Issuu

INVESTIGATING HUMANITIES

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

FOR THE VICTORIAN CURRICULUM

Adrian De Fanti // Stephen Powell // Sharon Davis // Julie Bover // Kevin Gould //Alan Cizzio Sammy Coburn // Brady Driscoll // Tisha Eggleston // Ben Hoban //Lyndon Pratt // Kara Taylor

Shaftesbury Road, Cambridge CB2 8EA, United Kingdom One Liberty Plaza, 20th Floor, New York, NY 10006, USA 477 Williamstown Road, Port Melbourne, VIC 3207, Australia 314–321, 3rd Floor, Plot 3, Splendor Forum, Jasola District Centre, New Delhi – 110025, India 103 Penang Road, #05–06/07, Visioncrest Commercial, Singapore 238467

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Contents About the authors

How to use this resource

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What do we need to know about and do when learning about First Nations Peoples?

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Part 1: History

Chapter 1: Overview: The modern world to today: How has the world changed since 1945? 1.1 Setting the scene: an introduction to the modern world

1.2 How did significant developments and events since 1945 contribute to global change?

5 13

1.3 What were the contributions of significant movements for social and political change since 1945?

1.4 What were the significant events, individuals and groups in the women’s movement in Australia, and how did they change the role and status of women?

1.5 What are some of the continuing efforts to create change in civil rights and freedoms in Australia?

28 34

1.6 End of investigation review: how has the world changed since 1945?

INVESTIGATION 1: Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples’ rights and freedoms (1938 – present)

Chapter 2: How have the rights and freedoms of First Nations Peoples evolved since 1938? 2.1 Setting the scene: How is Cook’s landing remembered?

2.11 What attempts have been made at reconciliation?

37 39 41 45 49 54 59 65 70 76 80

2.12 How did Australia apologise to the Stolen Generations?

2.2 What were the key events of this topic?

2.3 What is the Declaration of Human Rights?

2.4 What are the continuing impacts of invasion and colonisation on First Nations Peoples?

2.5 What are the initial and ongoing impacts of ‘protection’ and forced removal on First Nations Peoples? 2.6 How did the struggle for civil rights begin?

2.7 How did the fight for civil rights in the USA inspire Australia’s? 2.8 How was the 1967 referendum won?

2.9 Why did radical activism arrive in Australia? 2.10 How was terra nullius defeated?

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2.13 How does the fight for civil rights and recognition continue today?

2.14 What were the differences between the 1967 and 2023 Referenda, and how did this contribute to the outcomes?

2.15 End of investigation review: How have the rights and freedoms of First Nations peoples evolved since 1938?

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INVESTIGATION 2: Australians at war (1914–1945))

Go online to access this digital chapter

Chapter 3: What was the significance of World War I (1914–1918)? 3.1 Setting the scene: What was World War I like? 3.2 What were the key events in World War I?

3.3 What were the long-term causes of World War I?

3.4 What were the short-term causes of World War I? 3.5 Why did Australians fight in World War I?

3.6 Where did Australians fight in World War I?

3.7 What was the significance of Gallipoli from both an Australian and a global perspective? 3.8 What was World War I like for First Nations servicemen and for Australian women? 3.9 What was the nature of trench warfare in World War I?

3.10 How did technological developments change the nature of warfare in World War I? 3.11 How did World War I end and what was the significance of the Treaty of Versailles? 3.12 What do historians say about the legacy of World War I?

3.13 End of investigation review: What was the significance of World War I (1914–1918)?

Chapter 4: What was the significance of World War II (1939–1945)? 4.1 Setting the scene: When did war come to Australia? 4.2 What were the key events in World War II?

4.3 What were the causes of World War II in Europe? Part I: The Treaty of Versailles

4.4 What were the causes of World War II in Europe? Part II: The rise of the Nazi Party 4.5 How did the German tactic of Blitzkrieg overwhelm Europe? 4.6 What were the key events of World War II?

4.7 Where did Australian troops fight in Europe and North Africa in World War II? 4.8 How did the war in the Pacific affect Australia? 4.9 Why was the city of Darwin bombed?

4.10 What is the significance of the Battle of Kokoda?

4.11 What were the effects of World War II on Australian society? 4.12 What was life in Australia like during the war? 4.13 What was the long-term impact of war on Australia? 4.14 Was the use of the atomic bomb to end the war justified? 4.15 What effect did World War II have on Australia’s international relationships? 4.16 End of investigation review: What was the significance of World War II (1939–1945)?

106 108 110 114 120 124 127 130 134 138 143 147 151 154 158 162

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Chapter 5: How did the Holocaust happen? 5.1 Setting the scene: How is the Holocaust remembered today?

165 168 170 173 178 184 188 194 198 202 206

5.2 What were the key events of the Holocaust? 5.3 What were the origins of the Holocaust? 5.4 How did antisemitism rise in Germany after WWI? 5.5 How did the Holocaust develop after 1933?

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5.6 What was the significance of Australian concerns about attacks on European Jews? 5.7 How did World War II escalate the Holocaust?

5.8 What was it like in the Nazi concentration and death camps? 5.9 How did the Holocaust come to an end?

5.10 How did people rebuild their lives after the Holocaust?

5.11 End of investigation review: How did the Holocaust happen?

INVESTIGATION 3: The globalising world (1945 – present))

Chapter 6: What is the globalising world? 6.1 Setting the scene: what were the Four Freedoms?

210 214 218 224 229 233

6.2 What are the key events of this topic?

6.3 How did living standards develop throughout the twentieth century?

6.4 What were the origins and significance of The Universal Declaration of Human Rights?

6.5 What was Australia’s role in the creation of The Universal Declaration of Human Rights? 6.6 End of investigation review: what is the globalising world?

Chapter 7: How do we define popular culture?

Go online to access this digital chapter

7.1 Setting the scene: ‘Satisfaction’ and the Rolling Stones 7.2 What were the key events in this topic?

7.3 How did popular culture emerge in Australia during the 1950s? 7.4 How did popular culture evolve in the 1960s?

7.5 How did an Australian identity emerge in the 1970s?

7.6 How did Australian popular culture explode in the 1980s?

7.7 How did Australian culture grow after the end of the Cold War?

7.8 How did Australian culture develop in the twenty-first century? 7.9 How did technology alter the course of popular culture? 7.10 Who are the popular culture leaders of today?

7.11 End of investigation review: how do we define popular culture?

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Chapter 8: How and why did our relationship with the environment change after 1945? Setting the scene: how did we get to this point? 8.2 What were the key events in our changing relationship with our environment? 8.3 How and why did our perspective of the natural word begin to change in the twentieth century? 8.4 How did the development of new chemical agents affect the environment and our understanding of it? 8.5 How did the advent of the nuclear age threaten the health and survival of the planet? 8.6 What effects have nuclear testing had on Australia and its Indigenous communities? 8.7 How did environmental protest groups emerge to challenge governments’ treatment of the environment? 8.8 How have localised environmental disasters changed the way people live and view the natural world? 8.9 How have global environmental crises changed the way people live and view the natural world? 8.10 How and why did the concept of climate change become so controversial? 8.11 How has a new generation of environmental protestors attempted to challenge the political inaction on climate change? 8.12 How have protest movements changed to meet the evolving environmental and political situation of the twenty-first century? 8.13 End of investigation review: how and why did our relationship with the environment change after 1945? 8.1

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Go online to access this digital chapter

Chapter 9: How has migration shaped modern Australia? 9.1

9.2 9.3 9.4

9.5 9.6 9.7

9.8

Setting the scene: how did Ahn Do come to Australia? What were the key events in Australia’s migration history? What were Australia’s attitudes towards migration before 1945? How did migration to Australia change after World War II? What led to changes in migration to Australia? How did Australia’s attitudes to migration change over time? What are the different perspectives and interpretations of Australia’s immigration history? End of investigation review: how has migration shaped modern Australia?

Chapter 10: How did political crises affect postwar Australia? 10.1 Setting the scene: spies in Australia!

240

10.2 What happened during Australian political crises?

242 246 250 254 259 265 270 275 282 287

10.3 How did the Petrov Affair start?

10.4 What were the consequences of the Petrov Affair?

10.5 What perspectives emerged about the Petrov Affair? 10.6 What was the origin of the Whitlam Dismissal?

10.7 What were the consequences of the Whitlam Dismissal? 10.8 What perspectives emerged about the Whitlam Dismissal? 10.9 How did the ALP develop leadership crises? 10.10 How did the Coalition develop leadership crises? 10.11 End of investigation review: how did political crises affect postwar Australia?

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Chapter 11: How did regional and global conflict related to the Cold War affect the world after 1945? 11.1 Setting the scene: tension under water in 1962

11.11 What perspectives emerged about the end of the Cold War?

291 294 296 301 306 312 318 322 328 332 338

11.12 End of investigation review: How did regional and global conflict related to the Cold War affect the world after 1945?

343

11.2 What happened during the Cold War? 11.3 How did the Cold War start? 11.4 How did the Cold War divide people? 11.5 How close did the Cold War come to becoming a nuclear war?

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11.6 Which other conflicts occurred during the Cold War and how was Australia involved? 11.7 What are the ethics of reporting on conflict?

11.8 What did the Cold War have to do with space? 11.9 What problems did the Soviet Union face? 11.10 How did the Cold War end?

Part 2: Geography

INVESTIGATION 1: Environmental change and management

Chapter 12: How do environments change and what are the associated impacts? 12.1 Setting the scene: unsustainable tourism in Thailand

350 353 357 362 366 371 375 381

12.2 What is an environment?

12.3 What are the characteristics of different environments? 12.4 What are the causes of environmental change?

12.5 What are the impacts of environmental change? 12.6 Is the fishing industry sustainable?

12.7 Why is climate change both a cause and consequence of environmental change? 12.8 How do people influence environmental change and sustainability?

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Chapter 13: How are the impacts of environmental change managed? 13.1 Setting the scene: lamenting the loss of the night sky 13.2 How is environmental change managed? 13.3 Case study: restoring penguin habitat on the Summerland Peninsula 13.4 Case study: using the knowledge of First Nations people to manage Kakadu 13.5 Case study: monitoring and insuring the health of the Mesoamerican Reef 13.6 Case study: battling land degradation in northern China

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13.7 Fieldwork: evaluating the success of local environmental management

387 391 399 405 410 417 423 425

13.8 End of investigation review: environmental change and management INVESTIGATION 2: Geographies of human wellbeing

Chapter 14: What is human wellbeing?

14.1 Setting the scene: Hong Kong – a harbour of disparity 14.2 What is human wellbeing and how is it measured?

14.3 How do wealth, total fertility rate and adult literacy rate contribute to wellbeing? 14.4 How do health, sanitation and life expectancy contribute to wellbeing? 14.5 How are wellbeing indicators interconnected?

14.6 How does human wellbeing vary at a global scale?

14.7 Why does human wellbeing vary spatially at a global scale?

14.8 What are the consequences of global variations in wellbeing?

14.9 Case study: how does human wellbeing vary within Vietnam? 14.10 How can human wellbeing vary at a local scale?

14.11 The wellbeing of Australia’s Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples

430 432 435

440 446 450 455 459 465 470 475

Chapter 15: How can human wellbeing be improved? 15.1 Setting the scene: reinventing the toilet

15.2 Can human wellbeing be improved on a global scale?

15.3 Can Australia ‘Close the Gap’ and improve the wellbeing of First Nations peoples? 15.4 How is India improving its adult literacy rate?

15.5 How can spatial data be used to monitor wellbeing at a local scale? 15.6 Fieldwork: comparing the wellbeing of local places

15.7 End of investigation review: geographies of human wellbeing

482 484 488 494 498 502 504

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Contents

Part 3: Economics & Business

INVESTIGATION: Why is there so much inequality in income and wealth?

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Chapter 16: How does the Australian economy operate? 16.1 Setting the scene: how could the least advantaged be supported?

511 514 519 524 528 533 537 542 546 550 552

16.2 What is economic growth performance?

16.3 What is income distribution performance? 16.4 What is the circular flow model?

16.5 What is the business cycle model?

16.6 What is the importance of fiscal policy?

16.7 What is the importance of monetary policy?

16.8 What is the importance of supply-side policy?

16.9 What is the importance of redistribution policy?

16.10 Research task: Who are the least advantaged in Australia?

16.11 End of topic task: how does the Australian economy operate?

Chapter 17: What is Australia’s place in the global economy?

Go online to access this digital chapter

17.1 Setting the scene: should Australia provide trade or aid to help other nations’ development? 17.2 What are exports?

17.3 What are imports?

17.4 What are Australia’s current payments internationally? 17.5 What are foreign investment flows? 17.6 What is the FOREX market?

17.7 What are the benefits of globalisation? 17.8 What are the costs of globalisation? 17.9 What is global material wellbeing?

17.10 Research task: What impact does Australia’s foreign aid have on recipient nations? 17.11 End of investigation review: what is Australia’s place in the global economy?

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Part 4: Civics & Citizenship

INVESTIGATION: What is Australia’s role on the global stage?

Chapter 18: What are the political and legal systems of Australia and India? 562 565 569 573 577 581 585 589 593 595

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18.1 Setting the scene: which nations belong to the Asia–Pacific region? 18.2 What are Australia’s roles in the region? 18.3 How is Australia governed? 18.4 How is India governed?

18.5 How do international agreements influence Australian laws? 18.6 Should Australia ratify international agreements? 18.7 What is the legal system in Australia? 18.8 What is the legal system in India?

18.9 Research task: What are the implications of the AUKUS agreement for Australia?

18.10 End of investigation review: what are the political and legal systems of Australia and India?

Go online to access this digital chapter

Chapter 19: What does it mean to be a citizen in a liberal democracy? 19.1 Setting the scene: what is the role of a global citizen?

19.2 How do individuals contribute to civic life in Australia? 19.3 What do groups contribute to civic life in Australia?

19.4 What are some challenges to a resilient democracy? 19.5 How is a liberal democracy sustained? 19.6 What keeps a society cohesive?

19.7 How does the media influence individual identity?

19.8 How does the media influence attitudes to diversity?

19.9 Research task: Was National Service a fair and effective measure for addressing Australia's defence needs during the Vietnam War? 19.10 End of investigation review: what does it mean to be a citizen in a liberal democracy?

Glossary Index Acknowledgements

598 619 626

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About the authors

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Juliette Bover (she/her) (co-author: Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Histories and Cultures) is a teacher and the co-founder of Goorlil Consulting. Julie has taught in early childhood and primary schools for over 10 years and has two degrees in education from the University of Canberra. She works hard to make schools and workplaces welcoming for everyone, especially First Nations students and LGBTIQA+ people. Julie also helps guide organisations that support gender diversity and fairness in schools. Together, Julie and Sharon Davis use their knowledge and experiences to Julie Bover help make education better for all students.

Juliette Bover

Alan Cizzio

Sammy Coburn

Sharon Davis

Alan Cizzio (he/him) (contributing author: Geography skills videos) is a senior Geography and Humanities teacher with 15 years of experience teaching at various high schools in the Hunter Valley. He has been at his current school for a decade. Alan is the co-creator of the Geography Explained Online Youtube channel and has made over 50 instructional videos about geography skills for the Stages 4, 5, and 6 syllabuses. He is currently on the council of the Geography Teachers Association of NSW/ACT. Alan has been recognised in NSW State Parliament for his services to public education in NSW.

Sammy Coburn (she/her) (contributing author: Geography skills videos) is a classroom teacher at a public school in the Hunter Valley. She has worked in New South Wales public schools for 10 years including in remote communities. Sammy is the co-creator of the YouTube channel Geography Explained Online and the Geography Revised Online Workspace. She is a council member of the Geography Teachers Association of NSW/ACT as well as the Brock Rowe recipient for excellence in Geography teaching (2020). Sammy has been recognised in NSW State Parliament for her contributions to public education.

Sharon Davis (they/them) (co-author: Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Histories and Cultures) is from the Bardi and Kija Peoples in the Kimberley, Western Australia. Sharon is the co-founder of Goorlil Consulting and is passionate about making education better for everyone. Sharon has degrees in Education, including one from Oxford University in the UK, and has worked in important roles like helping schools support Aboriginal students. They also work with national boards and groups to make schools safer and more inclusive for First Nations people. Together, Sharon and Julie use their knowledge and experiences to help make education better for all students.

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About the authors

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Adrian De Fanti

Adrian De Fanti (he/him) (lead author: Geography) has taught Geography and Mathematics at secondary schools for over 15 years. In addition to his senior teaching lead, Adrian is his school's Timetabler and Digital Learning Coach. Adrian has a particular interest in integrating technology into the Geography curriculum, including using Geographic Information Systems to analyse spatial data, tracking change over time using satellite imagery and collecting data in the field using geospatial technology. Adrian is also an active member of the Geography Teachers Association of Victoria, where he regularly presents professional development sessions and revision lectures and writes a range of classroom resources.

Brady Driscoll

Brady Driscoll (she/her) (contributing author: History) is the Co-Head of Humanities at her current school. She has worked in Victorian schools for seven years and has experience teaching History, English and English language Years 7–12. She has worked in curriculum development across multiple domains, and is passionate about history education for Years 7 and 8. Brady won a scholarship for the Gandel Holocaust Studies Program for Australian Educators.

Tisha Eggleston

Tisha Eggleston (she/her) (contributing author: History) is Head of History at her current school. She has been teaching for over 20 years in secondary schools in Australia and the United Kingdom. Tisha is an experienced teacher of History, English, Literature, English Language and Philosophy, working with curriculums including the General Certificate of Secondary Education in the UK, the Victorian and Australian curriculums and the International Baccalaureate. She is dedicated to promoting the value of History for all students to foster critical thinking and empathy in our society.

Kevin Gould

Kevin Gould (he/him) (lead author: Economics & Business and Civics & Citizenship) is an education management consultant, specialising in strategic planning and curriculum design. He is an advocate for a MAPLE Business Program in schools, whereby Business and Society studies are presented as an integrated alternative to STEM. Previously, Dr Gould was Foundation Principal of a senior secondary business college in Melbourne and Sydney. Prior to that, he was Head of the Business Department at the VCE top-ranked Taylors College at the time. His writings benefit from over 30 years school teaching and university lecturing in Economics, Management, Business, Politics and Mathematics.

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About the authors

Ben Hoban (he/him) (contributing author: History) has been teaching history in government and independent secondary schools since 2009. He is passionate about History as a discipline, and is also an advocate for innovative learning and digital literacy as his current school's Leader of Digital Pedagogies. Ben is the co-author of Modern History Transformed Year 12 and Media Reframed 1st and 2nd edition. Ben has been widely published in areas outside education including skateboarding and popular culture.

Ben Hoban

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Stephen Powell (he/him) (lead author: History) has taught year 7–12 History/ Humanities under the Australian Curriculum and the International Baccalaureate in Canberra for over a decade. Stephen holds a PhD in Modern History, and before entering teaching had a career in the public service, specialising in international negotiations. He has lived and worked in Victoria, Tasmania, the ACT, Samoa and the United States. Stephen won a scholarship for the Gandel Holocaust Studies Program for Australian Educators. His research and writing interests lie primarily in twentiethcentury history.

Stephen Powell

Lyndon Pratt (he/him) (contributing author: History) is an experienced teacher, specialising in Humanities and Literature. He has worked for several years at his current school, inspiring a love of the Humanities in students. Lyndon has written for the HTAV journal Agora on Australian history, and has experience teaching Humanities from Years 7 to 12. This includes Units 1 & 2 Modern History and Units 3 & 4 Australian History.

Lyndon Pratt

Kara Taylor (she/her) (contributing author: History) is a passionate History/Humanities teacher and has been teaching for the past 15 years. Kara teaches in rural Victoria and is an active member of the History Teachers Association of Victoria. Kara has presented for the HTAV over a number of years on many topics, including teaching Indigenous History, and has written for the HTAV journal, Agora. Kara has tutored for the La Trobe University Education department and was awarded the HTAV Award for Excellence in History Teaching by a Secondary Teacher in 2019.

