, when there was a surge of energy in the arts and sciences, was known by the French term Renaissance, meaning ‘rebirth’.

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Cambridge Investigating Humanities for the Victorian Curriculum 8

Lesson 2.11 review Online quiz

Review questions

DOC

Research task

Go online to access the interactive lesson review and more!

Teachers can assign tasks and track results

2.11 Review questions Identify two events in the 14th century that showed how the feudal system was disrupted by the Black Death. Explain why, because of the Black Death, some people had better lives. Explain how art changed due to the Black Death. Explain how the Black Death led to the Renaissance, by completing the following sentences: a The Black Death had a terrible impact on Europe, because … b The Black Death had a terrible impact on Europe, but … c The Black Death had a terrible impact on Europe, so …

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

1 2 3 4

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Chapter 2: How did the medieval period change Europe?

2.12

End of investigation review: How did the medieval period change Europe?

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Access the Interactive Textbook for a range of digital tools to help you review this topic, including:

• Chapter summary • Auto-marked chapter test • Scorcher timed competitive quiz.

Brain dump

What have you learned about medieval Europe? Copy and complete the table to explain your understanding. Aim for two points per topic.

Topic The fall of the Western Roman Empire William the Conqueror The feudal system Knights Peasants Crime and punishment Castles The Black Death

What I have learned

Making thinking visible

This exercise in visible thinking asks you to track what you knew about medieval Europe before this topic and what you know now. Using the sentence stems provided, write about what you thought before and what you now understand. 1

a I used to think that kings … b Now I think that kings …

a I used to think that medieval times were …

a A simple explanation is that medieval lives were … b A better explanation is that medieval lives were …

b Now I think that medieval times were …

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Cambridge Investigating Humanities for the Victorian Curriculum 8

Practice questions 1

Match each cause on the left with its consequence on the right.

Consequences The Viking Age ended Knights’ activities were kept within limits Feudalism was introduced to England and elsewhere The ‘Dark Ages’ began The pope banned unjust forms of trial A rebirth of science and learning began People relied on herbalists when they fell ill Lords and knights were given fiefs to manage

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Causes The Western Roman Empire fell Saxons won the Battle of Stamford Bridge William of Normandy invaded England The king wanted to reward his most loyal nobles The code of chivalry was introduced Medical knowledge was limited Trial by ordeal was judged to be unfair Bubonic plague was spread by fleas on rats on trading ships The Black Death pandemic ended

One-third of the population of Europe died

Select two pairs of causes and consequences that you have found the most interesting to learn about, and explain why you chose them.

Analyse the artefact shown in Source 2.12.1 as a historical source, using the questions below.

…

Source 2.12.1 Visitors listen to audio guides as they look at a 950-year-old artefact at the Bayeux Museum, France.

a What event in medieval history does the artefact relate to? b Why was the event significant? c What was the purpose of the item? d What does the artefact show us about people’s values at the time? Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Chapter 2: How did the medieval period change Europe?

Imagine your family is going to travel in a time machine to a medieval village, in the late 1340s. You will enjoy two home stays: a few days at the manor of a wealthy family and a few days at the house of a farming family. Your task is to write a guide for your family members about what they should look forward to, and what they

should be careful about. Outline this under the following headings: • Accommodation • Manners • Law and order • Beliefs and customs • Health and dangers.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Response to chapter inquiry question: How did the world change from 600 ce to 1750 ce?

Write a paragraph in response to the inquiry question. Include the following key terms: • medieval

• Anglo-Saxons • Normans

• feudalism • nobility • knight • clergy

• peasant

• Black Death.

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Cambridge Investigating Humanities for the Victorian Curriculum 8

CHAPTER 3

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

How did the Ottoman Empire change Europe and the Mediterranean world? Low-res

LESSON TITLE

3.1

Setting the scene: What is left after an earthquake?

3.2

What were the key events in the Ottoman Empire?

3.3

How did the Ottoman Empire expand?

3.4

What did the Ottoman Empire achieve?

3.5

What was life like in the Ottoman Empire?

3.6

What were the perspectives of subject peoples?

3.7

What made Suleiman the Magnificent a significant individual?

3.8

What were the significant challenges to Ottoman authority?

3.9

End of investigation review: How did the Ottoman Empire change Europe and the Mediterranean world?

This digital chapter can be accessed via Cambridge GO

Image: Suleiman the Magnificent, painted c.1530

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

CHAPTER 4

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

How did Renaissance Italy change Europe and the Mediterranean world? Low-res

LESSON TITLE

4.1

Setting the scene: How can a famous painting give us a window into Renaissance Italy?

4.2

What were the key events in Renaissance Italy?

4.3

What was the Renaissance?

4.4

How did the Renaissance spread?

4.5

What was the significance of Renaissance science and technology?

4.6

What was the significance of Renaissance art?

4.7

What was the nature of power and authority in Renaissance Italy?

4.8

Why was Michelangelo a significant individual?

4.9

Why was Lucrezia Borgia a significant individual?

4.10

What do historians say about the Renaissance in Italy?

4.11

End of investigation review: How did Renaissance Italy change Europe and the Mediterranean world?

Image: Primavera (Italian for ‘spring’), c.1482, painted in Florence by Sandro Botticelli, who was paid by rich patrons (or customers). It shows nine mythological characters. In the centre stands Venus, the ancient Roman goddess of love, beauty, fertility and victory.

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

4.1

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Setting the scene: How can a famous painting give us a window into Renaissance Italy? Learning intention

In this lesson, you will investigate a single painting from the time we are studying, and ask how we can use a painting as a window into the ideas of the people of the past.

A ‘rebirth’ of great thoughts

If we look closely at the fresco in Source 4.1.1, painted on the wall of the library of the leader of the Catholic Church

in Vatican City, Rome, over 500 years ago, it is like we are looking through a window into the Renaissance.

fresco a water colour painting done on fresh wet plaster on a wall or ceiling (from the Italian word for ‘fresh’) Renaissance the period of revival of art, literature and science in Europe in the 14th to 16th centuries; a French word for ‘rebirth’

…

Source 4.1.1 The School of Athens, painted in the pope’s library in Rome by Italian artist Raphael, in 1509–1511

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Chapter 4: How did Renaissance Italy change Europe and the Mediterranean world?

In the centre, they would recognise Plato and Aristotle. the founders of philosophy (the study of human knowledge), and they would notice that the man on the left having a debate represents the philosopher, Socrates. They would know that the field of mathematics is shown by Pythagoras, writing in a book, and Euclid, using a compass. They could tell that Ptolemy, a founder of astronomy (the study of the planets and stars) is the man holding the globe.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

The huge painting is on a flat wall, but it is as though we are looking into a grand marble hall, or school. The school shown is not in Italy in the 16th century, but is from the height of the civilisation of ancient Greece, some 2000 years earlier. People who admired the painting at the time it was painted would have recognised the ancient Greeks whose portraits fill the scene, because they studied them with a passion. They believed that their own age was a ‘rebirth’ of the love of learning, culture and inventing that the great ancient thinkers represented.

A revival of art

patron a person who gives financial or other support; a sponsor

Italian artists were commissioned by wealthy and powerful patrons during the Renaissance to paint and sculpt scenes showing nature, beauty, religious beliefs and ancient philosophy. The patron of Raphael (Raffaello Sanzio da Urbino) was Pope Julius II. At the time, the pope was not just the spiritual leader of the Catholic Church, but also the powerful warrior leader of the Papal States. Julius named himself after the great military leader of ancient Rome, Julius Ceasar. The pope brought Raphael from his hometown of Urbino to live and paint in Rome, when the artist was 26 years old.

Painting a fresco was a challenge. Every day, the artist had to prepare a small patch of wet plaster and then in just a few hours, before the plaster dried, paint it to match perfectly the colours and scenes around it. When dry, the paint and plaster merged to form a permanent, hard surface. Raphael and his assistants took over two years to finish the room with The School of Athens. His group painted another three beautiful rooms, which weren’t finished until after Raphael had died, in 1524! Sometimes painters hid portraits of themselves and their friends in their works. Raphael hid a portrait of himself,

…

Source 4.1.2 Raphael’s hometown of Urbino, showing the Palazzo Ducale, built around the time of Raphael’s birth

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Cambridge Investigating Humanities for the Victorian Curriculum 8

Michelangelo Buonarroti. At the time, Michelangelo was being paid by the pope to paint frescoes on the walls and ceilings of the Sistine Chapel, just a staircase away from where Raphael was working.

…

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

wearing a dark painter’s beret, standing with a group to the right of his fresco. The philosopher in the foreground of the painting, moodily writing in a notebook, looks suspiciously like his fellow painter

Source 4.1.3 The creation of Adam, painted by Michelangelo on the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel, 1508–1512

Lesson 4.1 review Online quiz

Review questions

DOC

Research task

Go online to access the interactive lesson review and more!

Teachers can assign tasks and track results

4.1 Review questions 1 2 3 4

Explain what ‘Renaissance’ means. Explain why people at the time believed they were living during a Renaissance. What does Raphael’s fresco show about his life and times? What kinds of questions do you now have about Renaissance Italy? Make a list.

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Chapter 4: How did Renaissance Italy change Europe and the Mediterranean world?

4.2

What were the key events in Renaissance Italy?

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Learning intention Last lesson looked at the importance of art in the Renaissance. In this lesson, you will look at the significant events that took place during the Italian Renaissance.

Lesson Starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

Brainstorm

Look at the images and captions in this timeline.

…

1 Which of the artists and artworks have you heard of? What do you know about them? 2 Brainstorm with the class to answer this question: why are they famous?

Source 4.2.2 Dante, author of

The Divine Comedy

1434

The powerful Medici family controls politics in Florence

Humanist scholar Marsilio Ficino publishes his corrected edition of Plato’s works translated into Latin

1400

…

The scholar Leonardo Bruni is chancellor of Florence, showing how ‘civic humanism’ can help rule in city

1483

Source 4.2.1 Members of the

Medici family

1420–36 Brunelleschi builds the dome of Florence Cathedral …

Source 4.2.3 Botticelli’s

Venus, 1495

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Cambridge Investigating Humanities for the Victorian Curriculum 8

1512 The Medici family returns to rule Florence

Source 4.2.5 The Medici family coat of arms

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

…

Source 4.2.4 Niccolo

Machiavelli

1498–1512

Political theorist Niccolo Machiavelli works for the city of Florence

1508–12

Michelangelo works on the vast paintings of the Sistine Chapel, Rome

…

Source 4.2.6 Leonardo da Vinci’s Mona Lisa, 1503–1506

… Source 4.2.7 The Creation of Adam, a fresco from the Sistine Chapel

Lesson 4.2 review Online quiz

Review questions

DOC

Research task

Go online to access the interactive lesson review and more!

Teachers can assign tasks and track results

4.2 Timeline questions

1 Use the timeline to list some of the significant individuals who lived in Italy. What did these people do? 2 Research and write about one of the significant events shown on the timeline. Describe the causes of this event as well as its consequences.

Question starts

3 Based on what you have read so far, brainstorm a list of questions about Renaissance Italy. You can use some of these question stems to help you: who …?, why …?, when …?, how many …?, what if …? Come back to these questions as you finish each section of the chapter. Which questions can you answer now? Would you update any questions based on your new knowledge?

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Chapter 4: How did Renaissance Italy change Europe and the Mediterranean world?

4.3

What was the Renaissance? Learning intention

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

In this lesson, you will learn about the meaning of the historical term ‘Renaissance’ and the Italian city-states where it emerged.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

See, think, wonder Look at Source 4.3.1.

…

Source 4.3.1 A parade before the traditional bareback horse race, which is still held twice a year in the Piazza del Campo, the central square of the city of Siena. The square dates back to the late 1340s, after the Black Death had finished.

1 See: What do you see? How does Siena combine the past and the present? 2 Think: What does it make you think? 3 Wonder: What does it make you wonder?

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Cambridge Investigating Humanities for the Victorian Curriculum 8

Rebirth • The 4th to 14th centuries were seen as the ‘Dark Ages’, or a ‘middle’ age, when learning declined. In Western Europe, the languages of Greek and Latin were forgotten, ancient books were neglected, and fewer grand cities and structures were built. • The third age, from the mid-14th century onwards in Italy, saw a ‘rebirth’ or ‘re-awakening’ of culture, when people in Western Europe rediscovered the great books of ancient Greece and Rome. Inspired by them, they created their own literary works, buildings and artworks. People who lived at this time, such as the artist, architect and historian Giorgio Vasari, used the Italian word rinàscita (rebirth) to describe what they saw as a revival of learning.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

In 1347, trading ships brought the Black Death – a plague pandemic – to Venice, and devastation quickly spread through the Italian city-states. Perhaps half of the population of Italy died. After the awful consequences of the Black Death, survivors invested new energy into the ‘rebirth’ of their communities and their culture. From this time until around 1550, there was an explosion of creativity across Renaissance Italy. People of the Renaissance looked at their own times as the third, and greatest, age in human history: • The first age was the glorious age of ancient Greece and Rome, with their great achievements in thinking, science, literature and the visual arts.

…

Source 4.3.2 Sandro Botticelli’s Birth of Venus (c.1495, Florence) depicts the ancient Roman goddess of beauty and love. What does this show about the interests of Renaissance artists?

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Chapter 4: How did Renaissance Italy change Europe and the Mediterranean world?

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES …

Source 4.3.3 A sketch of human anatomy in the notebook of Leonardo da Vinci (1452–1517), who was regarded as one of the greatest ‘Renaissance men’.

Concepts and skills builder 4.3

Understanding perspectives

Read Sources 4.3.4 and 4.3.6 closely.

Now, indeed, may every thoughtful [person] thank God that it has been permitted to him to be born into this new age, so full of hope, which already rejoices in a greater array of nobly-gifted souls than the world has seen in the thousand years that have preceded it.

…

Source 4.3.4 Matteo Palmieri (1406–1475), a

historian and government official in Florence, c.1430, quoted in Libro della vita civile (Heirs of Filippo Giunta), Florence, 1529

…

Source 4.3.5 Portrait sculpture of Matteo Palmieri

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Cambridge Investigating Humanities for the Victorian Curriculum 8

For this century, like a golden age, has restored to light the liberal arts that were almost extinct: grammar, poetry, oratory [fine speaking], painting, sculpture, architecture … and all this in Florence.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

…

Source 4.3.6 Marsilio Ficino, Renaissance scholar (1433–1499) who modernised the writings of ancient Greek philosopher Plato, from a letter he wrote to a friend in 1492

…

Source 4.3.7 Portrait of Marsilio Ficino, the Italian Renaissance philosopher and humanist (artist and date unknown)

1 Identify what Sources 4.3.4 and 4.3.6 claim made Renaissance Italy a special age. 2 Explain the value of primary sources (sources made by someone who lived at the time) such as these to a historian. 3 Explain how Ficino’s argument that the liberal arts were being ‘restored to light’ connects to Renaissance people’s ideas of the three ages of history. 4 Ficino was paid by a patron, the Medici family, who ruled the city-state of Florence and wanted to promote Florence as a place of wealth and culture. Use this information to analyse why there might be limits to the usefulness of his writing to historians.

Historical concepts and skills: causes and consequences, continuity and change, historical signifiance, using historical sources

Great cities

…

Source 4.3.8 The Torre del Mangia, a 102-metre tall tower in Siena, was built in 1338–1348 as the headquarters of the city-state. Why might the survivors of the Black Death have decided to pay for the extra construction of the white chapel at its base in 1350?

The rebirth of learning happened in many places, because Italy was at the time divided into city-states, including Genoa, Florence, Siena, Milan, Naples, Rome and Venice (Source 4.3.9). The city-states competed with each other and regularly fought over land and access to the extensive trade networks that linked Italy with Asia and Europe. People identified themselves by their city, because Italy would not be united as a modern nation until the second half of the 19th century.

city-state an independent city that ruled a territory, as in ancient Rome and Renaissance Italy

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Chapter 4: How did Renaissance Italy change Europe and the Mediterranean world?

Key

Florence Genoa Milan Naples Papal States Venice

Venice Milan

Genoa 2

Pisa

4 Florence

Adriatic Sea

Corsica

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Roma

Naples

Sardinia

Tyrrhenian Sea

Ionian Sea

Mediterranean Sea

Sicily

…

Source 4.3.9 Italian city-states during the Renaissance

…

Source 4.3.10 Florence (Firenze), showing Renaissance-era buildings

200 km

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Cambridge Investigating Humanities for the Victorian Curriculum 8

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES …

Source 4.3.11 Venice (Venezia), showing Renaissance-era buildings

Lesson 4.3 review Online quiz

Review questions

DOC

Research task

Go online to access the interactive lesson review and more!

Teachers can assign tasks and track results

4.3 Review questions

1 Describe how educated people in Renaissance Italy viewed the time in which they lived. 2 Identify what people believed was being ‘reborn’ during the Renaissance. 3 Explain continuities and changes during the Renaissance by completing the following sentences: a The Renaissance is identified as a new period in history, because … b The Renaissance is identified as a new period in history, but … c The Renaissance is identified as a new period in history, therefore …

4 Explain the difference between how Italian people identified themselves during the Renaissance, and now.

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Chapter 4: How did Renaissance Italy change Europe and the Mediterranean world?

4.4

How did the Renaissance spread? Learning intention

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Having learned what ‘Renaissance’ means, in this lesson you will learn about what made it possible for the Renaissance to spread.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

See, think, wonder Look at Source 4.4.1.

…

Source 4.4.1 Trading ships arrive and depart from the busy port of Genoa, north-eastern Italy, depicted in a 16th-century

painting

1 See: What do you see? How is the port designed to help many ships load and unload? 2 Think: What does it make you think? 3 Wonder: What do you wonder?

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Cambridge Investigating Humanities for the Victorian Curriculum 8

Trade Renaissance world. For example, Giovanni Arnolfini was born in the small central Italian city of Lucca, which made woven fabrics. He cleverly moved his family business – trading silks and tapestries – to the enormously wealthy Duchy of Burgundy (in modern Belgium), and made a fortune selling expensive Italian items to the luxury-loving Dukes of Burgundy.

merchant a person or company who buys and sells goods, particularly across international borders

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Italy is in the centre of the Mediterranean world. Merchants sailed far and wide from the Italian city-states to trade goods, and created the wealth to finance the great projects of the Renaissance. To carry on this trade, the merchants came up with new ideas – especially in banking – that allowed them to work on such a large scale.

Amazing but true…

Textiles workers in Genoa made a strong woollen cloth that was often worn by sailors, because it was so tough. At the time, the French word for Genoa was ‘Genes’, which is probably the origin of the modern word ‘jeans’.

The Renaissance was driven by money created by industry and trade. Tough, capable Italian merchants created the first multinational trade of the

To be able to trade around the Mediterranean Sea, Renaissance merchants had to develop more efficient systems of banking and trading. The first ‘bankers’ got their name because they simply set up a bench, a banca, in a public square, and offered to lend people money so that they could launch their business ideas. These simple lending operations rapidly developed into sophisticated businesses. The banks invented letters of exchange, which were notes promising that the bank would pay the holder a certain amount of money

Source 4.4.3 The early 16th-century painting MoneyLender and his Wife, by Dutch painter Quentin Massys, suggests that women were involved in some of the banking operations.

…

Source 4.4.2 A portrait of Giovanni Arnolfini and his wife from 1434, by Jan van Eyck of Flanders. What does the couple’s rich clothing suggest about Italian merchants?

Banking

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Chapter 4: How did Renaissance Italy change Europe and the Mediterranean world?

(like modern bank cheques or paper currency), double-entry bookkeeping to keep track of income and expenditure, and filing cabinets for keeping detailed written information. While multinational companies today use computers to keep these systems, the way they work are the same.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

The enormous Medici family bank in Florence was so profitable that the Medici family became the richest family in Europe by the 15th century. They had offices in Rome, Venice, Naples, Milan, Pisa, Geneva (Switzerland), Lyon and Avignon (France), Bruges (Belgium) and London (Britain). The Medicis ruled Florence for hundreds of years.

…

Source 4.4.4 The Palazzo Vecchio (old palace) in Florence was the headquarters of the Medici family and the seat of Florence’s government until the late 16th century.

Concepts and skills builder 4.4

Analysing a map to understand historical perspectives and interpretations North Sea

TIMBER COPPER FISH

FISH

COAL

ENGLAND

London

Brugeso

Baltic Sea

Antwerp Ghent Brussels

FURS

TIMBER

WHEAT

Lubeck NETHERLANDS

Novgorod

HIDES

Moscow

RUSSIAN EMPIRE

GERMAN STATES

Rouen Paris

SALT

North Atlantic Ocean

FRANCE

WINE

FISH

WOOL

SALT

Barcelona

COPPER Brescia Venice Milan Genoa Bologna Florence Siena Rome

Fez

Tiemcen

TIMBER

Naples WHEAT OIL

SPAIN

Cordova Seville WINE SUGAR OIL Granada

COPPER

Black Sea

Constantinople

Bursa

Palermo

Aleppo

Tunis

Mediterranean Sea

WINE SUGAR

across the Sahara

WHEAT COTTON Cairo

ENSLAVED PEOPLE GOLD IVORY from the Sudan

SILKS SPICES from the Orient

dS Re

ENSLAVED PEOPLE GOLD IVORY from the Sudan

Damascus

1000 km

…

Source 4.4.5 A map of European trading routes in the year 1483 (white = by sea; red = over land)

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Cambridge Investigating Humanities for the Victorian Curriculum 8

Look closely at Source 4.4.5. 1 2 3 4

Identify the cargo traded from Africa (the Sudan) to the Mediterranean region. Explain where Italian merchants sold their goods via land trade routes. Explain why Italy’s geography gave its merchants an advantage in international trade. Analyse which Italian ports seem particularly well placed to link sea and overland trade routes. What facilities do you expect would have been established there to help trade?

Historical concepts and skills: using historical sources

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Patrons and buildings

Remember how Pope Julius II was the patron of Raphael and Michelangelo, who painted vibrant frescoes in the Vatican, Rome? Wealthy merchant and banking families, as well as city governments, also became patrons of the arts, sciences and architecture. Patronage achieved two things at once: it spread the new ideas of the Renaissance, and it enabled powerful people to impress the rest of society and increase the prestige of their family or city.

problem in 1420, by analysing the forgotten techniques used in ancient Rome to build the dome of the Pantheon. He designed a double-skinned dome that supported itself, and by 1436, the grand cathedral towered over the city of Florence.

In a wealthy city-state such as Florence, Rome or Venice, the city government could draw on vast sums of money (from taxes) to pay for grand monuments. Each city competed to build bigger and better, and demonstrate their civic pride.

…

Florence decided in 1296 to build one of the world’s largest churches. The splendid Cathedral of St Mary of the Flowers would have a floor area of over 8300 square metres, and rise more than 110 metres above the city streets. However, the project was so difficult that it took 140 years to finish!

Source 4.4.6 The cathedral dome in Florence was designed to support

itself over an octagonal base.

Source 4.4.7 The interior of the dome is decorated with frescoes based on the Old Testament (the Last Judgement).

…

The embarrassing problem for Florence was that the main body of the cathedral was so large that there was no known way to build the great domed roof that had been planned. Other cities said it could never be done, and a series of Florentine architects agreed and gave up. However, the architect Filippo Brunelleschi finally solved the

civic pride a feeling of being proud of the town or city where you live

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Chapter 4: How did Renaissance Italy change Europe and the Mediterranean world?

guild an association of craftsmen or merchants, which controlled who was allowed to work in their particular trade or profession (e.g. stonemasons, lawyers)

In cities, craftsmen’s guilds built beautiful buildings as headquarters, and supported Renaissance art to promote the prestige of their work. At Florence’s Church of Orsanmichele, each of the city’s 14 guilds was given place for a statue (for example, see Source 4.4.8). Once a place was assigned to a guild, the association needed to uphold its honour by commissioning a fine sculptor to create their statue.

there was also a religious reason. Men who had made fortunes by lending money across the world were terrified that they had committed the sin of greed, and their souls might go to Hell when they died. They hoped that by making an expensive gift to a church, God might forgive them.

Cosimo had helped rule the city of Florence. Now he realised that if he wanted God to be good to him and protect him, he must do some good deeds, or he might lose all of his property. It is possible that he had made his money in ways the Church would not like, I don’t know.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

In Florence, banking families paid for the design of some of the world’s most decorative churches. This increased the prestige of families and supported the development of the fine arts. However,

… The pope told him that he should spend ten thousand florins improving the monastery of Saint Marco. Cosimo spent the ten thousand florins, and then spent 40 000 more florins to further improve it.

…

Source 4.4.9 Vespasiano da Bisticci (1421–1498), Life of Cosimo de Medici

Federico da Montefeltro

Some patrons were individuals. For example, Federico da Montefeltro was a professional soldier, or warlord, who ruled the small city of Urbino as its ‘duke’ from 1444 to 1482. He made a huge fortune through his military career, for example by helping the cities of Naples, Milan and Florence defeat the armies of the pope in 1469. He used his fortune to build a palace in Urbino, where the painter Raphael was born, and to pay the best architects and artists to make the palace very grand and highly decorated (Source 4.4.10).

…

Source 4.4.8 Donatello’s statue of St George, commissioned by the Guild of Armourers and Swordmakers, Florence, 1416. How does the statue promote the work of the guild as well as honour the saint?

Federico’s palace was inspired by the revival of interest in ancient Rome and Greece. He loved reading about ancient civilisations so much that he included an enormous library, which was probably second only to the pope’s library in Rome. The doors and walls of the palace’s study were covered in wooden carvings of scenes from ancient Rome and Greece, the sciences and the arts.

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Cambridge Investigating Humanities for the Victorian Curriculum 8

Ludovico Maria Sforza

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

In the 1490s, the northern city of Milan was also ruled by an individual duke, Ludovico Maria Sforza. The duke became the patron of Leonardo da Vinci, the painter, sculptor and scientist. He commissioned da Vinci to paint the enormous mural of The Last Supper in the dining room of the monks’ convent of St Mary of Grace (Source 4.4.11). It has fascinated viewers ever since.

Source 4.4.11 Leonardo da Vinci’s The Last Supper (1495–1498). How has the artist shown the human side of the final gathering of Jesus and his disciples?

…

Source 4.4.10 This door in the Ducal Palace, Urbino, shows Apollo and Minerva, two ancient Roman gods connected with wisdom and the arts.

Lesson 4.4 review Online quiz

Review questions

DOC

Research task

Go online to access the interactive lesson review and more!

Teachers can assign tasks and track results

4.4 Review questions 1 2 3 4

Describe how banking helped trade to grow in Renaissance Italy. Identify two grand Renaissance buildings, their key features, and who made them possible (that is, were their patrons). Explain three different types of patrons of Renaissance art, and their motives. Analyse how the cathedral in Florence is evidence of both how patronage worked, and how the Renaissance made links with ancient civilisations.

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Chapter 4: How did Renaissance Italy change Europe and the Mediterranean world?

4.5

What was the significance of Renaissance science and technology?

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Learning intention Having learned how the Renaissance spread and developed with the support of patrons, in this lesson you will look at great ideas in science and technology.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

See, think, wonder Look at Source 4.5.1.

…

Source 4.5.1 One of thousands of pages of notes made by Leonardo da Vinci (1452–1519) of his inventions and observations of the natural world – in this case, an intricate study of the flight of birds

1 See: What do you see? 2 Think: What does it make you think? 3 Wonder: What do you wonder?

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

100

Cambridge Investigating Humanities for the Victorian Curriculum 8

During the Renaissance, scientific thinking and technologies took a massive leap forward. In some cases, the scientific breakthroughs were made by the same people who were leading artists, such as Leonardo da Vinci. If you visited da Vinci’s studio, you might find him painting portraits, or dissecting dead bodies

to learn about human anatomy, using mathematical and geometric formulas to study the planets, or sketching military inventions such as giant crossbows, submarines or helicopters. Some of scientific developments during the Renaissance helped to lay the foundations for our modern life.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Incredible inventions We know that Renaissance inventors developed a fascinating range of new technologies, because their notebooks are now in museums.

Mariano Taccola (1382–1453) lived in Siena and was one of the first Renaissance inventors. Taccola wrote two books about technology – Concerning Engines and Concerning Machines. He studied ancient Greek and Roman engineering, and made technical drawings for machines that did not yet exist, such as a piston pump to raise water, a

trebuchet to fire heavy stones at enemies, and a paddle boat. His work was an example of imaginative engineering, which inspired other inventors, and centuries later made it possible to create the machines and factories of the Industrial Revolution.

technology the use of science and tools to create things that help people solve problems or make life easier

The great thinkers and inventors of the Renaissance wrote thousands of pages of notes on their observations of the natural world and their ideas for solving human challenges.

Low-res

…

Source 4.5.3 Two pages of da Vinci’s notes. On the left are designs for a drilling screw and a spiral staircase; on the right are plans for a circular fortified tower to be built on the ocean. How could you use this as evidence that Renaissance scientists worked on many ideas at once?

…

Source 4.5.2 Illustration by Mariano Taccola, 15th century. Taccola’s drawing is of a machine to lift heavy stones, which eventually developed into a bigger and better machine that was used to lift materials for building the great dome of the cathedral in Florence

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Chapter 4: How did Renaissance Italy change Europe and the Mediterranean world?

101

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES …

Source 4.5.4 A museum model of Leonardo da Vinci’s plan for a military tank, which could fit four soldiers and close like a turtle’s shell to allow them to fire at enemies

…

Source 4.5.5 A machine with cylinders and pistons for raising water, designed by the Italian military engineer Agostino Ramelli, 1588

Concepts and skills builder 4.5

Analysing causes and consequences

…

Source 4.5.6 A modern model of da Vinci’s design for a flying machine made from wood and silk, in a museum. Da Vinci studied many birds, to analyse the role of flapping wings in achieving thrust, lift and flight. He said, ‘The bird is an instrument which functions according to mathematical laws, and man is capable of making such an instrument with all these movements.’

1 Identify the inventor of the apparatus in Source 4.5.6. What skills did he have that made this design possible? 2 Explain how the design appears to use the human operator’s arms and legs. Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

102

Cambridge Investigating Humanities for the Victorian Curriculum 8

3 Explain how this model shows that Renaissance scientists made links between what they observed in the natural world and how they tried to solve human problems. 4 Despite many attempts, no one has yet achieved flight using da Vinci’s ‘ornithopter’ design, because the human body is too heavy for the wings. Consider what this shows, by completing the following sentences: a Da Vinci’s flying machine failed, because … b Da Vinci’s flying machine failed, but … c Da Vinci’s flying machine failed, therefore …

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Historical concepts and skills: causes and consequences, using historical sources

The printing press

Source 4.5.7 A memorial to Johannes Gutenberg and his printing press

…

During the Renaissance printed books became available, making new ideas more widely available. Before the Renaissance, books were copied by hand, by monks in monasteries or artists in special workshops. Because every word had to be copied by hand, production was slow, and books were expensive and rare. All this changed when a German goldsmith, Johannes Gutenberg (1398–1468), invented a printing press in 1440 ce, which used a movable type machine to stamp letters on paper. The first printing press in Europe to be set up outside of Gutenberg’s homeland was in Italy, at

a monastery at Subiaco, east of Rome. By 1500 ce, there were printing presses in some 200 European cities, capable of producing 200 million books per year.

Controversial curiosity

The scientific thinking of Leonardo da Vinci and other ‘Renaissance men’ happened because they were free to study the world. Such people were endlessly curious about how the universe worked, from the human body to the solar system. Women did not enjoy the same opportunities, because they were still limited to traditional roles. Free thinking could be dangerous for Renaissance men, because their society had been taught for centuries to look to the Christian Bible as the main source of knowledge, and few people had dared to question it. The Renaissance movement known as humanism, which

was inspired by the human achievements of ancient Greece and Rome, questioned everything. Humanists believed that the human mind could, through curiosity and innovation, explain the mysteries of the world, rather than leaving it to ‘God’s plan’. Some humanists were persecuted for committing the sin of heresy, but ultimately, their advances in knowledge were accepted.

Astronomy One form of curiosity was about the universe. Polish-born astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus studied at universities in the Italian cities of Bologna, Rome and

Renaissance man a cultured man who is talented in many fields, such as science, art, engineering and languages

humanism the belief that humans are at the centre of their own universe and can achieve their potential through education, arts and sciences heresy beliefs that contradict those of the mainstream Christian Church

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Chapter 4: How did Renaissance Italy change Europe and the Mediterranean world?

103

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES …

Source 4.5.8 An artist’s depiction of Galileo Galilei demonstrating his telescope to the Doge and other officials

in Venice, 1609. How could this be used as evidence that scientists tried to prove their discoveries to powerful people?

Padua. He made many observations and calculations about stars and planets. However, to avoid controversy, Copernicus waited until he was an old man before he published his theory: he said that Earth and other planets orbited around the sun. This contradicted centuries of belief that the Earth was the centre of the universe.

Copernicus’s theory was further developed in Florence by Galileo Galilei, who found supporting evidence using new technology, including the telescope. Galileo faced a series of Church inquiries, which expressed concern that he was wrongly trying to challenge the idea of God’s plan, and he was arrested and banned from discussing his ideas publicly. However, he found ways around the ban, and his major astronomical discoveries helped to form the basis of today’s understanding of the universe.

Anatomy

Another form of curiosity was about human life and human bodies. One controversial method of scientists such as da Vinci was to dissect bodies, to study how they worked. This gave new understandings about human and animal biology. By cutting up internal organs, they discovered that the heart was a powerful muscle and how the lungs were central to survival, and they made a start at understanding how babies develop. Concerns were raised at the time that the human body was made by God and it was heresy for a person to cut it up to decode its mysteries. However, today, scientists and doctors regularly use dissections to study human anatomy.

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

104

Cambridge Investigating Humanities for the Victorian Curriculum 8

Amazing but true…

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Leonardo da Vinci often wrote backwards (from right to left) in his notebooks, maybe to stop people from stealing his ideas, or to hide the fact that his ideas were controversial, possibly because he was dyslexic, or perhaps because he was lefthanded and didn’t want to smudge the ink.

…

Source 4.5.9 Sketches of a human foetus in the womb, by Leonard da Vinci. Why might it have been controversial for him to dissect dead bodies that he bought from the local burial services?

Lesson 4.5 review Online quiz

Review questions

DOC

Research task

Go online to access the interactive lesson review and more!

Teachers can assign tasks and track results

4.5 Review questions 1 2 3 4

Identify two technological inventions of the Renaissance, and what they did. Describe how Mariano Taccola helped to make it possible to construct taller buildings. Explain the concept of a ‘Renaissance man’ and what one could do. Select one of the inventions in this lesson and summarise the concept: explain who invented it, where, when and why, and what it did. 5 Discuss why some studies of astronomy and human anatomy were criticised.

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Chapter 4: How did Renaissance Italy change Europe and the Mediterranean world?

105

4.6

What was the significance of Renaissance art?

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Learning intention Having learned how scientists revolutionised people’s understanding of how the world worked, in this lesson you will learn how Renaissance artists changed how people saw and felt about the world.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

See, think, wonder Look at Source 4.6.1.

1 See: What do you see? 2 Think: What does it make you think? 3 Wonder: What do you wonder?

…

Source 4.6.1 The Mona Lisa, by Leonardo da Vinci, c.1503–1506, is arguably the most famous and valuable painting in the world. Unlike previous art that showed figures full-length and wearing many jewels, this portrait shows a woman in a simple, lifelike pose.

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

106

Cambridge Investigating Humanities for the Victorian Curriculum 8

You have seen how rich and powerful people became patrons of impressive buildings during the Renaissance, to increase their prestige and show civic

pride. Patrons also supported artists, partly because the works of art had important messages.

Humanism and art

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Before the Renaissance, Italian art was mostly limited to religious scenes, which often showed holy figures far above Earth, in golden, heavenly settings. The holy figures looked two-dimensional, and were completely separated from everyday people. The identity of the artist was often unknown. During the Renaissance, artists were inspired by the same ideas of humanism that made scientists question everything and take bold new approaches. Like scientists, they embraced the idea that humans are at the centre of their own universe and should celebrate the natural world and everyday life.

Renaissance artists moved away from two-dimensional, remote scenes. Even if they were still painting religious subjects, there was often a more human or relatable element to them. The settings were more likely to be real-world landscapes and cities, and the painters added their own personal touches, making the artists recognisable and famous for their individual styles. Donato di Niccolo Donatello (c.1386–1466) became known for crafting realistic, life-sized sculptures of human figures (Source 4.6.2). The Medici family bought and displayed some of his statues in their palace in Florence.

…

Source 4.6.2 A sculpture of David, the Biblical hero who killed the giant Goliath, by Donatello, c.1430. David is shown as a naked youth, who relied on his human courage.

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Chapter 4: How did Renaissance Italy change Europe and the Mediterranean world?

107

Concepts and skills builder 4.6

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Analysing continuity and change

Source 4.6.4 A painting of the birth of the Virgin Mary by Vittore Carpaccio, c.1503, shows a Bible scene as if it happened inside a wealthy Renaissance Italian house, with several rooms and servants.

…

Source 4.6.3 A painting of the Virgin Mary by Cimabue, c.1285, shows the Virgin Mary sitting on an ornate throne, in a golden setting, surrounded by angels and prophets of the Bible.

Look closely at Sources 4.6.3 and 4.6.4. 1 2 3 4

Identify as many differences as you can between the styles of the two paintings, and list them. Explain how you can tell that Cimabue’s painting is typical of pre-Renaissance art. Explain how you can tell that Carpaccio’s painting is typical of humanist Renaissance art. Analyse how Renaissance ideas of humanism changed Italian art, using these paintings as evidence.

Historical concepts and skills: continuity and change, using historical sources

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

108

Cambridge Investigating Humanities for the Victorian Curriculum 8

New artistic visions interesting interpretations of the human form. Michelangelo Buonarroti painted wall and ceiling frescoes depicting biblical scenes with realistic human figures and three-dimensional effects, and sculpted highly realistic statues from marble (Source 4.6.6).

radical change extreme social or political change

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Renaissance artists seemed to look at the world through new eyes. This helped other people to see the world differently. This new approach to art is one reason why historians argue that the Renaissance marked a radical change from earlier historical periods. Two outstanding artists of the Renaissance were Leonardo da Vinci (1452–1519) and Michelangelo Buonarroti (1475–1564). Da Vinci sketched and drew virtually non-stop in his notebooks, between his observations of animals and plants, mathematical calculations and his ideas for inventions and machines. His scientist–artist vision produced very

Some humanist artists wanted to break away from earlier traditions, by changing the subject of their paintings. Rather than religious scenes and portraits of the rich and famous, they painted the people who formed the vast majority of the population, but were usually left out of history: workers, farmers and peasants.

…

Source 4.6.5 Leonardo da Vinci’s self-portrait, c.1512

…

Source 4.6.6 The Rebellious Slave, carved by Michelangelo in 1513. How has the artist achieved a lifelike sense of human struggle, from plain stone?

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Chapter 4: How did Renaissance Italy change Europe and the Mediterranean world?

109

…

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

The Dutch painter Pieter Bruegel (c.1525–1569), who spent some time in France and Italy, became famous for his paintings of peasants in real-world ordinary villages, far away from the glamour of Renaissance city-states (Source 4.6.7).

Source 4.6.7 Pieter Bruegel’s painting, The Peasant Fair, c.1568. How could you use this as evidence of humanist

ideas?

Go online to access the interactive lesson review and more!

Lesson 4.6 review Online quiz

Review questions

DOC

Research task

Teachers can assign tasks and track results

4.6 Review questions

1 Identify what Renaissance artists had in common with the scientists of their times. 2 Explain what was different about the scenes and figures in Renaissance works of art, compared with the art of previous times. 3 Explain how it could be argued that Renaissance artists saw the world in a new way, using three historical sources from this lesson. 4 Reflect on the significance of Renaissance art, by completing the following sentences: a Art changed during the Renaissance, because … b Art changed during the Renaissance, but … c Art changed during the Renaissance, therefore …

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

110

Cambridge Investigating Humanities for the Victorian Curriculum 8

4.7

What was the nature of power and authority in Renaissance Italy?

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Learning intention You have seen how the sciences and arts flourished during the Renaissance. This lesson explores how power and authority operated in the city-states of the time.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

See, think, wonder Look at Source 4.7.1.

…

Source 4.7.1 This 18th-century painting shows the annual ceremony in which the ruler of Venice sailed on a boat called the Bucintoro, to celebrate Venice’s relationship with the ocean. For 1000 years, Venice was ruled by a doge (duke).

1 See: What do you see? 2 Think: What does it make you think? 3 Wonder: What do you wonder?

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Chapter 4: How did Renaissance Italy change Europe and the Mediterranean world?

111

City-states Remember how Renaissance Italy was not a single nation, but a collection of city-states that competed with each other? There was also no single form of government. The city-states had a variety of ways to organise power and authority.

Venice

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

The water-based city-state of Venice, on the north-east coast, had been an independent republic since at least the 8th century ce. Venice developed its wealth and influence from a shipping trade in spices and silk with Asia and from making its own glassware, and its population grew to 1.5 million by 1500.

Being an international port, Venice was very multicultural, but this did not mean that everyone was equal: Jewish families, for instance, could run businesses but were not permitted to live in the city. When, after 1516, Jewish people were allowed to live in Venice, they were restricted to a walled-off neighbourhood called the ‘ghetto’.

noble a person born into a family with high social or political status and privileges, often with a title (e.g. lord, baron, sir or lady) dynasty a line of rulers who inherit their power from their family

Venice was ruled by a doge, or duke, who was elected from the city’s noble families. The doge ruled for the rest of their life, and lived like a prince with great authority. However, the doge’s rule was usually fairly brief, because they were older men when they were elected, and limited, because the noble families made the rules about what they could and could not do.

Florence

In the central west of Italy, Florence was initially ruled by a council elected from members of the city’s guilds, but from 1434, one family began to dominate the city. As we saw in Lesson 4.4, the Medici family had grown rich from banking and textiles, and used their wealth to fund buildings, artists and scientists. Until 1569, except for two decades in which the Medici were replaced by a ‘Council of Five Hundred’ citizens, the Medici dynasty of lords and dukes dominated Florence.

…

Source 4.7.2 In the 1490s, this enormous room was added to the Medici’s palace in Florence, for meetings of the ‘Council of the Five Hundred’. It was decorated by Leonardo da Vinci and Michelangelo. When the council period ended and the Medici returned to power, it became the room for people to bring their requests to the all-powerful family.

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

112

Cambridge Investigating Humanities for the Victorian Curriculum 8

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES …

The Medici family increased their influence by winning other positions of power for their relatives: two Medici women became queens of France and four Medici men became popes.

Naples

…

Source 4.7.3 A portrait of Catherine de Medici, who became the feared ‘serpent queen’ of France in 1547, and then ruled France as regent from 1560 to 1574

Rome

Central Italy was under the authority of the Catholic Church, led by the bishop of Rome, who is referred to as the pope. Today, the pope is a spiritual leader of the Church from his headquarters in the Vatican City, an independent state inside Rome. The pope is elected by a college of cardinals, who are the most senior priests. However, from 1417, the elected pope ruled the city-state of Rome like an absolute king, with the authority over laws and taxes. The popes used Church money to pay for great buildings and artworks, and developed a huge army and navy from the neighbouring ‘Papal States’, which fought fierce battles with the Ottoman Empire.

Source 4.7.4 A portrait of Pope Leo X in Rome in 1519, by Raphael Sanzio. Leo X was also the head of the Medici banking family who ruled Florence, and is pictured here with two cardinals – his brother, who later became pope, and his cousin. What does this show about popes in the Renaissance?

The south of Italy was under the control of a king, based in Naples, who ruled a population of 2 million. This kingdom exported huge quantities of grain, and in its history was often taken over by foreign powers, including the pope and French and Spanish royal families. Some kings who ruled Naples were harsh rulers and others allowed their people more freedoms.

Siena

The city-state of Siena was governed as a republic, ruled by a council of elected officials, from the 12th century onwards. Siena became wealthy through banking and the wool trade, and competed with neighbouring cities such as Florence for territory. Its population grew to around 80 000. In the Siena town hall, there is a painting called The Allegory of Good and Bad Government, which served as a lesson to the people of Siena.

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Chapter 4: How did Renaissance Italy change Europe and the Mediterranean world?

113

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

…

Source 4.7.5 The panel ‘Effects of Good Government in the City’ from The Allegory of Good and Bad Government, fresco, c.1338

Concepts and skills builder 4.7 Analysing causes and consequences

The fresco in Source 4.7.5 shows the benefits of good government, including: 1 2

3 4 5 6 7

beautiful mansions and places of worship new houses expensive wedding ceremonies traditional dances in the streets thriving businesses include shoemakers schools offering lectures people from the surrounding countryside bringing food and animals to the city markets.

1 Identify three consequences (effects) of good government, according to this painting. 2 Select one of the consequences, and explain how it might be made possible by a government that looks after law and order and city finances well. 3 Analyse what this shows about the possible benefits of living in an Italian city-state during the Renaissance. 4 Discuss how this painting might have been intended to influence the choices of the city council, who met in the room next to the fresco and made decisions for the city. Historical concepts and skills: causes and consequences, using historical sources

Families and communities If you lived in Renaissance Italy, your identity was formed by your city-state, the culture of your community, and importantly, your family. Many families

built up their prestige by showing off their wealth in works of art and beautiful buildings, such as palaces.

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

114

Cambridge Investigating Humanities for the Victorian Curriculum 8

In Florence, the Medici family knocked down 20 old houses to make space for their 15th-century palazzo (palace). They made sure that the outside was not overly decorated, so that it added glory to the

city without making other residents too jealous. Other powerful families followed their lead, and built glamorous palaces in the richest city-states.

Men do two important things in life: the first is to procreate [have children]; the second is to build. (Giovanni Rucellai, a political leader in Florence during the 1450s)

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

The magnificence of the buildings should be adapted to the dignity of the owner … we erect great structures, [so] that our posterity [children and descendants] may suppose us to have been great persons. (Leon Battista Alberti (1404–1472), a respected noble) The work of a magnificent man is to build fine buildings, for people who see marvellous buildings are deeply impressed. (Gian Galeazzo Visconti, Duke of Milan)

Although made by individuals it is nonetheless better to treat [these buildings] as communal utilities [assets] rather than as private comforts, because they are very important for the universal ornament of the city and they compose the beauty of the city. (Matteo Palmieri, a Florentine humanist) For the good of your family and the good of Florence you must build a more worthy building. (Lorenzo de Medici’s advice to the Strozzi family, 1466)

…

Source 4.7.6 Statements by 15th-century Italians about the importance of family buildings

…

Source 4.7.7 Tourists visit Florence’s central square and its cathedral, to appreciate the evidence of Renaissance

achievements.

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Chapter 4: How did Renaissance Italy change Europe and the Mediterranean world?

115

…

Source 4.7.8 A wedding procession in the central square of Florence, painted on the side of the Adimari family

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

wedding chest in c.1450. How has the artist shown the location?

The paintings, churches and mansions that survive in good condition today are the ‘hard evidence’ of the Renaissance. It is more difficult to see evidence of how people lived. But there are still some sources that reveal such things as how families showed their prestige by contributing to holidays, festivals and processions.

wanted to celebrate a special occasion, they made it public.

The Adimari wedding procession shown in Source 4.7.8 was held in the central square of the city, so that the general public could admire their expensive costumes, wonder at the decorations, feasts and musical entertainment, and appreciate how much money the family had spent. The bride wore a rare peacock-feather headdress, and her parents and relatives dressed in the finest fabrics, some embroidered with gold and silver thread. They also paid a painter to record the scene in detail, which is why we can appreciate it today.

The Adimari family were rich and powerful silk traders. Everyone knew how wealthy the Adimari were, because they lived in a palace with tall towers in the centre of Florence, very close to the famous cathedral. When such a family

Go online to access the interactive lesson review and more!

Lesson 4.7 review Online quiz

Review questions

DOC

Research task

Teachers can assign tasks and track results

4.7 Review questions

1 Identify three different ways in which power and authority were organised in Italian city-states. 2 Describe the powers of the Renaissance popes, and how they differ from the pope’s powers today. 3 Explain the various reasons why powerful families built grand palaces in Italian cities, quoting examples from Source 4.7.6. 4 Analyse how the Hall of the Five Hundred in the Palazzo Vecchio (Medici palace) shows how ideas about power and authority changed over time (see Source 4.7.2).

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

116

Cambridge Investigating Humanities for the Victorian Curriculum 8

4.8

Why was Michelangelo a significant individual?

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Learning intention Having learned about the importance of city-states and families, in this lesson you will explore the life of a significant Renaissance man, Michelangelo Buonarotti.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

See, think, wonder Look at Source 4.8.1.

…

Source 4.8.1 A museum worker on a scaffold delicately cleans the face of Michelangelo’s 5-metre-tall, 500-year-old marble statue of the biblical David, in Florence, Italy

1 See: What do you see? What expression is on David’s face? 2 Think: What does it make you think? Why is so much care given to this work of art? 3 Wonder: What do you wonder?

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Chapter 4: How did Renaissance Italy change Europe and the Mediterranean world?

117

‘Significance’ means the relative importance of something. Of the individuals who had information recorded about them in their day, how do we decide who still matters today? Is it because they introduced new ideas or systems? Is it because they were talented or unusual?

Was the world in some way different because of the changes they brought? Michelangelo Buonarotti, known simply as Michelangelo, is included on every list of significant Renaissance people, and of the most significant artists of all time.

Early patronage After Lorenzo’s death, Michelangelo spent some time back with his family and then in Bologna, and next Rome. In each place, he developed his skills in carving detailed statues that could be appreciated from all angles. He used a metal chisel to chip away at an enormous block of marble, until the shape of a very lifelike human body emerged, often depicting a scene from an ancient myth or a biblical story. To do this, he also had to study how the human body worked. His patrons willingly paid Michelangelo well for these sculptures, believing they were the finest they had ever seen.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Michelangelo was born in 1475 near the city-state of Florence. Life began relatively comfortably, because his father was a banker, and then a local government official. His mother died when Michelangelo was just six years old. As a student, he was supposed to learn grammar and history from books, but his real interest was in sketching and drawing. He loved to visit churches, to stare at the paintings and copy them into his sketchpads.

apprentice a person who is learning a trade from a skilled employer

Michelangelo began his artistic career as an apprentice, aged just 13. His talent amazed his teachers, and he was soon sponsored by the patron Lorenzo de Medici to study in the Humanist Academy, which the Medici family set up to inspire young people to study ancient civilisations, sciences and the arts. Lorenzo was so impressed with the teenaged Michelangelo’s work that he gave him a room in their palace and allowed him to join the family at mealtimes.

When someone asked him how he managed to achieve such realistic figures from plain rock, he famously said, ‘The sculpture is already complete within the marble block, before I start my work. It is already there, I just have to chisel away the superfluous [extra] material.’

Lifelike statues

In 1498, a French cardinal in Rome commissioned Michelangelo to sculpt a life-size marble statue of the tragic biblical scene where Mary takes the body of her son Jesus after he was crucified.

To this day, his Pietà (Pity) is one of the main reasons that visitors go to St Peter’s Basilica, in Vatican City, because it is regarded as one of the greatest ever achievements in sculpture.

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

118

Cambridge Investigating Humanities for the Victorian Curriculum 8

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

… of such rare beauty that no one sees it who is not moved to pity. … Michelangelo could have been twenty-four or twenty-five years old when did this work. Through it, he acquired great fame and reputation, so much that, already in the opinion of the world, he not only far surpassed any other man of this time, and of the time before him, but he even rivalled the ancients. …

Source 4.8.3 Ascanio Condivi, The Life of Michelangelo, 1553 (translated by Alice Sedgwick Wohl, 1999), p. 39

…

Source 4.8.2 Michelangelo’s Pietà, carved in 1498–99

Here is perfect sweetness in the expression of the head, harmony in the joints and attachments of the arms, legs, and trunk, and the pulses and veins so wrought, that in truth Wonder herself must marvel that the hand of a craftsman should have been able to execute so divinely and so perfectly, in so short a time, a work so admirable; and it is certainly a miracle that a stone without any shape at the beginning should ever have been reduced to such perfection as Nature is scarcely able to create in the flesh.

…

Source 4.8.4 Giorgio Vasari, Lives of the Artists, ‘Michelangelo Buonarroti (1475–1564)’, 1550 (translated by Gaston C. DeVere, 1915)

Michelangelo’s David is not a small, graceful boy, like the David depicted by

Source 4.8.5 Michelangelo’s 5-metre-tall David, Galleria dell’Accademia, Florence. Why do you think the artist made the small giant-killer boy so enormous?

…

Two years after the Pietà, Michelangelo accepted an even greater challenge, and produced an even more astonishing sculpture. The city of Florence gave him an enormous slab of damaged marble for him to carve a massive figure of the biblical hero David, the small shepherd boy who killed the giant Goliath. From 1501 to 1504, Michelangelo chipped away delicately at the marble, knowing that any mistake could ruin his work. He eventually created a statue over 5 metres tall.

other artists. His statue is naked, muscular and proud, with watchful eyes and a thoughtful expression. Every muscle and vein is accurate. The Florence city officials were so impressed that they placed the statue in front of what was then their town hall, Palazzo Vecchio, to represent courage in the face of bullying. In the 19th century, the original statue was moved indoors to a museum, and now a copy stands outdoors.

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Chapter 4: How did Renaissance Italy change Europe and the Mediterranean world?

119

Concepts and skills builder 4.8

…

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Analysing historical sources to understand historical perspectives and interpretations

Source 4.8.6 Detail of the facial expression of Michelangelo’s David

Look closely at Source 4.8.6.

1 Describe the expression on David’ face. 2 Other artists showed David standing on the defeated Goliath’s severed head. Unlike them, Michelangelo shows David before the battle. Explain how this changes our view of David. 3 The slingshot David will use is barely visible, over his shoulder. Explain why you think Michelangelo did not make the weapon more of a focus. 4 Explain why a story of a simple shepherd boy who used his intelligence to defeat a much stronger enemy might have appealed to people during the Renaissance.

Historical concepts and skills: using historical sources

Memorable paintings

Michelangelo moved to Rome and hoped to continue to make sculptures. However, Pope Julius commissioned him to paint the ceiling of the newly built Sistine Chapel with frescoes. His rival artists thought that it would be too hard to do, and he would fail. Michelangelo tried to decline the job, because he had not yet tried this form of painting, but eventually he accepted the challenge.

In 1508, Michelangelo began to paint the Sistine Chapel in the fresco technique (Sources 4.8.7 to 4.8.9), which the younger painter Raphael was using in another part of Pope Julius’s Vatican. He began with figures of the 12 apostles, as the pope requested. However, once he began painting, he kept going, to cover more and more space, working 12-hour days for four years, balanced on

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

120

Cambridge Investigating Humanities for the Victorian Curriculum 8

a wooden scaffold. Eventually, he painted hundreds of figures on the ceiling. Around 20 years later, he added further dramatic biblical scenes to the walls.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

According to Condivi’s biography of Michelangelo, written in 1553, the artist

exceeded everyone’s expectations and completed the work ‘to the admiration and amazement of the world’. He was well paid, too: for the initial work, he received 3200 gold florins, which was perhaps 20 times what most craftsmen earned at the time.

…

Source 4.8.7 The Sistine Chapel, which Michelangelo painted with hundreds of figures between 1508 and 1512, remains in use today.

…

Source 4.8.8 The creation of Adam, on the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel. How does this painting show a human connection between heaven and Earth?

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Chapter 4: How did Renaissance Italy change Europe and the Mediterranean world?

121

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES … Source 4.8.9 A detail from The

Last Judgement fresco in the Sistine Chapel. The flayed skin is said to be a self-portrait of Michelangelo. If that is true, what does it suggest he has been through to create his art?

Fame

Michelangelo became very famous across Italy and Europe. He was the first Renaissance artist to have a book about his life – a biography – published during his own lifetime. In fact, there were two. The first was by the painter Giorgio Vasari, within his history of artists’ lives, which depicted Michelangelo as the final chapter in the development of art.

Michelangelo read the book, and even though it suggested that he was the greatest ever artist, he disliked some of the ways he was described. So, he asked his assistant Ascanio Condivi to write a different biography in 1553. Condivi’s version paid more attention to how hard Michelangelo had to work, and how many people made his life difficult!

… Michelangelo was … a man sent by God into the world as an example for men in our profession, so that they might learn from his life how to behave, and from his works how to become true and splendid artisans.

… Michelangelo has always been very abstemious [self-denying] in his way of life, taking food more out of necessity than pleasure, and especially while he had a work in progress, when he would most often content himself with a piece of bread which he would eat while working. … And just as he has eaten sparingly, so also he has done with little sleep …

…

Source 4.8.10 Giorgio Vasari, Lives of the Artists, ‘Michelangelo Buonarroti (1475–1564)’, 1550 (translated by Gaston C. DeVere, 1915) …

Source 4.8.11 Ascanio Condivi, The Life of Michelangelo, 1553 (translated Alice Sedgwick Wohl, 1999), pp. 105–106

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

122

Cambridge Investigating Humanities for the Victorian Curriculum 8

Michelangelo lived to the age of 89, at a time when most people died around 40. As an older man, he did not relax. Michelangelo taught himself architecture, and redesigned grand buildings in Rome, notably St Peter’s Basilica, the headquarters of the Catholic Church.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Amazing but true… A later pope was offended by the nude figures Michelangelo had painted in the Sistine Chapel, and paid another artist to climb up and paint clothing over the ‘rude’ bits! This has since been removed.

…

Source 4.8.12 An unfinished portrait of Michelangelo by one of his students, Daniele da Volterra, c.1544. What type of personality does this portrait depict?

Lesson 4.8 review Online quiz

Review questions

DOC

Research task

Go online to access the interactive lesson review and more!

Teachers can assign tasks and track results

4.8 Review questions

1 Identify Michelangelo’s patrons, and explain how they made his development as an artist possible. 2 Explain what Michelangelo needed to know to be able to create his statues. 3 Explain how significant Michelangelo is, by completing the following sentences: a Michelangelo is remembered as a great painter, because … b Michelangelo is remembered as a great painter, but … c Michelangelo is remembered as a great painter, therefore … 4 Discuss the biographies of Michelangelo. Why were two published during his lifetime, and how were they different?

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Chapter 4: How did Renaissance Italy change Europe and the Mediterranean world?

123

4.9

Why was Lucrezia Borgia a significant individual?

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Learning intention You have seen how men from powerful Renaissance families used their wealth to grow their influence and support the arts and sciences. In this lesson, you will learn about a woman from a powerful family, and some of the barriers that women faced at the time.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

See, think, wonder Look at Source 4.9.1.

… Source 4.9.1 For centuries, this was the only image

believed to be of one of the most powerful women of the Renaissance – Lucrezia Borgia. She is dressed as the Roman goddess Flora. In reality, it may or may not be her.

1 See: What do you see? How would you describe her facial expression? 2 Think: What does it make you think? 3 Wonder: What do you wonder?

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

124

Cambridge Investigating Humanities for the Victorian Curriculum 8

Women appear throughout Renaissance art and sculpture. Thousands of young women posed for artists, often without clothing, and were admired for their beauty. However, this admiration does not mean that women were considered equal to men or had rights. They were thought of as objects to look at, more than being subjects in charge of their own lives.

The Italian Renaissance failed to draw upon the skills and talents of women, who were usually limited to family life in the home. You have to look carefully to find the rare cases when women were allowed to enter public life, and you will notice that they made a significant impact. How different might the Renaissance have been if more women were empowered?

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

A father’s strategy

Lucrezia Borgia (1480–1519) had an unusual start in life, because her father was a senior priest, Rodrigo Borgia, who was therefore not allowed to get married or have children. He had a notorious reputation for partying and loving many women. His family, the Borgias, were infamous for their greed and violence.

Despite his reputation, Lucrezia’s father later became Pope Alexander VI. Her father ensured that Lucrezia was given a much better education than other girls of her time: she spoke French, Italian, Catalan and Spanish, and read the classics in Latin and Greek. Her father wanted her to be a cultured princess, so that he could arrange for her to marry the right sort of man: the son of a powerful family with whom he could form an alliance, to help him and his sons increase their power and wealth.

Source 4.9.2 Many people criticised and feared Lucrezia’s father, as shown in this French cartoon of him as a devil, saying ‘I am Pope’.

…

Lucrezia was only 11 years old when she was twice engaged to be married, only to have the plans called off. She was 13 years old when she married a member of the Sforza family who ruled Milan (a man who was twice her age!), but that marriage was soon cancelled. Her next husband was a young man she genuinely loved, and through this marriage, she became a princess, and got her first experience of public responsibility: she became the governor of a beautiful town north of Rome.

However, when her husband no longer seemed useful to the Borgias, he was murdered – probably by Lucrezia’s own brother. This was not the first time that the Borgia family was rumoured to have used poison to kill someone who got in their way, and the Borgias were feared and hated.

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Chapter 4: How did Renaissance Italy change Europe and the Mediterranean world?

125

A cultured princess In 1508, Alfonso left to fight with a combined set of armies against Venice. Lucrezia stepped in as regent of Ferrara. She proved that a woman could be an excellent ruler in times of warfare and trouble. She built hospitals and places of worship and ensured the people were cared for during a plague. Ferrara became more prosperous and cultured.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

regent a person appointed to rule temporarily, often on behalf of a young or unwell ruler

Lucrezia’s father then married her to Alfonso d’Este, the Duke of Ferrara, in northern Italy. Alfonso was roughmannered and obsessed with war. At first, Lucrezia lived miserably in his castle. However, after 1505, when her husband became the sole ruler of the region, he came to rely on his wife. Like other princes, Alfonso was expected to have stylish social gatherings and to show a sense of fashion, food, scholarship and the arts. Lucrezia set the tone of sophistication that her husband lacked. She repaired the neglected palaces of the d’Este family, and became the intellectual leader of her husband’s ‘court’, mingling with writers, painters and scholars. She also gave birth to many children – probably eight!

By this time, her father had died, and he and other Borgia men were condemned for their very bad reputations. Lucrezia, however, had shown that she was not a dangerous Borgia, but an independent woman, and she was admired by those who met her.

She is a pearl in this world. I dare say that neither in her time, nor for many years before, has there been such a glorious princess, for she is beautiful and good, gentle and amiable to everyone. And nothing is more certain than this: that though her husband is a skilful and brave prince, the gracious princess has been a great service to him

…

Source 4.9.4 The French knight Bayard, describing Lucrezia Borgia, whom he met in 1510, quoted in Lucrezia Borgia, by Ferdinand Gregorovius, 1904.

…

Source 4.9.3 The palace where Lucrezia Borgia lived in Ferrara

Later depictions

Feminist historians point to Lucrezia’s achievements as proof that when women found a way to influence the public sphere, they made major contributions. However, it was the Borgia family’s reputation for immoral acts and murder that dominated how Lucrezia was remembered. There were suspicions that she was involved in the plots to kill anyone

who got in her way, as her brothers and father did. The famous French writer Victor Hugo wrote a play about her, which portrayed her as a murderous monster, ordering her enemies to be strangled and poisoned. Novels and operas also depicted her as an evil witch.

Lucrezia Borgia died in June 1519 due to complications after childbirth, aged 39.

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

126

Cambridge Investigating Humanities for the Victorian Curriculum 8

Do not, I pray you, utter before us the name of that most monstruous woman. There’s not one of our families she has not wounded to the very quick. … Tell me, do you know one single human being who is sure of living more than one tomorrow in this poor Italy of ours, so racked and rent by wars and plagues and Borgias?

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

…

Source 4.9.5 From a speech by Jeppo, a young nobleman, in the play Lucrezia Borgia by Victor Hugo, 1833

Concepts and skills builder 4.9

Identifying historical significance of individuals and the interactions between rulers and ruled

1 Identify why Lucrezia Borgia’s family was powerful. 2 Explain how the men of Lucrezia Borgia’s family arranged her life for their own gains. 3 Summarise Lucrezia’s significance, by completing two sentences, using the following starters: After 1505, Lucrezia Borgia … did what … because … why she did it … which shows … why it matters. After 1508, Lucrezia Borgia … did what … because … why she did it … which shows … why it matters. 4 In fiction, Lucrezia was shown as a femme fatale. What does that mean (look it up), and what does that show about how Renaissance women are remembered? Historical concepts and skills: historical significance

Clues in a painting

For centuries, there were mysteries about Lucrezia Borgia: was she the ultimate Renaissance woman, or was she as murderous as her brothers and father? Did she really look like the strange portrait of the Roman goddess? Historians had long wished to find more reliable information and a genuine portrait of her.

Source 4.9.6 National Gallery of Victoria staff announce that they have discovered a portrait of Lucrezia Borgia, in November 2008

…

In 2008, 500 years after Lucrezia Borgia became the ruler of Ferrara, a new portrait was discovered – in Melbourne! Scholars analysing the collection of the National Gallery of Victoria realised that a small painting that had long been known simply as ‘Portrait of a Youth’, by an unknown artist, was actually the only genuine formal portrait of Lucrezia Borgia

in the world. Better still, it was identified as the work of Dosso Dossi, a leading northern Italian Renaissance artist.

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Chapter 4: How did Renaissance Italy change Europe and the Mediterranean world?

127

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Galleries and museums had assumed the portrait was of a man, because the figure looks directly at you, and is holding a weapon. Now that experts are convinced that this is actually Lucrezia Borgia, we might gain new insights into what sort of person she was.

… Source 4.9.7 Dosso Dossi’s portrait of Lucrezia

Borgia, c.1515. What does it suggest about her personality that she is looking directly at you? Why do you think she is shown holding a dagger?

Go online to access the interactive lesson review and more!

Lesson 4.9 review Online quiz

Review questions

DOC

Research task

Teachers can assign tasks and track results

4.9 Review questions

1 Identify as many different character traits as you can think of to describe Lucrezia Borgia. 2 Describe what Lucrezia Borgia knew and did that made her an unusual Renaissance woman. 3 Explain how significant Lucrezia Borgia is, by completing the following sentences: a Lucrezia is remembered as one of the powerful Borgias, because … b Lucrezia is remembered as one of the powerful Borgias, but … c Lucrezia is remembered as one of the powerful Borgias, therefore … 4 Discuss the various interpretations of Lucrezia: how are they different?

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

128

Cambridge Investigating Humanities for the Victorian Curriculum 8

4.10

What do historians say about the Renaissance in Italy?

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Learning intention Having learned about the development of the Renaissance in Italy, in this lesson you will learn about what historians have said about the historical period.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

Think, pair, share

Read the following source, from historian Jacob Burckhardt, on the significance of the Renaissance, then answer the questions that follow. The civilisation[s] of Greece and Rome, which, ever since the fourteenth century, obtained so powerful a hold on Italian life, as the source and basis of culture, as the object and ideal of existence … had long been exerting a partial influence on medieval Europe … But the resuscitation of antiquity took a different form in Italy. … In Italy the sympathies both of the learned and of the people were naturally engaged on the side of antiquity as a whole, which stood to them as a symbol of past greatness.

[The Renaissance produced] the modern Italian spirit, which was destined to serve as the model and ideal for the whole western world.

…

Source 4.10.1 Jacob Burckhardt, The Civilisation of the Renaissance in Italy (translated by S.G.C. Middlemore), Macmillan, 1890, pp. 172–3

1 Think: What does the passage make you think about the impact of the Renaissance? Jot down a few notes. 2 Pair: Compare your notes with a partner. 3 Share: Prepare to share your notes with the class.

… Source 4.10.2

A sketch of historian Jacob Burckhardt from 1880

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Chapter 4: How did Renaissance Italy change Europe and the Mediterranean world?

129

What made Italy special? Early histories of the Renaissance outline how, in Italy more than anywhere else at the time, there was a new focus on the individual person, and a revival of interest in ancient history, and in arts, culture and science.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Jacob Burckhardt was a historian who lived in Switzerland and studied European history and culture. In 1860, he published The Civilisation of the Renaissance in Italy, which was translated into several languages, including English. This became a standard history for students.

Burckhardt said that the Renaissance in Italy set an example that transformed Europe, and set the foundations for the modern world. It gave people a new way of looking at nature and themselves, which is why some writers, scientists, architects and artists developed into Renaissance men, or Universal Men.

… In Italy at the time of the Renaissance, we find artists who in every branch created new and perfect works, and who also made the greatest impression as men.

Source 4.10.3 Jacob Burckhardt, The Civilisation of the Renaissance in Italy (translated by S.G.C. Middlemore), Macmillan, 1890, pp. 134–5

…

Burckhardt analysed hundreds of primary sources and concluded that the way city-states were organised made it possible for changes to occur in every part of life in Italy, more than in other countries. He had originally studied ancient history and art, and he was especially interested in how there was a revival of interest in ancient or ‘classical’ civilisations during the period.

When this impulse to the highest individual development was combined with a powerful and varied nature, which had mastered all the elements of the culture of the age, then arose the ‘all-sided man’ – ‘l’uomo universale’ – who belonged to Italy alone.

Amazing but true…

Jacob Burckhardt wrote nearly 600 pages on the history of the Renaissance, but did not explain in detail the work of any artists! He planned to write a separate history of Renaissance art, but never managed to finish it.

Concepts and skills builder 4.10

Analysing historical perspectives and interpretations The historian Jacob Burckhardt argued in 1860 that the Renaissance was a period of radical change. He inspired later historians to study the period, and many reached different conclusions. They identified continuities with the past, and questioned some of Burckhardt’s interpretations.

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

130

Cambridge Investigating Humanities for the Victorian Curriculum 8

Changes identified by Jacob Burckhardt

Continuities identified by later historians

The Renaissance was a time of major change because it:

The Renaissance was a continuation of times past, because:

• created new forms of government and political life • celebrated a new type of thinking individual, known as the Renaissance man or Universal man • saw the rediscovery of the knowledge of ancient Greece and Rome • produced people who made discoveries through scientific observation and voyages of discovery • created a society which valued wealth and education, not noble birth • allowed people to question the authority of

• many Renaissance developments continued discoveries that began during the Middle Ages • the ‘spirit of the age’ was not experienced by

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

• • • •

everybody, because most working people still could not read the Renaissance was mostly enjoyed by small groups of educated men in the great cities women were still not valued as equals to men noble families remained influential the Catholic Church remained very powerful and male-dominated.

religion, weakening its restrictions on learning.

1 Choose three of Burckhardt’s changes. For each one, identify one piece of evidence you have learned about that shows that change. 2 Choose one pair of factors: a change from the left column and a matching continuity from the right. Explain how the continuity calls into question the corresponding claim by Burckhardt. 3 Explain which continuity you think is the most important factor to consider, when deciding if the Renaissance stood for continuity or change. 4 Discuss how it is possible for two historians to look at the same information and arrive at different interpretations, and what this shows about studying history. Historical concepts and skills: continuity and change

Renaissance thought

In the mid-20th century, historians of the Renaissance emphasised the importance of the ideas of humanism, which developed across Italy at the time. They were interested in how humanist philosophy led to new ideas about art, science and politics. The new ideas were often inspired by the study of ancient Greece and Rome. These historians described the spirit of the age as ‘Renaissance thought’. An example is Eugenio Garin’s book Italian

Humanism: Philosophy and Civic Life in the Renaissance (1958).

Historians continue to research the society that made Renaissance culture possible. Peter Burke, for example, published The Italian Renaissance: Culture and Society in Italy in 2014. This book highlights the roles of powerful and wealthy people as patrons to the elite group of artists and other creatives at the time.

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Chapter 4: How did Renaissance Italy change Europe and the Mediterranean world?

131

Who was left out? The study of history is all about questions. Many historians have questioned earlier claims. They look again at Renaissance sources and ask who has been left out of the story.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

One group of historians asked questions about money, wealth and social class. They say that the best way to understand changes in history is to explore conflicts between the ‘haves’ and the ‘have-nots’. These people are described as social and economic historians. Some of them are known as Marxists, because they use the theories of Karl Marx to analyse society.

Another group of historians has asked questions about gender. Have you noticed that almost all of the leaders, artists, scientists and scholars that you have learned about were men? Did you wonder, whether there were ‘Renaissance women’ as well as Renaissance men? Jacob Burckhardt said that there were. He claimed that wealthy women had ‘perfect equality’ with men, in terms of education and opportunities. However, in 1977, Joan Kelly-Gadol published an essay called Did Women Have a Renaissance?. Her answer was no: women were left out. They were

Source 4.10.4 Sandro Botticelli’s Portrait of Smeralda Bandinelli, c.1470, shows the noblewoman in her ‘private sphere’. However, her eyes are raised to meet ours. How might historians use this as evidence that the painter wanted her to break free?

…

Social and economic historians make the point that the ‘spirit of the age’ of the Renaissance was enjoyed by people with privilege, but it was not experienced by everybody. Most working people continued to lead difficult lives. They were not taught to read, so they might not have been aware of Renaissance poetry. They might have risked their lives to help build the wonderful new buildings, but they did not live in them and generally could only appreciate them from the outside.

expected to stay in the private sphere of the home, and lower their eyes to show respect to men around them.

Historians who take a fresh look at a male-dominated past and its maledominated history books are known as feminist historians. They have found that even noble-born women were never considered the equal of men during the Renaissance. Few women received an education, and almost every woman depended completely on men for money: her father, and then her husband, controlled this.

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

132

Cambridge Investigating Humanities for the Victorian Curriculum 8

Women were generally denied participation in government, universities, warfare, science, law, medicine, philosophy, banking and navigation or exploration. To locate most women in the period, one must look … in private or domestic artifacts such as wills, letters, advice books and diaries. …

Source 4.10.5 Meg Lota Brown and Kari Boyd McBride, Women’s Roles in the Renaissance, London: Bloomsbury,

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

2005, p. 1

…

Source 4.10.6 Paintings of the ‘Seven Virtues’ by Sandro Botticelli and Piero del Pollaiuolo (1469–1472), now in the Uffizi Museum, Venice, show women representing the virtues of Faith, Hope, Charity, Fortitude, Prudence, Justice and Temperance. What do these paintings suggest that society expected of women?

Lesson 4.10 review Online quiz

Review questions

DOC

Research task

Go online to access the interactive lesson review and more!

Teachers can assign tasks and track results

4.10 Review questions 1 2 3 4

Identify what the historian Jacob Burckhardt said happened only in Italy during the Renaissance. Explain what historians mean when they talk about the ‘spirit of the age’ during the Renaissance. Explain two groups of people that some historians have said were left out of the Renaissance, and why. Discuss the important point that feminist historians have made about the Renaissance.

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Chapter 4: How did Renaissance Italy change Europe and the Mediterranean world?

133

4.11

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

End of investigation review: How did Renaissance Italy change Europe and the Mediterranean world? Access the Interactive Textbook for a range of digital tools to help you review this topic, including:

• Chapter summary • Auto-marked chapter test • Scorcher timed competitive quiz.

Brain dump

What have you learned about Renaissance Italy? Copy and complete the table to explain your understanding. Aim for two points per topic.

Topic Rebirth of ancient Rome and Greece City-states Trade Patrons Renaissance science Renaissance art Power and authority Michelangelo Lucrezia Borgia

What I have learned

Making thinking visible

This exercise in visible thinking asks you to track what you knew about Renaissance Italy before this topic and what you know now. Using the sentence stems provided, write about what you thought before and what you now understand. 1

a I used to think that Italy was … b Now I think that Italy was …

a I used to think that science and art were … b Now I think that science and art were …

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

134

Cambridge Investigating Humanities for the Victorian Curriculum 8

a A simple explanation for why Renaissance Italy was significant is … b A better explanation for why Renaissance Italy was significant is …

Practice questions 1

Identify the meaning of ‘Renaissance’ and what period in history it applies to.

Explain the cause and consequences of key events in Renaissance history, by matching the cause on the left with its correct consequence on the right:

Consequences Artists, scientists and architects were able to spend time developing new ideas People with ideas could get loans to develop them Artists and architects were inspired to make their age as impressive as ancient societies The concept of the Renaissance Man, or Universal Man, developed Wealthy merchants became patrons of artists and scientists Ideas emerged about how to make buildings bigger and how to make more powerful weapons People were encouraged to see humans as the centre of the universe, not wait for God’s plan

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Causes There was a revival of study of ancient Greece and Rome Italian city-states grew rich from trade Patrons gave money and support to people Scientists worked on inventions The first banks were developed Humanism became popular

Artists and scientists learned many different skills

Apply your understanding of causes and consequences by selecting two pairs of causes and consequences from the table above that you have found the most interesting to learn about. Explain why you chose them.

Analyse Source 4.11.1 as a historical source, using the questions below.

…

Source 4.11.1 Sandro Botticelli’s Birth of Venus (c.1495, Florence) was commissioned by the Medici family and depicts the ancient Roman goddess of beauty and love.

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Chapter 4: How did Renaissance Italy change Europe and the Mediterranean world?

135

a When was this source created, in the context of the Renaissance? b Who do you think the intended audience was for this painting? c What aspect of Renaissance ideas does the painting depict? d Explain what the source shows about the Renaissance. Evaluate the impact of Michelangelo, or another significant individual from Renaissance Italy. How did they contribute to the development of Renaissance ideas, and why are they remembered by historians?

Create an interview. Imagine you live during the 16th century in Rome. You make a visit to the Vatican City, where you meet the painter Raphael. While he is busy making frescoes on the walls of the pope’s library, you interview him. The purpose of your interview is to find out what the artist is doing and why, and how that reveals what was happening during the Renaissance. Your interview should include questions and answers about:

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

• how a fresco is made

• who is paying for his work, and why • who is shown in his painting

• why he chose to include certain people in the painting

• what ideas artists of the day are trying to show in their work • how he would like his work to be appreciated in the future.