Kara Taylor

Adrienne Shelford (she/her) (cover illustrator) is a Maori-British illustrator & designer who strives to ensure all feel represented in her world of illustration. Graduating from Manchester School of Art, she began her career in Textile Design, and soon after set up her own small business. Since then, she has worked with clients globally, helping turn their ideas into reality and bringing diversity and inclusivity to their brands.

Adrienne Shelford

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How to use this resource Each part of the book begins with an overview including curriculum information.

Part 1

History

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

The QR code gives you instant access, via your phone, to videos addressing the overview content in more detail.

Watch the video for an introduction to History in Year 7 and the historical skills and concepts you will be working with.

Image: Rock painting of Wandjina by the Worrora People, located at Wunnumurra Gorge, Barnett River, Kimberley, Western Australia. This site is part of a continuous cultural and spiritual tradition that spans thousands of years, with the painting estimated to be over 4000 years old. The Wandjina are ancestral beings and rainmakers central to the Law and cultural responsibilities of the Worrora, Ngarinyin and Wunambal Peoples. The site is sacred and reflects an ongoing relationship between people, Country and ancestral beings.

Investigation openers include key information from the Victorian Curriculum v2.0 for the Humanities.

INVESTIGATION 2

CHAPTER 7

Ancient societies (10 000 bce – 600 ce)

How did ancient Rome change Europe and the Mediterranean world?

OVERVIEW

LESSON TITLE

[In this topic you will] … explore the rise and fall of ancient societies of Europe, Asia and Africa, their social and political organisation, significant individuals and groups, political and cultural ideas and their legacies. Source: VCAA, Victorian Curriculum V2.0, ‘History’, ‘Band description – Levels 7 and 8’

7.1

Setting the scene: What did Mount Vesuvius bury?

7.2

What were the key events in ancient Rome?

7.3

How and where did ancient Roman civilisation develop?

7.4

What social groups were there in ancient Rome?

7.5

What was daily life like in ancient Rome?

7.6 7.7

TOPIC OPTIONS

For this Investigation you must choose at least one of: Chapter 3 – China

Chapter 4 – Egypt

Chapter 5 – Greece Chapter 6 – India

Chapter 7 – Rome

CURRICULUM GOALS

7.8

• How do we know about the past? • Why do societies change? • What makes a society? • What factors influence where

What were the significant beliefs, values and practices of the ancient Romans? What were some of the major changes in society and their effects?

How did contact and conflict with other societies change ancient Rome?

7.9

What role did a significant individual like Julius Caesar play in ancient Rome?

7.10

Why is conserving the past so important?

7.11

End of topic assessment: How did ancient Rome change Europe and the Mediterranean world?

societies are established?

• How do people understand their world?

• What were the consequences of contact between societies?

• Why are there different

interpretations of the past?

Chapter titles are inquiry questions to drive your investigations. Each numbered chapter section is presented as a lesson, intended to cover a period of class time.

Source: VCAA, Victorian Curriculum V2.0,

‘History’, ‘Band description – Levels 7 and 8’

103

163

7.1

Chapters open with a Setting the scene story to get you thinking about the topic.

Setting the scene: What did Mount Vesuvius bury? Learning intention

In this lesson, we will learn about a major natural disaster that made it possible for people centuries later to learn about ancient Romans.

➜

Source 7.1.1 An illustration from 1866 ce that imagines Mount Vesuvius erupting.

➜

Source 7.1.4 A carbonised wooden cradle found in Pompeii. How could you use this primary source as evidence of what parents in ancient Pompeii had in common with parents today?

Amazing but true…

When building finished in 80 ce under Emperor Titus, the Colosseum was the largest amphitheatre ever. Over 50 000 spectators watched gladiator fights, mock sea battles, animal hunts, executions and dramas. How would you feel if you were living in ancient Rome and entered the Colosseum for the ﬁrst time?

Lesson 7.1 review Online quiz

Review questions

DOC

Research task

Go online to access the interactive lesson review and more!

Teachers can assign tasks and track results

7.1 Review questions

1 Recall when Mount Vesuvius erupted. 2 Summarise how the text describes the explosion of Mount Vesuvius. How powerful was the force of the eruption? 3 Describe how we know about the events of the eruption of Mount Vesivius today. What kinds of experts work to uncover what happened? 4 Explain whether the letter from Pliny the Younger is a primary or a secondary source. 5 Analyse how useful the letter from Pliny the Younger could be for historians trying to understand what it would have been like for people to experience this event.

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Each chapter section ends with a set of review questions, to check your recall of the material. An online auto-marked quiz is also available, as is a downloadable research task which can be used as extension material.

7.2

476 ce

What were the key events in ancient Rome?

c.200 ce

64 ce

In the last lesson, we looked at a story about the destruction of Pompeii by the eruption of Mount Vesuvius. In this lesson, we will learn about significant events during the rise, establishment and fall of ancient Rome.

49 bce

Julius Caesar becomes unpopular in Rome and his opponents start a civil war; Caesar wins and becomes the dictator of Rome

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

KWL: Know, want to know, learned 1 What do you already know about Rome and how it began? Make a list of three things. 2 What would you like to find out about how civilisation in Rome began? Identify two things you want to know. 3 After working through this investigation, come back and identify one new thing that you have learned about the origins of ancient Rome.

27 bce

The Republic of Rome becomes the Roman Empire, now including Egypt. The first Emperor, Augustus, is the greatnephew of Julius Caesar

The ‘great fire’ of Rome. Emperor Nero blames the Christians, who are a new religious community

of Julius Caesar

Alaric the Goth sacks the city of Rome

79 ce

Emperor Claudius begins the Roman conquest of Britain

Rome becomes a republic, with senators to give advice to governments Rome expands by conquering more of the Italian peninsula

Gaius Julius Caesar is made Consul of Rome

A group of Roman senators murder Julius Caesar

58–51 bce Julius Caesar, a powerful consul and general, conquers Gaul (modern-day France) and tries to invade Britain but is forced to withdraw

264–146 bce

753 bce

Rome eventually defeats its greatest rival, after three wars against the African city-state of Carthage

Rome is founded by King Romulus, according to legend

Invasions result in Roman control over most of Greece and the Middle East

Emperor Constantine accepts Christianity as a religion. He brings centuries of Christians being persecuted to an end, and starts the process of Christianity becoming the official religion of the empire

Source 7.2.4 A gold solidus of Constantine, from roughly 313 ce

sack to invade and destroy a city barbarian someone from another place who spoke a diﬀerent language; for ancient Romans, a barbarian was any person who was not part of the Roman Empire

44 bce 59 bce 509 bce

410 ce

313 ce

Pompeii and Herculaneum are buried by the eruption of Mount Vesuvius Soon after, the Colosseum in Rome is opened

43 ce Source 7.2.2 A statue

The borders of the Roman Empire come under increased attacks by barbarian tribes. Civil wars weaken the empire

The Roman Empire is split into the eastern and western empires

➜

of Augustus

Learning intention

➜

History chapters include a second lesson per chapter featuring a timeline charting key events in the topic.

German chief Odoacer defeats Romulus, and the western Roman Empire ends

395 ce

➜ Source 7.2.3 A statue

Lesson 7.2 review Online quiz

Review questions

DOC

Research task

Go online to access the interactive lesson review and more!

Teachers can assign tasks and track results

7.2 Review questions republic a government where power is held by people’s representatives, not a king or queen senators politicians who have been elected to a senate founded when something new is created by a people, generally a city or place

1 Use the timeline to identify three challenges faced by ancient Romans. These could be natural disasters, major changes or attacks. 2 Explain the difference between a ‘republic’ and an ‘empire’ (clue: who is in charge?). Then use the timeline to identify how long Rome was a republic, and how long Rome was an empire.

consul the leader of Rome; during the Roman Republic, two consuls were elected into office every year

➜

Source 7.2.1 A statue of the myth of the founding of Rome, showing a she-wolf nursing Romulus and Remus

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How to use this resource

Lessons start with student-friendly Learning intentions to guide you through your inquiry.

➜ Source 7.7.2 A

representation of the Roman senate, with senators wearing togas, painted in 1899 ce. In what ways does it look similar to a modern parliament?

Learning intention Having seen what the Romans built, what they believed and how they spent their days, in this lesson we will learn about how changes in power structures affected the people of Rome.

Lesson starter Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

See, think, wonder 1 See: Look closely at the Roman coin (Source 7.7.1). 2 Think: How does this compare with voting today? 3 Wonder: What is something that could go wrong with this style of voting?

Source 7.7.1 A Roman coin from 63 bce showing a citizen voting. Citizens carved the initials of their preferred candidate into a wax tablet and then dropped the tablet into a box.

Over the centuries, Rome was ruled first as a kingdom, then as a republic and later as an empire. There were major changes in the way Rome was ruled and how much say ordinary people had in those decisions.

In 509 bce, the last king of Rome was overthrown and a republic was created. For Romans, res publica (‘the public thing’) meant a type of government where the male citizens elected representatives to rule on their behalf. Two consuls ruled the republic together so that no one person would have sole rule over Rome

• Tribunes were elected by the plebeians’ assembly. They had the power to veto the Senate’s laws.

tribunes elected officials whose job was to protect the people’s rights

• There were multiple assemblies: for plebeians, the army and religious groups. These could be attended by all citizens of the group, and then decisions were taken by votes of representatives of the groups.

veto a legal power to stop or cancel an official action or decision

Consuls (2)

• The two consuls were the main decision makers. Both consuls had the right to veto the other’s decisions, and they were only elected to head the government for one year.

Senators (300–500)

• Two censors were chosen to conduct a regular census of the population (a head-count), and to investigate the private lives of citizens to make sure they were upholding Roman values.

Tribunes (10)

Assembly (all citizens of Rome vote)

• Senators were wealthy patricians who were appointed for life. They voted on what advice to give the consuls.

at any time. The consuls ruled with the assistance of a senate.

Glossary terms are bolded in the text, defined on the page and collated at the end of the textbook for easy reference.

Source 7.7.3 The government of the Roman Republic. What feature did the most to keep the government balanced? ➜

The Republic

Amazing but true …

Amazing but true fact boxes provide additional engaging information to bring each topic to life.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

senate the group of politicians who had the most power to make laws in a government

First, they won the right to elect their own representatives, called tribunes, to represent their views. Around 450 bce, they won ‘the Law of the Twelve Tables’, which was a list of basic rights of all citizens. From the next century, one of the two consuls would have to be plebeian. By 287 bce, the plebeians had equality under Roman law. Their assemblies and their laws were part of the politics and government of Rome. Decisions about laws and military matters were shared in the republic:

➜

Most lessons begin with a lesson starter activity which can be used to break the ice in a new Humanities class.

7.7

What were some of the major changes in society and their effects?

Chapter 7: How did ancient Rome change Europe and the Mediterranean world?

Concepts and skills builder 7.5

The Forum

Using historical sources

The Forum was considered the heart of Rome. It was a large square where people gathered for a range of public activities. Events held at the Forum included elections, public meetings and speeches, criminal trials, gladiator matches (before the Colosseum was built), social gatherings, business dealings, religious ceremonies and markets.

Roman sports captured the imaginations of artists at the time and have continued to ever since. Examine Sources 7.5.5–7.5.7, then answer the questions that follow.

193

The senate house located at the Forum hosted political events. There was also a temple dedicated to Saturn, the god of agriculture. The Forum was also used as a treasury, which meant that Rome’s money was managed and kept there.

➜

Source 7.5.5 A detail of a mosaic showing gladiators fighting, c.320 ce

Source 7.5.6 Pollice Verso (‘With a turned thumb’) by Jean-Leon Gerome, 1872 ce ➜

Source 7.5.8 A reconstruction of what the Forum in ancient Rome might have looked like. Which part do you think Roman leaders would have used as their platform for public speeches?

Lesson 7.5 review Online quiz

Review questions

DOC

Research task

Go online to access the interactive lesson review and more!

Teachers can assign tasks and track results

7.5 Review questions

➜ Source 7.5.7 A mosaic from a villa in Sicily, from the fourth century ce, showing women playing sport with weights and a discus

1 Identify two types of Roman construction related to water. 2 Evaluate the evidence that remains today of water management in different territories of the empire, referring to sources in this chapter. 3 Explain the place of gladiators in Roman society. a Why did people enjoy watching gladiators? b Why did some people want to become gladiators? 4 Analyse how awesome building projects could have encouraged people to feel proud to be Roman, using examples.

1 In Source 7.5.5, which kind of gladiator is about to lose? Explain his fighting method. 2 Explain how the crowd showed the emperor whether they wanted the defeated gladiator to live, or to be condemned to death, based on Source 7.5.6. 3 How does Source 7.5.7 challenge the idea that ancient Roman sport was only for men? Historical concepts and skills: perspectives, using historical sources, communicating

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1.6

Additional online activities to test your knowledge of the topic are available in the Interactive Textbook.

Analyse the following historical source, using the questions below.

Access the Interactive Textbook for a range of digital tools to help you review this topic, including: • Downloadable chapter summary • Scorcher timed competitive quiz.

Brain dump

What have you learnt about the ancient world? For this activity, copy the diagram and fill out by explaining your understanding. Aim for two points per topic.

Topic When was the ancient world? What were some of the earliest societies? What did some of the earliest societies have in common? How did humans migrate and develop? How did people come to the Australian continent? What were the key features of the earliest societies? How do historians and archaeologists investigate ancient societies?

What I have learned

Source 1.6.2 Burial chamber of Menna, the king’s scribe. Scene: threshing of grain, c.1422–1411 bce, ancient Egypt

a Who do you think created this source? b When was it created?

c Who do you think the intended audience was for this painting?

d How did the domestication of animals (herding) and the cultivation of crops impact early civilisations in regions like Africa or Central Asia?

Practice questions 1

Additional sourcebased analysis questions provide extra opportunities to think more deeply about the information presented in the textbook.

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End of topic review: The ancient world – How did civilisation begin?

➜

The end of chapter activities contain a variety of concluding tasks to consolidate and extend your learning.

The white toga was a semi-circular, woollen cloth that was draped over the left shoulder and around the body. The wearer had to hold the toga in place with his left hand, which meant that he could only really use his right hand. Women in ancient Rome wore an equivalent garment known as a stola.

Cambridge Investigating Humanities for the Victorian Curriculum 7

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Concepts and skills builder activities employ key Humanities concepts from the Victorian Curriculum v2.0, and enable you to develop a range of skills while engaging with the topic.

192

Over time, the plebeians became angry at the power of the patricians. The plebeians protested, went on strike and refused to join the army, until gradually they gained more rights.

Identify and explain why the object in the image below was significant for our understanding of the past.

Response to chapter inquiry question: How did civilisation begin?

Write a paragraph in response to the question using all the key terms listed: • stratigraphy • excavation

• DNA testing

• domestication.

➜ Source 1.6.1 Visitors to the British Museum in

London inspect the Rosetta Stone.

Cambridge Investigating Humanities for the Victorian Curriculum 7

Chapter 1: Overview: The ancient world – How did civilisation begin?

The Interactive Textbook is an online version of the print text, with many additional features:

Audio and video

Research tasks

Scorcher challenge at the end of each chapter

Quiz at the end of each section/lesson

Review questions can be answered in the Interactive Textbook platform, and tracked using reporting tools.

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How to use this resource

Introduction: What do we need to know about and do when learning about First Nations Peoples?

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Sharon Davis and Julie Bover

Student version: This document.

Teacher version: An extensive teacher resource is available in the Online Teaching Suite.

Video Introduction to students from Sharon and Julie

Starting your learning journey Humanities is about exploring the connections between people, places, cultures and histories. For Australians, it’s a chance to engage with the stories and cultures that shape our nation’s identity. By learning from various perspectives, we expand our understanding of the humanities, think critically, appreciate diverse experiences and work towards a more inclusive future.

Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples have cared for and maintained deep relationships with the lands and waters across this continent for over 65 000 years. Wherever we are in Australia, we are on Aboriginal and/or Torres Strait Islander land. Learning about First Nations histories and cultures helps all students understand who we are as a nation, and why truth-telling and respect matter in classrooms and beyond.

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Introduction: What do we need to know about and do when learning about First Nations Peoples?

What is cultural safety? challenging behaviours, practices and biases that may contribute to inequality. Cultural safety can only be decided by the people experiencing it. It is not something that schools or teachers can label on their own. It comes from listening, showing respect and taking responsibility.

cultural safety ensuring people feel secure, respected and supported in their cultural identity. This concept can only be validated by individuals from the culture experiencing it

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Cultural safety ensures that people feel respected, valued and supported in their identity, culture and history. It creates environments where individuals can confidently engage without fear of judgement, exclusion or discrimination. This is especially important when engaging with Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people, whose cultures are the the longest continuing cultures on Earth. Cultural safety involves addressing power imbalances, systemic injustices and racism to create inclusive spaces where everyone belongs. It goes beyond recognising diversity by reflecting on and

As June Oscar AO, former Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Social Justice Commissioner, explains: ‘Cultural safety is about creating environments where Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples feel safe and secure in their identity, culture and community.’

Why do we need cultural safety? Since 1788, the arrival of the British, under the the legal fiction of terra nullius, has led to the violent dispossession of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples. Policies that removed children, restricted access to lands, denied language and culture, and silenced truth have caused long-lasting

harm. Racism, whether interpersonal, institutional or systemic, continues to affect many areas of life today. Cultural safety responds to these ongoing harms and offers a way forward by helping to create inclusive, just and respectful spaces.

➜

Image: Cultural safety ensures students from all backgrounds feel respected and valued

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Introduction: What do we need to know about and do when learning about First Nations Peoples?

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What does cultural safety look like in the classroom? 3

Reflect on your actions and privilege • Practise critical self-reflection: Consider how your beliefs and actions might affect others. For example, ask: • Do I create space for everyone to contribute?

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Creating cultural safety in the classroom means making it a place where all students, especially those from Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander communities, feel respected, valued and able to express their identity without fear of judgement or discrimination. Here are some actions you, as students, can take to help foster cultural safety in your learning environment: 1

• Have I ignored or dismissed another view because it was different from mine?

Be an active listener

• Understand systems: Racism is not just personal – it can be embedded in policies and institutions. Notice when rules or systems treat people unfairly and think about your role in changing them.

• Listen without interrupting: When Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people share their stories and perspectives, listen deeply and respectfully. • Ask questions thoughtfully: If you are curious, ask in a way that respects boundaries. For example, 'Would you feel comfortable sharing more about that?' Some things may not be yours to know or ask.

Respect and learn about cultures

Challenge racism and stereotypes

• Acknowledge Country: Begin your day or class by showing respect for the Traditional Owners of the land you are on. This can be an Acknowledgement of Country or another respectful practice.

• Speak up: If you hear a harmful comment about someone’s culture or background, say something. For example, 'That comment might be hurtful. Can we talk about why?'

• Participate respectfully: Explore the significance of important dates like NAIDOC Week with an open mind and willingness to learn and reflect.

• Think critically about language: Use respectful and accurate terms when discussing Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander histories and cultures. Avoid stereotypes or deficit-focused language.

• Uplift First Nations voices: Celebrate the excellence and knowledge of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people in all areas of life including art, science, sport, activism, and education.

Activity: Reflect and respond

1 What does the phrase 'Wherever you are in Australia, you’re on Aboriginal and/or Torres Strait Islander land' mean to you? Think about what this tells us about the history of this place, and how we can show respect to First Nations Peoples today. 2 Why is cultural safety important in schools and communities? How does it help make spaces more respectful, fair, and welcoming for everyone? 3 Can you think of a time when you saw cultural safety being practised? What made it work well? Is there anything that could have made the experience even more respectful or inclusive?

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Introduction: What do we need to know about and do when learning about First Nations Peoples?

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U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES Image: Part of the focus in History in Year 10 is on significant developments in human history since 1945. Pictured is NASA astronaut Buzz Aldrin, with fellow astronaut Neil Armstrong’s reflection visible in his visor, 20 July 1969. The Apollo 11 moon landing in 1969 was a key technological achievement, which was also a ‘space race’ victory in the Cold War for the United States over the Soviet Union.

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Part 1

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

History

FPO <QR>

Watch the video for an introduction to History in Year 10 and the historical skills and concepts you will be working with

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CHAPTER 1

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Overview: the modern world to today: how has the world changed since 1945? LESSON TITLE 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6

Setting the scene: an introduction to the modern world How did significant developments and events since 1945 contribute to global change? What were the contributions of significant movements for social and political change since 1945? What were the significant events, individuals and groups in the women’s movement in Australia, and how did they change the role and status of women? What are some of the continuing efforts to create change in civil rights and freedoms in Australia? End of topic assessment: how has the world changed since 1945?

Image: Victor Hookey, 5, centre, plays with his friends, including Mark Anthony, 6, right, in a Redfern, NSW, laneway in the days before the 1967 referendum, 24 May 1967. In this referendum, the majority of Australians voted to grant First Nations Peoples the right to vote – a significant milestone in the fight for Indigenous rights.

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1.1

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Setting the scene: an introduction to the modern world Learning intention

In this lesson, we will look at some key world events post-World War II.

The Cold War: a global power struggle The Cold War was a prolonged ideological, political and economic struggle between capitalist superpower the United States and its allies, and communist superpower the Soviet Union and its satellite states. Emerging from the ashes of World War II, this conflict shaped global affairs for nearly half a century, fundamentally altering political and social dynamics.

Source 1.1.1 ‘Time to Bridge That Gulch’, political cartoon drawn by Bruce Russell in the Los Angeles Times, 30 November 1945. Russell won the 1946 Pulitzer Prize for Editorial Cartooning for this piece.

…

At its core, the Cold War was a clash of ideologies. On one side, there was capitalism, which emphasised free markets and democracy. On the other, there was communism, which advocated for state control and a classless society. This divide became clear in various ways. For instance, nations formed military alliances that opposed one another ideologically. Western European countries, the United States and Canada formed the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO). The Soviet Union and Eastern European countries formed the Warsaw Pact. The United States and the Soviet Union fought proxy wars in Korea, Vietnam and Afghanistan, where both superpowers aimed to grow their influence without direct confrontation.

ideology a system of political, social, or economic beliefs and ideas proxy war a conflict where larger nations support opposing sides indirectly

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Chapter 1: Overview: the modern world to today: how has the world changed since 1945?

Overview: the modern world and Australia

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Eﬀorts to achieve peace and security The global community has relied on the United Nations as the body responsible for maintaining or restoring peace and security and promoting human rights across the world since 1945.

…

Source 1.1.2 Eleanor Roosevelt holding a copy of The Universal Declaration of Human Rights

Universal Declaration of Human Rights

The Universal Declaration of Human Rights consists of 30 articles outlining the rights of individuals. It was adopted by the United Nations General Assembly, and has formed the basis of numerous international treaties, human rights instruments, economic agreements and other laws.

UN peacekeeping

One of the main activities carried out by the UN is peacekeeping – sending troops or police into an area experiencing conflict in an eﬀort to maintain or restore peace.

Australia’s contribution

Australia’s contribution to UN peacekeeping has seen military personnel sent to places such as Cambodia, Somalia, Bougainville, Rwanda and East Timor. The UN has also led military action in diﬀerent parts of the world, including Korea in the 1950s and Libya in 2011.

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Rights and freedoms

…

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

The modern world has increasingly focused on the rights and freedoms of different groups since the 1960s.

Source 1.1.3 Prime Minister

Gough Whitlam and Gurindji leader, Vincent Lingiari, 1972

Civil rights movements

The push for civil rights for ethnic groups, including African Americans and Native Americans in the United States and Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islanders in Australia, resulted in major campaigns in both countries. Among other issues, land rights became a particular focus for many indigenous peoples.

LGBTIQA+

Decriminalising homosexuality has improved the rights and freedoms of lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, queer/questioning, intersex, asexual (and many other terms such as nonbinary and pansexual) people in many parts of the world.

Feminism

‘Second wave’ feminism in the 1960s and 1970s focused on ending discrimination against women in areas such as employment, pay, family law and sport.

National independence

The end of World War II and founding of the United Nations saw the independence of former European colonies, which has become a key part of the modern world. From India to Kenya, Indochina to Algeria and Indonesia to Malaysia, former European colonies have either campaigned or fought for national self-determination.

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The Cold War

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Between 1945 and 1991 the world was unoﬃcially divided into two ‘camps’ during the Cold War between the United States and the USSR (Union of Soviet Socialist Republics). Although the two countries were allies during World War II, the ending of the war saw increasing mistrust and hostility.

When the United States discovered the USSR had established ballistic missiles in Cuba, it set up a naval blockade and demanded the missiles be removed. After several days of negotiations, during which many people believed nuclear war was imminent, an agreement was reached.

The development of the nuclear bomb at the end of World War II saw many countries focus on developing and stockpiling nuclear weapons. The conflict of political ideology, underpinned by fear, was a key element of the Cold War.

1948

Signing of The Universal Declaration of Human Rights

1955–75

1967

The Vietnam War

Australian federal referendum on Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples

1962

Cuban Missile Crisis

Source 1.1.4 Korean civilians during the Korean War, 1951

…

Cuban Missile Crisis

Nuclear arms race

1975

The passing of the Australian Racial Discrimination Act

1979–87 Soviet war in Afghanistan

1945

1969

End of World War II and founding of the United Nations

1950–53

The Korean War

1956

Television arrives in Australia

1964

US Civil Rights Act passed

Apollo XI makes the first manned landing on the moon

1976

The Aboriginal Land Rights (Northern Territory) Act passed by the Australian government

War by proxy

Although there was little direct conflict between the United States and the USSR, they instigated and supported opposite sides in several other wars, in places such as Korea, Angola and Vietnam.

The end of the Cold War The fall of the Berlin Wall and collapse of the USSR by 1992 saw the end of the Cold War.

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Technology, health and the environment The post-Cold War world is characterised by rapid urbanisation and global population growth, as well as increasingly fast-paced technological change.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

…

Source 1.1.5 Nintendo Switch 2, released June 2025

Technology

Activity – Overview

Environment and sustainability

Key technological innovations since World War II, such as televisions and fridges, have become a part of modern life, in addition to computers, satellites, gaming devices and 3D printing.

1 Identify two former European colonies which gained their independence after World War II. 2 Outline three key groups which gained greater rights and freedoms post-1945, and how they gained these rights and freedoms. 3 Why might the United States and the USSR have avoided directly fighting one another during the Cold War? 4 In what ways has the development of social media influenced the modern world?

In the twenty-first century, scientific research has focused on developing alternative ways to generate energy to limit the eﬀects of humaninduced climate change. Globally, climate change activism is growing as young people and their supporters demand action from governments across the world.

1989

• The fall of the

•

Berlin Wall and the beginning of the end of the Cold War Tiananmen Square massacre of student protesters, China

1984

Commonwealth Sex Discrimination Act passed

1991

The World Wide Web becomes publicly available

2001–2021

1992

The High Court releases its judgment on the Mabo case

War in Afghanistan

2017

#MeToo goes viral, including demonstrations around the world

2020–2022

COVID-19 virus causes 7 million deaths, and trade and travel restrictions worldwide

2001

Attack on the World Trade Center, New York, USA

2003–2011

Second Gulf War

2020

Black Lives Matter (BLM) demonstrations in the USA and elsewhere

Public health and longevity Widespread vaccination against childhood diseases, such as measles and polio, since World War II has lowered infant mortality rates and increased life expectancy across much of the world. Other medical breakthroughs include the HPV and influenza vaccines. Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62420-6 • (03) 8671 1400

Mutual assured destruction

The Cold War ended in 1991 with the dissolution of the Soviet Union. This event seemed to indicate a shift to a world dominated by the United States. However, Russia and China later re-emerged as rivals. The Cold War’s legacy persists in contemporary geopolitics. Many regions and nations still grapple with the Cold War’s ideological and structural consequences, from lingering proxy war tensions to the ongoing influence of its superpower-driven alliances.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

mutual assured destruction (MAD) a military strategy that assumes that a nuclear attack on a nuclear-armed country will result in the destruction of both countries

The Cold War profoundly impacted global change. The superpowers competed in an ‘arms race’, which led to the development of nuclear weapons, creating an era of mutually assured destruction (MAD). The Cuban Missile Crisis of 1962 underscored how dangerous this competition was, as the world came perilously close to nuclear war. At the same time, the ‘space race’ symbolised the technological rivalry between the superpowers, leading to milestones like the Soviet Union’s Sputnik satellite and the US Apollo moon landing.

supported market-based systems in Europe, Asia and Latin America. Meanwhile, the Soviet Union attempted to export its communist model. It mainly targeted decolonised nations seeking an alternative to Western imperialism.

imperialism extending control over other countries for political or economic purposes

The United States and the Soviet Union also tried to spread their economic systems to other countries. In a push for global capitalism, the United States

… Source 1.1.6

A map from an American newspaper from 1962 showing the distances between Cuba and major US cities. At the time, Cuba was armed with nuclear missiles by its ally the Soviet Union, which threatened nuclear war to break out between Cold War enemies the US and USSR. How close was Cuba to the capitol city of the USA?

The civil rights and human rights movements

systemic referring to issues embedded in institutions affecting entire groups negatively

The civil rights and human rights movements from 1945 marked a transformative era in global history. Individuals and communities began to demand equality, justice and dignity

in the face of systemic discrimination and oppression. These movements reshaped societies and laid the groundwork for the human rights standards we enjoy today.

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Brown v Board of Education Supreme Court decision in 1954, which ended school segregation. Another was the Civil Rights Act of 1964, which outlawed racial discrimination. Leaders like Martin Luther King Jr and organisations such as the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) used nonviolent resistance and legal challenges to confront injustice. Their actions inspired other campaigns for social change globally.

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In 1948, the United Nations adopted the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR). This was a pivotal moment in human history. The Declaration was drafted in response to the horrors of World War II. It detailed universal principles of equality, freedom and justice. This document inspired movements across the globe that challenged colonial, racial and genderbased inequalities. Nations emerging from colonial rule, particularly in Africa and Asia, quoted the UDHR in their struggles for independence and sovereignty.

Article 1

All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.

sovereignty the authority of a nation to govern itself without outside control

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Source 1.1.7 Article 1 of The Universal Declaration of Human Rights (in English), from November 1949. Why do you think the world agreed to this declaration after World War II?

At this time, other movements emerged worldwide. Anti-apartheid efforts in South Africa, led by figures like Nelson Mandela, aimed to end racial segregation policies. Women’s liberation movements advocated for gender equality, resulting in landmark achievements like the Equal Pay Act in the United States of America and the 1979 Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW) at the United Nations.

In the United States, the civil rights movement fought to end racial segregation and discrimination against African Americans. One key milestone was the

These movements emphasised the connection between civil and human rights. By the end of the Cold War, they had greatly influenced global policies and attitudes. Their legacy endures to this day. Struggles for racial, gender and social justice continue to shape modern activism and international law.

Non-Western examples of change in the world post-1945

Vietnam is an example of an Asian nation which underwent profound change in the twentieth century. Between 1887 and 1954, France ruled Vietnam as part

decolonisation the process of colonies gaining independence from imperial or colonial powers

Source 1.1.8 Nelson Mandela (1918-2013) was a longtime political prisoner, held by the Apartheid based South African government from 19641990. Mandela was released from his life sentence in 1990 and went on to lead the African National Congress in negotiations with President F.W. de Klerk, that resulted in the end of Apartheid and full citizenship for all South Africans. He and de Klerk received a joint Nobel Peace Prize in 1993 for their efforts. Mandela, pictured here in 1993, was elected president in 1994.

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After 1945, non-Western regions experienced profound transformations. They were driven by decolonisation, economic development, political movements and cultural shifts. These changes reshaped the ways nations interacted with one another. They challenged Western dominance and highlighted the growing importance of Asia, Africa and Latin America.

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U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

of the colony of French Indochina (also comprising Cambodia, Laos and parts of China). After World War II, the coalition of communists and nationalists known as Viet Minh, led by Ho Chi Minh, fought a bitter fight for independence from the French. The First Indochina War lasted from 1947–1954 and ended with the victory of the Viet Minh at the gruelling battle of Dien Bien Phu. Sadly for Vietnam, peace wouldn’t last, with the Second Indochina War (1955–1975; also known as the Vietnam War) starting soon after independence was won.

Source 1.1.9 A Vietnamese propaganda poster celebrating the victory of

the independence movement the Viet Minh at the Battle of Dien Bien Phu in September 1954 against French colonists. What do you think is the message of this artwork?

Go online to access the interactive lesson review and more!

Lesson 1.1 review Online quiz

Review questions

DOC

Research task

Teachers can assign tasks and track results

1.1 Review questions

1 Identify the ideological diﬀerences between the United States and the Soviet Union. 2 Explain how these diﬀerences contributed to the start of the Cold War. 3 Explain how the Cold War led to the development of nuclear weapons and the concept of mutually assured destruction. 4 Explain the significance of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) in inspiring global movements. 5 Describe an example of decolonisation movements after World War II.

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1.2

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How did significant developments and events since 1945 contribute to global change? Learning intention

Last lesson, we looked at key world events post-World War II. In this lesson, we will look at some global changes that occurred in that time.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

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Think, pair, share

Source 1.2.1 A 1970s family having a rest watching TV at home.

Work through these questions in pairs and share your responses with the class.

• What are three ways the world has changed since 1945? • How might these changes have led to change in people’s everyday lives? Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62420-6 • (03) 8671 1400

Chapter 1: Overview: the modern world to today: how has the world changed since 1945?

Key technological developments since 1945 Between 1945 and 2000, technology progressed significantly. New products dramatically changed daily life and how people communicated with one another. They also transformed economies around the world.

In the aftermath of World War II, technology companies began to produce many new goods for the home. In the 1950s and 1960s, many households started to buy appliances that greatly reduced the time and effort required for chores. By the 1960s, refrigerators were common in Australian households, with an estimated 94 per cent of homes owning one in 1964. Because these appliances were mass-produced, they were affordable and accessible to the growing middle class, particularly in the West. This made them extremely popular. The arrival of television in the 1950s marked a cultural shift in home entertainment. By the end of the decade, television sets were common in many households. They became many people’s primary source of information and entertainment. Families gathered around televisions to watch news broadcasts, variety shows and iconic series, creating shared cultural experiences. By the 1970s, a significant majority of Australian households owned a television, with estimates suggesting that over 60 per cent of homes had a TV set, with the rate rapidly increasing throughout the decade as colour television became more accessible. By the 1980s, cable and satellite services expanded programming options, bringing diverse content into homes worldwide. By 2000, television had become a dominant force in shaping societal norms and spreading information.

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The household: from postwar appliances to entertainment technology

Source 1.2.2 RCA 630-TS, the first mass-produced

electronic television set, which sold in 1946–1947. How has this piece of technology changed in the last 80 years?

Communication: from landlines to the digital revolution

Communication technology experienced dramatic changes between 1945 and 2000. After World War II, telephone networks expanded, with landlines becoming increasingly common in households. The first transatlantic telephone cable (TAT-1) was introduced in 1956. It allowed direct voice communication between North America and Europe. This brought the world closer together. In the 1980s, the world’s first commercially available mobile phones were released. Although initially bulky and expensive, they represented a significant leap in communication technology. By the late 1990s, smaller, more affordable models were widely available, signalling the beginning of a mobile revolution. Perhaps the most transformative development was the arrival of the internet. It was originally developed as a government and academic project in the 1960s and 1970s. However, it became accessible to the public in the 1990s. Email quickly became a popular communication tool, revolutionising personal and professional correspondence. By the end of the century, the World Wide Web had

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U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES Source 1.2.3 Routes under study in early 1956 for TAT-1

emerged. It provided a platform for information exchange and connectivity that laid the foundation for the digital age.

Mass consumption: From department stores to e-commerce beginnings

Technological innovations also reshaped patterns of mass consumption. In the postwar era, the rise of supermarkets transformed the way people shopped. These large, self-service stores were made possible by advances in logistics and refrigeration technology. Supermarkets became the standard for food shopping

in many countries. By the 1960s, they had spread globally, offering convenience and variety to consumers.

By the late twentieth century, personal computers and early internet technologies began to transform the retail industry. While full-scale e-commerce did not take off until the 2000s, the 1990s saw the establishment of online platforms like Amazon (founded in 1994) and eBay (1995). These platforms introduced the concept of shopping from home, setting the stage for a global shift in retail practices.

connectivity the ability to link people and systems through digital networks e-commerce buying and selling goods or services online via the internet

Concepts and skills builder 1.2 Create a timeline

Using the information provided, plot key technological advancements along a timeline.

Divide the timeline into five equal sections labelled with the decades: 1940s, 1950s, 1960s, 1970s, 1980s and 1990s. Each entry should include: The year/decade (e.g., 1950s). The innovation (e.g., introduction of television). Its impact (e.g. revolutionised home entertainment and created shared cultural experiences).

• • •

Reflection questions 1 Which technological advancement do you think had the biggest impact? Why? 2 How did technological changes across decades build upon each other? Historical concepts and skills: chronology, causes and consequences Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62420-6 • (03) 8671 1400

Chapter 1: Overview: the modern world to today: how has the world changed since 1945?

The rise of the environmental movement and its impact on perspectives became more accessible. Public attitudes began to shift in favour of clean energy solutions. These technologies are now viewed as essential tools in combating global warming and achieving energy independence.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

sustainability using resources responsibly to meet present and future needs

The environmental movement began in the mid-twentieth century and has profoundly influenced global perspectives on renewable energy and sustainability. Sparked by a growing awareness of human impact on the environment, this movement has encouraged innovation in clean energy and sustainability practices.

Today, the environmental movement continues to shape public and political conversation. It has transformed how people think about energy and consumption. The public are more aware than ever that development must be balanced with preserving the environment. They recognise the responsibility of all humans to protect the planet for future generations. These shifts in perspective have paved the way for global sustainability efforts.

Case study: the Montreal Protocol and the ozone layer

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Source 1.2.4 Silent Spring is an environmental science book by Rachel Carson. The book documented the environmental harm being caused by pesticides. What environmental issues do you talk most about today?

The environmental movement focused on advocating for renewable energy technologies. Early developments in solar and wind power were initially seen as niche alternatives to fossil fuels. However, concerns over climate change and the environmental costs of nonrenewable energy sources, such as coal, gas and oil, began to rise. This spurred investment and innovation in renewable energy technologies. By the late twentieth century, solar panels and wind turbines

In the late twentieth century, scientists discovered that the ozone layer was getting thinner. The ozone layer is a protective shield in the Earth’s stratosphere. It absorbs harmful ultraviolet (UV) radiation, preventing it from reaching Earth’s surface. Therefore, the loss of this shield posed severe risks. These included a severe increase in the risk of skin cancer, harm to the environment and climate impacts. The ozone layer’s depletion was driven by widespread use of chlorofluorocarbons (CFC)s in everyday goods, including aerosols and refrigerators. These chemicals were also used widely in industrial processes. In 1985, scientists identified a significant hole in the ozone layer over Antarctica. This discovery and the risk it posed to humanity spurred international collaboration to solve the problem. The result of this collaboration was the Montreal Protocol on Substances that

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Deplete the Ozone Layer, adopted in 1987. The treaty aimed to phase out the production and consumption of CFCs and other ozone-depleting substances.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

The Montreal Protocol became a landmark success in global collaboration on the environment. Nearly every nation signed the agreement, making it the first universally ratified treaty. Nations acted in line with its terms, and soon CFC usage plummeted. Safer alternatives were then developed.

Source 1.2.5 The ozone hole visualised in November 2024 by NASA. Scientists with NASA and the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) project the ozone layer could fully recover by 2066.