Response to chapter inquiry question: How did Renaissance Italy change Europe and the Mediterranean world?

Write a paragraph in response to the inquiry question. Include the following key terms: • Renaissance • merchant • patron • noble

• city-state

• technology • humanism

• Renaissance man.

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

136

Cambridge Investigating Humanities for the Victorian Curriculum 8

CHAPTER 5

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

How did the Spanish change the Americas? Low-res

LESSON TITLE

5.1

Setting the scene: What was the Spanish reaction to Aztec rituals?

5.2

What were the key events in the Spanish conquest of the Americas?

5.3

What was life like in the Americas before the Spanish invasion?

5.4

What was the role of religion in Aztec society?

5.5

What was daily life in Aztec society like?

5.6

Who were the significant European explorers?

5.7

Who were the significant individuals in the Aztec Empire?

5.8

What were the consequences of the Spanish arrival for the Aztec Empire?

5.9

How did the Spanish defeat the Aztec Empire?

5.10

What was the significance of Moctezuma’s death?

5.11

How did the Aztec Empire come to an end?

5.12

What were the significant challenges and developments in Aztec society?

5.13

End of investigation review: How did the Spanish change the Americas?

This digital chapter can be accessed via Cambridge GO

Image: Cortez and Montezuma at Mexican Temple (part of the frieze in the Rotunda of the United States Capitol), created between 1860 and 1873 Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

137

CHAPTER 6

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

What was the historical significance of the Vikings? Low-res

LESSON TITLE

6.1

Setting the scene: How did the Viking Age begin?

6.2

What were the key events in Viking history?

6.3

What role did geography play in the lives of the Vikings?

6.4

How was Viking society governed in their homelands?

6.5

What roles did women have in Viking society and warfare?

6.6

What were the significant beliefs, values and practices of the Vikings?

6.7

What was the significance of Viking weaponry and warfare?

6.8

How did the Vikings expand their influence?

6.9

What were the consequences of contact and conflict with other societies?

6.10

Who was Leif Erikson and did the Vikings ‘discover’ the Americas?

6.11

How did the Viking Age end and what legacy did it leave?

6.12.

End of investigation review: What was the historical significance of the Vikings?

Image: Viking ship under the northern lights in Iceland

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

138

6.1

Setting the scene: How did the Viking age begin?

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Learning intention

In this lesson, you will learn about the birth of the Viking Age and understand different perspectives on the Vikings.

The Viking Age (c.790 ce to c.1066 ce) was a cataclysmic time that reshaped the world and left a legacy that still affects us today. The Vikings began as simple farmers and traders. They became the greatest military power in Europe between

the fall of the Western Roman Empire and the invasion of Britain by William of Normandy (Source 6.1.1).

Our fascination with the Vikings comes from trying to understand how they achieved so much power and success

Low-res

FPO

…

Source 6.1.1 Viking homelands and the regions where they travelled. Where did the Vikings originate and where did they travel?

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Chapter 6: What was the historical significance of the Vikings?

139

in a little over 250 years. How did their technology and social organisation enable a small group of Scandinavian people to conquer most of Europe and travel as far as modern-day America, Russia and Turkey? This question drives our

investigation into the Viking Age. We aim to uncover who these people were, how they lived, their developments and achievements, their expansion, their impact on others and their lasting legacy on the world.

An era birthed in bloodshed?

…

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Low-res

Source 6.1.2 A modern artist’s impression of the Viking raid at the monastery in Lindisfarne, Northumbria, in

793 ce. What events can you identify unfolding in this image?

St Cuthbert’s Monastery, Lindisfarne, c. 8 June, 793 ce

The dark silence of early dawn was like any other on the holy island of Lindisfarne, blanketed by a false sense of peace as the longships slid onto shore without a sound. The monastery was large and impressive, bulging with opportunity from the famous riches within, unguarded and ripe for the picking. The oblivious monks were already deep in their morning prayers as the warriors waltzed through the open doors with manic grins on their faces. For a moment, the monks were dumbfounded as these monstrous beings crossed over the threshold into the heart of the sanctuary they had thought was safeguarded by their beloved saint’s protection. Like a fox in a henhouse, the raiders ransacked the sacred space. Armed with axes, swords and spears, they hacked apart their victims and desecrated the altars, plundering all the treasures they could clutch in their hands. Those they didn’t kill were stripped naked and taunted for entertainment. The island descended into chaos as the Vikings set fire to the entire site with burning torches, capturing and killing anyone in their way. Their departure was as swift as their arrival. They left with their ships brimming with gold, new slaves shackled in chains, and beaming faces cracking with deranged smiles and loud laughter at the sheer success of their first venture.

…

Source 6.1.3 A fictional retelling of one of the first recorded Viking raids on a European settlement. What does this scene reveal about the viewpoint of the monks and the ir perspective on the Vikings?

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

140

Cambridge Investigating Humanities for the Victorian Curriculum 8

The Viking attack at Lindisfarne was as triumphant as it was devastating. It sent shockwaves through Europe and foreshadowed the terror to come

as the continent was catapulted into a new age of rage and bloodshed by the ‘Northmen’ (Vikings).

Summa pia gratia nostra conservando corpora et cutodita, de gente fera Normannica nos libera, quae nostra vastat, Deus, regna.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

[translation] Our supreme and holy Grace, protecting us and ours, deliver us, God, from the savage race of Northmen which lays waste our realms. …

Source 6.1.4 An early medieval prayer that specifically mentions the Vikings, found in a liturgical text dedicated to St Vaast or St Medard, Belgian and French saints

Understanding diﬀerent perspectives on the Vikings

FPO

Scan the QR code in Source 6.1.5 to watch a short video examining the different historical sources and perspectives on the Vikings.

…

Amazing but true…

The origin of the word ‘Viking’ is disputed. Some historians suspect it comes from the Old Norse vik, meaning cove or creek, which was usually next to where the Vikings built their homes and tied their ships. A víkingr was a person who went on an expedition by sea or voyage, likely with other víkingar (plural). It is also similar to the Old English word for pirate. Either way, the words are connected to the sea, which was at the heart of Viking society and culture.

Old Norse the old form of the Norwegian language common to the lands of Scandinavia (Denmark, Norway and Sweden)

Lesson 6.1 review Online quiz

Review questions

DOC

Research task

Source 6.1.5

A video on understanding different perspectives on the Vikings

Go online to access the interactive lesson review and more!

Teachers can assign tasks and track results

6.1 Review questions

1 Describe the area occupied by the Vikings in the 8th century ce. 2 Identify the areas that were settled by Vikings in the 11th century. 3 a Identify the monastery raided by the Vikings in 793 ce. b Why did this attack ‘send shockwaves through Europe’? 4 What do Sources 6.1.2–6.1.4 suggest about how the Vikings were viewed by the inhabitants of monasteries they raided?

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Chapter 6: What was the historical significance of the Vikings?

141

6.2

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

What were the key events in Viking history?

Learning intention

In the previous lesson, you learned the birth of the Viking Age and studied different perspectives on the Vikings. In this lesson, you will learn about the key historical events that shaped the Viking Age.

Lesson starter

Low-res

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

Know, want to know, learn

800 ce

795 ce

793 ce

The Vikings sack St Cuthbert’s Monastery in Lindisfarne, Northumbria, marking the ‘beginning’ of the Viking Age

Vikings raid Ireland and later begin building settlements

Source 6.2.1 The Lindisfarne Stone, found on Lindisfarne (also known as Holy Island), Northumbria, shows seven warriors, possibly Vikings.

…

1 Know: What do you already know about the Viking history? Construct a list of three things. 2 Want to know: What would you like to find out about the Vikings? Identify two things you would like to know. 3 Learn: After working through this investigation, come back and identify one new thing that you have learned about the Vikings.

845 ce

Vikings attack Paris

866 ce

Swedish Vikings arrive in Russia to trade

Danish Vikings capture York in England

860 ce

Vikings attack Constantinople (modern-day Istanbul) and settle in Iceland

799 ce

794 ce

787 ce The first Viking attack in England is recorded

Vikings attack sites in northern Britain (modern-day Scotland)

Low-res

…

Vikings raid monasteries in the Frankish Empire (modern-day Belgium, France, Luxembourg, the Netherlands and western Germany) during King Charlemagne’s reign

Source 6.2.2 Alfred

the Great

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

142

Cambridge Investigating Humanities for the Victorian Curriculum 8

October 1066

…

Source 6.2.3 Rollo (c.860–932 ce),

Duke William of Normandy (William the Conqueror) defeats and kills King Harold at the Battle of Hastings, and becomes King of England. This marks the ‘end’ of the Viking Age

Low-res

September 1066

Source 6.2.4 Leif Erikson

Duke and Prince of Normandy, who besieged Paris in 892 ce

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Harald Hardrada, King of Norway, also claims the English throne and invades the northeast of England with 10 000 troops and 300 longships. He is defeated and killed by Harold Godwinson at the Battle of Stamford Bridge

878 ce

Alfred the Great, the King of Wessex, signs a peace treaty with Viking King Guthrum to give northern England (later known as the Danelaw) to the Danes. Under Guthrum, the Danish Vikings are able to rule, trade and settle in their new land

870 ce

Norwegian Vikings colonise Iceland

Vikings from Denmark, Sweden and Norway begin settling permanently in northern England

Leif Erikson, son of Erik the Red, sails east from Greenland to reach Newfoundland and Labrador in America. A small settlement is established, but is abandoned by 1015

1066

King Edward of England dies and is replaced by Harold Godwinson

c.890–1154 ce

876 ce

c.1001

The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle (recording the history of the AngloSaxons) is compiled

985 ce

911 ce

Erik ‘the Red’ Thorvaldsen, banished from Iceland, sails west to discover Greenland and establishes a settlement

Following Viking attacks, the King of France makes a treaty (Treaty of Saint-Clair-sur-Epte) with the Vikings led by Rollo, allowing them to settle in an area of northern France that becomes Normandy. The culture and language of Normandy becomes a fusion of those from France and Scandinavia

Lesson 6.2 review Online quiz

Review questions

DOC

Research task

Go online to access the interactive lesson review and more!

Teachers can assign tasks and track results

6.2 Timeline questions

1 Use the timeline to identify some of the famous individuals associated with the Viking Age. What are these people known for? 2 Identify what you think are the five most important events on this timeline. Rank them by their importance and explain why you ranked each one as highly as you did. 3 Categorise each event according to one of the following categories: political (such as new settlements, change in rulers, new laws or raids) economic (changes in trade or how food is grown) social (developments in art or culture). a Which categories are most common? b Which are the least common? c What category do you want to find out more about?

• • •

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Chapter 6: What was the historical significance of the Vikings?

143

6.3

What role did geography play in the lives of the Vikings?

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Learning intention In the previous lesson, you explored the Viking timeline and covered a range of social, cultural, political and economic events. Next, you will look at where the Vikings started out, and the impact the environment had on their lives.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

See, think, wonder

Look at Source 6.3.1, which shows a place where a typical Viking village would have been. 1 See: What features of the landscape do you see? 2 Think: Why do you think the Vikings might have set sail from their homelands? 3 Wonder: What do you wonder after examining the Scandinavian terrain?

…

Source 6.3.1 A typical village location on the Scandinavian peninsula in modern-day Sweden. The small areas of

flat land were the only suitable places for housing and farming. They are surrounded by steep mountains.

Low-res

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

144

Landscape and location Scandinavia has mountainous landscapes, dense forests and brutal winters. It is a peninsula that juts into the Baltic Sea, North Sea and Atlantic Ocean (Source 6.3.2). The Vikings were deeply linked with their landscape, which dictated

their way of life, including their food and methods of transport. The geography and location of Scandinavia came to define who the Vikings were as a people, their attitudes and social habits.

300 km

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Barents Sea

Reykjavik ICELAND

Kirkenes

RUSSIA

Norwegian Sea

Oulu

SWEDEN

Trondheim

Sundsvall

NORWAY

Gulf of Bothnia

Helsinki

St. Petersburg

Orebro

Stockholm

Gothenburg

North Sea

Tampere

Turku

Gavle

Bergen

Oslo

FINLAND

Vaasa

Tallinn ESTONIA Tartu

Jonkoping

Alborg

Randers DENMARK Odense

Narva

Pskov RUSSIA

Riga LATVIA Daugavpils Baltic Malmo LITHUANIA Sea Copenhagen BELARUS Kaliningard Vilnius Gdanski

GERMANY

POLAND

Lida

Minsk

…

Source 6.3.2 A political map of modern-day Scandinavia (modern-day Norway, Sweden, Denmark, and featuring Iceland). Scandinavia is in the north of Europe, which is why the Vikings were called ‘Northmen’ in the lands they conquered.

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Chapter 6: What was the historical significance of the Vikings?

145

Climate and environment them as large and robust people. They ate lots of meat, and had to be strong to hunt, fight, farm and build ships. The Vikings used oak from the dense forests for shipbuilding and fuel. Their access to timber gave them advantages in seaborne trade and commerce. The Vikings expanded their territory partly because of their developments and achievements in response to their climate: shipbuilding, sailing, weaponry and trade, and their physical strength and resilience to the cold. Compared to the people in the regions they came to conquer, they were gigantic and unstoppable warriors.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Scandinavia is bitterly cold for most of the year, with summers only reaching a maximum of 20–25°C and long winters that range between 10°C and –20°C. The Vikings adapted to their climate by developing technologies to support their survival. Such technologies included sailing and shipbuilding, as it was much faster to travel to different regions via sea than across the difficult terrain. They also crafted weapons for hunting and foraging to supplement the crops produced on what little fertile land they had (Source 6.3.1). Historical travellers who encountered the Vikings described

…

Source 6.3.3 Viking ship docked at a fjord near a village in Norway. What do the geographical features in this photo reveal about the Vikings’ homeland?

Concepts and skills builder 6.3

Analysing causes and consequences: geography and the Vikings Consider the following statement:

‘Without the Scandinavian landscape and climate, there would be no Vikings.’ Do you agree or disagree? Justify your response, using the sources and knowledge you have gained so far. Historical concepts and skills: causes and consequences, communicating, historical significance

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

146

Cambridge Investigating Humanities for the Victorian Curriculum 8

Culture and storytelling The highlight of Viking entertainment was the skald, a professional poet who recited epic poems and Norse myths. Because very few of the Vikings could read or write, the art of oral storytelling was highly valued. More time was spent memorising poetry than developing the skill of writing. This is why the sagas were only written down many years after the Viking Age.

epic a style of long poem about heroic events saga a long, narrative epic written in Old Norse that tells stories of the Vikings who lived between 930 ce and 1030 ce; written between the late 12th and early 14th centuries

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

The climate played a significant role in the Vikings’ lifestyle. In their Scandinavian homelands, most of the year was spent indoors to escape the bitter cold. Sharing the legends of the gods and heroes around a crackling fire helped keep spirits high during the darkest months of the year. Storytelling and poetry became essential components of Viking culture, shared through an oral tradition.

oral tradition beliefs and customs handed down by spoken word, such as storytelling and folklore, rather than in written form

Viking homes

The most common type of dwelling in Scandinavia was the longhouse, a long, rectangular, single-room structure made of timber planks and sometimes stones (Source 6.3.4). Inside the longhouse was dark and smoky. The only window was a hole in the ceiling that allowed smoke from the hearth to escape. The hearth was the centre of the home: an open fire used for cooking, light and warmth all year round. A large cauldron (round iron pot) usually hung above the fire, suspended

from a beam along the roof. There was a dirt floor and parts were covered with low wooden benches topped with animal skins and furs for bedding. Bags filled with dunn (feather down) were used to soften the beds (the Norse word dunn is where ‘doona’ comes from). Farm animals were sometimes housed at one end of the longhouse (for warmth in winter) and there was a hole in the ground for the toilet, especially useful in the months when it was too cold to go outside.

hearth a brickor stone-lined fireplace or oven used for cooking and heating

Amazing but true…

The Vikings used urine and human dung to create fire.

… Source 6.3.4 A re-enactment of a vibrant

Viking household inside a longhouse. Using what you have learned so far, which social and family roles can you identify from this scene? What features of a longhouse can you identify? Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Chapter 6: What was the historical significance of the Vikings?

147

A Viking household was a communal living space with many family members, including grandparents, aunts, uncles, cousins and foster children. By modern standards, the Viking home was noisy, stinky and often crammed. Imagine the mixture of smells of freshly baked

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

goods, sour goat’s milk, damp earth, human and animal dung, sizzling meat, smoke, sweat and body odour! But the longhouses were the hubs of domestic life where family members shared their lives, cooking, eating, telling stories, socialising and sleeping.

…

Source 6.3.5 Reconstruction of a Viking settlement in Poland, complete with longhouses made of timber and a Viking knarr boat. What does this scene reveal about the construction of longhouses?

Go online to access the interactive lesson review and more!

Lesson 6.3 review Online quiz

Review questions

DOC

Research task

Teachers can assign tasks and track results

6.3 Review questions 1 2 3 4

Where were the Viking homelands located? Identify the geographical features of these lands. Explain how these geographical features influenced the Vikings’ homes, diet and transport. What were the main forms of entertainment in Viking society? Explain the role of a skald. Why were they so valuable in Viking society?

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

148

Cambridge Investigating Humanities for the Victorian Curriculum 8

6.4

How was Viking society governed in their homelands?

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Learning intention

In the previous lesson, you studied the impact of the Scandinavian landscape on the Vikings’ way of life and drive for expansion. In this lesson, you will explore the Vikings’ society, politics and economy.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

Circle of viewpoints

Consider the quote in Source 6.4.1.

‘It is better to be alive than to be dead; the living man gets the cow.’

…

Source 6.4.1 A proverb from the Hávamál (‘sayings of the high one’), a collection of Norse proverbs and advice from the Viking Age, compiled in the 13th century

1 Thinking first about Australian society, consider what commodities (products) are valued most and list some ideas. 2 Now consider the proverb in Source 6.4.1. What does it reveal to you about the importance of cows to the Vikings? 3 Imagine you place the same value on cows. Explore the Vikings’ perspective by using these sentence starters: a I am thinking of … the topic … from the viewpoint of … the viewpoint you’ve chosen. b I think … describe the topic from your viewpoint. Be an actor – take on the character of your viewpoint. c A question I have from this viewpoint is … ask a question from this viewpoint.

…

Source 6.4.2 Cattle grazing in Norway

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Chapter 6: What was the historical significance of the Vikings?

149

Viking society roles, which shifted with the seasons. They spent some parts of the year on sea expeditions and other parts at home. Spring and summer were usually the times for raiding and trading abroad, while autumn and winter were spent harvesting, working and resting at home.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

While the Vikings were known as fearless warriors and explorers, their everyday lives involved working as farmers, fishermen, merchants, shipbuilders, craftsmen, blacksmiths, homemakers and artisans in textiles and jewellery. The sagas tell us the Vikings had diverse lives and different

Amazing but true…

Vikings lived hard lives. Often, rather than putting resources into caring for sick children in a time when disease was often not curable, they would abandon them in the wilderness or at sea.

Social classes

hierarchy a system in which people or things are arranged in levels according to their importance

Like other societies of the time, Viking society had a hierarchy of classes. The

levels in the hierarchy included kings, landowners and military leaders, freemen and enslaved people (Source 6.4.3).

Konungr (king)

Jarls (landowners and military leaders)

Karls (freemen: farmers, merchants, warriors, shipbuilders) Thralls (enslaved people)

…

Source 6.4.3 The social hierarchy of the Vikings

Table 6.4.1 The different social roles in Viking society

Social class Konungr (king)

FPO insert typesetter art – brief to come

Information A Viking king was not always born into the role, like the kings in England or France often were. Early Viking kings rose to this status from being dominating, powerful warriors and landowners who became very wealthy, usually from raiding and conquest. They maintained their wealth and status by charging taxes and creating a loyal army. Unlike other parts of Europe, each Scandinavian village or town had its own king.

…

Source 6.4.4 Konungr

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

150

Cambridge Investigating Humanities for the Victorian Curriculum 8

Social class

Information Jarls were noblemen, landowners and powerful military leaders. The jarls leased their land to tenants for income and were chieftains under the king. They were members of powerful families as well as spiritual leaders, such as priests and seers (who could also be female). Jarls lived in large longhouses, had luxury goods and kept enslaved people. They governed local politics and represented their families at the Althing or Thing (Assembly). As military leaders, they were responsible for leading the armies into battle and raids.

Jarls (nobles and military leaders)

Althing the assembly of freemen that governed Viking communities

…

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Low-res

Source 6.4.5 Viking warrior

Karls (freemen)

Low-res

…

Source 6.4.6 Viking

Low-res

Karls were freemen and the largest group, made up of farmers, merchants, warriors, craftsmen and shipbuilders. They paid taxes to a jarl or directly to the king, and some owned small areas of land. They were able to wield a weapon and were involved in the political life of the village, such as participating in the Thing.

Source 6.4.7 Viking woman

craftsman

Thralls (enslaved people)

FPO insert typesetter art – brief to come

Thralls, both men and women, were enslaved people considered to be the property of the upper social classes. They were at the bottom of the social hierarchy. They were treated like animals and commodities to be traded. Thralls were either prisoners of war (captured during a raid or conquest), criminals or extremely poor people. They were not allowed to carry or use weapons or participate in political life. They did the toughest jobs involved with farm labour, tending to animals and running the household. They had no rights under the law, and the children of enslaved people belonged to their master.

commodity an item that is bought and sold, especially a raw material or something that is manufactured, for which there is a commercial demand

…

Source 6.4.8 Thralls

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Chapter 6: What was the historical significance of the Vikings?

151

Amazing but true… The Vikings were well groomed and known for their excellent hygiene. Women and men with darker hair would bleach their hair with soap.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Concepts and skills builder 6.4 Communicating: Viking social structure

For this task, apply your knowledge of Viking social structure, and refer to Sources 6.4.3–6.4.8 (the social hierarchy table and drawings of Viking people). 1 Create a diagram, mind map or illustration of the different social roles of a jarl, karl and thrall in Viking society. 2 Identify a key activity or task performed by each member of the social hierarchy. How were each of these people perceived by their community? 3 Annotate your visual representation to include key features of each social class, including how wealth and status were displayed in Viking society. Historical concepts and skills: communicating, using historical sources

Laws and politics

democracy a form of government where members of the community take part in decisionmaking through voting currency a unit of money used by the people of a country or land for buying and selling goods and services

Vikings governed themselves very differently from how kingdoms did in other parts of Europe at the same time. The Vikings had a form of democracy because freemen (jarls and karls) could vote on important local issues rather than being under the complete authority of a king. In Iceland, all of the land-owning freemen would assemble at the Althing a couple of times a year. This assembly was held outdoors and everyone would settle matters based on the law code. The law was not written down, but was memorised entirely by someone called the Law

Speaker. Issues could be matters of family dishonour, divorce, revenge for a killing, or other harm done to a person. If the guilty person did not accept the outcome of the vote, they could be declared an outlaw and banished for a period of time. This is what happened to Erik the Red, who was exiled to Greenland. Sometimes a matter could also be settled by single combat. Historical sources suggest that women were allowed to attend the Althing but were not allowed to vote.

Economy and lifestyle Almost all Vikings were farmers and their homes (longhouses) were shared with their animals and crops. Viking families depended on their livestock for foods,

including milk and cheese, as well as wool and leather for clothes and shoes. For the early Vikings, cattle and livestock were a form of currency and an important part

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

152

Cambridge Investigating Humanities for the Victorian Curriculum 8

of a family’s wealth and contribution to the economy. The health of the livestock was very important because they could be traded in the marketplace to get other household needs, and used to pay taxes to the king or jarls. The Vikings

valued their cattle so much, they even recited poetry and proverbs about them (like Source 6.4.1). Viking society also depended on fishing, which is why almost all Viking settlements are coastal or near navigable rivers.

Lesson 6.4 review Review questions

DOC

Research task

Go online to access the interactive lesson review and more!

Teachers can assign tasks and track results

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Online quiz

economy the system of how money is made and used within a particular country or region

6.4 Review questions 1 2 3 4

Identify the purpose of the Althing. Describe how the early Vikings traded for things they needed for the household. Explain why livestock was such an important commodity for the Vikings. Describe the two possible outcomes a criminal faced at the Althing. Justify which one you believe is worse, providing examples to support your reasoning. Explain your position to your class or a partner.

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Chapter 6: What was the historical significance of the Vikings?

153

6.5

What roles did women have in Viking society and warfare?

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Learning intention

In the previous lesson, you learned about how Viking society was governed. In this lesson, you will investigate the historical and archaeological evidence for female Viking warriors and the role of women in Viking society.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

The three whys

Low-res

…

Source 6.5.1 The archaeological findings of the Birka Warrior’s grave, from 1889, were originally assumed to be male; however, DNA tests in 2017 confirmed the remains were female. What objects and features can you identify from this archaeological site?

Engage with Source 6.5.1 to answer these questions. 1 Why might the recent discovery of a female Viking warrior matter to me? 2 Why might it matter to people around me (my family, friends, school or community)? 3 Why might it matter to the world?

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

154

Cambridge Investigating Humanities for the Victorian Curriculum 8

A recent discovery: female warriors Many other sagas have recorded stories of shield-maidens, but until recently, they were thought only to belong to mythology and legend. However, a recent archaeological discovery changed this. The grave of a 10th-century Viking warrior, known as the Birka Warrior, was found in Sweden in 1889. This grave was for a mighty and important warrior, probably a leader, because it was filled with swords, weapons, traded goods and two sacrificed horses. In 2017, a DNA test of the warrior’s bones confirmed they belonged to a female. This is evidence that the shield-maidens from the sagas were not just fantasy, but based on true female Viking warriors. Women may have played important roles in Viking voyages of discovery, raiding, trading and settlement.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

In Viking society, people’s roles were largely determined by gender. Many Viking women spent most of their time managing the household, caring for children and preparing meals, while men would hunt, train for battle, farm or work their trade. Evidence for these roles have been found in excavated graves where women have been buried with items associated with the home while men have been found with tools and weapons. However, these gender roles were not set. Women had some amount of lifestyle choice and there were cases of women who were warriors who went on raids. Sources from the Viking sagas and archaeological evidence have challenged the way historians once thought about Viking women. Women were thought to have remained behind while the men travelled to raid and trade, but evidence reveals that women were also powerful warriors and military leaders who went on sea expeditions alongside men. In some cases, they even led men in battle.

Source 6.5.2 An artist’s impression of Lagertha, the female Viking warrior and queen, by Morris Meredith Williams, 1913. What Viking weaponry and armour can you identify?

…

The Viking sagas tell stories of ‘shield-maidens’, female warriors who were strong, skilled and violent in battle. The Saga of the Greenlanders (a 14thcentury record of events from c.1000 ce) tells the story of Freydis Eiríksdóttir, Erik the Red’s daughter (and sister to Leif Erikson), capturing an enemy’s warship and slaying the crew with an axe. Other famous shield-maidens were Lagertha, the wife of the legendary Ragnar Lothbrok found in the saga by Danish writer Saxo Grammaticus (12th century), and Hervor, daughter of Heidrek, found in the Saga of Hervor and Heidrek and the Poetic Edda (13th century), who died in battle commanding a Viking army against the Huns.

Low-res

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Chapter 6: What was the historical significance of the Vikings?

155

…

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Low-res

Source 6.5.3 The Norse goddess Thorgerd Holgabrudr facing the Jomsvikings’ fleet, by Jenny Nyström, 1895

Low-res

…

Source 6.5.4 An artist’s impression of the death of Hervor, a shield-maiden, by Peter Nicolai Arbo, 1891

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

156

Cambridge Investigating Humanities for the Victorian Curriculum 8

Low-res

… Source 6.5.5 A woman’s skull and an axe head from

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

a late 10th-century grave at Nordre Kjølen farm in Solør, Norway. The grave also included a sword, a spear and arrows. The woman is believed to have been 155 cm tall and 18–19 years old, and may have been a female warrior.

Concepts and skills builder 6.5 Using historical sources: Birka Warriors

Use Sources 6.5.1–6.5.5 and the knowledge you have gained so far to answer the following questions. 1 Referring to Source 6.5.1, identify and describe what was found in the Birka Warrior’s grave in 1889. 2 Explain why the Birka Warrior was thought to be male and describe how this was disproven in 2017. 3 Discuss why you think this recent discovery was significant. 4 Before this discovery, what other evidence for the existence of shield-maidens was available to historians? Why do you think this evidence was not taken seriously? Historical concepts and skills: using historical sources

Other women in Viking society As a whole, women in Viking society enjoyed greater freedom than women in other parts of the world during this time. While Viking women did perform the traditional roles of raising children and running the household, they could also own land, choose whom they would marry and even divorce their husbands. Higher-class women maintained their independence and had complete authority over the home, including the enslaved people. Women were highly skilled in different crafts and, unless they were very wealthy or had the help of enslaved people,

would make clothes for the family, weave beautiful tapestries, spin wool to make yarn, and prepare and store food. Girls would help their mothers in the home and boys would work with their fathers in their trade while also learning the battle skills of fighting and using swords. If they did not join the men on raids and conquests, women would take charge of all aspects of family life, including the farming, trading goods, business negotiations and managing the finances. Viking women were self-reliant and independent.

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Chapter 6: What was the historical significance of the Vikings?

157

Go online to access the interactive lesson review and more!

Lesson 6.5 review Online quiz

Review questions

DOC

Research task

Teachers can assign tasks and track results

6.5 Review questions

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

1 Identify the various roles of Viking women. 2 In what ways did Viking women have more freedom and independence compared to women in other parts of the world at this time? Individually or in pairs, research the key roles and daily activities of women in another culture of the same era. Compare and contrast them to the roles of Viking women. 3 Explain how the discovery of the female Birka Warrior changed historians’ views on gender roles in Viking society. 4 Consider whether the sagas are useful historical sources for understanding the roles of women in Viking society. Discuss their value and limitations for use as evidence.

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

158

Cambridge Investigating Humanities for the Victorian Curriculum 8

6.6

What were the significant beliefs, values and practices of the Vikings?

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Learning intention

In the previous lesson, you studied the roles of women in Viking society and warfare. In this lesson, you will learn about Norse mythology and the Vikings’ religious beliefs and practices.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

See, think, wonder

Look closely at Source 6.6.1, which shows the Viking beliefs about the universe. 1 See: What do you see? 2 Think: What does this make you think? Consider the Vikings’ religious beliefs. 3 Wonder: What do you wonder?

Low-res

… Source 6.6.1 In Norse mythology

there were nine worlds or realms supported on the branches of a giant sacred tree called Yggdrasil, ‘the world tree’ at the centre of the universe. The human world, Midgard, was a flat disc surrounded by water and encircled by a giant serpent called Jörmungandr. This drawing is a 19th-century artist’s impression of Yggdrasil, based on the stories in the Prose Edda and Poetic Edda (Friedrich Wilhelm Heine, 1886).

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Chapter 6: What was the historical significance of the Vikings?

159

Christianity the religion based on the person and teachings of Jesus Christ, and its beliefs and practices; the dominant faith in medieval Europe polytheism a belief system with more than one god

polytheistic until the end of the Viking Age. Norse mythology included stories of heroic gods and giants, the creation of the world, the end of days and the afterlife.

Norse gods In Yggdrasil, ‘the world tree’, the human world of Midgard was connected by a rainbow bridge to Asgard, the world of the gods, which was full of halls and palaces, including Valhalla, the ‘Hall of the Slain’.

giants. The ending of this narrative is the final climactic war between the gods and the giants called Ragnarök, meaning ‘twilight’ or ‘doom’ of the gods. According to this mythology, Ragnarök brings the end of the world and the destruction of all the gods, allowing the world to be reborn with a new and free humanity. This story is why Odin (the god who rules Asgard) is motivated to populate his ‘Hall of the Slain’, called Valhalla. He aims to collect as many heroes as he can to support his army against the giants. Dead heroes are taken from the battlefield to Valhalla by Valkyries (‘choosers of the slain’), female spirits who ride on winged horses. Only half the slain warriors are selected for Valhalla. The rest are taken to Sessrúmnir, the hall of the goddess Freya.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

mythology a collection of stories that belong to a particular people or culture and tell about their history, ancestors, heroes, gods and other supernatural beings

The religious beliefs and practices of the Vikings were very different from Christianity, the religion of the rest of Europe. Scandinavia remained

pantheon the group of gods of a particular culture

The Norse pantheon was made up of a number of gods with unique qualities and personalities. There were two groups of gods, the Aesir and Vanir, almost all of whom lived in Asgard. Each god had a role to play and the Vikings would pray to a particular god, depending on what they needed (see Table 6.6.1). The Norse gods were not all-powerful and all-knowing, like the Christian idea of the one God. The gods also had enemies – the giants. In Norse mythology, the gods are locked into an ongoing battle with the

Concepts and skills builder 6.6

Asking historical questions: Viking gods and goddesses Table 6.6.1 The main gods of the Viking pantheon

Viking god Odin (also known as Woden or Wotan), Aesir god

Qualities and characteristics One-eyed ruler of Asgard known as the ‘Allfather’. Legend says he exchanged one eye for wisdom. God of war, wisdom and poetry as well as powerful magic. He is prayed to for victory in battle, wisdom, knowledge, magic and poetry. Odin lives in Valhalla and collects the souls of human warriors to fill his ‘hall of the slain’ for the final battle – Ragnarök.

Artist’s interpretation

Low-res

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

160

Cambridge Investigating Humanities for the Victorian Curriculum 8

Viking god Qualities and characteristics Frigg, Aesir god Wife of Odin, queen of Asgard and goddess of women and the home. Frigg lives in the hall Fensalir, which receives people with noble deaths, such as death in childbirth. Frigg and Freya are closely associated and some historians argue they began as a single goddess.

Low-res

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Thor, Aesir god Son of Odin. One of the most popular gods. Famous for his mighty hammer, Mjölnir (crusher). God of thunder, lightning, storms, oak trees, fertility and healing. Thor rides a chariot drawn by two magic goats. He is prayed to for protection, healing, and calming storms at sea. Thor goes on many adventures to other realms, befriends humans, rescues gods and clobbers giants with Mjölnir. Loki, Aesir god The god of mischief and trickery, he is very clever but not always trustworthy. Loki often has Thor as his companion and joins him on his many adventures. Loki’s daughter Hel presides over the underworld Hel or Niflheim. Loki wasn’t prayed to, but rather, in times of misfortune, people prayed for deliverance from him. Freya (or Twins Freya and Frey (‘Lady and Lord’) Freyja) and are gods of fertility, love, harvest, Frey (or Freyr), prosperity and the veneration of Vanir gods ancestors. Freya travels on a chariot drawn by two cats. Frey’s weapon is a large sword and his symbol is a wild boar.

Artist’s interpretation

Low-res

Look at the information about Viking gods and goddesses in Table 6.6.1 to answer the following questions. 1 Identify which gods or goddesses you would pray to or make a sacrifice to if you: a were a warrior about to go to into battle b were sick c wanted your crops to grow well d wanted to have a baby. 2 Which god or goddess has the strangest combination of roles or characteristics? Explain your choice. Historical concepts and skills: communicating, historical questions, historical significance

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Chapter 6: What was the historical significance of the Vikings?

161

Religious practices rune a character of an alphabet used by the Vikings

love, fertility and victory in battle. The Viking script, made up of runes, was associated with the power of the god Odin and was used for magic and prophecy. The Vikings would carve runes on weapons for greater power. They cast rune stones to communicate with the gods.

…

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

prophecy a message, usually involving the future, that is claimed to be from a god or deity

Norse mythology played a major role in the Vikings’ motivations and culture, influencing their daily lives, relationships and warfare. Vikings would pray and offer crops or sacrifice animals (and sometimes humans) to particular gods for guidance, protection, prosperity, successful harvests,

Source 6.6.2 Casting rune stones was a form of magic and prophecy used to communicate with the gods.

…

Source 6.6.3 The Karlevi Runestone is a burial mound in Sweden from the 10th century. It has rune inscriptions of a poem honouring the death of a powerful Viking warrior.

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

162

Cambridge Investigating Humanities for the Victorian Curriculum 8

h ij k

s t uvw x

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

n o p q

d e f g

…

Source 6.6.4 The Viking alphabet, called the Younger Futhark, is a runic alphabet of 16 characters that was used during the Viking Age. How would you write your name in runes?

Viking mythology and religion sources Viking communities didn’t keep many written records; runes were mostly used for ceremonial purposes such as divination, inscribing ownership or protective words on to weapons, and putting names and poems on gravestones. Most of our knowledge about Viking mythology comes from other sources and a few archaeological remains.

Literature

The main sources are literary texts written at the end of the Viking period, namely the Prose Edda (c.1220), a handbook by Snorri Sturluson, and the anonymous

collection of poems called the Poetic Edda (written in the 13th century). The Eddas describe the oral traditions of the Viking gods and mythology.

Viking funerals

In 1905 a Viking burial ship called the Oseberg ship was excavated in Norway, revealing information about burial rituals and beliefs. Archaeologists dated the burial to 834 ce and found the remains of two women inside, to whom the grave was dedicated. Scan the QR code in Source 6.6.6 to learn more about Viking funeral practices.

FPO

…

Source 6.6.6

Viking funerals and burial practices, and the excavation of the Oseberg <Questions about the video>

Low-res

…

Source 6.6.5 The Oseberg Viking ship after excavation, Norway, c.1904–05

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Chapter 6: What was the historical significance of the Vikings?

163

Go online to access the interactive lesson review and more!

Lesson 6.6 review Online quiz

Review questions

DOC

Research task

Teachers can assign tasks and track results

6.6 Review questions Identify the different sources of our knowledge of Viking mythology. Describe the Viking beliefs about the universe. In which realm of Yggdrasil did the gods live? Outline its features. Explain why Odin collected the souls of human heroes. In your opinion, how might this have influenced the behaviour of Viking warriors? 5 Account for the different types of Viking funerals. What evidence do historians have for this?

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

1 2 3 4

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

164

Cambridge Investigating Humanities for the Victorian Curriculum 8

6.7

What was the significance of Viking weaponry and warfare?

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Learning intention

In the previous lesson, you studied Norse mythology and the Vikings’ religious beliefs. In this lesson, you will learn about the methods of Viking warfare and weapon craftsmanship.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

See, think, wonder

Look at Sources 6.7.1 and 6.7.2, which show a real Viking helmet and a toy one.

1 See: What differences do you see between the two helmets? 2 Think: Why do you think the style of the toy helmet might have become popular? 3 Wonder: What does the Gjermundbu helmet make you wonder about Viking helmets? Low-res

…

Source 6.7.1 Gjermundbu helmet from the Viking Age, excavated in Norway in 1943

Source 6.7.2 Boy wearing a plastic Viking helmet.

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Chapter 6: What was the historical significance of the Vikings?

165

Fact and fiction of Viking warfare A common stereotype of Viking warriors is of bare-chested men, draped in furs, wearing horned helmets and wielding axes while charging towards innocent villagers. However, the Vikings did not attack blindly, but were sophisticated and tactical warriors.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Vikings did not wear horned helmets: only one completely intact helmet has ever been found from the Viking Age, the Gjermundbu helmet (Source 6.7.1), and it did not have horns. Horned helmets have been discovered, but they are from the Iron Age, thousands of years before the Viking Age and were probably used for ceremonies rather than battle.

Viking helmets were similar to those used by other cultures at the time. The myth of the Vikings having helmets with horns probably originated from the idea that the Vikings were demons and devils or from costumes used in performances of Wagner’s 19th-century operas, which are based on the Norse sagas. Horned helmets would not be very practical, as they don’t protect the face and can be easily pulled off by opponents. As seen in Source 6.7.1, the Vikings’ helmets were cone-shaped with a nose guard but open around the eyes and neck. They were effective in deflecting blows to the head from opponents at close range.

Viking weapons and armour

Bayeux Tapestry a long, embroidered cloth created in the 1070s that depicts the Norman invasion of England and the Battle of Hastings

Vikings usually wore protective armour that was similar to their opponents’ armour. They wore chainmail, a vest of interlocking iron and steel links, over linen padding. The weight of their armour was around seven kilograms, not including their large, round shield and weapons, so they had to be very strong and fit. Excavated artefacts, the Bayeux Tapestry and details from the Icelandic sagas reveal the types of weapons the

Vikings used. Viking swords usually had short hilts and were designed to be used in one hand with a shield in the other. A lot of strength, skill and training were required to wield them effectively. The Vikings used axes for close combat, as well as spears with iron heads to penetrate and rip away their opponents’ shields. In addition, the Vikings developed missile weapons such as javelins and bows and arrows, which were useful during ship battles.

Concepts and skills builder 6.7 Using historical sources: Viking weaponry Low-res

Low-res

… Source 6.7.3 A sword from the 10th century of

Frankish design (left). This is the type of sword a Viking chieftain or nobleman would have carried. The hilt (right) has an elaborate design and the blade is pattern welded (made by forging together irons of different qualities) to make the blade strong but flexible. Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

166

Cambridge Investigating Humanities for the Victorian Curriculum 8

Low-res

…

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Low-res

Source 6.7.4 Viking weapons (a sword and an axe head) excavated from a boat burial of a Viking chieftain

in Scotland

Low-res

…

Source 6.7.5 A section of the 11th-century Bayeux Tapestry, showing sword and axe designs influenced by the Vikings. The tapestry shows the Saxons using weapons that they took from the Vikings they had just fought a few weeks before.

1 Use Sources 6.7.3–6.7.5 to describe what the evidence reveals about the different types of Viking weapons 2 Rank the sources from most to least valuable to a historian who wants to know about Viking weaponry and warfare. Provide reasons for your choice. Historical concepts and skills: using historical sources

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Chapter 6: What was the historical significance of the Vikings?

167

Viking raiders and berserkers supernatural strength. It is from these writings that the stereotype of the halfnaked, frenzied Viking attacker most likely came from (for example, see Source 6.7.6). As you learned in Lesson 6.1, one of the most famous raids recorded was the attack at the monastery in Lindisfarne, Northumbria, in 793 ce, detailed in chronicles and historical writings by monks (such as Source 6.7.7).

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

chronicle a detailed history of the events of a particular era, written in date order

The most feared of the Viking raiders were the ‘berserkers’. These were warriors thought to have ingested a substance to bring on ‘hysterical rage’. In the centuries after the Viking Age, they were recorded in the sagas as ferocious warriors of Odin who wore bear skins (the Old Norse word berserkr means ‘bear coat’, but some early historians thought it derived from ‘bare of shirt’), felt no pain and had

Amazing but true…

The phrase ‘going berserk’ originally comes from a reference to berserker Viking raiders.

His [Odin’s] men rushed forwards without armour, were as mad as dogs or wolves, bit their shields, and were strong as bears or wild oxen, and killed people at a blow, but neither fire nor iron told upon them. This was called Berserkergang.

…

Source 6.7.6 A description of berserkers from the Ynglinga saga, written c.1225 by Icelandic historian and poet Snorri Sturluson

Low-res

On the seventh of the ides [seventh day] of June, they reached the church of Lindisfarne, and there they miserably ravaged and pillaged everything; they trod the holy things under their polluted feet, they dug down the altars, and plundered all the treasures of the church. Some of the brethren they slew, some they carried off with them in chains, the greater number they stripped naked, insulted, and cast out of doors, and some they drowned in the sea.

Source 6.7.8 Norse chess pieces from a Viking collection found in Scotland, c.1150. The front piece depicts a berserker playing piece, eyes blazing and biting his shield in rage.

…

Source 6.7.7 Extract from The History of the Church

of Durham, written by the monk Simeon of Durham, 1104–07

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

168

Cambridge Investigating Humanities for the Victorian Curriculum 8

…

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Low-res

Source 6.7.9 An 18th-century artist’s impression of a Viking fleet arriving at a coast ready to raid. What does the artist

reveal about the nature of Viking warfare?

Lesson 6.7 review Online quiz

Review questions

DOC

Research task

Go online to access the interactive lesson review and more!

Teachers can assign tasks and track results

6.7 Review questions

1 Identify where the stereotype of the horned helmet came from and explain why this is an inaccurate portrayal of a Viking helmet. 2 Explain how describing someone as ‘going berserk’ relates to the Vikings. 3 Describe what the written sources reveal about why the Viking berserkers were so terrifying. 4 Describe the typical armour worn and weapons used by the Vikings, and explain why they had to keep fit to wear and wield them.

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Chapter 6: What was the historical significance of the Vikings?

169

6.8

How did the Vikings expand their influence?

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Learning intention

In the previous lesson, you examined the Vikings’ craftsmanship in weaponry and methods of warfare. In this lesson, you will investigate Viking explorations via sea and examine their skills in trade and shipbuilding.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

What makes you say that? Consider Source 6.8.1 closely.

1 What’s going on? 2 What do you see that makes you say that? Low-res

…

Source 6.8.1 An artist’s impression of how Viking longships were built

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

170

Cambridge Investigating Humanities for the Victorian Curriculum 8

Viking exploration and trade The Vikings were infamous for raiding and pillaging, but it is less known that they were also accomplished traders. Due to their developments in shipbuilding, they were well equipped to travel the seas, explore new lands and trade with peoples outside their homeland. Refer to Source 6.1.1 to review the map of the many different Viking sea voyages.

shows their value for traders, even with the risk of getting caught.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Along the sea trading-routes, the Vikings established settlements, which became vibrant hubs of market life and later major trading cities. Cities such as Duiblinn (Dublin) in Ireland and Jorvik (York) in England were established by the Vikings.

A knarr was a Viking cargo ship used by merchants. It was designed especially for transporting trading goods and later for the movement of settlers. The knarr’s frame was shorter than the longships used for war. It was deeper and very sturdy, could carry its own weight in cargo and was suited to long journeys.

Products were not the only things the Vikings traded. Ideas and information also travelled along the trade routes. Historians believe that part of the Viking success in their raids and expansion was due to their knowledge of the different landscapes, regions and customs of the foreigners they traded with. News of political and social changes would have spread by the trade routes. The Vikings would have learned all about the treasures of kings and monasteries, as well as the military defences in other lands. By the time the raiding began, the Vikings had informed knowledge of their targets’ weaknesses and had the means of taking what they wanted with a quick escape.

The Vikings traded fur, feathers, walrus ivory, animal horns, leather, live animals, fish, timber, artisan items and enslaved people along established trade routes. In return they obtained Arab silver, ceramics, glassware, wine, spices, silk and, most surprisingly, weapons. Even though the Frankish king (the king of France) banned selling weapons to Scandinavia, such weapons appear in many graves, which

knarr a Viking cargo ship capable of open sea travel

Concepts and skills builder 6.8

Using historical sources: artefacts from Viking expansion and trade Low-res

Source 6.8.2 A 10th-century collection of silver and Arab coins from a Viking grave in Sweden

Source 6.8.3 A 10th-century range of treasures collected by a Viking trader, found in 2007 near York. It contained 617 coins, silver fragments and rings, from a wide range of countries, including Samarkand (now part of Uzbekistan), North Africa, Afghanistan, Russia, Ireland, Scandinavia and mainland Europe.

…

Low-res

…

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Chapter 6: What was the historical significance of the Vikings?

171

Low-res

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

…

Source 6.8.4 Silver coins with images of Viking ships. The left and central coins show different types of ships, likely merchant vessels. The coins were minted in Denmark in the 9th century.

Low-res

…

Source 6.8.5 A reconstruction of a Viking knarr, a ship used for trading and settlement

Use Sources 6.8.2–6.8.5 and the knowledge you have gained so far to answer the following questions. 1 Describe how Sources 6.8.2 and 6.8.3 showcase the different types of Viking artefacts discovered. 2 Explain what Sources 6.8.4 and 6.8.5 might reveal about Viking expansion and trade. Historical concepts and skills: using historical sources

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

172

Cambridge Investigating Humanities for the Victorian Curriculum 8

Viking shipbuilding Archaeologists have uncovered examples of the longship (a warship) and the knarr (cargo ship), as well as ferries, coastal vessels and fishing ships. The Vikings were innovative in the design, construction and use of their ships. Their dense oak forests provided the materials for building sturdy, light ships. Very tall and straight oak trees were split and shaped to make the skeletal frame of the ship. The Vikings cleverly used green (young) timber for flexible wood so they could curve planks for certain sections of the ship’s hull. Each ship required about 12–13 large oak trees and a significant amount of labour, to cut down and prepare the wood. Talented woodworkers and artisans skilfully crafted the ships.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Our knowledge of the Vikings is not complete without understanding their shipbuilding. For 300 years the Vikings dominated the waters of Europe, from the open seas to the many inland rivers. Viking ships were described as ‘flying fiery dragons’ in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle and their sighting was a sure sign of disaster, conjuring fear in anyone expecting their arrival. The Vikings’ shipbuilding technology gave them an unmatched military advantage that no one else in Europe had ever seen or was prepared for. We have a number of sources for understanding how the Viking ships were made and functioned. Rock carvings and the Icelandic sagas detail the ships’ advanced features, which were later confirmed with archaeological discoveries. The Vikings had a range of sophisticated ships to fit their needs for trading, fishing, travelling, raiding and settling.

Viking ships were symmetrical, meaning they had the same front and back (Source 6.8.6). This gave the Vikings great tactical success, because they could sail

Mast

Yard

… Source 6.8.6

Diagram of a Viking longship

Forestay

Sternpost

Sail

Oar storage

Forestay

Backstay

Dragon’s head

Tack

Stempost

Steerboard

Deck

Planks (Stranks) Bow

Storage compartment Oarport Hull

Keel Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Chapter 6: What was the historical significance of the Vikings?

173

Constructing the stern and bow: adding features like a dragon’s head to the bow

Adding the mast and sails

Including any final touches such as decorative elements and reinforcements

The design of the ships made them three to four times faster than their opponents’ ships. The Vikings’ attacks came to be known as ‘lightning raids’, because they were able to land, raid a village and sail off before the locals even had a chance to muster their armies.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

up to a beach, raid the closest town, return to their ship and make a quick escape without having to turn the ship around. The ships were also very light and thin. Some vessels were only a few centimetres thick along the bottom! The Vikings could even carry their ships if they had to cross short distances overland and reach another river. Their shallow draft allowed the Vikings to navigate through very shallow waters and dock on almost any shore, unlike other European ships, which needed deep ports. The step-by-step construction of a Viking longship involved: 1

Selecting and preparing the wood: locating the right trees, felling them and stripping the bark

Crafting the keel and backbone

Building the frame

Planking the hull: fastening, shaping and waterproofing the planks

Creating the deck and internal structure, including storage compartments

The Vikings’ naval technology was so successful that it completely transformed European shipbuilding and seafaring methods. Viking designs are still being copied and used to construct modern ships today. Low-res

Low-res

…

Source 6.8.8 Hand carving the wooden ribs of a Viking ship

Low-res

Source 6.8.9 A boat-builder building a traditional Viking ship for a museum in Denmark

…

Source 6.8.7 Recreating a historical Viking ship

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

174

Cambridge Investigating Humanities for the Victorian Curriculum 8

…

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Low-res

Source 6.8.10 Components of a Viking longship:

Crossbeams strengthened the ship

A deck would have covered the crossbeams, with benches on it

The spine of the ship was carved from a single tree

The hull was waterproofed by rubbing it with horsehair or wool soaked in boiled tree sap

The posts at either end would have had elaborately carved designs, often dragon heads.

Lesson 6.8 review Online quiz

Review questions

DOC

Research task

Go online to access the interactive lesson review and more!

Teachers can assign tasks and track results

6.8 Review questions 1 2 3 4 5

Explain the reasons historians believe the Vikings left their homelands to raid and trade. Describe the trade goods the Vikings offered and what they gained in return, and from whom. Identify the different types of Viking ships and their purposes. Explain how the Vikings’ innovations in sailing and shipbuilding led to their success in trade and exploration. Describe the different sources and evidence historians use to understand Viking ships.

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Chapter 6: What was the historical significance of the Vikings?

175

6.9

What were the consequences of contact and conflict with other societies?

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Learning intention

In the previous lesson, you explored how the Vikings expanded from Scandinavia using their skills in trade and shipbuilding. In this lesson, you will learn how they gained territorial advantage by moving westwards and eastwards, and you will study the consequences of their contact with these new regions.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson. Tug of war

Consider this statement:

‘The Vikings were bloodthirsty barbarians.’

Follow these instructions to have a tug of war on this statement.

• Think about the opposing sides of the statement as two ends of a tug-of-war rope. • Identify factors that ‘pull’ the rope towards one side or the other. These are like the two teams in the tug of war. • Think of reasons to support one side – these are ‘tugs’. Try to think of reasons that tug towards the other side as well. • Think of ‘what if?’ questions to explore the topic further. 1 Which side won your tug of war? 2 Who might this statement be true for? 3 How could this statement be limited?

Westward expansion

Anglo-Saxons a Germanic people who settled across England from the 5th century ce and spoke Old English; often shortened to just ‘Saxons’

The expansion of Viking warfare and colonisation westward was led by Norwegian and Danish Vikings (both called ‘Danes’ by Anglo-Saxon chroniclers). From the 9th century, the Danish Vikings colonised parts of France, England, and the Orkney and Shetland Islands (off the coast of Scotland). At a similar time, the Norwegian Vikings settled in Ireland, Iceland, Greenland and Vinland (modern-day Newfoundland in North America). In 845 ce the legendary Viking hero Ragnar Lothbrok, along with his fleet

of 120 ships, held Paris under siege. The Frankish king Charles the Bald offered him a large amount of gold and silver to leave. News soon spread that rulers would pay hefty ransoms to free their cities, and Vikings began to plunder all over the Mediterranean world. The Anglo-Saxon kingdoms faced a similar fate. These large payments were called Danegeld (Dane gold) and they contributed greatly to the wealth of Scandinavia, while devastating the economies of the lands they ransacked.

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

176

Cambridge Investigating Humanities for the Victorian Curriculum 8

After decades of raiding the Frankish Empire, the Vikings had depleted much of its wealth and decided to target England. Their motivation soon shifted from plundering wealth to conquering land. In 865 ce a massive Viking army, known as the Great ‘Heathen’ Army, with as many as 250–300 ships and 5000–10 000

warriors, landed in East Anglia. By 870 ce the Vikings had seized every Anglo-Saxon kingdom except Wessex, ruled by King Alfred the Great (ruled 871–899 ce). In 878 Alfred agreed to a treaty with the Danish Vikings to allow them to settle in a part of England known as Danelaw (Source 6.9.1).

Danelaw the parts of Anglo-Saxon England that came under Danish law and where Danish customs were observed, particularly in the late 9th and early 10th centuries

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Low-res

…

Source 6.9.1 England during the Danelaw, c.878 ce

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Chapter 6: What was the historical significance of the Vikings?

177

fief land owned by the king and rented to a vassal

of the king. He was awarded a new area of land in northern France called Normandy (from ‘Northmen’). Part of the agreement also required the new Normans to protect France from any future Viking invasions. Rollo was the first Duke of Normandy. His descendant, William the Conqueror, would lead the Norman invasion of England in 1066, win the Battle of Hastings and become King of England.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

vassal a person who holds land or a position granted by a superior, to whom they owe allegiance

In 911 ce the Danish king Rollo negotiated peace with Frankish King Charles III (called Charles the Simple), after years of attacking settlements along the Seine River and besieging Paris. Rollo was offered a peace agreement, the Treaty of Saint-Clair-sur-Epte, in exchange for Charles’ surrender, granting him a fief, money and status. Rollo agreed, was baptised Christian and became a vassal

Low-res

…

Source 6.9.2 A modern artist’s impression of the Norman attack on Paris led by Rollo in 885 ce

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

178

Cambridge Investigating Humanities for the Victorian Curriculum 8

Low-res (the capital city of the Byzantine Empire, now modern-day Istanbul), parts of Russia, and even Jerusalem and Baghdad in the Middle East.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

In 860 ce the Vikings established the political state of Kievan Rus’ (meaning the land of the Rus – ‘Rus’ was the name for Swedes). The town of Kiev was the central hub for the Rus and became a major trading route along the rivers connecting the Baltic, Black and Caspian seas. These routes connected Scandinavia with Constantinople, Baghdad and Kiev. Thanks to the Vikings’ ship technology, they could travel up these rivers and establish new places to trade.

…

Source 6.9.3 An illuminated manuscript from the Radziwill Chronicle, dating from the 13th–15th centuries, detailing the Swedish Vikings in Constantinople in 860 ce What can you identify from the imagery?

Eastward expansion

Swedish Vikings (Swedes) led the expansion of Viking activity eastward. They reached as far as Constantinople

More states, such as the Volga Bulgaria, were also established along the Viking trade routes. In 989 ce in Constantinople, the Rus established themselves as elite mercenary bodyguards of the emperor, known as the Varangian Guard, which lasted for centuries. Kievan Rus’ is where the name ‘Russia’ comes from and the area spanned parts of modern-day Russia, Belarus and Ukraine.

mercenary a soldier who fights for payment rather than political interests or patriotism

Concepts and skills builder 6.7 Historical significance: Viking conquests

1 Create a mind map of all of the countries the Vikings conquered or travelled to on their westward and eastward expansions. 2 For each country, identify the major settlement or city that was conquered or inhabited by the Vikings. 3 From each settlement or city, describe a significant event, person, trade or change that involved the Vikings.

Historical concepts and skills: continuity and change, using historical sources Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Chapter 6: What was the historical significance of the Vikings?

179

Viking impact on England and northern Europe that we still use today, including husband, fellow, law, outlaw, knife, egg, race, window and sky. In addition, many place names in northern England and Europe come from Danish names, such as York (from Jorvik) and Dublin (Duiblinn). The Danes also influenced England’s legal systems, including the introduction of shires (or counties) and a jury of 12 to address crimes and cases of treason within the Five Boroughs (the five main towns under Danelaw). The Viking idea of a jury later passed into English law and is still used in the Western world today. Within a few generations, the Danes significantly changed the language and customs of their new homeland. In comparison, the Scandinavians in Ireland, France and Byzantium tended not to force the areas to adopt their language and customs. They mostly embraced the cultures of the lands they settled in, though they did still have profound influences, too. For example, in France, the Danish influence included changes to local language, military tactics and politics, such as feudalism.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Between 874 ce and 878 ce, the Viking warlord and king Guthrum, who had overthrown parts of Mercia, East Anglia and Northumbria, made several attempts to conquer Wessex. However, King Alfred was a mighty king whose army maintained a stronghold on Wessex, preventing the Vikings from claiming the last kingdom in England.

converted when a person or group has chosen or been persuaded to change their religion or beliefs monotheism a religion that has only one god

Finally, in 886 ce Guthrum suffered a major defeat by King Alfred’s army in the Battle of Ethandun. Alfred convinced Guthrum to sign a peace agreement known as the Treaty of Wedmore. To meet the treaty, Alfred gave the Danes a large amount of Danegeld but they had to accept Wessex as an independent kingdom and be baptised as Christians. King Alfred’s tactical skills in holding off the Viking armies while reaching a successful peace treaty earned him the name ‘Alfred the Great’.

The Danes had a significant impact on the language, culture and customs in England. About 600 Danish words (or Old Norse) words became part of the English

Impact of other cultures on the Vikings

FPO

…

Source 6.9.4

The spread of Christianity to the Vikings

While greatly influencing cultural changes in England, the Danes were also changed themselves.

Christianity

Over time, the Danes incorporated the Christian God into their pantheon of

Norse gods. By 1050 ce, most Danes were converted to Christianity and came to fully embrace Christian monotheism. Scan the QR code in Source 6.9.4 to watch a video on the spread of Christianity to the Vikings.

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

180

Cambridge Investigating Humanities for the Victorian Curriculum 8

English monarchy

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

As the Danes became more successful in the Danelaw, the more external Vikings attacked England. This pushed King Alfred the Great and his successors to develop a strong monarchy and ultimately unify England. By the 10th century, the Danelaw had dissolved and the Danes decided to be subjects of the English king, ultimately becoming absorbed into England.

… Source 6.9.5 The Jelling Rune Stones in Denmark,

erected c.965 ce by King Harald Bluetooth after he changed the religion of Denmark from paganism to Christianity. The inscription reads: ‘King Harold bade [ordered] these memorials to be made after Gorm, his father, and Thyra, his mother. The Harold who won the whole of Denmark and Norway and turned the Danes to Christianity.’

Lesson 6.9 review Online quiz

Review questions

DOC

Research task

Go online to access the interactive lesson review and more!

Teachers can assign tasks and track results

6.9 Review questions 1 2 3 4

Discuss the significance of Danegeld and its impact on Viking raids. Describe the features of Danelaw in Anglo-Saxon England. Explain how Viking beliefs changed from paganism to Christianity. a Analyse how the Danes influenced the culture, customs and language of England. b Discuss how the consequences of this also ultimately impacted the Vikings. 5 Look at Source 6.9.5. Propose an explanation of how the Jelling Rune Stones could be used as evidence the spread of Christianity to the Vikings. Identify support for your explanation, and anything you feel this source doesn’t explain.

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Chapter 6: What was the historical significance of the Vikings?

181

6.10

Who was Leif Erikson and did the Vikings ‘discover’ the Americas?

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Learning intention

In the previous lesson, you explored how the Vikings expanded both westward and eastward from Scandinavia, and the consequences of their raiding and settling in these new regions. In this lesson, you will learn about the achievements and travels of the Icelandic Viking Leif Erikson.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

Connect, extend, challenge

Refer to Source 6.10.1 and its caption to answer the following questions. Low-res

…

Source 6.10.1 The voyages and settlements, including North America, of Erik the Red and his son, Leif Erikson, based on the writings in The Saga of Erik the Red, the Saga of the Greenlanders and archaeological evidence. Where were each of the Viking settlements in North America?

1 How are the voyages in this map connected to something you know about? 2 What new ideas or impressions do you have that extend your thinking in new directions? 3 What is challenging or confusing? What do you wonder about? Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

182

Cambridge Investigating Humanities for the Victorian Curriculum 8

The Viking who reached America was said to be a pleasant man who was greatly liked in the community. Leif was a Christian, unlike his father, who was devoted to the old Norse gods. In many ways, Leif has been remembered more for bringing Christianity to Greenland than for reaching North America. In Iceland, Leif heard of a travel story about a merchant called Bjarni Herjolfsson that sparked his adventure to America. While on a trading expedition, Bjarni was blown off course and sighted land west of Greenland. Bjarni commented on all the trees he could see on this land, so Leif knew he hadn’t mistaken it for Greenland. (Despite the name, Greenland is quite barren. Erik the Red named it ‘green’ to encourage more people to settle there, even though it was misleading). Leif bought Bjarni’s boat from him and gathered a crew of 35 men willing to go on a quest into the unknown across the treacherous Atlantic Ocean.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Many people think the Italian explorer Christopher Columbus was the first European to reach the Americas. However, Leif ‘the Lucky’ Erikson (c.970–1020 ce) sailed there 500 years earlier. Leif was the son of Erik ‘the Red’ Thorvaldsson (c.950–1003 ce), the man who discovered Greenland. Leif was born around 970 ce in Iceland, a land that had been settled by the Vikings a hundred years earlier.

Low-res

…

Source 6.10.2 A woodcut illustration of Erik the Red in a 1688 Icelandic publication. What Viking weaponry and armour can you identify?

exiled expelled or banished from one’s homeland

Source 6.10.3 A 2021-minted coin from Niue featuring Erik the Red’s daughter, Freydis Eiríksdóttir. She was a real-life Viking warrior who journeyed with her brother, Leif Erikson, to Vinland in North America (c. 1000 ce). What Viking elements can you identify on this coin?

…

According to the sagas, Leif’s grandfather, Thorvald Asvaldsson, was exiled from Norway for murder and took his son Erik to Iceland around 960 ce. In 982 ce, Erik was exiled from Iceland for three years for manslaughter. He sailed off and discovered Greenland, and Leif later joined him there. Leif’s father got the name ‘Red’ not only from his fiery hair, but also his fiery temper. Leif, however,

manslaughter the crime of killing a person when the killer did not intend to do it, or cannot be held responsible for their actions

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Chapter 6: What was the historical significance of the Vikings?

183

Reaching Markland and Vinland Vinland (wine land), possibly modernday Newfoundland. Leif chose the name Vinland because his crew discovered grapes or another kind of berry they could brew into a drink they called vinbeer, according to the sagas.

…

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Leif and his crew reached the coast of America around 1000 ce, first sighting a forested area he called Markland (woodland), possibly modern-day Labrador in Canada, before eventually reaching the shore of an area he called

Source 6.10.4 A modern artist’s impression of Leif Erikson sighting North America, based on a woodcut by Christian Krohg, 1911

The first visit to Vinland proved to be a roaring success. They established a camp called Leifsbudir (Leif’s Booths) where they stayed for the winter. They had access to an ocean overflowing with salmon, wild game, forests of timber, produce to brew alcohol and apparently no one who had already claimed the land.

On their voyage back to Greenland, Leif rescued an Icelandic merchant and his crew who were shipwrecked. To say thank you, Leif was gifted all of the trading cargo, and so his crew nicknamed him Leif ‘the Lucky’.

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

184

Cambridge Investigating Humanities for the Victorian Curriculum 8

Concepts and skills builder 6.8 Analysing historical perspectives: Leif Erikson

…

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

‘It is now my wish’ says Leif, ‘to take you all into my ship, and like-wise so much of your possessions as the ship will hold.’ This offer was accepted, and [with their ship] thus laden [loaded with the cargo] … Leif rescued fifteen persons from the skerry [sea]. He was afterward called Leif the Lucky. Source 6.10.5 Extract from Saga of the Greenlanders, a 14th-century manuscript recording earlier events

Leif came upon men who had been shipwrecked, and took them home with him, and gave them sustenance during the winter. Thus did he show his great munificence and his graciousness when he brought Christianity to the land, and saved the shipwrecked crew. He was called Leif the Lucky.

…

Source 6.10.6 Extract from The Saga of Erik the Red, believed to have been written in the 13th century

1 a Using Sources 6.10.5 and 6.10.6, compare and contrast the different perspectives on Leif Erikson from the two sagas. What are the main differences in how he is portrayed? b Investigate which version historians believe to be more reliable and explain why. 2 Compare the historical evidence for the life of Leif Erikson with the evidence for legendary Ragnar Lothbrok. Present a table with your findings of each individual and suggest whether historians consider Ragnar Lothbrok to be a person of fiction or fact. Historical concepts and skills: using historical sources

Second trip to Vinland

…

Leif and his crew returned to Greenland raving about the beauty and bountiful resources of Vinland. Leif was about to return with a group of settlers, however his father Erik the Red died, and he had to stay in Greenland to take over the family affairs. Instead Thorvold, Leif’s younger brother, sailed to Vinland with a small crew, reaching the same camp Leif had established, Leifsbudir. Here, however, they encountered local Indigenous people, whom they attacked and mostly killed. In retaliation, Thorvold was wounded by a spear and soon died from his injuries.

Source 6.10.7 A statue of Leif Erikson, Iceland

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Chapter 6: What was the historical significance of the Vikings?

185

Settlement FPO …

Source 6.10.8

Low-res

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

L’Anse aux Meadows video

This second trip to Vinland proved unsuccessful and tragic, but another attempt at settlement was made in the summer of 1009 out of the need for resources, land and timber. A settlement was established in Vinland with a few hundred people, but it only lasted a few years due to ongoing conflict with the Indigenous people. The settlement was abandoned in 1014 (although some sources say between 1030 and 1145) and the Vikings returned to Greenland. There is evidence that, for a few hundred years, the Greenlanders continued to visit Markland to harvest timber and trade. Leif Erikson never returned to Vinland and died in 1020.

…

Go online to access the interactive lesson review and more!

Source 6.10.9 A reconstructed Viking settlement and church at the archaeological site L’Anse aux Meadows, Newfoundland. Scan the QR code to watch a short video about this site. How did the archaeological ﬁndings at L’Anse aux Meadows conﬁrm details about Vinland in the sagas?

Lesson 6.10 review Online quiz

Review questions

DOC

Research task

Teachers can assign tasks and track results

6.10 Review questions

1 Explain why Leif Erikson’s grandfather (Thorvald Asvaldsson) and father (Erik the Red) were exiled from Norway and Iceland. 2 Discuss what Leif Erikson was most famous for in his time, and what he is famous for today. 3 Describe how Leif Erikson heard about the land that is modern-day North America. 4 Explain the details of why Leif Erikson and his crew initially believed the discovery of Vinland to be a huge success. Why did this change? 5 Identify two different types of evidence for the existence of Vinland.

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

186

Cambridge Investigating Humanities for the Victorian Curriculum 8

6.11

How did the Viking Age end and what legacy did it leave?

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Learning intention

In the previous lesson, you studied the achievements and travels of Leif Erikson as the first European to reach America. In this lesson, you will examine the various causes for the decline of the Vikings and explore their legacy and lasting impact.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

See, think, wonder

Look at Sources 6.11.1 and 6.11.2. 1 See: What do you see? Consider the similarities between the two photographs. 2 Think: What does it make you think? Why do you think the author of the Lord of the Rings books, J.R.R. Tolkien, and the makers of the films, might have drawn on Viking history for this fantasy world? 3 Wonder: What does it make you wonder? What might be the possible effects of the Viking legacy on popular culture today? Low-res

…

Source 6.11.1 A reconstructed Viking longhouse. Earth and turf

Source 6.11.2 A hobbit home from the Lord of the Rings movie set

were used to insulate the home.

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Chapter 6: What was the historical significance of the Vikings?

187

The decline of the Vikings Eventually, the traditional Viking way of life became less and less successful. This

was because of many changes across all of Europe.

Table 6.11.1 Reasons for the decline of the Vikings

Explanation Raiding died off because countries became better equipped to defend themselves against the Vikings’ shock tactics. Monasteries and other valuable targets built better defences, and armies became stronger and more organised. For example, in 807 ce, the island monastery at Iona, off the coast of Scotland, moved 35 km further inland to better protect themselves from Viking raids. The spread of Raiding and violence became less popular, as they went against the teachings of Jesus. As Christianity more of Europe converted to Christianity, more of the Viking way of life disappeared. Many Viking traditions were absorbed into Christian traditions and culture. A changing Across Europe, what were once small kingdoms fighting among themselves became larger, Europe more powerful kingdoms. This made it harder for the Vikings to launch attacks. Treaty of Saint- In 911 ce, Viking leader Rollo led a failed invasion in Normandy (modern-day France). The king, Charles III, offered a treaty with Rollo: he would give Rollo land in return for loyalty. Clair-sur-Epte Rollo agreed, vowing to protect France from further Viking attacks, converting to Christianity, and marrying one of Charles’s daughters. The Battle of In 1066, the Norwegian king Harald was killed in a failed attack on the English mainland. Stamford Bridge This battle was a significant turning point and is often cited as the end of the Viking Age. Following King Harald’s devastating defeat, the Vikings were left with only 24 ships out of the 300 they invaded with. Consequently, there were no more major Viking raids in Europe.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Reason Better defences

…

Source 6.11.3 An artist’s impression of the 1066 Battle of Stamford Bridge, an event some historians claim to mark the end of the Viking Age. What evidence of Viking weaponry and warfare can you identify?

Low-res

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

188

The legacy of the Vikings Days of the week

Vikings settled the Danelaw, the names became part of the English language. Even though they look similar, the names for the remaining days come from ancient Roman culture. As many as 600 other Norse words became part of the English language.

In English, the days from Tuesday to Friday come directly from the Norse language, specifically the Norse gods. In Viking culture, these days honoured each significant god, and when the

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Table 6.11.2 The influence of Viking culture and language on the English days of the week

Modern English Sunday Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday Saturday

Old Norse sunnudagr mánadagr tysdagr óðinsdagr þórsdagr frjádagr sunnunót

Old English Sunnandæg Mōnandæg Tīwesdæg Wōdnesdæg Þunresdæg Fr īgedæg Sæternesdæg

Christmas traditions

story of St Nicholas (a Greek bishop who lived in the 4th century), his reindeerdrawn sleigh is based on the god Thor, whose sleigh was said to travel across the sky drawn by two goats.

Low-res

…

Christmas is traditionally linked to images of Christmas trees, snow, open fires, bright lights, presents and Santa Claus. While Christmas is known as a Christian holiday that celebrates the birth of Jesus, many of the Christmas rituals and customs we practise today do not have a Christian origin. Some of these traditions come from Yule, a Viking festival of light and warmth during the coldest and darkest time of the year. For the Vikings, Yule was celebrated during the winter solstice (the shortest day and longest night of the year, around 21 December in the northern hemisphere). The early 13th-century Icelandic author Snorri Sturluson wrote about animal sacrifice by fire during Yule as offerings to the gods, which is possibly where the traditions of giving presents, burning a Yule log and hanging stockings over the fireplace come from. While Santa Claus comes from the

Meaning Sun’s day Moon’s day Tyr’s day Wodin’s or Odin’s day Thor’s day Freya’s day Saturn’s day

Source 6.11.4 A traditional Christmas scene, with a Yule log, stockings

and a Christmas tree

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Chapter 6: What was the historical significance of the Vikings?

189

…

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Low-res

Source 6.11.5 Stories of Santa Claus include a flying sleigh drawn by reindeer to deliver presents. This draws on

the mythology of the Norse god Thor, whose flying sleigh was pulled by two goats.

Concepts and skills builder 6.11

Causes and consequences: the decline of the Vikings

1 a Review Table 6.11.1 and identify one cause for the decline of the Vikings that you find interesting. b Complete the following sentence: I notice that … c Now, follow this observation with the question: Why did it happen that way? See if you can provide at least one historical explanation to answer this question, based on what you have learned so far. 2 Use Table 6.11.2, Sources 6.11.3 and 6.11.4, and the knowledge you have gained so far, to formulate a historical argument in response to the following statement: Discuss how the influence of the Norse language on the names of the days of the week and Viking culture on modern Christmas traditions are products of the Viking expansion to England. Historical concepts and skills: causes and consequences, using historical sources

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

190

Cambridge Investigating Humanities for the Victorian Curriculum 8

Popular culture Stories of Viking mythology, heroes and the Norse gods have influenced the creation of books, films, music (including some heavy metal bands) and video games. These include:

Low-res

• movies such as Dreamworks’ How to Train Your Dragon series

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

• books such as J. R. R. Tolkien’s The Hobbit and Lord of the Rings, as well as Marvel’s Thor and The Avengers comic books

• games such as Assassin’s Creed Valhalla and Skyrim.

Source 6.11.6 Chris Hemsworth as the character of Thor in Marvel’s hit film series. What features of his clothing and weaponry match Thor from Viking mythology?

…

Tolkien’s characters, including the dwarves, elves, giants, trolls, monsters and dragons, were inspired by Norse mythology. His characters also lived in different realms named after Yggdrasil’s many worlds. The hobbit homes in Middle Earth were based on Viking longhouses, and the weapons and armour described in the books were also inspired by the Vikings. Similarly, Marvel’s movie Thor: Ragnarok (2017) was inspired by the epic apocalyptic battle in Norse mythology that brings about the destruction of the gods.

Lesson 6.11 review Online quiz

Review questions

DOC

Research task

Go online to access the interactive lesson review and more!

Teachers can assign tasks and track results

6.11 Review questions

1 Describe the main historical reasons for the decline of the Viking Age and rank them from most to least significant. Explain your choices. 2 Explain how the Vikings influenced the English language and the names of the days of the week. 3 Describe how Santa Claus is similar to the Norse god Thor. 4 Explain how the winter solstice rituals of the Vikings influenced the Christmas traditions practiced today. 5 Outline which features of Norse mythology and Viking culture have been used in popular books, comics and films.

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Chapter 6: What was the historical significance of the Vikings?

191

6.12

End of investigation review: What was the historical significance of the Vikings?

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Access the Interactive Textbook for a range of digital tools to help you review this topic, including:

• Chapter summary • Auto-marked chapter test • Scorcher timed competitive quiz.

Brain dump

What have you learned about the Vikings? Copy and complete the table to explain your understanding. Aim for two points per topic.

Topic Geography of Scandinavia Daily life Significant beliefs Weaponry and warfare Trade and expansion Impacts on other societies Controversial ‘discoveries’ Lasting legacy

What I have learned

Making thinking visible See, think, wonder

Low-res

Analyse Source 6.12.1 and answer the following questions.

See: What do you see? Describe the costume the actor is wearing.

Think: What do you think? How closely inspired by Viking history is the costume?

Wonder: What do you wonder? Why do you think historical topics such as the Vikings continue to inspire popular culture like movies?

Source 6.12.1 Actor Gerard Butler in How to Train Your Dragon (2025)

…

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

192

Cambridge Investigating Humanities for the Victorian Curriculum 8

Practice questions Why do you think ‘History is written by the victors’ is a common phrase? Justify why this is less applicable to the history of the Vikings.

Describe how the Scandinavian climate influenced the Viking way of life and was arguably a significant cause for the departure from their homelands.

Explain the social and cultural changes England experienced under the Danelaw. Refer to the sources and information in this chapter to complete your response.

Discuss how the spread of Christianity in Europe ultimately affected the society, beliefs and practices of the Vikings.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Consider how sources about the berserkers contributed to the stereotype of the Vikings as bloodthirsty barbarians. Justify your response with evidence from historical sources and details. Account for the impact of the Vikings’ shipbuilding and sailing technologies on their trade and expansion.

Explain how L’Anse aux Meadows is a significant archaeological site for the history of the Vikings and the history of North America.

Consider this statement: ‘In a little over 250 years, the Vikings reshaped the history of Europe and left a lasting impact on the world.’ Refer to the sources and information in this chapter to justify whether you agree or disagree.

Response to chapter inquiry question: What was the historical significance of The Vikings (c.790 ce – c.1066 ce)? Write a paragraph in response to the inquiry question. Include the following key terms. • raid

• trade

• shipbuilding • warfare

• mythology • legacy.

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Chapter 6: What was the historical significance of the Vikings?

193

CHAPTER 7

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

How did the modern world emerge in Europe? Low-res

LESSON TITLE

7.1

Setting the scene: why was the printing press a significant invention?

7.2

What were the key events in the emergence of the modern world in Europe?

7.3

How did England change under Henry VIII?

7.4

How did England change under Elizabeth I?

7.5

How did Peter the Great change Russian society?

7.6

How did Peter the Great change how Russia related to Europe?

7.7

What was the significance of the Enlightenment in science and thinking?

7.8

What was the significance of the Enlightenment in politics and revolution?

7.9

End of investigation review: How did the modern world emerge in Europe?

This digital chapter can be accessed via Cambridge GO

Image: A 19th-century depiction of Johannes Gutenberg inspecting the results of his first printing press, c.1440

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

194

INVESTIGATION 2

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Asia and the Pacific region (c.600–1750 ce) OVERVIEW FPO

[In this topic you will] … In exploring the medieval and pre-modern worlds, students learn about the characteristics of societies in the 6th to 16th centuries, including continuity and change in systems of government, social organisation, ideas and religion, the causes and consequences of trade, war and expansion, and the experiences and perspectives of individuals and groups in the varied societies of the Americas, Asia and the Pacific region. Source: VCAA, Victorian Curriculum V2.0, ‘History’, ‘Band description – Levels 7 and 8’

TOPIC OPTIONS

CURRICULUM GOALS

For this Investigation you must choose at least one of:

• How do we know about the past? • Why do societies change? • What makes a society? • What factors influence where societies

• Angkor/Khmer Empire – Chapter 8

• Japan under the Shoguns – Chapter 9

• Mongol expansion – Chapter 10 • Polynesian expansion across the Pacific – Chapter 11

are established?

• How do people understand their world? • What were the consequences of contact between societies?

• Why are there different interpretations of the past?

CHAPTER 8

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

What contributed to the rise and fall of Angkor and the Khmer Empire? Low-res

LESSON TITLE

8.1

Setting the scene: How was Angkor ‘discovered’?

8.2

What were the key events in the Khmer Empire’s history?

8.3

How and where did Angkor and the Khmer Empire develop?

8.4

What were the significant beliefs, values and religious practices of the Khmer Empire?

8.5

What were the key political and military features of the Khmer Empire?

8.6

What social groups were there in the Khmer Empire?

8.7

What was everyday life like in the Khmer Empire?

8.8

How did the Khmer build such a vast empire in floodplains and forest?

8.9

What role did a significant individual like King Suryavarman II play in the Khmer Empire?

8.10

What caused the decline of Angkor and what is the legacy of the Khmer Empire?

8.11

End of investigation review: What contributed to the rise and fall of Angkor and the Khmer Empire?

This digital chapter can be accessed via Cambridge GO

Image: Angkor Wat at sunrise

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

196

CHAPTER 9

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

How did Japan change under the shoguns? Low-res

LESSON TITLE

9.1 9.2 9.3 9.4 9.5 9.6 9.7 9.8

9.9 9.10 9.11

Setting the scene: What was combat like in medieval Japan? What were the major events and changes in Japanese history? What were the effects of Japan’s geography and environment on the development of its society? What were the social structures of Japanese society and how they affect the lives of individuals? What were the values of samurai and did they change over time? What caused the major shift from rule by an emperor to rule by a shogun? Part 1: the Classical period What caused the major shift from rule by an emperor to rule by a shogun? Part 2: the Feudal period Perspectives on power and authority: How did governments in medieval Japan try to maintain power? What were the roles and achievements of samurai women in shogunate Japan? How did contact with the outside world change Japanese society? End of topic review: How did Japan change under the shoguns?

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

197

9.1

Setting the scene: What was combat like in medieval Japan?

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Learning intention In this lesson, you will analyse what the story of the death of a Samurai warrior can tell us about cultural values and way of life in medieval Japan. The following story tells the legend of Taira no Atsumori (1169–1184), who was a samurai famous for his death at a young age. At the Battle of Ichi-no-Tani in 1184, Atsumori engaged the samurai Kumagai Naozane in single combat, and was killed. Kumagai had a son the same age as Atsumori. Kumagai felt great remorse,

which led him to become a monk. As a result, this otherwise unremarkable event became a well-known tragedy. As you read this passage, stop occasionally to try to identify the key points being made, particularly about religion, warfare and honour.

In the middle of a five year war in Japan (1180–1185) one battle after another was fought between powerful armies, each seeking to control more territory. At the end of one such battle, a warrior named Kumagai Naozane was trying to hunt down the commanding officers of his enemies. He saw a single horseman near him who was attempting to reach one of the ships nearby in order to escape … Kumagai challenged him, crying out: ‘Shameful! To show an enemy your back. Return! Return!’ This was aimed at forcing the other man to recollect his own honour – that he should fight, not retreat. It worked, and the enemy warrior turned his horse and rode back to the beach, where Kumagai at once engaged him in mortal combat. Quickly hurling him to the ground, he sprang upon him and tore off his helmet to cut off his head, when he found himself looking into the face of a youth of only 16 or 17, delicately powdered and with blackened teeth, just about the age of his own son and with features of great beauty. ‘Who are you?’ he asked. ‘Tell me your name, for I would spare your life.’ ‘No, first say who you are,’ replied the young man.

‘I am Kumagai Naozane of Musashi, a person of no particular importance.’

‘Then you have made a good capture,’ said the youth. ‘Take my head and show it to some of my side, and they will tell you who I am.’ For this warrior was Atsumori, a member of the court.

Just then, looking behind him, Kumagai saw his own forces coming up with 50 horsemen. ‘Alas! Look there,’ he exclaimed, the tears running down his face, ‘though I would spare your life, the whole countryside swarms with our men, and you cannot escape them. If you must die, let it be by my hand, and I will see that prayers are said for your rebirth in Paradise.’ ‘Indeed it must be so,’ said the young warrior. ‘Cut off my head at once.’

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

198

Cambridge Investigating Humanities for the Victorian Curriculum 8

Kumagai was so overcome by compassion that he could scarcely wield his blade. His eyes swam and he hardly knew what he did, but there was no help for it; weeping bitterly he cut off the boy’s head. ‘Alas!’ he cried, ‘what life is so hard as that of a soldier? Only because I was born of a warrior family must I suffer this aﬄiction! How lamentable it is to do such cruel deeds!’ He pressed his face to the sleeve of his armour and wept bitterly.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

…

Source 9.1.1 Adapted from Donald Keene, Anthology of Japanese Literature from the Earliest Era to the Mid‑Nineteenth Century, 1955

… Source 9.1.2 A Japanese painting from

1821 depicting the story of the death of Atsumori. Kumagai Naozane is on horseback and Taira no Atsumori is in the sea. Why might their armour be so highly decorated?

Lesson 9.1 review Online quiz

Review questions

DOC

Research task

Go online to access the interactive lesson review and more!

Teachers can assign tasks and track results

9.1 Focus questions Reread the Death of Atsumori in Source 9.1.1. 1 2 3 4

Why might Kumagai have acted like this? What stops him from killing Atsumori? Atsumori could have escaped by riding away – why didn’t he? Why might he want Kumagai to know he was important? Why is Kumagai’s reaction to Atsumori’s death surprising? What key quotes help to prove your points?

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Chapter 9: How did Japan change under the shoguns?

199

9.2

What were the major events and changes in Japanese history?

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Learning intention In the previous lesson, you looked at combat in medieval Japan. In this lesson, you will consider the major ways in which Japanese society changed over time.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

Why, what, how?

Look at Source 9.2.1.

Low-res

c.1000

…

Two of the world’s first novels are written, focused on life in the Imperial court: The Tale of Genji by Murasaki Shikibu and The Pillow Book of Sei Shônagon. Japan’s first histories are written, the Kojiki and Nihon shoki.

Source 9.2.1 A 2024 Australian

$1 coin

Source 9.2.2 Himeji Castle was first built in the mid-14th century and is today one of the UNESCO World Heritage sites.

…

1 Why: Why is this person on our coins? Why is this portrait on the coin? 2 What: What does it tell us about the continuing effects of history? 3 How: How does this link Australia back to medieval Europe? Consider what face would have been on the coin in earlier times, and what face will probably be on our coins in the future.

1185–1600

The medieval or Feudal period, begins after the Genpei War (1180–1185). Japan is dominated by powerful military families.

1185–1333

In the Kamakura period, Minamoto no Yoritomo creates the first ‘warrior government’ or shogunate in 1192. The Minamoto family rules from Kamakura, a coastal town of Japan.

c.750 ce

The Heian or Classical period when Japan is strongly influenced by Chinese culture. This is a period of rapid cultural change; the imperial court rules from the capital Heian-kyô, modern-day Kyoto.

Buddhism and Confucianism become key influences, and magnificent Buddhist temples are built

Source 9.2.3 The Jomon civilisation lasted until c.400 bce. …

794–1185 ce

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

200

Cambridge Investigating Humanities for the Victorian Curriculum 8

1853 Commodore Perry comes to Japan from the United States of America, and forces Japan to open up trade to Western powers

1633–1853 Source 9.2.5 Murasaki Shikibu (c.978–1014) writing The Tale of Genji at Ishiyama Temple

…

Source 9.2.4 Coloured leaves surround Kiyomizu Temple in Japan’s ancient city of Kyoto

Japan becomes a ‘closed country’, opposing outside influences

1600–1867

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Japan is united under the Tokugawa clan and society is reorganised around four classes: samurai, farmers, craftsmen and merchants. Life centres on Edo (Tokyo), the new capital of Japan.

The Azuchi-Momoyama period ended the ‘warring states’ and medieval periods, when ‘three great unifiers’ united the country by force under a military government

Source 9.2.7 A screen printing depicting Portuguese ships, known as carracks, at the Japanese port of Nagasaki

…

Source 9.2.6 A painting from 1845 of Japanese warlord Minamoto no Yoritomo

1568–1600

1543

1336–1573

Source 9.2.8 Commodore Matthew C. Perry’s ‘black ship’ arriving in Japan in 1853

…

In the Muromachi period, the Ashikaga clan rules as the shoguns. They move the capital to Kyoto in the Muromachi district.

Europeans arrive in Japan. Zen Buddhism forms a major influence in society; Christianity is introduced to Japan, but it is banned in the 16th century.

Lesson 9.2 review Online quiz

Review questions

DOC

Research task

Go online to access the interactive lesson review and more!

Teachers can assign tasks and track results

9.2 Review questions

1 Identify some of the important changes in the period before medieval Japan, particularly the consequences of society expanding or becoming more complex. 2 Describe the importance of the Minamoto and the Tokugawa clans in the medieval period. How did each of these change society? 3 There are two major dates on the timeline that involve European or American engagement with Japan. What are these dates? Explain which of them you think had the greater impact. 4 Evaluate what parts of the timeline might still be affecting Japan today. Why do you think these events or periods are significant? 5 Analyse which event on the timeline you think might have caused the greatest change in Japanese society, and explain why.

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Chapter 9: How did Japan change under the shoguns?

201

9.3

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

What were the effects of Japan’s geography and environment on the development of its society? Learning intention

In the last lesson, you learned how Japan’s culture changed over time, with the causes for this also being connected to geography. This lesson connects to the idea of change and continuity by analysing the major ways in which Japanese geography and environment influenced the development of its civilisation.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

See, think, wonder

HOKKAIDO

CHINA

Sea of Japan

Pacific Ocean

JAPAN

HONSHU

Edo Tokugawa shoguns’ capital (now called Tokyo)

KOREA

Mt Fuji

ait

him

tr aS

SHIKOKU

To Korea

Nagaasaki and Dejima Site of Dutch trading port

KYUSHU

Nara Capital during Nara Period

Heian/Kyoto Capital during Heian Period, emperors’ capital during Shogunate

Kamakura Minamoto and Ashikaga shoguns’ capital

300 km

…

Source 9.3.1 Japan consists of four main islands: Hokkaido, Honshu, Kyushu and Shikoku.

1 See: What do you see in the map of Japan? 2 Think: What does it make you think? 3 Wonder: What do you wonder? Is this one country, or several? Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

202

Cambridge Investigating Humanities for the Victorian Curriculum 8

Japan is a country made up of a series of islands, known as an archipelago. There are thousands of islands in the Japanese archipelago, but the four main islands are Hokkaido, which is the furthest north,

Honshu, which is the largest island and has the current capital of Tokyo, and two other major southern islands, Kyushu and Shikoku.

archipelago a group of islands

Development and agriculture Though the area of farming land is small, it is rich and fertile. Volcanic soils provide minerals, summers are warm and wet in Honshu and the southern islands, and crop production is good, varied and reliable. The forests also provided plentiful timber and other products that encouraged civilisation to develop.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Geography always affects the way that a country develops, because it has an impact on culture and society, and how people live their lives. The available food and the types of topography (mountains, deserts, flood plains, rivers) affect where people settle and how they make their living. Much of Japan is covered with mountain ranges and forests, and only about 15 per cent of the land can be farmed intensively or used for large-scale agriculture. Yet the society that developed in Japan in medieval times was based mainly on agriculture. It had labourers or peasants working on the land and producing crops, rather than working in trade or business.

In medieval Japan, the farmers were ruled over by the military class of society. It was important to control the best agricultural land, and the most powerful lords and nobles dominated areas of Japan that produced the most food. Being in control of food in medieval Europe or medieval Japan was a form of power.

Defence

Geography can also play a key role in defence, and Japan’s geography has made it easier to defend. Japan was not successfully invaded until World War II, when it was occupied by the United States military and its allies, including Australia.

There were only two earlier major attempts at invasion: by the Mongols, in 1274 and 1281. The geography of Japan helped to defeat both invasions. Much of the population of Japan traditionally lived in coastal areas, because of the ready availability of fish, and access to trade: goods were much easier to transport by sea than over land. Japan’s localised and large population helped create a ready availability of soldiers in times of threat from other countries.

A set of scrolls, known as the Mongol Scrolls, made at the time for a samurai warrior named Takezaki Suenaga, recorded that the Japanese forces were well prepared and able to repel the Mongolian invaders. Having set sail, the Mongols were hit by a powerful typhoon, sinking many of their ships. In 1281, when the Mongols attempted to invade Japan for a second time, they brought a huge army of 140 000 men. They did successfully occupy a small island named Iki, but their fleet was once again destroyed by a typhoon. Because these winds helped to destroy the Mongol fleets, they were believed to have come from the gods and were called kamikaze or ‘divine winds’ in Japanese.

samurai the hereditary warrior class of Japan kamikaze ‘divine wind’, especially relating to the typhoon of 1281

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Chapter 9: How did Japan change under the shoguns?

203

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES …

Source 9.3.2 The attempted invasion of Japan by the Mongol Armada, 13th century. What do you notice about the boats and their design? What does it tell you about Mongolian engineering?

An archaeologist, James Delgado, describes what the wreckage of one of

the Mongol ships looks like today, where it rests on the ocean floor:

… the seabed [is] not dominated by a large hull. Instead, clusters of timbers and artefacts suggested that a ship, or ships, had crashed into the shore and been ripped apart. There were bright red leather armour fragments, a pottery bowl decorated with calligraphy, and wood with what seemed like fresh burn marks … I swam up to one object and realized it was an intact Mongol helmet. Nearby was a cluster of iron arrow tips and a round ceramic object, a tetsuhau, or bomb … filled with black powder.

…

Source 9.3.3 Archaeologist James Delgado, ‘Relics of the Kamikaze’, Archaeology Magazine, 2003

Volcanic activity

tsunami an extremely large wave caused by a violent movement of Earth’s crust under the sea

It is not only typhoons that affect Japan. As a part of what is known as the Pacific Ring of Fire, Japan has around 10 per cent of the world’s active volcanoes. This means that Japan is prone to earthquakes and tsunami, caused by volcanic eruptions and movements in Earth’s crust.

These still continue today. In 2011, a large earthquake off the coast of Japan caused a powerful tsunami to strike the island of Honshu. It devastated the coastline, causing damage to nuclear reactors and killing around 20 000 people.

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

204

Cambridge Investigating Humanities for the Victorian Curriculum 8

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES …

Source 9.3.4 The Great Wave off Kanagawa is a famous woodblock print by the Japanese artist Katsushika Hokusai, printed sometime between 1829 and 1833. The image shows an enormous wave threatening three fishing boats off the coast of the town of Kanagawa (the present-day city of Yokohama). Mt Fuji can be seen in the background. The painting may depict a tsunami threatening Japan. What does the painting show you about how this artist viewed the sea? How has he captured the power of typhoons and the waves?

Concepts and skills builder 9.3

Constructing historical interpretations

A key part of studying history is trying to understand what past societies were like for the people at the time, and how they might have experienced life. This is known as ‘historical empathy’, and it can help us to construct historical interpretations using our knowledge, archaeology and secondary sources.

1 Read the rest of the article by James Delgado, and take notes on what objects have been found from the Mongol fleet. The full article is available at http://cambridge.edu.au/redirect/#### 2 Research Typhoon Hagibis, which struck Japan in 2019. Look particularly for news reports and online footage of the typhoon and its impact on Japan, including in coastal areas. There are useful videos available online from BBC News and ABC News. 3 Write a short piece of historical fiction, using the objects that are identified and the description of the wreck (by Delgado), as well as the news reports on the 2019 typhoon. Try to imagine what it might have been like for a Mongol soldier or a samurai as the Mongol fleet invaded Japan. Particularly consider what it would have been like on the boats that were destroyed in the great typhoon of 1281. Historical concepts and skills: communicating, historical significance

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Chapter 9: How did Japan change under the shoguns?

205

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES …

Source 9.3.5 This image captures the moment that a tsunami hit Japan in 2011. This photograph was taken near the city of Miyako, as the tsunami breached levies and swept cars and vans along with it. Why does water carry such force in a tsunami?

Go online to access the interactive lesson review and more!

Lesson 9.3 review Online quiz

Review questions

DOC

Research task

Teachers can assign tasks and track results

9.3 Review questions 1 2 3 4 5

What kind of land formation is Japan? How much land is available for large-scale agriculture, and how good is it? Name the four main islands of Japan. Explain the impact of geography on Japan and its population. What was the most important aspect of Japanese geography and climate: the sea, the land or natural disasters? Use evidence to support your answer.

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

206

Cambridge Investigating Humanities for the Victorian Curriculum 8

9.4

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

What were the social structures of Japanese society and how did they affect the lives of individuals? Learning intention

In the previous lesson, you analysed geography and environment. This lesson describes the social structures or hierarchy of Japanese society, and particularly the relationship between the upper and lower classes in medieval Japan

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

Think, pair, share

Source 9.4.1 shows the armour of a powerful warrior, Ashikaga Takauji (1305–1358), who founded the Ashikaga shogunate. You can find this shogunate on the timeline. The armour is made of leather, gold and copper, and was brightly decorated, including being wrapped in white silk and having a Buddhist deity surrounded by flames painted on the front of the chest-plate.

1 Think: What does this armour show us about warriors in medieval Japan? Consider the material it is made from, and how it is designed. 2 Pair: Pair up with another student and discuss your ideas. 3 Share: Share your views with the class.

…

Source 9.4.1 The armour of warrior Ashikaga Takauji (lived

1305–1358)

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Chapter 9: How did Japan change under the shoguns?

207

hierarchy a system in which people or things are arranged in levels according to their importance imperial related to an empire, emperor or empress

Amazing but true… The role of the Japanese emperor as the official ruler meant that he might also be kidnapped by opposing forces, because whichever force controlled the emperor technically ruled the state. In a famous Japanese scroll called the Heiji Scroll the emperor is shown being taken back and forth across a battlefield in a black carriage, as each side tried to keep control of him.

…

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

shogun the top military head of state of Japan

Japanese society across most of the period 794–1867 ce was built around a hierarchy that was based on classes or levels of society. In the Classical or Heian period, until at least the 9th century, the emperor ruled Japan from the Imperial Court based in Heian-kyo. However, in the shogunate period, which began in 1192, he came to be just a figurehead, dominated by the shogun, the military leader. The emperor still lived in luxury in his palace, and was considered the official ruler of Japan, but from the end of the Genpei War (1185) he was no longer in charge. So, one of the keys to understanding much of this time is that the top level of society (the emperor) was not actually the most powerful person.

Source 9.4.2 Detail from the Heiji Scroll, showing the emperor being moved around in the black carriage for his

own protection. What does it show us about the emperor, if he is not part of the battle, but travels around in this form of carriage?

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

208

Cambridge Investigating Humanities for the Victorian Curriculum 8

Emperor The emperor was at the top of the social structure. He was meant to be semi-divine, and technically was the ruler of the entire society. He appointed the shogun up until 1192 but thereafter the shogun actually ruled Japan. The shogun was unable to be dismissed by the emperor, who was only a figurehead and the shogun or the military determined the next shogun.

Shogun

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

The shogun was a military general who after 1192 was the head of govemment in Japan. The power of the shogun was often passed down within a family. meaning that in effect there was the dynasty of the emperor’s family, and the dynasty of the shogun’s family.

Daimyo

The daimyo were powerful feudal lords who were owed loyalty by those they controlled, including their own samurai, who served particular powerful families. The daimyo were in control of their own region and able to tax these areas of land.

daimyo a feudal Japanese lord, equivalent to a medieval European duke or earl vassal a person who holds land or a position granted by a superior, to whom they owe loyalty

Samurai

The samurai were a warrior class in society. They were kept as private armies by the daimyo. They were considered to be at a very high level in society, and could exert control over commoners. In order to ensure their loyalty, they were paid by the daimyo in either local currency, in rice (which they could trade) or in land.

Peasants

The peasants were considered very low down in the feudal structure, although they formed the majority of the population (about 90 per cent). They were fishermen and farmers, as well as labourers, and they ensured the food supply of Japan. Commoners were considered to be in a vassal-lord relationship with the samurai and daimyo, where they owed duties to the higher levels of society, and received protection in retum. There was often a fictional familial relationship that was ascribed to the peasants in Japanese society, where they were like the children of noble families, with the lords (daimyo, samurai) considered the parents. Merchants

Merchants were considered lower than peasants. This was largely because they were not seen as producing or creating anything new, but instead only made profit from other people’s work by moving goods around. Nonetheless, merchants could be quite wealthy in medieval Japan. They may have had a lower social status than peasants, but they could also potentially live a much more luxurious life. …

Source 9.4.3 The hierarchy of shogunate Japan

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Chapter 9: How did Japan change under the shoguns?

209

Samurai life the examples of such codes only come from the Tokugawa period (1600–1867), when the samurai were becoming less important in society. Before this time, samurai would most often just obey the house rules of their particular family. One of the enduring myths about the samurai is that they were swordsmen. In fact, they were mainly archers and horsemen. While there were sword fights that occurred between samurai warriors, the sword (or katana) was a secondary weapon to the bow. Everything about their armour was designed to ensure that they were protected but also to ensure that they could promote their own importance and high status in society.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

One of the most common things that people think of when studying Japanese history is the samurai, the warrior class in Japanese society. This was a group that was certainly highly considered in medieval Japan, and these warriors even took over the government of Japan from 1185 to set up a new system of warrior governments. These were led by the shogun, a term that meant the leader of troops or the ‘general who conquers the barbarians’.

bushido a Japanese warrior code of conduct

The samurai were meant to be bound by codes of honour and live according to a set of rules known as bushido or ‘the way of the warrior’. However, it is not certain that they always did so. Many of

…

Source 9.4.4 Detail from the Heiji Scroll depicting the Heiji rebellion of 1159. What forms of warfare do you notice in this image? What weapons are being used, and are they the kinds of weapons you would expect for the samurai?

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

210

Cambridge Investigating Humanities for the Victorian Curriculum 8

Amazing but true… One interesting piece of armour used by high-ranking samurai was called a horo and consisted of a thick piece of fabric over a light wooden frame that was worn on the back of the samurai. It gave the appearance that the samurai had a hunch on their back, and helped to protect them against arrows. Any arrows would lodge in the horo and not hit their back or torso.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Concepts and skills builder 9.4 Using historical sources

Examine Source 9.4.4, which shows samurai warriors from medieval Japan, and answer the questions on their equipment and how they are depicted. In analysing this image, you should consider that samurai armour was made out of iron, copper, gold, leather and silk, and that some of the best examples we have from the 12th and 13th centuries show that the samurai armour was very carefully made by craftsmen, including dying leather red and covering some of the armour in silk. 1 Why have the pieces of armour in the image been designed this way? 2 What does this image tell us about Japanese warfare and how it was fought? Consider the differences between the men on horses and the foot soldiers. 3 How does such armour show that these warriors were wealthy and powerful? Historical concepts and skills: historical significance, using historical sources

The samurai were a class in society. They were not necessarily defined by ability, but were born into this class and defined as samurai by family background. Warriors were meant to train and be loyal to their masters, the noble houses or families that they served. This was supposed to ensure that they remained honourable and dedicated to only one lord. Their lord may have been the shogun or a daimyo. If a samurai did not have a master, he was known as a ronin, or a wandering warrior, and was treated as an outcast from society. This was because most ronin were rejected by their master for committing a crime or acting improperly.

In a very famous Japanese story called The Tale of the 47 Ronin, set in 1703, a group of samurai become ronin because they lose their master (Lord Asano) when he is charged with a crime and executed. Instead of seeking a new master, they retain their loyalty. They attack the man who had caused Asano’s death, then take the head of this man to their master’s grave, to show that they have avenged his dishonour. According to many accounts, the ronin were then permitted by the government to commit ritual suicide (known as seppuku) rather than be executed.

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Chapter 9: How did Japan change under the shoguns?

211

Such stories, and other collections of what were supposed to be the samurai code (such as Hagakure: The Book of the Samurai, by Yamamoto Tsunetomo) are mostly from the 18th century. They argue that the main values of the samurai were: • selfless commitment to their lord or master

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

• continuing loyalty to their lord, even after his death • the glorification of honour, and preserving honour through actions • the belief that dying nobly was the ultimate goal of a samurai.

… Source 9.4.5 An image inspired by The

Tale of the 47 Ronin, showing 24-year-old samurai Kazuemon Masatane Fuwai

Go online to access the interactive lesson review and more!

Lesson 9.4 review Online quiz

Review questions

DOC

Research task

Teachers can assign tasks and track results

9.4 Review questions 1 2 3 4

Identify the four main values of the samurai. Describe how important the samurai were in society. What was their main role? Explain some key problems in understanding whether bushido actually existed in earlier periods of shogunate Japan. Ronin are viewed as heroic figures in popular culture. Analyse what might be some key problems for ronin with losing status or honour, and being forced to become a ‘sword for hire’? Were ronin ‘high-level’ or ‘low-level’ members of society? 5 Evaluate the level of control that samurai might have had in Japanese. Whom did they serve? Their lord, the people, or themselves?

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

212

Cambridge Investigating Humanities for the Victorian Curriculum 8

9.5

What were the values of samurai, and did these change over time?

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Learning intention Last lesson examined the social structures in Japan. In this lesson, you will consider the major ways in which the values of one social group – the samurai – may have changed over time, and what the consequences were of having a military class to dominate Japan economically and politically.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

Claim, support, question

Source 9.5.1 lists seven key rules for samurai in a noble house in 1500. Read these in small groups and then work together on these questions.

1 Claim: Make a claim about the way that samurai were meant to act, but be sure to explain this (e.g. not just ‘Samurai were meant to be warriors,’ but ‘Samurai were meant to be warriors who fought warfare mainly through the use of …’) 2 Support: Support your claim with a key quote from the rules 3 Question: Raise a key question that your group has, from reading the rules, or a puzzling part of the instructions to samurai. What sections of this are surprising to us?

Samurai House Rules from c.1500 CE 1 First of all, you should believe in the Buddha(s) and the gods. 5 Be righteous, show sympathy and respect. Be honourable. 7 You should do your hair early [as soon as you rise]. I need not tell you that this rule applies when you are to attend on your lord; but even when you must stay at home because you are not well or have urgent business to do, you should do your hair early, for you must not be seen in an ungroomed state by others. 12 If you have a little leisure, read books. But hide your reading matter in your breast-fold; in general, you should not let people see you read. But whether in bed or up and about, you must always practise writing; otherwise, you will forget how to read and write characters. 15 It is boorish and vile to have no poetic sensibility or skill, and you should study the art of poetry. 16 In your off-duty hours, practise riding. First you should become skilled in the essentials, and then practise the standard techniques for guiding the horse. 21 It is not necessary to write here about the ‘Arts of peace and War, including Archery and Horsemanship’, for to pursue these is a matter of course. From of old, the rule has been, ‘Practise the Arts of Peace on the left hand, and the Arts of War on the right’. Mastery of both is required.

…

Source 9.5.1 Samurai House Rules selected from Hojo Soun’s 21 Articles, c.1500

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Chapter 9: How did Japan change under the shoguns?

213

Amazing but true…

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Samurai were legally allowed to kill commoners if they believed that the commoners had insulted them or dishonoured them in some way. The practice of kiri-sute gomen meant that they were permitted to ‘cut and leave’ the body of a commoner. The samurai had the right to immediately avenge a wrong that they believed they had suffered; for example, by drawing their swords and beheading a commoner.

…

Source 9.5.2 A woodcut painting of the samurai Onikojima Yataro holding a severed head. After a battle, samurai presented the heads of their enemies to their lords.

Given that the samurai were most actively fighting in Japan in the medieval period, materials from the 18th century were written later, and make it difficult to truly understand their lives or whether these rules actually applied in the earlier periods of Japanese history. Certainly, the samurai were the only group in Japan who were permitted to openly carry weapons, which is similar to nobles in medieval Europe. The samurai were also allowed to use these weapons on commoners if they thought that it was justified.

Source 9.5.3 The upper section of a samurai suit of armour. What function does the mask serve? Is this just for protection, or does it have another purpose?

…

One of the ways in which we can work out whether the samurai were genuinely focused on such values as loyalty or selfsacrifice is by studying sources from the time. These show us very different aspects of samurai life, including whether it was considered more honourable to die than to fall into the hands of the enemy.

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

214

Cambridge Investigating Humanities for the Victorian Curriculum 8

Concepts and skills builder 9.5 Analysing historical interpretations The modern image of the samurai is that he was a dedicated and determined figure, who always followed the wishes of his leader. This has been disputed by historians. One historian, Harold Bolitho, argued that there is a kind of myth of the samurai, and that putting them in charge of Japan was like putting a gang of bullies in charge of your whole state:

…

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

In the popular imagination Japan and the samurai are often synonymous. The samurai were – so the stereotype goes – the finest flower of Japanese civilisation, a class of professional fighting men devoted to the awesome ethical principles of their bushido code, totally loyal to their masters, indifferent to physical discomfort, ignorant of fear, and casually accepting of death … Apart from their masters … the samurai cared for nothing save their reputation; to preserve or salvage these all stood ready to take their own lives … [But] the samurai of the popular imagination is a myth. He never existed … [From the 9th century to 1580] the samurai were at their most active … constantly fighting, getting ready to fight, or recuperating from having fought … [Most samurai] would have been semi-professional at best … They were ‘bully boys’ [and] there was no self-conscious military code – no bushido … Extensive lawsuits by samurai families over contracts and property disputes and ownership show what samurai were really interested in: land. Land meant crops, which in turn meant taxes, which meant wealth. For that matter, loyalty does not seem to have been a major consideration either … As can be seen in the genealogy of any warrior family, [samurai served] a whole succession of different masters, each one deserted in turn for someone more promising. They may not have been loyal, but they were certainly not stupid.

Source 9.5.4 Australian historian Harold Bolitho, ‘The Myth of the Samurai’, in Japan’s Impact on the World,

Alan Rix and Ross Mouer (eds), 1984, p. 1

1 2 3 4

What does Harold Bolitho say about the ‘popular’ view of samurai? What does he argue the samurai were actually like, and really interested in? How does this challenge the ideas of a samurai code or way of life? Think about what it might mean if the toughest bullies you could imagine were in charge of your school. What would this mean for your school’s organisation and your own school life? Now consider what it might have been like to live under the control of the samurai.

Historical concepts and skills: continuity and change, communicating

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Chapter 9: How did Japan change under the shoguns?

215

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES …

Source 9.5.5 Detail from the Heiji Scroll, showing the burning of the palace in Kyoto. This image highlights the brutality of samurai warfare, as people trapped in the palace are trampled under the feet of the horses. How does this fit your image of the samurai and their ‘code’ of behaviour?

Go online to access the interactive lesson review and more!

Lesson 9.5 review Online quiz

Review questions

DOC

Research task

Teachers can assign tasks and track results

9.5 Review questions 1 2 3 4

Identify the name of the code that samurai were meant to live by. List the four main principles that were meant to define the life of the samurai. Explain what kiri-sute gomen means. Analyse the differences between the depiction of the samurai in Source 9.5.1’s House Rules and Harold Bolitho’s viewpoint in Source 9.5.4. Why do these differences exist?

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

216

Cambridge Investigating Humanities for the Victorian Curriculum 8

9.6

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

What caused the major shift from rule by an emperor to rule by a shogun? Part 1: the Classical period Learning intention

The last lesson focused on the values of the samurai, while this lesson considers the people who controlled the samurai warriors during the Classical or Heian period of Japanese history.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

Fact or fiction?

According to traditional stories, the first emperor of Japan was Jimmu. The early ‘histories’ of Japan, particularly the Kojiki (Records of Ancient Matters) of 712 ce and the Nihon Shoki (Chronicles of Japan) of 720 ce, recorded that he was a direct descendant of the sun-goddess, who defeated local chieftains and leaders to unite Japan and become the first person to rule all of it. These early histories did not distinguish between fact and myth. Along with giving Jimmu a divine status, they emphasised that he was powerful, that he unified the area by conquest, and they stated that he began his reign in 660 bce.

1 What is the main message of this legend? 2 Who might decide to convey this message about the first Emperor being the descendant of a sun-goddess? Why? 3 What do you believe might be true in this information? Look back at the timeline, and consider Yayoi culture. How might this possibly connect to this legend? 4 Is there still an Emperor of Japan today?

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Chapter 9: How did Japan change under the shoguns?

217

The Imperial Court in the Classical period (794–1185 ce) There was a period of time in Japanese history known as the Epoch of the Queens (c.592–770 ce), indicating that women held power in this early period of Japanese history. In the Classical period, the court gradually became so interested in art and the refinement of poetry and literature that some historians believe the affairs of state were neglected.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Regardless of when it had originated, the rule of the emperors was very significant in Japan in the early medieval period. Japan in the Classical or Heian period was ruled by the Imperial Court, which considerably expanded its area of control under the influence of new administrative systems that were based on models from China. The court devoted considerable effort to literature, art and culture. The culture of this period was extraordinary, and had classical themes that continue today. This was a time when Japan moved from being a country that was considered ‘uncivilised’ by early Chinese visitors to a highly civilised and distinctive culture. While it was influenced by other countries, it created its own special Japanese forms of art, poetry and architecture. Japan was ruled by both emperors and empresses.

An example of the kind of life enjoyed by the Imperial Court is recorded in what is widely considered the world’s first novel, The Tale of Genji, written before 1021 ce by Murasaki Shikibu, a woman of the Imperial Court and the daughter of a court noble. The main character is Prince Genji, and the novel describes the life of the court in great detail, including the differing lives of men and women of the court.

…

Source 9.6.1 A painting made c.1791 showing women from the Imperial Court, taken from The Tale of Genji, written more than seven centuries earlier. What do you notice about the people’s clothing and the setting? What do these show us about their status?

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

218

Cambridge Investigating Humanities for the Victorian Curriculum 8

Concepts and skills builder 9.6 Explaining the significance of the Imperial Court This extract from Murasaki Shikibu’s The Tale of Genji helps us better understand the Classical period of Japan.

…

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

The emperor paid a state visit … It was a most extraordinary event, the talk of the whole court. The preparations … were unprecedented in their complexity and in the attention to brilliant detail. Arriving late in the afternoon, the royal party went first to the equestrian grounds [to view the horses of the cavalry], and the inner guards were mustered for mounted review … There were [rich fabrics and woven materials] spread along the galleries and arched bridges and awnings over the open places when, in early afternoon, the party moved to the southeast quarter. The royal cormorants [a type of bird that dives for fish] had been turned out on the east lake, where there was a handsome take of small fish … The autumn leaves were splendid … Walls had been taken down and gates opened and not so much as an autumn mist was permitted to obstruct the royal view. The officers of the inner guards advanced from the east and knelt to the left and right of the stairs before the royal seats, one presenting the take from the pond and other a brace of birds taken by the royal falcons in the northern hills … The court musicians took their place by late afternoon, by which time the wine was having its effect. The concert was quiet and unpretentious and there were court pages to dance for the royal guests.

Source 9.6.2 Murasaki Shikibu, The Tale of Genji, c.1021 ce (translated by Edward Seidensticker, 1976)

1 Why was this such an elaborate celebration? 2 What do the actions of people in the court show about the role or status of the emperor? 3 What are the different aspects of this event, and what does it tell us about the people who were a part of the Japanese Imperial Court? Try to identify at least four distinct groups, and describe what they did in the court. 4 In your view, based on this extract, what was valued by the emperors and their Imperial Court? Select quotations to support your answer. Historical concepts and skills: historical significance, using historical sources

The central government weakens The aristocrats were so caught up in the fine nature of their life that the Buddhist temples and their priests became powerful, and so too did the military governors who controlled individual regions. These people were meant to respect the authority of the emperor, but their power grew to the point where they formed a threat to the central government. Part of what upset the regional governors was that the Buddhist leaders had a lot of control throughout the country. Excessive taxation of various goods,

particularly agricultural goods, only added to the problems faced by the court. The emperors and aristocrats who controlled the state lived lives of luxury, but they were about to be replaced.

aristocrat a member of the nobility

In the last years of the Classical period, there was widespread dissatisfaction among the aristocrats, as well as general unrest among the people. This led to a time of warfare, out of which came the period when the shoguns ruled.

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Chapter 9: How did Japan change under the shoguns?

219

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES …

Source 9.6.3 A painting from the 1600s of scenes from the Tale of Genji, which shows the elaborate nature of the Imperial Court. Although much of the scene is obscured by clouds, the left of the panel depicts horse riding in the gardens and the upper-right of the panel shows inside the court, where women are portrayed wearing fine clothing that indicates their high-class status. A performance, possibly a dance, is taking place in the middle of the panel, while boats with intricate carvings on their bows sail on a lake in the bottom right. This panel can be seen in the Art Gallery of South Australia. What do the activities tell us about the Imperial Court? What was life like for members of the court?

Go online to access the interactive lesson review and more!

Lesson 9.6 review Online quiz

Review questions

DOC

Research task

Teachers can assign tasks and track results

9.6 Review questions

1 Identify the name given to the period 794–1185 ce. 2 Describe who was the first shogun to take over the state, and when this happened. 3 Identify the famous Japanese book mentioned in this lesson that depicts life in the Classical period.

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

220

Cambridge Investigating Humanities for the Victorian Curriculum 8

9.7

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

What caused the major shift from rule by an emperor to rule by a shogun? Part 2: the Feudal period Learning intention

The last lesson focused on the rule of emperors during the Classical or Heian period of Japanese history. This lesson examines why power shifted from an emperor to a shogun, and focuses particularly on causes and consequences in history.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

Analysing cause and effect: what caused the Imperial Court to collapse?

Construct a visual mind map using the information in this section. In the centre of your mind map, place a box or circle with the statement ‘Collapse of the Imperial Court’. Answer the following questions either individually or in groups, and add your answers to the mind map. 1 What were the causes for the collapse of the Japanese Imperial Court? 2 Were these causes interconnected? If so, make sure to connect them in your mind map.

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Chapter 9: How did Japan change under the shoguns?

221

The Feudal period, 1185–1600

The Minamoto clan was ultimately successful. After this violent civil war, it was clear that Japan could only be ruled by the shogun, with support from the military class, the samurai. This meant that Japan had warrior governments and leadership almost continuously from 1192 through to 1867.

The first shogunate: the Kamakura

shugo a military governor appointed by the shogun to administer a region

The first of these was known as the Kamakura government (1185–1333) and it was ruled over by the Minamoto clan. The leader of this clan, Minamoto no Yoritomo, was declared shogun and held the ultimate military command. He shifted the government to Kamakura, which is south of modern-day Tokyo. While he made laws to control the country, Minamoto no Yoritomo was very careful to ensure that he also rewarded close allies and maintained the laws. He tightly controlled the country through a network of contacts with powerful daimyo and their private armies of samurai. In this period, the relationship between vassal and lord was strongly established.

…

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

clan a group who originally came from the same family and have the same name

Following a period when the emperors ruled, the power of the individual military leaders and their ability to control the state increased. To retain power the emperor needed the support of different factions and powerful families. Increasing conflict between two major families who wanted to control the emperor and the court – the Taira clan and the Minamoto clan – led to a civil war. This was known as the Genpei War, and it lasted from 1180 to 1185.

Source 9.7.1 Minamoto no Yoritomo (1147–1199)

The defeat of both Mongol invasions of Japan (1274 and 1281) was seen showing that the government was supported and approved of by the gods. It showed how successful their military was, as they were able to rally forces to fight the large armies sent to invade Japan. In addition, they were able to build protective walls at key points of the coast, to hinder any other naval attacks. The two main groups that helped to support the central government were the jito (the officials), who helped make sure taxes continued to be paid, and the shugo (the military governors), who were appointed by the shogun to control particular provinces. The shugo could act on their own authority. They were instructed to be careful not to upset the local lords in following their duties, while also being clearly advised that they were to help administer and control all troops in their region.

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

222

Cambridge Investigating Humanities for the Victorian Curriculum 8

A document from the year 1199 described this balance when discussing the appointment of a man named Tomomasa as shugo:

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Tomomasa has been appointed to the shugo post of Harima Province. The men of this province are to obey Tomomasa, perform the imperial guard service, and in general show their loyalty. Tomomasa’s authority is limited to rebels and murderers; he is not to interfere in provincial administration … And he is not, under any pretext, to cause difficulties for the nobles of this province.

A period of intrigue and continuing conflict under the Kamakura shogunate ended when Emperor Go-Daigo tried to take back control of the state in 1333. A general who had previously served the Kamakura shogunate, Ashikaga Takauji, joined with the emperor and helped him fight against the shogun’s troops. Takauji hoped that he would be rewarded with a position of power, but Go-Daigo was more interested in establishing a court like that of the Classical period, so he could rule directly and control the whole state.

…

Source 9.7.2 Document 138 of the Kamakura Bakufu describing the shugo’s authority

Continuing conflict

As in the Classical period, there were key issues that led to another overthrow of the government. A major problem was that emperors tried using military force to retake control from the shoguns, mostly by promising power and rewards to daimyo who would support them. The built-in issue with the shogunate government was that the samurai consistently tried to fulfil their basic function as warriors: to fight.

The Ashikaga shogunate

Go-Daigo returned to the tradition of using aristocrats to rule the country, appointing family members in place of the warrior government. As a result, Ashikaga Takauji split with the emperor and after further fighting, established the Ashikaga shogunate in 1336. Having overthrown the Kamakura shogunate, the Ashikaga moved the capital back to Kyoto (the Muromachi district). The Ashikaga shogunate’s key struggle in this time was to strengthen the government enough to control the different regions of Japan and make sure that the state did not divide again.

…

Source 9.7.3 Japanese print, c.1293, showing a samurai warrior on horseback facing Mongols during the Mongol invasions of Japan

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Chapter 9: How did Japan change under the shoguns?

223

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES …

Source 9.7.4 The Ashikaga clan dedicated this Buddhist temple to Ashikaga Takauji, in honour of being the first

member of their family to become shogun. The style and beauty of the temple not only encourages contemplative meditation, but also demonstrates the wealth and power of the family.

Concepts and skills builder 9.7

Analysing causes and consequences

Create a graphic organiser (see examples below) to identify and display what you view as the main causes for the changes across the Classical period and the Feudal period, and the major effects of these changes. Focus on these themes:

• Imperial Court loses power • rule by shogun • continuing warfare.

Answer the following questions about each theme: 1 What were the various causes that led to this? 2 What were the consequences of this change?

Try to be as complete as possible, and work out all causes and consequences for the change to the state. In the first example below, some suggested causes and consequences have been provided.

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

224

Cambridge Investigating Humanities for the Victorian Curriculum 8

Causes

Consequences

Growing power of elites

Elites gain even more control

Excessive focus on palace life (art, luxury)

Theme

Increasing chaos in Japanese government

Imperial Court loses power .....

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

.....

Causes

Consequences

.....

Theme

.....

Rule by shogun

.....

Causes

Consequences

.....

Theme

.....

Continuing warfare

.....

Historical concepts and skills: causes and consequences

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Chapter 9: How did Japan change under the shoguns?

225

Go online to access the interactive lesson review and more!

Lesson 9.7 review Online quiz

Review questions

DOC

Research task

Teachers can assign tasks and track results

9.7 Review questions Describe who was the first shogun to take over the state, and when this happened. Explain who the two main groups that helped to support the government in the Feudal period were? Discuss some of the challenges faced by the shoguns in trying to maintain stability in Japan. Analyse the key problems that may have arisen from having so many different leaders in society during the Feudal period.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

1 2 3 4

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

226

Cambridge Investigating Humanities for the Victorian Curriculum 8

9.8

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Perspectives on power and authority: How did governments in medieval Japan try to maintain power? Learning intention

While the last lesson looked at how shoguns ruled Japan, this lesson considers how significant changes and struggle in Japan led to the Tokugawa period, in which Japan was reorganised into a more cohesive state.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

Connect, extend, challenge

Some of the main principles for ruling Japan were identified in a set of ‘house rules’ in around 1480 (Source 9.8.1). •

You should only appoint people to leadership roles based on their abilities.

•

Spies or ‘intelligence agents’ should be used for all provinces under your control, ‘even if the world may be at peace’, so that you fully understand your entire region. Spend your money wisely on military weapons, so that you do not buy ‘a sword or dagger worth 10 000 pieces’ as ‘it can be overcome by 100 spears each worth 100 pieces’.

•

The best way to ‘defend yourself in time of war’ is to avoid buying expensive swords, but to buy ‘100 spears, and to arm 100 men with them’.

•

Provide public entertainment (such as theatre), but make sure to hire local performers as well.

•

Do not trust in luck in battles, but instead prepare thoroughly, be ‘flexible in all situations’ and ensure you have a good strategy.

•

Send out trusted agents regularly on ‘inspection tours of the province’ to ‘listen to the views of the common people and farmers’, and to find out if there is any corruption or ‘misgovernment’.

•

Do not allow anyone else to build a castle in your territory.

•

Be sure that in law and government you control your region ‘judiciously and compassionately’ so you do not need to worry about ‘lawless bands of warriors from other domains’; if you are unjust, then other provinces ‘may intervene in your affairs’.

…

Source 9.8.1 Summary of the 17 ‘House Rules’ of Asakura Toshikage, c.1480, cited in David Lu (ed.), Japan: A Documentary History, 1997

1 Connect: How do these ideas connect to how governments might rule, even today? 2 Extend: What new ideas come out of this material, that extend your thinking on medieval Japan? 3 Challenge: What challenges or puzzles emerge that might require further research? Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Chapter 9: How did Japan change under the shoguns?

227

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

In medieval Japan, the main concern of would-be rulers was how to keep control of all the regions. Maintaining control often meant gaining and using power over ‘subject peoples’ – everyone from peasants through to powerful warlords who had been conquered or were controlled by the shogun through alliances and political power.

… Source 9.8.2 A Japanese woodcut of a

daimyo, created in the 18th century

The Warring States

In 1467, the Onin War broke out over who would succeed as shogun. This started the Warring States period, which lasted over 100 years. Many daimyo, especially those far away from the capital, Kyoto, rejected control by the shogunate, acted independently and fought among themselves. Improved trade and agriculture were creating riches worth fighting over. Military success determined who lost and gained power. Even though there was still an emperor and a shogun, warlords fought and schemed in a chaotic period.

Eventually, three leaders known as the Great Unifiers emerged during the AzuchiMomoyama period (1568–1600) to establish a single unified military government. The first of these, Oda Nobunaga, put a new Ashikaga shogun in office in 1568. In 1573, Nobunaga became dissatisfied and expelled the shogun from Kyoto, bringing an end to the Ashikaga shogunate, and appointing no replacement. Fighting continued and Nobunaga was assassinated, but the war of unification was continued by Hideyoshi, the second unifier, and completed by the third, Tokugawa Ieyasu.

The Tokugawa period

After extraordinary chaos and conflict, Ieyasu established a remarkable period of control, the Tokugawa shogunate (1600–1867), and finally brought order and unification to Japan. The Tokugawa government was based in Edo, which was appointed the new military capital. It reorganised all of society to have strong administration and a strict division into four

main classes. This led to a period of peace and prosperity, with Japan advancing to the point where there were around one million people living in Edo by 1700. Tokugawa Ieyasu identified very clearly how he believed society could function best, through his idea of four roles in society.

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

228

Cambridge Investigating Humanities for the Victorian Curriculum 8

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

… Source 9.8.3 A Japanese map

of Edo (present-day Tokyo) in 1849. Note that west is at the top of the map.

Concepts and skills builder 9.8

Explaining perspectives on class in Japanese society

Source 9.8.4 gives more information about the four roles in Japanese society at the time.

Once, Lord [Ieyasu] conversed with Honda, Governor Sado, on the subject of the emperor, the shogun, and the farmer: ‘… the shogun must not forget the possibility of war in peacetime, and must maintain his discipline. He should be able to keep order in the country … the true master of the way of the warrior is one who maintains his martial [or military] discipline even in time of peace … The farmer’s toil is proverbial – from the first grain to a hundred acts of labour. He selects the seed from last fall’s crop, and undergoes various hardships and anxieties through the heat of the summer until the seed grows finally to a rice plant … The rice then becomes the sustenance for the multitudes … the artisan’s occupation is to make and prepare wares and utensils for the use of others … the merchant facilitates the exchange of goods so that the people can cover themselves and keep their bodies warm.

…

Source 9.8.4 ‘Tokugawa Ieyasu on Military Government and the Social Order’, from Koro Shodan, in the historical account titled Dai‑Nihon Shiryo

1 How does the shogun define the ‘four roles’ of society (samurai, farmer, merchant, artisan)? 2 Why does he believe that this creates a stable society? 3 What do you think might be the perspectives of each of these groups about their role in society? Do some of these roles appear to involve more difficult work than others? Historical concepts and skills: communicating, using historical sources

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Chapter 9: How did Japan change under the shoguns?

229

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES …

Source 9.8.5 Tokugawa Ieyasu (1543–1616)

Amazing but true…

Early forms of Japanese currency were commodities or goods, not coins. People exchanged rice or silk for other goods, instead of what we think of as money. One of Tokugawa Ieyasu’s most significant developments was to take control of the mines and use gold, silver and copper coins as currency.

Go online to access the interactive lesson review and more!

Lesson 9.8 review Online quiz

Review questions

DOC

Research task

Teachers can assign tasks and track results

9.8 Review questions

1 Who ruled Japan after the Ashikaga shogunate collapsed in 1753, up to 1600? 2 Which clan finally created stability in Japan in 1600? 3 In the summary of the 17 ‘House Rules’ of Asakura Toshikage (Source 9.8.1), what were the three main pieces of advice on military preparation? 4 What were the four roles in society, and what did each of them do?

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

230

Cambridge Investigating Humanities for the Victorian Curriculum 8

9.9

What were the roles and achievements of samurai women in shogunate Japan?

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Learning intention Previous lessons have focused on men’s roles in society, including the shogun. In this lesson, you will conduct historical research to consider the sources that show the impact of samurai women in shogunate Japan.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

Think, pair, share

1 Think: What do you think the main roles were for women in medieval Japan? 2 Pair: Pair up with another student and discuss your ideas, considering what you have also learned about the different classes in Japanese society in the previous lesson. How might this affect women’s roles? 3 Share: Share your views in a whole-class discussion.

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Chapter 9: How did Japan change under the shoguns?

231

Concepts and skills builder 9.9 Developing and using historical questions to investigate the past Popular culture and many histories often suggest that only men were able to be warriors in Japan. In this research task you are going to consider whether this is correct. You will also look at what kinds of evidence from different periods of Japanese history tell us about Japanese beliefs and assumptions regarding women as warriors. This means that you will have to study the topic, gather evidence and use this evidence to analyse the role and achievements of women.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Key questions For any history research task, to analyse a primary or secondary source always ask these essential questions:

When? When was it made? What does this tell us? Is it from the time that we are studying, or is it a later source? Where? Where is it from? Where was it found (if we know)? What? What is it? What does it say, or what does it show?

Who? Who wrote, drew or painted it? Who was the intended audience? Why? Why was it made? Why did the person choose to do this?

How? How do you think it might have been seen at the time? How do you think it might have been received by the intended audience? How does this help us to understand this period of history? Using the prompts above, analyse the sources that follow. Conduct further research (including online) to help you understand these figures and their role in Japanese history, including whether you are able to trust this information or not. You can either do this work in groups or individually, but answer every question that you can for the selected source. Report back to the class on what you have discovered, and whether this source helps to provide evidence that women were samurai.

Empress Jingu (c.200–269 ce) was believed to have dressed like a man in order to lead the Japanese army against Korea. In this speech, she is recorded as justifying to her generals why she should lead the army in war. This is recorded in the early Japanese history Nihon Shoki, written in the 700s, which also argued that she was the one who achieved victory in Korea:

‘If I were to leave the whole conduct of the war in your hands, and you were unsuccessful, the responsibility would fall on your shoulders alone. But that I cannot bear. Although I am only a woman and unworthy of the post, yet it seems that I have the full approval of the gods, and the hearty support of all you officers and of the soldiers. It is for these reasons I venture to marshal the army, and share both the successes and failures of the undertaking.’

…

Source 9.9.1 Michiko Aoki, ‘Empress Jingu: The Shamaness Ruler,’ in Heroic with Grace: Legendary Women of Japan, Taylor & Francis, 1991

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

232

Cambridge Investigating Humanities for the Victorian Curriculum 8

… authentic accounts of fighting women are relatively rare when compared with the immense amount of material on male warriors, [but] they exist in sufficient numbers to allow us to regard the exploits of female warriors as the greatest untold story in samurai history … The written evidence for samurai women being involved in actual fighting covers … different situations. The first was that of a defended castle where the commander was absent and the responsibility for defence had to be assumed by his wife. In nearly all such cases the castellans’ wives’ roles involved actual fighting as well as administrative duties.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

…

Source 9.9.2 Extract comes from a history on samurai women, and how these women (who were part of a particular class in society) may have fought, from Stephen Turnball, Samurai Women, 1184–1877, Osprey Publishing, 2010

Tomoe was especially beautiful … She was also a remarkably strong archer, and as a swordswoman she was a warrior worth a thousand, ready to confront a demon or god, [on a horse] or on foot … Whenever a battle was imminent, Yoshinaka [the leader] sent her out as his first captain, equipped with strong armour, an oversized sword, and a mighty bow; and she performed more deeds of valour than any of his other warriors. Thus she was now one of the seven who remained after all the others had fled or perished.

…

Source 9.9.3 Consider the painting and text on Tomoe Gozen together. Tomoe Gozen was a female samurai who

not only fought in the Genpei War (1180–1185) but also commanded other samurai in battle. The image comes from a late-19th-century painting. The text comes from a series of stories that are about the Genpei War called The Tale of the Heike, c.1330.

Historians continually assess and reassess history through the use of archaeology, including major projects that have been completed on medieval battlefields in Japan. At the site of the Battle of Kamakura (1333), archaeologists uncovered thousands of skeletons. They discovered that it appeared to have been a common practice to take the heads of defeated warriors as trophies and that many samurai on the defeated side apparently committed ritual suicide. They determined from the skeletons that at least one female samurai fought at Kamakura. At another battlefield, Senbon Matsubaru, the archaeologists discovered that one third of all samurai warriors on the field of battle were women. This was not a siege, but a full battle between opposing samurai armies.

…

Source 9.9.4 Historian Samuel Koehne, writing on the Battle of Senbon Matsubaru in 1580

Historical concepts and skills: communicating, historical questions, historical significance, using historical sources Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Chapter 9: How did Japan change under the shoguns?

233

Go online to access the interactive lesson review and more!

Lesson 9.9 review Online quiz

Review questions

DOC

Research task

Teachers can assign tasks and track results

9.9 Review questions

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

1 What do Sources 9.9.1–9.9.4 tell us about the roles and achievements of samurai women in shogunate Japan? 2 Do these sources prove that women could be warriors? 3 What assumptions can be made about the ‘norms’ of society – that is, what was considered ‘normal’ in Japanese history at this time?

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

234

Cambridge Investigating Humanities for the Victorian Curriculum 8

9.10

How did contact with the outside world change Japanese society?

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Learning intention While most previous lessons were about politics and changes inside Japan, in this lesson you will evaluate the impact of European and American states on Japan, including Japan’s closure to foreigners during the Tokugawa shogunate.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

Claim, support, question

One of the biggest changes in Japan brought about by Europeans was the introduction of guns. Source 9.10.1 shows a recreation of what it would have looked like to have Portuguese soldiers firing their matchlock guns. Low-res

…

Source 9.10.1 Historical re-enactors in Japan posing as Portuguese soldiers firing matchlock guns

Using this source, try to imagine the impact of firearms being introduced to Japan. 1 Claim: Make a claim about what it would have been like for Japanese civilians and soldiers (including the daimyo) to hear and see guns fired for the first time like this. 2 Support: Support your claim with a part of the image above – consider the sound, smell and impact of such guns being fired all at once. 3 Question: Write a key question that you may have about the introduction of guns to Japan, for further research. For example, did the introduction of firearms change samurai armour? Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Chapter 9: How did Japan change under the shoguns?

235

While the Tokugawa government was a very stable one, it faced various challenges. Not only did it have to ensure peace within the country by dominating the noble families and samurai class, it also decided it had to stop outside

interference that might disrupt Japan’s hard-won peace. The Tokugawa government believed that the greatest disruption would come from foreigners, particularly Europeans.

Closing the country

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

The first landing by namban or ‘barbarians from the South’ was by Portuguese sailors, who arrived in Japan in 1543. Europeans soon brought in improved types of guns. Soon after, Christian missionaries began to create outposts and to introduce Christianity to Japanese society.

As a mark of how seriously the government took the problem of disruption, edicts from 1635 show that Japanese citizens were to be executed if they even tried to leave Japan for other countries.

Source 9.10.2 A Japanese writing box decorated with images of foreigners, c.1600. For many Japanese people at the time, objects decorated with images of foreigners offered the rare opportunity to see Westerners. The two men on the left were likely Portuguese traders, identifiable by their balloonshaped pants. The man on the right is a Jesuit priest. What do you notice about the difference between these clothes, and those worn by the Japanese? Why might the Japanese decorate items with these ‘newcomers’?

…

The Tokugawa shogunate had growing concerns about the impact of outsiders on Japanese culture and society. By the early 17th century, Christianity was outlawed and the Portuguese were forced out of Japan. By the middle of the 17th century, the Tokugawa shogunate closed the country. Trade with other countries was only allowed at a limited number of ports. Otherwise, Japan was meant to be a closed system, and to build up its culture and economy without outside interference.

The Closed Country Edicts of 1635 1 Japanese ships are strictly forbidden to leave for foreign countries. 2 No Japanese is permitted to go abroad. If there is anyone who attempts to do so secretly, he must be executed. The ship so involved must be impounded and its owner arrested, and the matter must be reported to the higher authority. 3 If any Japanese returns from overseas after residing there, he must be put to death … 4 If there are any Southern Barbarians (Westerners) who propagate the teachings of Padres [priests, who taught Christianity], or otherwise commit crimes, they may be incarcerated in the prison.

…

Source 9.10.3 Extract from the Sakoku Edict of 1635

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

236

Cambridge Investigating Humanities for the Victorian Curriculum 8

USA-forced reopening Western powers. The technology that Commodore Perry demonstrated to the Japanese, including the cannons and the steam power of his warships, showed that America and the European powers had much more advanced technology than Japan at that time. Perry’s ships were described in Japanese sources as ‘the black ships of evil appearance’.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

However, this situation only lasted until the United States of America forced Japan to reopen to international trade. In 1853, Commodore Matthew Perry arrived in Japan with four American warships, two of which were steamships. He carried letters from the American president that argued that Japan should open its borders for trade and agreements with

Concepts and skills builder 9.10a Using visual sources

Look closely at Sources 9.10.4 and 9.10.5.

…

Source 9.10.4 Commodore Perry Carrying the Gospel of God to the Heathen by James Guy Evans, 1853

…

Source 9.10.5 Japanese woodblock print showing one of Commander Perry’s steamships

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Chapter 9: How did Japan change under the shoguns?

237

1 2 3 4

How does Source 9.10.4 depict Perry’s mission? Use evidence to support your response. How does Source 9.10.5 depict Perry’s mission? Use evidence to support your response. What are the key differences between these pictures? Why are these perspectives so different?

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Historical concepts and skills: communicating, historical significance, using historical sources

Concepts and skills builder 9.10b Using written sources

Read the following extracts from a letter that Commodore Perry sent to the Japanese government in 1853, so you can understand how Perry addressed the Japanese emperor and what the United States was trying to gain from this expedition.

[The United States of America have] large cities, from which, with the aid of steam vessels, we can reach Japan in eighteen or twenty days … our commerce with all this region of the globe is rapidly increasing, and the Japan seas will soon be covered with our vessels.

Therefore, as the United States and Japan are becoming every day nearer and nearer to each other, the President desires to live in peace and friendship with your imperial majesty, but no friendship can long exist, unless Japan ceases to act towards Americans as if they were her enemies. However wise this policy may originally have been [to close the country], it is unwise and impracticable now that the intercourse between the two countries is so much more easy and rapid than it formerly was. [We] hold out all these arguments in the hope that the Japanese government will see the necessity of averting unfriendly collision between the two nations, by responding favourably … Many of the large ships-of-war destined to visit Japan have not yet arrived in these seas, though they are hourly expected; [Perry], as evidence of his friendly intentions, has brought but four of the smaller [warships], designing, should it become necessary, to return to Edo in the ensuing spring with a much larger force.

…

Source 9.10.6 Narrative of the Expedition of an American Squadron to China and Japan, performed in the years 1852,1853, and 1854, under the Command of Commodore M. C. Perry, United States Navy, by Order of the Government of the United States, 1856

diplomacy the practice of negotiating between representatives of different countries

1 2 3 4

What tactic was Commodore Perry using? Was this diplomacy, or an attempt to force Japan to open its borders? What proof do you have to support your view? What lesson might have been learned by other European powers from this example?

Historical concepts and skills: communicating, historical significance, using historical sources

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

238

Cambridge Investigating Humanities for the Victorian Curriculum 8

Japan opens to the world

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Perry’s successful American mission was quickly followed by Russia, Britain and France, which all forced Japan to sign treaties that allowed trade and access to Japanese resources. The Japanese government reluctantly opened its borders. This eventually meant that Japan not only opened its state to trade, but to a period of modernisation and industrialisation. Despite its attempts to isolate, since the Portuguese traders arrived in 1543, it had been clear that Japan would one day be subject to exchange with other cultures that would fundamentally alter its society.

…

Source 9.10.7 Japanese woodcut image of Commodore Matthew Perry, c.1854

Lesson 9.10 review Online quiz

Review questions

DOC

Research task

Go online to access the interactive lesson review and more!

Teachers can assign tasks and track results

9.10 Review questions 1 2 3 4 5

When did Europeans first arrive in Japan, and which European country did they come from? What two main things did Europeans introduce to Japan? In which century did Japan become a ‘closed country’, and who was in government? Explain the main impacts of European influence on Japan. Discuss the role of trade in this period.

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Chapter 9: How did Japan change under the shoguns?

239

9.11

End of investigation review: How did Japan change under the shoguns?

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Access the Interactive Textbook for a range of digital tools to help you review this topic, including:

• Chapter summary • Auto-marked chapter test • Scorcher timed competitive quiz.

Brain dump

What have you learned about the medieval Japan? Copy and complete the table to explain your understanding. Aim for two points per topic.

Topic What I have learned What was combat like in medieval Japan? What were the major events and changes in medieval Japanese history? How did Japan’s geography affect its development as a nation? How was medieval Japanese society structured? What were the values of the samurai? What kinds of early ideas did Japan import from other countries? What caused the major shift from rule by an emperor to rule by a shogun? Female samurai How did contact with outside nations cause changes in Japanese society?

Making thinking visible True for who?

Claim: The shogun and daimyo helped to advance Japan, and to bring order to medieval society. 1

Discuss: What arguments could you make to support this claim? What evidence is there of advances or increased order in Japanese society? Consider particularly the pieces of primary evidence like the ‘House Rules’. What arguments against the claim could you make?

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

240

Cambridge Investigating Humanities for the Victorian Curriculum 8

Brainstorm: Make a list of all the different points of view from which you could look at this claim. Who might agree or disagree with this claim and why? Consider both the highest and lowest levels of society.

Dramatise: Choose a person or figure from Japanese society, and try to imagine their viewpoint on whether the shogun and daimyo brought order and new advances. Would she or he think this claim is correct or not? Why? a Prepare to debate other figures in Japanese society by writing down your point of view and why you would agree or disagree with this claim.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

b Make sure you explain (in writing) why you think your particular person would have this view on the central claim. c Consider whether you would have been willing to agree or disagree at the time (in shogunate Japan).

Share: Share your viewpoint with the group. Explain which person you have chosen from Japanese society, and what their views are on the shogun and daimyo. Take notes on other people’s views, and keep a record of what their reasons are for agreeing or disagreeing with the central claim.

Stand back: Having heard everyone’s viewpoints, look at whether you now believe (as a group) that the claim is correct or incorrect. What is your conclusion?

Practice questions 1

Describe what the legend of the Death of Atsumori tells you about Japanese cultural values in medieval Japan.

a Describe the geography and environment of Japan.

b Identify how Japan’s geography affected its political development.

a Describe the beliefs and practices of the samurai. Where did they sit in the hierarchy of Japanese society?

b Describe the evidence in this chapter for women being samurai. Based on the evidence, how significant were samurai women?

Identify what outside culture had a strong influence on Japan during the Heian or Classical period. How did Japanese culture change in this period?

Outline the factors that contributed to the change in the rule of Japan in the last years of the Classical period. Which clans fought for control of the emperor and the state?

a Describe the events that led to the Tokugawa government coming to power.

b What were the four roles Tokugawa Ieyasu identified as being key to a successful society?

Explain why the Tokugawa shogunate closed Japan to outsiders. When and how did it re-open?

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Chapter 9: How did Japan change under the shoguns?

241

Comparative analysis task: Comparing female rulers Compare the statements in Sources 9.11.2 and 9.11.4, made by two female rulers to their troops in a time of war. The first is from the Empress Jingu in Japan (c.200– 269 ce), while the second is a famous speech given at Tilbury by Queen Elizabeth I of England in 1588.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

…

Source 9.11.1 Empress Jingu (centre), c.200–269 CE. This painting, Great Japan (Dai-Nihon) History Briefing Session, the 15th Empress Jingu, was painted by Tsukioka Yoshitoshi in 1880 and is in the collection of the Waseda University Theatre Museum

If I were to leave the whole conduct of the war in your hands, and you were unsuccessful, the responsibility would fall on your shoulders alone. But that I cannot bear. Although I am only a woman and unworthy of the post, yet it seems that I have the full approval of the gods, and the hearty support of all you officers and of the soldiers. It is for these reasons I venture to marshal the army, and share both the successes and failures of the undertaking.

…

Source 9.11.2 Speech by Empress Jingu in Japan (c.200–269 ce)

Let tyrants fear. I have always so behaved myself that, under God, I have placed my chiefest strength and safeguard in the loyal hearts and good-will of my subjects; and therefore I am come amongst you … resolved, in the midst and heat of the battle, to live and die amongst you all; to lay down for my God, and for my kingdom, and my people, my honour and my blood, even in the dust. I know I have the body but of a weak and feeble woman; but I have the heart and stomach of a king, and of a king of England too, and think foul scorn that … any prince of Europe should dare to invade the borders of my realm; to which rather than any dishonour shall grow by me, I myself will take up arms, I myself will be your general, judge, and rewarder of every one of your virtues in the field.

Source 9.11.4 Speech by Queen Elizabeth I of England in 1588

…

Source 9.11.3 Queen Elizabeth I, 1588 (this painting is a copy of an original painting made by an unknown artist c.1600)

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

242

Cambridge Investigating Humanities for the Victorian Curriculum 8

Create a table that identifies the similarities and differences between these two speeches.

Similarities Note the similarities between the two speeches, including phrases that appear similar or ideas that are the same. 2

Differences Write the differences between the two speeches, including whether you think one is a stronger speech than the other.

Why do you think that these two rulers spoke to their troops in this way? What problems do you think they faced, as women leading their armies? What advantages might there be, as women leading these armies?

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

nting, ess

Response to chapter inquiry question: How did Japan change under the shoguns?

Write a paragraph in response to the inquiry question. Include the following key terms: • samurai

• bushido

• emperor • shogun

• daimyo.

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Chapter 9: How did Japan change under the shoguns?

243

CHAPTER 10

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

How did the Mongols influence the world (c.1206–1368 CE)?

LESSON TITLE

10.1

Setting the scene: How did the Mongol Empire control the Silk Road?

10.2

What were the key events in Mongol history?

10.3

What was the social structure of the Mongols?

10.4

What was life like for the Mongols?

10.5

What were the significant achievements in Mongol society?

10.6

What was the perspective of the peoples conquered by the Mongols?

10.7

What were the achievements of Genghis Khan?

10.8

What were the significant challenges and developments in the Mongol Empire?

10.9

End of investigation review: How did the Mongols influence the world (c.1206–1368 CE)?

This digital chapter can be accessed via Cambridge GO

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

244

CHAPTER 11

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

How did Polynesians come to settle the Pacific (c.700–1756 CE)? Low-res

LESSON TITLE

11.1

Setting the scene: Voyages into the unknown

11.2

What were the key events of the Polynesian expansion into the Pacific?

11.3

How did Polynesian Peoples settle the Pacific?

11.4

What are the key elements of daily life in Polynesian societies?

11.5

How were Polynesian societies structured?

11.6

History puzzle: From the east or the west?

11.7

How were Polynesians affected by colonisation?

11.8

What were the significant achievements of the Rapa Nui?

11.9

What were the significant challenges and developments on Rapa Nui?

11.10

End of investigation review: How did Polynesians come to settle the Pacific (c.700–1756 CE )?

This digital chapter can be accessed via Cambridge GO

Image: Two moai on Rapa Nui

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

245

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

246

Part 2

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Geography

FPO

Watch the video for an introduction to Geography in Year 8 and the geographical skills and concepts you will be working with. Aerial view of winding road amid trees in forest landscape, Bregaglia, Switzerland. In Investigation 1 you will learn about different landscapes and landforms.

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

247

INVESTIGATION 1

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Landscapes and landforms

OVERVIEW

Landforms and landscapes examines landforms (major elements in the environment) and the geomorphological processes that produce them. It explores the significance and meanings of landforms for people, including Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples. Students explore the distribution of Australia’s distinctive landscapes and significant landforms. They investigate the human activities that have changed landforms, through a case study of a chosen local landscape, and they explore ways of responding to damaging changes. They also consider the ways that the sustainability of significant landscapes and the impacts of hazards are managed. Source: VCAA, Victorian Curriculum V2.0, ‘Geography’, ‘Band description – Levels 7 and 8’

CURRICULUM GOALS

• How do geomorphological processes shape landscapes, and how do people interact with and manage landform changes?

Source: VCAA, Victorian Curriculum V2.0, ‘Geography’, ‘Band description – Levels 7 and 8’

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

248

Cambridge Investigating Humanities for the Victorian Curriculum 8

CHAPTER 12

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

What are landscapes and landforms? Low-res

LESSON TITLE

12.1

Setting the scene: Interconnection and change in the Great Barrier Reef

12.2

What are landscapes?

12.3

What are landforms?

12.4

How are landforms created?

12.5

How are landforms and landscapes important to Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples?

12.6

Fieldwork at a local coastal site

12.7

Fieldwork at a local riverine site

Image: The Twelve Apostles, near Port Campbell, Victoria

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

249

12.1

Setting the scene: Interconnection and change in the Great Barrier Reef

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Learning intention In this lesson, you will apply the geographic concepts of interconnection and change by learning about one of the most iconic landforms on Earth. The Great Barrier Reef is a coral reef over 2300 km long located off Queensland’s northeast coast. It is one of Australia’s iconic landforms and the world’s largest coral reef system. It includes around 3000 reefs and 900 islands. This UNESCO World Heritage Site supports a diverse ecosystem, with over 1500 fish species, 400 types of coral, and marine animals that include turtles and whales. It is a vital

source of biodiversity, tourism and cultural heritage, particularly for Indigenous Australians. Geographers study how interconnection and change shape landforms like the reef. For example, cyclones generate waves that can break coral. The broken coral pieces are carried by waves to form coral cays – small, sandy islands. Over time, these cays can

…

Figure 12.1.1 The green sea turtle is just one of many marine animals whose home is the Great Barrier Reef.

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

250

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES …

Figure 12.1.2 Lady Elliot Island is one of 16 coral cays in the southern Great Barrier Reef. Cays are small, sandy islands on the surface of coral reefs.

become stable islands where plants grow and create new habitats for animals such as seabirds and turtles. This shows how one event, such as a cyclone, triggers interconnected changes leading to new environments. Changes can happen quickly, like during a storm, or slowly, over decades, like the formation of islands. Each change connects to other changes, creating a dynamic system.

Human activities also impact the reef. For example: • higher levels of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere cause the ocean to warm and coral to bleach (Figure 12.1.3)

• water from farms causes run-off into the ocean, carrying agricultural chemicals that help the growth of harmful algae

• overfishing and tourism disrupts marine ecosystems, weakening the reef’s resilience.

dynamic always changing or moving

However, actions such as introducing sustainable farming, setting up marine parks and carrying out programs to restore coral can help to protect this natural wonder.

ecosystem a community of living things and their environment

The Great Barrier Reef is an example of how interconnected landscapes respond to both natural and human-driven changes, reminding us of our role in preserving such fragile environments.

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Chapter 12: What are landscapes and landforms?

251

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES …

Figure 12.1.3 Coral bleaching on the Great Barrier Reef, 2024. Coral bleaching is a process that occurs when

corals expel the algae that live in their tissues, causing them to turn white.

Go online to access the interactive lesson review and more!

Lesson 12.1 review Online quiz

Review questions

DOC

Research task

Teachers can assign tasks and track results

Think, puzzle, explore 1 Think: What do you think you already know about the topic ‘Landscapes and landforms’? 2 Puzzle: What questions or puzzles do you have about this topic? 3 Explore: How might you explore your questions or puzzles about this topic?

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

252

Cambridge Investigating Humanities for the Victorian Curriculum 8

12.2

What are landscapes? Learning intention

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

This lesson introduces the landscapes of Earth and the natural processes and human activities that form these landscapes.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

Developing questions for a geographical inquiry

Geographers are people of many talents. One of the most important of these is having curiosity about the world. A geographer has to be able to develop questions for a geographical inquiry. Examine Figures 12.2.1 to 12.2.6. What questions do you have about any or all of the pictures that you see?

Landscapes refer to the different kinds of outdoor scenes that we see on Earth’s surface. There are two main types of landscapes: natural and human. Natural landscapes include coastal, mountain and desert landscapes. These are formed by Earth’s natural processes, such as erosion and movement of Earth’s crust. You will learn more about natural processes later in this topic.

Human landscapes include farms, parks, and cities. Although they might have some natural features, such as trees, these landscapes have mostly been created by humans.

landscape an area of land that has particular features, either natural or human-made

Landscapes showcase the remarkable diversity of Earth’s natural and humanmade settings. Exploring landscapes helps us appreciate the wonders of our world.

Types of landscapes Mountain landscapes

Mountains are elevated landforms that have been formed by the movement of Earth’s crust, as tectonic plates push against each other. They can be covered in snow, with towering peaks formed over millions of years. Well-known examples include the Himalayas in Asia and the Victorian Alps.

landform a feature of a landscape, such as a mountain or valley

…

tectonic plate a section of Earth’s crust that moves relative to other sections; often just called a plate

Figure 12.2.1 Mountain landscape, Switzerland

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Chapter 12: What are landscapes and landforms?

253

arid extremely dry, especially from lack of rainfall agriculture the science and labour of raising plants and farm animals; farming

Desert landscapes

Riverine landscapes

Deserts are arid regions that have low rainfall and extreme temperatures. They often consist of vast expanses of sand dunes and rocky terrain. The Sahara Desert in Africa is the largest desert on Earth. Australia’s most dominant landscape is desert.

A riverine landscape is shaped by the natural movement of a water system like a river or stream. Riverine landscapes include the ecosystems in and around the area of the river or rivers. They are often suitable for agriculture because they have fertile soil.

Figure 12.2.2 Desert landscape, Jordan

Coastal landscapes

A coastal landscape is a place near the sea where water shapes the land. Coastal landscapes can look different from one another because of the way water interconnects with them. Sometimes, waves gently touch the shore and bring sand in from other places to create peaceful sandy beaches, while in other places, they crash hard and cut away the land to create rocky cliffs.