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By 2000, evidence showed that the ozone layer was recovering. The Montreal Protocol not only demonstrated the effectiveness of collective action in addressing global environmental challenges. It also highlighted the importance of integrating scientific research into policy decisions. It remains a model for tackling current issues like climate change and biodiversity loss.

Lesson 1.2 review Online quiz

Review questions

DOC

Research task

Go online to access the interactive lesson review and more!

Teachers can assign tasks and track results

1.2 Review questions

1 How did labour-saving appliances like refrigerators and washing machines change everyday life for families in the 1950s and 1960s? 2 What was the significance of the internet becoming publicly accessible in the 1990s? 3 Why is the Montreal Protocol considered a landmark success in addressing environmental issues?

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1.3

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What were the contributions of significant movements for social and political change since 1945? Learning intention

Last lesson, we looked at some global changes that have occurred since World War II. In this lesson, we will look at some significant movements for social and political change.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

Think, pair, share

Write a response to the question below. What are some changes that social and political movements have made in the world since 1945?

•

Share your ideas with a partner. Did you think of any of the same changes? What is one big change you both agree is important?

•

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Source 1.3.1 A man holds a sign at an anti-war protest demonstrating against the Iraq War. This demonstration was held on 12 April 2003, in downtown Washington, DC.

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The significance of key activists for social and political change globally since 1945 to this day. King is a symbol of the power of peaceful protest and moral leadership in achieving social justice. His work influenced global movements for equality and civil rights, inspiring activists beyond the USA.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Since 1945, there have been many transformative social and political changes. Many of these changes were driven by the leadership and vision of key activists. Figures such as Mikhail Gorbachev, Martin Luther King Jr, Nelson Mandela and Mao Zedong profoundly influenced their nations and the global stage. Their work shaped movements for equality, justice and systemic reform.

King’s leadership in pivotal events such as the Montgomery Bus Boycott (1955–1956) and the March on Washington (1963) brought national attention to systemic racism and segregation in the USA. His iconic ‘I Have a Dream’ speech expressed a vision of racial harmony and equality that resonated with nations worldwide. King’s efforts resulted in multiple laws being passed, including the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the Voting Rights Act of 1965.

I have a dream that one day on the red hills of Georgia, the sons of former slaves and the sons of former slave owners will be able to sit down together at the table of brotherhood.

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Source 1.3.2 Martin Luther King Jr, from his ‘I Have a Dream’ speech

King’s assassination in 1968 was a profound loss to the American civil rights movement. However, his legacy endures

Source 1.3.3 King gave his most famous speech,‘I Have a Dream’, before the Lincoln Memorial during the 1963 March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom.

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Martin Luther King Jr, a Baptist minister and activist, was the face of the American civil rights movement during the 1950s and 1960s. King advocated for racial equality and justice through non-violent resistance, inspired by the teachings of Mahatma Gandhi.

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Martin Luther King Jr: champion of civil rights in the United States

Source 1.3.4

Martin Luther King Jr ‘I Have a Dream’ speech, 1963

Mikhail Gorbachev: reforming the Soviet Union and ending the Cold War

Mikhail Gorbachev, the last leader of the Soviet Union (1985–1991), played a pivotal role in reshaping the political landscape of the twentieth century. His policies of glasnost (openness) and perestroika (restructuring) sought to modernise the Soviet economy and political system. Gorbachev reduced censorship, introduced limited market reforms, and sought to improve relations with the West. Significantly, Gorbachev’s efforts helped end the Cold War. He negotiated with US leaders, including Ronald Reagan, to reduce the number of nuclear weapons in the Soviet Union and the United States. This helped to reduce tensions between the two nations. Gorbachev also refrained from using force to suppress some democratic movements in Eastern Europe. This led to the fall of communist regimes

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and the eventual dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991. His leadership presented the possibility of peaceful political transition and the end of an era of global ideological war.

Mao Zedong: revolutionary leader in China

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Mao Zedong was the leader of the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) and the founding father of the People’s Republic of China (1949). Mao’s leadership brought dramatic social, political and economic changes to China, aiming to transform it into a socialist state.

redistribution and the nationalisation of industry. However, his initiatives like the Great Leap Forward (1958–1962) and the Cultural Revolution (1966–1976) had devastating consequences, including famine and social upheaval. Despite these failures, Mao’s leadership fundamentally reshaped China’s identity. He unified the nation under a single-party communist system and ended centuries of imperial and feudal rule.

Mao’s policies sought to end feudalism and promote social equality. Examples of such policies included land

Globally, Mao’s significance lies in his influence on communist and revolutionary movements. His ideas inspired socialist uprisings in Asia, Africa and Latin America. Through these, he cemented China’s role as a leader in the non-Western world during the Cold War.

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Source 1.3.5 A group of Chinese children known as ‘Red Guards’ in front of a picture of Chairman Mao Zedong (1893–1976) holding Mao’s ‘Little Red Book’ of communist propaganda during China’s Cultural Revolution, c. 1968.

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Concepts and skills builder 1.3 Comparative questions

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

• Compare the impact of Martin Luther King Jr’s nonviolent activism with Mao Zedong’s revolutionary approach. How did their methods reflect the contexts in which they operated? • How did the leadership of Martin Luther King Jr demonstrate the potential for peaceful resolution of systemic oppression? • Compare King and Mao. Which type of leadership had a more enduring global significance? Historical concepts and skills: causes and consequences

Social movements and global connectivity in the twenty-first century

In the twenty-first century, social and political movements operate dramatically differently to those in the twentieth century. They are largely driven by advancements in technology and global connectivity. Movements such as #MeToo, the Arab Spring, Black Lives Matter (BLM), Extinction Rebellion, and Occupy have used digital platforms and technologies to amplify their messages, coordinate actions, and build solidarity across borders. This connection between movements and technology underscores the profound impact of global connectivity on activism.

Arab Spring: revolution through social media

The Arab Spring (2010–2012) was a series of anti-government protests, uprisings and armed rebellions that spread across much of the Arab world. This event demonstrates the role of technology in kick-starting mass movements. Protesters across the Middle East and North Africa used platforms like Facebook, Twitter and YouTube to organise demonstrations, share footage of government crackdowns, and gain international support. In Tunisia, Egypt and beyond, social media let activists bypass state-controlled

media. This allowed them to coordinate decentralised uprisings. The outcomes of the Arab Spring varied. Still, its reliance on technology showed how global connectivity can mobilise people in real time and amplify calls for political change.

Black Lives Matter: a movement for racial justice

Black Lives Matter was a movement founded in 2013 after a white man in Florida, USA, George Zimmerman, was found not guilty of murder after he shot dead an unarmed black teenager on the street, named Trayvon Martin. Its work shows how powerful digital activism can be. Social media platforms like Twitter (now X) and Instagram were central to BLM’s growth. Activists used them to spread awareness of police brutality and systemic racism. Hashtags such as #BlackLivesMatter and viral videos of police violence mobilised millions, drawing attention to racial injustice on a global scale. The movement went beyond US borders, inspiring solidarity protests in countries like the UK, Australia and South Africa. Technology enabled BLM to highlight systemic inequalities, demand policy changes, and create a global community committed to racial justice.

decentralised a system where control is distributed, not concentrated in one place

grassroots a movement driven by ordinary people rather than powerful leaders solidarity unity and support among people working toward a shared goal

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#MeToo: global solidarity in the fight against sexual harassment

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The #MeToo movement is a powerful example of how technology connects people around shared experiences. It began as a hashtag on social media in 2017. Soon, however, #MeToo created a digital platform where survivors of sexual harassment and assault could share their stories. Platforms like Twitter (X) and Instagram allowed voices from around the world to come together and have a conversation on gender-based violence. In response to the movement, laws, such as workplace harassment laws, were changed. It also sparked cultural shifts around accountability and consent. Its viral nature shows how social media can unite individuals and amplify grassroots advocacy.

When movements spread their message using technology, they can reach many more people than they would otherwise. Digital platforms allow marginalised voices to be heard and ideas to spread rapidly. They also help activists to coordinate protests across borders. However, reliance on technology also presents challenges. These include government

Go online to access the interactive lesson review and more!

Source 1.3.6 #MeToo Protest in New York City, 2018. What is the message of the sign in the image? What tone does it convey?

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Global connectivity and the future of movements

censorship, misinformation and digital surveillance. Despite these obstacles, technology is valuable to modern activists because it enables them to reach people from different countries and cultural backgrounds.

Lesson 1.3 review Online quiz

Review questions

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Research task

Teachers can assign tasks and track results

1.3 Review questions

1 Explain how Martin Luther King Jr’s leadership approach diﬀered from others in achieving change. 2 Discuss the leadership style of Mikhail Gorbachev, and how it had the potential for peaceful resolution of conflict. 3 How did technology enable modern movements like #MeToo and Black Lives Matter to spread their messages and gain global support? Provide specific examples.

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1.4

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What were the significant events, individuals and groups in the women’s movement in Australia, and how did they change the role and status of women? Learning intention

Last lesson, we looked at some significant movements for social and political change that have occurred since-World War II. In this lesson, we will look more closely at the women’s movement in Australia.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

Low-res

See, think, wonder

What do you see? What is happening in this image? Make sure you read the caption! What do you think? Why do you think Rosalie Bognor and Merle Thornton have done this?

What do you wonder? How does this represent the way the world is changing?

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Source 1.4.1 Rosalie Bognor and Merle Thornton chained themselves to the men-only bar at the Regatta Hotel in 1965. (Courtesy The Courier Mail)

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Chapter 1: Overview: the modern world to today: how has the world changed since 1945?

Changing roles and rights of women in the Australian workforce since 1945 Since 1945, the roles and rights of women in the Australian workforce have undergone significant transformations, driven by social, legal and economic changes.

Since 1945, the number of women in the workforce has steadily increased. Such a change was made possible by women’s access to education and changes in society’s attitudes. The 1970s and 1980s saw a significant rise in women entering professions previously dominated by men. These included law, medicine and engineering. By 2000, nearly half of Australia’s workforce was women. However, they are still overrepresented in part-time and casual roles. This reflects challenges in balancing work and family responsibilities.

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Repeal of the‘marriage bar’

Changing participation in employment

During the postwar period, one major step towards gender equality was the gradual repeal of the‘marriage bar’. Until the 1960s, many women in public service and certain private sector jobs were required to resign upon marriage. This limited their career opportunities. The marriage bar was based on traditional gender roles. These held that women would maintain the home, and men would work and earn an income. The marriage bar’s repeal was finalised in 1966 for the Australian Public Service. This change marked a major step toward workplace equality, allowing married women to pursue long-term careers. It also reflected shifts in societal attitudes toward women’s independence and contributions to the workforce.

The Sex Discrimination Act 1984

The introduction of the Sex Discrimination Act 1984 was a landmark moment in Australian history. It made discrimination based on sex, marital status, or pregnancy illegal. The law applied to many areas, including employment, education and access to services. Women were protected under the law and had fair access to job opportunities and workplace rights. The law also empowered women to challenge discriminatory practices. This created a more inclusive workforce. The Act remains a cornerstone of gender equality efforts in Australia.

The gender pay gap

Since 1972, it has been illegal for Australian employers to pay women less than men for doing work of the same value. However, despite progress, the gender pays gap remains a persistent issue in Australia. In 2024, average gender pay gap was 21.8 per cent. For every $1 on average a man makes, women earn 78c. This difference is due to multiple factors. Men are more likely to work high-paying fields such as law, engineering and construction. On the other hand, women are more likely to work in lower-paying fields such as teaching and childcare. These female-dominated jobs tend to not receive the same level of respect as male-dominated jobs. Women also still experience difficulties in advancing their careers. Governments have made efforts to address the pay gap. These include workplace policies on pay transparency and gender equity initiatives. However, achieving full pay equality remains an ongoing challenge.

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Concepts and skills builder 1.4 Using historical sources

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Low-res

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Source 1.4.2 Women’s Electoral Lobby Rally at Forrest Place, 29 January 1976. Photo by B Hall, West Australian Newspapers. (Supplied: Brazen Hussies documentary)

1 Consider the issues of women’s rights and social policies in Australia during the time this image was taken. 2 What do the signs and slogans in the image (e.g. ‘Don’t cut funds for projects that help women’ and‘ Fraser: Honour commitments to women’) suggest about the concerns and priorities of the protestors? 3 How might this image reflect both changes and continuities in the fight for gender equality and women’s rights in Australia? Compare it to other feminist movements or campaigns during the same era.

Historical concepts and skills: continuity and change, using historical sources

Contributions of significant female leaders in Australian public life Australian female leaders have made diverse and significant contributions to society. Whether in politics, activism, sports, arts, or social reform, these women have broken barriers, challenged societal norms and inspired change. Figures like

Julia Gillard, Cathy Freeman and Faith Bandler highlight the immense impact of women in shaping Australia’s identity and advancing equality. Their legacies continue to pave the way for future generations of women to lead, innovate and inspire.

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Political leaders

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glass ceiling a metaphor for the invisible barriers that prevent people from advancing in their careers

One of the most significant political figures in Australian history is Julia Gillard, the country’s first female Prime Minister (2010–2013). Gillard’s leadership broke a major glass ceiling in Australian politics. She advocated for policies in education reform, health care and gender equality. Her famous 2012 parliamentary speech against misogyny struck a chord with people globally, highlighting the challenges women face in leadership positions. It also sparked international conversations about sexism in politics.

to create laws for their benefit. Her work significantly advanced civil rights in Australia, particularly for Indigenous Australians.

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Source 1.4.6 Aboriginal activist Faith Bandler, a driving force behind the 1967 referendum that made Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islanders citizens in their own country, reflects on the period 40 years on, at her Turrumurra home in Sydney, 30 April 2007.

And in so doing I say to the Leader of the Opposition, I will not be lectured about sexism and misogyny by this man. I will not. And the Government will not be lectured about sexism and misogyny by this man. Not now, not ever.

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Source 1.4.3 Julia Gillard (then Prime Minister), Federal Parliament Question Time, 9 October 2012

Source 1.4.4

Gillard’s ‘misogyny’ speech

Rosie Batty has advocated for action against domestic violence after the tragic murder of her son in 2014. Her activism has brought national attention to the issue of family violence. It has also led to important policy discussions and funding increases for prevention programs. Batty was named Australian of the Year in 2015. The award recognised her tireless work to protect vulnerable families.

Sporting identities

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Source 1.4.5 Julia Gillard speaking at the National Flag Raising and Citizenship ceremony in Canberra, on 26 January 2013

Activists

Another notable activist is Faith Bandler, a tireless campaigner for Indigenous rights and equality. Bandler played a key role in the 1967 referendum, which amended the Australian Constitution to include Aboriginal people in the census. It also allowed the federal government

Australia boasts many trailblazing female athletes who have redefined gender norms in sports. One such athlete is Cathy Freeman, an Aboriginal sprinter. She achieved national and international fame when she won gold in the 400 metres at the Sydney 2000 Olympics. During her victory lap, Freeman carried both the Australian and Aboriginal flags. This act symbolised reconciliation and unity, inspiring pride and hope for Indigenous Australians. Another iconic figure is Dawn Fraser. Fraser was a swimmer who dominated the sport in the 1950s and 1960s, winning

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multiple Olympic gold medals. She not only excelled in her sport but also challenged conventions. Fraser advocated for fair treatment of athletes and greater recognition of women in sports.

Artists and entertainers

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Australia’s arts and culture landscape has been greatly enriched by female creators and performers. Judy Davis, a celebrated actress, has brought Australian talent to the global stage. Her performances in films such as My Brilliant Career and A Passage to India were critically acclaimed around the world. Davis’s work has helped to make Australian cinema more well known in international cinema and inspired countless women in the arts. In music, Helen Reddy became an international sensation with her feminist anthem ‘I Am Woman’ in the 1970s. The song became a rallying cry for women’s liberation movements around the world. After the release of ‘I am Woman’, Reddy became an icon of empowerment. Her success was an example of the global influence of Australian artists and their capacity to inspire social change.

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Source 1.4.7 Australian singer Helen Reddy performing her hit song ‘I Am Woman’ in London in 1970.

Educators and advocates

Women have also made significant contributions to education and advocacy. One such woman is Evonne Goolagong Cawley. Goolagong Cawley is a former tennis champion and an advocate for Indigenous youth. She mentored and empowered young Indigenous Australians through sport and education initiatives. Her work made lasting impacts on their lives and reflects her commitment to empowering future generations.

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1.4 Review questions

1 What was the ‘marriage bar’, and why was its repeal in 1966 significant for women’s participation in the Australian workforce? 2 How did the Sex Discrimination Act 1984 help ensure greater fairness? 3 Why did Rosalie Bognor and Merle Thornton chain themselves to the bar at the Regatta Hotel in 1965? What did this protest symbolise in the fight for women’s rights?

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1.5

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What are some of the continuing efforts to create change in civil rights and freedoms in Australia? Learning intention

Last lesson, we looked at the women’s movement in Australia. In this lesson, we will look at efforts to create change relating to civil rights and freedoms in Australia.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

See, think, wonder

‘Australia, the white man’s land, Defended by the white man’s guns … For AngloSaxon race and Southern Cross.’

What do you see? What is the message of the song? What do you think? How has Australian changed since this image was created in 1910? What do you wonder?

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Source 1.5.1 Sheet music for the 1910 song ‘White Australia’ by WE Naunton & HJW Gyles. The famously racist song includes the lyrics at the left.

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Changes in government policy on migrants and Australia’s changing role in the world The Racial Discrimination Act 1975 A key milestone in Australian migration policy was the Racial Discrimination Act 1975. This law made racial discrimination in areas such as employment, housing and access to services illegal. Passed under the Whitlam government, this Act symbolised Australia’s commitment to human rights and equality. It signalled a shift from exclusionary policies to a multicultural approach, emphasising that all people, regardless of race or ethnicity, should be treated with dignity and fairness. The Act had a profound impact on Australian society, as it enabled the government to support a multicultural model of migration. By enshrining anti-discrimination principles in law, Australia was increasingly seen as as a progressive, inclusive society committed to international human rights norms.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Since 1945, Australian government policy on migration has undergone significant shifts. These changes both reflected and shaped the nation’s place in the global community. Policies such as the end of the White Australia Policy and the Racial Discrimination Act 1975 have transformed Australia’s international image. They have also redefined its social, economic and cultural identity.

The White Australia Policy (pre-1945 to 1973)

For much of the early twentieth century, Australia’s immigration policy was driven by the White Australia Policy, which sought to exclude non-European migrants. This policy reflected a vision of Australia as a homogeneously white, British-oriented nation, positioning it within the Western sphere of influence. However, after World War II, Australia sought to increase its population to strengthen national security and promote the development of the economy. Initially, the ‘populate or perish’ policy welcomed European immigrants, particularly from southern and eastern Europe. However, it still excluded non-Europeans.

In the 1960s, global attitudes towards racial equality began to shift. This shift led to the gradual end of the White Australia Policy. During this time, the international community began to pressure Australia to change its exclusionary policy. Newly decolonised nations in Asia and Africa were especially vocal. The policy was formally abolished in 1973 under the leadership of Prime Minister Gough Whitlam. This marked a significant turning point in Australia’s engagement with the Asia–Pacific region.

Multiculturalism and domestic change (1970s–2000s)

The shift from the White Australia Policy to multiculturalism marked a significant transformation in Australia’s social and cultural identity. As trade and diplomatic ties with Asia grew during the 1980s, changes in migration policies brought profound domestic impacts. Programs such as family reunification and skilled migration attracted diverse groups, particularly from Southeast Asia, fundamentally reshaping the demographic fabric of Australian society. Following the Vietnam War, thousands of Vietnamese refugees resettled in Australia, contributing to the rise of vibrant multicultural communities across the country.

populate or perish a slogan used by the Australian government after World War II to encourage a largescale migration of people into the country exclusionary a policy or practice that deliberately prevents certain groups from participating

multiculturalism a policy promoting the coexistence of diverse cultural groups in society

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Chapter 1: Overview: the modern world to today: how has the world changed since 1945?

humanitarian concerned with promoting human welfare, rights and wellbeing

Australia’s acceptance of refugees from conflict zones in Southeast Asia, the Middle East and Africa further enriched its multicultural character. Policies like the Humanitarian Refugee Program highlighted a growing national commitment to cultural diversity and

social inclusivity. Modern Australia was becoming a more welcoming, compassionate and diverse nation, although families who fled conflict zones and discrimination had to work hard and overcome obstacles to build new lives in Australia.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Low-res

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Source 1.5.2 Vietnamese refugees arriving in Darwin Harbour on 26 April 1976. What do you think was the reaction to this boat arriving in Australia?

Impact on Australia’s global role Changes in Australian migration policy have had lasting impacts on the nation’s role in the world. When Australia ended the White Australia Policy and introduced multiculturalism, it was able to make stronger diplomatic and trade links with Asia. This meant that Australia did not have rely on the UK and the USA for trade. The Racial Discrimination Act 1975 showed that Australia was committed to international human rights. This improved its reputation globally. Between 1970 and 1980, Australia’s overseas-born population diversified, with European-born residents declining from

85.7 per cent to 75 per cent. Immigration from Southeast Asia grew, reflecting the shift to multiculturalism and reshaping Australia’s demographic and cultural landscape. Today, migration remains a key part of Australia’s identity. Around half of all Australians have at least one parent who was born overseas, making Australia one of the world’s most multicultural societies. Australia’s changing approach to migration reflects broader shifts in its place within the Asia–Pacific region, as well as its efforts to balance humanitarian obligations with national security and economic development.

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Concepts and skills builder 1.5 Change and continuity in Australian migration policy Question 1: Identifying change Explain two key changes in Australian migration policy since 1945. Question 2: Analysing change and continuity

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

How did the Racial Discrimination Act 1975 mark a change in Australia’s approach to immigrants? Question 3: Evaluating the significance of change

Which change in Australian migration policy do you think had the most significant impact on Australia’s place in the world? Was it the end of the White Australia Policy, the Racial Discrimination Act 1975, or the shift to multiculturalism? Explain your choice. Historical concepts and skills: continuity and change

Civil rights action for First Nations Peoples

Aboriginal Australian campaigns and the contributions of key individuals have had a transformative impact on the nation. The Freedom Ride of 1965, led by Charles Perkins, exposed racial segregation and poor living conditions in rural areas, sparking national conversations about equality. The 1967 Referendum was a watershed moment, with over 90 per cent of Australians voting to include Aboriginal people in the census and empower the Federal government to legislate on their behalf. The Tent Embassy, established in 1972, became a powerful symbol of resistance, bringing international attention to land rights and self-determination. These efforts have led to significant progress, including land rights victories, cultural pride and national reconciliation, while inspiring future generations to continue the fight for equality.

Despite this progress, Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples in Australia continue to face significant inequalities in key areas. These include education, health care, housing and employment. These issues reflect the ongoing impact of

colonisation, systemic discrimination and intergenerational trauma.

Education

Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander students face significant challenges in this area. They have lower school attendance, higher dropout rates and lower literacy and numeracy outcomes than non-Indigenous students. In 2022, 68 per cent of Indigenous Year 5 students met the national minimum standard for reading, compared to 95 per cent of nonIndigenous students. The reasons for this are complex. Contributing factors include cultural disconnection, socio-economic disadvantage, and systemic racism within schools. Civil rights action aims to develop culturally inclusive education policies to help meet the needs of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander students. It seeks to support Indigenous teachers and develop programs like Closing the Gap to improve educational outcomes. Another key focus is ensuring that Indigenous histories, perspectives and languages are included in the curriculum.

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Health care

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples have shorter life expectancies and higher rates of chronic disease than non-Indigenous people. They also have limited access to culturally appropriate health services. These issues are made worse by geographic isolation in some communities, racism in health care, and poor funding. Since 2008, the Federal government has been implementing the Closing the Gap strategy aimed at addressing these disparities; this also involves a yearly report given to Parliament. For instance, it seeks to improve access to health care and reduce deaths in childhood. However, progress has been slow. There is an ongoing need for community-led health initiatives, culturally safe medical services, and increased government investment.

18.2 per cent, compared to 4.6 per cent for non-Indigenous Australians. There are several reasons for this. Communities may have limited access to education or are geographically isolated. Also, employers may have discriminatory hiring practices. Civil rights action in this area calls for strategies to increase employment rates. These include Indigenous employment quotas in government and corporate sectors, and job training and upskilling programs. With more employment opportunities, Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander People can be more financially independent. This will contribute to better community wellbeing.

Housing

Stable and secure housing is crucial for wellbeing. However, many Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander People experience housing insecurity and overcrowding. Remote Indigenous communities face long-term shortages of safe, affordable housing. This issue contributes to poor health outcomes and social dislocation. Activists in this area call for more funding for public housing. They advocate for better maintenance of existing homes, and community-driven housing solutions. Housing reform is essential for physical wellbeing and for maintaining cultural connection to land and family.

Employment

Unemployment and underemployment are ongoing issues for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples. In 2021, the unemployment rate for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples was

Why First Nations civil rights activism continues Significant gaps in equality remain despite the efforts of governments to address them. Into the twenty-first century, First Nations activists continued to call for more action to improve the lives of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples. They raised concerns that access to education, health, housing and employment was still poor. Government strategies like Closing the Gap aim to address these issues. However, progress has been slow and uneven. One reason for this is that governments of the past have not consulted Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander communities enough when making policy decisions. For this reason, activists stress that Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander communities should be involved in decision-making in matters that affect them. The 2023 Australian Indigenous Voice referendum proposed amending the Constitution to establish a Voice to Parliament for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples. It was rejected, with 60.79 per cent voting ‘No’ and 39.21 per cent voting ‘Yes’, failing in all states.

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U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES …

Source 1.5.3 A crowd of protesters gather outside Flinders Street Station, Melbourne during the annual Invasion Day protest on 26 January 2025. Indigenous Australians and their allies marched from Parliament House to Federation Square to call for the abolition or change of Australia Day. This protest marks the day in 1788 when Arthur Phillip raised the British flag at Sydney Cove. The date is known as Invasion Day or Survival Day for Indigenous communities. It symbolises the beginning of British colonisation.

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1.5 Review questions

1 What was the White Australia Policy? Why was its dismantling in the 1960s and 1970s a significant change in Australia’s approach to migration? 2 How did the shift to multiculturalism in the 1970s and 1980s reflect Australia’s changing economic and diplomatic relationships with Asia? 3 What are some of the key challenges in education and health care that Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples face, and how are civil rights activists addressing them?

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Chapter 1: Overview: the modern world to today: how has the world changed since 1945?

1.6

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

End of investigation review: how has the world changed since 1945? Access the Interactive Textbook for a range of digital tools to help you review this topic, including:

• Downloadable chapter summary • Scorcher timed competitive quiz.

Brain dump

Copy and complete the following diagram to reflect on your understanding of the modern world post-1945. Aim to provide at least two points for each topic.

Topic

What I have learned

What key events signal the start of this era?

What are some of the key events that changed the modern world? What are the key features of modern societies?

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Source 1.6.1 President Lyndon B. Johnson signs the 1964 Civil Rights Act as Martin Luther King, Jr., and others, look on. Photo taken 2 July 1964.

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Practice questions Identify two major developments in Australian migration policy since 1945 and explain their significance.

How did technological innovations in communication (e.g., the internet) transform global society by the late twentieth century?

Extended response: in a paragraph response, answer the following question: How did changes between 1945 and 2000 reshape societal norms in Australia? Include examples from at least two regions.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Create a simple timeline that includes the following events: • abolition of the White Australia Policy (1973) • Civil Rights Act in the United States (1964) • creation of the Racial Discrimination Act in Australia (1975) • signing of the Montreal Protocol (1987).

For each event, write a short description of its historical significance.

Response to chapter inquiry question: how has the world changed since 1945? • • • • •

Cold War multiculturalism civil rights technology environmental sustainability.

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Write a paragraph in response to the question using all the key terms listed.

Source 1.6.2 Many people feel passionately about environmental issues. Pictured is a climate protest in Sydney

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Chapter 1: Overview: the modern world to today: how has the world changed since 1945?

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

INVESTIGATION 1 Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples’ rights and freedoms (1938 – present)

OVERVIEW

During this period, a globalised world took shape, as societies connected through ideas, trade, migration, technological advancements, colonisation, war and peace to bring us to the present day. [In this topic you will investigate] … Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples’ movements that have promoted rights and freedoms in the modern era. Source: VCAA, Victorian Curriculum V2.0, ‘History’, ‘Band description – Levels 9 and 10’

CURRICULUM GOALS

• What shaped the modern world? • How have global developments shaped Australia? • How do individuals contribute to change?

Source: VCAA, Victorian Curriculum V2.0, ‘History’, ‘Band description – Levels 9 and 10’

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CHAPTER 2

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

How have the rights and freedoms of First Nations Peoples evolved since 1938?

LESSON TITLE 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5

2.6 2.7 2.8 2.9 2.10 2.11 2.12 2.13 2.14 2.15

Setting the scene: how is Cook’s landing remembered? What were the key events of this topic? What is the Declaration of Human Rights? How have First Nations Peoples fought for Country since the Frontier Wars? What are the initial and ongoing impacts of ‘protection’ and forced removal on First Nations Peoples? How did the struggle for civil rights begin? How did the fight for civil rights in the USA inspire Australia’s? How was the 1967 Referendum won? Why did radical activism arrive in Australia? How was terra nullius defeated? What attempts have been made at reconciliation? How did Australia apologise to the Stolen Generations? How does the fight for civil rights and recognition continue today? What were the differences between the 1967 and 2023 Referenda, and how did this contribute to the outcomes? End of investigation review: how have the rights and freedoms of First Nations Peoples evolved since 1938?

Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander students are advised that the following content may contain images, themes and discussions of colonisation, dispossession and violence that could be distressing or re-traumatising. Students are encouraged to choose their level of engagement and are supported in prioritising their wellbeing, cultural safety, and that of their families and communities. Educators should provide culturally safe alternatives for engaging with this content where needed, ensuring that students feel respected, supported, and able to participate in ways that honour their lived experiences and cultural identities. Some sources in this chapter also contain historical terms and language that Have been and are still racist and offensive. These terms reflect the colonial attitudes and policies of the time and are included here to provide historical context. Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples are advised that encountering such language may be distressing. Educators and students should approach this content with sensitivity and critical awareness.

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2.1

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Setting the scene: how is Cook’s landing remembered? Learning intention

In this lesson, we will explore how history is remembered from two different points of view, by examining the landing of Captain Cook in Botany Bay.

Two views of Captain Cook at Botany Bay

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Source 2.1.1 We Call Them Pirates Out Here, 2006, by Daniel Boyd

Daniel Boyd created the painting in Source 2.1.1, We Call Them Pirates Out Here, in 2006. It depicts Captain Cook’s landing on what are now known as Australian shores under a British flag emblazoned with a pirate skull. Cook himself wears an eye patch typical of a pirate who has sailed the world for theft, dispossession and violence. The painting is a direct reimagining and critique of the 1902 painting The Landing of Captain Cook at Botany Bay, 1770, by Melbourne artist E. Phillips Fox.

Fox’s painting, made 132 years after Captain Cook’s arrival, shows a European version of the event and was not created in Australia. The Landing of Captain Cook at Botany Bay, 1770 presents Cook as a kind and brave leader, reflecting the stories often told by colonisers about this time. In the painting, Cook is shown raising his hand to his crew. Many men wear formal colonial attire, while others wear striped clothes, suggesting their convict status. A man crouches to look at something in the distance, while others begin to raise their guns.

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parrots on their shoulders and eye patches, and the British flag is replaced with a pirate skull. These symbols show Boyd’s view of Cook and his crew as invaders who came to steal land and resources.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Boyd includes the Xanthorrhoea plant, a native species that has been used by Aboriginal peoples for thousands of years for food, tools, and fire-making. In the past, it was commonly referred to by a racist name, but today we use its scientific name or local Aboriginal language names. Boyd chooses to include this plant instead of repeating the harmful and stereotyped depiction of Aboriginal people found in Fox’s painting.

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Source 2.1.2 The Landing of Captain Cook at Botany Bay, 1770, 1902, by E. Phillips Fox Note down everything you see in this image. How is Cook positioned? What does that tell you about the artist’s intention? Consider the comparison between the English sailors and First Nations people. What key differences can you see? What does that tell you about the artist’s intention?

This artwork reflects a British colonial view of history, one that celebrates invasion and the founding of “Australia.” It ignores the sovereignty of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples, who lived on and cared for these lands for thousands of generations before Cook’s arrival and continue to do so today. In the early 21st century, artist Daniel Boyd reinterpreted Fox’s painting to challenge the European version of events.

Boyd uses small details to express big ideas. Cook and his crew are shown with

Boyd’s work highlights that for many, Cook’s arrival is a reminder of loss and grief. Colonisation brought disease, forced removal from Country, destruction of cultures, and the denial of basic rights to Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples, who had lived on these lands for over 60 000 years. Even by 1967, Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people were still not officially counted in the Australian population. Despite this, they have shown strength and determination to protect their cultures and fight for their rights. Boyd’s painting reflects this ongoing resistance to colonisation.

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2.1 Review questions

1 Describe the differences in how Captain Cook is portrayed in Daniel Boyd’s We Call Them Pirates Out Here and E. Phillips Fox’s The Landing of Captain Cook at Botany Bay, 1770. 2 Explain the significance of the symbols (such as the eye patch, parrots and pirate flag) in Boyd’s reinterpretation of Captain Cook’s landing. 3 Identify the key differences in how First Nations Peoples in the artworks are depicted or referenced. What does this suggest about each artist’s perspective? 4 Compare the intention behind the creation of Boyd’s We Call Them Pirates Out Here and Fox’s The Landing of Captain Cook at Botany Bay, 1770.

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Chapter 2: How have the rights and freedoms of First Nations Peoples evolved since 1938?

2.2

What were the key events of this topic?

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Learning intention

In this lesson, we will explore the key events in the fight for rights and freedoms undertaken by First Nations people between 1788 and today.

1965

Charlie Perkins leads the Freedom Rides, with Aboriginal and non-Aboriginal activists touring regional NSW to challenge racism and segregation

60 000 bce

December 1955

1890s–1900s

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For more than 60k years, Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander communities existed without European interference and violence. These communities all have their own histories which they share with their allies, adversaries and trading partners across time, land and waters

Source 2.2.1 Early British

settler John Batman

1835

1788

First Fleet from England arrives at Sydney Cove

John Batman claims to ‘buy’ Melbourne from Wurundjeri elders in an act now recognised as illegitimate colonisation

The Aborigines Protection Act in Victoria, NSW, Qld and WA legalise the forced removal of Aboriginal children from their families, leading to the Stolen Generations

Rosa Parks refuses to give up her bus seat to a white passenger, igniting the Montgomery Bus Boycott and energising the ongoing American Civil Rights Movement

1964

The Civil Rights Act is signed in Washington, prohibiting racial discrimination and affirming legal rights for Black Americans and other marginalised communities

1962

1937

1789

1883

Arrival of Captain Cook in Botany Bay

Smallpox devastates Aboriginal communities whose lands are directly around Sydney Harbour and its surrounds, including Eora groups

The NSW Aborigines Protection Board is established, enforcing the forced removal of Aboriginal People to missions and reserves, disrupting connection to Country, culture and community

The Day of Mourning protest is held, marking a significant moment in the ongoing fight for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander rights and self-determination

Source 2.2.2 Aboriginal rights activist Gary Foley

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1770

The legislative change marked the right to vote for First Nations Peoples in federal elections.

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2023 A national referendum to recognise First Nations people in the Australian Constitution through a Voice to Parliament does not succeed

2008 ➜

1967

Source 2.2.3 Eddie Mabo

A Referendum is held, with 90.7% of Australians voting YES to include Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples in the census and allow the Commonwealth government to make laws affecting them

Prime Minister Paul Keating delivers the Redfern Speech, acknowledging the harm caused to Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples by colonisation

Prime Minister Kevin Rudd delivers a formal apology to the Stolen Generations for the forced removal of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander children

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

1972

1992

The Aboriginal Tent Embassy is established on the lawns of Parliament House in Canberra, asserting Aboriginal sovereignty and land rights

2017

1997

1982

1968

1966

Meriam man, Eddie Mabo, launches legal action to challenge the myth of terra nullius and seek legal recognition of the Meriam people’s traditional land ownership in the Torres Strait

The Bringing Them Home report, documenting the forced removal of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander children known as the Stolen Generations, is tabled in Federal Parliament

Source 2.2.4 Paul Keating delivering the Redfern speech

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A group of Gurindji stockmen and their families lead the Wave Hill Walk-off, protesting poor wages and demanding land rights

American civil rights leader Martin Luther King Jr is assassinated, sparking global mourning and strengthening movements for racial justice

The Uluru Statement from the Heart is issued, calling for Voice, Treaty, and Truth as steps toward Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander self-determination and justice

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2.2 Review questions

1 Describe the significance of the 1967 Referendum in Australian history and how it impacted Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples. 2 Explain how the Aborigines Protection Act of 1909 enabled the forced removal of Aboriginal children from their families and contributed to the Stolen Generations. 3 Identify key events in the Civil Rights movements in Australia and the United States, Identify key events in civil rights movements outside Australia that are listed on the timeline. How do you think they may have affected Australia? 4 Discuss at least two events since the 1960s that relate to Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander land rights and self-determination or sovereignty. What do they show?

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2.3

What is the Declaration of Human Rights?

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Learning intention

In this lesson, we will examine The Universal Declaration of Human Rights and compare its fundamental principles with the lived experiences of people in Australia and globally.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

See, think, wonder

1 What do you see? 2 What does it make you think? 3 What do you wonder about why this image was taken?

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Source 2.3.1 Children of the United Nations International Nursery School looking at a poster of The Universal Declaration of Human Rights in 1950

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Introduction While many saw 1967 Referendum as a major step forward, critics have pointed out that governments rarely used these powers to improve the lives of First Nations Peoples. Being counted did not guarantee justice, nor did it return sovereignty.

referendum general vote on a single political question that has been referred to the electorate for a direct decision

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

In 1967, 90 per cent of Australians voted in favour of changing the Australian Constitution so that Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples would be counted in the national census and included under Commonwealth law. The Referendum came after decades of tireless resistance and advocacy from Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people. It resulted in two key changes: Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples would be counted in the national census, and the Commonwealth government would have the power to make laws that affected them.

The fight for rights and selfdetermination has continued across generations. It was not until 2019, more than fifty years later, that Ken Wyatt, a Noongar man, became the first Aboriginal person appointed Minister for Indigenous Affairs.

The Universal Declaration of Human Rights The Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) was adopted by the General Assembly of the United Nations (UN) on 10 December 1948. This came three years

after the global devastation wrought by World War II. The declaration stated that all people, regardless of culture, creed or where they live, have inherent rights.

Universal Declaration of Human Rights an internationally recognised document that outlines the fundamental rights and freedoms of all people

Concepts and skills builder 2.3

Communicating and Using historical sources as evidence Article 2 of The Universal Declaration of Human Rights states:

Everyone is entitled to all the rights and freedoms set forth in this Declaration, without distinction of any kind, such as race, colour, sex, language, religion, political or other opinion, national or social origin, property, birth or other status.

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Source 2.3.2 Article 2 of The Universal Declaration of Human Rights

1 Use what you know about World War I and World War II to identify the historical events the UDHR aimed to prevent from happening again. 2 Research the UDHR online. Read through its 29 Articles and make a list of five that you feel to be the most significant in 1948. 3 Read through the list again and make a list of the articles that you feel to be the most significant in our lives today. What is the significance of this document for your life and the lives of other Australians? Historical concepts and skills: communicating, continuity and change, using historical skills

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Chapter 2: How have the rights and freedoms of First Nations Peoples evolved since 1938?