Figure 12.2.4 Riverine landscape, Poland, showing frozen land on one side and thawed land on the other

…

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

fertile soil healthy soil, containing nutrients, that is able to support plant life

Volcanic landscapes

Volcanic activity has created more than 80 per cent of Earth’s surface. Volcanos are nature’s architects, creating mountains, valleys, plateaus and plains. Although active volcanos can be dangerous, they also provide us with some of the most fertile land for agriculture. The last volcanic eruption in Australia occurred around 5000 years ago in South Australia and was likely to have been seen by Aboriginal people.

…

Figure 12.2.3 Beach landscape, Greece

…

Figure 12.2.5 Volcanic landscape, Iceland

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

254

Cambridge Investigating Humanities for the Victorian Curriculum 8

Urban landscapes and structures used for various human activities. Examples include the town of Warragul in Gippsland, and the city of Seoul in South Korea (Figure 12.2.6).

infrastructure the things created using technology and engineering that allow human society to run smoothly, such as roads, buildings, water pipes, electricity lines and bridges

…

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Urban landscapes are human-made environments, consisting of towns and cities, and their infrastructure. They are marked by houses, skyscrapers, streets

Figure 12.2.6 Urban landscape, Seoul

Concepts and skills builder 12.2 Create a thematic map

A thematic map focuses on a specific topic or theme, such as climate or land use. It uses colours, symbols and patterns to represent different aspects of the chosen theme. Construct a thematic map titled ‘Landscapes of Victoria’ by following these steps:

• Look online to collect information about the locations of mountain, coastal, riverine, volcanic and desert landscapes in Victoria. • Using a blank outline map of Victoria, mark the locations of mountain, coastal, riverine, volcanic, and desert •

landscapes, using either different colours or symbols. There may be some overlap between landscapes, so your symbols or colours may overlap. Complete your map by adding mapping conventions (border, orientation, legend, title, source, scale).

Geographical concepts and skills: environment, geographical inquiry, place, scale

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Chapter 12: What are landscapes and landforms?

255

Go online to access the interactive lesson review and more!

Lesson 12.2 review Online quiz

Review questions

DOC

Research task

Teachers can assign tasks and track results

12.2 Review questions

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

1 Define the following terms, then work with a partner to test each other’s knowledge. a landscape b agriculture c ecosystem d fertile soil e arid 2 What are the two main types of landscapes? Give examples of each. 3 Explain how a natural or human force shaped each of the following landscapes. a coastal b mountain c volcanic d riverine e desert f urban 4 Describe an urban landscape that you are familiar with. What types of infrastructure does it include?

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

256

Cambridge Investigating Humanities for the Victorian Curriculum 8

12.3

What are landforms? Learning intention

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

In this lesson you will explore the distinctive landform features of different landscapes.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

Think, pair, share

Look at Figures 12.3.1–12.3.3.

1 Think: Do you know the names of any of these iconic Australian landforms? 2 Pair: With a partner, discuss how you think these landforms formed. 3 Share: What landscapes do you think each of these landforms belongs to? As a pair, discuss and prepare to share your answer with the class.

…

Figure 12.3.2 An iconic Australian landform

Figure 12.3.1 An iconic Australian landform

Figure 12.3.3 An iconic Australian landform

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Chapter 12: What are landscapes and landforms?

257

Landforms are the natural features that you see in each of Earth’s landscapes, such as mountains, rivers and volcanos. Some landforms are more commonly found in certain landscapes. For example, a beach is a landform that is commonly found in a coastal landscape, while a mesa (a flattopped mountain or hill) is a landform typically seen in desert landscapes.

Despite this, some landforms can be found in more than one type of landscape. For example, sand dunes are found in both coastal and desert landscapes. Figure 12.3.4 shows some of the main landforms found in various landscapes.

…

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Low-res

Figure 12.3.4 Landforms in their landscapes

Concepts and skills builder 12.3 Identifying landforms on a topographic map

topographic map a map that shows accurate details of the features of an area using symbols and labels, and the elevation of the land by including lines labelled with height above sea level

Topographic maps are useful tools for identifying landforms such as mountains, valleys and rivers. In Figure 12.3.5, landforms are represented using the following methods:

• symbols represent different features on Earth’s surface – the map legend explains each symbol • contour lines connect points that are at the same height above sea level (indicated by a number on the line), •

so they represent the elevation of the land. They are usually brown. Steep land is shown by lines that are close together; gently-sloped land is shown by lines that are a long way apart. Therefore, contour lines help you understand the shape of the landscape names of landforms are sometimes written on the map.

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

258

Cambridge Investigating Humanities for the Victorian Curriculum 8

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Low-res

…

Figure 12.3.5 An extract from a topographic map of Camden Haven region

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Chapter 12: What are landscapes and landforms?

259

40 30 20 10

20 10

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

30 40

…

Figure 12.3.6 Contour lines help you understand the shape of the landscape. The numbers on each line represent the elevation (height of that line above sea level).

In this activity you will use grid references to find locations on the map in Figure 12.3.5. To read a grid reference, first find the vertical line (easting), then the horizontal line (northing) to pinpoint the location. Scan the QR code in Figure 12.3.7 for a reminder of how to do this.

…

Figure 12.3.7

1 Complete the Table 12.3.1 by identifying:

• the landform found at each of the grid references • which landscape this landform is found in.

Grid references

You will notice that there are a few landscapes in this map area.

Table 12.3.1 Three locations and landforms in Camden Haven region

Grid reference (GR) of landform GR 7897 GR 8398 GR 7001

Type of landform

Landscape where this landform is found

2 Use the map scale to measure the length of Dunbogan Beach, from Diamond Head to Camden Head. 3 Use the map legend to identify the landform at GR 7992. 4 Examine the map closely and write your own question for a friend to answer. Geographical concepts and skills: communicating, environment, geographical inquiry, place, scale

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

260

Cambridge Investigating Humanities for the Victorian Curriculum 8

Lesson 12.3 review Online quiz

Review questions

DOC

Research task

Go online to access the interactive lesson review and more!

Teachers can assign tasks and track results

12.3 Review questions Define the term ‘landform’. Explain how a landform is different to a landscape. Describe a landform that can be found in more than one landscape. How are landforms represented on topographic maps?

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

1 2 3 4

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Chapter 12: What are landscapes and landforms?

261

12.4

How are landforms created? Learning intention

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

In this lesson, you will learn about some of the geomorphological processes and forces that change the shape of Earth’s surface.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

See, think

Observe Figure 12.4.1.

1 What type of landscape is shown in this image? 2 The gap between the two rock formations is called a fissure. What do you think could have caused this fissure?

…

Figure 12.4.1 Split level view of Silfra, a crack or fissure in þingvellir (Thingvellir) National Park, Iceland

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

262

Cambridge Investigating Humanities for the Victorian Curriculum 8

Landforms are created by Earth-shaping forces, known as geomorphological processes. Some of these forces help

to create landforms, while others work to change – and can even demolish – landforms.

geomorphological relating to the natural processes that shape Earth’s surface

Internal forces Land-building forces normally are caused by energy coming from within the Earth. These are called internal forces. They include plate tectonics and volcanism.

The crust of the Earth is not made up of one solid piece – it is split into plates that are floating on top of the mantle. Where plates are pushing towards each other, they can form mountains; where plates are moving away from each other, they can create rifts; and where plates are sliding past each other, they can cause

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Plate tectonics

Earth is made up of three different layers called the core, the mantle and the crust. North American plate

Eurasian plate

Juan de Fuca plate

Caribbean plate

Filipino plate

Arabian plate

Cocos plate

Indian plate

Equator

Australian plate

Pacific plate

Nazca plate

South American plate

African plate

Australian plate

Scotia plate

Antarctic plate

…

Figure 12.4.2 Earth’s tectonic plates and their movements

Crust (solid rock)

… Figure 12.4.3

Earth’s layers

Upper mantle Lower mantle (liquid rock) Outer core (liquid iron and nickel) Inner core (solid iron and nickel) Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Chapter 12: What are landscapes and landforms?

263

earthquakes and valleys. Colliding plates are called convergent plates, while plates that are pulling away from each other are called divergent plates.

Volcanism

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

At times, pressure builds up in Earth’s crust, forcing magma, ash and gases to escape through vents (gaps in Earth’s crust). Much of Earth’s volcanic activity occurs along areas called subduction zones. Subduction zones are convergent plate boundaries where two tectonic plates come together. The heavier plate is pushed (or subducted) under the other plate. When this happens, the lower plate melts and produces magma that rises up through the overlying plate, erupting to the surface as a volcano.

…

Some volcanic eruptions are explosive; lava shoots into the sky and hot pieces of

Figure 12.4.4 Mt Fuji, in Japan, has not erupted since 1707 but is still considered an active volcano. Japan is located on the most geologically active part of the planet, called the Ring of Fire.

rock and ash are released. Other eruptions are described as ‘effusive’; this is where lava oozes slowly from the volcano. Volcanic mountain landforms such as the iconic Mt Fuji in Japan (Figure 12.4.4) are formed from lava and ash.

… Figure 12.4.5 Some of

Rain

Earth’s major external forces: weathering, erosion and deposition

Wind

Freeze

Weathering Wind, rain and freezing break up rock

Erosion Material is moved (transported)

weathering the slow breakdown of rocks and minerals into smaller pieces over time

erosion the movement of sediment from one place to another by gravity, moving water, glaciers, waves and wind

External forces

External forces are processes that shape the Earth’s surface from the outside. They get their power from Earth’s surface and atmosphere. They include weathering, erosion and deposition.

Weathering Weathering is the slow breakdown of rocks and minerals into smaller pieces over time. It is caused by weather forces such as wind, rain and temperature changes. Plant roots

Figure 12.4.6 Plant roots can cause weathering by breaking up rocks and soil into smaller pieces.

…

deposition the laying down or settling of eroded materials (sediments) at a new location

Deposition Material is deposited in a new location

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

264

Cambridge Investigating Humanities for the Victorian Curriculum 8

also cause weathering, as they can break up rock into smaller pieces (see Figure 12.4.6).

Erosion

sediment sand, soil, small rocks, and any other small particles that sink in water

Geomorphological processes are what cause Earth to change constantly. These processes work over a long time, but they’re the reason our planet has so many different landscapes.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Once rocks and minerals have been broken into smaller pieces, these pieces (which we call sediment) may move from one location to another. The movement of this sediment is called erosion. Erosion is caused by gravity, moving water, glaciers, waves and wind, which all help to move sediment. Weathering and erosion work together to create landforms such as cliffs and caves.

speed reduces, or water slows as it reaches a flat surface and no longer has a slope to run down. When the energy of the wind or water reduces, it no longer has the power to move sediment, and the sediment settles (or is deposited). Therefore, erosion is eventually followed by deposition. The deposition of sediment can cause landforms such as beaches and deltas to build up.

Deposition

Eventually, moving sediments lose energy and speed. This might occur when wind

Concepts and skills builder 12.4

Drawing an annotated diagram to demonstrate change

Geographers use the concept of change to understand how and why certain environmental events occur. They often describe a process of change as a series of steps. Sometimes, the change can be represented by a diagram that is annotated to show these steps. Figure 12.4.7 is an example of volcanism, explained as an annotated diagram.

Volcano

Continental crust

Oceanic crust

Molten rock wells up to erupt from volcanoes

Plate is subducted beneath continental plate as it is denser.

Melting of the plates produces magma that rises up through the overlying plate.

Magma erupts to the surface. Once it reaches the surface, the magma is now called lava.

…

Figure 12.4.7 An annotated diagram showing how volcanism occurs

How to construct an annotated diagram for a geomorphological process: 1 Start by identifying the main steps in the process of change. Make sure they are in order. 2 Write each step as a brief, clear statement. 3 Use arrows to connect the steps, showing the order of the change. 4 Enhance your diagram by including images that demonstrate your statements.

Your task is to construct a diagram with at least three annotations to describe the changes that rock goes through during the processes of weathering, erosion and deposition. Geographical concepts and skills: change, communicating, environment, geographical inquiry Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Chapter 12: What are landscapes and landforms?

265

Go online to access the interactive lesson review and more!

Lesson 12.4 review Online quiz

Review questions

DOC

Research task

Teachers can assign tasks and track results

12.4 Review questions Define the term ‘geomorphic’. Describe the difference between internal forces and external forces that build landforms. Identify the three layers of Earth. Look at Figure 12.4.2. a List two plates that are diverging from each other and two that are converging toward each other. b Locate Japan. Is it on or near converging or diverging plate boundaries? c Explain how the movement of the plate boundaries near Japan makes it prone to volcanos.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

1 2 3 4

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

266

Cambridge Investigating Humanities for the Victorian Curriculum 8

12.5

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

How are landforms and landscapes important to Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples? Learning intention

In this lesson, you will investigate the importance of landscapes and landforms to First Nations Peoples.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

See, think, wonder

Look closely at the images in Figure 12.5.1.

Low-res

…

Figure 12.5.1 Two large eucalyptus trees

1 See: What do you see? Describe what you notice about the images. What is the focal point of these photos, and why? 2 Think: What do you think? Where are these photos taken? How do you know? 3 Wonder: What do you wonder? What do you wonder about the person who took this picture? How do you think they feel about the subjects of the images?

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Chapter 12: What are landscapes and landforms?

267

Ways of thinking about landscapes and landforms This holistic relationship means that the land is inseparable from the people – it is a part of people, and people are a part of Country, including landforms and landscapes. Country is not just a place but a living entity with a heartbeat and a spirit. It encompasses the land, water, air, plants, animals, and the stories and ancestors connected to that place. Country is central to identity, spirituality, and culture.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Country traditional lands that are culturally important and include water, air, plants, animals, and the stories and ancestors connected to that place; the word Country, when referring to Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander connection to Country, is capitalised as a way of showing respect

Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples have cultivated a deep, reciprocal relationship with their lands since time immemorial. This sacred, two-way relationship ensures that Country and people are healthy and happy. Land, landscapes and landforms are important to all Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander groups. Gemma Pol of the not-for-profit group called Common Ground explains connection to Country as:

Country is family, kin, law, lore, ceremony, traditions, and language. For many Aboriginal people, we talk about Country the way we would a person: we speak to Country, sing to Country, visit Country, worry about Country, feel sorry for Country, and long for Country.

Source: Gemma Pol, ‘What is Country?’, Common Ground initiative, 5 July 2021. How do you and your family connect with places?

Importance to Djab Wurrung People

Djab Wurrung an Aboriginal group whose traditional lands are in the Western District of Victoria

birthing tree a sacred tree where Djab Wurrung women traditionally give birth; a significant cultural and spiritual site that stands for ancestral connections and continuity within community directions tree a culturally modified tree used by Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples to indicate directions, mark significant sites, or serve as navigational aids within their traditional lands

Djab Wurrung Country is in western Victoria (Figure 12.5.2). Like all First Nations Peoples, Djab Wurrung People have special connections to Country.

Country. This connection is a unique and important aspect of Djab Wurrung culture.

Djab Wurrung People also have their own cultural practices and sacred sites that differ from those of other Aboriginal groups. One significant cultural connection is to ancient birthing trees and directions trees on Djab Wurrung

These trees, some of which are 800 years old, have been used for generations as sacred places where Djab Wurrung women give birth, marking the beginning of life and the continuation of their cultural lineage. Djab Wurrung man Zellanach Djab Mara expresses this connection: … Figure 12.5.2

Wergaia

Bindjali

Dja Dja Wurrung

Jardwadjali

Djab Wurrung Country

Yorta Yorta

Baraba Baraba

Waveroo

Ngurraiillam Wurrung

Jaitmatang

Ngarigo

Djab Wurrung

Taungurung Bidwell Wathaurang

Buandig

Gunditjmara

Woiwurrung

Djargurd Gulidjan wurrung

Gunai Kurnai

Boonwurrung

Tasman Sea

Giraiwurrung Gadubanud INDIAN OCEAN

Bass Strait

200 km

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

268

Cambridge Investigating Humanities for the Victorian Curriculum 8

These trees are our ancestors. They are living testaments to our history and our identity. When we stand with them, we stand with all those who came before us and all those yet to come. Source: Djab Wurrung man Zellanach Djab Mara

Highway duplication project threatens sacred trees of the highway duplication went ahead. In 2020, Roads Victoria began cutting down trees in the area, including some of the sacred birthing trees.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

In 2019, the Victorian Government announced that it planned to duplicate a section of the Western Highway between Buangor and Ararat. The government consulted with one Aboriginal group, but the route was widely criticised because it threatened sacred Djab Wurrung trees.

Djab Wurrung People respond

Djab Wurrung People created an embassy at the site of an ancient cultural tree to try to stop or change the route of the duplication of the Western Highway through their Country. The embassy served as a base where Djab Wurrung, other First Nations and non-Indigenous people could come together to share their concerns about the project. Djab Wurrung People wanted to protect their sacred sites and the natural environment from being harmed by the route of the highway. By meeting with government officials, environmental groups and the community, the Djab Wurrung Embassy worked to defend land rights and preserve Djab Wurrung culture. The embassy caused delays to the felling of trees and the roadworks but despite the efforts of the embassy, the construction

Impact on Djab Wurrung People

For Djab Wurrung People, the birthing trees are irreplaceable. Their loss disrupts cultural practices, disconnects future generations from their heritage, and causes deep spiritual harm. The devastating emotional and cultural impact of the trees being cut down is described by Gunditjmara, Keerray Woorroong and Djap Wurrung woman Ali Cobby Eckerman:

These trees are our mothers, our grandmothers. They hold the stories of our ancestors and the spirits of our unborn children. Cutting them down is like destroying a part of ourselves.

Source: Gunditjmara, Keerray Woorroong and Djap Wurrung woman Ali Cobby Eckerman, on the destruction of the birthing trees

The loss of the trees was not just a physical destruction of nature but a destruction of priceless cultural heritage and spiritual connections. Low-res

…

Figure 12.5.3 The Djab Wurrung Heritage Protection Embassy blockade

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Chapter 12: What are landscapes and landforms?

269

Different relationships with the land

As the Common Ground group explains in relation to First Nations Peoples and land:

Our natural resources are the backbone of our economy. The development of Australia’s vast landscapes has provided jobs for millions and sustained our nation’s growth for decades.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

resources things that are used by a person or group, including a business or country; often used to mean mineral wealth, such as oil and metal ores

The cutting down of the Djab Wurrung trees highlights the contrast in how nonIndigenous Australians and Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples relate to landforms and landscapes. First Nations Peoples have a reciprocal relationship with the land, involving deep respect, caring and a sense of belonging.

In contrast, many non-Indigenous Australians often view landforms and landscapes in terms of utility, ownership and economic value, and they focus on development, use of resources and recreation. Australian political leaders often speak about the economic value of landforms and landscapes:

When Country is healthy, the people are healthy. When Country is sick, the people are sick. The wellbeing of Country and people are interdependent.

Source: Scott Morrison, former Prime Minister of Australia

Source: Gemma Pol, ‘What is Country?’,Common Ground, 5 July 2021

Concepts and skills builder 12.5

Considering ethical values and drawing evidence-based conclusions on a geographical issue 1 What does Country mean to Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples, and how does it differ from nonIndigenous views of land, landscapes and landforms? 2 Refer to Table 12.5.1 to compare perspectives on land. Propose how governments and developers can work with Indigenous communities to protect sacred sites while addressing infrastructure needs. Table 12.5.1 Perspectives on land, landforms and landscapes

Age of sacred trees

Djab Wurrung People’s perspectives Djab Wurrung People consider some of these trees to be over 800 years old. These estimations are based on oral histories and cultural narratives passed down through generations, reflecting the deep connection between the community and the land.

Western scientific and government perspectives Scientifically determining the exact age of large eucalyptus trees, like the river red gums (Eucalyptus camaldulensis) common in the area, is challenging without invasive methods that could harm the trees. Based on non-invasive assessments, some arborists and scientists estimate these trees to be between 300 to 700 years old. This range acknowledges the trees’ significant age while considering the limitations of the methods used.

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

270

Cambridge Investigating Humanities for the Victorian Curriculum 8

The trees are seen not just as natural The Victorian Government considered landmarks but as living ancestors. They the route chosen for expansion of embody the spirits of past generations the Western Highway, which meant and are integral to the community’s cutting down the Djab Wurrung trees, identity and traditions. was significant for improving road safety, reducing travel times and Specific trees have been used as supporting economic growth in the birthing sites for centuries, making region. them sacred. The history of these trees is intertwined with the community’s history, symbolising continuity and the passage of knowledge and life.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Significance of the landscape

3 Refer back to Figure 12.5.1. Reflect on the answers you provided and see if your understanding has changed by answering the questions again: a What do you see? Describe what you notice about the images. What is the focal point of these photos, and why? b What do you think? Where are these photos taken? How do you know? c What do you wonder? What do you wonder about the person who took this picture? How do you think they feel about the subjects of the images?

Geographical concepts and skills: communicating, place

Lesson 12.5 review Online quiz

Review questions

DOC

Research task

Go online to access the interactive lesson review and more!

Teachers can assign tasks and track results

12.5 Review questions

1 Discuss why the word Country is capitalised when writing about Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander perspectives of land. 2 Explain what is meant by the statement ‘Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples have cultivated a deep, reciprocal relationship with their lands since time immemorial’. 3 Explain how the diversity of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander cultures influences connections to specific landscapes and landforms. 4 Describe the ways in which the felling of the Djab Wurrung trees impacted the Djab Wurrung People emotionally and culturally.

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Chapter 12: What are landscapes and landforms?

271

12.6

Fieldwork at a local coastal site Learning intention

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

In this lesson you will have the opportunity to design a fieldwork investigation of a coastal landscape and/or landform in your local area.

Fieldwork brings our understanding of geographic concepts to life in the real world, and is an essential part of studying geography. In this fieldwork activity, you will investigate a coastal landscape and/or landform in your local area and:

• apply your understanding of changes that occur in coastal areas to create landscapes and landforms • examine human interconnections with coasts.

Use Table 12.6.1 to structure your fieldwork report. Table 12.6.1 Sections of a fieldwork report

Section Title and introduction

Background information

Research question

Explanation Choose a suitable topic and title for your investigation. Include the scope and location of your investigation. Write a brief introduction outlining the main aspects of your study, including the coastal environment that you will be investigating. Research some background information about your chosen topic and locations. This will provide some context for your study.

Write a research question that you intend to answer using the data that you collect. You may prefer to write one overall research question and multiple sub-questions.

Examples A comparison of the coastal processes at Cozy Corner Beach and Bells Beach The sustainability of coastal management techniques in North Lorne The human uses and their impacts at Williamstown Beach

• • •

• Geographic characteristics of your chosen location/s and a map showing your study area • The Traditional Owners of the place and their ongoing cultural connection to place. • History of management of this coastline • Satellite imagery of coastal landforms at your • • • •

location What evidence of coastal processes can we see at Sandringham beach? How effective have management techniques at Silverleaves beach been at managing erosion? How are the coastal landscapes at Cozy Corner Beach and Bells Beach similar and different? How has the dredging of Port Phillip Bay impacted Portsea Beach?

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

272

Cambridge Investigating Humanities for the Victorian Curriculum 8

A hypothesis is a clear and concise statement that can be tested. It should be written before your collect your primary data.

• Portsea Front Beach has experienced significant erosion since the dredging of Port Phillip Bay. • Cozy Corner has more depositional landforms,

Primary data is data you collect yourself in the field specifically for your investigation. Consider the types of primary data that you will need to collect to answer your research question. Consider the equipment and preparation required. Secondary data is data that other people have collected that you can use as part of your investigation. Undertake research to find suitable sources of information that you can apply to your topic.

• • • • • •

Presenting and analysing your data

Summarise your findings in visual formats that are easy to read and understand.

• • • •

Discussion, conclusion and evaluation

Use your primary and secondary data to answer your research question. Provide a concise summary of your major findings. Evaluate the success of your data collection and your overall investigation. Include a bibliography of any sources used.

• • •

Hypothesis

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Primary data collection

while Bells Beach has more erosional landforms, suggesting that the process of coastal erosion is occurring more at Bells Beach than Cozy Corner. Field transects Measuring longshore drift Beach profiles Photos and field sketches Interviews with locals, councillors and businesses Traffic tally

Secondary data collection

References

• Measurements of erosion or deposition found • •

at Digital Earth Australia Coastlines, http:// cambridge.edu.au/redirect/#### Satellite imagery and maps showing the location of geographic characteristics such as landforms and groynes Planned upgrades to coastal infrastructure such as beach nourishment, found at this Victorian Government website, http://cambridge.edu.au/ redirect/#### Different types of graphs (pie, line, bar) and maps (choropleth, thematic) Annotated photos and field sketches Summary tables Videos, embedded into your document, with your audio commentary The extent to which your hypothesis has been supported or disproven An answer to your research question The positive and negatives of your data collection methods and how they could be improved

• Digital Earth Australia, Australian government/ Geoscience Australia, https://maps.dea.ga.gov. au, accessed 5 September 2024

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Chapter 12: What are landscapes and landforms?

273

12.7

Fieldwork at a local riverine site Learning intention

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

In this lesson you will have the opportunity to design a fieldwork investigation of a riverine landscape and/or landform in your local area.

Fieldwork brings our understanding of geographic concepts to life in the real world, and is an essential part of studying geography. In this fieldwork activity, you will investigate a riverine landscape and/or landform in your local area and:

• apply your understanding of changes that occur in riverine areas to create landscapes and landforms • examine human interconnections with riverine areas. Use Table 12.7.1 to structure your fieldwork report. Table 12.7.1 Sections of a fieldwork report

Section Title and introduction

Explanation Examples A comparison of the riverine processes at the Choose a suitable topic and title upper, middle and lower courses of the Yarra for your investigation. Include River the scope and location of your The sustainability of riverine management investigation. Write a brief techniques at the Barwon River introduction outlining the main Human uses of the Goulburn River and their aspects of your study, including the impacts riverine environment that you will be investigating. Research some background Geographic characteristics of your chosen information about your chosen location/s and a map showing your study area. The Traditional Owners of the place and their topic and locations. This will ongoing cultural connection to place. provide some context for your History of management of this environment study. Satellite imagery of riverine landforms at your location What evidence of riverine processes can we see Write a research question that you at MacKenzie Falls? intend to answer using the data How are the riverine landscapes at the upper and that you collect. You may prefer to lower course of the Yarra River similar and how write one overall research question are they different? and multiple sub-questions. How are the values of Traditional Owners respected and reflected in the management of the Barwon River?

• • •

Background information

Research question

• • • • • • •

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

274

Cambridge Investigating Humanities for the Victorian Curriculum 8

A hypothesis is a clear and concise statement that can be tested. It should be written before you collect your primary data. Primary data Primary data is data you collect collection yourself in the field specifically for your investigation. Consider the types of primary data that you will need to collect to answer your research question. Consider the equipment and preparation required. Secondary data Secondary data is data that other collection people have collected that you can use as part of your investigation. Undertake research to find suitable sources of information that you can apply to your topic. Presenting and Summarise your findings in visual analysing your data formats that are easy to read and understand.

• The Yarra River’s upper course has more

Discussion, conclusion and evaluation

• • •

landforms created by vertical erosion, while the lower course has more depositional landforms

• Coarse sediment analysis • Field transects • Photos and field sketches • Interviews with locals, councillors and businesses • Ecosystem survey • Water quality testing

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Hypothesis

References

• Satellite imagery and maps showing the location • • • • •

of geographic characteristics such as landforms and dams. Government floodplain management plans found at this Victorian Government website, http://cambridge.edu.au/redirect/#### Different types of graphs (pie, line, bar) and maps (choropleth, thematic) Annotated photos and field sketches Summary tables Videos embedded into your document with your audio commentary The extent to which your hypothesis has been supported or disproven An answer to your research question The positive and negatives of your data collection methods and how they can be improved

• Digital Earth Australia, Australian government/ Geoscience Australia, https://maps.dea.ga.gov. au, accessed 5 September 2025

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Chapter 12: What are landscapes and landforms?

275

CHAPTER 13

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

What are coastal and riverine landscapes and landforms, and how do they form and change? Low-res

LESSON TITLES

13.1

Setting the scene: What is the spiritual, aesthetic and cultural value of riverine landscapes and landforms for Aboriginal people?

13.2

What are the causes of coastal change?

13.3

What kinds of coastal landforms are caused by erosion?

13.4

What kinds of coastal landforms are caused by deposition?

13.5

What is the spiritual, aesthetic and cultural value of landscapes and landforms for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples?

13.6

What are the human causes of coastal landform change?

13.7

How do humans manage coastal landform change?

13.8

What are the causes of, impacts of and responses to a coastal hazard?

13.9

What are riverine landscapes and landforms?

13.10

What natural processes create landforms in the upper course of a river?

13.11

What natural processes create landforms in the middle course of a river?

13.12

What natural processes create landforms in the lower course of a river?

13.13

How do humans cause and manage landform change in riverine landscapes?

13.14

What are some of the causes and impacts of flooding?

13.15

What are some responses to flooding?

13.16

End of investigation review: Landscapes and landforms

Image: Riverine landscape, Scotland

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

276

13.1

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Setting the scene: What is the spiritual, aesthetic and cultural value of riverine landscapes and landforms for Aboriginal people? Learning intention

In this lesson, you will look at the interconnections between Barkandji People and the Baaka (Darling River). Scan the QR code in Figure 13.1.1 to watch the video about the Baaka. 1

What other evidence could you find in this video to suggest that the Baaka is of great importance to Barkandji People? What are some of the challenges Barkandji People and their Country face?

FPO

…

Consider the similarities between the name for the river, Baaka or Barka, and the name of the Traditional Custodians of the place, Barkandji. What could these similarities suggest about the value the river holds for these people?

Figure 13.1.1

Darling Barka our mother

Low-res

…

Figure 13.1.2 The Baaka (Darling River)

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Chapter 13: What are coastal and riverine landscapes and landforms, and how do they form and change?

277

Low-res

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

… Figure 13.1.3 A group

of Barkandji Rangers, pictured in June 2023

irrigation the diversion of water away from its natural course via pipes or channels to water land or crops

Barkandji People are the Traditional Owners of rural and remote far west New South Wales, where the towns of Dareton, Menindee and Wilcannia line the banks of the Baaka (the Darling River).

like natural fish nurseries and kept water plants and animals safe during dry times. When floods came, these protected species would spread back into the river, helping the ecosystem stay healthy.

The Baaka holds immense cultural and spiritual significance for Barkandji People, who have lived along its banks for thousands of years. Indigenous Australians, including Barkandji, have managed both the land and waterways of Australia, including the Baaka, through intricate practices that enhance the rivers’ ecosystems.

Despite the changes brought by colonisation and modern irrigation practices, these ancient techniques remain vital to Barkandji People’s cultural practices.

Archaeological research and oral histories reveal that Barkandji People constructed sophisticated fish traps and weirs from stone, wood and earth. These fish traps work in several fascinating ways. Stone walls create turbulent water flow, which stops mud from sediment building up and keeps the water clean. Think of them as underwater apartment buildings – small fish can swim through gaps in the walls, while creatures like yabbies and river snails make their homes in the rocky spaces! Before colonisation, these traps were often built near natural springs, where fresh water attracts fish, especially during droughts. Many Aboriginal Peoples also made temporary weirs, using wood and earth, to create wetland areas. These acted

The first paddle steamer navigated the Baaka in 1861, but its journey was obstructed by fish traps Barkandji People had built. When this happened, colonisers responded by significantly changing the river’s landscape, including blasting rocks to make it easier for them to travel on the river. Unfortunately, many Barkandji fish traps were destroyed. Despite this, Barkandji People adapted, using some of the blasted rocks to create new traps that still function today. In recent years, more water has been taken from the river for irrigation (Figure 13.1.4). This has seriously threatened the Baaka’s health. By 2019, excessive removal of water caused huge reductions in water flow in the river. This devastated fish populations and impacted Barkandji People’s ability to sustain their cultural practices. Mass fish kills in Menindee highlighted the urgent need for sustainable water management.

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

278

Cambridge Investigating Humanities for the Victorian Curriculum 8

… Figure 13.1.4

Key

Murray-Darling Basin

The Murray– Darling Basin, including irrigation locations

QLD

State borders Major river 1800

Irrigated agriculture 2000

Mean annual evaporation (mm) Mean annual rainfall 2200 mm

e Riv

200 mm

NSW

150

0 Dalby

0 Brisbane 160 1400 0 130

Border R iv e r

1600 Gwydir

0 150oa Cu

amine Rive Cond r

Namoi River

Narrabri

160

Mildura

VIC

e Riv er

Ov en s

G ou 1000 0River lbur 90 River n

ACT

Wagga Wagga

Murray Riverina

Sydney

Canberra

Upper Murray River

e Riv

W im R iv mera er

Echuca

Orange

0 140

wa Kie

Dubbo

1500

Murrumb idge

Blanchetown

Loddon River

1200

Riv er

A von R

1300

River

Adelaide

Murr ay

A v o ca

Blanchetown

River Murray

iver an R chl La

170

iv e

11 00

Menindee

Cobar

1800 0 170

r ive

Compa River spe

Dar lin gR

Broken Hill

1900

agh tlere Cas iver R R Mac q a u ri e er Riv Bogan

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Bourke

Riv er

Melbourne

The sustainable practices of Barkandji People offer valuable ideas about how to manage the Baaka sustainably. Building fish traps not only allows people to catch fish, but also supports the river’s ecology by improving water quality and providing habitats for aquatic life.

200 km

For Barkandji People, the Baaka is more than a river; it is a living cultural landscape that embodies their traditions, spirituality and connection to their Country. Sustainable management of the Baaka must incorporate Barkandji knowledge to ensure that this precious resource can thrive for future generations.

Lesson 13.1 review Online quiz

Review questions

DOC

Research task

Go online to access the interactive lesson review and more!

Teachers can assign tasks and track results

13.1 Review questions 1 How did Barkandji People’s fish traps benefit the river’s ecosystem? List at least three benefits. 2 What major historical event in 1861 led to changes in Barkandji People’s traditional fish traps? How did Barkandji People adapt to this change? 3 Hold a class discussion about how we can help keep rivers healthy. What ideas can you think of to protect the Baaka? First, list your ideas and then share them with the class.

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Chapter 13: What are coastal and riverine landscapes and landforms, and how do they form and change?

279

13.2

What are the causes of coastal change? Learning intention

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

In this lesson, you will examine the role that waves play in producing coastal landscapes and landforms.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

Observe and predict

Spend two minutes examining Figures 13.2.1 and 13.2.2.

1 Predict what is meant by these terms: swash, backwash, wave frequency, trough. 2 What do you predict is the difference between constructive and destructive waves? 3 Which wave (constructive or destructive) do you think will be more responsible for erosion?

… Figure 13.2.1

Constructive wave

Long wavelength so low frequency (8-10 waves per minute)

Low wave height (under 1 metre)

Wave front is gently sloping

Wave trough

Water spreads a long way up the gently sloping beach Gains a little height, breaks and spills on the beach

Orbit becomes eliptical due to shore friction slowing the base of the wave

Waves have a circular orbit

Characteristics of a constructive wave

Strong swash

Weak backwash

Destructive wave

Short wavelength so high frequency (10-14 waves per minute)

Wave trough

Steep wave front

Waves have a circular orbit Offshore bar where sand is deposited

Wave height over 1 metre

Breaking wave gains much height

Orbit becomes eliptical due to shore friction slowing the base of the wave

Wave plunges onto steep beach, energy directed downwards so does not travel far up the beach

… Figure 13.2.2

Characteristics of a destructive wave

Weak swash

Very strong backwash erodes sand Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

280

Cambridge Investigating Humanities for the Victorian Curriculum 8

Coasts are dynamic places where the atmosphere, ocean and land interconnect. Energy from Earth’s external forces, such as waves, tides, currents and wind, helps to form and shape the coast.

dynamic always changing or moving

When the orbiting water hits an obstacle, such as a coastline, the bottom of the wave slows down while the top of the wave continues to move forward, spilling and breaking.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Waves are the main cause of coastal change. As Figures 13.2.1 and 13.2.2 show, they often occur when energy is transferred from the wind to the water. As the wind blows over the water’s surface,

the water is lifted, only to be pulled back down by the force of gravity. This lifting up and pulling down motion causes the water to move in a circular path – an orbit.

Types of waves

There are two different types of waves: constructive waves and destructive waves. When a wave reaches the shore, the water that rushes up the beach is known as the swash. The water that flows back towards the sea is known as the backwash. The amount of energy in the swash and backwash determines whether the wave is constructive or destructive. Each type affects coasts in different ways.

Constructive waves

Constructive waves occur when the swash is stronger than the backwash. This means that more beach material, such as sand, is deposited onto the coast by the swash, and less sand is dragged back away from the beach by the backwash. Because more sand is deposited than taken away, the waves help to build up landforms such as sandy beaches with

gentle slopes. Constructive waves occur when there is calm weather. They have a long wavelength and low wave frequency (8–10 waves per minute) and are usually under 1 metre tall.

Destructive waves

Destructive waves occur when the backwash is stronger than the swash. This means that more material is moved out to sea, instead of being deposited on the coast. Destructive waves remove sand from sandy beaches, and create rocky or pebble beaches and cliffs, because the force of the wave breaking against the land causes land to erode. These waves are usually very high, have a short wavelength and are very frequent. The wave has a steep front and is typically over 1 metre tall. As the wave approaches the coast, it gains height and plunges onto a steep beach.

swash the water that rushes up a beach when a wave reaches the shore backwash the water that flows back down a beach after a wave has reached the shore

constructive wave a wave that deposits more material than it removes wave frequency the number of waves per minute destructive wave a wave that removes more material than it deposits

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Chapter 13: What are coastal and riverine landscapes and landforms, and how do they form and change?

281

Concepts and skills builder 13.2 Interpreting cross-sections of constructive and depositional coasts Cross-sections are line graphs that show a side view of a landscape. They show what you would see if you were able to cut through the landscape like a loaf of bread. Cross-sections can show features such as hills and valleys, or depths, such as the depth of a river. Because crosssections can show the shape, length, slope and height of land, they provide another way that we can understand the unique characteristics of a particular coastal landscape.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

In Figures 13.2.3–13.2.5, the red lines across the landscape show where the cross-section was taken. Follow these steps to effectively read and understand a cross-section.

1 Check the axes: The horizontal axis (x-axis) shows the distance across the beach, and the vertical axis (y-axis) shows the height above sea level. 2 Start where the profile begins: usually near the water’s edge, and follow the red line to see how the beach rises or falls. 3 Compare slopes: A steeper line means the beach rises quickly, while a flatter line means a gentle slope. Refer to Figures 13.2.3–13.2.5 to complete these tasks.

1 Which of the coastal areas do you think have been formed by constructive waves? Justify your answer by referring to the shape of the profile, the steepness of its slope and its highest point. 2 Which of the coastal areas do you think have been formed by destructive waves? Justify your answer by referring to the shape of the profile, the steepness of its slope and its highest point.

Low-res

…

Figure 13.2.3 Cross-section of Cape Schank, Victoria.

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

282

Cambridge Investigating Humanities for the Victorian Curriculum 8

…

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Low-res

Figure 13.2.4 Cross-section of Queenscliff, Victoria

Low-res

…

Figure 13.2.5 Cross-section of Sandringham Beach, Victoria.

Geographical concepts and skills: environment, geographical inquiry, place, scale

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Chapter 13: What are coastal and riverine landscapes and landforms, and how do they form and change?

283

Go online to access the interactive lesson review and more!

Lesson 13.2 review Online quiz

Review questions

DOC

Research task

Teachers can assign tasks and track results

13.2 Review questions Define the terms swash and backwash. What is the main cause of coastal change? Explain how waves are formed. You can do this either as an annotated diagram, or a short paragraph. What causes waves to break? Copy and complete the following table:

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

1 2 3 4 5

Wave type

Strength of backwash and swash (weaker/ stronger)

Wavelength and Wave frequency Typical wave height landforms created

Constructive Destructive

6 Explain what a cross-section is and what features of a landscape it can show us.

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

284

Cambridge Investigating Humanities for the Victorian Curriculum 8

13.3

What kinds of coastal landforms are caused by erosion?

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Learning intention

In this lesson, you will learn about diﬀerent coastal erosion processes and how they create coastal landforms.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

Explaining processes Look at Figure 13.3.1.

1 Discuss as a class what has caused this event to occur. 2 Brainstorm some ways that you could protect people from hazards such as this.

…

Figure 13.3.1 Coastal erosion due to climate change has eroded this street in England.

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

285

If you have ever seen a rocky coastline, you have seen the processes of coastal erosion at work. Table 13.3.1 outlines

some of the ways that coastal erosion occurs. Coastal erosion produces different types of landforms.

Table 13.3.1 Processes in coastal erosion

Description Rocks carried by waves grind away at the shore, wearing down surfaces. Waves force rocks into each other, breaking them into smaller pieces. Water is forced into cracks, slowly breaking rocks apart. Acid in the water dissolves rock minerals.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

abrasion an erosion process where rocks carried by waves grind away at the shore, wearing down surfaces

Process Abrasion Attrition Hydraulic action Solution

attrition an erosion process where waves force rocks into each other, breaking them into smaller pieces hydraulic action an erosion process where water is forced into cracks, slowly breaking rocks apart

Beach Bay

Headland

Beach Bay

Headland

Stack

Figure 13.3.2 A bay is surrounded by land on three sides, whereas a headland is surrounded by water on three sides.

…

solution a mixture formed during erosion when acid in the water dissolves rock minerals

Headlands and bays

Coastal land is made of different types of rocks. Harder rock, such as granite, can take a long time to erode, while softer rock, such as clay, can erode more quickly and easily. When the soft rock is eroded, it can create a bay. The hard rock that is left will form a headland. Because of this, headlands and bays are often found together on the same stretch of coastline, as seen in Figures 13.3.2 and 13.3.3.

…

Figure 13.3.3 The Sydney Heads are a series of headlands that form the 2-km wide entrance to Sydney Harbour, New South

Wales.

Low-res

North Head

Middle Head

South Head

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

286

Cliffs and wave-cut platforms As waves crash, they erode the base of the cliff and form a wave-cut notch. With repeated erosion, the notch grows, undercutting the cliff. Eventually, the undercut section of cliff collapses, creating a wave-cut platform and pebble beaches (see Figure 13.3.4).

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

1 4

Sea attacks base

Wave-cut notch forms

Cliff collapses

Wave-cut platform forms

Cliff retreats

… Figure 13.3.4 How cliffs and wave-cut

platforms are formed

Caves, arches and stacks

The sides of headlands and cliffs can be eroded by waves that approach land on an angle. This can create caves. As erosion continues, the cave may be eroded from one side of the headland to

the other, forming an arch. Eventually, the arch will erode to a point where it cannot support itself and will collapse, leaving a landform known as a stack. Over time, the stack will also erode, leaving a stump.

…

Figure 13.3.5 An erosional coastline in Wales.

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Chapter 13: What are coastal and riverine landscapes and landforms, and how do they form and change?

287

Concepts and skills builder 13.3 Drawing a field sketch

1 Write details of the location, date and time of your field sketch. This is because landscapes change over time, so your sketch is a record of the landscape at a specific time and place. 2 Using a pencil, lightly draw two horizontal lines across your page to divide the scene into three equal sections. The bottom section will be the foreground, with the middle ground above this, and the background at the top of your page. 3 Starting with the foreground, outline the main features of the landscape that you can see. Continue to do this with the middle ground and background. Make sure that you only draw what you can physically see. 4 Observe the landscape again and add detail to the sketch to record more information. 5 Annotate the field sketch by identifying the main features of your sketch, and add more information about the landscape and conditions, such as wind speed and direction. Where possible, include observations about any movement or interconnections that you can see occurring between different elements within the landscape. 6 Take a photograph to support the field sketch.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

qualitative data descriptive information, rather than numerical or statistical information

Geographers use field sketches to enhance their understanding of a landscape and the interconnecting features within it. For geographers, field sketches build their observational skills and are created as a form of qualitative data when conducting fieldwork. You don’t need to be a great artist to produce a great field sketch! The following tips will help you.

For this task, practice conducting a field sketch from a landscape photo. 1 Follow steps 2–5 to create a sketch of Figure 13.3.5. 2 Annotate the drawing to identify the following features:

• cave • arch • stack • stump.

Geographical concepts and skills: change, communication, geographical inquiry, interconnection, place

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

288

Cambridge Investigating Humanities for the Victorian Curriculum 8

Lesson 13.3 review Online quiz

Review questions

DOC

Research task

Go online to access the interactive lesson review and more!

Teachers can assign tasks and track results

13.3 Review questions 1 Define the following terms: abrasion attrition hydraulic action solution.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

a b c d

2 Outline some benefits of drawing field sketches that geographers may not get from just taking a photo. 3 Describe how coastal caves, arches and stacks can form. 4 Put these steps of cliff erosion into the correct order: Cliff retreats, Cliff collapses, Wave-cut platform forms, Wave-cut notch forms, Sea attacks base of cliff.

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Chapter 13: What are coastal and riverine landscapes and landforms, and how do they form and change?

289

13.4

What kinds of coastal landforms are caused by deposition?

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Learning intention

In this lesson, you will learn about diﬀerent types of processes that cause coastal deposition and how they create coastal landforms.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

Interpreting satellite data Examine Figure 13.4.1.

perimeter a continuous line forming the boundary of a shape

1 What type of image is this? 2 What do each of the different colours in this image represent? 3 If you wanted to measure the length, width or perimeter of any of the landforms it shows, what feature in this image could help you do this?

…

Figure 13.4.1 Satellite image of a large longshore sand-spit system on the United Arab Emirates’ Arabian

Gulf coast

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

290

As we saw in Chapter 12, deposition is the laying down or settling of eroded material, typically carried by water, wind, or ice. The interconnection between erosion and

deposition plays a major role in shaping coastal landforms and contributes to the dynamic nature of these environments.

Beaches and dune systems shoreline by wind and forms dunes. The dunes closest to the beach are called primary dunes. They are usually covered by small hardy grasses, such as spinifex, which are resistant to coastal weather conditions. Beyond this lie the secondary and tertiary dunes, which are larger and usually covered in larger shrubs or trees. Although vegetation helps to stabilise the sand dunes, they are still a dynamic landform in the coastal landscape. Figure 13.4.2 shows a typical beach dune system.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Constructive waves transport sediment such as sand, silt and clay from eroded cliffs or riverbeds to the shore. Waves lose energy when they reach shallower waters, causing the sediments to be deposited. Over time, the accumulation of sediments forms beaches. The size and structure of the sediment are what determine the characteristics of the beach, whether it is sandy, pebbly or muddy. Some of the sand deposited on a beach is transported away from the Forest

Tertiary dune

Shrub

Dune grass

Secondary dune

Primary dune

Bare sand

Dry beach

Wet beach

…

Figure 13.4.2 A typical beach dune system

Longshore drift

Some coastal landforms are created by a process called longshore drift (Figure 13.4.3). Waves typically approach the shore on an angle, determined by the direction of the prevailing wind. However, the backwash leaves the shore at a right angle to the shoreline, because gravity

causes the water to roll straight down the beach towards the sea. The sediments in the waves therefore travel along the beach in a zigzag until the waves finally lose energy and the sediment is deposited.

prevailing wind the wind that comes from the most usual direction at a particular place or season

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Chapter 13: What are coastal and riverine landscapes and landforms, and how do they form and change?

291

Beach

Direction of longshore drift

rests ve c Wa

Sea

Direction of prevailing wind

Downdrift

Updrift

Backwash

Shoreline Surf Zone

h was

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

…

Figure 13.4.3 The process of longshore drift

Spits, tombolos and barrier islands Deposition from longshore drift contributes to the formation of:

• spits: long bars of sand extending from the shore into open water, like the one in Figure 13.4.1.

• barriers islands: bars of sandy deposits that are similar to spits but are not connected to the shore. Barrier islands provide a buffer against storm surges and support diverse ecosystems.

• tombolos: landforms that form when a spit connects the mainland coast to an island or stack

Concepts and skills builder 13.4 Measuring change using satellite imagery

Satellite images taken of the same place at different times help geographers to understand how landscapes are changing. This knowledge helps geographers prepare and make educated decisions about how to manage changes in future. 1 Look at Figure 13.4.4. Use the scale on the map to measure the change in the perimeter of the spit between the two dates. Because the shape of the spit is not linear, place a string along the perimeter from the point where the spit forms at the shoreline to the point where it rejoins it and mark this length on the string. Then measure the string against the map scale. 2 Comment on the change over time by completing the following paragraph: On … date the perimeter of the spit measured … ? metres. This perimeter had increased/decreased to … ? metres by … date. This indicates that the spit has increased/decreased by … ? metres over a time frame of … ? months.

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

292

Cambridge Investigating Humanities for the Victorian Curriculum 8

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Low-res

… Figure 13.4.4 A sand spit at

Shimanto River mouth in Kochi Prefecture, Japan. The prevailing wind is shown in image (a) as a yellow P. It shows that the wind is approaching the shore at an angle of 41 degrees.

Geographical concepts and skills: change, communicating, environment, geographical inquiry, place, scale

Lesson 13.4 review Online quiz

Review questions

DOC

Research task

Go online to access the interactive lesson review and more!

Teachers can assign tasks and track results

13.4 Review questions 1 2 3 4

What are the key differences between primary dunes and secondary dunes in terms of vegetation and location? Explain the process of longshore drift and how it helps to create coastal landforms such as spits and tombolos. Explain the similarities and differences between spits and barrier islands. Describe the role of vegetation in stabilising coastal dunes.

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Chapter 13: What are coastal and riverine landscapes and landforms, and how do they form and change?

293

13.5

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

What is the spiritual, aesthetic and cultural value of landscapes and landforms for Aboriginal people? Learning intention

In this lesson, you will learn about the Dreaming and its connection to the formation of landscapes and landforms in Aboriginal cultures.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

Exploring cultural connections Look at Figures 13.5.1 and 13.5.2.

1 Which cultures do you think these images are created by? 2 What do you think the term ‘Creator Spirit’ means? 3 What other creation beliefs do you know about, from any culture, religion or place?

Low-res

…

Figure 13.5.1 Bunjil or Bundjil is the Ancestral Wedge-tailed Eagle, the creator of much of south-eastern Australia’s landscapes and landforms.

… Figure 13.5.2 The Rainbow Serpent is known by

different names in various Aboriginal cultures. It is often the creator and protector of water, but it can create floods and storms when angry.

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

294

Cambridge Investigating Humanities for the Victorian Curriculum 8

What is the Dreaming? The Dreaming refers to the interconnected spiritual and physical worlds that coexist. The Dreaming is deeply connected to the formation of landscapes and landforms in Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander cultures. It represents the time when Ancestral Beings emerged from the land, sea and sky, shaping Country. As these Ancestral Beings travelled across the

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

land, they created mountains, rivers, and lakes, leaving their imprints behind. Their actions and ceremonies also transformed the landscape. These sacred teachings explain how the landforms we see today were formed. They continue to hold cultural significance because values, responsibilities and spiritual beliefs are embedded into the teachings.

Concepts and skills builder 13.5 Comprehending and interpreting sources

The following text shares knowledge from Boon Wurrung People about the formation of Port Phillip Bay approximately 10 000 years ago. It is presented partly in English and partly in Bunurong/Boon Wurrung language. The Boon Wurrung People are Traditional Custodians whose Country extends from the Werribee River in the north-west to Wilson’s Promontory in the south-east, including the Mornington Peninsula, French Island and Phillip Island.

As you read, you may encounter unfamiliar words. Try to understand their meaning by carefully considering the surrounding context. Understanding Aboriginal knowledges involves more than just interpreting words; it requires appreciating the symbols, values and teachings conveyed. This approach recognises the deep connections between Aboriginal Peoples, their Country, environmental responsibilities, history and cultural traditions. It also acknowledges the generosity of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples in sharing their knowledges and teachings with non-Indigenous people, despite Australia’s history of racism, dispossession and harm. Wadi Wadi

Ngargad

Wemba Wemba

Wergaia

Dja Dja Wurrung

Jardwadjali

Gunditjmara

Waveroo

Ngurraiillam Wurrung

Djab Wurrung

Jaitmatang

Ngarigo

Taungurung

Wathaurang

Buandig

Yorta Yorta

Baraba Baraba

Bindjali

Bidwell

Woiwurrung

Djargurd Gulidjan wurrung

Gunai Kurnai

Boonwurrung

Tasman Sea

Giraiwurrung Gadubanud INDIAN OCEAN

Bass Strait

200 km

…

Figure 13.5.3 Aboriginal language groups of Victoria

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Chapter 13: What are coastal and riverine landscapes and landforms, and how do they form and change?

295

Boon Wurrung: The filling of the bay – the time of chaos Told by Aunty Carolyn Briggs, 2011 Female Elder of the Year and Boonwurrung Elder Many years ago the biik we now call greater Melbourne extended right out to the warreeny. Nairm (Port Phillip Bay) was then a large flat grassy plain. The Yarra River, as it is known today, flowed out across this flat plain into the warreeny. For the Boon Wurrung, this wurneet was known as Birrarung (the river of mists).

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

This large plain was covered in buath and tarrang biik on which the Boon Wurrung men hunted guyeem and barramaeel. The bagurrk cultivated the murnong. They collected food from the wurneet and the warreeny and harvested the iilk that migrated through there every year. The Boon Wurrung were the custodians of their biik but traded with and welcomed people from other parts of the Kulin Nation. They obeyed the laws of Bundjil, who travelled as an eagle, and Waang who travelled as a crow. One day – many, many years ago – there came a time of chaos and crisis. The Boon Wurrung and the other Kulin nations were in conflict. They argued and fought. They neglected their biik. The native murnong was neglected. The animals were over killed and not always eaten. The gurnbak were caught during their spawning season. The iilk were not harvested. As this chaos grew the warreeny became angry and began to rise. The wurneet became flooded and eventually the whole flat plain was covered in baany. It threatened to flood their whole barerarerungar.

The people became frightened and went to Bundjil, their creator and spiritual leader. They asked Bundjil to stop the warreeny from rising. Bundjil was angry with his people, and he told them that they would have to change their ways if they wanted to save their land. The people thought about what they had been doing and made a promise to follow Bundjil.

Bundjil walked out to the warreeny, raised his tjeera and directed the warreeny to stop rising. Bundjil then made the Boon Wurrung promise that they would respect the laws.

The baany never subsided but stayed to create a large bay that the Boon Wurrung called Nairm. Today it is known as Port Phillip Bay. The warreeny took away much of the biik of the Boon Wurrung and much of their barerarerungar was reduced to a narrow strip of coastline. The Boon Wurrung learned from their mistakes. They returned to their old values and the laws of Bundjil. They took greater care of the biik of Bundjil and the bubup of Bundjil.

They met with the other Kulin people and sorted out their differences through sports, debates and dance.

One of the most important laws that Bundjil required to be obeyed was for Boon Wurrung people to always welcome visitors, and to require all visitors to make a promise that they would obey the laws of Bundjil, not hurt the biik of Bundjil and not harm the bubup of Bundjil. Today, the wurneet that once flowed through this large flat plain still flows under the nairm.

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

296

Cambridge Investigating Humanities for the Victorian Curriculum 8

Use this text to complete this task. 1 The following words are found in the text above in Bunurong/Boonwurrung language. Use this list and your ability to infer (use clues and what you already know to figure out meaning) to deduce the matching words. Then re-read the text to answer Questions 2–5. women emu land Port Phillip Bay

Eagle/Creator eels yam daisy Country

trees sea, ocean kangaroo

What coastal event is this text referring to? What is the moral (lesson) of this text? From your reading, explain some of the ways that Bunnerong People use the landscape. How did Bunnerong People’s relationship with other people from the Kulin Nation change over the course of the text?

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

2 3 4 5

Yarra River swamp baby, children creek

Low-res

…

Figure 13.5.4 One of Victoria’s iconic coastal landforms, Port Phillip Bay

Geographical concepts and skills: environment, geographical inquiry, place

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Chapter 13: What are coastal and riverine landscapes and landforms, and how do they form and change?

297

Go online to access the interactive lesson review and more!

Lesson 13.5 review Online quiz

Review questions

DOC

Research task

Teachers can assign tasks and track results

13.5 Review questions

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

1 How long ago was Port Phillip Bay formed? 2 In what ways did the Ancestral Beings shape the land? 3 Find where you live on Figure 13.5.3 and write down the name of the Traditional Custodians of the region you live in. 4 Why do you think the teachings and ceremonies associated with the Dreaming are important elements of the cultural identity of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples today? Examine how the Dreaming influences the way people interact with their Country today.

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

298

Cambridge Investigating Humanities for the Victorian Curriculum 8

13.6

What are the human causes of coastal landform change?

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Learning intention

In this lesson, you will learn about the interconnections between human activities and landform change.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

See, think, wonder

…

Scan the QR code to watch the video in Figure 13.6.1.

1 See: Describe what you can see in this video. 2 Think: What natural process or human activities do you think have created both the reef and the bleaching? 3 Wonder: What else do you wonder about the footage in this video?

FPO

Figure 13.6.1

Devastating footage of coral bleaching on Australia’s Great Barrier Reef.

…

Low-res

Figure 13.6.2 Bleached coral

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

299

Coasts have always been valued by people. Not only do many of us enjoy living by the coast for its beauty and recreational purposes, but it is also an important resource. It provides people with food and materials and allows industries such as trade and tourism

to flourish. However, the way we interconnect with coastal landscapes can change the environment. It is therefore vital that we manage these interconnections carefully. If not, issues such as coastal erosion and pollution can worsen.

Impacts of urbanisation and agriculture provide food and other products. Both cities and farms are often located close to coasts for a variety of reasons, some of which are outlined in Table 13.6.1

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Urbanisation and agriculture can have big impacts on coastal regions. Urbanisation is the growth and expansion of cities and towns as more people move to live in them. Agriculture means farming to

Table 13.6.1 Reasons why cities are built in coastal landscapes

Factor Trade and transportation Natural resources Fertile land Climate

Explanation Coastal cities have easy access to sea routes, making trade with other regions faster and more cost-effective. Coastal areas provide resources like fish, salt and access to fresh water from rivers. Many coastal areas have fertile land and fresh water from the rivers that flow down towards coasts. This supports agriculture and food production. Coastal regions often have milder climates.

Pollution

Urbanisation and modern farming can cause coastal pollution through water run-off. Run-off occurs when there is more water than the ground can absorb. The excess water flows across the surface of the land and into rivers and the sea. As water flows across a city’s drains and streets, or across farmland, it collects pollutants such as chemicals, plastic waste and heavy metals. It transports these into coastal waters, harming marine life and habitats.

Impact on landforms Pollution weakens natural barriers, such as coral reefs and mangroves, that protect

shorelines. Without these, waves and storms cause faster erosion, reshaping beaches and cliffs.

For example, the Great Barrier Reef in Queensland is a natural barrier that protects Queensland’s coastline from strong waves and storms. However, pollution from agricultural run-off, such as fertilisers and pesticides, has harmed the coral of the Great Barrier Reef, causing widespread coral bleaching and death. As the reef weakens, its ability to absorb wave energy diminishes. This has led to increased erosion of the sandy beaches and cliffs in Queensland, including in Cairns and the Whitsunday Islands.

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

300

Cambridge Investigating Humanities for the Victorian Curriculum 8

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES …

Figure 13.6.3 Coral bleaching in the Great Barrier Reef

Pollutants can change the chemical content of coastal water, and this can weaken the structure of landforms such as sand dunes and barrier islands. For example, pollution from the oil industry in Louisiana has poisoned vegetation on East Timbalier Island (Figure 13.6.4).

The loss of vegetation is allowing more erosion of the sand dunes, and this is causing the barrier island to shrink, with undesirable consequences. Without this coastal defence, Louisiana is becoming more vulnerable to hurricanes, storms and rising sea levels.

Key

Timbalier Bay

2019 East Timbalier Island 1989 East Timbalier Island

Oil wells (active and abandoned) Rock barrier Built in the 1960s, now submerged; length equivalent to distance between Audubon Park and French Quarter

Gulf of Mexico 0

2 km

Area of detail

…

Figure 13.6.4 The change in the extent of East Timbalier Island from 1989 to 2019

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Chapter 13: What are coastal and riverine landscapes and landforms, and how do they form and change?

301

Concepts and skills builder 13.6 Conducting a field transect A field transect is a straight line or path along which observations and measurements are made to study environmental features. It is used to assess how factors such as vegetation, wildlife or pollution levels change across different areas. This activity will help you develop observation and data collection skills as well as raise your awareness of pollution. If you do not have access to a beach, you can still practice this skill in another natural environment.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

1 Record the date, time, location and weather. 2 In groups, spread yourselves out 20 m apart at the high-tide mark. Your position will be your 0 m mark. 3 Place a hula-hoop or quadrat at your 0 m mark. Calculate what percentage of the area in your hoop/quadrat is covered in rubbish and record this. Take a photo of the hoop/transect and use a sieve to collect rubbish from inside this area. Spread the rubbish in a tray and take another photo, then put the rubbish in a bag.

quadrat a square frame used in geography to define a specific area for sampling

• • •

4 Repeat step 3 at points that are 2 m, 4 m, 6 m, 8 m and 10 m away from the 0 m mark, as you walk away from the shoreline. Record all of your findings as you go.

…

Figure 13.6.5 Geographers completing a field transect

Once you are back at school, recycle the plastic you collected. Then review your photos and recorded data to answer the following questions. 1 Which types of rubbish were dominant? 2 Research the short- and long-term impacts of this type of rubbish. 3 Discuss ways that this type of rubbish pollution could be better managed in your area. Geographical concepts and skills: change, environment, geographical inquiry

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

302

Cambridge Investigating Humanities for the Victorian Curriculum 8

Lesson 13.6 review Online quiz

Review questions

DOC

Research task

Go online to access the interactive lesson review and more!

Teachers can assign tasks and track results

13.6 Review questions Explain why cities are often built near coasts. Describe how urbanisation and modern farming contribute to coastal pollution. Outline how coral reefs protect coastal landforms. Refer to Figure 13.6.4. Using the map scale provided, measure the length of the East Timbalier Barrier Island in 1989 and in 2019. Estimate what percentage of land has been lost in this time.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

1 2 3 4

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Chapter 13: What are coastal and riverine landscapes and landforms, and how do they form and change?

303

13.7

How do humans manage coastal landform change?

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Learning intention

In this lesson, you will learn about the interconnections between human activities and landform change.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

Assessing a method for reducing pollution

FPO

VQR1304

…

Figure 13.7.1

How System 03 cleans the Great Pacific Garbage Patch.

Scan the QR code and watch the video in Figure 13.7.1.

1 Explain how System 03, known as ‘Josh’, works. 2 What do you think are some of the benefits and drawbacks of cleaning the ocean this way? 3 Can you think of other solutions to limit ocean pollution?

…

Figure 13.7.2 Text to come

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

304

Low-res

As we discovered in the previous lesson, coastal pollution from plastics and chemicals has severe impacts on landforms. However, governments and other groups are using various solutions to try to protect landforms from these threats.

Low-res

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Reducing waste If we can reduce how much plastic is used, we can reduce the amount of plastic waste that ends up in the oceans. Many countries have introduced bans on single-use plastics, such as plastic bags and straws. In 2008 Rwanda brought in one of the first and strictest bans on the use and manufacturing of plastics. Their laws include being fined $90 Australian dollars for using a plastic bag, while executives from companies making plastic can be sent to prison. These bans have drastically reduced littering and helped create a culture of mindful plastic use and disposal.

Recycling and clean-up programs

Increasing recycling and organising clean-ups of beaches can help reduce existing pollution. The Ocean Cleanup project (as seen in the video in Figure 13.7.1) uses advanced technology to remove large quantities of plastic from the ocean. However, despite the use of cameras and a marine animal safety hatch that can be opened to release sea life, some animals still get caught in the system. Also, many beach clean-up programs, like the International Coastal Cleanup by the Ocean Conservancy, rely on volunteers worldwide to remove plastic and other rubbish from coastlines.

Improving wastewater treatment Industrial and agricultural run-off that contains harmful chemicals like fertilisers and pesticides can be treated before they reach coastal waters. Sadly, Australia

Figure 13.7.3 Border authorities ensure that no one entering Rwanda brings plastic into the country.

…

w-res

Protecting landforms

has been identified as one of the world’s ‘hot spots’ for toxic chemicals in our surface and groundwater. Some of these pollutants are ‘forever chemicals’ that do not break down in the environment or in our bodies and are linked to serious health issues. We need to improve the treatment of wastewater and have stricter regulations, as is the case in Europe. Only then can we make sure that wastewater from farms and industries contains fewer harmful chemicals, reducing the impact on coastal ecosystems.

Public awareness and education

Educating people about the dangers of plastic and chemical pollution can lead to behavioural changes. Programs like Australia’s ‘Take 3 for the Sea’ encourage everyone to pick up three pieces of rubbish each time they visit the beach, promoting active participation in reducing plastic.

Physical protection Efforts to physically protect some changing landforms have had mixed success. For example, a rock wall was

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Chapter 13: What are coastal and riverine landscapes and landforms, and how do they form and change?

305

… Figure 13.7.4 Collecting

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

plastic and fishing nets in Algarve, Portugal. Beach clean-ups occur at coasts all round the world.

built to protect the East Timbalier Island from wave erosion. However, it had the opposite effect (see Lesson 13.6). The rock wall blocked new sand from reaching

the beach, weakening the island’s natural protection and increasing the effects of erosion.

Concepts and skills builder 13.7

Interpreting a stacked area graph

stacked area graph a graph that shows categories as areas of different colours stacked on each other, making up a total shown as a line; usually has time on the horizontal axis

A stacked area graph shows how different categories contribute to a total over time. Here are some tips to help you interpret stacked area graphs: 1 Identify the x- and y-axes. The x-axis (horizontal axis) usually shows time or another quantity that has a sequence of values. The y-axis (vertical axis) shows the total quantity of a category.

• •

2 Understand the stacking Each coloured section represents a category, and they are stacked on top of each other. The thickness of each coloured area shows the value of that category at different points in time. The thicker a colour, the greater the quantity of that category. For example, look at Figure 13.7.5. It shows that sub-Saharan Africa produced less waste in 2019 than Europe. We can see this because the European area is thicker than the sub-Saharan area for that year. To measure the 2019 amount for Europe, use the data from the y-axis to determine the amount of waste at the top of Europe’s coloured area (approximately 13 million tonnes) and the amount of waste at bottom of the coloured bar (approximately 7.5 million tonnes). Then subtract the lower number from the higher number to determine the amount: approximately 5.5 million tonnes. 3 Interpret trends. Look for changes in the size of each area over time to understand trends for individual categories. Notice how the total changes, as the top line represents the sum of all categories combined.

• •

Refer to Figure 13.7.5 to answer these questions. 1 a How many tonnes of plastic waste accumulated in the oceans in 2000? b How many tonnes of plastic waste accumulated in the oceans in 2019? c How much of an increase has this been? Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

306

Cambridge Investigating Humanities for the Victorian Curriculum 8

2 a Use a ruler to measure the thickness of each region’s data. Rank the regions from most waste producing in 2000 to least waste producing. b Repeat part a for 2019. c Have the rankings changed at all in this time? Identify any changes. 3 Australia is part of the Oceania region. Estimate how much waste has come from this region.

Plastic waste accumulated in the oceans, 2000 to 2019 The amount of plastic waste that has accumulated in the oceans since 1951. This is calculated as the running total of plastic ﬂowing into the ocean each year. India Sub-Saharan Africa

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

30 million t

Oceania Middle East & North Africa United States

25 million t

20 million t

Americas (excl. USA)

15 million t

China

10 million t

Europe

5 million t

Asia (excl. China and India)

2000

2005

2010

Data source: OECD (2022)

2015

2019

OurWorldinData.org/plastic-pollution | CC BY

…

Figure 13.7.5 Amount of plastic waste flowing into oceans from 2000 to 2019. [Source: Our World in Data]

Geographical concepts and skills: change, geographical inquiry

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Chapter 13: What are coastal and riverine landscapes and landforms, and how do they form and change?

307

Go online to access the interactive lesson review and more!

Lesson 13.7 review Online quiz

Review questions

DOC

Research task

Teachers can assign tasks and track results

13.7 Review questions Outline how Rwanda has addressed plastic pollution. What is the Ocean Cleanup project, and how does it contribute to reducing coastal pollution? Why is it important to improve the treatment of wastewater, particularly in relation to chemical pollution? What are ‘forever chemicals,’ and why are they a concern in Australia’s water systems? Using knowledge from this and the previous lesson, explain how banning single-use plastics can reduce landform change. 6 In what ways can education and public awareness campaigns influence people’s behaviour in relation to plastic waste?

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

1 2 3 4 5

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

308

Cambridge Investigating Humanities for the Victorian Curriculum 8

13.8

What are the causes of, impacts of and responses to coastal hazards?

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Learning intention

In this lesson, you will learn about the causes and impacts of coastal erosion, with a focus on longshore drift. You will also evaluate the ways that people have responded to reduce the negative impacts of longshore drift.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

Analysing a hazard

1 Identify the natural and human characteristics that you can see in Figure 13.8.1. 2 What short- and long-term effects do you think an event like this could cause to people, places and the environment? 3 What do you think would be the best solution to a challenge like this to limit further losses in future?

…

Figure 13.8.1 NSW storm in 2020 created waves as high as 11 metres, causing property damage.

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

309

What is a hazard? hazard a situation that could cause harm

A hazard refers to any situation that could cause harm. While living near coasts has many benefits, these areas are prone to

natural hazards, such as erosion, algal blooms, storms, floods, tsunamis and rising sea levels.

Erosion Negative impacts of longshore drift Longshore drift is a natural process that helps create a range of beautiful landforms such as beaches, spits and tombolos. Coasts, by nature, are always moving and changing. Unfortunately, our houses, roads and other structures cannot move so easily. Therefore, longshore drift becomes a hazard when society does not adapt to its effects on people and the built environment. This can cause impacts such as those outlined in Table 13.8.1.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Tides, waves, wind, rips, and run-off can all cause coastal erosion. The coasts that are most vulnerable to erosion are those made up of loose sediments, such as beaches, dunes and sand cliffs, or open coasts that experience erosion from longshore drift. As discussed in Lesson 13.3, longshore drift is a process whereby waves transport eroded sediment from one area of coastline and eventually deposit it in another area of coastline. Table 13.8.1 Potential impacts of longshore drift

Type of impact Social

Economic

Environmental

Examples Loss of homes and property along the coast Displacement of communities Increased stress and anxiety for affected residents Expensive repairs to infrastructure, such as roads and buildings Loss of tourism revenue as beaches erode Costly coastal defence projects Loss of coastal habitats for plants and animals Disruption of marine ecosystems Increased pollution as coasts wear away

• • • • • • • • •

Responses to erosion

Various engineering methods are used to manage longshore drift. Hard engineering methods involve building structures to stop erosion and the transportation of sediment. Soft engineering methods are usually more ecologically sensitive. They aim to manage erosion and transportation, rather than stop it completely.

Groynes: a hard engineering method Groynes are wooden barriers that are built at right angles to the beach to block the sediment being transported by longshore

drift (Figures 13.8.2 and 13.8.3). However, by trapping sand on one side, groynes reduce the amount of sediment available to continue moving down the coast to downdrift areas. This can lead to erosion in areas further along the shore, because these places no longer receive the sand they need to maintain their beaches. Over time, the down-drift areas can suffer from increased erosion, resulting in a loss of beach and damage to coastal ecosystems. Like many hard engineering methods, groynes can be expensive, short-term options.

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

310

Cambridge Investigating Humanities for the Victorian Curriculum 8

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES …

Figure 13.8.2 Groyne at Parkdale beach, Victoria

Low-res

…

Figure 13.8.3 An aerial view showing groynes at work, trapping sediment. Can you determine the direction of longshore drift based on where the sand is trapped? Can you see the change in beach width from one side of the groynes to the other? Which part of the beach may now experience more erosion?

Beach nourishment: a soft engineering method Beach nourishment is when beach material that has been removed by erosion or longshore drift is replaced. Beach nourishment is a cheaper option to

hard engineering methods, but constant maintenance is needed to replace the beach material as it is washed away. It also can have the drawbacks outlined in Table 13.8.2.

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Chapter 13: What are coastal and riverine landscapes and landforms, and how do they form and change?

311

Table 13.8.2 Potential negative impacts of beach nourishment

Location of impacts Description Onshore (affecting shore) Habitat loss as the new sand may not have the same grain size or chemical makeup as the natural sand.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Offshore (affecting water)

Death of animals living on the beach, caused by sudden spreading of massive amounts of sand and use of heavy machinery. This can have flow-on effects for shorebirds, who will have less intertidal prey to eat. Water can become muddy as the ocean starts eroding the introduced sand, and may cover habitats such as kelp forests, rocky intertidal reefs and seagrass beds, and smother marine life. Wildlife that rely on relatively clean water, such as clams, can die off in large numbers. Damage to other environments, because the sand used is often mined from other underwater places or riverbeds.

Other

…

Figure 13.8.4 Large mechanical equipment moving sand on Solana Beach, California, during reclamation project following sand loss during severe weather.

Managed retreat Another way to manage the erosion of a beach is to create or maintain open space inland from the beach. This can allow the beach to slowly move inland rather than eroding away entirely. Many geographers

prefer this option because it preserves the natural beach without causing the negative effects of the other methods. However, if open space is not already available, this approach may involve the planned relocation of residents and the removal of structures and infrastructure.

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

312

Cambridge Investigating Humanities for the Victorian Curriculum 8

Concepts and skills builder 13.8 Evaluating a response In this activity you will evaluate the use of groynes to reduce the negative impacts of longshore drift. When we evaluate the effectiveness of a response in geography, we weigh up the benefits and challenges of a response and use this to decide how effective the response has been. Here is a list of positive and negative effects from using groynes on a beach. Determine which are positive and which are negative and include some of these when completing this activity.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

• starve areas further down the beach of sediment • don’t fully stop longshore drift (sand overflows) • spoil natural look of the beach • create uneven beaches • stop longshore drift (and consequently erosion) • encourage formation of a widening beach, which helps absorb energy from waves • are not safe to swim near • limit access to beach • can use wood from unsustainable sources, such as tropical rainforests • can use wood from sustainable sources • are expensive ($200,000+) • are cheaper than sea walls • can reduce longshore drift, allowing build-up of beach and encouraging tourism • have short lifespan • reduce recreational value of beach • can reduce longshore drift, leading to higher erosion rates down-drift • have ongoing maintenance costs

1 Describe the response (i.e. describe what a groyne is). 2 Outline the ways that the response is: a effective, by discussing some of the positive effects of groynes b not effective, by discussing the negative effects of groynes. 3 Finish with a statement to justify why you believe the response is, on the whole, highly, moderately, slightly or not effective. Geographical concepts and skills: change, environment, geographical inquiry

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Chapter 13: What are coastal and riverine landscapes and landforms, and how do they form and change?

313

Go online to access the interactive lesson review and more!

Lesson 13.8 review Online quiz

Review questions

DOC

Research task

Teachers can assign tasks and track results

13.8 Review questions

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

1 Define the term ‘hazard’ and list three types of coastal hazards. 2 Longshore drift is a natural process that helps to build depositional landforms. Why is it sometimes seen as a hazard? 3 Rank the responses to longshore drift from most to least effective, and justify your rankings. 4 Draw a sketch of Figure 13.8.3 and annotate your image to include: the direction of the prevailing wind the direction of longshore drift the location of the groynes trapped sediment the down-drift area experiencing erosion.

• • • • •

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

314

Cambridge Investigating Humanities for the Victorian Curriculum 8

13.9

What are riverine landscapes and landforms?

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Learning intention

In this lesson, you will examine the characteristics of riverine landscapes, including their distribution in Australia.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

Interpreting an image Examine Figure 13.9.1.

1 Can you identify where the mouth of the Amazon River is located? The mouth is the end of the river that (usually) runs into an ocean or lake. 2 The western boundary of the Amazon Basin does not extend all the way to the coastline. Suggest why this is the case.

Low-res

… Figure 13.9.1 The light blue colour in the

north of South America shows the extent of the Amazon Basin. The Amazon River and all its tributaries drain an area of more than 7 million km2. Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Chapter 13: What are coastal and riverine landscapes and landforms, and how do they form and change?

315

Riverine landscapes • source: The source is the starting point of a river, often found in high areas such as mountains or hills. It might begin as a spring, melting snow, or rainfall that gathers and forms the river’s first flow.

To understand riverine landscapes, it’s essential to know some key terms:

Rivers can be divided into three main sections, as outlined in Figure 13.9.2.

• tributaries: These are smaller streams or rivers that flow into a larger river. They contribute additional water, sediment and nutrients to the main river, helping it grow larger as it moves downstream.

River systems are found all over the world, but their distribution is often influenced by the climate, topography and geology of an area. For example, rivers are more common in regions with higher rainfall, such as tropical areas or temperate climates, because they need a constant supply of water. In drier, arid regions, rivers may be fewer or only flow seasonally.

• mouth: The mouth is where the river ends, typically flowing into a larger body of water like an ocean, sea or lake. This is where the river releases the sediment and water it has carried along its course.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

riverbank the land alongside the bed of a river

A riverine landscape is an area shaped and influenced by the presence of a river and its surrounding environment. It includes the river itself, along with landforms such as riverbanks (banks), floodplains, valleys and wetlands. These landscapes are important because they provide water for drinking, farming and industry, and they support diverse ecosystems with a variety of plants and animals. Rivers also play a crucial role in shaping the land over time by eroding rocks, transporting sediment, and depositing materials along their journey.

tributary a smaller stream or river that flows into a larger river basin an area of land drained by a river and its tributaries

source the starting point of a river, such as a spring

mouth the end of a river, where it flows into a larger body of water such as a sea or lake

• basin: A river basin is the entire area of land drained by a river and its tributaries. It can be thought of as a large bowl where all the water collects and flows into a single main river. The scale of a basin can vary, with some basins covering vast regions.

The largest river basins, such as the Amazon Basin in South America or the Nile Basin in Africa, can cover vast

Source Upper course: Includes the source. The river flows quickly through steep topography, cutting vertically through rock to create deep V-shaped valleys, waterfalls and rapids.

… Figure 13.9.2

The course of a river has three main zones: the upper, middle and lower courses.

Middle course: The river slows down as it reaches flatter land. It begins to laterally erode the banks (sides of the river) and create meanders (river bends). It carries a mix of water and sediment. Lower course: As the river approaches its mouth, it flows even slower and spreads Tributary out, often forming wide bends, deltas, and floodplains, and depositing the sediment it has carried. Mouth Delta

Upper Course

Middle Course

Lower Course Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

316

Cambridge Investigating Humanities for the Victorian Curriculum 8

areas and support rich ecosystems. In contrast, smaller river systems might only drain limited areas but still play a vital role in their local environment. Overall, river systems tend to form patterns

of branching networks, where smaller tributaries join to create a larger main river, which then makes its way to the sea or a lake (for example, see Figure 13.9.3).

…

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Low-res

Figure 13.9.3 The distribution of river basins in Australia

Concepts and skills builder 13.9

Describing spatial distribution using the PQE method

Geographers analyse the spatial distribution of phenomena to find patterns and therefore improve their understanding. When you describe the distribution of a phenomenon using a thematic map, there are three important things you should include: the pattern, some quantification and an exception. This approach is also known as the PQE method.

Refer to Figure 13.9.4 and follow these instructions to describe the spatial distribution of Australia’s major rivers. Write at least one sentence for each of these.

1 Pattern: State whether Australia’s major rivers are spread evenly across the country or whether they are found predominantly in certain regions. 2 Quantification: What percentage (approximately) of Australia’s rivers are found in the eastern states? What percentage of Australia has no major rivers? 3 Exception: Are there any areas that have very few (or no) major rivers yet are surrounded by areas with a high number of major rivers?

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Chapter 13: What are coastal and riverine landscapes and landforms, and how do they form and change?

317

r ato llig tor lliga S. A y r Ma

E. A

Tho ms on B

roy itz

Maranoa

Brisb am Cond in

a e lgo nn Macintyre Cu alo Gwydir ar Barw on ence Namoi Ca acleay M s t Ma ler cq u

d woo

Glen elg

k Blac

1000 km

gh ea e ari

on Av

g rlin Da

an Bog

Swan

hlan Lac Murrum b i d gee

Go Murray ulb urn

Snow y

Paro o

War reg o

Bull oo

Co Warb op urt e o

n iso

e Eyr

e an e

Mu rch

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

oo arc

son Daw

Diam ant ina

kin

Gre gor chhard y C loncurry t y Ha nty Ple

Tod Fin ke Alberg a

Bu r

over and

Hug

ina org

Gre y

L ei

Fo r tesc ue A sh bur ton Gascoyne

Ord

d lin

zro

M S t a i tc h e ll at G il e n ber t

Fi t

h Art Mc

rm No

Isd ell

Roper

Belyando

Da ly

Vic tor i

Sth Der .Esk we nt

…

Figure 13.9.4 The distribution of Australia’s major rivers

Geographical concepts and skills: environment, geographical inquiry, space

Go online to access the interactive lesson review and more!

Lesson 13.9 review Online quiz

Review questions

DOC

Research task

Teachers can assign tasks and track results

13.9 Review questions

1 Define the term ‘riverine landscape’ and name some of the landforms that are found in this landscape. 2 Outline at least three ways that riverine landscapes are important. Classify these reasons as social, economic or environmental benefits. 3 Describe the difference between the characteristics of the upper, middle and lower courses of a river. 4 How does a river basin function, and why can it be likened to a large bowl? 5 How might the addition of tributaries impact the overall health and flow of the main river system?

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

318

Cambridge Investigating Humanities for the Victorian Curriculum 8

13.10

What natural processes create landforms in the upper course of a river?

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Learning intention

In this lesson, you will learn about the geomorphological processes that produce landforms in the upper course of rivers.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

Observe and compare

1 What landform is featured in Figures 13.10.1 and 13.10.2? 2 Compare the natural characteristics of Figure 13.10.1 and 13.10.2. Consider the climate, the volume of water and other features of the environments.

…

Figure 13.10.1 Skogafoss’ waterfall in Iceland

…

Figure 13.10.2 Waterfall in northern NSW, Australia

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Chapter 13: What are coastal and riverine landscapes and landforms, and how do they form and change?

319

Erosion Abrasion in the upper course of a river occurs when rocks and sediment carried by the fast-flowing water scrape and grind against the riverbed and banks. This process is like the rubbing of sandpaper, where the material being transported acts as a tool to wear away the surface. As these materials are dragged along the riverbed, they cause vertical erosion.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Erosion plays a major role in shaping the landforms we see in the upper courses of rivers. It happens when running water wears away rocks and soil, allowing sediment to be transported to new places. Figure 13.10.3 shows the two major types of erosion that occur in rivers. Vertical (downwards) erosion is the most common type in the upper course of a river.

riverbed the ground that a river flows over

gradient steepness of a section; a downhill channel has a negative gradient

Lateral erosion

Vertical erosion

…

Vertical erosion deepens the riverbed through hydraulic action, which is most intense at the river’s source where water flows quickly along a steep gradient. Hydraulic action occurs when fast-flowing water hits the riverbed and banks, forcing water and air into cracks in the bedrock. The pressure changes from this process weaken the rock, causing it to break apart.

Figure 13.10.3 The two main types of erosion that

occur in rivers

V-shaped valleys and interlocking spurs Because the river flows down a steep gradient in the upper course, most of the river’s energy is directed downwards. This causes the water to cut into the riverbed, deepening it rather than eroding the sides. This creates landforms called V-shaped valleys. Jutting out into these valleys are

fingers of land called interlocking spurs. The water at the upper course of the river does not have enough energy to laterally erode the hard rock of the spurs, so rivers are forced to zigzag around them, taking the path of least resistance.

…

Figure 13.10.4 Gravity increases the downward energy of the water, but there is limited lateral energy, so the water flows between spurs, following the path of least resistance. This creates a winding, zigzag pattern as the river carves its way through the landscape, eroding the valley in a V-shape.

Interlocking spurs

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

320

Cambridge Investigating Humanities for the Victorian Curriculum 8

Waterfalls, rapids and gorges In places where there are layers of both hard and soft rock, waterfalls can form. The softer rock erodes more quickly,

while the harder rock resists erosion. Over time, a vertical drop forms, as outlined in Figure 13.10.5.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

FPO

1. Hard and soft rock layers: A waterfall forms where a river flows over layers of hard rock that sit on top of softer rock. The softer rock erodes faster than the hard rock, creating a step in the riverbed.

2. Erosion of the soft rock: Over time, the river continues to erode the softer rock through processes like hydraulic action and abrasion, creating a deeper drop or plunge pool at the base of the waterfall.

3. Collapse of the hard rock: As the softer rock beneath the hard rock is worn away, the hard rock eventually becomes unsupported and collapses. This process repeats, causing the waterfall to retreat upstream and form a steep gorge behind it.

…

Figure 13.10.5 The formation of waterfalls and gorges

Over many years a steep-sided valley, called a gorge, will be created in front of a waterfall. This is because each time the hard rock of a waterfall collapses, the waterfall retreats further up the valley (Figure 13.10.6).

soft rock. The soft rock erodes more easily, leaving behind uneven bands of hard rock. As the water flows through the uneven river channel, the water becomes turbulent, creating choppy white water, as seen in Figure 13.10.7.

Rapids form when the river channel is made of alternate strips of hard and Direction of flow

turbulent describes the chaotic motion within fast-moving or changing water currents

… Figure 13.10.6 The

River

Former position of waterfall

Hard rock (limestone)

river channel the part of the river that holds the water

formation of waterfalls and gorges

Boulders from rockfall

FPO Soft rock

Original plunge pool

Debris washed downstream

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Chapter 13: What are coastal and riverine landscapes and landforms, and how do they form and change?

321

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

… Figure 13.10.7 Rapids in

southern Chile. Can you see the sections of hard rock jutting through and creating turbulence in the water?

Concepts and skills builder 13.10

Drawing a river cross-section

A river cross-section shows the shape of the riverbed and banks from one side of the river to the other. Cross-sections help geographers calculate the volume of water flow, how much water can be carried by a river before overflow occurs, and how erosion and sediment transport is changing a river’s shape and behaviour. This information is vital for managing water resources, predicting floods, and maintaining healthy ecosystems for riverine species. Follow the instructions below to draw a river cross-section, using the data provided in Table 13.10.1.

1 Prepare your grid: Use graph paper or draw your own grid. Label the horizontal axis (x-axis) as the distance from one bank of the river to the other (in metres). Label the vertical axis (y-axis) as the depth of the river (in metres). Because you are plotting depths that go down from ground level, plot vertical values down, with zero being at the top of the vertical axis. 2 Plot your points: Using the table of data, plot points where the distance across the river (horizontal axis) meets the river depth (vertical axis). 3 Draw the riverbed: Once all points are plotted, connect them with a smooth line. This line represents the river cross-section, showing the riverbed and riverbanks. 4 Label the features: Identify and label the riverbanks and riverbed on your cross-section. Table 13.10.1 Data for drawing a river cross-section. ‘Distance across river’ refers to how far it is from one side to

the other, while ‘Depth’ means how deep the river is at different points.

Distance across river (m) Depth (m)

0 0

2 1

4 2

6 3

8 4

10 3.5

12 2

14 1

16 0

Geographical concepts and skills: environment, geographical inquiry, scale

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

322

Cambridge Investigating Humanities for the Victorian Curriculum 8

Lesson 13.10 review Online quiz

Review questions

DOC

Research task

Go online to access the interactive lesson review and more!

Teachers can assign tasks and track results

13.10 Review questions Explain the difference between vertical and lateral erosion. Explain how hydraulic action and abrasion both contribute to V-shaped valleys. Identify three reasons why drawing river cross-sections is a valuable skill for geographers. Below are the jumbled steps of how waterfalls and gorges form. Rearrange them into the correct order.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

1 2 3 4

• The hard rock collapses once the soft rock beneath is worn away, causing the waterfall to retreat upstream. • A waterfall begins when a river flows over layers of hard and soft rock. • The softer rock erodes faster than the hard rock. • This creates a step in the riverbed. • As the river flows, the softer rock continues to erode through hydraulic action and abrasion. • This then creates a steep gorge. • A deeper plunge pool forms at the base of the waterfall as erosion continues. • This process repeats, and the waterfall gradually retreats upstream.

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Chapter 13: What are coastal and riverine landscapes and landforms, and how do they form and change?

323

13.11

What natural processes create landforms in the middle course of a river?

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Learning intention

In this lesson, you will learn about the geomorphological processes that occur in the middle course of the river, and discover what landforms are created by these processes.

Lesson starter

FPO

…

Figure 13.11.1

Mamoré River, Bolivia, 1984–2022

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

Look, think, propose

Scan the QR codes to watch time-lapsed satellite footage of the Mamoré River, Bolivia (Figure 13.11.1), and the Ucayali River, Peru (Figure 13.11.2). 1 Discuss why or how rivers can move over time. 2 Discuss any human causes for river change that you can think of.

FPO

…

Figure 13.11.2

Ucayali River, Peru, 1985–2013

…

Figure 13.11.3 One of the Murray River’s many meanders at Barmah National Park

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

324

Cambridge Investigating Humanities for the Victorian Curriculum 8

Geomorphological processes After navigating the steep slopes of the upper course, the water reaches the middle course. In the middle course of a river, three geomorphological processes work together to shape landforms: • lateral erosion • transportation

Transportation The river continues to transport eroded material downstream, carrying finer sediment in suspension and larger particles by rolling or bouncing along the bed.

suspension a mixture of a solid and a fluid; in a river, this means fine particles of sediment suspended in water

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

• deposition.

sides of the river channel, causing lateral erosion of the riverbanks. This erosion happens through hydraulic action and abrasion and causes the river to widen.

Lateral erosion

The middle course of a river has gentler slopes than the upper course. Because of this, less energy is directed downwards and so there is less vertical erosion. Instead, more energy is directed to the

Deposition

As the river slows down around bends or on flatter terrain, it loses energy and deposits sediment.

Typical landforms

1 Erosion makes the neck narrow

Common landforms in the middle course of a river are meanders, point bars and oxbow lakes.

Point bar

Meanders and point bars

Meanders are S-shaped curves in the course of a river (Figure 13.11.3). Meanders develop because water flowing around bends moves at different speeds. The water that is moving faster has more energy to cause erosion.

2 During floods the river takes the shortest course through the neck

Lateral erosion occurs on the outside of a bend due to the faster flow there, while slower flow on the inside results in deposition. The sediment deposited on the inside bends creates sandy or pebbly point bars.

3 New, straighter river course

Continuous erosion on the outer bank and deposition on the inner bank means that over time meanders migrate across the valley floor and become more exaggerated in shape.

Cut off/abandoned meander or oxbow lake

Oxbow lakes

Areas of erosion

…

When a meander becomes more pronounced, lateral erosion causes the neck of the meander to narrow.

Areas of deposition

Figure 13.11.4 The process of forming oxbow lakes

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Chapter 13: What are coastal and riverine landscapes and landforms, and how do they form and change?

325

Eventually, during a period of high flow or flooding, the river breaks through the narrow neck, cutting off the loop and forming a crescent-shaped oxbow lake

(Figure 13.11.4). In Australia, oxbow lakes are called billabongs. These lakes often become cut off from the main river and silt up over time.

Concepts and skills builder 13.11

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Developing skills in reading satellite images Kilmore

Jacksons Creek

Marinbyrnong River

Merri Creek

20 km

Plenty River

Whittlesea

Darebin Creek

ra R Yar

Essendon

r iv e

Healesville

Upper Yarra Dam

Warburton

Melbourne

McMahons Creek

Werribee

Port Phillip Bay

Dandenong

…

Figure 13.11.5 The Yarra River and its tributaries

Use Google Earth Pro at http://cambridge.edu.au/redirect/#### to take a journey from the mouth of the Yarra River at Hobsons Bay back to its source, which is a series of swamps in the Yarra Ranges National Park. On your journey, you will apply the skills of interpreting satellite images, identifying latitude and longitude, and using the historical imagery tool. Showcase your skills by creating a poster of the information you gather along the way. 1 How far up the Yarra River can you go before you can no longer see the river channel? Take a screenshot of this point in the river to put on your poster. Identify the location by writing the latitude and longitude. The latitude and longitude are found at the bottom right of the screen. 2 As you travel along the course of the river, can you find different landforms such as meanders, point bars and oxbow lakes? Take screenshots of different landforms you see as you go. Present these screenshots in your poster and annotate these to identify the landforms. 3 Use the historical imagery tool to see the changes that have occurred at a particular site along the river. Take screenshots of this site at different times. Add these to your poster and describe what changes you observe over this time. The historical imagery tool icon is located at the top of the screen and features a clock with a green arrow.

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

326

Cambridge Investigating Humanities for the Victorian Curriculum 8

…

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Low-res

Figure 13.11.6 Satellite imagery on Google Earth Pro. What landforms can you see in this image?

Geographical concepts and skills: change, environment, geographical inquiry, place

Lesson 13.11 review Online quiz

Review questions

DOC

Research task

Go online to access the interactive lesson review and more!

Teachers can assign tasks and track results

13.11 Review questions

1 What aspect of the land changes to make the middle course of a river different from its upper course? 2 In your own words, describe these geomorphological processes: a lateral erosion b transportation c deposition.

3 Explain the role of lateral erosion in the formation of meanders. What factors influence the speed of the water on the inside and outside bends of a river? 4 What are oxbow lakes and how are they formed?

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Chapter 13: What are coastal and riverine landscapes and landforms, and how do they form and change?

327

13.12

What natural processes create landforms in the lower course of a river?

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Learning intention

In this lesson, you will learn about the geomorphological processes that occur in the lower course of the river, and discover what landforms are created by these processes.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

See, think, explain

Observe Figure 13.12.1. 1 Can you see where the main river channel is located? If so, how can you tell its location? 2 How is the land near the river being used by people? Why do you think the land is being used this way?

…

Figure 13.12.1 Aerial image of the Waal River during flooding, near the village of Dodewaard, Netherlands

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

328

Geomorphological processes In the lower course of a river, geomorphological processes such as deposition, lateral erosion and transportation shape the landscape. As the river reaches flatter land closer to its

mouth, it loses energy and slows down, causing sediment to be deposited. For this reason, deposition is a key factor in creating the landforms found in the lower course.

Landforms Estuaries

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Landforms that are common in the lower courses of rivers include floodplains, levees, estuaries and deltas.

Floodplains

Floodplains are wide, flat areas adjacent to a river. During periods of flooding, the river overflows its banks and spreads out. When the flooding ends, the floodwaters leave behind layers of nutrient-rich sediment. Sediment found in a floodplain is nutrient-rich because it is composed of materials such as soil particles, plant material and animal waste that have been deposited during floods. Over time, sediment builds up, creating fertile and expansive areas of land.

Levees

Levees can be natural landforms or they can be structures built by people to stop floodwaters. Natural levees are embankments that form alongside a river channel. They are created when a river overflows and deposits sediments near its banks. The heaviest materials are dropped first, forming a ridge, while finer materials are carried further. Repeated flooding reinforces these ridges, making levees higher.

An estuary occurs where fresh water from a river meets and mixes with salt water from the ocean. It forms when rising sea levels flood river valleys or when rivers deposit sediment at their mouths. The constant changes in salinity, temperature and sediment make estuaries dynamic ecosystems that can support a wide array of life. Estuaries are rich in biodiversity because they provide a range of habitats, including tidal wetlands, mudflats and submerged vegetation. The mixing of fresh and salt water creates a nutrient-rich environment, promoting the growth of aquatic plants. These areas are important nurseries for many fish species, offer feeding grounds for birds and provide shelter for many invertebrate species.

Deltas

A delta forms where a river meets a body of still water, like a sea or a lake, and the river’s speed of flow decreases suddenly. Sediments are deposited in a fan-shaped pattern as the river splits into smaller branches, called distributaries. Deltas grow over time as more sediment is added.

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Chapter 13: What are coastal and riverine landscapes and landforms, and how do they form and change?

329

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES …

Figure 13.12.2 Waimakariri River Delta, South Island, New Zealand

Concepts and skills builder 13.12 Describing spatial association

From as early as 6000 bce, people have been living on the floodplains of the Nile River, in Egypt. They are located at the middle and lower courses of the river. The river has long been a source of fresh water for the people living in the region. Importantly, it is also a place of fertile soil, which supports agriculture. When the Nile floods, it deposits fine sediments that are enriched with nutrients, making it ideal for farming. As a result, communities settle along the riverbanks, leading to concentrated populations in these agriculturally productive areas. This spatial association highlights how access to water and arable land influences settlement patterns. Examine the map in Figure 13.12.3 closely to understand the features of the area. 1 2 3 4 5

Where is Egypt’s border? Where is the Nile River? What do the different colours on the map represent? What other features of the map can you see? List these. Apply the acronym DQE (degree, quantify, exception) by following these steps. a Degree: State the degree of spatial association. Is the association between population density and the Nile River strong, moderate or weak? b Quantify: Use the data from the map to outline evidence supporting the degree of spatial association. Identify which locations have high population density and which have low density. c Exception: Identify exceptions to this association; that is, find any regions that have: high population density, yet are located far from the Nile low population density and are located close to the Nile.

• •

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

330

Cambridge Investigating Humanities for the Victorian Curriculum 8

…

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Identify these and justify your answer by providing location and population data for them.

Figure 13.12.3 Egypt population density map

Geographical concepts and skills: environment, geographical inquiry, place, space

Lesson 13.12 review Online quiz

Review questions

DOC

Research task

Go online to access the interactive lesson review and more!

Teachers can assign tasks and track results

13.12 Review questions

1 Describe the three main geomorphological processes that shape landforms in the lower course of a river. 2 When a levee is formed, the heaviest materials are dropped first, forming a ridge, while finer materials are carried further. Why do you think the heaviest materials are deposited first? 3 What makes floodplains rich in nutrients? 4 Which two landforms meet to create an estuary? 5 Why do estuaries support a diversity of wildlife and plants? 6 What happens to a river’s speed that causes deltas to form?

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Chapter 13: What are coastal and riverine landscapes and landforms, and how do they form and change?

331

13.13

How do humans cause and manage landform change in riverine landscapes?

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Learning intention

In this section, you will explore some human causes of landform change and how we manage these impacts by exploring case studies from around the world.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

See, propose, think

Look closely at Figure 13.13.1.

1 In what way has the river been modified by people? 2 Propose some impacts this may have on people and places. 3 What examples can you think of (perhaps in your local area or elsewhere in Australia) where rivers have been changed in some way by people?

…

Figure 13.13.1 The Three Gorges Dam on the Yangtze River in China is the largest dam in the world.

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

332

Have you ever wondered how human activities can change the way Earth looks? From mining deep beneath the surface to building massive dams, humans have

the power to reshape landscapes in ways that can last for generations. This lesson describes just some examples.

The Three Gorges Dam unique habitats for fish and other wildlife. Now, the dam has created a massive reservoir that has flooded ancient villages and wildlife habitats. Fish species that used to swim upstream to lay their eggs now face a giant concrete wall. To help manage these impacts, scientists have created special ‘fish ladders’ to help fish migrate. Careful monitoring ensures enough water is released to maintain downstream ecosystems.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

The Three Gorges Dam on China’s mighty Yangtze River is one of the world’s largest dams (Figure 13.13.1). The reservoir is about 660 km long (about the distance from Sydney to Melbourne!). It’s an impressive feat of engineering that provides clean electricity to millions of people, but it has dramatically changed the river’s natural flow. Before the dam was built, the river followed its natural course, creating

Palm oil production: when rivers pay the price In Indonesia and Malaysia, the rapid expansion of palm oil plantations is having a dramatic effect on river systems. When native forests are cleared for these plantations, the bare soil is easily washed away by tropical rains (Figure 13.13.2). This soil ends up in nearby rivers and streams, making the water muddy and unhealthy for aquatic life.

systems that slow down water flow and trap sediment before it reaches rivers.

Human activities can significantly change landforms, but we can still find ways to minimise our impact and protect our environment for future generations. It’s all about finding the right balance between development and conservation.

The problem doesn’t stop there. Without trees, rainwater is not soaked up by roots and stored in the land. Instead, the water runs off the land quickly. This can lead to rivers flooding when it rains and drying up when there is no rain because the soil can’t hold the water. The chemicals used in palm oil farming can also wash into rivers, affecting water quality and harming fish populations.

Figure 13.13.2 When land is deforested, the loss of tree roots causes soil erosion.

…

To protect river systems, some companies are now creating buffer zones – areas of natural vegetation along riverbanks that help filter out soil and chemicals before they reach rivers. They’re also building special drainage

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Chapter 13: What are coastal and riverine landscapes and landforms, and how do they form and change?

333

Concepts and skills builder 13.13 Evaluating a response Investigate the pros and cons of the Three Gorges Dam. 1 Construct a table and use it to list three of the most important benefits and three of the greatest negative impacts of the Three Gorges Dam. 2 Use your table to evaluate the Three Gorges Dam. Use the following sentence stems to help structure your response. The Three Gorges Dam is located in …. and was built in the year … The scale of the dam is enormous; it can hold … litres of water. The dam stops the natural flow of the Y… river. The dam has provided benefits to China, such as … However, there have been significant negative impacts on people and places, which include …. When considering these impacts, the dam has been a [successful/unsuccessful] human modification of a natural landscape overall, because … [provide what you think are the most important reasons for your decision].

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

• • • • •

Geographical concepts and skills: change, environment, geographical inquiry, place

Go online to access the interactive lesson review and more!

Lesson 13.13 review Online quiz

Review questions

DOC

Research task

Teachers can assign tasks and track results

13.13 Review questions 1 2 3 4

State two positive and two negative effects of the Three Gorges Dam on the Yangtze River. Outline how the establishment of new palm oil plantations can affect river systems. Describe two methods of reducing the impact of deforestation on water quality. This lesson mentions ‘finding the right balance between development and conservation’. a Using examples from the lesson, explain why this balance is diﬃcult to achieve. b Suggest one way this balance could be better managed in one of the case studies mentioned.

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

334

Cambridge Investigating Humanities for the Victorian Curriculum 8

13.14

What are some of the causes and impacts of flooding?

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Learning intention

In this section, you will explore the causes of flooding, how humans have altered environments to influence flooding, and the varying impacts of floods on people and places.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

Predict and discuss

Look closely at Figures 13.14.1–13.14.3. Based on these images, predict and discuss the possible social, economic and environmental impacts on Spain of the October 2024 flood.

…

Figure 13.14.2 Spanish locals work to clear muddy debris from their streets.

Figure 13.14.1 Torrential rain caused flash floods, destroying buildings, disrupting transport and leaving 100 000 homes without power. More than 150 people died.

…

Low-res

… Figure 13.14.3 Map of rainfall and flooding

in Spain, 30 October 2024 Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Chapter 13: What are coastal and riverine landscapes and landforms, and how do they form and change?

335

Flooding is a natural disaster that occurs when an area is covered with water, often due to heavy rainfall or the overflow of rivers. Floods happen in many regions

around the world, and their causes and impacts vary depending on the environment and human activity.

Causes and distribution geography. Floods are common in northern Australia, especially during the wet season, when tropical cyclones bring heavy rainfall. Major rivers like the Murray–Darling and the Brisbane River have experienced significant flooding in the past.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Flooding can be caused by a variety of natural factors. In riverine environments, the main cause of flooding is heavy rainfall. When it rains too much for the soil to absorb or for rivers to carry away the water, the excess water flows over the banks of rivers and floods nearby areas. Other causes of flooding include snowmelt, where melting snow adds to river flow, and tropical storms or cyclones, which can bring heavy rains and cause flash flooding. Australia is particularly prone to flooding due to its diverse climate and

Globally, regions near the equator in South-East Asia, South America and parts of Africa also experience regular flooding because they have heavy seasonal rains. Mountainous regions such as the Himalayas in north-east Asia are vulnerable to flooding from melting snow.

Effects of human activity

Human activity influences whether and where floods occur, and how severe they are. We alter natural landscapes when we construct buildings, roads and farms. Some of the main human activities that increase the risk of flooding are:

• Urbanisation: In urban areas, concrete and asphalt prevent water from soaking into the ground. Instead, water quickly runs off into drains and rivers, and can overwhelm these systems.

• Deforestation: When forests are cleared for agriculture or development, the soil loses its ability to absorb water, leading to increased run-off.

• Modification of rivers: Building dams or levees can change the natural flow of rivers. Although these structures are designed to control floods, they can cause more severe flooding downstream if too much water is released or if they fail.

• Climate change: Climate change is leading to heavier rainfall, rising sea levels and stronger storms. Warmer oceans and air hold more moisture, making floods more intense.

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

336

Cambridge Investigating Humanities for the Victorian Curriculum 8

Impacts Environmentally, flooding can wash away soil, pollute water sources, and harm plants and animals. However, floods can also bring benefits, like replenishing soil nutrients and supporting ecosystems that rely on periodic water flow.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Flooding has serious impacts on people, communities and the environment. Its social impacts include forcing people out of their homes, damaging schools and hospitals, and even causing loss of life. Economically, floods destroy crops, businesses, and infrastructure, with high costs to governments and individuals.

Concepts and skills builder 13.14

Interpreting a line graph to describe a change in an environmental phenomenon

When the horizontal axis (x-axis) of a line graph represents time, the graph shows how something changes over a period. Geographers apply the concept of change to help identify trends, such as growth, decline or stability. Peaks and dips reveal highs and lows, while patterns (such as cycles) or steady changes help us better understand long-term or short-term change. Follow these steps to interpret a line graph:

1 Examine the title, axis labels, and units. 2 Identify the trends, such as increases, decreases, or steady sections. 3 Highlight key points, like times of peaks or major changes.

For this task, refer to Figure 13.14.4 and answer each of these questions using full sentences.

1 What information is being shown in the graph? 2 Compare the values at the start and end of the period covered in this graph. In other words, state how many billions of dollars was claimed in December 2012, then state how many billions of dollars was claimed in December 2022. Make sure you state the years in your sentence. 3 Describe the overall trend between these years: has the money claimed in this timeframe increased, decreased or remained stable? 4 Highlight key points, like peaks or major changes. Identify which years you can see peaks occurred, and state the value of each peak. 5 What does this graph tell you about the economic impact of flooding on Australians over time?

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Chapter 13: What are coastal and riverine landscapes and landforms, and how do they form and change?

337

…

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Low-res

Figure 13.14.4 Amount of money paid to Australians by their insurance companies for claims relating to

flood damage

Geographical concepts and skills: change, environment, geographical inquiry

Go online to access the interactive lesson review and more!

Lesson 13.14 review Online quiz

Review questions

DOC

Research task

Teachers can assign tasks and track results

13.14 Review questions 1 2 3 4

Define the term ‘flood’. Create a list of natural factors that cause flooding. Describe four human activities that can increase the risk of flooding. What are some of the advantages of flooding?

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

338

Cambridge Investigating Humanities for the Victorian Curriculum 8

13.15

What are some responses to flooding?

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Learning intention

In this section, you will explore various responses to flooding and how environmental, social and economic factors influence the impact of floods on people and places.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

Low-res

See, think, wonder

1 What can you see in this image? 2 What do you think has happened? 3 What else do you wonder about this hazard?

… Figure 13.15.1 A breach in 17th

Street Canal levee in New Orleans, USA, on 31 August 2005, showing the inundated Lakeview neighbourhood on the right and the largely dry Metairie side on the left

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Chapter 13: What are coastal and riverine landscapes and landforms, and how do they form and change?

339

Globally, floods affect millions of people each year, causing displacement, loss of life, and damage to homes, infrastructure and livelihoods. They also disrupt ecosystems, pollute water sources, and lead to significant economic costs.

• prevention: such things as building levees and managing the water flow using dams and weirs

Geographers play a vital role in understanding the interconnections within and between the natural and human factors that influence the impacts of such hazards. Using this understanding, geographers can help communities prepare and respond to floods. There are four ways that the impacts of flood can be reduced:

• response: rescuing people and protecting property

• preparedness: ensuring communities in flood-prone areas have emergency plans

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

• recovery: helping communities rebuild homes and services, and making them stronger for future floods.

Interconnections in Hurricane Katrina’s impact Hurricane Katrina formed in August 2005 due to specific natural conditions: a tropical depression, warm water temperatures in the Gulf of Mexico, and stable wind speed and direction when the hurricane was forming.

Katrina originated from a tropical depression over the Bahamas. A tropical depression is a storm that forms over warm ocean water. It happens when warm, moist air rises. As the air rises, it cools, and clouds and rain begin to form. The winds in a tropical depression are not very strong. However, if the system gains more energy, it can strengthen into a tropical storm or a hurricane. Unfortunately, this is what occurred.

storm surge a rise in sea level caused by strong winds and low pressure during a storm, pushing seawater onto the land, often leading to flooding

Social and economic factors

Social and economic factors interconnected with natural factors to influence the impact of the flood. In 2005, most of the population of New Orleans were less wealthy people living in low-cost housing in areas of land that were actually below sea level. These areas were home to a higher proportion of Black residents than other parts of New Orleans. Lowlying areas were protected by a system of levees that the city had built to keep the surrounding water out.

The tropical depression moved over the Gulf of Mexico’s unusually warm water (it had temperatures above 30°C). Warm water provided the energy for the system to grow stronger, and the hurricane rapidly intensified.

When Hurricane Katrina struck New Orleans, the storm surge breached the levees of the Mississippi River in approximately 20 places. As a result, lower-income communities experienced more severe flooding and damage to property than the wealthier communities who lived on higher ground. Hurricane Katrina caused nearly 1400 deaths as well as damages of US$125 billion.

During this time, there were only minimal changes in wind speed and direction. This allowed the storm to maintain its structure and grow, bringing winds up to 200 km/h and creating a storm surge that was over 8 metres high.

These impacts were preventable. The government hadn’t properly maintained the levees despite warnings from scientists over years. Evacuation orders were also inadequate: only 48 hours before the hurricane hit, the mayor of

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

340

Cambridge Investigating Humanities for the Victorian Curriculum 8

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES …

Figure 13.15.2 Vertical cross-section of New Orleans ground elevations, showing maximum levee height of 7 metres (23 feet ) at the Mississippi River on the left and 5 metres (17.5 feet) at Lake Pontchartrain on the right. Which areas are below sea level (0 metres)? How much of the area in this cross-section do you think was flooded when the levees were breached?

New Orleans ordered the city to evacuate. Wealthier people could leave the city immediately, because they had access to cars or other transport, and could pay for accommodation out of state. However, many of the poorer residents of New Orleans didn’t have their own transport or anywhere to go. Public buses could not transport the large number of people needing help, leaving many low-income and elderly residents stranded in a city that would soon be up to 80% covered in water. The lack of evacuation plans for residents without private transportation highlighted significant gaps in disaster preparedness and planning.

The aftermath of the hurricane also severely impacted Black communities. Black residents received on average $8000 less in government aid than white homeowners because their houses were in areas that weren’t considered to be as valuable. As a result, many poorer families were forced to live in unsafe circumstances for longer, or were unable to return to their homes at all.

Nearly 15 years after the hurricane, most of the residents of the heavily affected Lower Ninth Ward had still not returned. The population of the area had reduced from 14 000 before the hurricane to only 4000 in 2020.

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Chapter 13: What are coastal and riverine landscapes and landforms, and how do they form and change?

341

Concepts and skills builder 13.15 Applying the concept of interconnection Analyse how the flooding of the Mississippi River was the result of interconnections between the natural hazard (Hurricane Katrina) and human-made factors (failures in preparation and response). Using the following guiding questions, write a short response (150–200 words) to explain these interconnections. 1 2 3 4

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

How did the condition of New Orleans’ levees before Hurricane Katrina occurred impact the severity of flooding? What role did evacuation plans (or the lack of plans) play in affecting different communities? How did economic and racial inequalities shape the disaster’s long-term impacts on certain populations? After completing the task, discuss your answers with classmates. Identify how human decisions and natural processes are interconnected.

Geographical concepts and skills: environment, geographical inquiry, interconnection

Go online to access the interactive lesson review and more!

Lesson 13.15 review Online quiz

Review questions

DOC

Research task

Teachers can assign tasks and track results

13.15 Review questions

1 Define the following natural factors: a topical depression b storm surge.

2 List at least three mistakes that increased the impact of Hurricane Katrina. Then identify which of these categories each error belongs to: prevention preparedness response recovery.

• • • •

3 Research one improvement made in disaster planning after Katrina. How might this reduce the impact of future disasters? 4 Some people say that disasters like Hurricane Katrina are not natural disasters; instead, they are the devastating consequences of inequality. To what extent do you agree with this statement? Use examples from the textbook to justify your opinion.

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

342

Cambridge Investigating Humanities for the Victorian Curriculum 8

13.16

End of investigation review: Landscapes and landforms

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Access the Interactive Textbook for a range of digital tools to help you review this topic, including: • Chapter summary • Auto-marked chapter test • Scorcher timed competitive quiz.

Making thinking visible

This visible thinking routine allows you to explore your own perspective on landscapes and landforms. Consider what you have learned over the course of this topic, as well as what there still is to learn, and answer these Compass point questions. 1

Excited: What excites you about what you’ve learned about landscapes and landforms (for example, unique features, cultural significance or geomorphological processes)? Worrisome: What worries you about the issues affecting landscapes and landforms (for example, human

impacts, hazards or management challenges)?

Need to know: What do you still need to know or understand better about these topics?

Stance/steps: What stance would you take, or what steps could you suggest, to help protect and manage landscapes and landforms?

Extension 5

Discuss your answers in small groups and brainstorm steps that can be put into action for better management of landscapes and landforms.

Using geographical concepts Geographers use key concepts to help demonstrate their understanding. Choose one of the following statements and discuss the extent to which you agree with it. In your answer, refer to one or more examples studied in this unit and make use of at least one geographic concept. For example: • ‘Change in one part of an environment produces changes in other parts.

These changes may be at a different time, in a different place and at a different scale to the original change’.

• ‘People and environments are interconnected, and therefore people have a responsibility to interact with their environment with care’. Remember the geographical concepts: change, environment, interconnection, place, scale, space and sustainability.

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Chapter 13: What are coastal and riverine landscapes and landforms, and how do they form and change?

343

Solving geographical problems Landscapes and landforms in Australia 1

Justify your management strategy. Explain how it will be practical, affordable and achievable within a realistic time frame.

Design your own fish trap! 4

Design a management strategy that could be implemented by the Australian Government or a state government to overcome this challenge. Outline specific details of your proposed strategy. For example, if your strategy includes banning plastic, write the laws that you would put in place as well as how you plan to monitor and enforce these laws.

a Draw and label your own fish trap design, inspired by Barkandji People’s engineering. Think about:

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Choose one of the challenges facing Australia’s landscapes or landforms mentioned in this chapter. For example, you could look at the impact of pollution on landforms.

• How will fish enter and exit?

• Where will smaller creatures live? • How will water flow through your structure? • What natural materials would you use?

b Explain briefly why you made each design choice.

Research task: Impact of the destruction of landforms and landscapes on Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples The destruction of landscapes and landforms affects various Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander groups uniquely, depending on their specific cultural connections and traditions. For each group, sacred sites hold particular significance. These places are not only physical locations; they hold deep cultural, spiritual, and historical significance for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples, reflecting their ongoing connections to Country. Choose an Aboriginal or Torres Strait Islander site that has been, or is in danger of being, destroyed. Read through the examples provided below, then research and present your findings using the following headings: 1

Where? Describe the location of the site. Include information about the geography and environment.

What? Explain what is happening or has happened to the site. Is it being developed, mined, or affected by natural causes?

Who? Identify the People connected to this site. Who else is involved (e.g., government, companies, organisations)?

Indigenous perspectives: Explore how the Indigenous community feels about the site and its significance to them. What cultural, spiritual, or historical values does it hold?

Non-Indigenous perspectives: Present the views of other people and groups involved. What are their reasons for carrying out the actions affecting the site?

Outcomes: Discuss what has happened as a result of these differing perspectives. Has there been a

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

344

Cambridge Investigating Humanities for the Victorian Curriculum 8

resolution or is there ongoing conflict? What are the implications for the future? Remember: • use reliable sources for your research, such as books, reputable websites, and articles

• be respectful and considerate when you discuss cultural beliefs and practices • present your findings clearly, using images or maps if they help.

Example 1: Kuarna Country ancestral connections and the natural landscapes integral to their cultural identity and heritage.

…

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Low-res

Figure 13.16.1 People protest over the development

at Kaurna.

Where? The Riverlea housing development is in the northern suburbs of Adelaide, South Australia. What? Riverlea is a large-scale residential project aimed at creating new housing and infrastructure to support Adelaide’s growing population.

Who? The Riverlea development is being undertaken by Walker Corporation, involving collaboration with the South Australian Government, local councils and community stakeholders. Indigenous perspective: For Kaurna People, the Traditional Custodians of the Adelaide Plains, the land holds deep cultural and spiritual significance. They value the preservation of sacred sites,

Non-Indigenous perspective: Developers and non-Indigenous stakeholders focus on the economic benefits, housing needs and urban development opportunities the project presents. They view the land as a resource to accommodate population growth and stimulate economic progress. Outcome: Through consultation with the Kaurna community, efforts were made to acknowledge and respect Kaurna heritage. Kaurna People, the Traditional Custodians of the Adelaide Plains, expressed concerns about the impact on their cultural heritage and sacred sites. While there were some efforts to consult with the Kaurna community, many felt that their perspectives were not adequately considered or integrated into the project’s plans. Reports indicate that Kaurna People felt they were not fully listened to, and their cultural and spiritual connections to the Land were not sufficiently respected. Therefore, it appears that Kaurna People’s voices were not adequately heard in the development of Riverlea.

Example 2: Juukan Gorge, Puutu Kunti Kurrama and Pinikura Country Low-res

…

Figure 13.16.2 Juukan Gorge in 2013 (left) and in 2020 (right) before the blasting.

Where? Juukan Gorge is in the Pilbara region of Western Australia What? In May 2020, mining company Rio Tinto destroyed two ancient rock shelters at Juukan Gorge to expand an iron ore mine.

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Chapter 13: What are coastal and riverine landscapes and landforms, and how do they form and change?

345

Who? The Puutu Kunti Kurrama and Pinikura (PKKP) Peoples, the Traditional Owners of the Land; and Rio Tinto, a multinational mining corporation

The Traditional Owners, the PKKP Peoples, felt profound grief, shock and anger over the destruction of the Juukan Gorge rock shelters. These sites were of immense cultural, spiritual and historical significance, representing a continuous connection to their ancestors dating back 46 000 years. The destruction meant the loss of a sacred and irreplaceable part of their heritage.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Indigenous perspective: The PKKP Peoples viewed the rock shelters as sites of immense cultural, spiritual and archaeological significance, with evidence of continuous human occupation dating back 46 000 years. The destruction represented a profound loss of heritage and a violation of their ancestral connection to the Land.

there were calls for legislative reforms to better protect Indigenous heritage sites in the future.

Non-Indigenous perspective: Rio Tinto saw the area as a valuable resource for iron ore extraction, prioritising economic gains and operating within the legal framework that permitted the destruction under Section 18 of the Aboriginal Heritage Act 1972.

Outcome: There was no compromise prior to the destruction. The incident led to widespread public outrage, government inquiries and criticism of existing heritage protection laws. Rio Tinto apologised, several senior executives resigned, and

They expressed feelings of betrayal and devastation, stating that the rock shelters held stories, memories and artifacts integral to their identity and culture. The PKKP Peoples felt that their voices were not adequately heard or respected by Rio Tinto, and that legal protections had failed to safeguard their sacred sites. The destruction not only erased a significant archaeological site but also deeply wounded the community’s connection to their land and ancestors.

Example 3: Gudanji, Yanyuwa, Garawa and Mara Countries Low-res

…

Figure 13.16.3 McArthur River Mine

Where? The McArthur River Mine is near Borroloola in the Northern Territory, Australia.

What? The mine’s expansion threatens sacred sites and culturally significant landscapes belonging to the Gudanji, Yanyuwa, Garawa and Mara Peoples. The McArthur River holds central importance to cultural practices, Dreaming stories and ancestral connections.

Who? The Traditional Owners are the Gudanji, Yanyuwa, Garawa and Mara Peoples. The mine is operated by Glencore, a multinational mining company, with approval from the Northern Territory Government. Indigenous perspective: The Traditional Owners view the Land and river as sacred, integral to their spiritual beliefs and cultural heritage. They are deeply concerned about the destruction of sacred sites, environmental damage and the impact on their way of life. They feel their voices and rights have not been adequately respected in decisions affecting their land. Non-Indigenous perspective: Glencore and the government see the mine as

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

346

Cambridge Investigating Humanities for the Victorian Curriculum 8

economically significant, providing jobs and contributing to both local and national economies. They argue that the mine operates within legal frameworks and environmental regulations, focusing on resource extraction and economic benefits.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Outcome: While consultations have taken place between the mining company, government and Indigenous communities, many Traditional Owners feel these efforts have been insufficient. Despite

opposition, the mine’s expansion has proceeded. Legal challenges and protests by the Traditional Owners have raised public awareness but have not halted development. The outcome highlights ongoing tensions between economic interests and the preservation of Indigenous cultural heritage, highlighting the need for stronger heritage protection laws and more meaningful engagement with Indigenous communities.

Example 4: Country of the Torres Strait Islands Low-res

…

Figure 13.16.4 Rising sea levels in the Torres Strait

Islands

Where? The Torres Strait Islands are between northern Queensland, Australia, and Papua New Guinea.

What? Climate change and rising sea levels are threatening the islands, and endangering the environment, sacred sites and way of life of Torres Strait Islander Peoples. Who? Torres Strait Islander communities, especially on low-lying islands like Boigu, Poruma, Warraber and Masig; and the Australian Government, responsible for national climate policies Indigenous perspective: Torres Strait Islander Peoples have a deep cultural and spiritual connection to their islands, which contain sacred sites and ancestral burial grounds. Rising sea levels and extreme weather are eroding shorelines and damaging these sacred places,

threatening their homes and cultural heritage. They feel that the Australian Government’s insufficient action on climate change fails to protect their rights and ancestral Lands.

Non-Indigenous perspective: Although the Australian Government acknowledges the impacts of climate change, it has been criticised for not taking adequate measures to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. Economic interests, such as supporting fossil fuel industries, often take priority. The government has taken some actions to help with adaptation to the effects of climate change. Their policies are the result of having to balance different environmental and economic interests. Outcome: In 2019, Torres Strait Islander People filed a complaint with the United Nations Human Rights Committee, claiming the government’s inaction on climate change violates their human rights. The government has since funded seawalls and protective infrastructure on some islands, but the communities argue these measures are insufficient without significant emission reductions. The conflict is ongoing, with increasing pressure on the government to enhance climate action to protect the Torres Strait Islands and uphold Indigenous rights.

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Chapter 13: What are coastal and riverine landscapes and landforms, and how do they form and change?

347

INVESTIGATION 2

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Changing nations OVERVIEW

Changing nations examines urbanisation as a process that is transforming the world, and the urban patterns and issues it produces in both urbanising and highly urbanised countries. Students examine urbanisation as both a consequence of, and a contributor to, economic and social change. Students examine the distribution of population in Australia compared to other countries and shifts in population distribution over time. They compare internal and international migration in Australia and China, as well as the contribution of migration to urban population growth. They also focus on ways to improve the liveability and environmental sustainability of Australia’s cities, how they are managed and ways to adapt to climate change. Source: VCAA, Victorian Curriculum V2.0, ‘Geography’, ‘Band description – Levels 7 and 8’

CURRICULUM GOAL

• Is Australia’s population too concentrated into cities?

Source: VCAA, Victorian Curriculum V2.0, ‘Geography’, ‘Band description – Levels 7 and 8’

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

348

CHAPTER 14

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

What are the causes and consequences of urbanisation?

LESSON TITLE

14.1

Setting the scene: What happens in Vegas stays in Vegas

14.2

What is urbanisation?

14.3

Why is urbanisation increasing?

14.4

What are the impacts of urbanisation?

14.5

Case study: Why is Jakarta sinking?

14.6

What is urban concentration and how does it vary?

14.7

How are urban settlements distributed?

14.8

How do cities grow?

14.9

How does urban growth in the United States compare with Australia?

Image: Taipei, Taiwan

FPO

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

349 349

14.1

Setting the scene: What happens in Vegas stays in Vegas

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Learning intention This lesson introduces the causes and consequences of urbanisation by exploring one of the most iconic examples of urban development on the planet. Las Vegas is the gambling capital of the world and one of the fastest growing cities on Earth. It lies in the sun-soaked Mojave Desert in Southern Nevada. It is hard to believe that it was once just a humble desert outpost serving as a rest stop for travellers between Utah and California. Las Vegas began to grow in the 1930s. When the Hoover Dam was built, many people came seeking constructions jobs and the population grew from 5000 to 25 000. During this period, Nevada legalised gambling to help the economy

recover following the Great Depression. These factors combined cause Las Vegas’ first growth spurt and it has not stopped growing since. Las Vegas is currently the 19th largest city in the United States. Its city centre contains 650 000 people and its total metropolitan area has just under three million. Although its growth rate is slowing, it is projected to grow at a rate of around one per cent until at least 2035. Las Vegas is now a very busy city, known for its dazzling lights and relentless energy. Its environment has

…

Figure 14.1.1 The iconic Las Vegas Strip is known for its hotels, casinos, restaurants and entertainment venues

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

350

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Low-res

… Figure 14.1.2 Satellite images

showing the expansion of Las Vegas between 1984 and 2024

been completely changed from its early days – it has world-class entertainment venues stretching across the desert. However, urban development has brought challenges that include:

• the environmental impact of expansion on the surrounding desert ecosystem

• the supply of enough water

Managing this iconic city to ensure it is sustainable will require a balance between economic success, and environmental and social needs.

• social issues, such as high levels of substance abuse, homelessness and suicide.

• high temperatures that are made worse by heat-absorbing materials, such as concrete and asphalt

sustainable able to be maintained at the same rate without impacting the future

Lesson 14.1 review Online quiz

Review questions

DOC

Research task

environmental impact a change in either the natural environment or the human environment

Go online to access the interactive lesson review and more!

Teachers can assign tasks and track results

14.1 Making thinking visible: claim, support, question

1 Claim: state a claim about how much Las Vegas has grown in the 40 years between 1984 and 2024. 2 Support: support your claim from Question 1 by providing evidence. Use the linear scale in Figure 14.1.2 to estimate the growth in the length and width of the city or to approximate the change in area. 3 Question: Develop a question based on this growth. Your question could investigate:

• how much Las Vegas might change in the future • the consequences of this growth • whether the growth will be sustainable. Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Chapter 14: What are the causes and consequences of urbanisation?

351

14.2

What is urbanisation? Learning intention

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

In this lesson, you will learn about the process of urbanisation and how the proportion of a country’s population living in urban areas varies around the world.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

infrastructure facilities and systems such as buildings, roads, public transport and electricity

List, outline, suggest

1 List: List the geographical characteristics of Tokyo’s urban environment. Include characteristics of transport infrastructure, buildings and urban design. 2 Outline: Outline the similarities and differences between this place and your local town or city. 3 Suggest: Suggest a challenge that people living in this place may experience.

…

Figure 14.2.1 Tokyo, Japan, is the largest city in the world by population, with more than 38 million people

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

352

Defining urbanisation as urban growth. At the same time, the growth in rural areas has slowed. Cities have grown both in size and density and now are home to 56 per cent of the global population. This growth trend is set to continue with an estimated 68 per cent of people expected to be living in urban areas by 2050. This increase in the proportion of people living in urban areas compared to rural areas is known as urbanisation.

urban describes environments with a high population density that have highly developed infrastructure, such as cities, suburbs and large towns rural describes environments with a low population density with sparse infrastructure, such as farms, open spaces and natural areas

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

In 2007, for the first time in human history there was an equal number of people living in urban areas and rural areas across the globe (Figure 14.2.2). Before this time, the population living in rural areas was much higher because most people lived in agrarian communities on farms and in smaller towns and villages. Since 2007, the population in urban areas has continued to grow rapidly. This is known

Low-res

agrarian community a community whose economy is based on agriculture (farming)

… Figure 14.2.2

The changes in the numbers of the world’s population living in rural and urban areas

urban growth an increase in the physical size and population of an urban area over time

The global distribution of urbanisation

population density the number of people per square kilometre of land

Although urbanisation is a global trend, the proportion of the population living in urban areas varies greatly between countries. Cities such as Tokyo, Japan, are growing at a very rapid rate. Nearly

urbanisation an increase in the proportion of people living in urban areas compared to rural areas

92 per cent of Japan’s 126 million people currently live in cities. In contrast, less than 15 per cent of Burundi’s population live in urban areas, the lowest level in sub-Saharan Africa (Figure 14.2.3).

sub-Saharan Africa the countries in Africa that are south of the Sahara Desert

… Figure 14.2.3 A rural village

in the rainforest of Masango, Burundi

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Chapter 14: What are the causes and consequences of urbanisation?

353

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Share of the population living in urban areas, 2023

… Figure 14.2.4 The

proportion of a country’s population living in urban areas in 2023. [Source: Our World in Data]

No data 0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

Data source: UN Population Division (via World Bank) (2025)

50%

60%

70%

80%

90%

100%

OurWorldinData.org/urbanization | CC BY

Note: Because the estimates of city and metropolitan areas are based on national deﬁnitions of what constitutes a city or metropolitan area, cross-country comparisons should be made with caution.

Concepts and skills builder 14.2 Interpreting a choropleth map

choropleth map a map that shows areas of shading or colouring to represent data values phenomenon something that can be observed, measured or studied (plural: phenomena)

Choropleth maps represent data about a phenomenon by shading or colouring areas, such as countries, based on a data value. In Figure 14.2.4, the colours represent the proportion of each country’s population that lives in urban areas. Use Figure 14.2.4 to answer the following questions.

1 Name three countries that have low and high proportions of their population living in urban areas. Use an Atlas, world map or Google Maps to help name the countries. 2 Which world regions still have a large proportion of their population living in rural areas? A world region is a large group of neighbouring countries. Examples include Latin America, sub-Saharan Africa, South Asia and northern Europe. 3 Which world regions have the highest proportion of their population living in urban areas? 4 Suggest a reason why some world regions have very highly urbanised population whereas others are still largely rural. Geographical concepts and skills: place, space

The rate of urbanisation

The rate at which the global population is becoming urbanised is growing steadily. However, the rate of growth varies between countries. Figure 14.2.5 shows the trend of urbanisation in seven particular countries, compared with the global trend. Many countries that already

had highly urbanised populations over the past few decades, such as Australia and the United States, have shown little change. However, many countries that had predominantly rural populations during most of the 20th century, such as Uganda, are experiencing rapid urbanisation.

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

354

Cambridge Investigating Humanities for the Victorian Curriculum 8

…

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Low-res

Figure 14.2.5 The rate of urbanisation in seven countries compared with the world trend

Lesson 14.2 review Online quiz

Review questions

DOC

Research task

Go online to access the interactive lesson review and more!

Teachers can assign tasks and track results

14.2 Review questions

1 Explain the difference between urban growth and urbanisation. 2 Using Figures 14.2.1 and 14.2.3, compare the geographic characteristics of rural and urban environments. 3 Refer to Figure 14.2.2. Estimate the number of people living in rural and urban areas in 1950, 1975, 2000, 2025 and 2050. 4 Figure 14.2.5 shows the rate at which seven countries are becoming urbanised, as well as the globalised (world) rate. Use the information from this graph to answer the following questions. a Which countries have shown the slowest and fastest rate of urbanisation since 1960? b Suggest a reason for your answers to part a. c Based on the current trend, draw what you think this graph might look like if it continued to 2030 and beyond. d Suggest an issue that might arise for a country such as China or Nigeria if the current trend continues.

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Chapter 14: What are the causes and consequences of urbanisation?

355

14.3

Why is urbanisation increasing? Learning intention

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

In the last lesson, you learned about the process of urbanisation. In this lesson, you will explore reasons why urbanisation is a growing trend.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

See, think, wonder

1 See: What do you see? Describe the scale of Dubai’s skyline. 2 Think: What does it make you think? Consider the process that was undertaken to construct this city. 3 Wonder: What do you wonder? Write a question you have about what life might be like for people living in this place.

…

Figure 14.3.1 Dubai’s skyscrapers now dominate a landscape that was desert only a few decades ago.

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

356

Rural-to-urban migration A major reason why urbanisation is increasing is the level of rural-to-urban migration. This is defined as the rate at which people are moving from rural areas to urban areas. People choose to move to urban areas because they want such things as better jobs, access to amenities such as public transport, recreational opportunities, and better health and

push factors reasons people wish to leave an area pull factors reasons people wish to move to an area

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

education services, such as hospitals and schools. These attractions are known as pull factors (see Table 14.3.1). On the other hand, people may want to leave a rural area because it lacks jobs or it has limited health or educational services. The reasons people choose to leave an area are known as push factors.

rural-to-urban migration the movement of people from rural areas to urban areas

Table 14.3.1 Push and pull factors leading to rural-to-urban migration

Pull factors Better employment opportunities Higher standards of living Better health facilities Better educational opportunities Social connectedness Better access to entertainment and recreational activities

• • • • • •

Push factors Limited employment opportunities and high levels of unemployment A lack of essential services such as public transport Basic health and educational facilities Social isolation and loneliness

• • • •

Amazing but true…

In 2018, more than 25 million people applied for 90 000 jobs with India Railways, and 200 000 people applied for 1137 jobs in the Mumbai Police.

Natural population growth

Another major cause of urbanisation is natural population growth. Natural population growth is the difference between the number of people who are born and the number of people who die within a population. It does not take migration into account. Living conditions and access to health services are often better in urban areas. This means the crude death rate

in urban areas is often lower than in rural areas, while the crude birth rate often remains quite high (see Table 14.3.2). Also, urban areas tend to attract young women who are of childbearing age, and therefore more likely to have children. Combined, these factors mean the rate of natural population growth is greater in urban regions compared to rural regions within a country.

Table 14.3.2 The difference between India’s crude death rate (CDR) in urban and rural regions over time

Year 2000 2010 2019

Overall CDR 8.5 7.2 6.0

Urban CDR 6.3 5.8 5.0

Rural CDR 9.3 7.7 6.5

natural population growth the difference between the number of people who are born and the number of people who die in a population migration the movement of people from one place to another crude death rate the number of people who die per year in a population per 1000 people crude birth rate the number of people born per year in a population per 1000 people childbearing age an age range in which women are able to give birth, usually defined as 16–49 years of age

Source: Moushumi Das Gupta, ‘Delhi has lowest death rate in India, urban–rural divide is shrinking, latest govt data shows’, The Print website, 28 October 2021

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Chapter 14: What are the causes and consequences of urbanisation?

357

Technological advancements winds and lack of rainfall. Figure 14.3.2 shows the extent of Dubai’s development, using satellite images. Since 2000, the city has expanded up to 20 km inland from the coast of the Persian Gulf. Areas of the desert have been filled with buildings and roads, and sand has been taken from the sea floor and used to create artificial islands designed in the shape of palm trees.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Today’s technology and engineering allow cities to be built in even the most inhospitable environments. Dubai is the largest city in the United Arab Emirates and is growing rapidly, increasing from just 500 000 people in 1990 to 3.5 million in 2023. This is especially significant when you consider Dubai’s harsh desert climate, which includes high temperatures, strong

…

Figure 14.3.2 Satellite imagery showing urban development in Dubai in 1990 (top) and 2023 (bottom)

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

358

Cambridge Investigating Humanities for the Victorian Curriculum 8

Concepts and skills builder 14.3 Exploring historic satellite imagery using Google Earth Pro satellite imagery visual data of the Earth’s surface collected from satellites in orbit

1 Choose a city that has undergone recent expansion; for example, Lagos, Las Vegas or Melbourne. 2 Use the Historical Imagery slider to move back in time as far as possible. Depending on how far you are zoomed in, this might be as far back as 1984. 3 Record how the characteristics of the place have changed over this period. Refer to specific parts of your chosen city and the specific changes that have happened. 4 Select the Ruler tool and the Polygon tab. Use this tool to trace around the city boundary at two different time periods and calculate how much the city has grown in size during this time. Record your results in a table.

…

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Google Earth Pro lets you explore satellite imagery of any corner of the globe. Geographers use satellite imagery to investigate the geographic characteristics of places, such as land cover (e.g. forest, bare ground, agriculture, urban) and to perform analysis of scale, such as measuring distances and areas. The Historical Imagery function can be used to change the date of the satellite image. This enables you to track changes over time, such as urban development, as shown in Figure 14.3.2. Download and install Google Earth Pro from http://cambridge.edu.au/ redirect/####. Then follow the steps shown below and in the video in Figure 14.3.3 to explore changes in an urban environment.

FPO

Figure 14.3.3

Geography skills video: Accessing and analysing historic satellite imagery

Geographical concepts and skills: place, space, change

Lesson 14.3 review Online quiz

Review questions

DOC

Research task

Go online to access the interactive lesson review and more!

Teachers can assign tasks and track results

14.3 Review questions

1 Explain the difference between a push and pull factor. 2 Brainstorm some additional push and pull factors that could be added to Table 14.3.1. Rank these in order from the most to the least significant. Compare your ranking with a classmate and justify your opinion. 3 Refer to Table 14.3.2. a Describe the overall trend in India’s crude death rate between 2000 and 2019. b State whether the crude death rate is higher or lower in India’s urban regions. c Explain how this difference might be contributing to natural population growth in urban areas and urbanisation. 4 Discuss whether rural-to-urban migration, natural population growth or technological advancements is likely to be the greatest cause of urbanisation. Justify your response.

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Chapter 14: What are the causes and consequences of urbanisation?

359

14.4

What are the impacts of urbanisation? Learning intention

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

So far you have learned why urbanisation occurs. Now you will consider some of the positive and negative impacts of urbanisation.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

Compare, suggest, investigate

1 Compare: Compare the characteristics of Kibera’s urban environment (Figure 14.4.1) to those of Tokyo (Figure 14.2.1) or Dubai (Figure 14.3.1). 2 Suggest: What is a possible reason for any differences outlined in Question 1? 3 Investigate: Visit Kibera using Google Street View. Record three unique features of this place.

…

Figure 14.4.1 Kibera, Kenya, is the largest slum in Africa.

FPO

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

360

Positive and negative impacts The large-scale movement of people from rural areas to urban environments can have positive and negative impacts. Urban growth can encourage new industries and new infrastructure to be built, and this can lead to the economic impact of economic growth. On the other hand, rapid urban growth can add to traffic congestion, destruction of habitat and problems

habitat the natural home of a plant or animal containing suitable environmental conditions social impacts impacts on people and society

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

in managing waste (see Table 14.4.1). These negative factors can have social impacts, affecting life for residents, as well as environmental impacts. The impacts can be large or small, depending on such factors as population density, the rate of urbanisation and how the urban environment is designed and managed.

economic impact an impact involving finances and the economy

Amazing but true…

Urban development in Dubai in the early 2000s was so rapid that the city’s sewerage system was not able to handle the increased supply. Sewage from buildings such as the Burj Khalifa, the tallest building in the world, had to be pumped into trucks each day and transported to the waste treatment plant.

Table 14.4.1 Some of the positive and negative impacts of urbanisation

Positive impacts Negative impacts Travel is more efficient Green space and natural habitats can be lost Land surrounding cities can be reserved for when an urban area expands The water quality of local rivers and creeks can be conservation Healthcare facilities are likely to be better in urban damaged by urban development The spread of infectious diseases such as malaria areas than in rural areas The economy is often better in urban areas and COVID-19 can increase where there are high because it is based on manufacturing and services, population densities Access to services, facilities and employment can be which are more profitable than agriculture Employment can be more available, more varied lacking for people living on the outskirts of a city Traffic congestion, and noise and air pollution and higher paying in urban areas Infrastructure is often cheaper and more efficient increase when there are high population densities Infrastructure development in rapidly growing to build in regions with denser populations cities can struggle to keep up with demand

• • • •

• • •

• •

• • •

conservation the protection of the natural environment green space areas of vegetation such as grass and trees used for recreational purposes

Amazing but true… According to the World Health Organization, three million deaths every year are linked to exposure to air pollution.

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Chapter 14: What are the causes and consequences of urbanisation?

361

correlation an association or relationship between two phenomena, such as GDP and the rate of urbanisation

Figure 14.4.2 shows a correlation between the percentage of a country’s population that is urbanised and gross domestic product (GDP) per capita. It shows that countries with a high level of urbanisation also tend to have a stronger economy. For example, urbanisation in China has coincided with industrialisation. Rural areas have supplied Chinese cities with a massive

workforce, allowing it to become the largest manufacturing and exporting nation in the world. However, this does not necessarily mean that urbanisation always causes economic growth. For example, urbanisation in Nairobi, Kenya, has been very rapid and industrialisation has not been able to keep up. This has led to the development of slums.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

gross domestic product (GDP) per capita a measure of the strength of a country’s economy divided by the size of its population

Urbanisation and economic growth

Low-res

…

Figure 14.4.2 The relationship between the percentage of a country’s population that lives in urban areas and the size of its economy, measured as GDP per capita The size of the circles represents the relative size of each country’s population and the colours refer to world regions.

industrialisation the shift of a country’s economy from being based mainly on agriculture to being based on manufacturing exporting sending goods to another country for sale

slums extremely poor informal settlements where residents do not legally own the land

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

362

Cambridge Investigating Humanities for the Victorian Curriculum 8

Concepts and skills builder 14.4 Analysing the relationship between variables using a scatterplot Scatterplots such as the one in Figure 14.4.2 show the correlation between variables. Correlation means how much the variable on the y axis (vertical axis) varies based on changes to the variable on the x axis (horizontal). Visit the Gapminder website at https://www.gapminder.org/tools/#$chart-type=bubbles&url=v2. Under Resources, click on the Tools tab. 1 Change the x (horizontal) and y (vertical) axes to match those in Figure 14.4.2. 2 Hover your mouse over the different circles to see the names of the countries represented. Name three countries that have high levels of urban population and GDP per capita and three countries that have low levels of both. 3 Describe what this graph reveals about the relationship between urbanisation and a country’s economy.

correlation an association or relationship between two or more things

…

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

FPO

Figure 14.2.3

Geography Skills: Scatterplots

Geographical concepts and skills: place

Slums

Slums are informal settlements where large numbers of people live in extreme poverty on land that they do not legally own. They are usually on the outskirts of cities and have densely packed and unstable housing that is built using scrap materials. They lack basic services such as piped water, sanitation, electricity and transport infrastructure. They are also unsafe and vulnerable to fire and flooding.

Kibera, Kenya, is Africa’s largest slum. It is home to an estimated 250 000 people (Figure 14.4.4). The average shack in this region is 12 square metres (a similar size to an average Australian bedroom). The shacks are made of mud walls, dirt floors and a roof of corrugated iron, and will often house as many as eight family members.

…

Figure 14.4.4 Slums like Kibera in Kenya lack stable housing, piped water and sewage systems.

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Chapter 14: What are the causes and consequences of urbanisation?

363

Go online to access the interactive lesson review and more!

Lesson 14.4 review Online quiz

Review questions

DOC

Research task

Teachers can assign tasks and track results

14.4 Review questions 1 a Classify each of the impacts of urbanisation listed in Table 14.4.1 as either environmental, social or economic. Remember that: environmental impacts are impacts on the natural or human environments social impacts are impacts on people and society economic impacts are impacts involving finances and the economy. b Rank the positive and negative impacts from weakest to strongest. Justify your top and bottom choices and compare your answers with a classmate. 2 Explain the link between urbanisation and economic growth and why rapid urbanisation can lead to the development of slums. 3 a Visit Kibera using Google Street View. Summarise the human and natural geographic characteristics using a table. b Compare Kibera to your local area. Consider aspects such as housing, retail, transport and services. 4 ‘Urbanisation always has positive consequences for local populations.’ Discuss the extent to which you agree with this statement and provide examples to support your answer.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

• • •

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

364

Cambridge Investigating Humanities for the Victorian Curriculum 8

14.5

Case study: Why is Jakarta sinking? Learning intention

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

In the previous lesson, you explored some of the positive and negative consequences of urbanisation. You will now look in more detail at some severe negative impacts of urbanisation in Jakarta, Indonesia.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

Inquiry questions

Examine Figure 14.5.1. Write a series of inquiry questions about this flood. Consider causes, consequences and management.

…

Figure 14.5.1 Flooding has become a common occurrence and a part of daily life for Jakarta’s residents.

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

365

Jakarta – a sinking city groundwater water located below the Earth’s surface natural aquifer an underground layer of rock and other material containing groundwater

hard surfaces also known as impervious surfaces, surfaces that water cannot penetrate such as concrete, asphalt and rooftops

submerged completely covered in water

forced displacement the involuntary movement of people away from their home region

…

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

land subsidence the sinking of land as a result of the movement of underground material; it can be gradual or sudden, and can be natural or caused by human activities

Jakarta has been the capital city of Indonesia since 1961 and is home to more than 11 million people. Since the 1960s, the city has experienced rapid population growth. However, infrastructure has not been built quickly enough to keep up with demand. Only half of Jakarta’s residents have access to piped water and the water that is available is expensive and often of poor quality. As a solution, residents have been forced to construct wells to extract Figure 14.5.2 Thousands of people evacuated Jakarta’s central business district during a large flood in 2013. groundwater from the natural aquifer located beneath the city. Taking this water has caused the land hard surfaces (such as concrete) of the above it to sink at an alarming rate. This dense urban environment stop rainwater effect is known as land subsidence. As soaking through to top up groundwater well as the problem of water removal, the supplies.

How significant is the impact? Jakarta is sinking at an increasing rate. Since the 1970s, the northern coastal region of Jakarta has sunk approximately four metres and more than half of this has occurred in the past decade (Figure 14.5.3). Sinking is now happening at a rate of 25 cm per year in the north and between 3 and 15 cm across the whole city. As a result, around half of Jakarta is now below sea level. It is projected that 95 per cent of the northern region is likely to be permanently submerged under the sea by 2050, leading to the forced displacement of 2 million people. Large floods are already a frequent occurrence. They destroy buildings, roads and infrastructure such as drains, pipes and sewage systems.

Low-res

…

Figure 14.5.3 The extent of land subsidence in Jakarta since 1977.

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

366

Cambridge Investigating Humanities for the Victorian Curriculum 8

Concepts and skills builder 14.5 Interpreting satellite data Figure 14.5.3 is a series of maps of Jakarta, showing data from satellite radars that measure the extent of land subsidence. This data can be used to calculate the rate at which Jakarta is sinking and project how far and fast it could sink in the future. Follow these steps to help analyse the data: 1 Draw a table with nine rows and three columns. Add the years represented in Figure 14.5.3 in the first column. % coverage (2–3 m)

% coverage (4–5 m)

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Year 1977 1997 etc.

2 Estimate the percentage of Jakarta that has sunk 2–3 m (yellow and orange) for each year. Repeat this process for the percentage that has sunk 4–5 m (light and dark red). 3 Comment on how the rate of subsidence has changed from 1977 to 2017. 4 State the extent to which Jakarta is expected to have sunk by 2050. Geographical concepts and skills: place, space

How is the issue being managed? The Indonesian government are using a range of strategies to try to slow Jakarta’s sinking, adapt to its impacts, and make sure Jakarta’s people can continue to live

there in the future. These strategies are summarised in Table 14.5.1, along with an evaluation of how effective they are likely to be.

Table 14.5.1 Strategies being used to reduce the impacts of land subsidence in Jakarta

Strategy Jakarta is building more water infrastructure to increase access to piped water and reduce the need to extract groundwater. This is estimated to cost around US$40 billion. Sea walls are being built to hold back the Java Sea and protect land from flooding. This includes a proposed 45 km sea wall. People have begun to raise their houses, by building higher internal floors using whatever building materials are available. A new capital city called Nusantara is being built in Borneo, 1300 km from Jakarta (Figure 14.5.4). It will be completed by 2045 and will cost an estimated US$33 billion.

Evaluation This approach is likely to slow the sinking if groundwater extraction is slowed. However, it is very costly and will take a long time, and meanwhile illegal groundwater extraction continues. Sea walls only offer a temporary solution and are unlikely to stop the advancement of the sea if sinking continues, especially as sea level rises due to climate change. This is a temporary solution that reduces the impacts of flooding, but it does not address the source of the problem. The Indonesian government claims that Nusantara will be a green city, but there are concerns that building it will destroy rainforest and the homes and livelihoods of Indigenous people.

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Chapter 14: What are the causes and consequences of urbanisation?

367

MALAYSIA MALAYSIA

Kuala Lumpur

Borneo

SINGAPORE

Approximate location of site earmarked for Indonesia’s new capital

Samarinda Sumatra

Balikpapan

Sulawesi

INDONESIA

Indian Ocean

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Jakata Java

…

Go online to access the interactive lesson review and more!

600 km

Timor

Figure 14.5.4 The proposed location of Indonesia’s new capital city

Lesson 14.5 review Online quiz

Review questions

DOC

Research task

Teachers can assign tasks and track results

14.5 Review questions

1 Visit the official website for Nusantara at https://www.ikn.go.id/en. List the features of this proposed city that support the claim that it will be environmentally sustainable. 2 Research the issues that have been raised about the construction of Nusantara. Compare your findings with the features listed in Question 1. 3 Choose one of the strategies summarised in Table 14.5.1. Carry out further research to determine whether it is likely to be successful. Consider how long the strategy will take, how much it will cost and how effective it could be. Write a paragraph summarising your findings. 4 Jakarta is not the only large city experiencing land subsidence. Research the situation in Ho Chi Minh City (Vietnam), Chittagong (Bangladesh) or Ahmedabad (India). Compare the causes, impacts and management strategies being used in the city you choose with the situation in Jakarta.

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

368

Cambridge Investigating Humanities for the Victorian Curriculum 8

14.6

What is urban concentration and how does it vary?

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Learning intention

In this lesson, you will look beyond urbanisation and consider the proportion of a country’s population living in its largest cities, known as its urban concentration.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

What makes you say that?

1 Compare the photos of Buenos Aires and Brussels. 2 Which of these cities appears to have a higher population density? What makes you say that? 3 In which country do you think more people are likely to live in its large cities? What makes you say that?

…

Figure 14.6.1 Buenos Aires, Argentina (left) and Brussels, Belgium (right)

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Chapter 14: What are the causes and consequences of urbanisation?

369

Urban concentration distribution the arrangement of geographical phenomena, such as population, across Earth’s surface

In contrast, 98 per cent of Belgium’s population live in urban areas, but only just over 10 per cent of its population live in its largest city, Brussels (population around one million). Belgium’s population is more evenly spread over many smaller cities. Therefore, although it has a large urban population, it has a low urban concentration.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

urban concentration the proportion of a country’s population living in large cities

Although urbanisation is increasing across the world, the distributions of urban populations vary significantly. For example, around 92 per cent of Argentina’s population live in urban areas. Thirty-five per cent of its 45 million people live in its three largest cities. Buenos Aires is Argentina’s largest city, with 13 million people. Since Argentina has a large proportion of its population living in a small number of large cities, it has a high urban concentration.

Cities with over one million people One way to determine whether a country has a high urban concentration is to find the share of its population living in cities that have more than one million people (Figure 14.6.2). Over 60 per cent of Japan’s population live in cities of more than one million people, compared with less than 30 per cent for much of Europe. Less than 10 per cent of Germany’s population live in cities larger than one million despite nearly

80 per cent of its population living in urban areas. In contrast, there are many countries in sub-Saharan Africa where only a small proportion of people live in cities with over one million people. This is because most people still live in rural areas. For example, only 5 per cent of Niger’s population live in cities of over one million, which is not surprising considering 83 per cent of its population still live in rural areas.

Share of people living in urban agglomerations of more than 1 million, 2023

No data 0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

Data source: UN Population Division (via World Bank) (2025)

50%

60% OurWorldinData.org/urbanization | CC BY

…

Figure 14.6.2 The spatial distribution of countries with high and low proportions of their populations living in cities containing more than one million people in 2023. [Source: Our World in Data]

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

370

Cambridge Investigating Humanities for the Victorian Curriculum 8

Concepts and skills builder 14.6 Describing spatial distribution using the PQE method Geographers analyse the spatial distribution of phenomena to find patterns and therefore improve their understanding of these phenomena. When you describe the distribution of a phenomenon using a choropleth map, there are three important things to include: the pattern, quantification and an exception. This is also known as the PQE method. Use at least one sentence for each of these. Pattern: Give a general overview of the distribution. Quantification: Provide specific evidence to demonstrate the pattern. Use the legend and approximate areas (use percentages). Exception: Identify an example or several examples of specific places that do not fit your pattern.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

• • •

Refer to Figure 14.6.2 and use the following questions to describe the spatial distribution of countries with low urban concentrations. 1 Pattern: State whether these countries with low urban concentrations are spread evenly across the world or whether they are found predominantly in certain world regions. 2 Quantification: What percentage of countries have low urban concentrations? What percentage of the different continents have low urban concentrations? 3 Exception: Are there any countries that have a low urban concentration but are surrounded by countries with a moderate or high urban concentration? Geographical concepts and skills: place, space

Lesson 14.6 review Online quiz

Review questions

DOC

Research task

Go online to access the interactive lesson review and more!

Teachers can assign tasks and track results

14.6 Review questions

1 Define urban concentration. 2 Explain how a country might have a large urban population but a low urban concentration. Provide an example. 3 Refer back to Concepts and skills builder 14.4 (page 363). Change the x (horizontal) axis to Population in urban agglomerations (cities > 1 million). Choose different variables to add as the y (vertical) axis, such as traffic, happiness and unemployment, to find out their correlation with high urban concentrations. Summarise your findings. 4 Suggest one or more reasons why some countries or regions might have a higher urban concentration than others.

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Chapter 14: What are the causes and consequences of urbanisation?

371

14.7

How are urban settlements distributed? Learning intention

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

In this lesson, you will compare different settlement patterns and consider different ways in which the population in urban areas can be distributed.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

Examine and analyse

satellite cities smaller cities or towns that are next to major cities

Examine the map of London shown in Figure 14.7.1. London has satellite cities in surrounding regions. 1 2 3 4

List two or more features of the layout of London and its transport infrastructure. Discuss the strengths and weaknesses of this layout with a classmate. Suggest one way in which the layout of London could be improved. Compare the layout of London with Melbourne by listing similarities and differences.