The UDHR set out a new vision for the world that attempted to recalibrate the way people treated one another. It was an ambitious and optimistic vision. After World War II there was a global trend of nations declaring independence from European colonisation and determining their own fate. This trend did not reach all corners of the globe. By 1950, South Africa had established a system of apartheid into law. This system legally discriminated against Black people in South Africa, excluding them from society. Similar laws existed in the southern states of the USA. Around the globe, in places like the Soviet Union, the Middle East and Latin America, the adoption of universal rights was slow. In some places, they have still not been applied. As Australia emerged on the world stage after World War II, it began to turn its attention to its own human rights record.

on government-controlled missions and reserves, where their lives were heavily regulated by welfare authorities, government policies, and religious organisations. These institutions restricted their movement, employment, cultural practices and spiritual beliefs. Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples were often forbidden from speaking their languages or practising cultural traditions. Few were granted exemptions that allowed them to travel freely, access education, or enter public spaces such as cinemas, hotels and pubs. During this time, government policies resulted in the forced removal of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander children from their families, with the intent to assimilate them into white Australian society, a policy now known as the Stolen Generations, which many analysts regard as an act of cultural genocide.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

missions controlled communities established by churches or religious groups to confine Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples, suppress their cultural practices, and impose Christian beliefs while preparing them for exploitative labour apartheid (‘separateness’) a system of laws in South Africa that legally separated non-white people from white society

After the war, many Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people were living

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As Australia took its seat at the United Nations in 1948, global attention was slowly bringing the treatment of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples into the light.

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2.3 Review questions

1 Identify when The Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) was created. 2 Describe the conditions set out by the UDHR. 3 Explain how the rights outlined in the UDHR were not upheld for all people equally in South Africa, the USA and Australia. 4 Discuss how the principles of the UDHR relate to racism, colonisation and discrimination. 5 What does the result of the 1967 Referendum tell you about the attitude of Australians towards Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples’ rights at the time? 6 It took 52 years from the Referendum for the Australian government to appoint an Aboriginal or Torres Strait Islander politician to the role of Minister for Indigenous Affairs. What does this suggest?

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2.4

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

How have First Nations Peoples fought for Country since the Frontier Wars? Learning intention

In this lesson, we will explore the devastating impacts of British invasion and colonisation of Australia on First Nations Peoples after 1788.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

Pemulwuy was a Bidjigal warrior of the Dharug Nation in what is now New South Wales. He’s remembered as one of the most important figures who stood up against British colonisation after the First Fleet arrived in 1788. Pemulwuy lived near Botany Bay, which his people called Kamay. He was known as a cleverman—a spiritual leader and healer in Dharug culture. Starting in 1790, Pemulwuy led a guerrilla war against the British settlers that lasted for 12 years. His fight ended in 1802 when he was killed.

See, think, wonder

1 What do you see? What details do you notice? 2 What does it make you think? Why do you think the artist chose Pemulwuy as his subject? 3 What do you wonder about this source?

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Source 2.4.1 Engraving of Pemulwuy by Samuel John Neele, 1804, from the State Library of Victoria

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Chapter 2: How have the rights and freedoms of First Nations Peoples evolved since 1938?

The Australian Wars Before Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people fought against ideas like terra nullius in courtrooms and on the street, they fought for their people and their rights to the land on the battlefield.

continent, warriors clashed with European

The British Empire’s invasion of Country was resisted in some way by every First Nations community across the continent. As the frontier of colonisation moved across the

groups. One example is the Eumarella Wars,

forces in a series of wars we now refer to as the Australian Wars, the Frontier Wars or the Killing Times. Within the Australian Wars, we recognise the specific struggles of certain where Gunditjmara people fought colonists

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

terra nullius Latin term meaning ‘land belonging to no one’. In history, it was used as a legal concept to justify British colonisation of Australia by falsely claiming that the land was uninhabited, ignoring the presence and sovereignty of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples invasion the act of entering a place, often by force, to take control of it. Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples experienced British colonisation as an invasion that disrupted their sovereignty, culture and connection to Country

for almost two decades in what is now

called the Western District area of southwest Victoria.

Resisting invasion

Country the term Indigenous Australians use for the land which the local group owns through tradition (and/or legal native title today) and for which they hold the stories and have rights for custodianship. It is capitalised to distinguish it from country (with a small ‘c’), meaning nation colonisation the act of settling among and taking control over the indigenous people of an area, often through force or imposition of foreign rule. In Australia, colonisation by the British led to the displacement and oppression of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples

warriors highly-trained Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander fighters who led the resistance against European colonisers during the Frontier Wars saboteurs people who saboteur things during conflict to contribute to a resistance against an enemy

Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander warriors were trained from an early age for combat. If they were successful and became warriors, they joined groups who were expected to protect their people and defend Country. Bidjigal warrior Pemulwuy is one famous example.

Warriors were at the forefront of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander resistance, but they were not the only fighters in the resistance. As warriors also held special cultural, social and legal roles within their own societies, we recognise them separately from fighters. Only the fastest, strongest and smartest fighters became warriors, and they were raised to fight in ways that were shaped by their own laws and philosophies. To become a warrior, you had to be initiated and were bound to uphold a code of honour, even on the battlefield. Still, these laws and

philosophies were not recognised by Europeans, forcing warriors to adapt to new tactics and strategies to resist colonial forces.

Fighters were not held to the same standard as warriors and usually performed different roles. Some supported the resistance by maintaining the supply chain, retrieving fallen weapons from the battlefield or manufacturing new ones. Other fighters, often women and children, became spies and saboteurs. As colonists generally did not consider women and children a threat, they allowed them to move freely around town or even offered them jobs on their property, unaware that they were passing on vital information to their own community. At other times, these saboteurs were directly involved in the resistance. Some created a diversion by opening gates and causing stock to stampede. Others would lead groups of colonists in the wrong direction or even directly into an ambush.

The War for Country

Disease, Dispossession and Violence

The British Empire’s colonisation of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander land began in the Sydney region, on Gadigal Country. Within days of their

arrival, colonists clashed with the people of

the Sydney region. As the colonial settlement grew in size and population, the violence increased. This violence marks the beginning of the Australian Wars – a period of battles and massacres that resulted in the dispossession

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of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people across the continent.

The fighting in Western Australia, the Northern Territory and Queensland was sometimes similar, but changes in technology and the things colonists learned from fighting in the South East meant that the Australian Wars were fought very differently in other parts of the continent.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

While some communities of First Nations people and colonists formed a peaceful coexistence, this was not a common occurrence. For most Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people, the invasion of their land and waters meant dispossession, environmental destruction, cultural loss and death on a large scale.

There is an ongoing debate about whether colonists intentionally released these diseases on First Nations people. Still, there is a consensus among historians and Aboriginal knowledge holders that colonists used guns, poison and starvation to kill First Nations people and dispossess them of their land.

Many of the conflicts in the South East of the continent were unique in many ways, but specific conflicts such as the Sydney Wars, Eumarella Wars, Tasmanian Wars and Wiradyuri Wars followed a similar pattern and timeline. This timeline can be broken down into phases: Invasion, Counterattack, Massacre and Adaption.

smallpox contagious, life-threatening viral disease with symptoms that include fever and pustules that usually leave permanent scars

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Source 2.4.2 Painting of Aboriginal people and European colonists coexisting in South Australia by Alexander Schramm, c. 1850

The moving frontier of European settlement 1810 1835 1850 1870 (sparsely settled) 1890 (sparsely settled)

1000 km

Source 2.4.3 The moving frontier of European settlement between 1810 and 1890, adapted from a map by Richard Broome and Christine Preston.

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The impact of European diseases on Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people was devastating. After colonists arrived in 1788, they spread smallpox, measles and influenza throughout the Southeast and beyond. It is impossible to know how extensive the impact of disease was on Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people, but some historians estimate that diseases halved the population of many communities. Other historians and First Nations knowledge holders estimate that diseases and armed violence killed 60 to 90% of the total population within the first three decades.

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Chapter 2: How have the rights and freedoms of First Nations Peoples evolved since 1938?

Invasion

The counterattacks by warriors often caught colonists by surprise. They were very effective at guerilla warfare, launching raids against properties and ambushing drays or groups of colonists. When colonists gathered in large numbers, warriors formed large alliances with other First Nations groups.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

guerilla warfare a form of irregular warfare characterised by small, mobile groups using tactics like ambushes, sabotage, and raids to harass, delay, and disrupt a larger, more conventional military force.

Small groups of colonists would invade Country, bringing livestock and other destructive, agricultural practices with them. As colonial governors permitted more people into the area, they built permanent dwellings on Country and cleared the land for farming. European agricultural practices damaged sacred sites, disrupted First Nations trading routes and put a strain on water and food supplies.

was necessary to stop the animals from causing more damage and endangering native species. Destroying crops and livestock also forced the station owner into bankruptcy, causing them to leave the area.

dray a large, low carriage with four wheels, pulled by horses

martial law the control of a city, country, etc. by an army instead of by its usual leaders

punitive expeditions hunting parties of colonists who were often ex-soldiers searching for First Nations warriors who had attacked them

Stock animals could also be used as a weapon. They competed with existing species for food, poisoned water ways, transplanted invasive grasses and destroyed the nests of ground-dwelling animals, such as grass parrots and goannas. The destructive impact of sheep and cattle on local environment is called co-colonisation.

While some colonists tried to establish a peaceful relationship with the owners of the land they were invading, most attacked First Nations communities soon after they had arrived. This was often a tactic used by colonists to drive Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people off their own land or to capture their women.

Counterattack

Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander warriors would attack colonists as a response to the invasion. Often, they targeted the colonists responsible for harming their family, but they would also target their property and their livestock. Warriors also adapted new tactics. They realised that killing colonists was not always the most effective method of removing European people out of an area. Often it was easier to set fire to the property or kill livestock. This was not an easy decision to make, but it

Unfortunately for the resistance, there were always more colonists to take the place of those they killed or drove away. Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander communities could not replace their losses as quickly as the Europeans.

Massacre

Whenever they began to lose a war, colonists would call on the Governor for assistance. The response from the Governor was not always the same, but he held the authority to dispatch soldiers or mounted police to the area. He also had the power to declare martial law, which allowed colonists to take matters into their own hands.

Although we think of colonists as farmers, many of them were also veterans from colonial wars in India, New Zealand and South Africa. Using their experience and training, they would form armed parties, called punitive expeditions. Using guns and horses, these veteran soldiers would try to track down the warriors that had attacked them. Sometimes these parties would clash with warriors, but it was common for parties to spend weeks in the bush without encountering any warriors at all.

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accountable to the military they served with. In general, soldiers were expected to follow certain rules of engagement, such as providing reports to their superiors about where they were going and what they were doing. These rules did not matter if soldiers were ordered to conduct a dawn raid, but the risk of being courtmartialled meant that if soldiers were more likely to stick to their orders.

dawn raid attacks by colonists against First Nations peoples while they slept rules of engagement the orders that soldiers fighting in a war are given about what they can and cannot do

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

When colonists became frustrated with the warriors they could not catch or defeat in direct battle, they would send out parties to find their and camps and attack them while they were sleeping. This tactic was known as the dawn raid. These raids made no distinction between armed warriors and unarmed families. The idea was to send a message to the warriors by killing as many of their family members as possible. Up until the 1830s, soldiers often joined or lead these expeditions. While some colonists were grateful that their colonial government was trying to protect them, others preferred to take matters into their own hands. When it came to warfare, the soldiers and officers of the British Empire were

Unlike soldiers, who were paid regardless of the outcome, land-owning colonists were very invested in the success or failure of an expedition. Many had invested most (if not all) of their wealth into their livestock and property. This motivated land-owning colonists to go to extreme lengths.

court martial (a trial in) a military court for members of the armed forces

Identified Aboriginal Massacre sites in Victoria 1836 −1851

Murra y

Rive r

Murray

Portland

Hopkins R.

Eumer alla R

. Crawford s R Fitz ro y R .

Wanno n s

Western District Camperdown

Geelong

Port Fairy

Cape Otway

Melbourne

Westernport

Brodrib bR

Coliban R

Gippsland Region

Coleraine

n River

n Avo r Ri v e

Glenelg

er Riv

Murray District

Goulbu r

wy River no

Campa spe R

era Riv e

River

Wim m

River Loddon

Moira Lakes

Lake Wellington

Alberton

Port Albert

100 km

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Source 2.4.4 Port Phillip District 1836–1851: Settler massacre sites. Adapted from Lyndall Ryan, ‘Settler massacres on the Port Phillip Frontier, 1836–1851’, Journal of Australian Studies, vol. 34, no. 3, 2010, p. 264.

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Chapter 2: How have the rights and freedoms of First Nations Peoples evolved since 1938?

Concepts and skills builder 2.4 Using historical sources

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

1 Describe what is happening in each scene. 2 Explain how this source could be used as evidence of colonial efforts to stem the frontier violence.

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Source 2.4.5 Governor Arthur’s Proclamation to the

Aborigines, c.1828–30, by unknown, oil on huon pine board, 35.7 × 22.6 × 1 cm, State Library of New South Wales. (The original image label of ‘Governor Davey’ is incorrect). Originally conceived by Surveyor General George Frankland as a way of communicating the proclamation to First Nations Peoples, his original drawing was reproduced onto boards and mounted on trees in remote areas of Van Diemen’s Land (Tasmania) where they would be seen.

Historical concepts and skills: using historical sources, historical significance

Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people were horrified by the atrocities committed by colonists. Unlike landowning colonists or even soldiers, warriors were bound by a code of honour that they were expected to uphold. For many warriors, ‘tactics’ like the dawn raid were not just considered dishonourable, they saw them as a war crime.

Not all colonists believed in such violent methods. For many, the idea of executing prisoners, poisoning starving children or massacring large groups of unarmed people was considered deeply immoral. There was public outcry among colonists after the Myall Creek Massacre in 1838, the men involved were put on trial. 7 of the men were found guilty and were hanged, while another 4 were acquitted.

Still, there were ways for colonists to avoid punishment. If martial law was declared, as it was during the Bathurst Wars in 1824, colonists were free to kill First Nations people in any way they saw fit. Even without martial law, colonists found ways to organise and communicate with each other in secret. They formed secret codes to communicate and conduct raids when local authorities were not looking, or recruited local authorities into their organisations. As the frontier spread and the British Empire’s colonial policies changed, soldiers were replaced by mounted police. Units of mounted police could operate over a much greater distance than soldiers on foot, making their punitive expeditions more efficient and deadly. The mounted

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warriors who fought in the early years of the invasion often grew up to fight the same battles their parents had. Unable to match the constant flow of people, weapons and livestock onto their Country – and unwilling to commit the same kind of atrocities that colonists used to win these wars – many warriors and leaders surrendered to protect what was left of their family.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

police were accountable to the colonial government in some ways, but many captains were left to manage their own units – resulting in violent massacres like the ones near Slaughterhouse Creek between 1837-1838.

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Source 2.4.6 Mounted Police and Blacks, an 1852 lithograph by W. L. Walton, depicting the killing of Gamilaraay warriors at Slaughterhouse Creek by colonial police troopers.

Adaptation

Most First Nations communities fought colonists for decades. The children of

Massacres of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people continued into the 20th Century, such as the Coniston Massacre in 1928, but by that point many communities were changing the way they resisted. They realised that they could continue the fight by becoming activists and politicians. The first generation of these activists formed the Aboriginal Rights Movement. This movement gave them a way to resist the ongoing dispossession and the structural violence of colonisation in ways that did not directly endanger their families.

Lesson 2.4 review Online quiz

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Research task

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Teachers can assign tasks and track results

2.4 Review questions

1 Describe why the word invasion is today used by many Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people to describe colonisation. 2 Describe the impact of diseases like smallpox on Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander populations in the years following British colonisation. Why were these diseases so devastating? How do these histories help us understand why First Nations communities continue to push for truth-telling and land justice today? 3 Explain the significance of the Myall Creek Massacre (1838) and its aftermath. 4 Explain the significance of martial law during the Frontier Wars. 5 Describe how through a process of adaptation First Nations Peoples were able to keep resisting coloni-sation after the Frontier Wars.

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Chapter 2: How have the rights and freedoms of First Nations Peoples evolved since 1938?

2.5

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

What are the initial and ongoing impacts of ‘protection’ and forced removal on First Nations Peoples? Learning intention

In this lesson, we will explore the impacts of Australian government policies on First Nations Peoples that led to forced removal from their lands, families, communities and cultures.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

See, think, wonder

1 What do you see? 2 What do you think? 3 What does it make you wonder?

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Source 2.5.1 Governor Sir Charles and Lady Gairdner with Abbot Gomez inspecting the children of St Joseph’s Orphanage in New Norcia, WA (c.1950s)

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Language, culture and ‘protection’ system of taking away people’s rights and freedoms. This forced removal caused deep and lasting harm to Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples. Being taken from their homelands meant being separated from important cultural knowledge, language, stories and responsibilities passed down through generations. Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander traditions that had stood for tens of thousands of years were banned. This made it increasingly difficult for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander cultures to survive, and for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples to make any claim to the land they had once inhabited. Not only had they been denied their own land, but they had also been denied their culture and identity.

social Darwinism discredited theory that individuals, groups and peoples are subject to the same Darwinian laws of natural selection as plants and animals

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

In 1883, the NSW Government set up the Aborigines Protection Board. At the time, racist beliefs like social Darwinism led to the idea that Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples needed to be ‘protected’ from European society. This idea was used to justify removing First Nations Peoples from their lands and placing them on missions and reserves.

Aborigines Protection Board australian government institution responsible for regulating the lives of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples

These places were controlled by the government and churches, who tried to force people to follow Christian beliefs and stop speaking their languages or practising culture. Between 1883 and 1969, the government controlled almost every part of First Nations Peoples’ lives, including where people could live, who they could marry, and whether their children would be taken from them. Even though it was called ‘protection’, it caused a lot of harm and was part of a larger

The Stolen Generations

The devastation of dispossession was compounded by the forced removal of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander children from their families. The Stolen Generations, one of the darkest chapters of Australia’s history, began in the late 1880s and continued as a formal policy until 1969. Prevailing social Darwinist ideas assumed that Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples would eventually ‘die out’. Children were stolen from their Families and County. Babies born in missions and reserves were stolen from their mothers and separated from their siblings. These ideas also supported the removal of children who had parents from Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander and non-Indigenous backgrounds. These children were taken from their families to be forcibly assimilated into white society. They were taught domestic and labour skills and dressed, fed and instructed in European ways. They were also forced to

abandon their Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander identity.

Laws, including 1871 regulations in Victoria and the 1909 Aborigines Protection Act in NSW, formalised the forced removal of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander babies from their parents at birth, and the removal of children from their families by police and local authorities. It is estimated that over 20 000 children were taken from their parents in this time. A 2018 survey estimated that at least one in seven Aboriginal or Torres Strait Islander People were taken from their parents. They are known as the Stolen Generations because government policies of forced child removal impacted not just one, but many generations of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples, causing ongoing harm to families,

reserves areas of land the government forced Aboriginal people to live on, often away from their traditional Country and communities. These places were created to control where people lived and how they lived 1909 Aborigines Protection Act law that claimed to ’provide for the protection and care of Aborigines’ that, in reality, legalised the forced removal of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander children from their families Stolen Generations collective name for the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander children who were forcibly removed from their families by Australian Federal and State government agencies and church missions between approximately 1910 and 1970

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Chapter 2: How have the rights and freedoms of First Nations Peoples evolved since 1938?

and, after 15 years apart, they were finally reunited. ‘I’m one of the lucky ones’, Marita says – a reminder that many others never made it home. Uncle Jack Charles, an acclaimed actor and a member of the Stolen Generations, was taken from his mother just after he was born.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

communities and cultures. When we consider the rates of removal of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander children from their families today, we can see that the rate at which Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander children are being removed from their families is still alarming. As of June 2020, Indigenous children represented 39 per cent of all children in out-of-home care, despite comprising only about 6 per cent of the child population. This indicates that Indigenous children are approximately 10 times more likely to be removed from their families compared to non-Indigenous children.