… Figure 14.7.1 London

spreads out from the city centre into the surrounding metropolitan region and into satellite cities in surrounding regions Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

372

Cambridge Investigating Humanities for the Victorian Curriculum 8

Urban settlement patterns large conurbations. One of these is the Yangtze River Delta, which is home to 150 million people and includes the cities of Shanghai, Nanjing, Hangzhou and Ningbo. Urban settlement patterns refer to the ways in which different kinds of urban environments are spatially distributed or arranged. These are summarised in Figure 14.7.3 and Table 14.7.1.

megacity a city containing more than 10 million residents conurbation a very large urban region formed when multiple smaller cities grow and join together

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

A settlement is defined simply as a place where people live. Settlements vary in size, from a small group of dwellings in a rural or remote area all the way to megacities that contain over 10 million people (Figure 14.7.2). In some cases, urban growth has created a conurbation, where multiple cities have merged to form one interconnected and continuous urban environment. China contains three

…

Figure 14.7.2 Different types of urban settlements

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Chapter 14: What are the causes and consequences of urbanisation?

373

Linear

Dispersed

…

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Nucleated

Figure 14.7.3 The layout of different settlement patterns

Table 14.7.1 A description of three common settlement patterns

Urban settlement pattern Description Dispersed Urban areas that are evenly spread out across a region Nucleated

central business district (CBD) the main business and commercial centre of a city

Linear

Example Large cities containing several industrial and commercial centres or towns dotted across a rural landscape Urban areas that spread out Residential suburbs and industrial zones in all directions from a central spreading out from a central business point district (for example, see Figure 14.7.1) Urban areas that are arranged Cities or towns built along features such as a river, roughly in a straight line coastline, mountain range or major highway

Modelling urban settlement patterns Cities often follow similar distribution patterns. In geography, models are used to outline patterns that apply to several different areas. The Burgess model (Table 14.7.2) and Hoyt model (Table 14.7.3) are models that show two

common patterns of urban settlement that are found throughout the world. As with all models, there are exceptions: while many cities follow these patterns, there are several that do not. It is worth noting that some of the language used in these older models, such as ‘lower-class workers’, is no longer used today.

Table 14.7.2 The Burgess model, also known as the Concentric Zone model, was developed by Ernest Burgess in 1925.

Burgess model

working class people working in labour or industrial work, often for lower wages

rural–urban fringe the border between rural and urban environments on the outskirts of a city

Key

Central business district (CBD) Inner city Inner suburbs Outer suburbs

Zones CBD: this is the commercial and business centre of a city, located in the middle of the urban settlement. Inner city: historically this zone contained dense housing for the working class, such as terraced housing (Figure 14.7.4). These areas are now highly sought after and are often the location of high-rise apartment buildings. Inner suburbs: this zone has less-dense housing on larger blocks of land. Due to the way cities spread outwards, suburbs closer to the CBD are generally older than those further out. Outer suburbs: this zone is on the outskirts and includes areas on the rural–urban fringe. Land is generally cheaper because of the distance from the CBD.

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

374

Cambridge Investigating Humanities for the Victorian Curriculum 8

Table 14.7.3 The Hoyt model, also known as the Sector model, was developed by Homer Hoyt in 1939.

Zones CBD: this is the commercial and business centre of a city, located in the middle of the urban settlement CBD Industry: this zone has factories and major Industry transport links, such as railway lines and major Low-class residential Middle-class residential roads to service various industries High-class residential Residential: this zone has different areas of residential, with more affordable homes located near the industrial zone and the more expensive suburbs located in cleaner, quieter zones in larger blocks

…

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Hoyt model

Figure 14.7.4 High-density terrace houses, such as in Stratford, house London’s working class.

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Chapter 14: What are the causes and consequences of urbanisation?

375

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES …

Figure 14.7.5 Satellite imagery can be used to view urban land uses. This satellite image of Hobart shows a range of land uses, including industrial, commercial, residential and natural forested mountains.

Concepts and skills builder 14.7

Comparing models of urban design using satellite imagery

FPO

…

Figure 14.7.6

Geography skills video: Creating a digital map

The distribution of urban settlement patterns can be analysed using satellite imagery (Figure 14.7.5). Using Google Earth, you can zoom into satellite images, or use Google Street View to determine the different land uses within an urban place. Land uses include residential (housing), commercial (businesses and retail), industrial (factories) and green space (natural areas and parkland). Watch the video in Figure 14.7.6 to see these skills. 1 Using Google Earth, search for a city such as Hobart or Adelaide (smaller cities will make the task easier). 2 Inspect the land use starting from the CBD and moving outwards. 3 Draw a rough sketch map showing the major types of land use and describe its distribution. 4 Determine whether your chosen city fits the Burgess or Hoyt model. 5 Prepare a visual presentation that explains and justifies your findings. Geographical concepts and skills: place, space

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

376

Cambridge Investigating Humanities for the Victorian Curriculum 8

Lesson 14.7 review Online quiz

Review questions

DOC

Research task

Go online to access the interactive lesson review and more!

Teachers can assign tasks and track results

14.7 Review questions

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

1 Order the following settlement types from smallest to largest: megacity, metropolis, hamlet, town, village, conurbation, city. 2 Undertake research to find an example of each of the settlement types presented in Figure 14.7.2. 3 a Using Figure 14.7.3, state whether London follows a settlement pattern that is dispersed, nucleated or linear. b Suggest a reason for your answer to part a. 4 Suggest some advantages and disadvantages of cities that follow the Burgess model or the Hoyt model. Consider accessibility, traffic congestion, lifestyle, affordability and sustainability.

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Chapter 14: What are the causes and consequences of urbanisation?

377

14.8

How do cities grow? Learning intention

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

As urbanisation increases, so does a city’s population and physical size. In this lesson, you will compare two main types of urban growth: urban sprawl and urban consolidation.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

Consider urban growth

Read the following observation on the plight of urban environments in the United States of America.

‘My life has been spent in urban and suburban sprawl where the natural world is largely obscured by the asphalt, steel, and concrete that weigh down the American landscape. Nature seems mostly absent from this world … In fact, nature is there, but it has been so thoroughly controlled and mastered that, in a sense, it ceases to exist. Members of the metropolis take the domination of nature for granted. Indeed, the conquest of nature is so central to American culture today that we hardly give the idea a second thought.’

Source: Theodore Steinberg, Nature Incorporated: Industrialization and the Waters of New England, 1991, Cambridge

University Press, New York

1 Explain the meaning behind Steinberg’s quote above, in terms of the way urban growth can impact the natural environment. 2 Suggest what you think Steinberg means when he uses the term ‘suburban sprawl’. 3 Discuss whether Steinberg’s quote accurately represents an urban environment that you live in or one that you have visited within Australia.

…

Figure 14.8.1 Urban sprawl often leads to the creation of low-density housing estates on the outskirts of cities.

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

378

Cambridge Investigating Humanities for the Victorian Curriculum 8

Urban sprawl: growing outwards For example, they may lack train lines, making residents heavily reliant on cars. People often must travel further to get to work or school, leading to traffic congestion and stresses relating to long commute times. Urban sprawl can also lead to a range of environmental impacts, such as a loss of biodiversity if forested land is cleared for development, and a lack of locally-grown food if farms are converted to suburbs.

urban sprawl the growth of a city by spreading outwards into the surrounding landscape commute time the amount of time taken to travel to and from work

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Urban sprawl refers to the increase in the physical size of a city. This occurs as the city expands outwards into the surrounding landscape, which is often farmland. Expansion is often rapid and is mainly low-density housing on large suburban blocks (Figure 14.8.1). Land is often cheaper in these outer suburbs, making it a more affordable place to live. However, new suburbs on the outskirts of cities often lack important infrastructure.

Urban consolidation: growing upwards Urban consolidation is the opposite of urban sprawl. Instead of a city growing outwards, urban consolidation involves keeping the growth within the existing city boundaries. It means increasing the density of cities using higher-density housing and apartments.

Urban consolidation makes it possible for people to live closer to where they work, attend school or access services (Figure 14.8.2). It allows better access to public transport and increases the likelihood of people walking or cycling to their destination. However, urban

urban consolidation the growth of a city within its existing boundaries by increasing the density of housing and businesses

…

Figure 14.8.2 High-density living in Hong Kong allows space surrounding the city to be kept free for the preservation of forests.

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Chapter 14: What are the causes and consequences of urbanisation?

379

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Low-res

…

Figure 14.8.3 A satellite image of Hong Kong shows the contrasting land use between the dense urban areas (grey) and surrounding forest (green).

consolidation can also lead to overcrowding, increased house costs and a strain on services. Some people dislike living in apartments due to the lack of privacy and outdoor space, but other people prefer the convenience and not having to do as much maintenance

on their home. Higher-density living can lead to less green space being available in an urban area, but it can help to preserve the regions around a city for food production and nature conservation (see Figure 14.8.3).

The Great Australian Dream

detached house a house that stands alone and isn’t joined to any other house subdivision the division of a block of land into smaller pieces for development

dual occupancy a type of development where two dwellings are built on a single block of land

Urban sprawl has been a major part of Australia’s urban development since the 1950s. During this period, the ‘Great Australian Dream’ was to own a detached house on a quarter-acre block (1000 square metres) with a backyard big enough for a clothesline, lemon tree and barbeque. Land surrounding cities was sold for development and urban boundaries expanded. By the 1990s, urban planners began to realise that infinite urban sprawl was not possible and it certainly wasn’t sustainable. In

response, governments developed policies that aimed to repopulate the inner and middle suburban areas. They permitted subdivision of house blocks, dual occupancy, smaller block sizes and high-rise apartments. Today, soaring house prices in Australia’s capital cities means the ‘Great Australian Dream’ may no longer be a reality and many young people are either giving up on the idea of owning their own home or are choosing to move to smaller, cheaper cities.

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

380

Cambridge Investigating Humanities for the Victorian Curriculum 8

Amazing but true… By the end of 2024, the median house price in Melbourne was just under $917 620. It is projected it could reach $6 million by 2050, 17 times the projected average yearly wage!

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Concepts and skills builder 14.8 Using a geographic information system (GIS)

A GIS is a form of spatial technology used to gather, manage and analyse spatial information, such as census data. Geographers can organise this data in layers using interactive maps. They use it to explore the causes and impacts of processes such as urban sprawl. For example, Figure 14.8.4 shows the proportion of people who travelled to work by car on census night. Watch the video in Figure 14.8.5 to learn how to use a GIS to analyse census data. Visit the interactive map for ‘Australia’s journey to work’ on the Australian Bureau of Statistics website at https://storymaps.arcgis.com/stories/f8b22f28511845618b4f48f7482e8a37 Scroll down and select a year from the menu bar above the map. Select ‘Map Layers’ from the toolbar on the right and turn the different map layers on and off. Ensure you only have one layer open at a time. Zoom to see the Melbourne area in more detail.

census an official survey of a population and its characteristics; in Australia, this occurs every five years

• •

1 What does the data in this GIS demonstrate about the reliance on private and public transport in the inner and outer suburbs of Melbourne? 2 Have the differences between regions of Melbourne increased or decreased since 2011? Geographical concepts and skills: place, space

Low-res

FPO

…

Figure 14.8.5

Geography skills video: Using a GIS to analyse census data

…

Figure 14.8.4 The proportion of people in each region in Melbourne who use their car to get to work, based on data from the 2021 census

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Chapter 14: What are the causes and consequences of urbanisation?

381

Go online to access the interactive lesson review and more!

Lesson 14.8 review Online quiz

Review questions

DOC

Research task

Teachers can assign tasks and track results

14.8 Review questions

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

1 Use a table to summarise and compare the positive and negative impacts of urban sprawl and urban consolidation. Classify your impacts as economic, social and environmental. 2 ‘Urban sprawl is an essential part of urban growth and should be encouraged.’ Discuss to what extent you agree with this statement. 3 Discuss whether you would prefer to live in a high-density urban environment like Hong Kong or on the outskirts of a city like Atlanta in the United States. Justify your decision. 4 Suggest some additional GIS data layers that could be used to explore the impacts of urban growth across a city like Melbourne.

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

382

Cambridge Investigating Humanities for the Victorian Curriculum 8

14.9

How does urban growth in the United States compare with Australia?

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Learning intention

In this lesson, you will apply everything you have learned so far about urbanisation and urban growth to compare the United States of America with Australia.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

React, think, propose

1 React: What is your reaction after seeing the aerial photograph of the Los Angeles Freeway interchange in Figure 14.9.1? 2 Think: Why do you think the roads were built in this way? 3 Propose: Consider whether these sorts of road networks are a good example of sustainable urban development. What might an alternative transport network look like?

…

Figure 14.9.1 The network of roads at the Los Angeles freeway interchange

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

383

Urban environments in the USA • encouraging cycling as a form of sustainable transport • growing food locally in urban gardens, including on rooftops • building energy-efficient buildings. One of New York’s unique features is Central Park, in the middle of Manhattan (Figure 14.9.2). It contains more than 18 000 trees. The park provides important habitat for local wildlife, improves air and water quality, and encourages people living in the area to have more active lifestyles.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

In 1920, the number of Americans living in cities surpassed the number living in rural areas for the first time. In 2023, more than 80 per cent of America’s 334 million people lived in urban areas. This number is increasing as America’s largest cities continue to grow. New York City is the largest city in the United States and has a population of 8.5 million people. However, New York is one of many urban regions in the United States are conurbations (see page 373), where one continuous urban environment spreads across several cities. When combined, the entire New York metropolitan region contains nearly 20 million people. It is therefore classified as a megacity (see Table 14.9.1). New York is not the biggest city in the world, but it does use the most energy in terms of electricity and fuel. It uses even more than Tokyo, which contains over 37 million people. However, New York is making efforts to improve its environmental sustainability by such means as:

…

• protecting the health of urban waterways

Figure 14.9.2 Central Park, Manhattan

Table 14.9.1 The population and land area of the largest 10 urban regions in the United States, based on the

2020 census

City New York Los Angeles Chicago Miami Houston Dallas Philadelphia Washington Atlanta Boston

Population 19 426 449 12 237 376 8 671 746 6 077 522 5 853 575 5 732 354 5 696 125 5 174 759 5 100 112 4 382 009

Area (square km) 8412.6 4239.4 6055.1 3222.4 4539.4 4524.4 4916.3 3352.8 6612.4 4288.7

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

384

Cambridge Investigating Humanities for the Victorian Curriculum 8

Concepts and skills builder 14.9 Calculating population density When you compare how densely populated cities are, population alone does not give an accurate measure. This is because cities vary greatly in size and so a large city can comfortably accommodate more people. In Lesson 14.2, you were introduced to the concept of population density, which is the number of people per unit of land area. This is commonly measured as the number of people per square kilometre. …

Figure 14.9.3

Geography skills video: Calculating population density using Excel

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Use the data in Table 14.9.1 to calculate the population density of the largest urban regions in the United States. 1 Copy Table 14.9.1 into your workbook or computer and add a fourth column with the heading Population density (people per square kilometre). 2 Divide each population value in the second column by its corresponding area in the third column and record this value in your new Population density column. 3 Analyse your results. For example, do the regions with the largest population also have the largest population densities? Do any regions have a population density that is significantly higher or lower than the others? Watch the video in Figure 14.9.3 to see how this process can be completed using Excel.

FPO

Geographical concepts and skills: interconnection, place, space

Urban sprawl in the United States As with Australian cities, cities in the United States have grown large areas of urban sprawl as people have looked for more affordable homes further from the city centre to avoid traffic and noise and to have larger blocks (see Table 14.9.2). This desire was fuelled by the rapid increase in car ownership and cheap oil prices following World War II. At the time, this land was cheap to develop, but the

economic cost of America’s urban sprawl is now significant. These costs include payment for building the complex road networks (Figure 14.9.1), services such as sewerage, and infrastructure such as new schools and train lines. It is difficult to measure, but the having so many workers stuck in traffic each day also has an economic cost.

Table 14.9.2 A list of the 10 most compact and the 10 most

Amazing but true…

It has been estimated that urban sprawl costs the US economy more than US$1 trillion each year!

sprawled cities in the US

Rank 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Most compact cities New York City San Francisco Atlantic City Santa Barbara Champaign Santa Cruz Trenton Miami Springfield Santa Ana

Most sprawled cities Hickory Atlanta Clarksville Prescott Nashville Baton Rouge San Bernadino Greenville Augusta Kingsport

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Chapter 14: What are the causes and consequences of urbanisation?

385

Go online to access the interactive lesson review and more!

Lesson 14.9 review Online quiz

Review questions

DOC

Research task

Teachers can assign tasks and track results

14.9 Review questions

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

1 Locate New York’s Central Park on Google Earth Pro. a Use the ruler tool to measure the size of the park. How does it compare in size and characteristics to a park that is within your local area? b Use Google Earth to find a satellite image of Adelaide, South Australia. List the similarities and differences between Adelaide and Manhattan in terms of the arrangement of urban parkland. 2 Create a similar table to Table 14.9.1 for cities in Australia. Using this information, compare the population densities of large cities and urban regions in Australia and the United States. 3 a Using the data in Table 14.9.1, determine the percentage of the United States’ population that is living in its 10 largest cities. Hint: Add up the number of people in all 10 cities, divide this by the total population in the whole country, and multiply your result by 100 to turn it into a percentage. b Using the table you created in Question 2, repeat the steps in part a for the 10 largest cities in Australia. c Compare the results from parts a and b to determine whether Australia or the United States has the higher urban concentration. 4 Refer to Table 14.9.2. a Undertake online research to find the size and population of each of the cities listed. b Use the same process you learned in Concepts and skills builder 14.9 to calculate the population density of each of these cities. c Compare the population densities of the compact and sprawled cities. Is there a significant difference? d Find similar data for Australia and use this information to determine whether cities in Australia and the United States have developed similar amounts of urban sprawl.

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

386

Cambridge Investigating Humanities for the Victorian Curriculum 8

CHAPTER 15

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Is the rate of migration sustainable?

LESSON TITLE

15.1

Setting the scene: Crossing the Mediterranean

15.2

What is international migration?

15.3

What are the impacts of international migration in Australia and how are they managed?

15.4

What is internal migration and to what extent is it happening in China?

15.5

Where are people moving within Australia?

15.6

How sustainable are Australia’s urban places into the future?

15.7

Fieldwork: Evaluating the success of urban management

15.8

End of investigation review: Changing nations

Image: Australian immigration entry stamp

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

387

15.1

Setting the scene: Crossing the Mediterranean

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Learning intention In this lesson, you will learn about the plight of refugees as they travel across international borders and seek asylum.

On 18 June 2023, a tourist submersible named Titan began its journey to the wreckage of the Titanic with five people on board and 96 hours of oxygen. Less than two hours after launch, the sealed craft lost contact with its operator. The event sparked an immediate search and rescue attempt at an unprecedented scale and made headlines around the world. The cost of the rescue attempt is estimated to be millions of dollars. The search found that the submersible had suffered an implosion, killing all five passengers.

A week earlier, an overcrowded fishing boat called Adriana left Tobruk, Libya, bound for Italy (Figure 15.1.2). The boat had a safe limit of 400 people, but was carrying 750 refugees from Pakistan, Syria, Palestine and Egypt. People traffickers had charged each passenger US$4500 for the trip and no one on board was given a life jacket. The boat capsized off the coast of Greece while crossing the Mediterranean Sea. While 82 bodies were recovered and 104 people survived, hundreds of others were left unaccounted for. It was

Low-res

…

Figure 15.1.1 An image of the fishing boat Adriana, which was involved in what is called the 2023 Peloponnese migrant boat disaster, taken by the Greek coastguard hours before the capsizing

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

388

Cambridge Investigating Humanities for the Victorian Curriculum 8

ITALY GREECE TURKEY Kalamata

Athens

Tripoli

500 km

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Tobruk

LIBYA

EGYPT

…

Figure 15.1.2 Adriana was traveling from Tobruk to Italy when it capsized near Kalamata, off the coast of Greece.

one of the deadliest shipwrecks in the Mediterranean.

The media covered these two disasters very differently. Major news outlets ran round-the-clock coverage of the Titan. In comparison, they reported very little about the fate of the Adriana. There has been a lot of argument about exactly what happened to the Adriana. The Greek coast guard claimed the Adriana refused offers of help during their journey because they wanted to continue to Italy. Refugee support groups claim passengers were desperate to be rescued. Many people argue that the tragedy could have been avoided if enough resources had been used in the rescue operation. Tens of thousands of people have died trying to cross the Mediterranean to seek refuge in Europe. These migrants are known as asylum seekers, people who

are forced to leave their country to escape war, natural disasters or persecution due to their race, or political or religious beliefs. Asylum seekers who have been granted protection in a new country are called refugees. The United Nations High Commission for Refugees estimated that the number of refugees worldwide has grown from 27.1 million in 2021 to 37.9 million in 2024. Seeking refuge is not illegal. Under the internationally agreed rules of the 1951 Refugee Convention, countries cannot penalise refugees who do not have valid travel documents. Refugees seeking asylum is just one of the many forms of international and internal migration. This chapter explores a range of factors that cause migration. It also looks at the positive and negative consequences of migration and specific examples in Australia and China.

asylum seeker someone who leaves their own country, often to avoid persecution or war, and who travels to another country hoping to find a safe place (asylum) to live, where the government will protect them refugee an asylum seeker who has been granted refugee status and can therefore receive legal protection in the country in which they have sought asylum persecution unfair or cruel treatment of a person over a long period because of their race, religion or political beliefs

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Chapter 15: Is the rate of migration sustainable?

389

Go online to access the interactive lesson review and more!

Lesson 15.1 review Online quiz

Review questions

DOC

Research task

Teachers can assign tasks and track results

15.1 Making thinking visible: circle of viewpoints

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

The protection and settlement of refugees is an issue that often sparks debate within the Australian community. While many people are supportive and compassionate towards refugees, other people are concerned about border security and the economic effects of accepting refugees to live in Australia. 1 Research the rights of refugees and the reasons why people seek protection in other countries. 2 Brainstorm a list of different perspectives relating to how refugees should be treated and managed in Australia. 3 Choose one perspective and complete the following sentences: a I am thinking of the management of refugees in Australia from the viewpoint of … insert your chosen viewpoint. b I think a significant issue is … describe the issue and specifically how it would impact you from your chosen perspective. c A question I have from this viewpoint is … ask a question from your chosen perspective.

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

390

Cambridge Investigating Humanities for the Victorian Curriculum 8

15.2

What is international migration? Learning intention

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

In this lesson, you will learn about the process of international migration and its significance across the world.

Lesson starter

Suggest, think, evaluate Consider Figure 15.2.1.

1 Why do you think people try to leave Venezuela and enter the United States? 2 Do you think the United States should allow migrants into its country? Why or why not? 3 Suggest some positive and negative impacts of this sort of migration. Consider both short and long-term impacts.

…

Figure 15.2.1 Migrants from Venezuela queuing on the border of Ciudad Juarez, Mexico and El Paso, United States

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Chapter 15: Is the rate of migration sustainable?

391

citizenship the status of officially being a member of a country and having legal rights such as voting in elections permanent residency having the right to live in a country for as long as you like without being a citizen

According to the United Nations, an international migrant is ‘any person who lives temporarily or permanently in a country where he or she was not born and has acquired some significant social ties to this country’. An international student is an example of a temporary migrant. They might be studying internationally to gain

specific expertise or to enjoy a unique experience. Permanent migrants, on the other hand, move to a new country to live without any intention of moving back home again. This involves either gaining citizenship or being granted permanent residency.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

international migrant any person who has changed their country of residence

International migrants

Oceania a continent containing Australasia, Melanesia, Micronesia and Polynesia, which includes countries such as Australia, Papua New Guinea and New Zealand

Origins and destinations of international migrants The United Nations World Migration Report 2024 estimates there are currently 281 million international migrants – people living outside of their country of birth. This is 3.6 per cent of the global population. The number has risen from 173 million in 2000 and is projected to reach over 400 million by 2050.

Figure 15.2.2 shows the number of international migrants living within each country. The global distribution varies significantly across continents. Europe hosts the most migrants, with 87 million, while North America has 59 million and Oceania has just 9 million. However, the distribution is very different

Total number of international immigrants, 2024 An immigrant¹ is someone moving to a country that they were not born in.

FPO

No data

10,000

30,000

100,000 300,000 1 million 3 million 10 million

Source: United Nations Department of Economic and Social Aﬀairs (2024)

OurWorldinData.org/migration | CC BY

…

Figure 15.2.2 The total number of international migrants living in each country, 2024. [Source: Our World in Data]

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

392

Cambridge Investigating Humanities for the Victorian Curriculum 8

when considering the proportion of a country’s migrants compared to their entire population (Figure 15.2.3). Oceania ranks highest, with 21.2 per cent of its population made up of migrants, while North America

is the second highest continent, with 16 per cent. In Australia, 30.7 per cent of the population are migrants and around half of all Australians have at least one parent who was born overseas.

Share of the population that were born in another country, 2024

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Immigrants as a share of the total population.

No data 0%

0.5%

2.5%

Source: United Nations Department of Economic and Social Aﬀairs (2024)

10%

25%

OurWorldinData.org/migration | CC BY

…

Figure 15.2.3 The share of the population that are international migrants, 2024. [Source: Our World in Data]

Concepts and skills builder 15.2 Describing spatial association

Spatial association means how similar the distributions on Earth’s surface of two or more phenomena are; in other words, whether they are arranged in a similar way. Use the questions below to determine whether there is a strong, moderate or weak spatial association between the phenomena shown in Figure 15.2.2 and in Figure 15.2.3. Refer to the two figures. 1 List ten countries that host large numbers of international migrants. 2 List ten countries in which migrants make up a large proportion of their population. 3 Are your answers to questions 1 and 2 the same? In other words, do the phenomena shown on these two maps have a strong spatial association? Explain why, with the use of examples.

Geographical concepts and skills: interconnection, place, space Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Chapter 15: Is the rate of migration sustainable?

393

Net migration net migration the difference between the numbers of immigrants and emigrants in a country

origins (donor countries) of international migrants, based on the United Nations World Migration Report 2024. Russia ranks highly on both lists. It hosts 12 million immigrants, while there are 10.8 million Russians are living abroad. This means it has a net migration of 1.2 million.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

immigrant a migrant who comes to live in a different country

Net migration is the difference between the number of people entering a country, known as immigrants, and the number of people leaving a country, known as emigrants. Countries that have more immigrants than emigrants have a positive net migration. Figure 15.2.4 shows the top 20 destinations (host countries) and

emigrant a migrant who leaves a country to live in a different country

Amazing but true…

Over 88 per cent of the population of United Arab Emirates are international migrants.

…

Figure 15.2.4 The top 20 destinations (left) and origins (right) of international migrants in 2020 (millions)

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

394

Cambridge Investigating Humanities for the Victorian Curriculum 8

Reasons for international migration send the money they earn back to their families in their country of origin. This money is called remittances. In 2021, migrant workers in the United States sent USD$193 billion back to their home countries. In the same year, India received over USD$83 billion from migrant workers. The money received is often used to provide basic requirements such as food, shelter and education in countries of origin and it has the effect of boosting the local economies.

remittances money sent from migrants back to families in their country of origin

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Chapter 14 introduced the concept of push and pull factors leading to rural-to-urban migration. Similar factors such as employment opportunities, access to services and being close to family and friends are also pull factors for international migration. People also migrate due to war, natural disasters, political decisions and the cost of living. Around three-quarters of all international migrants are of working age (between 20 and 64), and many of these people move for work. Many labour migrants

Lesson 15.2 review Online quiz

Review questions

DOC

Research task

labour migrant a migrant who moves for the purpose of employment

Go online to access the interactive lesson review and more!

Teachers can assign tasks and track results

15.2 Review questions

1 Define the following terms: international migrant, permanent resident, citizen, immigrant, emigrant, net migration, labour migrant and remittances. 2 State whether the following would be considered international migrants, based on the definitions provided in this chapter. a A young man moves from India to Saudi Arabia to work in the telecommunications industry b Two young adults travel around the world for two months c An elderly Australian couple move to Thailand to retire d A young basketballer moves from Australia to the United States for two years to play college basketball

3 Suggest a reason why a country might have a high or low net migration. Provide examples to assist your explanation. 4 Undertake research to find the economic strength of the top five destinations and origins of migrants listed in Figure 15.2.4. Economic strength is commonly measured as gross domestic product per capita, which is the total value of goods produced and services provided by a country during one year, per person. Based on this research, determine whether destination countries are generally richer countries and whether origin countries are generally poorer countries.

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Chapter 15: Is the rate of migration sustainable?

395

15.3

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

What are the impacts of international migration in Australia and how are they managed? Learning intention

In the last lesson, you learned about the significance of international migration. You will now investigate the extent of international migration in Australia and its impacts.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson. Suggest, think, evaluate

‘We must populate or perish.’

…

Figure 15.3.1 The slogan used by Arthur Calwell, the first Minister for Immigration, as part of a campaign to resettle Europeans in Australia following World War II

1 Why do you think the Australian Government wanted to increase its immigration program following World War II? 2 What do you think are some challenges that arose in the mid-20th century due to mass immigration? 3 Do you think Australia’s current level of immigration is appropriate? Justify your response.

… Figure 15.3.2 Postwar

migration to Australia

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

396

Cambridge Investigating Humanities for the Victorian Curriculum 8

International migrants in Australia Australia is one of the most culturally diverse countries in the world. International migration has been a significant part of our development since European colonisation began in 1788. Australia’s migration history includes, amongst other events: • the penal transportation of convicts

penal transportation the relocation of convicted criminals (convicts) to a distant place

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

• the gold rush of the 1850s

In 2023 there were around 8.2 million migrants, from 150 different countries, living in Australia. This is a significant increase from less than four million in 1990 (Table 15.3.1). Together, in 2024 international migrants made up 30.8 per cent of Australia’s total population. Also, 19 per cent of people born in Australia have at least one parent who was born overseas. Figure 15.3.2 shows that the greatest proportion of Australia’s migrants are from England, although there is an increasing number of people coming from India and China.

• postwar immigration following World War II • the current migration program

• humanitarian programs involving the settlement of refugees.

Table 15.3.1 The number of international migrants living in Australia and the percentage of Australia’s population that were international migrants, between 1990 and 2023

International migrants (000s) Share of population (%)

1990

1995

2000

2005

2010

2015

2020

2023

3955.2

4153.3

4386.3

4878.0

5883.0

6729.7

7549.3

8166.2

23.3

23.1

24.2

26.6

28.1

30.0

30.7

Low-res

…

Figure 15.3.3 The number of foreign-born people living in Australia in 2020 by country of birth

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Chapter 15: Is the rate of migration sustainable?

397

Concepts and skills builder 15.3 Drawing and interpreting line graphs Geographers use line graphs to show change over time (Figure 15.3.4). Such line graphs allow us to analyse trends and project future trends. When you draw a line graph, measurement of time (such as years) should always go on the x (horizontal) axis. The variable that is changing goes on the y (vertical) axis. Both axes need to be divided into even steps and clearly labelled. Once you have set up your axes, plot each data point on the graph and then join the dots using a straight line.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

1 Draw two line graphs using the data from Table 15.3.1: one graph for the change in the number of migrants and one graph for the change in the proportion of migrants. 2 Describe the trend shown in both graphs. Comment on: The trend of the graph (increasing or decreasing) The periods of faster or slower growth (indicated by the steepness of the graph).

• •

3 Suggest a factor that might have caused the changes described in Question 2. Geographical concepts and skills: change, place

Australia’s migration program

natural increase the difference between the number of births and deaths in a population; if there are more births than deaths then a population experiences natural increase

Figure 15.3.3 shows how much migration has contributed to Australia’s population growth since 2003, compared with natural increase (the increase due to there being more births than deaths). The level of natural population growth has been stable, but the level of net migration has varied considerably from a low of –94 000 migrants during the height of the COVID-19 pandemic in 2021 to a peak of 564 645 migrants in September 2023.

skilled labour jobs requiring highly trained, educated or experienced workers

Each year, the Australian Government allocates the number of places available for people wishing to migrate temporarily

and permanently under the migration program. This includes different categories (see Figure 15.3.4): • skilled workers who are coming to fill shortages in skilled labour • family migrants (people migrating to join family members) • foreign students.

The quota allocated for the migration program each year is aimed at making sure that the level of immigration is sustainable.

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

398

Cambridge Investigating Humanities for the Victorian Curriculum 8

…

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Low-res

Figure 15.3.4 The change in Australia’s population between 2004 and 2024, showing the contributions of natural

increase and net overseas migration

Low-res

…

Figure 15.3.5 The number of immigrants in each stream of the migration program from 2013–14 to 2023–24

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Chapter 15: Is the rate of migration sustainable?

399

Impacts of international migration to Australia International migrants often choose to live in clusters of suburbs, close to family and friends, to help in their adjustment to living in Australia. For example, 72 per cent of Springvale’s residents in Melbourne’s south-east were born overseas and 21 per cent migrated from Vietnam. While these clusters help immigrants to adjust to Australian life and to find work and support, some people argue that it creates a cultural divide and doesn’t help with integration.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

social security payments from the government to people with low or no income, such as Australia’s aged pension

International migration affects Australia in a range of ways, as summarised in Table 15.3.2. Many of the negative impacts of migration result from increases in population. Many people believe that Australia cannot sustain further population growth, especially as its citizens get older and require health care and social security payments. Other people argue that migrants provide an essential boost to the Australian economy by paying tax and filling positions in essential industries.

integration the adoption of other cultures into a society as equals

Table 15.3.2 Some of the impacts of international migration on Australia

Positive Migrants who choose to settle in rural areas can bring new life, skills and an economic boost to smaller towns and cities. Migrants are often hardworking and willing to take on a range of necessary jobs, including unskilled work. Highly skilled migrants can fill labour shortages in a range of vital industries. Migrants bring cultural and religious diversity, which can lead to a more tolerant and inclusive society. International students often pay higher tuition fees, which can subsidise education for local students.

Negative Migrants often settle in capital cities, which contributes to urbanisation and increases pressure on housing availability, congestion, infrastructure and services. Non-migrants are sometimes worried that migrant workers will compete for jobs they feel should be reserved for them. Migrants who become citizens eventually retire and are eligible for social security, which is an economic cost. Migrants often may face difficulties with integration due to language barriers and cultural differences. Clashes of cultures can lead to racism and conflict.

…

Figure 15.3.6 The geographic characteristics and culture of Springvale, south-east of Melbourne, have been heavily influenced by migrants.

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

400

Cambridge Investigating Humanities for the Victorian Curriculum 8

Lesson 15.3 review Online quiz

Review questions

DOC

Research task

Go online to access the interactive lesson review and more!

Teachers can assign tasks and track results

15.3 Review questions

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

1 Suggest two reasons why Australia has a large number of migrants from countries such as England, India, China and New Zealand. 2 Refer to Figure 15.3.3. a State whether natural increase or net overseas migration has contributed more to total growth. b Account for the drop in net overseas migration in 2020 and 2021. c Suggest how this graph might look in the next 10 years.

3 Refer to Figure 15.3.4. Describe how the number of immigrants and the type of immigrants entering Australia has changed between 2013 and 2023. 4 Based on the information in Table 15.3.2, discuss whether Australia should increase or decrease its migrant intake. Provide reasons for your argument and undertake research to find statistics to include as evidence. 5 Using an example, explain how international migration creates an interconnection between different countries. In other words, how does international migration link countries?

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Chapter 15: Is the rate of migration sustainable?

401

15.4

What is internal migration and to what extent is it happening in China?

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Learning intention

So far, the lessons have focused on international migration, between countries. You will now learn about internal migration within a country with a focus on migration within China.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

Investigate, suggest, evaluate

1 Investigate the proportion of the items you use or own that are made in China. 2 Why do you think so many items are made in China? 3 What do you think are some of the positive impacts and negative impacts of so many products being produced in one country or region?

…

Figure 15.4.1 Workers at a factory in Guangdong producing batteries for e-cigarettes

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

402

What is internal migration? The Australian Bureau of Statistics defines internal migration as the movement of people within a country from one defined area to another. This includes: • rural-to-urban migration • urban-to-rural migration

Unlike international migration, internal migration does not change the population of a country. Instead, it changes its spatial distribution or arrangement. Therefore, for every place within a country that is growing due to internal migration, another place within that country is shrinking.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

• intra-urban migration, where people move to a different part of an urban area

• interstate migration, where people move to a different state.

• inter-urban migration, where people move to a different urban area

Internal migration in China

China is undergoing rapid urbanisation. In 2023, two-thirds of China’s population lived in urban areas. This was a significant increase from just over one-quarter in 1990 (Figure 15.4.2).The main factor driving this growth is rural-to-urban migration, as workers seek to take advantage of China’s economic growth and industrialisation.

workers is Guangdong province in the south-east (Figure 15.4.3). Guangdong has been described as the ‘world’s factory’ due to its manufacturing output. Most of these migrant workers are temporary migrants, meaning they will eventually return to their hometowns and families.

There are now more than 270 million rural migrants working in China’s cities, which is roughly 20 per cent of China’s total population. Nearly 40 per cent of these migrants work in the manufacturing industry. The most popular destination for migrant

Amazing but true…

industrialisation the shift of a country’s economy from one based mainly on agriculture to being based on manufacturing

The number of people living in urban areas in China has grown from 64 million in 1950 to 941 million in 2024.

Low-res

…

Figure 15.4.2 The growth in urbanisation in China from 1980 to 2023

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Chapter 15: Is the rate of migration sustainable?

403

…

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Low-res

Figure 15.4.3 The origin and destination of internal migrants within China by province, in millions, between 2010

and 2015

Concepts and skills builder 15.4 Analysing circular migration plots

Circular migration plots show the quantity of net migration between regions. In Figure 15.4.3, China’s major regions are represented by different colours. Arrows show where people are moving from and to, and the thickness of the arrows represent quantities, in millions. 1 Which major region has received the biggest net gain in migrants? 2 Which major region has the biggest net loss of migrants? 3 Compare the net migration total in Guangdong and Shanghai provinces. Geographical concepts and skills: change, interconnection, place, space

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

404

Cambridge Investigating Humanities for the Victorian Curriculum 8

China’s ‘floating population’ Every citizen in China is registered in the place where they were born. This household registration is known as hukou. The Chinese Government made this policy with the aim of limiting internal migration, to make sure it is sustainable.

Children of migrants are only eligible for the same hukou as their parents. This means that if a child is born to unregistered migrant workers in Beijing, they will not be registered to Beijing but instead to the place where their parents came from. A major criticism of hukou is that it divides China’s population into rural or urban citizens. Urban hukou holders have better access to education, healthcare and employment opportunities, leading to what some describe as a form of caste system.

hukou an official document registering that a Chinese citizen is a legal resident of a particular area caste system a social hierarchy or class structure in which individuals are born into groups with specific social status and as a result, different levels of support and opportunity

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Hukou allows residents to access government assistance, including education, welfare and health care, within their registered area. China’s temporary internal migrants are not registered in the places where they work and are therefore referred to as the floating population. These people are not able to access government services in the places where they are working. They are forced to either

pay a large sum of money to access these services or try to transfer their hukou, which is a long and difficult process.

Impacts of China’s internal migration The rise of migrant workers in China has led to a range of negative impacts. Many migrant workers are forced to • work in dangerous conditions with no job security

• undertake very low-paid jobs and work extremely long hours

restrictions in cities with fewer than 3 million people while relaxing restrictions for cities up to 5 million people. This will allow more rural citizens to migrate to urban areas to continue China’s economic expansion while removing some of the negative social impacts for rural families.

• send their children, who do not have a valid hukou, to their hometowns, often to live with their grandparents • spend many years away from their families.

Figure 15.4.4 Urban migrants often send money back to their families living in rural areas. This has helped raise the standard of living in places like Longsheng, in rural China.

…

On the other hand, internal migration has been a major factor in China’s economic growth and industrial development. Money sent back to families in rural areas has improved the living conditions within these places, and because the rural population is reduced, there is less rural unemployment. China has also begun to relax the hukou system. It was announced in 2023 that China plans to remove hukou

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Chapter 15: Is the rate of migration sustainable?

405

Go online to access the interactive lesson review and more!

Lesson 15.4 review Online quiz

Review questions

DOC

Research task

Teachers can assign tasks and track results

15.4 Review questions

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

1 Define internal migration. In your definition, include types of internal migration and examples. 2 Classify the following examples of migration as being rural-to-urban, urban-to-rural, intra-urban, inter-urban or interstate: a Tasmania to South Australia b Shepparton to Melbourne c Melbourne to Sydney d Brisbane to Stanthorpe e Footscray to South Yarra 3 Using Figure 15.4.2, describe how the proportion of people living in urban areas has changed between 1980 and 2023. Suggest a social, economic or environmental consequence of this change. 4 ‘Most internal migration in China is between regions rather than within regions’. Evaluate this statement, using evidence from Figure 15.4.3. 5 Summarise the rules of hukou and outline some of its impacts.

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

406

Cambridge Investigating Humanities for the Victorian Curriculum 8

15.5

Where are people moving within Australia?

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Learning intention

In the last lesson, you learned about internal migration in China. In this lesson, you will learn about some of the internal migration trends within Australia.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

Inquiry questions

At the turn of the 20th century, Broad Arrow was a bustling gold-rush town with 2400 residents and a range of services, including eight hotels, several banks, factories and a stock exchange. However, by the mid-1920s, the gold rush was over and miners moved to other gold fields. Today, the Broad Arrow Tavern is all that remains in this ‘ghost town’. 1 2 3 4

Write three inquiry questions about this place and its history. What do you think is meant by the term ‘ghost town’? Undertake research to find other examples of ghost towns in Australia. Why did people leave? Try to find an example of an Australian town that is threatened with becoming a ghost town. What can be done to ensure people do not leave this place?

…

Figure 15.5.1 The Broad Arrow Tavern, Western Australia

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

407

Reasons for internal migration in Australia According to the Australian Bureau of Statistics, 9.8 million people changed addresses between the 2016 and 2021 censuses. This is over 40 per cent of Australia’s total population! Reasons that Australians choose to move include:

• well-paid job opportunities in industries such as mining • access to education, such as highquality universities • lifestyle choices, such as preferences for where to raise children or retire.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

• expensive house prices in capital cities forcing people to move to the

outer suburbs, nearby cities or rural areas

Net internal migration

Figure 15.5.2 shows Australia’s net internal migration for the five-year period before the 2011, 2016 and 2021 censuses. The percentages refer to the percentage change in a particular location. For example, in the five years before the 2021 census, Brisbane’s population increased by 2.2 per cent. This graph shows a trend

of net negative migration for Sydney, Melbourne and Adelaide – the number of people who left these cities was greater than the number who arrived. Keep in mind that these figures do not take into account population growth due to natural increase (see page 398).

…

Figure 15.5.2 Australia’s net internal population movement in the five years before each census, expressed as a percentage of the total population of that location

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

408

Cambridge Investigating Humanities for the Victorian Curriculum 8

Impacts of internal migration: the brain drain Although Figure 15.5.2 shows a net loss of people from Australia’s biggest cities and net gains in their respective states, this movement often favours particular age groups. Lucindale is a small town located 345 km south-east of Adelaide, near the border with Victoria. The Naracoorte– Lucindale region has a population of just under 9000 people. Figure 15.5.3 shows that although this region has a higher proportion of babies than the rest of South Australia, it has a lower proportion of young adults. In contrast, Figure 15.5.4 shows that Adelaide has a smaller proportion of children, but a very large proportion of young adults.

financial incentives money that is offered to people to encourage them to do something, such as migrate

find employment in larger cities. This rural-to-urban migration is supported by the Australian Government offering financial incentives such as youth allowance, rent assistance and various relocation scholarships.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Similarly, the movement of educated professionals such as doctors and teachers to work in rural and remote areas is encouraged through salary bonuses and housing subsidies. In 2020 and 2021, the number of people moving from capital cities to rural areas doubled due to the COVID-19 pandemic, as people moved to escape lockdowns and take advantage of flexible work arrangements. An unintended consequence was a sharp increase in the property prices in some rural areas, which meant some locals could not afford to buy.

youth allowance fortnightly payments available through Centrelink for some students, apprentices and job seekers aged between 16 and 24

Migration can cause what is often called a ‘brain drain’, as young people move to complete tertiary education or

Amazing but true…

85 and over 80 to 84 75 to 79 70 to 74 65 to 69 60 to 64 55 to 59 50 to 54 45 to 49 40 to 44 35 to 39 30 to 34 25 to 29 20 to 24 15 to 19 10 to 14 5 to 9 0 to 4

South Australia

Males

% of persons

relocation scholarships payments for each year of study for students from regional and remote areas who undertake full-time study housing subsidies financial help with the cost of housing provided by the government

In 2017, male farmers in Lucindale were struggling to find local female partners. The town had 15 single men aged 25–34 and zero women.

Naracoorte-Lucindale Council area

rent assistance payments to contribute towards rent expenses for those living away from home

Females

85 and over 80 to 84 75 to 79 70 to 74 65 to 69 60 to 64 55 to 59 50 to 54 45 to 49 40 to 44 35 to 39 30 to 34 25 to 29 20 to 24 15 to 19 10 to 14 5 to 9 0 to 4

Source: Australian Bureau of Statistics,Census of Population and Housing, selected years between 1991-2021 (Enumerated data) Compiled and presented in profile.id by.id (informed decisions). .

…

Figure 15.5.3 The population pyramid of the Naracoorte–Lucindale Council in 2021

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Chapter 15: Is the rate of migration sustainable?

409

City of Adelaide

Males

Females

85 and over 80 to 84 75 to 79 70 to 74 65 to 69 60 to 64 55 to 59 50 to 54 45 to 49 40 to 44 35 to 39 30 to 34 25 to 29 20 to 24 15 to 19 10 to 14 5 to 9 0 to 4

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

85 and over 80 to 84 75 to 79 70 to 74 65 to 69 60 to 64 55 to 59 50 to 54 45 to 49 40 to 44 35 to 39 30 to 34 25 to 29 20 to 24 15 to 19 10 to 14 5 to 9 0 to 4

South Australia

10% 8% % of persons

10%

Source: Australian Bureau of Statistics,Census of Population and Housing, selected years between 1991-2021 (Enumerated data) Compiled and presented in profile.id by.id (informed decisions). .

…

Figure 15.5.4 The population pyramid of Adelaide in 2021

Concepts and skills builder 15.5 Comparing population pyramids

A population pyramid is a type of graph that shows the distribution of a population based on age and gender. The different age categories are shown on the vertical axis. The proportion of the population in each age category is shown on the horizontal axis. The graph is split into halves for males and females. In Figures 2.5.3 and 2.5.4, the graphs show data for Naracoorte–Lucindale and Adelaide in red and the rest of South Australia in grey, for comparison.

1 Using a table, list the five age cohorts making up the largest proportion of the populations for Naracoorte– Lucindale and Adelaide. 2 For the age cohorts listed in Question 1, state whether they are above or below the average for South Australia. 3 Compare the following age cohorts for Naracoorte–Lucindale and Adelaide: 0–19 20–64 65 to 85+.

• • •

4 Identify any differences between males and females in Naracoorte–Lucindale and Adelaide. 5 Write an overall summary comparing the age and gender distribution in Naracoorte–Lucindale and Adelaide. Geographical concepts and skills: change, interconnection, place, space

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

410

Cambridge Investigating Humanities for the Victorian Curriculum 8

Lesson 15.5 review Online quiz

Review questions

DOC

Research task

Go online to access the interactive lesson review and more!

Teachers can assign tasks and track results

15.5 Review questions

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

1 Rank the reasons for internal migration in Australia on page 408 from the most to the least significant. Compare your ranking with those of a classmate and justify your decisions. 2 Refer to Figure 15.5.2. a In a table, list the cities and states that have high levels of positive net migration and high levels of negative net migration. b Choose one capital city and outline how net internal migration has changed over the three time periods. c Identify a state that is likely to be experiencing urban-to-rural migration. Suggest a reason for this trend. d Explain why it is possible that a city’s population is still growing despite having a negative net migration.

3 In Concepts and skills builder 15.4, you compared the age and gender distribution in Naracoorte–Lucindale and Adelaide. Suggest one positive and one negative impact that these distributions will have at each location. 4 Using the examples of Naracoorte–Lucindale and Adelaide, or others you can find, describe how rural and urban Australia are interconnected. In other words, how are they linked, and how do they influence or impact each other?

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Chapter 15: Is the rate of migration sustainable?

411

15.6

How sustainable are Australia’s urban places into the future?

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Learning intention

This lesson will outline a number of challenges for the management of Australia’s urban environments, and give a summary of current strategies aimed to ensure our urban environments are sustainable.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

Explore, explain, suggest

1 Use Google Earth to find a place in Victoria that looks like the one in Figure 15.6.1. Where is it? 2 Explain why residential and agricultural land uses are so close together in this place. 3 Suggest a problem that could arise if more agricultural land is converted to residential land on the outskirts of large Australian cities.

…

Figure 15.6.1 The spread of residential development into agricultural land reduces local food production and increases the challenges of providing essential infrastructure and services.

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

412

Challenges in urban management • congestion: congestion is increasing on roads and public transport networks • waste: waste management and recycling are becoming more difficult to run • water and drainage: climate change will increase the frequency and size of extreme weather events such as heatwaves, floods and droughts, so cities will need improved drainage and water resources

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

The Australian Bureau of Statistics projects that Australia’s population will reach 35.9 million people in 2050. Most of this growth will occur in urban areas. Sydney is expected to reach 9 million, and Melbourne won’t be far behind at 8.5 million. This rapid growth is expected to make existing issues worse, as well as creating a whole new set of management challenges in Australia’s capital cities. For example: • access to services: there is rising inequality between inner suburbs and the outer city fringes in how easy it is to access services such as education, transport and healthcare

• loss of agricultural land: cities and regional centres are sprawling outwards into surrounding agricultural land, which is reducing food production

• housing: housing in capital cities is becoming less affordable for many Australians, with median prices for dwellings already high and continuing to rise (Figure 15.6.2)

• environment: urban environments are degrading and there is poorer air and water quality, habitat loss and a reduction in biodiversity

• social harmony: immigration is increasing, and the number of migrants in some areas can lead to difficulties in maintaining social cohesion

• ageing population: an increasing proportion of the population will become elderly, which increases the need for healthcare and social services.

median the middle value in a range of ordered values, used as a more meaningful measure than the average

Low-res

…

Figure 15.6.2 Melbourne’s median dwelling prices, from 2003 to 2023

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Chapter 15: Is the rate of migration sustainable?

413

Concepts and skills builder 15.6 Ranking priorities Geographers are often faced with a series of management challenges. When deciding how to allocate resources to solve these problems, they must consider management priorities. This involves ranking challenges from the most significant or urgent to the least, and justifying the decision. Use the diamond ranking template shown to rank the nine urban management challenges listed above. Compare your rankings with those of a classmate and justify your top and bottom choices.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Most important

Least important

Geographical concepts and skills: change, place

Managing Australia’s urban future Governments and councils in Australia already use a number of management strategies to keep our urban places sustainable. Some examples from Victoria

are listed in Table 15.6.1 along with some challenges that managers will face during their implementation.

Table 15.6.1 Management strategies used in Victoria to manage urban sustainability

Management strategy Balancing the distribution of population growth by increasing growth in regional centres such as Geelong, Ballarat and Bendigo

Challenges Ensuring these regional centres do not grow too rapidly and face the same problems with urban growth as capital cities Settling migrants in rural areas and smaller towns to help balance Overcoming difficulties in finding employment, racial the population distribution and cultural discrimination and social isolation Designing ‘20-minute neighbourhoods’ where residents can meet Ensuring facilities and services are of a high and their daily needs within a short walk from their homes equitable quality across neighbourhoods Increasing the proportion of green space, such as parkland and Managing the competing demands for land, especially vegetation the demand for more housing Undertaking large transport infrastructure projects, such as the Handling temporary disruptions for commuters, Metro Tunnel (Figure 15.6.3), West Gate Tunnel and North East Link disagreements between political parties and voters, and the high economic cost Establishing an Urban Growth Boundary around Melbourne to make Reviewing and expanding the boundary as needed, as sure that growth regions have appropriate infrastructure while Melbourne’s population continues to grow surrounding land is protected Developing policies to increase the supply of social and public Managing the lack of supply and long waiting lists, housing for low-income earners and people experiencing hardship, economic costs and complaints from local residents such as the Housing Australia Future Fund who do not wish to live near public housing

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

414

Cambridge Investigating Humanities for the Victorian Curriculum 8

Sunbury Watergardens Wyndham Vale Melton Sunshine

Craigieburn Broadmeadows Essendon Flemington Racecourse

Upfield Coburg

South Morang Hurstbridge Eltham Clifton Hill

Macaulay

Parkville South Kensington

Footscray

Arden ist

Newport Williamstown Laverton Werribee

Victoria Park

Collingwood

North Melbourne

ss pa ing ys wa ail rr ge en

Melbourne Central

Southern Cross

Yarra River

ton

Melbourne CBD

Flinders Street

North Richmond

Parliament

ans Sw

Flagstaff

State Library

Town Hall

Jolimont

Lilydale Belgrave Ringwood Carmberwell Alamein

West Richmond

Hawthorn Richmond East Richmond

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Burnley

Metro Tunnel Melbourne

Anzac

Heyington

South Yarra

Port Phillip Bay

Elsternwick Sandringham

Hawksburn

Pakenham Cranbourne Dandenong Stony Point Frankston Caulfield

Glen Waverley

…

Figure 15.6.3 Melbourne’s new Metro Tunnel will connect the Pakenham and Cranbourne train lines with the

Sunbury line while bypassing the existing the City Loop.

Lesson 15.6 review Online quiz

Review questions

DOC

Research task

Go online to access the interactive lesson review and more!

Teachers can assign tasks and track results

15.6 Review questions

1 Explain one reason for the difference in how easily people can access services between inner city and outer fringe suburbs in a city such as Melbourne. 2 Undertake research to find examples of environmental degradation within Australia’s urban environments. For example, consider water quality in an urban creek, air quality in a large city or the biodiversity in your local suburb. How could this degradation be improved to reduce its environmental impact? 3 a Using Figure 15.6.2, describe the change in Melbourne’s median house price between 2003 and 2023. b Suggest a future impact this is likely to have on the distribution of population in Victoria if the trend continues.

4 Choose three of the management strategies outlined in Table 15.6.1 and discuss which you think is likely to be the most successful in ensuring Victoria’s urban future.

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Chapter 15: Is the rate of migration sustainable?

415

15.7

Fieldwork: Evaluating the success of urban management

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Learning intention

In this lesson, you will design a fieldwork investigation to evaluate the success of urban management in your local area.

Fieldwork is an essential part of studying geography. You can use fieldwork to investigate many of the concepts studied in the classroom while you are out in the real world. Also, you can use fieldwork to apply your knowledge to answer a research question about issues in your local area.

In this investigation, your aim is to determine whether the management of people and infrastructure in your local urban area is successful and sustainable. Use the structure outlined in Table 15.7.1 to develop your study.

Table 15.7.1 Sections of a fieldwork report

Section

Explanation

Examples

Title and introduction

Choose a suitable topic and title for your investigation. It should include the scope and location of your investigation. Write a brief introduction outlining the main aspects of your study, including an outline of the type of urban management you will be investigating.

• An investigation of the availability and

Background information

Research some background information about your chosen topic and region. This will provide some context for your study.

• •

Research question

Write a research question that you plan to answer using the data that you collect. You may prefer to write one overall research question and multiple sub-questions.

•

• • •

• •

efficiency of public transport in Melbourne’s south-eastern suburbs A comparison of the quality and quantity of green space in Melbourne’s inner and outer suburbs The impacts of rapid population growth in Melbourne’s west The sustainability of urban-to-rural migration since 2020 Geographic characteristics of your chosen location and a map showing your study area Population trends and projected growth or decline Is house availability and affordability sustainable given population growth in Melbourne’s outer east? Does the quality of public transport reduce as you travel further out from Melbourne’s CBD? Are Victoria’s rural areas lacking essential infrastructure and services?

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

416

Cambridge Investigating Humanities for the Victorian Curriculum 8

Section

Explanation

Hypothesis

A hypothesis is a clear and concise statement that can be tested. It should be written before you collect your primary data.

• House prices in Melbourne’s outer east are

Primary data is data you collect in the field specifically for your investigation. Consider the types of primary data that you will need to collect to answer your research question. Consider the equipment and preparation required.

• • • •

•

increasing at a rate that is unaffordable for young couples and families The quality of Melbourne’s public transport reduces beyond a 10 km radius of the CBD Interviews with local residents, councillors and businesses Surveys of residents living in a particular street Traffic and public transport assessments Measurements of the quality of public services, such as green space and sporting facilities Photos and field sketches Demographic data, such as total population, growth, median age Satellite imagery and maps showing the location of relevant geographic characteristics Planned upgrades to urban infrastructure, such as new train lines Different types of graphs (pie, line, bar) and maps (choropleth, thematic, political) Annotated photos and field sketches Summary tables The extent to which your hypothesis has been supported or disproven An answer to your research question The strengths and weaknesses of your data collection and how it could be improved Australian Bureau of Statistics 2021, Community Profiles, Australian Government, accessed 5 September 2023, https://www. abs.gov.au/census/find-census-data/searchby-area

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Primary data collection

Examples

• Secondary Secondary data is data that other people • data collection have collected that you can use as part of your investigation. Undertake research to • find suitable sources of information that you can apply to your topic.

•

• • • Discussion, Use your primary and secondary data • conclusion and to answer your research question. evaluation Provide a concise summary of your major • findings. Evaluate the success of your data • Presenting and analysing your data

References

Summarise your findings in visual formats that are easy to read and understand.

collection and your overall investigation. Include a bibliography of any sources used.

•

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Chapter 15: Is the rate of migration sustainable?

417

15.8

End of investigation review: Changing nations

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Access the Interactive Textbook for a range of digital tools to help you review this topic, including:

• Chapter summary • Auto-marked chapter test • Scorcher timed competitive quiz.

Making thinking visible

Throughout this unit you have learned about different ways that cities are arranged and grow, and various types of migration and their consequences. Some common misunderstandings are presented below. Imagine you are someone who had these misunderstandings and use the prompts to explain how the lessons you have learned in these units have helped you to overcome them. 1

I used to think that all large cities had similar population densities and population distributions. Now I understand that …

I used to think that refugees were migrants choosing to enter a country illegally. Now I understand that …

I used to think that Australia had only a small number of international immigrants. Now I understand that …

I used to think that internal migration within Australia didn’t have any large impacts. Now I understand that …

I used to think that cities were able to expand outwards without any negative consequences.

I used to think that all of China was densely populated with little difference between regions. Now I understand that …

Now I understand that …

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

418

Cambridge Investigating Humanities for the Victorian Curriculum 8

Using geographical concepts Choose one of the following statements and discuss how much you agree with it. In your answer, refer to one or more examples from this unit and make use of at least one geographical concept.

Remember to consider the geographical concepts: place, space, change, scale, interconnection, environment and sustainability.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

‘Urbanisation is unsustainable and has mainly negative outcomes.’

‘International migration has positive impacts for both host and donor countries and should be increased.’

Solving geographical problems 1

Choose one of challenges facing Australia’s urban future that is mentioned in Lesson 15.6; for example, the rising inequality in access to services.

Design a management strategy that could be implemented by the Australian Government or a state government to overcome this challenge. Outline specific details of

your proposed strategy. For example, if your strategy includes constructing new train lines, draw a map showing where they would be located and which existing lines they would connect to.

Justify your management strategy. Explain how it will be practical, affordable and achievable within a realistic time frame.

Thinking critically

Assessment task: Design proposal

Within this unit, you have learned about factors that contribute to higher urbanisation, and its consequences. The sinking of Jakarta, as studied in Lesson 14.5, is an extreme, yet very real example. To solve Indonesia’s problem, then President Joko Widodo announced in 2019 that a new capital city would be built in Borneo.

Your task is to design a sustainable city that will allow Indonesia to thrive throughout the remainder of the 21st century. You will need to research the best examples of urban design around the world to apply to your design and incorporate your own creativity. You will need to present your ideas as a proposal in the form of a report, multimedia presentation or an oral presentation with the aim of convincing President Widodo to construct your proposed design.

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Chapter 15: Is the rate of migration sustainable?

419

Your proposal should include: 1 2

The name of your city and a brief description of its meaning or origin

• Describe the city design and features such as public transport, green spaces, tourism and industry

A proposed location and size within Borneo

• Include reference to ideas and examples from other cities that you are utilising in your design

• Represent this on a satellite image using Google Earth

• Include relevant annotated photos from existing cities and diagrams of proposed designs

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

• Describe the geographic characteristics of your chosen location and the changes that will need to be made to the land to prepare the site

A description of the main features of your city

• Include something in your city that makes it unique. This might be a modern form of infrastructure or a tourist attraction

• Use the sizes of existing megacities to get a realistic size for your city • Justify your choice of location and size

A map showing the main structure of the urban environment. You will need to refer to settlement patterns and models

An X-factor

• Consider the location of the CBD, major industrial and commercial zones, residential zones and major infrastructure such as ports and transport networks

Justification as a sustainable city

• Discuss how your city will be able to sustain a population of over 10 million people now and into the future • Consider economic, social and environmental sustainability.

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

420

Cambridge Investigating Humanities for the Victorian Curriculum 8

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES Image: A successful business needs workers, resources, good planning and management.

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

422

Part 3

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Economics and Business

FPO

< QR1601 >

Watch the video for an introduction to Year 8 Economics and Business and the skills and concepts you will be working with.

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

423

INVESTIGATION

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

What is the connection between business success and work? OVERVIEW

By the end of level 8, Economics and Business students will be: 1 knowledgeable about business and entrepreneurship and able to:

• describe the reasons businesses exist, accurately categorise businesses

• analyse the importance of entrepreneurship to business success • explain how businesses identify and take advantage of market opportunities

2 knowledgeable about work and able to: • describe different ways Australians may derive income

• analyse the changing nature of work in contemporary Australia • make logical predictions about the future of work

Source: Italic sections from VCAA, Victorian Curriculum V2.0, ‘Economics & Business’, ‘Scope and sequence – Levels 7 and 8’

CURRICULUM GOALS

• How do markets influence the economic decision-making of businesses? • How do businesses adapt to market opportunities and changes in the workplace?

• How is work rewarded and what is its future? Source: Adapted from VCAA, Victorian Curriculum V2.0, ‘Economics & Business’, ‘Band description – Levels 7 and 8’

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

424

CHAPTER 16

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

How are businesses and work changing in Australia? FPO

LESSON TITLE

16.1

Setting the scene: Why are some people unemployed despite wanting to work?

16.2

What types of businesses are there in modern Australia?

16.3

What are market opportunities for businesses?

16.4

How do businesses set goals and strategies?

16.5

What is enterprise and how do businesses gauge success?

16.6

What makes an entrepreneur successful?

16.7

What key skills do workers need and why do people work?

16.8

What are the wages and conditions of work?

16.9

How is the nature of work changing?

16.10

What are some predictions about the future of work?

16.11

Research task: Is a basic income for all Australian households a fair idea?

16.12

End of investigation review: How are businesses and work changing in Australia?

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

425

16.1

Setting the scene: Why are some people unemployed despite wanting to work? FPO

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Learning intention

In Year 7 Humanities, Economics and Business focused on households and their consumption of products. This introductory lesson for Year 8 focuses on businesses and their resourcing. It also highlights human resources in work and unemployment.

Businesses

business an organisation that makes a good or service for profit

profit the money made by a business from selling goods or services after deducting all financial costs of the business producers the makers of goods and services

work paid employment in a business producing a good or service

good(s) material good(s) or service(s) produced by a business

A business is a private organisation that produces goods or services to make profit for its owners, while meeting its legal and ethical responsibilities. Those governing and managing this production are producers. A business is different from a government agency, which does not operate for profit, and provides services aimed at supporting the nation’s communities and the wellbeing of all citizens. Medicare is one example. Businesses employ people to work so that they can help with the production and distribution of the product or service they produce.

Whether they are new or established, businesses continually have to make key decisions about their operations. These key decisions include: • What product(s) or services will the business produce?

• How will it be produced? What resources and technology will be used?

• How will the product be distributed to its market?

• How will the product be marketed – at what price, with what kinds of promotion, etc.? Some factors that affect each area are considered below.

Product

Businesses produce goods or products that are wanted or needed by households. They are always seeking ways to improve profits; for example, by decreasing costs or by increasing sales, perhaps by improving the quality of the goods or service they provide.

Method of production (technology)

The method of production (technology) is how resources are used to make the product. Businesses have to decide which method has the lowest cost. Will it be labour-intensive, with many workers, or capital-intensive, with much machinery?

• How will the necessary resources be used?

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

426

Cambridge Investigating Humanities for the Victorian Curriculum 8

Resources The business has to buy the necessary resources to make the product. Businesses need: • labour resources (time and skills, such as the skills of a computer programmer)

resources human and non-human things that are used in the production of goods or services

• workers receive wages for their labour

labour resources the skills and time of workers

• property owners receive rents for leasing land and other natural resources • lending institutions such as banks receive interest for financial resources

capital resources the non-human resources used in production, including physical, natural and financial items

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

• capital resources (physical, natural and financial, such as metal for making tools, water for cooling in a power plant, and money for investing in equipment).

Businesses go to the various factor or resource markets to purchase the needed resources. Resource owners (households) receive income for the use of their resources:

• owners and investors receive dividends and profits for enterprise skills.

These resources are purchased from their owners (households) in markets called factor markets . There is one further resource used: the owners of the business contribute their enterprise skills, which involve identifying market opportunities, establishing and managing the business, while risking their wealth.

Distribution

Figure 16.1.1 shows how resources are exchanged for money. Exchanges take place between agents (representatives) for households and businesses. Households sell resources so they can receive income, which they can spend on goods and services that increase their material wellbeing. Businesses buy resources to use in their business to make profits.

Marketing

Once produced, the product needs to get to market. This is called distribution, and it may mean transporting it by rail, sea or road to a local warehouse. Alternatively, it may mean taking the product for transport by courier or mailing by the post office.

A business needs to make sure that the people who might buy a product or service know about it and how it could benefit them. Advertisements and promotions are two common parts of marketing. Pricing the product so that it will appeal to the market is a further part of marketing.

Factor market exchanges

Households (wellbeing seekers)

Businesses (profit seekers)

enterprise skills the human resource of skills in identifying market opportunities, and creating and managing a business, while undertaking financial risk agents representatives of a sector of the economy; for example, consumers are agents for households income a payment received for the use of a resource wage an income payment for the use of labour hours and skills rent an income payment for the use of, for example, a house or building

SELL resources

EMPLOYMENT in factor markets

Income

factor markets markets in which resources are exchanged for income payments

interest an income payment for the use of a money (for example, a financial loan)

BUY resources

dividend an income payment made to someone who has invested in a business

…

Figure 16.1.1 Market exchanges involve the buying and selling of resources so that households obtain income and businesses make profit.

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Chapter 16: How are businesses and work changing in Australia?

427

What is unemployment?

• The business they worked in closed because there was reduced demand for its product. This could happen due to:

• The government has cut back on public services and employment level to save money. • They are affected by long-term (over a year) factors such as sickness, impairment, not having the required capabilities, etc. Other resources, such as physical capital, may be also be described as unemployed. Office buildings may be empty and machinery may lie idle due to a decreasing demand for their products.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

unemployed describes human and other resources that could be working or used in a business, but are not currently wanted

Not all people wish to work for income. People who would like paid work, but cannot get a job, are described as unemployed. People can be unemployed for a range of reasons:

− a slow-down in the economy’s growth − consumers preferring a new product − business competitors making a cheaper product using new technology

− tariffs increasing on the product.

…

Figure 16.1.2 Office buildings are important assets to businesses. How much are office buildings being used in your local area, or in areas you visit?

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

428

Cambridge Investigating Humanities for the Victorian Curriculum 8

The Victorian Curriculum lists a range of skills that you will need to develop. To help you practise and integrate these skills in Economics and Business, we have developed the Q-CAFÉ method of investigation. You can apply this method throughout your lessons, as well as in a final research task (Lesson 16.11).

Q-CAFÉ method of investigation Q Form questions to investigate an issue, problem or system. Use your questions to define the problem.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

C Collect and compare data and information relevant to the problem.

A Analyse and interpret the data. Describe relationships using graphs, models or in writing. These relationships may be association, cause-and-effect or trend.

F Identify findings and summarise conclusions from your investigation. Check your data sources for authenticity.

E Evaluate your findings against a chosen standard regarding benefits (advantages) and costs (disadvantages). Express your findings clearly and convincingly in the research task.

Note that the research task is designed to be completed over the duration of the unit, rather than in the final few weeks. Be sure to get started as soon as possible!

Lesson 16.1 review Online quiz

Review questions

DOC

Research task

Go online to access the interactive lesson review and more!

Teachers can assign tasks and track results

16.1 Review questions

1 Explain how businesses and households interact in the factor markets. 2 Distinguish between the resourcing, distribution, production and marketing activities of a business. Explain the link between these activities. 3 Explain why your work (for example cleaning) at home is not included in the measurement of total production in Australia. 4 What is the role of enterprise skills in a business?

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Chapter 16: How are businesses and work changing in Australia?

429

16.2

What types of businesses are there in modern Australia? FPO

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Learning intention

The last lesson introduced some important concepts about business and work. This lesson considers the various types of businesses in Australia.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

Exploring types of businesses

…

Figure 16.2.1 A Melbourne street with a variety of businesses

1 Think about some businesses you are familiar with, both local and national. 2 Comment on what is common between them, and what is different.

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

430

Cambridge Investigating Humanities for the Victorian Curriculum 8

There are various ways to classify businesses, including: • ownership • size • location • specialisation • business model • target market • method of production.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Ownership

Table 16.2.1 Legal ownership of private businesses in

A private business can be owned by a sole trader, a partnership, a company or a trust (Table 16.2.1).

Australia – June 2021 and June 2024

• A sole trader is a single person who owns and runs a business, such as a gift-shop owner.

• A partnership is a business owned by two or more people. • A company is a separate legal entity from the people who own it, and the owners are its directors or managers.

Ownership type

June 2021 ’000s

June 2024 ’000s

Companies

986

1153

Sole traders

708

803

Partnerships

236

214

Trusts

471

492

Total

2402

2663

sole trader a oneowner business partnership a business owned by two or more people company a business that is a separate legal entity from the people involved

Source: ABS 8165 Count of Australian Businesses, Table 10 (August 2024)

• A trust is an organisation that holds assets for the benefit of others.

trust an organisation that holds assets for the benefit of others

Size

A medium business is defined as having up to 200 employees, while a big business has 200 or more employees. Some big businesses are organisations that are made up of many businesses. This type of big business is called a corporation.

In Australia, the Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS) defines a small business as one that has 19 or fewer employees. This includes many businesses with no employees. The great majority of businesses in Australia are small businesses. They employ by far the most employees in total.

Table 16.2.2 Number of people employed in small, medium and big businesses in Australia, June 2021 and June 2024

Number of employees

June 2021 ’000s

June 2024 ’000s

Small business No employees 1–19

1410 932

1663 926

Medium business 20–199

Big business 200+

Total

2402

2663

small business a business with 0–19 employees medium business a business with 20–199 employees big business a business with 200 or more employees corporation a group of companies

Source: ABS 8165 Count of Australian businesses, Table 13a (August 2024) Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Chapter 16: How are businesses and work changing in Australia?

431

Location Businesses can be grouped by what drives their location. Some businesses have to be located where production can occur; for example, growing fruit takes place on farmland and close to transport to market. Car manufacturing occurs in

factories close to a railway or a seaport. Other businesses are located near their market. For example, a retail store operates in a residential zone, such as in a shopping strip or mall.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Specialisation Another way to group businesses is by the particular type of product or service they produce. A good may be agricultural, mining, manufactured or financial.

Figure 16.2.3 Agricultural good

…

Figure 16.2.2 Manufactured good

A service may be a personal, such as hairdressing, or a business service, such as an accountant’s services.

Figure 16.2.4 Financial good

Business model

business model how a business plans to operate to make a profit

target market the group of potential buyers of a particular good or service

A business model is a description of all the ways a particular business plans to operate to make a profit. Businesses operate using different business models. For example, the model may include particular sales methods, such as online sales, door-to-door sales, or direct sales to the consumer. The business could be online or at a fixed location, such as

a shop. It could be part of a franchise, where a business sells a product or service under a licence from the company that owns the rights to it; the franchisee pays fees and in return receives branding and other business advantages. Further, the business may be importing or exporting a good.

Target market

Not only can businesses be distinguished by the goods or service being produced, they can also be distinguished by their target market. A business’s target market is the group of potential buyers to whom it seeks to sell its product. For

example, a baby clothing business has the target market of new parents and people of grandparent age. If using a retail shop model, it needs to be located in areas of population with high levels of these groups.

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

432

Cambridge Investigating Humanities for the Victorian Curriculum 8

Method of production Finally, different businesses use different methods of production. Some businesses have capital-intensive production. These businesses make extensive use of machinery and robots, such as in mining or in manufacturing cars. Other businesses use labour-intensive production. These businesses make extensive use of labour skills, such as in the services provided by an accountant or beautician.

capital-intensive production a good produced using largely capital resources, such as buildings, machinery, robots and equipment; for example, making vehicles

…

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

labour-intensive production a good or service produced using largely labour skills and hours, such as an accounting service

Figure 16.2.5 A capital-intensive business

Concepts and skills builder 16.2 Exploring business ownership models

Consider the following stimulus and apply the Q-CAFÉ method of investigation (outlined at the end of Lesson 16.1) by answering the questions that follow. Imagine you are a business consultant exploring the diverse types of business ownership in a local Australian city. Recent local government data shows that the number of companies has steadily increased since June 2021, while the figures for sole traders and partnerships have fluctuated. Local news reports suggest that many successful small businesses began as sole traders before expanding into partnerships as they grew. Your task is to investigate the different types of business ownership and understand how they relate to the types of goods and services produced. Q Develop a clear investigation question connected to the differences in business ownership types in Australia.

C Collect examples and data online that demonstrate various business ownership in Australia. Look for real-life examples and statistics that explain how these models work and their prevalence in local business communities. A Construct a graph showing the changes in the total number of businesses and the total number of employees since June 2021. Analyse the graph by describing the trends you see, and explain how these trends might relate to different ownership types. F Summarise your findings by explaining what your investigation reveals about the types of goods and services produced by businesses with different ownership types. E Evaluate the benefits and drawbacks of operating as a sole trader compared with a partnership. Compare the advantages (such as simplicity and control) and disadvantages (such as risk and resource limitations) to form a clear conclusion about which ownership type might be more beneficial in different circumstances.

Economics and Business concepts and skills: communicating, concluding and decision-making, evaluating, interpreting and analysing data and information, investigating Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Chapter 16: How are businesses and work changing in Australia?

433

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES …

Figure 16.2.6 A labour-intensive business

FPO

…

Figure 16.2.7 Some business models are based on door-to-door sales.

…

Figure 16.2.8 Distribution by post office could be key to a business model.

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

434

Cambridge Investigating Humanities for the Victorian Curriculum 8

Lesson 16.2 review Online quiz

Review questions

DOC

Research task

Go online to access the interactive lesson review and more!

Teachers can assign tasks and track results

16.2 Review questions What is a business model? Include some examples of various features of business models in your explanation. Explain two types of production methods used by businesses. How many employees do the majority of small businesses employ? What is this type of ownership called? Using Table 16.2.2, calculate the proportion of Australian businesses that have fewer than 20 employees.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

1 2 3 4

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Chapter 16: How are businesses and work changing in Australia?

435

16.3

What are market opportunities for businesses? FPO

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Learning intention

The previous lesson looked at the various types of businesses in Australia. This lesson considers the opportunity for selling a new product in a market.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

Brainstorming new products

…

Figure 16.3.1 Seeing a market opportunity means taking a new path.

1 As a class, brainstorm ideas for new products. 2 Identify why there might be a market for these products.

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

436

Cambridge Investigating Humanities for the Victorian Curriculum 8

Identifying a market opportunity • the likely market size and growth • what competitors are doing • possible barriers to production, such as legal requirements and having resources available. 3 Analysing the trends in markets for similar products (market research).

invention a newly designed product or production technique

New production or distribution technique

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

People establish a business because they identify a market opportunity that they think could be profitable. A market opportunity might be identifying that consumers want a product that is not currently produced. Or it could come from seeing that an existing product could be made more cheaply, because cheaper methods of production or technology are available. Examples of these two types of market opportunities are:

market opportunity an opportunity for a business to make profit by making a new product or using a new cost-saving method of production or distribution

• designing an updated mobile phone (a new product)

• using improved technology, such as robots, to make the phone (reducing the manufacturing costs). These opportunities begin with an invention. An invention is converted into a potential product or technology (innovation).

Secondly, a market opportunity can come from new cost-saving techniques. These techniques may already be in use overseas. Lowering the cost of production (for example, using robotics) or of distribution (for example, using container shipping instead of air freight) enables a business to lower its product price. This is likely to lead to higher sales.

New product

market research an investigation of a market and its future entrepreneur a person who creates a successful new business using ideas, management skills and risktaking business plan a comprehensive plan for how a business will be run to ensure its success

Businesses identify a market opportunity for a new product using these steps.

business idea an idea for a new product or technology

…

1 Seeing the potential of an invention to make profit. 2 Analysing supply and demand to find out: • if there is likely to be consumer demand

innovation the adoption of an invention in production

Figure 16.3.2 Planning is key to business development.

Using a market opportunity Sometimes, someone sees a market opportunity that can only be used by setting up a new business. A person who does this is called an entrepreneur. Before starting full production and going to market, an entrepreneur must do the following.

• a description of the advantages of this product and its uniqueness – nature, cost, etc. – over other products (competitive edge)

1 Develop a business plan, including: • a description of the business idea and the mission of the business

• a marketing and sales plan for distributing the product to market and to the consumer

• a description of the nature of the product

• details of production operations – resourcing of equipment, materials and staff

• details of the business – name, governance, vision and management objectives

mission the purpose of a business or organisation competitive edge something that gives an advantage to a business over others in the market; for example, a lower price marketing and sales plan a plan outlining how to promote and sell a product, including advertising and pricing

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Chapter 16: How are businesses and work changing in Australia?

437

risk report an investigation of the risks of producing a good or service

• details of expected finance – revenue, product price, expenses, owner finance, borrowings

prototype an initial model of a new product

• details of legal aspects – regulations to be followed, such as council by-laws

market survey a series of questions asking a number of people what they thought of a good or service

3 Conduct a market survey to identify how well people will accept the new product.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

• details of likely risks (a risk report), including risks associated with financing, producing and selling the product and how these risks may be addressed and minimised.

The business plan is sometimes used to apply to a financial institution for a loan.

Figure 16.3.3 A new business might rely on inventing new processes.

…

2 Test a prototype with a small number of people to check the product’s quality and identify improvements to be made.

Concepts and skills builder 16.3 Exploring a new business concept

Consider the following stimulus and apply the Q-CAFÉ method of investigation (outlined at the end of Lesson 16.1) by answering the questions that follow. Mark, a professional book editor, has decided to start a new business where he will offer editing services tailored for the hospitality industry. His main focus is on improving restaurant menus and signage by eliminating typographic errors that could deter customers. Local feedback suggests that well-presented menus can enhance a restaurant’s reputation, while errors may drive customers away. Mark needs to develop a clear plan to assess this market opportunity, understand the risks involved and determine what will give his business a competitive edge. Q Develop a clear investigation question related to this market opportunity.

C Collect an example of a business plan for a service business from the internet. Focus on plans that detail legal, financial and operational aspects of launching a personal service business.

A Analyse the risks associated with starting a personal service business like Mark’s. Construct a risk report that identifies potential challenges (such as market competition, pricing issues and legal requirements) and suggests ways to mitigate these risks.

F Identify your key findings and summarise the conclusions from your investigation. In your summary, include what legal requirements a service business in the hospitality sector must meet and any other important factors that emerged. E Evaluate the different causes of a competitive edge in the service business sector. Consider factors such as quality, pricing, customer service and innovation, and explain how these could give Mark’s business a distinct advantage. Economics and Business concepts and skills: communicating, concluding and decision-making, evaluating, interpreting and analysing data and information, investigating Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

438

Cambridge Investigating Humanities for the Victorian Curriculum 8

Amazing but true... There have been four major revolutions over recent centuries in the methods or technologies used by businesses to produce goods and services. 1750s – 1830s: Industrial Revolution in Britain

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

The Industrial Revolution changed a farming nation into a nation where most wealth was produced by factories, using iron and steel, coal and steam engines, and specialisation of labour. For example, in 1776 Adam Smith wrote about how the specialisation of labour in making pins, with each worker undertaking only a part of the process, made production much faster. Previously, pins took much longer to produce because they were made wholly by one person. This revolution produced the wealth that enabled the British to establish their Empire with its naval power. 1840s – 1920s: Industrial revolution in the USA

Mass production technologies were developed for more advanced products, including combustion engines, motor cars, and components for electrical equipment, radio and telephone communications.

This revolution enabled the USA to take over from Britain as the dominant power and largest economy in the world. 1990s – 2010s: Digital revolution

The development of computers, the internet and telecommunication networks greatly changed the way goods and services were produced and distributed, using automated systems, robotics and electronic communication. 2010s: Artificial intelligence revolution

Computer apps are being developed to function as if they have some of the abilities of the human brain; for example, ChatGPT.

Lesson 16.3 review Online quiz

Review questions

DOC

Research task

Go online to access the interactive lesson review and more!

Teachers can assign tasks and track results

16.3 Review questions 1 2 3 4

Explain the purpose of a market survey. Explain the meaning of market opportunity. Describe the steps a business should take to identify a market opportunity for a new product. Explain the relationships between a market opportunity, a business idea, an invention and an innovation.

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Chapter 16: How are businesses and work changing in Australia?

439

16.4

How do businesses set goals and strategies? FPO

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Learning intention

The previous lesson looked at market opportunities for businesses. This lesson considers the objectives of businesses.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

Business goalsetting: Wesfarmers

The Wesfarmers Group is an Australian public corporation that owns a range of different businesses.

Low-res

The Wesfarmers 2024 Annual Report contained the following:

Our primary objective is to deliver a satisfactory return to shareholders. We believe it is only possible to achieve this over the long term by: Anticipating the needs of our customers and delivering competitive goods and services Looking after our team members and providing a safe, fulfilling work environment Engaging fairly with our suppliers, and sourcing ethically and sustainably Supporting the communities in which we operate Taking care of the environment Acting with integrity and honesty in all of our dealings

• • • • • •

…

Figure: Wesfarmers Group Annual Report 2024

How do you think these goals contribute to a satisfactory return to shareholders?

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

440

Cambridge Investigating Humanities for the Victorian Curriculum 8

Vision, strategy and planning A successful strategic plan aimed at maximising a business’s profits has four goals:

strategy actions taken by a business that are designed to help the business achieve its objectives

• effectiveness • efficiency

strategic plan a plan detailing how a business will achieve its objectives

• growth and development • social responsibility.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

The objective or vision of a business is what the owners would ultimately like their business to grow into, while maximising their profits. For example, Bunnings says that their vision statement is ‘By living our values and operating sustainably, we will continue to “build the best” and earn the right to serve our customers tomorrow and into the future’.

vision the long-term future the owners or agents desire for their business

goals the mediumterm objectives of a business (3–7 years)

To achieve its long-term objectives, a business needs to follow a logical strategy. The first part of that strategy is to form a strategic plan to guide the owners and managers in their decision-making.

…

Strategic planning begins with determining the medium-term goals (for 3–5 years ahead) and the short-term annual targets to meet those goals.

annual targets the specific and measurable annual objectives of a business effectiveness a medium-term goal of a business to satisfy customer wishes

Figure 16.4.1 Business strategies are needed to

efficiency a medium-term goal of a business to achieve the lowest costs for making its product and distributing it to market

reach a goal.

Effectiveness

Businesses seek to maximise the money they make from sales by ensuring that the price and quality of the product satisfies their customers. Some shortterm strategies to improve effectiveness (with examples of annual targets shown in brackets) include: • adjusting pricing of products (for example, target: if the product is essential, raise its price by 3%)

• marketing to increase sales, including running surveys and research meetings to get feedback about customer

satisfaction (for example, target: increase market share by 5%)

• advertising to increase sales (for example, target: increase total spending on television advertising by 10%)

• ensuring product quality (for example, target: quality control with less than 1% defects) • creating new products (for example, target: create one new product this year).

growth and development a medium-term goal of a business to expand its operation and improve its product and technology social responsibility a goal of business to act responsibly, just as a citizen is expected to, by obeying laws and being economic

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Chapter 16: How are businesses and work changing in Australia?

441

Efficiency the new technology to reduce costs. Some examples of ways to improve efficiency include: • reducing the cost of materials used in making the product • reducing production costs by increasing employee productivity • increased scale of operation – for example, target: double production of the product.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Businesses seek to minimise the costs of producing and distributing a product. They aim to use the lowest cost methods of combining the necessary resources. To do this, businesses have to keep up with or invent new ways of producing and distributing a product. For example, if machinery or computer software is developed that is able to do a job more cheaply than workers can, the business will replace employees with

Achieving growth and development Businesses usually wish to grow over time so they can be secure and to make further profits. They also wish to develop their operations to meet any changes in consumer demand and make use of new

technology. Some short-term strategies to grow and develop include:

• expanding nationally and internationally • upgrading technology, such as using artificial intelligence (AI) or robots.

Being socially responsible Every business has legal, ethical, social and economic responsibilities to the population of a nation. Shortterm strategies to improve how socially responsible a business is include:

• using resources and products that come from ethical sources (for example, a café owner buying beans from a supplier who pays fair wages)

Businesses will have to pay additional costs to be socially responsible. On the other hand, their revenue will increase because their product or service will be preferred by some consumers because it is socially responsible. Each business will assess the net effect of such strategies on its profits.

• contributing to charity

• contributing voluntary and community service

• minimising the environmental effect of production and distribution

…

• taking care of the environment of the business’s surrounds (for example, a mining business restoring ecosystems on lands it has damaged).

Figure 16.4.2 Businesses will have a range of goals.

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

442

Cambridge Investigating Humanities for the Victorian Curriculum 8

Concepts and skills builder 16.4 Exploring business strategy Consider the following stimulus and apply the Q-CAFÉ method of investigation (outlined at the end of Lesson 16.1) by answering the questions that follow.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Ben & Jerry’s ice-cream business has built its reputation on not only making great ice-cream but also on championing social causes. With a mission that combines a commitment to product quality, sustainable financial growth and positive social impact, the company shows how business strategy can be used to drive both profit and community values. Consider how this integrated approach might influence other companies in Australia. Q Develop a clear investigation question related to business strategy.

C Search online to collect details about the four main businesses in the Wesfarmers Group. Look for information on how each business integrates strategic objectives with community or social responsibilities.

A Provide examples of companies that have made responsible citizenship a core objective, and analyse how they demonstrate this through their policies and practices.

F Find two businesses that are actively seeking to be more efficient by reducing unit costs. Summarise your findings and explain how these efficiency strategies contribute to their overall business objectives. E Evaluate the scenario where a business’s commitment to being a responsible citizen leads to higher unit costs. Are you prepared to pay a higher price for such a product? Express your view and justify your evaluation.

Economics and Business concepts and skills: communicating, concluding and decision-making, evaluating, interpreting and analysing data and information, investigating

Lesson 16.4 review Online quiz

Review questions

DOC

Research task

Go online to access the interactive lesson review and more!

Teachers can assign tasks and track results

16.4 Review questions

1 Explain the meaning of ‘strategy’. Outline the parts of a business’s plan that aim to achieve its long-term objective, medium-term goals and annual targets. 2 Explain the idea of a business being a responsible citizen. 3 Provide examples of short-term strategies that a business can implement to improve efficiency and reduce production costs. 4 Identify and explain the four medium-term goals that a business should focus on to maximise profits.

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Chapter 16: How are businesses and work changing in Australia?

443

16.5

What is enterprise and how do businesses gauge success? FPO

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Learning intention

The previous lesson looked at the objectives of businesses. This lesson considers how enterprise contributes to business success.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

A famous entrepreneur: Carolyn Cresswell

…

Figure 16.5.1 Carolyn Creswell established the food brand Carman’s.

1 What do you think is meant by the term ‘entrepreneur’? 2 What are some skills you think successful entrepreneurs would have? 3 Try to think of a time when you were entrepreneurial.

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

444

Cambridge Investigating Humanities for the Victorian Curriculum 8

Enterprise Enterprise is the development of a business idea into a successful operation. The person or people with the enterprise are entrepreneurs.

enterprise the transformation or development of a business idea into a profitable and successful operation

The business world needs entrepreneurs. They generate a successful business by:

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

• having an understanding of consumer needs …

• having an understanding of the potential demand for the product from the target market

Figure 16.5.2 An entrepreneur using new technology

International examples of entrepreneurship creating successful businesses include:

• being aware of the potential competition within the market

• knowing how to innovate a new product with a competitive edge

• Apple, with its innovative products and business practices

• innovating a more efficient method of production with new technology

• Tesla, with its vision for electric vehicles

• having a clear vision of the future of the business

• Airbnb and Uber, with their innovative IT platforms for their products.

• taking calculated risks to achieve their vision

In the future, entrepreneurs will innovate with increasing use of AI, robots and blockchain. They will make ‘green’ (environmentally safe) products and use green methods of production. There will also be greater use of remote workers with flexible working conditions.

• managing a business effectively

• being able to raise the necessary finances

• being able to develop the necessary staff capabilities.

Concepts and skills builder 16.5 Understanding entrepreneurship

Consider the following stimulus and apply the Q-CAFÉ method of investigation by answering the questions that follow.

Figure 16.5.3 Atlassian co-founders, Mike Cannon-Brookes and Scott Farquhar

…

Mike Cannon-Brookes and Scott Farquhar started an Australian software company called Atlassian. Their business creates IT tools such as Jira and Trello, which help teams work better – products used by big organisations like NASA, Cisco and eBay. Remarkably, they began with just a $10 000 credit card and a simple goal of earning AU$40 000 a year without having a boss. While Cannon-Brookes manages daily operations, Farquhar focuses on planning for the future. This story illustrates key entrepreneurial traits such as risk-taking, innovation and a clear vision.

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Chapter 16: How are businesses and work changing in Australia?

445

Q Develop a clear investigation question that explores the key entrepreneurial factors behind Atlassian’s success and how these factors might be applied in different business contexts. C Collect detailed information on Atlassian’s founding story, business strategies and market approach. Extend your search by gathering data on another global example of entrepreneurial success, including details of their challenges, strategies and achievements. A Analyse the information collected on both Atlassian and the global example. Compare and contrast their entrepreneurial approaches by identifying common factors – such as innovation, risk‑taking and effective planning – and discuss how each factor contributed to their success.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

F Summarise your findings by identifying the most important entrepreneurial strategies and traits that appear to drive business success. Explain how these key factors work together to overcome challenges and create opportunities. E Evaluate how these identified strategies could be applied by future entrepreneurs in different industries. Consider potential challenges in adapting these strategies and propose recommendations for aspiring entrepreneurs to overcome these obstacles and succeed in their ventures.

Economics and Business concepts and skills: communicating, concluding and decision-making, evaluating, interpreting and analysing data and information, investigating

Business success and failure How can a business tell if it is succeeding? Some indicators of success are that the business:

• has loyal clients

• makes regular innovations

• makes profits every year

• has employees who are satisfied to stay at the business

• expands its market

• adapts to changing consumer demand.

…

Figure 16.5.4 Businesses look for a competitive edge.

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

446

Cambridge Investigating Humanities for the Victorian Curriculum 8

Lesson 16.6 further explores the factors involved in the success of business entrepreneurs.

…

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

A business that is failing will have trouble in one or more of these areas.

Unfortunately, this is particularly common for new sole traders. In 2024, there were about 800 000 sole-trading businesses, and about 57 per cent of sole-trader startups fail within four years.

Figure 16.5.5 A manager detailing success

Lesson 16.5 review Online quiz

Review questions

DOC

Research task

Go online to access the interactive lesson review and more!

Teachers can assign tasks and track results

16.5 Review questions

1 Explain the idea of enterprise. 2 Explain the idea of business success. 3 a What are the key qualities and skills that make entrepreneurs successful? b What role do these qualities and skills play in making a business successful? 4 Discuss the future trends in entrepreneurship, including the technologies and methods entrepreneurs are likely to use to create successful businesses. 5 Why does an entrepreneur need to understand details of the target market?

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Chapter 16: How are businesses and work changing in Australia?

447

16.6

What makes an entrepreneur successful? FPO

Learning intention

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

The previous lesson introduced enterprise and the signs of a successful business. This lesson further explores the characteristics of successful entrepreneurs and the enterprising behaviours that help businesses thrive.

Lesson starter

Discussing the ingredients of business success Low-res

Low-res

…

Figure 16.6.1 Entrepreneur Bobbi Lockyer, a Ngarluma, Kariyarra, Nyulnyul and Yawuru artist and business owner

As we have seen, entrepreneurs are people who create and grow businesses by bringing new ideas, taking risks and solving problems. 1 Think of some well-known entrepreneurs. 2 What qualities do they have in common? 3 What makes their businesses successful?

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

448

Cambridge Investigating Humanities for the Victorian Curriculum 8

Characteristics of successful entrepreneurs Entrepreneurs drive innovation and success by applying certain key behaviours and skills. Some of these include:

• Innovation and enterprise: they think creatively and find new ways to improve products or services.

• Establishing a shared vision: they set clear goals and inspire others.

• Perseverance and adaptability: they keep going even when challenges arise.

• Demonstrating initiative: they take action and solve problems without waiting.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Case studies: Indigenous entrepreneurs leading the way These entrepreneurs are not just finding business opportunities – they are ensuring that Aboriginal cultures, Country and knowledge are respected and valued. Their success shows the strength of Aboriginal businesses and are examples of self-determination.

Bobbi Lockyer (Bobbi Lockyer Designs)

Bobbi Lockyer is a First Nations artist, designer, and business owner whose work is deeply connected to her culture. Through her fashion and art, she celebrates her identity and provides opportunities for her community. Her business is about more than just making money – it is about keeping culture strong and making sure Aboriginal art is respected and valued.

Mercedes Cove Wild Gubinge

Mercedes Cove Wild Gubinge is a part of Mercedes Cove Aboriginal Corporation, which is Aboriginal owned and operated. This business grows and sells wild gubinge (Kakadu plum), a native fruit that has been used by Aboriginal people in northern areas of the continent for generations. The business uses traditional knowledge to harvest the fruit sustainably, ensuring the land is protected while sharing the benefits of this powerful superfood with a wider audience. Low-res

Low-res

…

Figure 16.6.3 Mercedes Cove Wild Gubinge markets an Australian

native fruit.

…

Figure 16.6.2 Bobbi Lockyer Designs

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Chapter 16: How are businesses and work changing in Australia?

449

Indigital

Low-res

“When we bring together Indigenous knowledge, technology, and industry, we create solutions that are stronger, more sustainable, and deeply connected to place.” Indigital Founder and CEO Mikaela Jade

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Indigital is a majority Aboriginal-owned technology company that combines modern digital tools with ancient cultural knowledge. Founded by Mikaela Jade, Indigital creates augmented reality (AR) and artificial intelligence (AI) tools to tell First Nations stories in new and exciting ways.

…

Figure 16.6.4 Indigital uses an innovative combination of skills and knowledge.

Amazing but true…

Business growth: According to Indigenous Business Australia, between 2016 and 2021 the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander business sector grew by more than 50 per cent, reaching an estimated 29 200 business owner-managers. Economic contribution: The Indigenous Economic Power Project reported in 2024 that the Australian economy receives more than $16 billion annually from Indigenous businesses, which employ 116 795 people and pay $4.2 billion in wages.

Employment impact: A 2024 study found that Indigenous businesses are 40 to 100 times more likely than non-Indigenous businesses to employ Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander staff.

Factors contributing to business success Entrepreneurs need more than just ideas – they must consider key factors that are important for the success of a business, such as: • location – being in the right place to attract customers

• quality of service – providing a good customer experience

• product quality – offering something unique and valuable

• good management practices – running the business effectively with good financial and operational management.

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

450

Cambridge Investigating Humanities for the Victorian Curriculum 8

Alkira Fuel

was established by Ashley Carroll in 2019. This company, based in Brisbane, manages fuel and its distribution, refuelling methods, and fuel card programs.

Alkira Fuel is one enterprise that demonstrates these key factors. It is an Indigenous-owned business that

Low-res

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Alkira Fuel is Australia’s first dedicated national Indigenous entity formed specifically for fuel management and distribution. … WHAT WE DO

We offer our customers seamless personalised service that delivers efficiencies in their supply chains through bulk fuel deliveries, provision of on-site fuel tanks, refuelling solutions and fuel card programs. Alkira Fuel prides itself on building mutually beneficial relationships with our customers. HOW WE DO IT

Alkira Fuel collaborates with all stakeholders to build and maintain valuable relationships based on supplying quality products with trust and integrity. We drive operational excellence by delivering on our promises with safe, agile, cost-effective solutions. We reward, recognise and celebrate success within a safe, engaged and diverse environment. 1 Alkira Fuel provides national bulk deliveries, on-site tanks and refuelling solutions 2 Alkira Fuel Card & Account

• Nominate your preferred supplier or combination of suppliers. • Customize your cards…

The Alkira Fuel Program account provides: Real fuel savings to business customers

• • The convenience of a fuel account • Fuel card access to multiple brands • Multiple fuel cards can be linked to one account • Access to over 3,600 service stations nationally • Secure fuel card PIN access with odometer readings • Monthly invoice and transaction reports ready for fuel rebate calculations

Source: www.alkirafuel.com.au

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Chapter 16: How are businesses and work changing in Australia?

451

Concepts and skills builder 16.6 Comparing successful and struggling businesses Consider the following stimulus and apply the Q-CAFÉ method of investigation (outlined at the end of Lesson 16.1) by answering the questions that follow.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

In Australia, Indigenous-owned businesses have shown varied outcomes. Some, like Indigital and Mercedes Cove Wild Gubinge, have thrived by embracing innovation, strong market research and sustainability. Others have struggled due to challenges such as poor adaptability or weak customer service. Your investigation will explore how different enterprising behaviours contribute to business success or failure, and what lessons can be learned for future ventures. Q Develop a clear investigation question that explores the role of enterprising behaviours in determining the success or struggle of businesses.

C Search online and collect detailed information about another Australian example of a successful business started by an entrepreneur. Look for background data, strategies, and outcomes that highlight effective enterprising behaviours. A Analyse and compare enterprising behaviours by completing the table below. Use the provided examples and add one example of your own. Identify for each business the key behaviours and the reasons behind its success or struggle.

Business name

Enterprising behaviours

Reason for success or struggle

Indigital

Innovation, vision, adaptability

Uses new technology and AI to tell ancient stories

Mercedes Cove Wild Gubinge

Market research, sustainability

High demand for native foods, traditional knowledge

A local takeaway store closing down

Lack of adaptability, poor customer service

Did not adjust to market demand, had strong competition

Bobbi Lockyer Designs

Alkira Fuel

(Your own example)

F Find the website Supply Nation and describe its purpose. Summarise how Supply Nation supports Indigenous businesses and contributes to their growth. E Choose one of the Indigenous-owned businesses mentioned in this chapter. For each of the following key terms, write a short paragraph evaluating how the business demonstrates the concept. Use specific examples from the business to explain your answer: entrepreneur: How has the business owner taken risks and created something new? enterprise: What opportunities did they see, and how did they take action? innovation: How has the business created or improved a product or service? shared vision: What clear goal guides the business? perseverance: What challenges has the business overcome? market opportunity: What gap in the market did the business fill?

• • • • • •

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

452

Cambridge Investigating Humanities for the Victorian Curriculum 8

Next, look up the definitions of the following terms and evaluate in a paragraph how the business demonstrates each factor: cultural resurgence: How does the business help revive and strengthen traditional culture/s? self-determination: How does the business give First Nations People more control over their futures? sustainability: How does the business ensure its activities do not harm the environment? economic independence: How does this business support financial decision-making by a local group without relying on external funding?

• • • •

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Economics and Business concepts and skills: communicating, concluding and decision-making, evaluating, interpreting and analysing data and information, investigating

Lesson 16.6 review Online quiz

Review questions

DOC

Research task

Go online to access the interactive lesson review and more!

Teachers can assign tasks and track results

16.6 Review questions 1 2 3 4 5

What are three key characteristics of successful entrepreneurs? How does Indigital use innovation to stay competitive? What role does location play in business success? Why are perseverance and adaptability important for success in a new business? Identify two ways struggling businesses can improve their enterprising behaviours.

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Chapter 16: How are businesses and work changing in Australia?

453

16.7

What key skills do workers need and why do people work? FPO

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Learning intention

The previous lesson looked at how entrepreneurs can drive business success. This lesson looks at the reasons why people work for businesses and the skills they bring.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

Brainstorming the benefits of work

…

Figure 16.7.1 Workers from a range of professions

1 As a class, brainstorm reasons why people work. 2 How can work help people?

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

454

Cambridge Investigating Humanities for the Victorian Curriculum 8

Households, businesses and work There is no need for households to produce for themselves all the goods and services that they need and want. Instead, householders can earn income from specialising in what they do best. They can then use that income to buy from others the things that they need and want.

Work is paid employment of a person’s labour skills by a business. It could be full-time, part-time or casual employment. Recently, the number of people wishing to work (labour force) in Australia was over 15 million. There were 14.6 million in work and 0.6 million unemployed (about 4 per cent of the labour force). Ten million Australians (70 per cent) worked full-time.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

So, instead of everyone trying to be skilled in every task, workers provide specialised skills and businesses employ the skilled employees that they need to produce their products. In return, workers earn a wage or salary for their labour.

This specialisation enables the production of more goods and services for a nation.

Skills for work

Education and training equip us with the skills we need as workers. As core skills, all workers need reading, writing, oral communication and numeracy. Workers gain more specialised skills by completing higher education, such as a VCE or Certificate III/IV, diploma, advanced diploma, degree or higher. On

average, having a higher skill level means you will be able to earn a higher wage for your labour. Most labour employed in Australia provides services rather than producing goods. The two main industries are health care and social assistance, and retail services.

Skills in the future

Skills needed by businesses change over time. In the future, machines will continue to be developed that can do the work of humans. So, businesses will have changing needs for human skills . There will be more need for skills such as: • problem solving

• self-management

• working with people • technology skills.

Some economists estimate that about half of workers will need to reskill soon. Workers can use online courses, out-ofschool learning and training on the job to update their skills.

Other factors affecting employment Employment of your labour skills is not guaranteed. Over time, there are ‘ups’ and ‘downs’ in the total level of business activity in Australia.

Government regulation of labour markets also affects peoples’ employment and income. For example, certain jobs require registration and licenses; for example, plumbing.

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Chapter 16: How are businesses and work changing in Australia?

455

…

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES …

Figure 16.7.2 The demand for office workers is influenced by economic growth.

Figure 16.7.3 An economic downturn can see workers become unemployed.

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

456

Cambridge Investigating Humanities for the Victorian Curriculum 8

Benefits of work for the individual Work provides many benefits that improve the wellbeing and happiness of an individual.

Material wellbeing

• When inflation is high, people with low incomes may be unable to buy the goods and services they need or want. • Human activity has significantly damaged the environment (for example, by polluting land, water and air), including causing climate change.

consumption using goods and services to improve material wellbeing inflation the sustained increase in the general level of product market prices

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Businesses pay workers a wage or salary. Workers, as consumers, use this income to buy and consume goods and services, and this consumption raises the householder’s satisfaction or material wellbeing. Householders may also save some of their income for future purchases and future material wellbeing.

buy the goods and services they need or want.

However, the combination of employment and consumption are not available to everyone and they don’t always lead to increased wellbeing. Some examples of this include:

• Workers’ wellbeing is only increased if work opportunities are available near where they live

• Some people are unemployed or work for a low income, and are unable to

Non-material wellbeing

Work also improves people’s non-material wellbeing. Their self -confidence and esteem can be higher. Friendships are made at work and there is job satisfaction from team work. Physical and mental activities at work enable people to stay healthier.

financial security a positive feeling from a belief that income can pay for desired goods and services

Financial security is another benefit of work. This is especially important for those with large mortgages and other debts.

…

Figure 16.7.4 There is job satisfaction in team work.

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Chapter 16: How are businesses and work changing in Australia?

457

National effects of economic growth The nation benefits from an increase in the work undertaken by the population as a whole.

Material wellbeing

Economic growth brings greater interaction between the people of a nation. This is because there are more people involved in production, employment and trade. Such involvement leads to higher incomes and people feeling more secure. This is especially good for a multicultural society. It also leads to a greater level of voluntary and caring services. These developments boost people’s non-material wellbeing.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

economic growth growth in the level of production per head in a nation’s economy

When a country’s workforce increases the work they do and businesses have greater production, the country has economic growth. More production means extra work is available, particularly for the least advantaged. This results in reduced inequality of incomes. In addition, such growth can raise the average material wellbeing of the population.

Non-material wellbeing

With more opportunities for people to work, a growing economy has lower rates of crime. Because more people have wages, the government can gain more money from tax, so it can afford to increase community services.

Economic growth also means there is more money available for research into new products and methods. Successful inventions can lead to more production.

But economic growth has led to polluted air and water. This environmental damage can affect people’s health.

Economic growth and inequality

Work offers a wide array of material benefits to a nation as a whole. Most people enjoy these benefits. But even in a successful economy, some people who are least advantaged remain without employment and can miss out on the benefits. Indeed, the gap between the most advantaged and the least advantaged has increased in times of growth.

Concepts and skills builder 16.7

Exploring the benefits of work at different ages

Consider the following stimulus and apply the Q-CAFÉ method of investigation by answering the questions that follow.

In Victoria, youthcentral.vic.gov.au sets guidelines for young people’s paid work. Children under 11 usually do not work (except for family jobs), 11–12-year-olds may deliver newspapers or pamphlets, 13–14-yearolds can work in retail or hospitality, and those aged 15 and over can take on a wider range of jobs if they meet legal requirements. These rules prompt questions about how the age at which young people start working affects their financial independence and employment outcomes. Consider how these guidelines influence when young people earn money and manage it for the future.

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

458

Cambridge Investigating Humanities for the Victorian Curriculum 8

Q Develop a clear investigation question exploring how the minimum working age impacts young people’s financial independence and employment outcomes. C Search online for current data on youth employment in Australia. Gather statistics on the number of young workers by age, their income levels, and any information on spending and saving habits.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

A Analyse the data to examine the relationship between the age young people start working and their financial behaviours. Compare, for example, the financial situations of those who begin working at 15 years versus those who start later. Note trends in income, savings and expenditure. F Summarise your findings by reporting key statistics and trends. Include figures such as the proportion of school leavers seeking work but remaining unemployed versus those employed, and highlight any notable differences between age groups. E Evaluate the factors influencing why some young people choose not to work despite being eligible. Consider educational commitments, family responsibilities, personal preferences and job availability, and explain how these factors might affect their financial independence and future prospects.

Economics and Business concepts and skills: communicating, concluding and decision-making, evaluating, interpreting and analysing data and information, investigating

…

Figure 16.7.5 Consumption improves material wellbeing, but do some people have too much?

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Chapter 16: How are businesses and work changing in Australia?

459

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES …

Go online to access the interactive lesson review and more!

Figure 16.7.6 Working in hospitality

Lesson 16.7 review Online quiz

Review questions

DOC

Research task

Teachers can assign tasks and track results

16.7 Review questions 1 2 3 4 5

What does work mean? Distinguish between full-time, part-time, and casual work. Explain the meaning of economic growth. How can environmental damage affect people’s non-material wellbeing? How does inequality in a growing economy affect different people? Is it considered work, if you grow vegetables in the backyard for home consumption? Explain your answer.

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

460

Cambridge Investigating Humanities for the Victorian Curriculum 8

16.8

What are the wages and conditions of work? FPO

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Learning intention

The previous lesson looked at the benefits and limitations of work for people’s wellbeing. This lesson considers the income earned by workers for working for businesses.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

See, think, wonder

…

Figure 16.8.1 Nurses in New Zealand strike for better pay and work conditions, 2021

Look carefully at Figure 16.8.1 and write down answers to these questions. 1 See: What do you see? 2 Think: What do you think? 3 Wonder: What do you wonder? Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Chapter 16: How are businesses and work changing in Australia?

461

Income, wages and the labour market labour income a wage or salary paid in return for labour hours provided to a business worker a person employed by a business to provide labour skills

Labour income (wages or salaries) is income paid to householders who work. It is the largest part of total income paid for resource employment to households in Australia. Other incomes for employment of resources are rents, interests and profit dividends.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

A wage is an amount someone is paid. It is found by multiplying their wage rate (which can vary) by the number of hours they have worked. The demand for different kinds of labour can vary, with businesses (buyers of labour) sometimes

needing particular skills or workers (sellers of labour) having skills that are in high or low demand. A labour market provides an opportunity for buyers and sellers to meet, and maybe deal. There are also various markets for different types of labour skills; for example, markets for doctors, lawyers, carpenters, clerks, retail assistants, plasterers, painters, or for unskilled workers, such as fruit-pickers and cleaners. Figure 16.8.2 provides an illustration of one such labour market.

Hours of the labour skill available (supply)

Wage rate per hour

Hours of the labour skill wanted (demand)

Labour hours

…

Figure16.8.2 A labour skill market

Businesses employ labour skills to produce goods and services, so they have a demand for labour in labour markets. Household agents (workers) with the appropriate skills apply for the advertised jobs. This is their supply of labour in labour markets. When more people who wish to work are available, maybe because there are

more migrants, then the supply of labour hours increases and the wage rate lowers in labour markets without government regulation. When more work hours are wanted by businesses, maybe due to economic growth, then the demand for labour hours increases and pushes up the wage rate in labour markets without government regulation.

Factors affecting the labour market Even when businesses compete for workers, they still often have more power over wage rates than employees have. This is why workers set up unions from the mid-19th century onwards. Unions enable workers to act as a group to bargain for better wages and working conditions.

As well as businesses and unions, the government also has a role in labour markets. A century ago, a government agency was involved in setting a basic wage for workers. Over the years since, governments have set various conditions of employment. Today,

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

462

Cambridge Investigating Humanities for the Victorian Curriculum 8

the Fair Work Commission sets the minimum wage rate and conditions of employment.

• paid annual leave (time off from work)

• paid family leave (including for when they or a family member is sick and compassionate leave)

minimum wage rate the lowest wage per hour payable to a worker that is set by a government agency and enforceable by law

By law, under the superannuation guarantee Australian businesses must contribute payments to employees’ superannuation (a fund for when the employee retires).

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Also, a labour market may have many submarkets. For example, there are different wage rates for different drivers. A driver for a mining business will receive a much higher wage than a driver delivering groceries, because they will need a higher skill level, have to live in a remote location and be exposed to danger.

• paid long-service leave (after a certain number of years at the job; for example, 10 years)

Fair Work Commission a government agency established to set minimum wage rates for workers in Australia

superannuation guarantee a payment into a worker’s superannuation account by a business, to be put aside for retirement; 12% of normal wages since mid-2025

Total pay including extra benefits is often referred to as a salary package.

…

Figure 16.8.3 Workers in mining may receive extras such as remote area benefits.

As well as their base wage, workers may be paid extra benefits, including:

…

• overtime wage rates, which are higher than the normal hourly rate, for work outside of normal work hours

Figure 16.8.4 Income to a worker

• paid public holidays

Working conditions

A worker is legally entitled to a work environment that is: • healthy • safe

• free of bullying

Pay and conditions are usually agreed to in an enterprise agreement. Enterprise agreements are between the employer(s) and the employees. They include pay and conditions better than the minimum set by the Fair Work Commission.

• free of discrimination

• free of sexual harassment

enterprise agreement an agreement between the workers and employers about pay rates and conditions of work; registered with the Fair Work Commission

• without unfair dismissal.

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Chapter 16: How are businesses and work changing in Australia?

463

Concepts and skills builder 16.8 Exploring the impact of workers’ strikes Consider the following stimulus and apply the Q-CAFÉ method of investigation by answering the questions that follow.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Recent strikes in Australia have highlighted their role as a tool for workers to negotiate better wages and working conditions. News reports and industrial data show that during strike periods, wages, job security and overall employment conditions often come under review. This investigation will focus on understanding how strikes function as a means for workers to influence their income and employment terms, and whether they successfully achieve these aims. Q Develop a clear investigation question that focuses on the impact of workers’ strikes on labour income and employment conditions.

C Search online and gather data on recent industrial strikes in Australia. Collect statistics and case studies that detail strike events, including duration, reasons, and any reported changes in wages and working conditions resulting from these disputes. A Analyse the collected data to identify patterns and trends. For example, examine how strike actions have influenced wage negotiations and improved employment conditions in specific industries. Highlight any notable differences before, during and after strike events. F Summarise your findings by reporting key statistics and trends from your analysis. Explain how strikes have affected wage levels and employment conditions, and note any significant improvements or challenges that emerged during these periods. E Evaluate the overall effectiveness of workers’ strikes as a tool for achieving better income and employment conditions. Discuss the benefits and drawbacks observed, and express your view on whether strikes serve as a successful strategy for workers in Australia.

Economics and Business concepts and skills: communicating, concluding and decision-making, evaluating, interpreting and analysing data and information, investigating

Go online to access the interactive lesson review and more!

Lesson 16.8 review Online quiz

Review questions

DOC

Research task

Teachers can assign tasks and track results

16.8 Review questions 1 2 3 4 5

Explain the meaning of a labour market. What is a salary package? Explain the role an employer has in building a worker’s superannuation account. What role does the Fair Work Commission play in the labour market? What factors can explain the differences in wage rates between a driver for a mining business and a driver delivering groceries?

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

464

Cambridge Investigating Humanities for the Victorian Curriculum 8

16.9

How is the nature of work changing? FPO

Learning intention

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

The previous lesson looked at the wage income from, and the conditions of, work. This lesson considers the changing nature of work.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

Brainstorming work needs for the future

Go around the class and find out what types of work your classmates or their families do. 1 What examples of change in workplaces are there amongst your classmates? 2 Consider what type of education and training workers might need, if they are to keep up with the changes in skills demanded by workplaces.

The nature of work is changing because of the use of new technologies and the new skills needed for producing goods and services. Changes are mainly due to: computer technology (digitisation) climate change new skills needed globalisation and changes in society flexible working arrangements.

• • • • •

globalisation greater movement of ideas, people, resources and products between nations around the world

Computer technology

Since the 1970s, production methods have been revolutionised by computer technology. Many repetitive tasks are now undertaken by software and automation (such as robots). Computer technology has replaced many jobs for people in manufacturing and administration services. Businesses now use databases, word processing, digital spreadsheets, email, conference calling and AI. New

labour-saving software is constantly being invented.

automation a method of production that replaces human involvement with technology

Large companies such as BMW use robots to produce cars along their assembly lines. These companies outsource some car parts to other specialist companies, such as seats. This ordering process is online, automatic and just-in-time.

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Chapter 16: How are businesses and work changing in Australia?

465

Climate change electric vehicles powered by renewables is also reducing carbon emissions.

Increasingly, solar and wind power (renewable energy sources) are being used for energy production. The growing use of

…

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Some businesses use production methods that release gases that contribute to climate change and global warming, such as carbon dioxide. So, governments have introduced regulations for businesses to change their methods of production. One such change has been to remove pollutants from factory emissions. The move away from using fossil fuels to generate electrical energy is another change to reduce carbon emissions.

Figure 16.9.1 A solar farm

New skills needed

Computer technologies are continually evolving. This has created the demand for new skills by businesses, such as cybersecurity and an ability to work effectively with AI.

…

Many nations have trade deals with other countries. For example, the Australian deal with the US and UK (AUKUS) for building nuclear submarines. This deal enables more ship construction work in Australia. It also means importing

the knowledge of relevant building processes into Australia.

Figure 16.9.2 New skills for new jobs

Globalisation

Globalisation is the expansion in dealings between nations. It leads to greater integration of all people around the world. Globalisation involves greater transport, using container technology. It also involves greater and faster communication between people and businesses around the world.

These developments have brought about changes in the types of work. International companies establish operations where there is cheaper labour.

For example, Thailand has welcomed car producers.

Globalisation has led to companies such as Microsoft opening up new markets around the world. It has also led to new national agreements for more trade; for example, Australia’s many free trade agreements (although, in contrast, consider the recent tariff increases by the USA). At the same time, many nations have agreed to reduce carbon emissions.

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

466

Cambridge Investigating Humanities for the Victorian Curriculum 8

Flexible work arrangements The workplace has changed recently with the move to more flexible arrangements. Many office workers can now work part of the week at home. This change has become much more common since the COVID-19 pandemic.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

…

Figure 16.9.3 Globalisation means growing links between nations

… Figure 16.9.4 Working

from home has become more common.

Concepts and skills builder 16.9 Analysing the impact of technology on work

Consider the following stimulus and apply the Q-CAFÉ method of investigation by answering the questions that follow.

Automation, digital platforms and emerging technologies are significantly altering work practices in Australia. For example, data from industry surveys show an increase in the use of automated processes in manufacturing and digital tools in service sectors, leading to changes in job roles and a growing demand for skills in areas such as data analysis and digital literacy.

…

Figure 16.9.5 Automation is increasingly common in the workplace, and not just in factories.

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Chapter 16: How are businesses and work changing in Australia?

467

Q Develop an investigation question on how technological advancements are reshaping work practices and skill requirements. C Search online for data on new technology adoption in Australian workplaces. Collect statistics on automation, digital tools and emerging tech skills demanded by employers. A Analyse the data to identify trends. Explain how automation and digital platforms have altered job roles and increased the demand for specific skills.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

F Summarise your findings by highlighting the main trends observed. Explain how technological shifts have transformed work practices and the types of skills that are now in demand. E Evaluate the impact of these changes on the workforce. Discuss the benefits and challenges for employees, employers and educators, and offer recommendations for future workforce preparation.

Economics and Business concepts and skills: communicating, concluding and decision-making, evaluating, interpreting and analysing data and information, investigating

Go online to access the interactive lesson review and more!

Lesson 16.9 review Online quiz

Review questions

DOC

Research task

Teachers can assign tasks and track results

16.9 Review questions 1 2 3 4 5 6

What is cybersecurity? Explain the meaning of container technology. What is the meaning of greening technology? Identify some jobs AI can replace. Discuss the pros and cons of flexible working arrangements for both workers and businesses. Define globalisation. What impact does globalisation have on labour markets, wages and production?

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

468

Cambridge Investigating Humanities for the Victorian Curriculum 8

16.10

What are some predictions about the future of work? FPO

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Learning intention

The previous lesson looked at the changing nature of work. This lesson considers predictions about the future of work.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

Think, pair, share

1 Think: Do you believe people will work fewer hours in the future – say an average of 20 hours per week? 2 Pair: Work with a classmate. One of you prepares a 2-minute talk supporting shorter working hours and the other prepares a 2-minute talk opposing reduced hours. 3 Share: Be prepared to share a summary of your points with the class.

…

Figure 16.10.1 Flexible work arrangements could have a big impact on businesses in the future.

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Chapter 16: How are businesses and work changing in Australia?

469

Predicted changes to businesses and work Businesses aim to make maximum profits, but their circumstances are constantly changing. Some of the changes businesses will encounter include: • new business objectives • changes in products or services that they offer • developments in technologies

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

philanthropy the donation of assets by wealthy individuals and companies to the least advantaged households

Experts believe that in the future machines will be able to be used for jobs that require the ability to make decisions. For example, recruiting businesses may use AI to select the best five or so applications for a job, reducing the need for human resources (employees). Instead, there will be more work for people skilled in information technology and science.

• changes in how workers want to work (for example with increased flexibility) • new government regulations.

These changes affect the types of work people do and the skills needed.

New objectives

New products and services

…

An example of changes in objectives is that a business may choose to improve its reputation and appeal by pursuing new ethical and environmental objectives. For example, Dignity is a charity that receives sponsorship from various businesses, including Fantastic Furniture, to work on helping homeless people. Other businesses may help clean up rubbish or pollution in a local area. For example, Cleanaway Waste Management Limited sponsors Clean up Australia Day, because it reflects their business activities and values.

Figure 16.10.2 How many types of work can robots

replace?

Another major change in technology will be in the use of renewable energy (solar and wind). Sustainable and environmental-friendly methods of production will continue to replace coal and other fossil-fuel energy. To meet these changes, workers will need greater skills in information technology science and engineering.

New products and services are always being developed and changing the skills businesses need. For example, electric cars need very different skills for their manufacture compared to cars with combustion engines. Mechanics who service such cars must also have new skills.

Technology

…

Work will continue to change with new computer technology, including automated machinery and the growing use of AI.

Figure 16.10.3 The wind energy industry created

new jobs.

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

470

Cambridge Investigating Humanities for the Victorian Curriculum 8

Flexible work conditions

The trend of owning a business providing a service is expected to continue. This is especially the case in health and wellbeing services. Machinery will continue to replace workers in agriculture, mining and manufacturing.

It’s predicted workers will increasingly want to work remotely and with more flexibility in times and hours of work. If businesses do not allow remote work and flexible conditions, they may not be able to fill the necessary jobs.

Government regulation Governments may introduce new regulations to protect people – consumers, workers and producers. For example, new regulations for health and safety may apply to new automated processes. Businesses need to train their workers in meeting any new regulations, and employ people who can monitor whether regulations are being met.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

In the future, more jobs will be undertaken over four days rather than the common five-day week, and part-time employment will increase.

There will be greater surveillance of people in public spaces as well as at work. This will lead to workers being more conscious of being watched, and their responses may be to work slower or to try to find more opportunities to avoid being observed.

What do changes mean for workers? These changes to work suggest that in the future, workers will constantly need to upgrade and adopt new skills. As a worker, you will need to have life-long education and training to build new capabilities. You will benefit from keeping an eye on new opportunities, and being flexible and ready to adapt.

Another change is the growth in population (Table 16.10.1). This will lead to growth in the non-working population (people aged 0–14 and over 65 years old), from 9 million to 14 million. Worker numbers will not increase as fast as non-worker numbers. Each worker will need to produce more than now (that is, raise their productivity) so that overall material wellbeing of all does not fall.

Greater inequality will occur due to changes in technology. The increase in inequality around the world means that the possibility of war is increasing. Table 16.10.1 Population estimates for Australia

Age group (years)

2022 (actual)

2050 (estimate)

No. (millions)

0–14

4.7

4.5

15-64

17.0

21.0

65+

4.3

9.5

Total

100

Source: Derived from ABS Population Projections 2022

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Chapter 16: How are businesses and work changing in Australia?

471

Concepts and skills builder 16.10 Predicting the impact of a four‐day workweek Consider the following stimulus and apply the Q-CAFÉ method of investigation by answering the questions that follow.

…

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

A Harvard Business Review article from January 2024 predicts that four‐day workweeks will move from being seen as radical to becoming routine. Industry data and emerging case studies suggest that reducing the number of working days can improve work–life balance and boost employee productivity.

Figure 16.10.4 Trends that will influence the future of work: working from home, AI use and the four-day

working week

Q Develop an investigation question focused on the four‐day workweek.

C Search online for data and case studies on businesses that have adopted a four‐day workweek. Collect statistics on productivity, employee satisfaction and operational changes resulting from this work schedule. A Analyse the collected data to determine the benefits and challenges of a four‐day workweek. Discuss how reduced working days may influence productivity, work–life balance and overall business performance. F Summarise your findings by highlighting key trends from the case studies. Report on observed changes in employee wellbeing, efficiency and any adjustments made by businesses to support the shorter workweek. E Evaluate the potential long‐term impact of a four‐day workweek on future job roles and work practices. Discuss the possible benefits and drawbacks for employees and employers, and express your view on whether this trend could improve work conditions in Australia.

Economics and Business concepts and skills: communicating, concluding and decision-making, evaluating, interpreting and analysing data and information, investigating

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

472

Cambridge Investigating Humanities for the Victorian Curriculum 8

Lesson 16.10 review Online quiz

Review questions

DOC

Research task

Go online to access the interactive lesson review and more!

Teachers can assign tasks and track results

16.10 Review questions List five factors that will affect work in the future. Name some changes predicted for working conditions. How might the nature of work change in the future due to advancements in technology? Describe three examples. Why will workers need to upgrade and adopt new skills in the future? What impact will environmental issues have on production and the workforce in the future ?

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

1 2 3 4 5

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Chapter 16: How are businesses and work changing in Australia?

473

16.11

Research task: Is a basic income for all Australian households a fair idea? FPO

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

This research task is designed to be completed over multiple weeks, as you complete the chapter. Do not leave it until the end of the unit. By completing this research task, you will have the opportunity to consolidate the ideas learned throughout this chapter, and demonstrate your understanding of Economics and Business concepts and skills.

Research topic: Is a basic income for all Australian households a fair idea?

Investigate and evaluate the research question and develop your response using the following questions to guide you. You should follow the Q-CAFÉ method of investigation, as described in the box at the end of Lesson 16.1. Prepare a report of your investigation. 1 Q This task considers the idea of all households having a basic income. A basic income is one large enough to pay for the basic needs of food, energy, clothing, housing and health. Having a basic income for all households would ensure that all citizens would enjoy a decent level of material wellbeing. Think about the benefits and drawbacks of households having a basic income, and write down your ideas. What questions do you have? 2 C Collect data on the number of Australian households of various types; for example, one-adult households, two-adult households, etc.

3 A Table 16.11.1 lists households by the number of adults and children they contain (first column). For each type of household, the second column in the table lists what percentage have an income in the lowest 20% for Australian household incomes (which we will refer to from here on as ‘lowincome households’). The third column lists the estimated income that a household of the given size needs for its basic living expenses.

Table 16.11.1 Household types, percentage on low income, and income needed

Household type

Percentage of households in the lowest 20% of income

Income needed ($ p.a.)

One adult

25 000

Two adults

40 000

Two adult + one or more children

50 000

One adult + one or more children

40 000

Source: Compiled from 2021 data from the Australian Bureau of Statistics

The table shows disposable incomes after income tax is taken and transfers received. Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

474

Cambridge Investigating Humanities for the Victorian Curriculum 8

Analyse the following:

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

a Find the total number of households in Australia. Then find the number that are low-income households. b Assume that the average income of households in this lowest income group is $25 000 per year. Estimate the total disposable income earned by the group. c Estimate the number of low-income households in each adult/child group. Use the percentages in the second column of the above table. d How much disposable income is required by low-income households to meet their needs? Use the incomes listed in third column. e How much more income is needed by the low-income group above what they earned? This is the difference between answers to parts b and d.

4 F Summarise your findings. Suggest ways in which the extra income needed by the lowest income household group can be obtained.

5 E How would you explain the fairness of a program in which the government pays this extra income to low-income households?

The report

Your teacher will tell you how you should present your report (written, oral, multimedia). However, your report should include sections that correspond to the Q-CAFÉ method of investigation: • State the question that you are investigating.

• Present the data that you have gathered related to the question. • Provide responses to the five questions related to analysis. • Outline a summary of your findings from the analysis.

• Finish with your evaluation of the fairness of government financial support for lowincome households.

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Chapter 16: How are businesses and work changing in Australia?

475

16.12

End of investigation review: How are businesses and work changing in Australia?

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

FPO

Access the Interactive Textbook for a range of digital tools to help you review this topic, including:

• Chapter summary • Auto-marked chapter test • Scorcher timed competitive quiz.

Brain dump

What have you learned about employment in Australia now and into the future? Copy and complete the table to explain your understanding. Aim for two points per topic.

What types of businesses are there in Australia? What are market opportunities for businesses? How do businesses set goals and strategies?

What is enterprise and how do businesses succeed? What makes an entrepreneur successful? What key skills do workers need? Why do people work?

What are the wages and conditions of work? How is work changing?

How is work predicted to change in the future?

Making thinking visible

Apply the 3-2-1 Routine to summarise your findings from this investigation. 1 Recall three main points or ideas from the topic.

2 Identify two interesting or surprising facts related to the topic. 3 State one question that you still have or something you want to learn more about.

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

476

Cambridge Investigating Humanities for the Victorian Curriculum 8

Practice questions 6 How are enterprise and business success linked? Why are entrepreneurs important? 7 Describe two benefits of work for: a the individual b the nation. 8 a How will changes in technology affect work in the future? b What skills and attitudes will give workers an advantage when seeking employment in the future?

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

1 List four key decisions businesses have to make about their operations. 2 What is unemployment? 3 Describe three ways that businesses are grouped into different types. Give an example of each. 4 a What is a market opportunity? b What are some of the ways a market opportunity can be identified? 5 What are the common goals of a business’s strategic plan?

Response to chapter inquiry question: How are businesses and work changing in Australia?

Write a paragraph in response to the inquiry question. Include the following key terms: • business

• enterprise

• labour

• entrepreneur

• profit

• working conditions

• target market

• automation

• unemployed

• artificial intelligence.

• business model

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Chapter 16: How are businesses and work changing in Australia?

477

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES Parliament House, Canberra, contains the Senate and the House of Representatives.

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

478

Part 4

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Civics and Citizenship

FPO

Watch the video for an introduction to Civics and Citizenship in Year 8 and the Civics and Citizenship skills and concepts you will be working with.

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

479

INVESTIGATION

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Australia’s political structure, democracy and citizenship

OVERVIEW FPO <QR>

[In Year 8, Civics and Citizenship students will] … develop their understanding of the principles and features of Australia’s systems of government and the main participants in Australia’s democratic institutions, including citizens. Students examine the characteristics and types of law in Australia, the democratic nature of institutions and the relationship between individuals, communities and contemporary Australian society. Source: VCAA, Victorian Curriculum V2.0, ‘Civics and Citizenship’, ‘Band description – Levels 7 and 8’

CURRICULUM GOALS

• How can I participate in Australian democracy? • What makes Australia’s institutions democratic? • Who influences decision-making in Australia’s institutions and how do they gain this influence?

• How might we ensure that legal mechanisms create security for all citizens in Australia?

• How does Australian citizenship affect you? Source: VCAA, Victorian Curriculum V2.0, ‘Civics and Citizenship’, ‘Band description – Levels 7 and 8’ Teacher note: Curriculum alignment information for this Investigation is available in the Online Teaching Suite.

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

480

CHAPTER 17

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

How do Australian citizens engage with Australia’s political and legal systems? FPO

LESSON TITLE

17.1

Setting the scene: Westralia!

17.2

What are the key principles and features of Australia’s Constitution?

17.3

What is your role in Australia’s political system?

17.4

How is Australia’s court system structured?

17.5

How has the High Court influenced the law?

17.6

What are the different types of laws in Australia and how are laws made?

17.7

What is the story of Waltzing Matilda and why is it signiﬁcant?

17.8

What do Australia’s national emblems represent and how has multiculturalism influenced Australia?

17.9

End of investigation task: How can we maintain a strong Australian society?

17.10

End of investigation review: How do Australian citizens engage with Australia’s political and legal systems?

Image: The High Court of Australia, with Lake Burley Griffin in the foreground, Canberra

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

481

17.1

Setting the scene: Westralia! FPO

Learning intention

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

In this lesson, you will learn about the fascinating case of Western Australia’s attempt to leave the Commonwealth of Australia and form its own nation.

Low-res

…

Figure 17.1.1 A meeting of the Dominion League for the secession movement, April 1933. What details do you notice in this image?

constitution a document that sets out the political structure of a country

The preamble (introduction) of the Australian Constitution states ‘Whereas the people of New South Wales, Victoria, South Australia, Queensland, and Tasmania … have agreed to unite in one indissoluble Federal Commonwealth under … the Constitution hereby established.’ Western Australia wasn’t included here. In the lead up to Federation in 1901, Western Australian originally

showed some reluctance to be a part of the new Commonwealth of Australia, but eventually agreed. It was only included after a late vote that supported joining the Commonwealth. Fast forward just 30 years, and a political group called the Dominion League (Figure 17.1.1) emerged in Western Australia. The Dominion

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

482

Cambridge Investigating Humanities for the Victorian Curriculum 8

League wanted secession : they wanted Western Australia to leave the Commonwealth of Australia but still be part of the British Empire (Figure 17.1.2). They proposed calling their new nation Westralia. Why? Australia and much of the world was suffering economically

from a severe economic downturn called the Great Depression. Many people were unemployed and unable to afford basic items like food and housing. Western Australian secessionists wanted greater economic independence from Australia’s eastern states.

secession the act of withdrawing and separating from a country, area or organisation and becoming independent

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Low-res

…

Figure 17.1.2 A newspaper headline from The Sunday Times, 26 March 1933. What kind of message do this headline and front page present? How influential do you think this kind of message would have been for readers of the newspaper? How do political parties advertise today?

Eventually, on 8 April 1933, Western Australia held a referendum and asked its people the following question:

The results of the referendum are shown in Table 17.1.1.

Are you in favour of the State of Western Australia withdrawing from the Federal Commonwealth established under the Commonwealth of Australia Constitution Act (Imperial)?

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Chapter 17: How do Australian citizens engage with Australia’s political and legal systems?

483

Table 17.1.1 Results of the Western Australian secession referendum, April 1933

Votes

Percentage of total votes

Yes

138 653

66.23

70 706

33.77

Valid votes

209 359

96.33

Invalid or blank votes

7 967

3.67

Total votes

217 326

100.00

Registered voter turnout

237 198

91.62

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Choice

Low-res

…

Figure 17.1.3 (Left) A how-to-vote card from the Western Australian secession referendum of 1933. (Right) A souvenir postcard from the referendum. Who is the targeted audience? Provide evidence. Why do these sources exist? What motivated the people to create them source? What is their significance?

So, a majority of Western Australians (66 per cent) voted to secede (withdraw) from the Commonwealth of Australia. However, the British Parliament had the final say, and it was reluctant to interfere in the internal affairs of Australia. It decided not to support the referendum result, because it didn’t reflect the interests of the entire Australian population. Thus, the case for secession failed.

For a brief moment in Australian history there was a possibility that Western Australia could have become an independent country, separate from all the other states. As you learn about Australian history and the Australian political system, remember this example of a moment when a group of people considered themselves to be defined by their state and their state’s history more than by Australia as a whole.

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

484

Cambridge Investigating Humanities for the Victorian Curriculum 8

The Victorian Curriculum lists a range of skills that you will need to develop. To help you practise and integrate these skills in Civics and Citizenship, we have developed the QUED method of investigation. There are opportunities to apply this method throughout the lessons, as well as in a final research task (Lesson 17.9). QUED method of investigation Q Questions are formed to investigate a political, legal or civic issue. You can use the question starters who, what, when, where, why or how to form your questions.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

U Undertake the collection and analysis of a range of information. Evaluate the quality and breadth of information relevant to the issue.

Evaluate how the principles of justice are achieved through the legal system.

E Evaluate the political power of actors involved with an issue and their connections with institutions. Evaluate the effectiveness of democratic decision-making.

Evaluate the methods and strategies of civic participation in relation to an issue.

Decide, recommend and justify changes regarding the issue. Deliver your response to the issue using the most effective method of communication.

Note that the research task is designed to be completed over the duration of the unit, rather than in the final few weeks. Be sure to get started as soon as possible!

Lesson 17.1 review Online quiz

Review questions

DOC

Research task

Go online to access the interactive lesson review and more!

Teachers can assign tasks and track results

17.1 Review questions

1 a Write the terms and definitions below in your notebook. With a classmate, test your knowledge of the definitions. constitution a document that sets out the political structure of a country secession the act of withdrawing and separating from a country, area or organisation and becoming independent b Create a sentence for each term, using it correctly. 2 Identify which Australian state was not originally included in the preamble to the Australian Constitution. Why did this happen? 3 Explain the role of the British Parliament in the outcome of the 1933 Western Australian referendum. 4 Develop three questions you could ask to learn more about Western Australia’s attempt to leave the Commonwealth of Australia. 5 Describe the reasons for the Western Australian secessionist movement. 6 Watch the video in Figure 17.1.4 about the formation of the different states of Australia and answer the following questions. a Which state was the first to be created? b What year was the Northern Territory created? And which state was it originally part of? c Which country was briefly administered by the colony of New South Wales?

FPO VQR1701

…

Figure 17.1.4

Political boundaries of Australia over time

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Chapter 17: How do Australian citizens engage with Australia’s political and legal systems?

485

17.2

What are the key principles and features of Australia’s Constitution? FPO

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Learning intention

In this lesson, you will learn about the components of the Australian Constitution and compare its various branches and roles.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

See, think, wonder

…

Figure 17.2.1 King Charles III and Queen Camilla greet the crowd outside St Thomas’s Anglican Church in

Sydney, 2024.

1 See: Carefully examine Figure 17.2.1 and note down what you see. 2 Think: What does this photograph make you think? 3 Wonder: What does this make you wonder?

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

486

Cambridge Investigating Humanities for the Victorian Curriculum 8

Separation of powers

legislative the parliament; the group who makes or changes the law

The Australian Constitution describes the political structure of Australia, with three main branches: • legislative (the parliament) • executive (heads of state and the leading politicians) • judiciary (the courts). It outlines that the powers of these branches are separate from each other (Table 17.2.1).

judiciary the court system; the group who makes judgements about the law

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Table 17.2.1 The three branches of power: legislative, executive and judiciary

executive the heads of state and leading politicians of a government; the group who puts the law into action

Legislative

Executive

Description

The parliament is the legislative part. It includes the Senate and House of Representatives.

The prime minister and The judiciary makes up Cabinet are the executive. the court system. However, King Charles III of England is technically Australia’s Head of State. His representative is the governor-general.

Function

The legislative has the power to make laws through drafting, debating and voting.

The executive has the power to apply the law.

The separation of powers splits power between the legislative, executive and judiciary. Let’s use your home environment as an analogy for this. Imagine if one of your parents or guardians were the rule-making parent. This is like the legislative. They decide rules like bedtime, chores and screentime. The other parent or guardian enforces the rules. They make sure everyone follows them. This is like the executive. Finally, if there’s a dispute over a broken rule, the parents may meet with another family member to resolve it. This is the job of the judiciary. The separation of powers prevents one person or group in authority from having too much power. For thousands of years, humans have organised societies where power is in the hands of only a few people and it ends up being

Judiciary

The judiciary has the power to decide the outcome when there is a dispute over the application of the country’s laws.

abused. People in power tend to serve the interests of themselves and people like them, not the wider community. The separation of powers aims to ensure decisions made by leaders are fair for everyone.

Legislative

separation of powers the allocation of power to three different groups who make and manage laws – the judiciary, executive and legislative

The legislative makes the laws. It consists of members of parliament, elected by Australian voters. The legislative makes laws by drafting, debating and voting on them. Parliament House in Canberra is where the federal legislative meet. It houses the House of Representatives and the Senate. The Senate is a group of politicians elected to represent each state’s interests. The House of Representatives (Figure 17.2.2) is a group of politicians elected to represent the local people in each member’s electorate.

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Chapter 17: How do Australian citizens engage with Australia’s political and legal systems?

487

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES …

Figure 17.2.2 A full sitting of parliamentary members in the House of Representatives at Parliament House, Canberra, listening to an address by then British Prime Minister Tony Blair. Why might the House of Representatives sometimes invite leaders from other countries to come to speak?

As well as Parliament House in Canberra, each state and territory has its own legislature. All states except Queensland have two houses; they are called ‘bicameral’ (‘bi’ means two and ‘cameral’ means chamber). They have a lower house called the Legislative Assembly, and an upper house called the Legislative Council. The Northern Territory and Australian Capital Territory each have only one house (they are unicameral).

governor-general the representative of the British monarch in Australia; they use their authority in line with the advice of the prime minister and the ministers and sign laws into action bill a document describing a new or changed area of law in the form of a proposed Act of Parliament

In the Australian Constitution there are four types of legislative power. Some are shared between the federal and state or territory parliaments and some are not: • Specific powers: These are lawmaking powers given to the Australian Parliament. They are in sections 51 and 52 of the Australian Constitution. They provide for ‘peace, order, and good government of Australia’. • Exclusive powers: Only the Australian Parliament can use these powers, such as creating currency.

• Concurrent powers: These are shared, non-exclusive powers, such as the power over taxation. • Residual powers: These are the law-making powers of each state

or territory. They were agreed to at Federation when the colonies discussed what powers to keep and what to cede to the new Australian Parliament. This is explained in greater detail in the next lesson.

Executive

The executive branch of government has the power to enforce and implement the law.

Governor-general

The governor-general (as representative of the British monarch) has ultimate authority over the Commonwealth of Australia. This authority is commonly used only on the advice of the prime minister and his or her ministers. The governorgeneral signs bills into law, giving them royal assent, and starts the process for a federal election. They have the rarely-used power to dismiss a prime minister, and to appoint one if a federal election has not resulted in a clear outcome. Think of the governor-general as a third umpire for a footy match. Without their role, gameplay could sometimes be stopped by a messy dispute.

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

488

Cambridge Investigating Humanities for the Victorian Curriculum 8

Amazing but true… Did you know that the governor-general is not allowed to enter the House of Representatives? This also applies to the British king or queen, if they come to visit Australia and attend Parliament House. This is because the House of Representatives is the people’s house. The rule dates back to 1642, when King Charles I of England, with armed guards, entered the equivalent British lower house (the House of Commons) and tried to arrest some members. The Cabinet is the most important decision-making group in the government, yet it doesn’t exist in the Constitution. It is made up of ministers responsible for certain departments, such as Health, Education, Employment, Defence, Infrastructure and Energy.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Prime minister and Cabinet

The prime minister leads the government and is considered to be ‘first amongst equals’. Figure 17.2.3 shows Prime Minister Anthony Albanese, his Cabinet ministers and Governor-General David Hurley out the front of Government House, the governor-general’s official residence.

…

Figure 17.2.3 Prime Minister Anthony Albanese poses with his new Cabinet after a swearing-in ceremony at Government House on 1 June 2022, Canberra.

Judiciary The judiciary resolves disputes involving the law. This can include disputes between state and federal jurisdictions, not just between people and companies. For example, in 1983, the High Court

heard a case between the Commonwealth of Australia and the Tasmanian Government. The Tasmanian Government wanted to build a dam on the Franklin River, but the Commonwealth opposed it. The Commonwealth had to protect World

jurisdiction the extent of a court’s power to apply the law, make orders on people and declare a judgement

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Chapter 17: How do Australian citizens engage with Australia’s political and legal systems?

489

Heritage sites under international treaties and they were concerned about the environment. The Tasmanian Government

ultimately lost and so the construction did not go ahead.

Division of powers Various powers are held by or shared between federal and state or territory governments.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

When the Australian Constitution was being written in the late 1890s, some of its writers were concerned about there being a single government in Canberra that could oversee all political decisions. The Australian colonies wanted a national government and they wanted it to have real powers, but within limits. They didn’t want it to interfere with their own responsibilities.

This can be compared with the situation of an adult child living with their parents. The parents have control over some parts of how the household runs, and the adult child has responsibility for other parts.

Table 17.2.2 shows examples of the different types of services that are run by the different levels of government. Services are run by different levels of government to make them more efficient. For example, local governments (often referred to as local councils) are responsible for services such as parks and gardens, because they are so affected by local conditions.

Table 17.2.2 The levels of government in Australia: federal, state or territory, and local

Level

Responsibilities

Federal

Federal law-making responsibilities include: national defence, immigration, communication and broadcasting, tertiary education, marriages and divorces, pensions, international trade, income taxation and GST, air travel, postal services and commerce.

State or territory State responsibilities include: health (hospitals and ambulances but not GPs), police, housing, primary and secondary education, land taxation, public transport such as buses, trains and trams. Territories differ in some areas (e.g. there is no land taxation in the Northern Territory). Local

transparency openness to having actions seen and understood

citizen someone who is a legal member of a country and as a result has individual responsibilities and rights that are protected by the government

There are more than 500 local government councils in Australia. Councils operate under state law and can make laws on local issues, called by-laws. Responsibilities include: roads and footpaths, pet control, sewerage, public libraries, rubbish and recycling collection, child care, parks and gardens, and street lighting.

Supporting democratic values Both the separation of powers and the division of powers ensure that power and decision-making isn’t in the hands of just a few people. Giving distinct powers to different institutions like the executive, judiciary and legislative promotes transparency and fairness between citizens and the government. This process of decision making involves

sharing information between different people with different responsibilities. The democratic values of freedom of speech, association, assembly, religion and movement are promoted, because if one institution takes an action that endangers these rights, another institution can challenge it. As a result, fairness is better promoted.

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

490

Cambridge Investigating Humanities for the Victorian Curriculum 8

Concepts and skills builder 17.2 Researching former prime ministers of Australia Consider the following stimulus and apply the QUED method of investigation (outlined at the end of Lesson 17.1) by answering the questions that follow.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

In 2020, Monash University in Victoria published a ranking of Australian prime ministers based on a survey of 66 politics and history experts (Table 17.2.3). These former prime ministers have shaped Australia through their decisions and leadership styles. Some leaders are remembered for their bold reforms and strong influence on national policy, while others are noted for their steady guidance during challenging times. Table 17.2.3 Monash University’s top five prime ministers of Australia

Ranking

Name

Party

1st

John Curtin

Labor

2nd

Bob Hawke

Labor

3rd

Alfred Deakin

Liberal

4th

Ben Chifley

Labor

Equal 5th

Robert Menzies

Liberal

Equal 5th

Paul Keating

Labor

Q Write one clear question about how a former prime minister’s leadership changed Australia’s political landscape.

U Choose two former prime ministers. Undertake research to gather key details about their leadership styles, major decisions and lasting impacts on the country.

E Compare and evaluate the two leaders. Discuss which leader you think made a greater impact and why, considering their decisions and the changes they brought.

D Decide which qualities are the most important for a prime minister to have. Justify your choice, using the evidence you collected.

Civics and citizenship concepts and skills: communicating, evaluating democratic institutions and systems, investigating contemporary civics and citizenship issues, participating in civic processes

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Chapter 17: How do Australian citizens engage with Australia’s political and legal systems?

491

Go online to access the interactive lesson review and more!

Lesson 17.2 review Online quiz

Review questions

DOC

Research task

Teachers can assign tasks and track results

17.2 Review questions What does the separation of powers mean? Explain how it supports a society’s democratic values. What are the four types of legislative power? What is the role of the executive? What is the role of the judiciary? Why doesn’t Australia have just one level of government? Explain the division of powers between different levels of government in Australia, giving examples of each. 6 How does the separation of powers prevent the concentration of authority in one group or individual?

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

1 2 3 4 5

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

492

Cambridge Investigating Humanities for the Victorian Curriculum 8

17.3

What is your role in Australia’s political system? FPO

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Learning intention

Last lesson looked at the separation of powers and the levels of government. In this lesson you will learn about how citizens can participate in and influence law making.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

See, think, wonder

…

Figure 17.3.1 A voter casts their ballot in the 2022 Australian election.

1 See: Carefully examine Figure 17.3.1 and note down what you see. 2 Think: What does this photograph make you think? 3 Wonder: What does this make you wonder?

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Chapter 17: How do Australian citizens engage with Australia’s political and legal systems?

493

Rights and responsibilities A citizen has rights and responsibilities that influence Australia’s political system.

rights are protected regardless of there being no Australian bill of rights.

Just like in school, where you have certain rights and responsibilities, you and everyone else have certain rights and responsibilities in the much wider Australian community.

Citizens’ responsibilities include serving on a jury, voting and obeying the law. Also, citizens have the right and various opportunities to influence the making and changing of laws.

Serving on a jury

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

In school, you might have signed a classroom agreement with your teacher and fellow students that outlines how you and other students are expected to behave in order to maximise your learning opportunities and to ensure order and organisation. By signing the agreement, you are consenting to the teacher being able to use certain powers. For example, they might give detentions for poor behaviour, or rewards for productive behaviour that is line with your classroom’s values, such as respect and integrity. In return, your teacher is responsible for ensuring your rights are upheld and protected, such as the right to learn and the right to be safe.

jury a group of people (often 12) chosen from the public to decide the outcome of a court case

criminal law the area of law covering crimes against people, such as violent crimes, for which guilty people may be sent to jail; the state takes the court action and each Australian state has its own criminal law civil law the area of law covering disputes between people and/or companies, where the outcome is often the awarding of damages (money)

policy a statement of the actions a political party or individual intends to take on a particular issue; for example, to put more funding into public education or to lower income tax local representative the member of parliament who is elected to serve his or her electorate

The Australian political system operates in a similar way. The Commonwealth Government of Australia and the six states and two territories are responsible for ensuring citizens’ rights are protected and the law is upheld. Such citizens’ rights include freedom of expression and freedom of association. Many of these rights are not explicitly written down, unlike in the United States, which has a bill of rights. In Australia,

A jury is a group of citizens who look at the facts during a court trial and apply the law, as the judge explains it, to decide the outcome. If there were no juries, then lawyers and judges would have too much control over the law. Juries provide a balance and bring a greater range of life experience than a single judge. In criminal law trials, the jury decides if the person accused of a crime is guilty or not. In civil law trials that have a jury, they decide who is at fault and how much money should be paid (called damages).

Voting

In Australia, once you are 18 you have to vote in elections or you will be fined. Australia is unusual in this way – most democracies do not have compulsory voting. Australian citizens elect representatives who are often members of a political party to make laws. Voting is just one way that a citizen can show they approve or disapprove of the policies of a political party.

How can citizens influence the law? How can you make your opinions heard, aside from just voting? As a citizen, you are able to influence law making in various ways, including: • contacting your local federal or state representative and communicating your concerns about the issues that matters to you

• using lobby or interest groups • making submissions to parliamentary committees.

Contacting your local federal or state representative All individuals, whether they are citizens or not, can make representations to their local representative. This means they

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

494

Cambridge Investigating Humanities for the Victorian Curriculum 8

can communicate their concerns about current issues affecting them; for example, to do with health, taxation, media laws, education, transport or other issues.

represent the interests and concerns of the people in their electorate. They sometimes do media interviews to promote their name and their party’s policies.

When the federal or state members of their respective parliament are not sitting in parliament and debating bills, they are in their home electorate managing the needs of people there. The people in the local electorate can contact them via their website, through social media and or in person at their electorate office.

Using lobby or interest groups

electorate a district that is represented by an elected member of parliament; it can also refer to the voters of that district, or to the whole voting public

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Politicians are very busy people and only have so many hours each day to hear from the many different people who want their time. This makes it difficult for them to hear and represent everyone’s needs. Figure 17.3.2 is a real-life example of a parliamentarian’s weekly agenda, from 2022.

A political candidate’s chances of being elected depend on how well they Low-res

… Figure 17.3.2

Extracts from federal Minister Tony Burke’s calendar from 1–5 June and 29 August – 1 September 2022

Low-res

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Chapter 17: How do Australian citizens engage with Australia’s political and legal systems?

495

An example is the Australian Education Union (highlighted in Figure 17.3.2), which represents employees who work in public education (e.g. teachers in public high schools).

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

…

Figure 17.3.3 Tony Burke, Minister for the Arts, Home Affairs and other portfolios in the Albanese Federal Government

• Business groups, such as the Business Council of Australia (highlighted in Figure 17.3.2), which represent the interests of businesses on issues such as taxation and the productivity of workers.

lobby group a group of people or organisations with similar interests who attempt to influence people in power over their issue of interest stakeholder an individual who has an interest or concern in an issue

trade union an organisation that represents workers in deals with employers on issues such as working conditions and pay campaign a series of activities in the lead up to an election in which political parties and candidates use advertising and information, such as promotional materials, to target voters to persuade them to vote a certain way

Interest groups and lobby groups form to enable stakeholders to represent their concerns to busy politicians. They are made up of people and organisations with similar interests who can present their views to politicans and decision-makers in a structured and persuasive way. Two examples are explored below.

Interest groups

Interest groups allow citizens and noncitizens to present their concerns to members of federal and state parliaments. Unlike political parties, they don’t stand for election themselves. Two academics from Monash University in Melbourne, Nick Economou and Zareh Ghazarian, have written about interest groups as being either be promotional or sectional.

Promotional interest groups pursue broad causes, beliefs and values, in areas such as the environment or gender equality. One example is the National Council of Women Australia, which ‘seeks to raise the awareness of women and girls to their rights and responsibilities as citizens and to encourage the participation of women in all aspects of community life’. Sectional groups promote the interests of particular groups that affect the economy. They include: • Trade unions, which represent the interests of employees on such issues as salaries and working conditions.

• Farmers’ organisations, such as the National Farmers’ Federation, which promote the advancement of agriculture and issues affecting farmers.

• Industry associations, which provide a collective voice for individual businesses. To show they are good contributors to society, industry associations often require members to follow an industry code of conduct that regulates how they engage with suppliers and consumers. For example, there is a Banking Code of Practice developed by the Australian Banker’s Association in order to guide banking employees and employers to be transparent with their customers, such as when customers take out loans. Interest groups influence governments by: • campaigning before and during elections, using social and print media, interviews and television advertisements to try to encourage voters to vote a particular way

• pursuing legal action, such as by taking people or organisations to court

• carrying out research, expert or otherwise, and publishing the results to inform and influence the public. We will only look in more detail at campaigning and legal action.

Case study: WorkChoices In 2006, then Liberal Prime Minister John Howard brought in a number of changes to labour laws called WorkChoices.

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

496

Cambridge Investigating Humanities for the Victorian Curriculum 8

voters in the lead up to the 2007 federal election, with the ACTU rallying support for the Labor Party, who promised to abolish WorkChoices (Figure 17.3.4). The campaign contributed to Labor’s election victory.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

In reaction, the Australian Council of Trade Unions, which represents about 1.8 million Australian workers, produced an advertising campaign called ‘Your rights at work’. This campaign influenced

…

Figure 17.3.4 Then Victorian Labor State Premier Steve Bracks (with Labor’s then federal Opposition Leader Kim Beazley behind him) addresses a crowd of Melbourne workers, June 2006. Hundreds of thousands of people rallied to demand an end to WorkChoices labour laws, which unions said had eroded job security and wages.

Case study: Carmichael Mine

An example of an interest group using legal action is the challenge to the construction of the Carmichael coal mine (often called the Adani mine). This Queensland mine was approved by the state government in 2011 and constructed in 2021. It was developed to mine and export coal, for primarily Australian exporters. However, in 2018, the Australian Conservation Foundation (ACF) challenged in the Federal Court whether the proposed water usage of the mine was legal. This interest group represented the concerns of local farmers and communities that the mine’s water usage would damage the environment. Despite the ACF’s efforts, the Carmichael coal mine was built and is still operational in 2024, though at a lower capacity than originally planned. Legal fees are costly and interest groups often can’t afford to keep going with legal action for many years.

Making a submission to a parliamentary committee

New laws and changes to existing laws are written as bills, which are debated, revised and eventually voted on by parliament. As part of the process, committees are set up to look at all the issues related to the bill. Individuals and organisations can make submissions to these parliamentary committees. Making a submission means writing a letter or a more detailed paper that includes facts, opinions, arguments and recommendations for what the bill should say. Submissions are used by parliamentarians as evidence of what people think about the issues related to the bill.