‘I was born on 6th September 1943 … stolen from Royal Women’s Hospital and raised in an institution in Melbourne – Box Hill … and the program in there, besides the sexual abuse and the unusual punishments was to dissuade me, the lone Aboriginal – registered Aboriginal – in that Box Hill boys home … against any sense of his Aboriginality.’

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Source 2.5.3 Uncle Jack Charles

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Marita Ah Chee was one of many Aboriginal children taken from their families and sent to Garden Point Mission on Melville Island (part of the Tiwi Islands in the Northern Territory). Garden Point was a Catholic mission where many children were forcibly placed during the Stolen Generations era. After 13 years away from her family, Marita returned to Alice Springs to work as a nanny. Her mother, who never gave up searching for her, had heard Marita might be nearby. She began knocking on doors

Source 2.5.2 Marita Ah Chee was taken from her family in 1947.

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intergenerational trauma the passing down of pain, grief and harm from one generation to the next. For Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples, this includes the impacts of colonisation, stolen children, and forced removals. It’s not just about the past – it’s about how the systems and policies that caused harm still affect families today

Many Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander children were forcibly taken from their families and placed in foster homes, orphanages and institutions, often run by churches. Most never saw their families again. These removals caused the loss of whole family lines, disrupted oral histories and contributed to the erosion of languages and cultural identity. Some children grew up not knowing they were Aboriginal or Torres Strait Islander, having been told lies about their families – that they were unloved or abandoned. Many suffered physical, emotional and sexual abuse in these institutions. The pain of these experiences has echoed across generations, with the intergenerational trauma deeply felt by their children and grandchildren today.

Source 2.5.4 Actor Uncle Jack Charles

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Concepts and skills builder 2.5 Using historical sources as evidence Read the stories of people who are part of the Stolen Generations.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Bill Simon’s story

It was winter 1957, seven o’clock in the morning. The sun was up and the sounds of birds drifted down into our small kitchen. My brother Lenny was sitting on the floor, eating toast; my brothers Murray and David and I, rubbing our eyes in a state of half sleep, were waiting for mum to smear Vegemite on our bread before we dressed for school. A routine day in the Simon household. Someone rapped loudly on the door. My mother didn’t answer it. We hadn’t heard anyone come up the path. The knocking got louder, and finally my mother, who was reluctant to answer any callers when my father wasn’t home, opened the door and exchanged words with three people. We strained to hear what they were saying. Three men then entered the room.

A man in a suit ordered my mother to pick up Lenny and give him to me. My mother started to scream. One of the policemen bent down and picked up my brother and handed him to me. My mother screamed and sobbed hysterically but the men took no notice, and forced my brothers and me into a car. My mother ran out onto the road, fell on her knees and belted her fists into the bitumen as she screamed. We looked back as the car drove off to see her hammering her fists into the road, the tears streaming down her face…

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Source 2.5.5 Bill Simon

Kenny Windly’s story

We had no choice, couldn’t do anything, the parents couldn’t do anything either … The abuse affected a lot of people. It’s in the back of your mind, and you think a lot about what you can do. Sometimes you feel bad about yourself, you think about what you were taken for. I used to try to ask them [about my parents] but got flogged. Once you asked questions you would get a flogging.

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Source 2.5.6 Kenny Windly

Zita Wallace’s story

It was a very sad night the first night we went to bed and it was the first time I hadn’t gone and sat beside my grandfather before I went to bed. Every night I would go and sit beside him, just sit, just to be next to him. We were very close.

I found out years later from the old men that him and a cousin brother, they walked from Alice Springs, from the homelands out here, to Darwin to look for me. When they got to Darwin they were told by one of the brothers that all of us children were dead – ‘Your little sister is dead, they all died’ – because they didn’t want them looking for us any further.

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Chapter 2: How have the rights and freedoms of First Nations Peoples evolved since 1938?

They flogged us from day one, to stop us speaking language. They told us we were pagans and that we were spawn of the devil and that the language was evil and we couldn’t speak it. So we got belted every time. ➜

Source 2.5.7 Zita Wallace

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

1 What emotions and experiences are shared by the storytellers in these sources, and what do they reveal about the strength and resilience of the Stolen Generations? 2 What impact did being taken have on each person’s relationships with family, culture and Country? 3 How might these stories help all Australians better understand the ongoing effects of intergenerational trauma? 4 Why is it important that the stories of Stolen Generations survivors are listened to, believed and included in Australian history? 5 How can reading these lived experiences deepen our understanding of justice, healing and truth-telling in Australia? Historical concepts and skills: using historical sources as evidence

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2.5 Review questions

1 Define the terms reserves, social Darwinism and Stolen Generations. How did these concepts shape the lives of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples? 2 Describe the role of Aborigines Protection Boards in controlling the lives of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples. What measures were taken in the name of ‘protection’? 3 Explain the effects of forced assimilation policies on Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander culture, languages and identity. How did these policies disrupt their connection to the land and their traditions?

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2.6

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

How did the struggle for civil rights begin? Learning intention

In this lesson, we will explore the significant events and individuals that began the slow march to civil rights for First Nations Peoples in Australia.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

Think, puzzle, explore

1 What do you think you know about this topic? 2 What questions or puzzles do you have about this topic? 3 How might you explore your puzzles about this topic?

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Source 2.6.1 The Day of Mourning protest, 1938, was one of the most significant early events in the Indigenous Civil Rights movement in Australia.

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Chapter 2: How have the rights and freedoms of First Nations Peoples evolved since 1938?

William Cooper and the Australian Aborigines League The Cummeragunja Mission Station was located in Yorta Yorta Country, close to the Murray River and near the town of Barmah. Established in 1888, its residents experienced a long period of neglect from a long list of controlling managers. Disease was common and mission life was strictly controlled. Despite this, Cummeragunja residents persevered and made a success of the station by selling wheat and dairy.

Dear Mr. Lyons, … I am forwarding you the petition, signed by 1814 people of the Aboriginal race, praying His Majesty the King to exercise the Royal Prerogative by intervening for the preservation of our race from extinction and to grant representation to our race in the Federal Parliament.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Cummeragunja Mission a government-run mission established on Yorta Yorta land in southern New South Wales. Like many missions, it was created to control the lives of Aboriginal people and restrict their cultural practices, language and freedom

sovereignty the authority or power of a nation or group to govern itself without external interference. For Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples, sovereignty reflects their enduring connection to Country and selfdetermination, despite colonisation

In 1932, Yorta Yorta man William Cooper left Cummeragunja at the age of 71. He travelled to Melbourne and founded the Australian Aborigines League while living in the working-class suburb of Footscray. His goal was to gather signatures from around Australia and petition George V, the King of England, to improve the living conditions of all Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples.

Source 2.6.2 From the letter from William Cooper to Australian Prime Minister Joseph Lyons

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Yorta Yorta First Nations people with deep cultural, spiritual and ancestral connections to the lands and waters along the Goulburn and Murray Rivers in what is now known as northern Victoria and southern New South Wales. Yorta Yorta people have cared for and protected this Country for countless generations and continue to assert their sovereignty and rights today

However, the 1909 Aborigines Protection Act destroyed any chance of the station’s future success by forcibly removing children from their families. All profits made by the station were redirected to the Aborigines Protection Board and not its residents. This is called stolen wages. The low rations and the cramped and unsanitary conditions persisted, and life on Cummeragunja deteriorated rapidly.

After gathering almost 2000 signatures, Cooper sent the petition to Australian Prime Minister Joseph Lyons in August 1937. Prime Minister Lyons acknowledged that he had received the petition, but he did not forward it to the king. While Cooper’s petitions were dismissed by authorities, they highlighted the dire conditions inflicted upon Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples and contributed to a growing movement for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples’ rights. Cooper’s efforts placed him and the Australian Aborigines’ League at the heart of a campaign for justice and equality, inspiring generations of advocacy for the recognition and protection of First Nations sovereignty and connections to Country.

Amazing but true…

When William Cooper learned about the atrocities of Kristallnacht in Nazi Germany in 1938, he organised a protest march to the German consulate in Melbourne – an unprecedented act of solidarity by an Aboriginal leader for the Jewish community. Despite facing systemic oppression himself, Cooper stood against injustice on a global scale.

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The Day of Mourning protest In that same month, Patten produced a political pamphlet titled ‘Aborigines Claim Citizens Rights’ that explained the reason for a Day of Mourning. News of the protest was published in major Melbourne and Sydney newspapers. Patten took to Sydney radio to make his claim to the public.

Aborigines Progressive Association an Aboriginal-led civil and political organisation formed in 1937 that advocated for the rights and sovereignty of Aboriginal people. The APA organised powerful acts of resistance such as the 1938 Day of Mourning, and worked to expose injustices faced by Aboriginal communities living on missions, reserves, and in urban areas

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

In 1937 Jack Patten formed the Aborigines Progressive Association in Sydney. The Australian Aboriginal Progressive Association (A.A.P.A.) was formed in Sydney in 1924. Led by Worimi Aboriginal man Fred Maynard they fought against the New South Wales Aborigines Protection Board. Jack Pattern among other activist were inspired by Maynard. Patten was a boxer, labourer and a former resident of the Cummeragunja station. Hitchhiking around NSW, Patten entered Aboriginal reserves and stations to gather evidence of life under government ‘protection’ (control). His intention was to bring this evidence to the government and force reform from the Aboriginal Protection Board.

The 26th of January, 1938, is not a day of rejoicing for Australia’s Aborigines; it is a day of mourning. This festival of 150 years’ so-called ‘progress’ in Australia commemorates also 150 years of misery and degradation imposed upon the original native inhabitants by the white invaders of this country … ask yourself honestly whether your ‘conscience’ is clear.

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Source 2.6.3 From ‘Aborigines Claim Citizens Rights’ by Jack Patten, 1938

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In 1938, Jack Patten and Bill Ferguson, both Aboriginal men deeply involved in political activism and organising their communities to fight for justice, met with respected Elder and activist William Cooper, along with rising Melbourne-based advocate and footballer Doug Nicholls.The four men proposed a Day of Mourning to coincide with the 150th anniversary of the landing of the British First Fleet in 1788. The protest was to take place in Sydney on Australia Day, 26 January 1938.

…the time has come now, after one hundred and fifty years of so-called progress, for the white people of Australia to face up to their responsibilities…we now ask for freedom and equal citizenship. Our only hope of obtaining justice is to arouse the conscience of the white people of Australia, and to make them realise how lacking they have been in regard to accepting their responsibilities towards us, the original owners of the land.

Source 2.6.4 Jack Patten

While Aboriginal leaders were protesting for their rights, the government held a big celebration just around the corner. As part of this event, they staged a re-enactment of the First Fleet’s arrival. To do this, they forced Aboriginal people from Menindee Mission, over 800 km away, to dress up and pretend to be the Gadigal people – the Traditional Owners of Sydney Harbour. These people were taken away on trucks and told that if they didn’t take part, their families wouldn’t be given food.

Gadigal the Gadigal are part of the Eora Nation and are the Traditional Custodians of the lands and waters around what is now called Sydney. They were among the First Peoples to resist and endure British invasion when the First Fleet arrived in 1788 Menindee Mission a government and church-run site in western NSW where Aboriginal people were forcibly taken and controlled

In forcing Aboriginal people to act as props in a reenactment of the British invasion for the entertainment of white onlookers, the organisers showed their harmful disrespect for First Nations peoples. Elder Dr Beryl Yungha-Dhu PhilpCarmichael, who was a child at the time, still remembers the day the trucks came.

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Chapter 2: How have the rights and freedoms of First Nations Peoples evolved since 1938?

Source 2.6.5 Dr Beryl (Yungha-Dhu) Philip-

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Aboriginal civil rights movement a collective term for the many Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people and allies who have fought for justice, land, rights and self-determination in the face of colonial oppression

Whether they were taking them away to be massacred or what, no-one knew. The community went into mourning once they were put on the mission truck … They came back very quiet.

in Sydney’s Elizabeth Street. Each had their chance to speak and voice their protest and demands for change. The meeting was attended by 100 people. After the meeting closed, a delegation went to meet with Prime Minister Lyons. The protest achieved no tangible change, and no official response from the Australian government. However, it did mark an important moment. Aboriginal leaders from around Australia had met to coordinate their protests. The Aboriginal civil rights movement had begun.

Carmichael

The delegates from the Aborigines Progressive Association met in a hall

The Cummeragunja walk-off: 1939 In February 1939, around 200 Aboriginal residents walked off Cummeragunja Station to protest the poor treatment and conditions they were forced to live under. It was the first major collective action of its kind and inspired other Aboriginal communities across the country to stand up for their rights.

This wasn’t just a walk out. This was people feeling that they had no alternative but to walk away from their country. So it’s a very powerful statement … Yorta Yorta people, over 200 years, have demonstrated a real commitment to Country and the strike in 1939 was one of the examples of the way those people weren’t prepared to suffer injustice on their land.

Yorta Yorta elder Uncle Ruben Baksh recalls the conditions at Cummeragunja.

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They lived in the old tin huts with hessian bags. They had no running water, no electricity, no proper sewerage.

Source 2.6.7 Professor Heather Goodall, University of

Technology Sydney

Low-res

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Source 2.6.6 Uncle Ruben Baksh

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Jack Patten, a strong voice for Aboriginal rights, was invited back to Cummeragunja to support the community, who were living in very poor conditions. When he arrived, he encouraged residents to take a stand. They packed their things and walked off the station in protest. This was a brave and difficult choice. Speaking out could lead to harsh consequences, and there were no promises that life outside the station would be easier. Many of those who left later made homes in towns like Echuca, Shepparton and Mooroopna.

Source 2.6.8 William Cooper (left) and Jack Patten

(right) in 1938

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The Cummeragunja walk-off didn’t lead to big changes straight away for the Yorta Yorta people. The person running the station was removed, but many of the residents who walked off were not allowed

to return. Even so, the walk-off was a powerful act of resistance. It inspired future protests and helped start a bigger movement for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander rights across Australia.

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Concepts and skills builder 2.6 Historical significance

1 What was the significance of 26 January 1938 to the Australian government, and what was its significance to the history of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander resistance? 2 What made the Cummeragunja walk-off such a big and brave step for the people who took part? 3 How did the following leaders help shape the early Aboriginal civil rights movement?

• Jack Patten • William Cooper • Sir Doug Nicholls

Historical concepts and skills: historical significance

Lesson 2.6 review Online quiz

Review questions

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Research task

Go online to access the interactive lesson review and more!

Teachers can assign tasks and track results

2.6 Review questions

1 Describe the living conditions on the Cummeragunja Mission and explain why residents chose to walk off the station in 1939. What challenges did they face in making this decision? 2 Explain the significance of the Day of Mourning protest (1938). How did leaders like William Cooper and Jack Patten use the event to bring attention to the oppression of Aboriginal people? 3 Explain the ways historical events like the Day of Mourning and recent debates on Australia Day highlight the importance of sovereignty and connection to Country for First Nations Peoples. 4 What actions can schools take to honour the voices and stories of First Nations leaders like Patten, Cooper and Nicholls?

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Chapter 2: How have the rights and freedoms of First Nations Peoples evolved since 1938?

2.7

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

How did the fight for civil rights in the USA inspire Australia’s? Learning intention

In this lesson, we will explore key events in the USA and compare them with the Australian Civil Rights movement, focusing on similarities and differences.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

Lenses

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Source 2.7.1 Protesters being attacked by police dogs during segregation demonstrations in Birmingham, Alabama in 1963

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access to education and opportunities, keeping them in poverty and reinforcing racist systems of control. Most African American people were prevented from voting and therefore denied a say in their future. Although armed resistance was no longer feasible for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples, thy adapted that resistance into a social and political movement.

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The struggle for civil rights in the United States of America was born from a desire for equal rights and freedoms for African Americans. As early as the 1600s, African people had been enslaved by European settlers to colonise the Americas. By the 1800s, the slave trade was a cornerstone of the North American economy. African slaves were a commodity to be bought and sold. While the American Civil War (1861–1865) brought an end to slavery, it was replaced by segregation and Jim Crow laws. In most states across the United States of America, laws existed to segregate and separate African Americans from White society. African American people could not attend the same cinemas as White people. They could not have their hair cut in the same place, or drink from a water fountain that a White person might use. These laws were designed to deny African American people

The growing Aboriginal Rights movement faced significant challenges in the early 20th century, but as the American Civil Rights movement emerged, it offered activists here a sense of global solidarity and renewed their fight for justice. News of the struggle in the United States also introduced activists to new ideas, different tactics and reshaped their approach to activism and resistance

Rosa Parks and the Montgomery Bus Boycott In December 1955, seamstress and civil rights activist Rosa Parks boarded a segregated bus in Montgomery, Alabama.

While sitting in the designated White area of the bus, Parks refused to move when the bus began to fill with White passengers. She was removed from the bus and arrested for refusing to give up her seat. Her protest set off the Montgomery Bus Boycott and set the tone for the civil rights movement. The doctrine of passive resistance became the defining tactic of civil rights protest.

Jim Crow a racist term used to mock African American people. It became the name for a set of laws in the United States that enforced segregation and aimed to keep Black people separate from White people and denied them equal rights passive resistance refusing to cooperate with unfair laws or systems without using violence. It became a powerful way that many civil rights movements challenged injustice. Instead of fighting with weapons, people stood together to show they would not accept racism or oppression

People always say that I didn’t give up my seat because I was tired, but that isn’t true. I was not tired physically, or no more tired than I usually was at the end of a working day. I was not old, although some people have an image of me as being old then. I was forty-two. No, the only tired I was, was tired of giving in.

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Source 2.7.2 Photo of Rosa Parks at the time of her arrest for refusing to give up her bus seat for a White passenger.

Source 2.7.3 Rosa Parks

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Chapter 2: How have the rights and freedoms of First Nations Peoples evolved since 1938?

Organised by civil rights group the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP), African American people in Montgomery decided to boycott the city’s bus services altogether. For 381 days, the protester, who made up 75 per cent of the bus company’s customers, refused to board any bus. Instead they walked or shared taxis and cars. This economic pressure forced the bus company and local courts to desegregate the bus services in 1957. The protest resulted in two things: it proved that mass action of African American people could be successful, and it inspired a new leader to emerge in the form of a 26-year-old pastor named Martin Luther King Jr.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

National Association for The Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) US-based civil rights organisation formed in 1909 to advance justice for African American people

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Source 2.7.4 December 26, 1956: US Civil Rights leader Reverend Martin Luther King Jr stands in front of a bus at the end of the Montgomery bus boycott.

Non-violent protest

Mahatma Gandhi leader of the Indian independence movement in the 1940s Freedom Riders civil rights activists who rode buses through the southern United States in 1961 to challenge segregation at bus stations and in southern US communities

Civil rights leader Martin Luther King Jr believed in the policy of non-violence. Having studied the success of Mahatma Gandhi’s use of passive resistance to drive the British Empire out of India in 1949, King determined that the only way to defeat a stronger, more violent oppressor was with non-violence. He spoke about the importance of non-violent resistance.

… nonviolent resistance does not seek to defeat or humiliate the opponent, but to win his friendship and understanding … The end is redemption and reconciliation. The aftermath of nonviolence is the creation of the beloved community, while the aftermath of violence is tragic bitterness.

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Source 2.7.5 Dr. Martin Luther King, Jnr

These tactics saw King and the US civil rights movement spread across the country. A number of key events brought the movement success.