For example, in 2023 a parliamentary committee was formed to look at the effects of social media on Australian society. One group that made a

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Chapter 17: How do Australian citizens engage with Australia’s political and legal systems?

497

submission to this committee was the National Mental Health Commission. Its submission included the views of experts in youth mental health on how social media can affect young people.

Overall, there are multiple means beyond voting to communicate your needs and interests to politicians. Elections are not the only opportunity for individuals to seek change in Australia.

Concepts and skills builder 17.3 Investigating the impact of election campaign slogans on voter persuasion

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Consider the following stimulus and apply the QUED method of investigation by answering the questions that follow.

… Figure 17.3.5 Labor leader

Gough Whitlam with singer Little Pattie in 1972, wearing t-shirts featuring the now famous campaign slogan ‘It’s time’

Q Write one clear question about how election campaign slogans affect the way voters make their choices.

U Choose two campaign slogans: one from a historical election (for example, the slogan seen in Figure 17.3.5) and one from a more recent election (2007 or later, by either the Liberal or Labor Party). Undertake research to gather key details about each slogan, such as its wording and message. E Compare and evaluate the two slogans. Discuss which one you think is more effective at persuading voters and explain why using the details you collected.

D Decide which qualities are most important for a successful campaign slogan. Explain your choice using the evidence from your research.

Civics and citizenship concepts and skills: communicating, evaluating democratic institutions and systems, investigating contemporary civics and citizenship issues, participating in civic processes

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

498

Cambridge Investigating Humanities for the Victorian Curriculum 8

Lesson 17.3 review Online quiz

Review questions

DOC

Research task

Go online to access the interactive lesson review and more!

Teachers can assign tasks and track results

17.3 Review questions

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

1 Name one of the ways that citizens can influence the law, besides voting. Explain how the method you choose works, and give an example. 2 Describe three responsibilities of citizens. 3 How can interest groups influence government decisions? 4 Is it important for citizens to be actively involved in influencing the law, such as through lobbying or making submissions to committees? Justify your answer. 5 In your opinion, what is the most effective way to make representations to parliamentarians? 6 Why do citizens play an active role in influencing Australia’s political system?

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Chapter 17: How do Australian citizens engage with Australia’s political and legal systems?

499

17.4

How is Australia’s court system structured? FPO

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Learning intention

Last lesson looked at how citizens can participate in and influence law making. In this lesson you will learn about the key principles and features of the Australian legal system, including the roles of the court system. You will also analyse how democratic values and the principles of the legal system are expressed in Australia’s democratic institutions and systems.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

See, think, wonder

High Court of Australia

Supreme Court of Victoria Court of Appeal

Federal Court of Australia

Supreme Court of Victoria Trial Division

Federal Circuit and Family Court of Australia

County Court of Victoria

Magistrates’ Court of Victoria

Victorian Civil and Administrative Tribunal Children’s Court of Victoria

Coroners Court of Victoria

Koori Court

Victims of Crime Assistance Tribunal

…

Figure 17.4.1 The hierarchy of courts in Victoria

1 See: Carefully examine the diagram and note down what you see. 2 Think: What does this diagram make you think? 3 Wonder: What does this make you wonder?

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

500

Cambridge Investigating Humanities for the Victorian Curriculum 8

The legal system aims to govern how people behave and go about their daily lives. It provides people with a way to resolve legal disputes and accusations. The basis of the legal system is the laws made by elected governments, which must maintain accountability, equality and transparency.

• civil laws, which address private disputes (not involving a government) • Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Customary Laws • statutory laws created by parliaments • common law, which is based on court precedents.

accountability the responsibility of governments to be answerable to the public for the decisions they make; it exists because governments use resources raised from the public (e.g. taxes) to fund their policies

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Australia’s legal system includes separate bodies of law:

• state criminal laws

Why do people go to court?

People go to court for various reasons. They might be accused of breaking a law, for example by stealing or committing another crime, such as murder or manslaughter. When someone is accused of committing a crime, the court case is between the state and that person. These are examples of criminal law. People can also go to court because of a disagreement with another person or with a company; for example, a property owner might disagree with an insurance company over the terms and conditions of a contract. If someone is dissatisfied

about a product or service provided by a company, then they can take the company to court to seek financial repayment. Companies can also take each other to court for breaching business contracts. This area is called civil law. Another reason people might go to court is if a couple decide to divorce, and they disagree on an issue such as how to divide property.

precedent a decision made by a court that all courts lower in the judicial hierarchy have to follow

There are many differences in the circumstance and types of laws that bring people to court. For this reason, Australia has a system of different courts.

The hierarchical court system Australia’s court system is hierarchical, meaning that courts are ranked from higher to lower (for example, see the hierarchy of Victoria’s courts in Figure 17.4.1). There are two main reasons why Australia has a hierarchical court system, instead of just one court.

First, each court can be specialised for particular types of cases. For example, a

lower court can take care of minor matters like parking fines, while serious cases, such as murder, are heard in more senior courts that have the right knowledge to handle more complex legal problems.

Second, when a court makes a ruling, the losing person or company has the right to appeal (challenge the decision). The appeal can be heard in a higher court.

The Australian federal court system The High Court The Australian High Court was set up by the Australian Constitution, when the Commonwealth of Australia was formed at

Federation. It is the most senior court, and it can only hear appeals from other courts. It hears all types of federal and state cases in areas ranging from constitutional law, to migration law, to corporate law.

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Chapter 17: How do Australian citizens engage with Australia’s political and legal systems?

501

The Federal Court The Federal Court was only established in 1977. It hears federal law cases in areas such as:

• income taxation • air travel • terrorism

• immigration

• intellectual property, such as trademarking and copyright

• communication and broadcasting

• native title • employment law • company bankruptcy.

…

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

The Federal Circuit and Family Court

Figure 17.4.2 The Federal Court of Australia

One part of the Federal Circuit and Family Court of Australia manages disputes to do with family problems, such as divorces and property disputes. The other part handles other areas of federal law, including migration, bankruptcy and copyright.

The Victorian state court system Supreme Court

Specialist courts

The Victorian Supreme Court is the most senior court in Victoria. It deals with all civil and criminal cases and can hear appeals from the lower courts.

The specialist courts include:

County Court

The next most senior court is the County Court. This court deals with more serious cases than the Magistrate’s Court, including criminal cases and civil cases worth over $100 000. The County Court deals with claims to do with personal injury, broken contracts and property damage.

Magistrate’s Court

The Magistrates’ Court is the lowest court in the Victorian court hierarchy and is also the busiest court. The court sees around 90 per cent of all Victorian court cases, at many locations across the state. It deals with less serious criminal cases and with civil cases worth less than $100 000.

• the Children’s Court, which hears cases where the offender is younger than 18

• the Coroners Court, which investigates deaths and fires, aiming to reduce preventable deaths

• the Koori Court, which is for Indigenous Australians who have pleaded guilty to a crime; it uses cultural advice from Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Elders or Respected Persons • the Drug Court, which manages orders given to criminal offenders who have a drug and/or alcohol dependency.

Victorian Civil and Administrative Tribunal

The Victorian Civil and Administrative Tribunal (VCAT) was set up to resolve disputes between consumers and businesses or landlords and tenants. The tribunal deals with cases about building problems, human rights and equal opportunity cases.

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

502

Cambridge Investigating Humanities for the Victorian Curriculum 8

Democratic values in Australia’s court system government wants. This independence protects against governments abusing their power, because the courts can limit the actions of elected governments when necessary, and make sure that the rule of law is upheld, which we will learn about in the next lesson.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

The Australia’s court system is accessible to all. Each person or company can use the court system to protect individual rights, such as the freedom from harm and the peaceful possession of property. The courts are independent and separate from the government, so that they act fairly and without being influenced by what the

Concepts and skills builder 17.4

Investigating fairness and equal access in Australia’s court system

Consider the following stimulus and apply the QUED method of investigation by answering the questions that follow. Australian actress Rebel Wilson took Bauer Media, the publisher of Woman’s Day, to court over a series of articles she alleges portrayed her as a serial liar and cost her movie roles in Hollywood. After a three-week trial, a jury of six returned unanimous verdicts in favour of Wilson.

Figure 17.4.3 Rebel Wilson speaks to the media as she leaves the Victorian Supreme Court in June, 2017 in Melbourne.

…

Australia’s court system is built to deliver justice fairly to everyone. Courts such as the Magistrate’s Court, the Supreme Court and specialised courts like the Koori Court each play a role in resolving disputes. Even with these different courts, how can we know whether all citizens can access justice equally, especially when factors like financial costs and cultural differences come into play?

Q Write one clear question about whether Australia’s court system is fair and accessible to all citizens.

U Undertake research to gather key details by researching at least two types of courts (e.g. the Magistrate’s Court and the Supreme Court) and learning how specialised courts, like the Koori Court, work to address community needs.

E Compare and evaluate the information you have collected. Discuss whether you think everyone has equal access to these courts, considering issues like financial challenges and cultural support.

D Decide if Australia’s court system is fair and accessible for everyone and explain your reasoning. Consider if the system might need to change in the future to keep up with new challenges, such as the influence of artificial intelligence.

Civics and citizenship concepts and skills: communicating, evaluating democratic institutions and systems, investigating contemporary civics and citizenship issues, participating in civic processes

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Chapter 17: How do Australian citizens engage with Australia’s political and legal systems?

503

Go online to access the interactive lesson review and more!

Lesson 17.4 review Online quiz

Review questions

DOC

Research task

Teachers can assign tasks and track results

17.4 Review questions What are the two main reasons for having a hierarchy of courts? Explain the main purpose of the High Court in Australia’s court system. Why do you think the Federal Court is responsible for handling cases like immigration, instead of a state court? Explain the role of the Magistrates Court. Why is it the busiest court in Victoria? Do you believe everyone should have equal access to the courts, regardless of their financial situation? Justify your opinion.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

1 2 3 4 5

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

504

Cambridge Investigating Humanities for the Victorian Curriculum 8

17.5

How has the High Court influenced the law? FPO

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Learning intention

The previous lesson looked at the key features of the Australian legal system. In this lesson, you will learn about the role of the High Court in the creation and interpretation of laws.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

See, think, wonder

… Figure 17.5.1 Marx House, the

headquarters of the Australian Communist Party Central Committee, George Street, Sydney, c.1950

1 See: Carefully examine Figure 17.5.1 and note down what you see. 2 Think: What does this photograph make you think? 3 Wonder: What does this make you wonder? Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Chapter 17: How do Australian citizens engage with Australia’s political and legal systems?

505

The rule of law The rule of law means that all laws are applied equally to all individuals and organisations, including parliamentarians, police and judges. It means that people in positions of power are held accountable for their actions.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

The rule of law is different from the ‘rule by law’, where leaders of countries make decisions that only apply to the people being governed and not to the leaders themselves.

In a democratic country such as Australia, the creation and interpretation of laws is transparent. Laws can be challenged, not only in parliament, but through the court system. Courts ensure that the government is kept accountable, by acting as a check on government power and by protecting an individual’s rights and freedoms. As the highest court in Australia, the High Court has often influenced the interpretation of laws. The following two case studies demonstrate this.

Case study: Attempt to ban the Communist Party, 1951

communism a system of organising society where there is no private property, but instead everything is owned and run by the community or the state

amendment a correction or reform to an existing document visa a document giving permission to a foreigner of a country to enter and leave the country

In 1951, the Australian Government made an Act of Parliament to change the Constitution. The Act aimed to give the government the power to ban the Australian Communist Party, by stating that the Party was an ‘unlawful association’. At the time, many people feared the spread of communism, which was the system of government of Stalin’s brutal and tyrannical regime in the Soviet Union. The Communist Party of Australia successfully challenged the law in the High Court by arguing it abolished basic

rights, such as freedom of association. Therefore, the prime minister at the time, Robert Menzies, decided to hold a referendum to allow Australian voters to decide. Australian voters rejected the proposed constitutional amendment in the referendum. The outcome was very close: the ‘Yes’ vote got 49.44 per cent of the national vote. It was approved only by Queensland, Tasmania, and Western Australia. If 30 000 more people in South Australia or Victoria had voted ‘Yes’ instead of ‘No’, the outcome would have been different.

Case study: Love and Thoms cases, 2020 The Love and Thoms cases raised the question: what makes a person Aboriginal? It had already been established from an earlier case that in a legal situation, to be Aboriginal a person must be biologically descended from an Aboriginal person, self-identify as an Aboriginal person and be recognised as a member of an Aboriginal group by his or her elders.

In 2020, non-Australian citizens Daniel Love and Brendan Thoms were convicted

of crimes in Australia. Their visas were cancelled and they faced deportation (being made to leave the country). This was challenged by these non-citizens on the grounds that they were Aboriginal and so could not be treated as ‘aliens’ (noncitizens). Daniel Love was a recognised member of the Kamilaroi people who was born in Papua New Guinea. Brendan Thoms was born in New Zealand but was a native title holder and a member of the Gunggari people.

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

506

Cambridge Investigating Humanities for the Victorian Curriculum 8

These cases raised the question: if a non-citizen, Aboriginal Australian was born outside of Australia, are they entitled to remain in Australia, despite not been a citizen? By a majority of 4–3, the High Court judges ruled that immigration law did not apply to non-citizen Aboriginal Australians, and they could not be deported.

The overall judgement was that Aboriginal people, even if non-citizens, have a connection to the lands and waters of Australia. One judge wrote that Aboriginal people ‘must be regarded as “belonging” to Australia and therefore cannot fall within the meaning of “alien” as used in the Constitution.’.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Concepts and skills builder 17.5

Investigating the role of the High Court in shaping laws

Consider the following stimulus and apply the QUED method of investigation by answering the questions that follow. The High Court of Australia plays a key role in creating and interpreting laws. The two cases of Love and Thoms are examples of how a High Court decision can affect the understanding of legal rights and citizenship in Australia.

…

Figure 17.5.2 The High Court of Australia, Canberra

Q Write one clear question about how the Love and Thoms cases influenced the creation or interpretation of laws.

U Create a Venn diagram to compare the ideas of ‘rule of law’ and ‘rule by law’. Undertake some research to find key points that show their similarities and differences.

E Discuss and evaluate whether you think the High Court’s decisions in the Love and Thoms cases were fair. Use evidence from your research to explain your opinion. D Imagine a new law has been passed that some people believe is unfair. Write down the steps these people could take to challenge the law and explain how the High Court might be involved in the process. Civics and citizenship concepts and skills: communicating, evaluating democratic institutions and systems, investigating contemporary civics and citizenship issues, participating in civic processes Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Chapter 17: How do Australian citizens engage with Australia’s political and legal systems?

507

Go online to access the interactive lesson review and more!

Lesson 17.5 review Online quiz

Review questions

DOC

Research task

Teachers can assign tasks and track results

17.5 Review questions

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

1 What benefit does the rule of law have for Australians? 2 a Explain the actions of the parliament and the High Court in the attempt to ban the Communist Party of Australia: b How did these events demonstrate that Australia experiences rule of law and not ‘rule by law’? 3 a What are the three criteria that determine if someone is legally considered an Aboriginal person in Australia? b Describe the significance of the High Court’s decision in the Love and Thoms cases. 4 Explain the importance of accountability and transparency to the rule of law.

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

508

Cambridge Investigating Humanities for the Victorian Curriculum 8

17.6

What are the different types of laws in Australia and how are laws made? FPO

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Learning intention

The previous lesson looked at the role of the High Court in the creation and interpretation of laws. In this lesson, you will learn about the different types of laws in Australia and how they are made.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

Brainstorm

Form into groups of three or four. Brainstorm with your group to come up with as many laws as you can think of. Can you group the laws in any way?

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Chapter 17: How do Australian citizens engage with Australia’s political and legal systems?

509

Laws are created through a long process that includes steps to ensure transparency and fairness. This helps to make Australia a thriving democracy, where everyone

faces consequences if they break the law or have a dispute. There are different types of law.

Criminal law

prosecutor a person (such as a police officer or public prosecutor) who conducts a case against an individual who is accused of breaking the law

Each Australian state has its own separate system of criminal law, partly because each was a separate colony before the Federation of Australia in 1901.

To prove that a person or organisation has broken the law, a prosecutor, such as the police, has to prove the defendant

sued took legal action to get compensation for a civil law case

Figure 17.6.1 A crime is when a law has been broken

is guilty beyond reasonable doubt (that is, there is no uncertainty and no other possible explanation for the crime). Juries are commonly used in criminal cases.

Civil law

Civil law is different from criminal law: it covers relationships between private individuals and/or organisations. It can involve breaking a contract between two private individuals or organisations, such as between a customer and a business service provider. It is usually to do with money or private property.

plaintiff an individual or organisation who is an accuser and starts legal action against another person or organisation

…

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

defendant an individual or organisation who is being taken to court in a civil or criminal case

Criminal law deals with crimes, which are actions by people or organisations that are against the law. Crimes are punishable by the state. The reasons crimes are punished are to deter people from committing crimes and to restore justice.

For example, in 2016 a junior footballer was the accuser or plaintiff in a civil law case. He sued his club, league and council after injuring his knee in a collision with a wire fence that was too close to the boundary line. He claimed

they were negligent for not ensuring the fence was a safe distance from the boundary. The court found all three organisations were liable for breaching their duty of care. They had to pay the footballer $375 000 plus additional costs for his losses and future needs. Civil cases can be decided by a jury or by a judge alone. If an individual or organisation sues another individual or organisation, they must prove their case on the balance of probabilities. This means a fact is more likely to have occurred than otherwise.

Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Customary Laws Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Customary Laws existed before the introduction of criminal and civil laws in Australia. Customary Law is about traditional punishments and processes for resolving disputes for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander People. These can

include arguments about such things as marriages or land access for hunting and fishing. Types of punishments can vary from shaming and compensation to spearing. Customary Law is passed down through oral traditions. There are hundreds

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

510

Cambridge Investigating Humanities for the Victorian Curriculum 8

of different types of Customary Laws because of all the different Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander cultures, languages

and histories that exist in Australia. However, different states differ in their approach to using Customary Laws.

Statutory laws the Australian Human Rights Commission Act. Under the Act, the Commission has the job of investigating and resolving complaints to do with discrimination. For example, in 2023 a group of Aboriginal Australian footballer players made a complaint that they had been discriminated against while playing at the Hawthorn Football Club. The Commission arranged a discussion between the players and Hawthorn representatives, but they failed to find a resolution.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Statutory laws in Australia are laws made by federal or state parliaments, rather than being created by courts. Statutory laws are proposed in documents called bills. If they pass through parliament and receive royal assent by either the governor-general (for federal laws) or the state governor (state laws), they are called acts. Acts can either be new laws or changes to existing laws.

Both state and federal parliaments can make laws about a range of areas, as set out in the relevant constitutions. The areas can include laws relating to taxation, companies, discrimination, health and foreign affairs. There are some areas where both state and federal parliaments can make laws. If this happens and the laws conflict, under the Australian Constitution the federal law will prevail.

Statutory authorities in Australia

The federal and state parliaments can also create organisations under an act. Some examples of statutory authorities in Australia are described below.

The Human Rights Commission

The Human Rights Commission also provides advice and promotes human rights to the federal government when the Australian Parliament is making laws.

The Fair Work Commission

The Fair Work Commission was established by an Act called the Fair Work Act 2009. The Commission deals with employment issues, such as making sure employers pay at least minimum wages and provide required employment conditions. Like a court, the Fair Work Commission can hear workplace disputes between an employee and an employer. After hearing the dispute, the Commission has the power under the Fair Work Act to make decisions in favour of the employee or the employer.

Independent Commission Against Corruption in Victoria

…

Figure 17.6.2 Gillian Triggs, former President of the

Australian Human Rights Commission speaks during ‘Rights Talk: Inspiring change in human rights’ at Sydney Town Hall on June 14, 2017 in Sydney, Australia

The Human Rights Commission was established in 1986 by a federal law called

The Independent Commission Against Corruption (IBAC) is responsible for looking into public sector corruption and police misconduct in Victoria. IBAC aims to improve trust between the public and the public sector, including the police. The public deserve to be able to trust public sector employees, especially because

public sector the workforce employed by the government to carry out services, such as the police force

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Chapter 17: How do Australian citizens engage with Australia’s political and legal systems?

511

they pay the taxes that fund them. Ensuring that public money is used fairly

and responsibly benefits the community and prevents waste or misuse.

Common law in Australia private non-government individuals or organisations. Defamations involve a clash between one side, demanding the right to freedom of expression, and the other side, the right to protect their reputation.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Common law is different from statutory law because it is based on judges’ decisions and reasons in court cases, rather than being described in acts of parliament. Courts and judges must follow decisions made about the same legal issues by earlier courts. This is called precedent.

However, decisions from different courts are treated differently as precedents. Decisions from the highest court in Australia, the High Court, become precedents for and must be followed by the lower courts. However, a decision from one of the lower courts is not considered a precedent for the High Court. For example, a decision from the Magistrate’s Court does not have to be followed by the High Court.

native title a right of interest over land or waters that may be owned according to Traditional Customary Laws of Aboriginal or Torres Strait Islander Peoples

sovereignty independent and separate supreme governing authority over a defined territory

Some areas of law have developed through common law but were later written into formal acts by parliament. Negligence, defamation and Aboriginal land rights are some examples of common law.

Negligence

Negligence happens when a person or organisation fails to take reasonable care and this results in someone being hurt. It first developed from a court decision in 1932, when a women sued a soft drink maker after she found a decomposed snail in her bottle of soft drink. The law of negligence has been developed over time by courts and areas of negligence are now included in acts.

Defamation Defaming an individual or organisation means making an undeserved false claim that damages their reputation in the eyes of the public. Defamation is part of civil law, because it is a dispute between two

For example, in 2023, former commando Heston Russell successfully sued the Australian Broadcasting Commission (ABC) for defamation. The ABC published news stories claiming that Russell executed a prisoner in Afghanistan. He publicly denied this and a federal court judge ruled that the ABC failed to prove the reporting was in the public interest. The ABC had to pay Russell damages of $390 000.

Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Land Rights

Another example of the common law was the Mabo decision by the High Court in 1991, which recognised native title over Mer (Marray Island) for the Meriam People in the Torres Strait. Native title is about ‘the interests and rights of [I]ndigenous inhabitants in land, whether communal, group or individual, possessed under the traditional laws acknowledged by and the traditional customs observed by the [I] ndigenous inhabitants’.

The High Court recognised that native title was never extinguished and that Traditional Law and Custom of Aboriginal Australians was recognised. However, the decision did not challenge the Australian government’s sovereignty over land. Nevertheless, following the High Court’s decision, in 1993 the Australian Parliament passed the Native Title Act, which sets out how other Indigenous peoples can make native title claims.

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

512

Cambridge Investigating Humanities for the Victorian Curriculum 8

Concepts and skills builder 17.6 Analysing the creation of laws and the protection of human rights in Australia Consider the following stimulus and apply the QUED method of investigation by answering the questions that follow. The Australian Human Rights Commission states: We protect and promote human rights in Australia and internationally. The Australian Human Rights Commission is an independent statutory organisation, established by an act of Australian Parliament.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

This statement shows how human rights are supported by law in Australia.

Q Write one clear question about how the Human Rights Commission protects human rights in Australia. Consider starting your question with ‘should’, ‘could’, ‘would’ or ‘can’.

U Undertake some research and record five key facts about Australian native title. You may use sources like ABC’s Behind the News or the Human Rights Commission website to find interesting information.

E Discuss whether you think common law is more flexible than statutory law. Explain your opinion with reasons based on what you have learned.

D Decide whether Australia should or should not have a national bill of rights. Outline what this bill might include and explain your recommendation, using evidence from your research. If you would like to take your research further, you can access resources such as: Victoria’s Charter of Human Rights and Responsibilities The Rule of Law Education Centre gotocourt.com.au Australian Human Rights Institute, UNSW Australian Parliamentary Education Oﬃce.

• • • • •

Civics and citizenship concepts and skills: communicating, evaluating democratic institutions and systems, investigating contemporary civics and citizenship issues, participating in civic processes

Lesson 17.6 review Online quiz

Review questions

DOC

Research task

Go online to access the interactive lesson review and more!

Teachers can assign tasks and track results

17.6 Review questions 1 2 3 4 5

What is the role of the Independent Commission Against Corruption (IBAC) in Victoria? Explain statutory law and justify why you think it is important for Australian society. Do you think common law is more flexible than statutory law? Why or why not? Justify your response. Analyse the influence statutory laws have on Australian society. What have they helped do? a What rights are involved in a defamation case? b What was the outcome of the defamation case against the ABC by former commando Heston Russell? Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Chapter 17: How do Australian citizens engage with Australia’s political and legal systems?

513

17.7

What is the story of Waltzing Matilda and why is it significant? FPO

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Learning intention

Last lesson looked at the different types of laws in Australia. In this lesson, you will learn about the background of Australia’s unofficial national anthem, ‘Waltzing Matilda’, and why it has had such a place in Australia’s culture.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

See, think, wonder

…

Figure 17.7.1 The Australian $10 note, with portrait of AB ‘Banjo’ Paterson

1 See: Carefully examine Figure 17.7.1, and write down what you see. 2 Think: What does this make you think? 3 Wonder: What does this make you wonder?

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

514

Cambridge Investigating Humanities for the Victorian Curriculum 8

made Paterson want to write this song, and why did it have such a lasting impact?

The story in the song ‘Waltzing Matilda’ is a story about a swagman (a poor bush traveller) making tea by a billabong (a small lake). He steals and captures a ‘jumbuck’ (a sheep). But the owner of the sheep, along with three troopers (police officers), tries to arrest the swagman. To avoid arrest, the swagman jumps into the billabong and dies. His ghost returns to haunt the billabong; hence the line, ‘his ghost may be heard as you pass by that billabong’.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

On 19 April 1984, ‘Advance Australia Fair’ was formally proclaimed by then Governor-General Sir Ninian Stephens to be Australia’s national anthem. Since Federation in 1901, ‘God Save the Queen’ (or King) had been our country’s formal anthem. Australians only stopped being British subjects with the passing of the Australian Citizenship Act 1948, which made citizens of all Australians, including Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islanders.

For a period in 1976, ‘Advance Australia Fair’ and ‘Waltzing Matilda’ were made national songs, not national anthems. So, how did ‘Waltzing Matilda’ have such an influence on Australian society?

Origins

‘Waltzing Matilda’ was written by Andrew ‘Banjo’ Paterson in 1895. Paterson was an Australian poet, solicitor, journalist, war correspondent and solider. He appears on Australia’s $10 note (Figure 17.7.1). While on holiday at Dagworth Station near Winton, Queensland in 1895, Paterson heard a version of an old Scottish tune played by Christina MacPherson. He also learned about the death of a shearer and subsequently wrote ‘Waltzing Matilda’. (A shearer is a person who does the hard physical labour of clipping the wool from sheep, moving from farm to farm for their work.) But what

…

Figure 17.7.2 A statue of ‘Banjo’ Paterson at the Waltzing Matilda Centre in Winton, Queensland

Social and political setting

‘Waltzing Matilda’ draws on real events. It is a story about scandal, workers’ unrest and a mysterious death. Uncovering the events behind the song reveals some of the social and political trends of this period in Australia’s history, just before Federation. At this time, the idea of a society where there was freedom and equality was popular.

But throughout the 1890s, Australia’s economy was weak. There was a big divide between the wealthy upper classes and the workers, who struggled to make a living. In 1894, shearers went on strike because they were not happy with attempts to lower their wages. On 2 September, the striking shearers burned down the sheep station at Dagworth Station. Accompanied by several police, one of the owners of Dagworth Station chased down one of the men responsible, Samuel Hoffmeister. Rather than being captured, Hoffmeister eventually committed suicide.

strike an organised refusal to work by a group of workers, usually to obtain better pay or working conditions

This true-life event inspired Paterson’s poem. It’s generally thought that Samuel Hoffmeister became the ‘swagman’ of ‘Waltzing Matilda’.

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Chapter 17: How do Australian citizens engage with Australia’s political and legal systems?

515

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES …

Figure 17.7.3 Troopers at Dagworth Station during the shearer’s strike in 1894

Understanding the words

So, the origin of the song is known, but some of its words are unfamiliar to us

today. The Australian National University explains the meaning of ‘waltzing Matilda’:

To carry a swag; to travel the road. A matilda is a swag, the roll or bundle of possessions carried by an itinerant worker or swagman. The word waltz in to waltz Matilda is a jocular or ironic way to refer to the hard slog of carrying your possessions as you travel on foot, although waltz may possibly [be] influenced by a German colloquial term, auf die Walze gehen, which means ‘to go a-wandering; to go on one’s travels’.

…

Source: ‘Meanings and origins of Australian words and idioms’, School of Literature, Languages and Linguistics,

ANU College of Arts and Social Sciences

Concepts and skills builder 17.7 Analysing the significance of David Unaipon

Consider the following stimulus and apply the QUED method of investigation by answering the questions that follow.

…

David Unaipon (1872–1967) was a Ngarrandjeri man from Point McLeay Mission, South Australia, who became a preacher, inventor, author and activist. Among his inventions was a modified handpiece for shearing. He was the first Australian Aboriginal author to be published in English.

Figure 17.7.4 Australia’s $50 note depicts David

Unaipon and one of his inventions.

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

516

Cambridge Investigating Humanities for the Victorian Curriculum 8

Q Write one clear question about David Unaipon’s life, inventions or achievements. U Undertake some research and collect five key facts about the era in which David Unaipon grew up in Australia, the late 1800s. Focus on details that help explain the social conditions, education and work opportunities of the time. E Evaluate whether you think Australian society helped or hindered David Unaipon in his achievements. Explain your reasoning, using the facts you collected.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

D Decide which modern Australian person would make a good subject for a song that reflects Australian society today. Explain your choice, using evidence about their lives that connect with current social or economic issues.

Civics and citizenship concepts and skills: communicating, evaluating democratic institutions and systems, investigating contemporary civics and citizenship issues, participating in civic processes

Lesson 17.7 review Online quiz

Review questions

DOC

Research task

Go online to access the interactive lesson review and more!

Teachers can assign tasks and track results

17.7 Review questions

1 Who wrote ‘Waltzing Matilda’ and when was it written? 2 Compare the true story on which ‘Waltzing Matilda’ was based and the story in the song. What did the writer keep the same and what did he change? 3 How does the story of ‘Waltzing Matilda’ reflect the social and political conditions in Australia during the 1890s? 4 Explain why ’Waltzing Matilda’ is still considered a significant song for Australians today.

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Chapter 17: How do Australian citizens engage with Australia’s political and legal systems?

517

17.8

What do Australia’s national emblems represent and how has multiculturalism influenced Australia?

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

FPO

Learning intention

The previous lesson looked at Australia’s unofficial national anthem, ‘Waltzing Matilda’. In this lesson we will learn about the significance of national anthems and other national emblems, and briefly learn about Australian multiculturalism.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

See, think, wonder

…

Figure 17.8.1 The Australian women’s hockey team, the Hockeyroos, sing the national anthem before playing Great Britain at the 2024 Olympic Games in Paris, France.

1 See: Carefully examine Figure 17.8.1 and note what you see. 2 Think: What does this make you think? 3 Wonder: What does this make you wonder? Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

518

Cambridge Investigating Humanities for the Victorian Curriculum 8

Australia is home to people who are incredibly diverse in how they behave, what they believe and their background. Noel Pearson summed up Australia as a ‘nation blessed with an Indigenous

heritage spanning 60 millennia, a British democracy captured in its Constitution and a multicultural unity that is a beacon to the world.’ Australia’s national identity is built from these three elements.

multicultural involving several or many different cultural groups

Tasmania, Western Australia, South Australia and Queensland, each with their own separate government.

plebiscite a direct vote or survey by the electorate on an important public question; the government does not have to act on the outcome

National anthems

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

National anthems are one way of representing national identity. Some countries adopted their anthems in times of strife and war, others in times of peace.

national identity a shared sense of acceptance and loyalty amongst a population towards a political state

National anthems help to distinguish what is special about one country compared to others, and to tell a story about the country’s culture and political origins. They create a sense of pride. Anthems aim to represent an entire group of people and bring them together. They aim to create a sense of community, shared experience and affection for the nation. Australia’s national anthem, ‘Advance Australia Fair’, includes the line ‘we are one and free’. This symbolises that Australians value unity, regardless of people’s differences. The lyrics also reflect the shared values of equality, freedom and mutual respect. ‘Advance Australia Fair’ was written in 1878 by Dodds McCormick. At that time, the Commonwealth of Australia had not been formed; there were only the separate colonies of New South Wales, Victoria,

‘Advance Australia Fair’ first became the national anthem in 1973, under Labor Prime Minister Gough Whitlam. But in 1976, Liberal Prime Minister Malcolm Fraser reverted Australia back to having the original national anthem, ‘God save the Queen’. These changes reflected the attitudes of the political parties in power at the time.

In 1977 a plebiscite was held where the Australian people got to vote on what should be Australia’s ‘national song’ (to be used alongside the national anthem). The four songs and the votes received were: • ‘Advance Australia Fair’: 43 per cent • ‘God Save the Queen’: 19 per cent • ‘Waltzing Matilda’: 28 per cent

• ‘Song of Australia’: 10 per cent.

Finally, Labor Prime Minister Bob Hawke re-established ‘Advance Australia Fair’ as the national anthem in 1984.

Flags

Australian National Flag

…

Figure 17.8.2 The Australian National Flag

The symbols on Australia’s flag represent the political origins of the Commonwealth of Australia.

In the top left corner is the Union Jack, which is the flag of the United Kingdom. The Union Jack is made up of the crosses of St George, St Andrew and St Patrick. These are Christian symbols that traditionally represent valour, humility, resourcefulness and resilience.

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Chapter 17: How do Australian citizens engage with Australia’s political and legal systems?

519

secular relating to ideas or laws that are separate from religion or spiritual ideas

It was used by gold miners at Ballarat, Victoria, in the famous 1854 rebellion against the harsh policies of the colonial Victorian government, known as the Eureka Stockade.

The Aboriginal Flag The Aboriginal Flag (Figure 17.8.5) was designed in 1970 by Indigenous artist Harold Thomas. Thomas was a member of the Stolen Generations; he was taken from his Wombai father and Luritja mother at the age of seven. The flag was created as a symbol of unity and pride in Aboriginal identity. The black colouring on top represents the Aboriginal people, the red colour represents the red earth and ochre of Australia’s outback and the yellow circle in the middle is the sun.

nationalism a sense of deep loyalty and support for one’s country

Stolen Generations the generations of Indigenous children taken from their families by government officials to enforce their integration into white society

…

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

federal system the structure of Australia’s political system, in which power is divided between the Commonwealth and the States and Territories

The flag also has the Southern Cross and the Commonwealth Star. The Southern Cross stands for Australia’s geographic location in the Southern Hemisphere. The Commonwealth Star is a symbol of Australia’s federal system of government. The star originally had six points, for the six Australian states, but in 1908 a seventh point was added, to represent Australia’s territories.

Figure 17.8.3 The Union Jack and the Commonwealth

Star

Flags featuring the Southern Cross

…

The Southern Cross has also appeared on unofficial flags in Australia since the 1850s, as a strong sense of nationalism developed. One of the best-known unofficial flags featuring the Southern Cross is the Eureka flag (Figure 17.8.4).

Figure 17.8.5 The Aboriginal Flag

The Torres Strait Islander Flag

The Torres Strait Islander Flag (Figure 17.8.6) represents the Australian peoples from the Torres Strait Islands, north of Queensland. The green colouring at the top and bottom represents land and the blue represents the sea. The two black lines represent the Torres Strait Islander People.

…

Figure 17.8.4 Canberra celebrates the 150th anniversary of the Eureka Stockade by raising the Eureka flag over Parliament House, 3 December 2004.

…

Figure 17.8.6 The Torres Strait Islander Flag

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

520

Cambridge Investigating Humanities for the Victorian Curriculum 8

In the centre of the flag is a symbol called a dhari (dancer’s headdress). The star underneath it represents the islands in the Torres Strait.

1980s Adhi Ephraim Bani, Traditional Chief of Wagadagam, proposed a new name for the islands: Zenadth Kes. This is an acronym of words from the traditional language that describe the location, and Torres Strait Islander People often refer to themselves as ‘Zenadth Kes’.

The Torres Strait is named for seventeenth-century Spanish navigator Luis Vaez de Torres. However, in the late

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Multicultural Australia For more than 65 000 years, Aboriginal Peoples have lived across the Australian continent. From 1788, British colonisation began to dramatically change the cultures present. Since then, different waves of migration have brought Australians many new intercultural experiences. Today, Australia is one of the most multicultural countries on Earth. The Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS) reported that the 2021 census found nearly half of Australians have a parent born overseas, and over 350 languages are spoken in Australian homes, in addition to the hundreds of Indigenous languages of our nation.

Since colonisation, Australia has had a steady stream of migrants from the United Kingdom, and our close neighbour, New Zealand. The gold rushes of the mid-19th century brought huge numbers

of people from Europe, America, China and other countries to seek their fortunes.

In the aftermath of World War II, Australia accepted many Mediterranean refugees and migrants fleeing from poverty and the effects of war in Europe. Countries such as Greece and Italy brought with them their cuisine (especially coffee!), now common in Australian cities and towns. Since then, many migrants have arrived from countries including Vietnam, China and India, looking for the opportunity to live well.

intercultural occurring between two or more different cultures

Aside from bringing diverse cultures, migrant communities also contribute to Australian society by providing labour. They join the workforce and pay taxes. Australian employers have often needed migrants to fill positions. Migrants have also come here and set up businesses, which contribute to Australia’s economic growth.

Concepts and skills builder 17.8 Analysing Australia’s multiculturalism

Consider the following stimulus and apply the QUED method of investigation by answering the questions that follow.

…

Figure 17.8.7 A crowd on a Melbourne street shows multicultural Australia

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Chapter 17: How do Australian citizens engage with Australia’s political and legal systems?

521

Q Write one clear question about how Australia’s multicultural make-up shapes its national identity today. U Choose one of these options and undertake some research to collect five key pieces of information: Option 1: Research and collect five interesting pieces of information about Australia’s demographics using the latest census data at the ABS website, http://cambridge.edu.au/ redirect/#### Option 2: Research a foreign national anthem (American, French, Canadian or British) and compare its lyrics or story with that of the Australian national anthem. Evaluate whether national anthems help bring people together or divide them. Explain your opinion, using evidence from your research.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

D Make a prediction and decide what you think Australia’s multicultural society will look like in 2100. Write a short letter for a class time capsule.

Civics and citizenship concepts and skills: communicating, evaluating democratic institutions and systems, investigating contemporary civics and citizenship issues, participating in civic processes

Go online to access the interactive lesson review and more!

Lesson 17.8 review Online quiz

Review questions

DOC

Research task

Teachers can assign tasks and track results

17.8 Review questions

1 Describe how ‘Advance Australia Fair’ oﬃcially became the national anthem of Australia. How did this reflect changes in Australia’s sense of national identity? 2 How do the symbols on Australia’s national flag represent Australia’s history and identity? 3 Choose and describe three historical events that greatly influenced the multicultural nature of Australia. 4 Why have people from so many different cultures chosen to migrate to Australia? 5 Explain three benefits of multiculturalism in Australia.

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

522

Cambridge Investigating Humanities for the Victorian Curriculum 8

17.9

End of investigation task: How can we maintain a strong Australian society? FPO

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

This research task is designed to be completed over multiple weeks, as you complete the chapter. It should not be left until the end. By completing this research task, you will have the opportunity to consolidate the ideas learned through this chapter, and demonstrate your understanding of Civics and Citizenship concepts and skills.

Research question: How can we maintain a strong Australian society?

A strong society depends on trust between individuals. It occurs when good behaviour is extended beyond family members and personal friends and towards unfamiliar people that run and operate government institutions.

Leaders in charge of the country are required to serve the interests of the citizens, rather than treating their country like their own private property for private gain. A strong society is a reflection of a strong rule of law, where the leaders are held to account for their decisions. If policemen and ambulance drivers don’t turn up, then it reflects negatively towards politicians. Investigate and evaluate the research question and develop your response using the following questions to guide you. You should follow the QUED method of investigation, as described in the box at the end of Lesson 17.1. You will also prepare a report of your investigation.

1 Q

2 U

3 E

4 D

Your task is to investigate and evaluate the factors that contribute to a strong, cohesive society. Based on what you know, what does a strong society look like? Consider the role of trust between individuals and institutions – for example, the reliance on ambulance services and police when needed, rather than just family and friends. Write down your initial ideas and any questions you have about how trust and effective governance contribute to a cohesive society. Research and collect information on: a How trust is built and maintained between citizens and government institutions. b Examples of effective public services (e.g. police, ambulance services) and their impact on community safety. c Instances where poor governance or a lack of accountability led to social conflict or division. Evaluate the information you have gathered. Consider: a How the presence or absence of trust influences societal strength. b The role of leadership and accountability in ensuring public services meet citizens’ needs. c The long-term effects when citizens lose confidence in the institutions meant to protect them. Based on your evaluation, decide what measures could help maintain or improve societal strength in Australia. Write a letter to your local political member outlining your proposals for a stronger, more cohesive Australian and Victorian society. Include at least one recommendation on how to improve trust and accountability in public services.

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Chapter 17: How do Australian citizens engage with Australia’s political and legal systems?

523

The report Your teacher will advise you on the format of your report (written, oral, or multimedia). Your report should include: • a clear explanation of key terms (e.g. trust, rule of law, governance) • the important facts or data you collected • your evaluation of the pros and cons of current practices • your final decision and recommendations, supported by evidence from your research.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Useful links

• Members of the Victorian Parliament

https://www.parliament.vic.gov.au/contacting-members/

• Members of Federal Parliament https://electorate.aec.gov.au/

• Victorian Council Members

https://www.viccouncils.asn.au/find-your-council

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

524

Cambridge Investigating Humanities for the Victorian Curriculum 8

17.10

End of investigation review: How do Australian citizens engage with Australia’s political and legal systems?

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

FPO

Access the Interactive Textbook for a range of digital tools to help you review this topic, including: • Chapter summary • Auto-marked chapter test • Scorcher timed competitive quiz.

Brain dump

What have you learned about how Australians engage with Australia’s political and legal systems? Copy and complete the table to explain your understanding. Aim for two points per topic.

Topic

What I have learned

Western Australia and secession The separation of powers

What are the legislative, executive and judiciary? Participating in the political system Australia’s court system Effect of the High Court Types of law

Significance of ‘Waltzing Matilda’ Australian national symbols

Multiculturalism in Australia

Making thinking visible Apply the 3-2-1 Routine to summarise your findings from this chapter. 1 Recall three main points or ideas from the chapter.

2 Identify two interesting or surprising facts related to the chapter. 3 State one question that you still have or something you want to learn more about, and answer it.

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Chapter 17: How do Australian citizens engage with Australia’s political and legal systems?

525

Practice questions Customary Law, statutory law, common law. Construct a diagram to represent how these categories relate to each other. Include a brief note on what each group of laws includes. 7 In 1977, ‘Waltzing Matilda’ was one of four songs featured in a vote to decide Australia’s national song. a Why do you think it was included as a possible choice? b Why do you think ‘Advance Australian Fair’ gained more votes? Justify your opinion using evidence from this chapter and from its lyrics. 8 Describe the meaning of the symbols on the Australian flag. How do they reflect the Commonwealth of Australia’s political heritage? Are any elements of our cultural or historical heritage not represented? 9 ‘Australia is a richer place to live because it is multicultural.’ To what extent do you agree with this statement? Use information from this chapter to justify your views.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

1 List and describe the different groups involved in promoting and preventing the secession of Western Australia in the 1930s. Who did each group represent? 2 a Explain the roles of the legislative, the executive and the judiciary in Australia. b What is the term used to describe how these branches provides check and balances on each other? 3 Describe three ways that Australians can influence government decisions, aside from voting. 4 What is a ‘hierarchy of courts’? Include two examples of Australian courts in your explanation, and describe where they sit in the hierarchy. 5 Describe the roles of the Australian High Court. Give an example of a case that demonstrates the High Court’s ability to limit the power of a government. 6 Laws can be put into categories: for example, criminal law, civil law, Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander

Write a letter

For this activity you will write a letter to your local political member to outline what you think will help to make a cohesive Australian and Victorian society. Base your letter on everything that you have learned throughout this unit. Gather input from your family and friends. Make sure you:

• Address your local political member correctly.

are the effects of having a cohesive Australian society.

• Finally, outline a piece of advice, a prediction or a recommendation that you want to give.

Use the links below to find your member for federal and state parliament and your local council members.

• Introduce yourself in your letter.

• Members of the Victorian Parliament https://www.parliament.vic.gov.au/ contacting-members/

• Outline and define what a cohesive society means to you.

• Members of Federal Parliament https://electorate.aec.gov.au/

• Explain in your own words what you think are the causes and what

• Victorian Council Members https://www.viccouncils.asn.au/findyour-council

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

526

Cambridge Investigating Humanities for the Victorian Curriculum 8

Response to chapter inquiry question: How do Australian citizens engage with Australia’s political and legal systems? Write a paragraph in response to the inquiry question. Include the following key terms:

• campaign

• constitution

• accountability

• executive

• bill

• legislative

• act of parliament

• judiciary

• local member

• lobby group

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

• transparency

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Chapter 17: How do Australian citizens engage with Australia’s political and legal systems?

527

Glossary History Chapter 1: Overview: How did the world change from 600 ce to 1750 ce? Age of Exploration the great period of

Magna Carta a 1215 document describing the limits to the powers of the monarch that a group of barons forced King John of England to sign; it means ‘Great Charter’ in Latin

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

exploration by sea from the latter half of the 15th to the 16th century

Latin the language of ancient Rome and its empire

barbarian a member of a people not

belonging to Rome

bas-relief a type of art in which shapes are

cut from the surrounding stone so that they stand out slightly against a flat surface

Christian Crusades a series of military

expeditions launched from Christian Europe against the peoples of the Near East

Christianity the religion based on the person

medieval refers to the period of European

history from about 476 to 1500 ce, which was also called the Middle Ages (Latin for ‘medium’ or ‘middle’)

monasteries Christian communities of

religious people called monks or nuns, and the buildings where they lived and worked

Ottoman Empire

an Islamic empire founded in the late 13th century in the area of modern-day Türkiye

and teachings of Jesus Christ, and its beliefs and practices; the dominant faith in medieval Europe

a leader has lost control of an area, and no one has replaced them

compass a device that shows due north,

Silk Road a network of over 6400 km of

used for navigation

power vacuum a situation that exists when

from about 476 ce to about 1000 ce, after the end of the Roman Empire; the first part of the medieval period

trade routes, active from the 2nd century bce until the mid-15th century ce, that increased economic, cultural, political and religious interactions between the Eastern and Western worlds

emperor a ruler of a society

trade the buying and selling of goods

feudalism the medieval social system that organised people into categories, from the monarchy down to the poorest member; the king granted land to the nobility in exchange for loyalty and service, and every level of society gave something to those above them forming a hierarchy

Westminster system a system of government

hierarchy

Chapter 2: How did the medieval period change Europe?

Dark Ages the period in European history

a system in which people or things are arranged in levels according to their importance

Indian Ocean trade network

a group of sea trade routes that stretched across all of Afro-Eurasia; the dominant trade network in the world from about 800 ce to 1500 ce

that began in Britain, in which there is ceremonial head of state, ministers with executive power responsible to a parliament that can make laws (the legislative), and a separate justice system (judiciary)

Anglo-Saxons

a Germanic people who settled across England from the 5th century ce and spoke Old English; often shortened to just ‘Saxons’

artisan someone who does skilled work

Islam a religion that follows the teachings

with their hands

of 7th-century Prophet Muhammad, as recorded in the Quran; followers of Islam are called Muslims

14th century

Black Death

a plague pandemic of the

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

528

Glossary

castle a large, fortified building for defence, storage and to live in cathedral a large church and place of

pandemic a disease that is widespread across a whole country, several countries or the world

worship, usually in the centre of a town or city

peasant a poor farmer of low status who

chivalry

rented land and usually grew their own food

the medieval code of conduct for knights, which said how they should behave according to religious, moral and social rules

siege when enemy forces surround a town

clergy religious workers of the Christian

or castle and cut off its supplies to try to force a surrender

Church

treason the crime of doing something that

Dark Ages the period in European history

harms your country, especially by helping its enemies

vassal a person who holds land or a position

feudalism the medieval social system that

Vikings seafaring raiders and traders

organised people into categories, from the monarchy down to the poorest member; the king granted land to the nobility in exchange for loyalty and service, and every level of society gave something to those above them, forming a hierarchy

from Scandinavia, who had great power over northern Europe in the 9th and 10th centuries ce

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

from about 476 ce to about 1000 ce, after the end of the Roman Empire; the first part of the medieval period

granted by a superior, to whom they owe loyalty

witchcraft

the practice of magic, especially for what was considered evil purposes

a vassal

Chapter 3 How did the Ottoman Empire change Europe and the Mediterranean world?

foot soldiers poorly trained peasants who

bazaar a covered marketplace

left their farms to fight on foot

castrate surgically remove a man’s testicles

heir a person entitled to take the property

court the family, servants and officials of a king, queen or emperor

fief land owned by the king and rented to

or rank of another person when that person dies; in medieval times, usually the eldest son

knight a man who served his king, queen

harem the separate part of a household reserved for women, girls and young boys

empire

Islam a religion that follows the teachings of 7th-century Prophet Muhammad, as recorded in the Quran; followers of Islam are called Muslims

manor court

janissaries elite soldiers of the Ottoman

or lord as a soldier on horseback

Latin the language of ancient Rome and its a court of law overseen by the lord of a particular area

army; most were enslaved Christian people

medieval refers to the period of European

madrasah an Arabic word for a school

history from about 476 to 1500 ce, which was also called the Middle Ages

millet a non-Muslim religious group that

nobility

people who were ‘high-born’ into powerful families, and lived a life of privilege

the Ottoman Empire allowed to live under its own laws

patriarch the male head of a family, or the

noble a person born into a family with high

supreme leader of a Christian religious group

social or political status and privileges, often with a title (e.g. lord, baron, sir or lady)

province a region of a larger country or empire

Normans a people of Frankish and Viking

separate from religion or spiritual ideas

origin who settled in northern France from the 10th century ce

page a boy aged from 7 to 10 who trained to become a knight

secular relating to ideas or laws that are subject a person or state who is under the control of an imperial ruler

subordinate

being lesser, below or lower

in rank

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Glossary

529

sultan an Arabic word for a Muslim king tribute payment made to another person or group to show that one is submitting to their authority

turban a type of headwear created by winding cloth, often a sign of the wearer’s religion or nobility

Chapter 4: How did Renaissance Italy change Europe and the Mediterranean world?

technology the use of science and tools to create things that help people solve problems or make life easier Chapter 5 How did the Spanish change the Americas? absolute ruler a ruler whose power and authority is never questioned

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

apprentice a person who is learning a trade

Renaissance man a cultured man who is talented in many fields, such as science, art, engineering and languages

city-state

an independent city that ruled a territory, as in ancient Rome and Renaissance Italy

Aztec Empire the alliance of three great cities in the Valley of Mexico (the highlands plateau in central Mexico) from the early 15th to the early 16th century

civic pride a feeling of being proud of the

causeway a wide bridge that crosses water

town or city where you live

codex an ancient book that was written by hand (plural: codices)

from a skilled employer

dynasty

a line of rulers who inherit their power from their family

fresco a water colour painting done on

colonise to invade and take over another

area, which can be settled or uninhabited; it then becomes known as a colony

fresh wet plaster on a wall or ceiling (from the Italian word for ‘fresh’)

demigod (in ancient stories) a being who is

guild an association of craftsmen or

part human and part god

merchants, which controlled who was allowed to work in their particular trade or profession (e.g. stonemasons, lawyers)

encomienda a system put in by the Spanish

mainstream Christian Church

under which local people were assigned to work for colonisers, who in return were supposed to instruct them in Christianity and protect them; it was widely abused

humanism the belief that humans are at the

hacienda a large landed estate

centre of their own universe and can achieve their potential through education, arts and sciences

Latin America

merchant a person or company who

Mesoamerica a region in the Americas,

buys and sells goods, particularly across international borders

extending approximately from central Mexico to Belize, Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua and northern Costa Rica

heresy beliefs that contradict those of the

noble a person born into a family with high social or political status and privileges, often with a title (e.g. lord, baron, sir or lady)

a cultural region of the Americas where Spanish and Portuguese languages are predominantly spoken

Mexica the Indigenous people who lived in

the Valley of Mexico during the Aztec Empire

patron a person who gives financial or other support; a sponsor

New World the name given to the Americas

radical change extreme social or political change

conquistadors a Spanish term for the ‘conquerors’ of the New World

regent a person appointed to rule temporarily,

obsidian a type of rock that is like black

often on behalf of a young or unwell ruler

glass

Renaissance the period of revival of art, literature and science in Europe in the 14th to 16th centuries; a French word for ‘rebirth’

prophecy a prediction of what will happen in

by European explorers

the future often claimed to come from a god or deity

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

530

Glossary

smallpox

an extremely infectious disease that causes a fever, spots on the skin, and often death

exiled expelled or banished from one’s homeland

Treaty of Tordesillas a treaty made to divide the New World between the Spanish and Portuguese monarchies

a vassal oven used for cooking and heating

tribute a payment made to another person

hierarchy

or group to show that one is submitting to their authority

hearth a brick- or stone-lined fireplace or a system in which people or things are arranged in levels according to their importance

knarr a Viking cargo ship capable of open sea travel

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Chapter 6: What was the historical significance of the Vikings?

fief land owned by the king and rented to

Althing the assembly of freemen that

governed Viking communities

Anglo-Saxons

a Germanic people who settled across England from the 5th century ce and spoke Old English; often shortened to just ‘Saxons’

Bayeux Tapestry

a long, embroidered cloth created in the 1070s that depicts the Norman invasion of England and the Battle of Hastings

Christianity a religion that is based on the life and teachings of Jesus Christ

chronicle a detailed history of the events of

a particular era, written in date order

commodity an item that is bought and sold, especially a raw material or something that is manufactured, for which there is a commercial demand converted when a person or group has

chosen or been persuaded to change their religion or beliefs

currency

a unit of money used by the people of a country or land for buying and selling goods and services

Danelaw the parts of Anglo-Saxon

England that came under Danish law and where Danish customs were observed, particularly in the late 9th and early 10th centuries

democracy a form of government where members of the community take part in decision-making through voting

economy the system of how money is made and used within a particular country or region

epic a style of long poem about heroic events

manslaughter

the crime of killing a person when the killer did not intend to do it, or cannot be held responsible for their actions

mercenary

a soldier who fights for payment rather than political interests or patriotism

monotheism a religion that has only one god

mythology a collection of stories that

belong to a particular people or culture and tell about their history, ancestors, heroes, gods and other supernatural beings

Old Norse the old form of the Norwegian language common to the lands of Scandinavia (Denmark, Norway and Sweden)

oral tradition beliefs and customs handed

down by spoken word, such as storytelling and folklore, rather than in written form

pantheon the group of gods of a particular culture

polytheism a belief system with more than one god

prophecy a prediction of what will happen in

the future, often claimed to come from a god or deity

rune a character of an alphabet used by the Vikings

saga a long, narrative epic written in

Old Norse that tells stories of the Vikings who lived between 930 ce and 1030 ce; written between the late 12th and early 14th centuries

vassal a person who holds land or a position granted by a superior, to whom they owe loyalty

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Glossary

531

Chapter 7 How did the modern world emerge in Europe? authoritarian a style of leadership based on

revolution a sudden and profound change in the way a nation is governed, often achieved with violence

the belief that people must obey the ruler completely, and not be allowed freedom to act as they wish

treason the crime of doing something that

autocrat a monarch who has absolute

tsar the king or supreme ruler of Russia;

power and rules according to their own wishes, without necessarily considering the desires or welfare of anyone else

sometimes spelled czar

Chapter 8 What contributed to the rise and fall of Angkor and the Khmer Empire?

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

diplomacy the skill and practice of

harms your country, especially by helping its enemies

managing relationships between representatives of different countries

emancipated to be set free from another

Angkorian period the period from the unification of the Khmer Empire in 802 ce to when Angkor was abandoned as its capital in 1431 ce

person’s control, or from social or political limits

baray an enormous reservoir built to hold

Enlightenment the period in the 18th

bas-relief a type of art in which shapes are

century when particular thinkers began to emphasise the importance of science and reason rather than religion and tradition

Brahmin the Hindu caste (class), made up

heir a person who is entitled to receive the

of priests and teachers

property or rank of another person when that person dies

Buddhism a religion and philosophy that

liberal democracy a system of government

where people freely vote for whoever they want to put in power, and which upholds the principle of protecting people’s rights and freedoms

millions of cubic metres of water

cut from the surrounding stone so that they stand out slightly against a flat surface

began in India around 500 bce and is based on the teachings of Siddhartha Gautama (Buddha)

bunded having a low earth bank used to create shallow ponds for growing rice

corvée compulsory work done by peasants for the king or local officials

modern related more to the present than the past; using new ideas, designs and technology rather than relying on tradition

dharma the Hindu and Buddhist idea of

naval belonging to a country’s navy, or

and is possibly 4000 years old; Hinduism involves the worship of many gods, including Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva

military ships

patriarchy

a system in which men control most of the power and authority in a family, group or society

polymath a person who becomes an expert in many different subjects or skills Protestants followers of one of the non-

Catholic forms of Christianity that began following the Reformation in the 16th century; they include Anglicans (followers of the Church of England) and Lutherans

Reformation a religious movement aimed at changing the practices and rules that the Catholic Church followed, especially to reduce corruption; it led to the formation of Protestant churches

good order and harmony being maintained in the world

Hinduism a religion that began in India

Indochina the part of mainland South-East Asia that includes present-day Thailand, Cambodia, Laos and Vietnam

karma the effects of one’s actions in life, be they good or bad; the natural consequences of actions

Khmer the people, language and culture of historic Angkor and modern-day Cambodia

laterite

a type of reddish soil and rock found in the tropics

monsoon a seasonal change in the direction of the main winds of a region, causing wet and dry seasons throughout South-East Asia; also used as a term for the rainy season

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

532

Glossary

samsara the cycle of rebirth or reincarnation

kinship relationship by blood

silt rich, fine soil carried in the waters of canals or rivers

kumis a drink with a low alcohol content produced by fermenting mare’s milk

usurper a person who claims to be the

meritocracy

rightful ruler, but isn’t

a society where people are chosen for positions based on their abilities, skills or achievements

Chapter 9: How did Japan change under the shoguns?

nomads people who do not live in one

aristocrat a member of the nobility

city, town or village but move from place to place depending upon the season (adjective nomadic)

bushido a Japanese warrior code of conduct

ordo a camp or court where a Mongol

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

archipelago a group of islands

clan a group who originally came from the

same family and have the same name

daimyo a feudal Japanese lord, equivalent

to a medieval European duke or earl

diplomacy the skill and practice of

managing relationships between representatives of different countries

hierarchy

a system in which people or things are arranged in levels according to their importance

imperial related to an empire, emperor or empress

kamikaze ‘divine wind’, especially relating

to the typhoon of 1281

samurai the hereditary warrior class of Japan shogun the top military head of state of Japan shugo a military governor appointed by the

leader was based and which held power and control over warriors, livestock and possessions

shaman a person thought to have special abilities such as healing, seeing the future and speaking with good and evil spirits

steppes a large area of grassland that is flat and has almost no trees

supply train a series of wagons that

transport food, weapons and medicine for an army going to battle

Uyghur a tribe of people who lived in

Mongolia and in what is modern-day China and Central Asia

Yassa the law code of the Mongol Empire, literally meaning ‘order’ or ‘decree’

yurt a large circular tent traditionally made from felt or animal skins

shogun to administer a region

tsunami an extremely large wave caused by

a violent movement of Earth’s crust under the sea

vassal a person who holds land or a

position granted by a superior, to whom they owe loyalty

Chapter 11 How did Polynesians come to settle the Pacific? ari’ i the nobility of Polynesian society

(especially in and around Tahiti); on Hawaii known as ali’i and on Samoa as matai’

caravanserai a roadside inn

indentured servitude when someone is forced to sign a contract to work a certain number of years, often in exchange for food, clothes and shelter, but with little or no pay

concubine a female companion of lower

kinship relationship by blood

status than a wife

lithic mulching spreading rocks and pebbles

dowry money a bride brings into her

across fields to prevent soil from being blown away by the wind; as the rocks erode, small particles fall off into the soil, adding nutrients

Chapter 10 How did the Mongols influence the world?

marriage, usually given by her parents or guardians

khan a Mongol ruler or chief khanate a separate Mongol kingdom, formed after Genghis Khan’s rule ended

mana inherited supernatural power that gives authority

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Glossary

533

Polynesian Triangle the triangular region of about 36 million km2 in the Pacific Ocean settled by Polynesians between c.2000– 1500 bce and c.1200 ce subsistence farming farming where a family or group only grows enough crops to feed themselves

infrastructure

the things created using technology and engineering that allow human society to run smoothly, such as roads, buildings, water pipes, electricity lines and bridges

landform a feature of a landscape, such as a mountain or valley

landscape an area of land that has particular features, either natural or human-made

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

wayfinders traditional Polynesian navigators who found the way across vast distances of ocean using their knowledge of stars and constellations

geomorphological relating to the natural processes that shape Earth’s surface

Geography

Chapter 12: What are landscapes and landforms? agriculture

the science and labour of raising plants and farm animals; farming

arid extremely dry, especially from lack

resources things that are used by a person

or group, including a business or country; often used to mean mineral wealth, such as oil and metal ores

sediment sand, soil, small rocks, and any other small particles that sink in water

of rainfall

tectonic plate

birthing tree a sacred tree where Djab Wurrung women traditionally give birth; a significant cultural and spiritual site that stands for ancestral connections and continuity within community

topographic map a map that shows accurate

Country traditional lands that are culturally

important and include water, air, plants, animals, and the stories and ancestors connected to that place; the word Country, when referring to Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander connection to Country, is capitalised as a way of showing respect

deposition the laying down or settling of

eroded materials (sediments) at a new location

directions tree a culturally modified tree

used by Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples to indicate directions, mark significant sites, or serve as navigational aids within their traditional lands

Djab Wurrung an Aboriginal group whose

a section of Earth’s crust that moves relative to other sections; often just called a plate

details of the features of an area using symbols and labels, and the elevation of the land by including lines labelled with height above sea level

weathering the slow breakdown of rocks

and minerals into smaller pieces over time

Chapter 13: What are coastal and riverine landscapes and landforms, and how do they form and change? abrasion an erosion process where rocks carried by waves grind away at the shore, wearing down surfaces

attrition an erosion process where waves force rocks into each other, breaking them into smaller pieces

backwash the water that flows back down a beach after a wave has reached the shore

traditional lands are in the Western District of Victoria

basin an area of land drained by a river and

dynamic always changing or moving

constructive wave

ecosystem

a community of living things and their environment

erosion the movement of sediment from

its tributaries

a wave that deposits more material than it removes

destructive wave

a wave that removes more material than it deposits

one place to another by gravity, moving water, glaciers, waves and wind

dynamic always changing or moving

fertile soil healthy soil, containing nutrients, that is able to support plant life

channel has a negative gradient

gradient steepness of a section; a downhill

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

534

Glossary

hazard a situation that could cause harm hydraulic action an erosion process where water is forced into cracks, slowly breaking rocks apart

Chapter 14: What are the causes and consequences of urbanisation? agrarian community a community whose economy is based on agriculture (farming)

irrigation the diversion of water away from

census an official survey of a population

its natural course via pipes or channels to water land or crops

and its characteristics; in Australia, this occurs every five years

mouth the end of a river, where it flows into

central business district (CBD) the main

a larger body of water such as a sea or lake

business and commercial centre of a city

perimeter a continuous line forming the boundary of a shape

childbearing age an age range in which

the most usual direction at a particular place or season

choropleth map a map that shows areas of shading or colouring to represent data values

quadrat a square frame used in geography

commute time the amount of time taken to

to define a specific area for sampling

travel to and from work

qualitative data descriptive information, rather than numerical or statistical information

conservation the protection of the natural

riverbank the land alongside the bed of

conurbation a very large urban region formed when multiple smaller cities grow and join together

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES prevailing wind the wind that comes from

women are able to give birth, usually defined as 16–49 years of age

a river

riverbed the ground that a river flows over

river channel the part of the river that holds the water

solution a mixture formed during erosion

when acid in the water dissolves rock minerals

source the starting point of a river, such as

a spring

stacked area graph a graph that shows

environment

correlation an association or relationship between two phenomena, such as GDP and the rate of urbanisation correlation an association or relationship

between two or more things

crude birth rate the number of people born per year in a population per 1000 people

crude death rate

the number of people who die per year in a population per 1000 people

categories as areas of different colours stacked on each other, making up a total shown as a line; usually has time on the horizontal axis

detached house a house that stands alone and isn’t joined to any other house

storm surge

distribution the arrangement of

a rise in sea level caused by strong winds and low pressure during a storm, pushing seawater onto the land, often leading to flooding

suspension a mixture of a solid and a fluid; in a river, this means fine particles of sediment suspended in water

geographical phenomena, such as population, across Earth’s surface

dual occupancy

a type of development where two dwellings are built on a single block of land

economic impact

swash the water that rushes up a beach

an impact involving finances and the economy

when a wave reaches the shore

environmental impact a change in either

tributary a smaller stream or river that flows into a larger river

the natural environment or the human environment

turbulent describes the chaotic motion within fast-moving or changing water currents

exporting sending goods to another country

wave frequency

forced displacement the involuntary movement

minute

the number of waves per

for sale of people away from their home region

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Glossary

535

green space areas of vegetation such as grass and trees used for recreational purposes

rural-to-urban migration the movement of people from rural areas to urban areas

gross domestic product (GDP) per capita a

rural–urban fringe the border between rural

measure of the strength of a country’s economy divided by the size of its population

and urban environments on the outskirts of a city

groundwater surface

satellite cities smaller cities or towns that are next to major cities

habitat the natural home of a plant or

satellite imagery visual data of Earth’s

animal containing suitable environmental conditions

surface collected from satellites in orbit

slums extremely poor informal settlements

hard surfaces

where residents do not legally own the land

water located below Earth’s

social impacts

industrialisation the shift of a country’s

that are south of the Sahara Desert

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

also known as impervious surfaces, surfaces that water cannot penetrate such as concrete, asphalt and rooftops

economy from being based mainly on agriculture to being based on manufacturing

infrastructure facilities and systems such

as buildings, roads, public transport and electricity

land subsidence the sinking of land as a

result of the movement of underground material; it can be gradual or sudden, and can be natural or caused by human activities

megacity a city containing more than 10 million residents

migration the movement of people from

one place to another

natural aquifer

an underground layer of rock and other material containing groundwater

natural population growth the difference

between the number of people who are born and the number of people who die in a population

phenomenon something that can be

observed, measured or studied (plural: phenomena)

population density the number of people per square kilometre of land

pull factors reasons people wish to move to an area

push factors reasons people wish to leave an area

rural describes environments with a low population density with sparse infrastructure, such as farms, open spaces and natural areas

impacts on people and

society

sub-Saharan Africa the countries in Africa

subdivision the division of a block of land

into smaller pieces for development

submerged completely covered in water

sustainable able to be maintained at the

same rate without impacting the future

urban describes environments with a

high population density that have highly developed infrastructure, such as cities, suburbs and large towns

urban concentration the proportion of a

country’s population living in large cities

urban consolidation the growth of a city

within its existing boundaries by increasing the density of housing and businesses

urban growth an increase in the physical

size and population of an urban area over time

urban sprawl the growth of a city by spreading outwards into the surrounding landscape

urbanisation an increase in the proportion

of people living in urban areas compared to rural areas

working class people working in labour or industrial work, often for lower wages Chapter 15: Is the rate of migration sustainable? asylum seeker

someone who leaves their own country, often to avoid persecution or war, and travels to another country hoping to find a safe place (asylum) to live, where the government will protect them

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

536

Glossary

caste system a social hierarchy or class structure in which individuals are born into groups with specific social status and as a result, different levels of support and opportunity citizenship the status of officially being a member of a country and having legal rights such as voting in elections

emigrant a migrant who leaves a country to live in a different country

refugee an asylum seeker who has been granted refugee status and can therefore receive legal protection in the country in which they have sought asylum

relocation scholarships payments for each year of study for students from regional and remote areas who undertake full-time study

remittances money sent from migrants back to families in their country of origin

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

financial incentives money that is offered to

persecution unfair or cruel treatment of a person over a long period because of their race, religion or political beliefs

people to encourage them to do something, such as migrate

rent assistance payments to contribute

of housing provided by the government

towards rent expenses for those living away from home

hukou an official document registering that

skilled labour jobs requiring highly trained,

a Chinese citizen is a legal resident of a particular area

educated or experienced workers

social security payments from the

immigrant a migrant who comes to live in a

government to people with low or no income, such as Australia’s aged pension

housing subsidies financial help with the cost

different country

industrialisation the shift of a country’s

economy from one based mainly on agriculture to being based on manufacturing

integration

the adoption of other cultures into a society as equals

international migrant any person who has changed their country of residence

labour migrant a migrant who moves for the purpose of employment

median the middle value in a range of

ordered values, used as a more meaningful measure than the average

natural increase the difference between the

number of births and deaths in a population; if there are more births than deaths then a population experiences natural increase

net migration

the difference between the numbers of immigrants and emigrants in a country

Oceania a continent containing Australasia,

youth allowance fortnightly payments available through Centrelink for some students, apprentices and job seekers aged between 16 and 24

Economics and Business

Chapter 16: How are businesses and work changing in Australia? agents representatives of a sector of the economy; for example, consumers are agents for households

annual targets the specific and measurable annual objectives of a business automation a method of production that

replaces human involvement with technology

big business a business with 200 or more

employees

business an organisation that makes a good or service for profit

business idea an idea for a new product or

Melanesia, Micronesia and Polynesia, which includes countries such as Australia, Papua New Guinea and New Zealand

technology

penal transportation the relocation of convicted

business plan a comprehensive plan for how

criminals (convicts) to a distant place

a business will be run to ensure its success

permanent residency having the right to live

capital resources the non-human resources used in production, including physical, natural and financial items

in a country for as long as you like without being a citizen

business model how a business plans to operate to make a profit

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Glossary

537

capital-intensive production a good produced using largely capital resources, such as buildings, machinery, robots and equipment; for example, making vehicles

produced by a business

company a business that is a separate legal

growth and development a medium-term goal

entity from the people involved

competitive edge something that gives an

goals the medium-term objectives of a business (3–7 years) good(s) material good(s) or service(s)

of a business to expand its operation and improve its product and technology

advantage to a business over others in the market; for example, a lower price

income a payment received for the use of a

consumption using goods and services to improve material wellbeing

inflation the sustained increase in the

corporation a group of companies

innovation the adoption of an invention in

dividend an income payment made to someone who has invested in a business

production

interest an income payment for the use of a

economic growth growth in the level of

money (for example, a financial loan)

production per head in a nation’s economy

invention a newly designed product or

effectiveness

production technique

resource

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

general level of product market prices

a medium-term goal of a business to satisfy customer wishes

labour income a wage or salary paid in

efficiency a medium-term goal of a business to achieve the lowest costs for making its product and distributing it to market

labour resources

enterprise the transformation or

workers

development of a business idea into a profitable and successful operation

labour-intensive production

enterprise agreement an agreement between the workers and employers about pay rates and conditions of work; registered with the Fair Work Commission

enterprise skills the human resource of skills

in identifying market opportunities, and creating and managing a business, while undertaking financial risk

entrepreneur

a person who creates a successful new business using ideas, management skills and risk-taking

factor markets markets in which resources

return for labour hours provided to a business

the skills and time of

a good or service produced using largely labour skills and hours, such as an accounting service

market opportunity an opportunity for a

business to make profit by making a new product or using a new cost-saving method of production or distribution

market research

an investigation of a market

and its future

market survey

a series of questions asking a number of people what they thought of a good or service

marketing and sales plan a plan outlining how

are exchanged for income payments

to promote and sell a product, including advertising and pricing

Fair Work Commission a government agency

medium business a business with 20–199

established to set minimum wage rates for workers in Australia

financial security a positive feeling from a belief that income can pay for desired goods and services

globalisation

greater movement of ideas, people, resources and products between nations around the world

employees

minimum wage rate

the lowest wage per hour payable to a worker, set by a government agency and enforceable by law

mission the purpose of a business or organisation

partnership a business owned by two or more people

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

538

Glossary

philanthropy

the donation of assets by wealthy individuals and companies to the least advantaged households

producers the makers of goods and services

profit the money made by a business from selling goods or services after deducting all financial costs of the business

prototype an initial model of a new product rent an income payment for the use of, for

Chapter 17: How do Australian citizens engage with Australia’s political and legal systems? accountability the responsibility of governments to be answerable to the public for the decisions they make; it exists because governments use resources raised from the public (e.g. taxes) to fund their policies

amendment a correction or reform to an existing document

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

example, a house or building

Civics and Citizenship

resources human and non-human things

that are used in the production of goods or services

risk report

an investigation of the risks of producing a good or service

bill a document describing a new or changed area of law in the form of a proposed Act of Parliament

campaign a series of activities in the lead up

employees

to an election in which political parties and candidates use advertising and information, such as promotional materials, to target voters to persuade them to vote a certain way

social responsibility a goal of business to act

citizen someone who is a legal member

responsibly, just as a citizen is expected to, by obeying laws and being economic

sole trader a one-owner business

of a country and as a result has individual responsibilities and rights that are protected by the government

strategic plan a plan detailing how a

civil law the area of law covering disputes

small business a business with 0–19

business will achieve its objectives

strategy actions taken by a business that

are designed to help the business achieve its objectives

superannuation guarantee a payment into

a worker’s superannuation account by a business, to be put aside for retirement; set by law at 12% of wages from July 2025

target market

the group of potential buyers of a particular good or service

trust an organisation that holds assets for the benefit of others

unemployed describes human and other

resources that could be working or used in a business, but are not currently wanted

between people and/or companies, where the outcome is often the awarding of damages (money)

communism a system of organising society where there is no private property, but instead everything is owned and run by the community or the state

constitution a document that sets out the

political structure of a country, including the separation and division of powers

agents desire for their business

defendant an individual or organisation who is being taken to court in a civil or criminal case

wage an income payment for the use of

electorate

vision the long-term future the owners or

producing a good or service

a district that is represented by an elected member of parliament; it can also refer to the voters of that district, or to the whole voting public

worker a person employed by a business to

executive

labour hours and skills

work paid employment in a business

provide labour skills

the heads of state and leading politicians of a government; the group who puts the law into action

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Glossary

539

federal system

the structure of Australia’s political system, in which power is divided between the Commonwealth and the States and Territories

plebiscite

governor-general the representative of the

policy a statement of the actions a political

British monarch in Australia; they use their authority in line with the advice of the prime minister and the ministers and sign laws into action

party or individual intends to take on a particular issue; for example, to put more funding into public education or to lower income tax

intercultural occurring between two or more different cultures

precedent a decision made by a court that

a direct vote or survey by the electorate on an important public question; the government does not have to act on the outcome

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

all courts lower in the judicial hierarchy have to follow

interest group an organisation that allows citizens and non-citizens the opportunity to engage with law making and their representative members of parliament

judiciary

the court system; the group who makes judgements about the law

jurisdiction the extent of a court’s power to apply the law, make orders on people and declare a judgement

jury a group of people that is

representative of the community and randomly selected from the public to decide the outcome of a court case

legislative the parliament; the group who makes or changes the law

lobby group a group of people or organisations with similar interests who attempt to influence people in power over their issue of interest local representative the member of

prosecutor

a person (such as a police officer or public prosecutor) who conducts a case against an individual who is accused of breaking the law

public sector

the workforce employed by the government to carry out services, such as the police force

secession the act of withdrawing and

separating from a country, area or organisation and becoming independent

secular relating to ideas or laws that are separate from religion or spiritual ideas separation of powers

the allocation of power to three different groups who make and manage laws – the judiciary, executive and legislative

sovereignty independent and separate supreme governing authority over a defined territory

different cultural groups

Stolen Generations the generations of Indigenous children taken from their families by government officials to enforce their integration into white society

national identity a shared sense of

strike an organised refusal to work by a

parliament who is elected to serve his or her electorate

multicultural involving several or many

acceptance and loyalty amongst a population towards a political state

group of workers, usually to obtain better pay or working conditions

nationalism a sense of deep loyalty and

sued took legal action to get compensation

support for one’s country

for a civil law case

native title a right of interest over land or

trade union an organisation that represents

waters that may be owned according to Traditional Customary Laws of Aboriginal or Torres Strait Islander Peoples

transparency

plaintiff an individual or organisation who is an accuser and starts legal action against another person or organisation

workers in deals with employers on issues such as working conditions and pay openness to having actions seen, understood and criticised

visa a document giving permission to a foreigner of a country to enter and leave the country

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

540

Glossary

<T OC OM

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Index

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Index

541

<T OC OM

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

542

Index

<T OC OM

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Index

543

<T OC OM

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

544

Index

<T OC OM

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Index

545

<T OC OM

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

546

Index

Acknowledgements The author and publisher also wish to thank the following sources for permission to reproduce material: Images: © <tk> Text: <tk>

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Every effort has been made to trace and acknowledge copyright. The publisher apologises for any accidental infringement and welcomes information that would redress this situation.

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Acknowledgements

547

<T OC OM

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62412-1 • (03) 8671 1400

548

Acknowledgements