The Freedom Rides

The following year, the NAACP organised another passive protest known as the Freedom Rides. In order to expose the segregation of interstate bus travel, protesters boarded a Greyhound bus and used ‘White only’ restrooms, lunch counters and waiting rooms across the US. Departing from North Carolina, the further the protesters travelled south, the worse the violence they experienced became. Upon arrival in South Carolina, some of the riders were attacked as they entered a Whites-only area.

When they reached Alabama an angry White mob followed the bus in cars, forcing it to a halt. A bomb was thrown into the bus and the protesters barely escaped with their lives. Many were members of or aligned with White supremacist groups like the Ku Klux Klan, and they were violently opposed to the Freedom Riders’ challenge to racial segregation in the American South. Local police often allowed or even

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Images of the violence were splashed across newspapers and news services all over the country. The violence of racism and segregation was now in the national and international spotlight. The pressure was felt by the US President himself and in 1961, segregation of interstate buses and facilities was banned under federal law. Non-violence, in the face of violence, had won.

National Guard a reserve military force made up of ordinary US citizens

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collaborated with these mobs, delaying their response to give the attackers more time. In this case, Bull Connor, the police commissioner of Birmingham, Alabama, refused to provide the riders with any protection. It was not until a mob set upon the riders with baseball bats and clubs that the Federal government intervened and sent 600 National Guard soldiers to Birmingham to protect the riders.

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Source 2.7.6 Freedom Riders on a Greyhound bus sponsored by the Congress Of Racial Equality (CORE) sit on the ground outside the bus after it was set afire by a group of White people after it arrived in Anniston, May 1961.

Concepts and skills builder 2.7 Sequencing and chronology

Working in pairs, choose two non-violent protest each to research and present your findings back to your pair. For each event, create a visual presentation that explains how the protest was organised and what it was able to achieve by avoiding violent protest. The Woolworth Sit-ins The March on Selma

The Birmingham protests The March on Washington

The Little Rock nine The Civil Rights Act

1 Once complete, place the presentations of each event in chronological order. 2 Describe the techniques used in non-violent protest. 3 Use the order of events and result of each protest to explain the reasons for success using non-violent protest. Historical concepts and skills: chronology Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62420-6 • (03) 8671 1400

Chapter 2: How have the rights and freedoms of First Nations Peoples evolved since 1938?

Radicalism To some within the civil rights movement, the policy of non-violence was not enough. A long history of persecution and violence had angered many within the African American community and some were calling for a stronger, more aggressive approach. Malcolm X, a member of the Nation of Islam, was an advocate of black nationalism.

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Malcolm X (born Malcolm Little) was a prominent African American leader and human rights activist. He was a key figure in the civil rights era but stood apart from mainstream civil rights leaders like Martin Luther King Jr. Malcolm X was highly critical of the non-violent approach to racial justice, which he saw as too passive in the face of ongoing white violence and systemic oppression

Source 2.7.7 Malcolm X

Radical movements: The Black Panthers

The Black Panther Party formed in California in 1966 in response to Malcom X’s assassination and the Watts Riots of 1965. These riots took place over five days in a neighbourhood near Los Angeles as an outbreak of the rising tension between police and the African American community. The Black Panther Party was formed with the aim of protecting African American people with force. Around the nation, this movement grew as armed members of the group protected

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Black Panther Party US-based African American revolutionary party founded to combat racism and empower black people

We want freedom by any means necessary. We want justice by any means necessary. We want equality by any means necessary… our people are due now some degree of civil rights. No, we want it now or we don’t think anybody should have it.

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Nation of Islam a US-based Black political and religious movement founded in 1930. It combines elements of traditional Islam with Black nationalist ideas. The movement promotes selfdetermination, economic independence, and spiritual growth for African Americans in the context of ongoing racial oppression

Articulate and charismatic, Malcolm X directly criticised King’s approach of non-violence. On 28 June 1964 he gave a speech in New York that defined his approach:

Source 2.7.8 Malcolm X pictured in 1964

African American businesses and drew even more attention from the FBI for their socialist tendencies. The Black Panthers promoted a militant version of black nationalism that embraced African American identity, fashion and culture in a way that seemed far more aggressive than anything Martin Luther King Jr had proposed. The shooting death of 21-yearold Black Panther leader Fred Hampton in 1969 at the hands of the FBI further stoked distrust between radical African Americans and the broader authorities.

By the end of the 1960s, both Malcom X and Martin Luther King had been assassinated and died in the course of pursuing their aims for rights and freedoms.

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U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES ➜

Source 2.7.9 May 2, 1967. Two members of the Black Panther Party are met on the steps of the State Capitol in Sacramento, California, by Police Lt Ernest Holloway, who informs them they will be allowed to keep their weapons as long as they cause no trouble and do not disturb the peace.

Lesson 2.7 review Online quiz

Review questions

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Research task

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Teachers can assign tasks and track results

2.7 Review questions

1 Define the terms Jim Crow laws, passive resistance, and Freedom Riders. How did these terms relate to the American Civil Rights Movement? 2 Describe the impact of Rosa Parks’ actions in the Montgomery Bus Boycott and explain how it demonstrated the effectiveness of non-violent protest. 3 Explain the significance of the Freedom Rides of 1961. What did these protests expose about the southern United States, and how? 4 Compare the non-violent approach of Martin Luther King Jr to the more radical methods advocated by Malcolm X and the Black Panther Party. How did their goals and strategies differ? 5 Reflect on your answers for the lesson starter activity, and what you have learned in this lesson. Have your observations changed?

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Chapter 2: How have the rights and freedoms of First Nations Peoples evolved since 1938?

2.8

How was the 1967 Referendum won?

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Learning intention

In this lesson, we will examine the chain of events that led to the 1967 Referendum that finally recognised First Nations Peoples as citizens of Australia.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

Step in, step out, step back

Aboriginal people are the skeletons in the cupboard of Australia’s national life… outcasts in our own land.

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Source 2.8.1 Pastor Doug Nicholls, 1938

1 Step in: What do you think this Doug Nicholls might feel, believe, know, or experience? 2 Step out: What would you like or need to learn to understand this person’s perspective better? 3 Step back: What do you notice about your own perspective and what it takes to take somebody else’s? In the years that followed World War II, Australia took on a more visible and accountable place in the world. However, little had changed for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples. The attention of the world, and of Australians who themselves were ignorant to the oppressions of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples, would soon focus on their fight for recognition.

In 1967, a question was put to the Australian people. Should the Constitution be changed to include Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples in the national census, and should the Federal government be allowed to make laws for them? However, for this question to even exist, a wave of protest actions was required to build this momentum.

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Concepts and skills builder 2.8 Historical significance Below is a list of key events that helped build momentum towards the 1967 Referendum. For each event, detail the circumstances and determine whether the event was useful in building awareness among the Australian population, or forcing the government into action. Detail

Awareness or action? What was the significance of this event? Jessie Street’s activism – 1956 Non-Indigenous feminist activist Street was able to force Jessie Street exposed Australia’s international attention on the mistreatment of First Nations Australian government’s treatment Peoples and brought allegations of of Aboriginal and Torres Strait slavery to the United Nations. Islander people. This helped push for the 1967 Referendum and forced the public to confront the truth about government abuses. The Warburton Ranges Controversy A documentary exposed the – 1957 inhumane conditions faced by First Nations Peoples living on a mission in Western Australia. The Aborigines Advancement League A self-determined organisation is formed – 1958 was formed by First Nations leaders to advocate directly to the Federal government. The Right to vote – 1962 First Nations people were given the right to vote in Federal elections, even though they were still not fully recognised as citizens. The Yirrkala Bark Petitions – 1963 Yolŋu Elders from Arnhem Land created bark petitions to protest mining on their Country without consent. The Lake Tyers Campaign – 1963 A long fight began to stop the forced closure of the Lake Tyers Aboriginal settlement. The Wave Hill Walk-off – 1966 Gurindji workers, led by Vincent Lingiari, walked off Wave Hill cattle station in protest at poor pay and treatment.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Event

1 Once complete, use the evidence you have gathered to respond to the following question: ‘By 1965, non-violent protest had experience significant success in Australia. To what extent do you agree?’ Historical concepts and skills: historical significance

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Chapter 2: How have the rights and freedoms of First Nations Peoples evolved since 1938?

The Freedom Ride: 1965 In 1965, inspired by the Freedom Rides in the southern states of the US, Arrernte and Kalkadoon activist and academic Charles Perkins led a bus tour of rural New South Wales to expose the racism and segregation Aboriginal and Torres

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Strait Islander Peoples in outback towns were being subjected to by white settlers. Travelling with 29 students from the University of Sydney, Perkins planned a tour of the towns of Walgett, Gulargambone, Kempsey, Bowraville and Moree.

The Freedom Riders are prevented from using the public pool by 500 townspeople

Visit Boggabilla Aboriginal Reserve - appalling conditions

Warwick 18 Feb

Lismore 22-23 Feb

Boggabilla 18 Feb

Tenterfield 19 Feb

Collarenebri 16 Feb

CLOSED

Moree 16-17, 20 Feb

Inverell 19-20 Feb

Walgett 14-16 Feb

Picket line to protest the RSL denying entry to returned Aboriginal servicemen

Grafton 21 Feb

Glen Innes 19 Feb

Coffs Harbour 23 Feb

Bournville 24 Feb

NSW

Kempsey 24-27 Feb

Gulargambone 14 Feb

Taree 25 Feb

FREEDOM RIDE 1965

Dubbo 13 Feb

Cinema closed to avoid student sit-in

ARTESIAN BATHS UBLIC POOL

Picket line to protest the public pool denying entry to Aboriginal people

Wellington 13 Feb

Wyong 26 Feb

Orange 13 Feb

Newcastle 26 Feb

Key

Sydney

Freedom Riders or Bus Attacked

Visit Narima's Aboriginal Reserve

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Source 2.8.2 Map showing the 1965 Freedom Ride through New South Wales, led by Charles Perkins and other student activists, to expose and challenge racism and segregation faced by Aboriginal people. The map highlights towns where key events and resistance took place. Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62420-6 • (03) 8671 1400

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Jim Speigelman was a Freedom Rider and student. Like many on the bus, Jim didn’t know what waited for him.

All the members of the RSL had to pass right past us and they read the banners. They either laughed at us or spat at us or on the banners. Some of them got banners and tore them up. Some of the local smarties wanted to bash a few of us up. They said, ‘You’re stirring up trouble. The dirty niggers don’t deserve any better and they are happy how they are.’

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We knew there were problems, but no one really knew the nature of extent of it … Most of us were city kids and didn’t really know what was going on in rural NSW.

the segregation experienced by First Nations servicemen. These First Nations ex-soldiers were not allowed access to the pub, and were only served alcohol through the pub’s back window on special occasions. Perkins recalled the scene:

Source 2.8.3 Jim Speigelman, Freedom Rider

The Freedom Riders found the same kind of segregation and discrimination that their US counterparts were being violently confronted by. At the Walgett Returned Servicemen’s League (RSL) pub, the Freedom Riders began a protest against

Source 2.8.4 Charles Perkins, in his book A Bastard Like Me, 1975

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The students planned to protest at segregated hotels, pools and cinemas and to speak to local First Nations people about their own experiences. The students witnessed the harsh impacts of racism and segregation that First Nations communities were forced to live under in these towns. At each stop, they faced threats of violence, intimidation and a huge police presence.

In the remaining towns they visited, the Freedom Riders found further evidence of segregated pubs, hotels and swimming pools. The ride had made Australian and international news, with even the New York Times reporting on the journey. As Charlie Perkins later stated at a meeting in Canberra, ‘the problem is out in the open now’.

Returned Servicemen’s League (RSL) support organisation for men and women who have served or are serving in the Australian Defence Force

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Source 2.8.5 The Freedom Ride Committee, John Powles, Charles Perkins, Patricia Healy and Jim Spigelman, 1965.

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The Referendum: 1967 The work of these activists was a success. More than 90 per cent of Australians voted in favour of changing the wording of the Constitution. A momentous turning point in Australia’s history had been reached. Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples were now recognised and counted in the national census, and the Federal government, not the state governments, could take charge of improving the lives of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples.

Source 2.8.6 May 1967: Bill Onus, President of the Victorian Aborigines’ Advancement League, took part in the march for the Aboriginal Rights Referendum.

Source 2.8.7 A Yes campaigner with prominent civil rights campaigner Faith Bandler during the 1967 referendum campaign.

Go online to access the interactive lesson review and more!

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U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

The work of Jack Patten, Jessie Street, Doug Nicholls, Charlie Perkins and countless other people came to fruition when the Australian people voted on 27 May 1967 to change the wording of the Australian Constitution so that Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples could finally be included in the national census.

Lesson 2.8 review Online quiz

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Research task

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2.8 Review questions 1 2 3 4 5

Identify Jessie Street’s role in the Civil Rights Movement. Explain the Warburton Ranges controversy. Describe the significance of the Yirrkala Bark Petitions. Analyse the key purpose of the 1967 Referendum. Evaluate the significance of the 1967 Referendum vote.

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2.9

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Why did radical activism arrive in Australia? Learning intention

In this lesson, we will examine how radical activism was used in the wake of the 1967 Referendum.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

See, think, wonder

1 What do you see? 2 What does it make you think? 3 What does it make you wonder?

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Source 2.9.1 16 January 1972: Australian Black Panther Party is the correct title. Party members Dennis Walker (top left), Gary Foley (bottom left) and Billie Craigie (right)

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Chapter 2: How have the rights and freedoms of First Nations Peoples evolved since 1938?

seen again and was presumed drowned. With him, went the hopes of change, as Aboriginal activist Gary Foley was to later mention publicly. Holt was replaced with the more conservative John Gorton as Prime Minister. Gorton had little interest in First Nations affairs and all the momentum of the 1967 Referendum and the civil rights campaign was soon lost. For activists like Gary Foley, a more aggressive approach was required.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

After the Referendum, there was significant optimism among First Nations people that their lives were going to improve. Harold Holt had been the Prime Minister tasked with taking the 1967 Referendum result forward. He had promised to take the will of the Australian people and change conditions for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples for the better. On 17 December 1967, Holt went swimming off the coast near Portsea, Victoria. He was never

The Redfern Blak Power movement After the disappearance of Prime Minister Harold Holt, John Gorton took office in 1968. Gorton’s administration showed limited commitment to addressing the aspirations of First Nations Peoples, despite the powerful mandate for change expressed in the 1967 Referendum. As federal momentum waned, many Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander activists – among them Gary Foley – recognised the need to escalate their struggle for land rights, self-determination and justice through more assertive and unapologetically Black-led activism.

Activist Paul Coe stated that the goal of the Australian Blak Power movement was:

Gary Foley, a Gumbaynggirr activist and historian, jokingly called himself the ‘field marshal’ of a group of young Aboriginal activists in the early 1970s. These young people were frustrated because, even after the 1967 Referendum, not much had changed for Aboriginal communities. They wanted real action, land rights, Aboriginal control over their own lives, and fair treatment from the government. Their activism was stronger and more direct than before. One of their most powerful protests was the Aboriginal Tent Embassy, set up in 1972 in front of Parliament House, to demand justice and land rights.

… to take control both of the economical, the political and cultural resources of the people and of the land … so that they themselves have got the power to determine their own future.

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Redfern inner-city suburb of Sydney, home to one of Australia’s largest urban Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander populations

Source 2.9.2 Paul Coe

The Redfern Aboriginal Legal Service The Redfern Aboriginal Legal Service was set up in 1970 by Aboriginal activists to support and defend the rights of their people. Many families had moved to

Redfern, where they often faced police harassment and unfair treatment in the legal system.

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Inspired by the growing Blak Power movement, activists like Gary Foley spoke out about the need for stronger action. They began to see that, despite the important work of leaders like Charles Perkins and Pastor Doug Nicholls, and the hope brought by the 1967 Referendum, the government had made little real change to the lives of Aboriginal people.

So, communities started creating their own services and demanding control over their futures.

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It seemed to the young radicals that the old-style organisations that had fought the referendum campaign were ineffective, especially after the referendum had delivered so little in terms of real reforms on the ground. On the streets of Redfern, young Kooris were confronted on a daily basis with the brutal reality of dealing with a racist and corrupt NSW police force.

Source 2.9.3 Gary Foley

Concepts and skills builder 2.9 Continuity and change

1 The Redfern Blak Power movement and Black-led movements in the United States (like those involving Malcolm X and the Black Panther Party) both emerged as responses to systemic injustice. What shared goals or strategies can you identify between these movements? What differences do you notice, considering their unique cultural and political contexts? 2 Read Foley’s assessment of the Civil Rights movement in Source 2.9.3. To what extent do you agree? In your response, you should evaluate the genuine change delivered by the 1967 vote. Historical concepts and skills: continuity and change

The Springbok Tour: 1971

South Africa’s apartheid system was partly inspired by Australia’s own treatment of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples. In the early twentieth century, South African lawmakers studied Australia’s so-called ‘protection’ laws and segregation policies when developing the foundations of apartheid. This connection highlights how colonial governments around the world often shared ideas about controlling indigenous populations. As resistance to apartheid grew globally, so did solidarity between anti-racism movements in Australia, South Africa and beyond. Since 1948, the white South African government had mandated its policy of apartheid. It had made clear laws that

stated White and Black South Africans were to live separately. This resulted in severe disadvantage for anyone of African descent in the former British and Dutch colony. International protest had been building against South Africa, demanding an end to the system of apartheid and the release of political prisoner and civil rights activist Nelson Mandela. South Africa had become increasingly isolated on the global stage. One of the few ways it interacted with the outside world was through sport, specifically rugby union. During a 1963 tour of South Africa by the Australian Rugby team, South African Minister for Justice, John Vorster, proudly declared that:

Nelson Mandela political activist and anti-apartheid campaigner who became President of South Africa after serving 27 years in prison for his activism

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…no black man will ever wear the Springbok jersey. ➜

Source 2.9.4 John Vorster, South African Minister for

Justice, 1963

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

In 1971, violent protests broke out across Australia when the Springboks toured Australia in a series of matches against the Australian side. Police were out in force in Perth, Adelaide, Melbourne, Sydney and Brisbane. The global antiapartheid movement had become popular in Australia, and thousands of people turned out to protest against the tour. Violent scuffles broke out in Perth and in Sydney, police put barbed wire around the Sydney Cricket Ground to stop protesters running on to the field. Anger about the tour had mobilised young political activists all over the nation.

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Source 2.9.5 Gary Foley

Jim Boyce, a former Wallaby, had been given Springboks jerseys on the 1963 tour. He and three other former players decided to give them to Gary Foley, Paul Coe and their fellow activists Billie Craigie and Gary Williams. The four activists walked to the hotel where the South African players were staying in Sydney and, in defiance of John Vorster’s statement, proudly wore the jerseys.

… the NSW Special Branch of Police who saw us automatically assumed that we’d stolen them, so they grabbed both of us, dragged us inside the motel and paraded the entire South African rugby team in front of us demanding to know which one of them that we’d stolen these football jerseys off. And these South African rugby players were absolutely furious.

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At one of those rallies, Paul Coe jumped out and commandeered the microphone and issued a challenge to the members of the Australian anti-apartheid movement. He said, you know, how is it that you people can come out here in these sorts of numbers on the streets of Australia in opposition to racism halfway around the planet and yet you ignore what’s going on in this country?

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It had also further angered the Blak Power movement, as Gary Foley recalled.

Source 2.9.6 Sydney, 10 July 1971: Gary Foley demonstrates outside the Squire Inn in Sydney, where the South African rugby union team stayed during its Australian tour

Source 2.9.7 Gary Foley

The activism shown by Foley, Coe, Craigie and Williams made national and international news and brought the world of radical Aboriginal activism to international attention. It also put Aboriginal activism back into the minds of Australians. It gave the Blak Power movement momentum, attention and an idea. An Aboriginal ‘embassy’ on the lawn of Parliament House in Canberra would be set up.

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The Aboriginal Tent Embassy: 1972 The embassy’s popularity grew. Students from the Australian National University in Canberra joined the protests as the embassy’s population grew. A visit from Federal Opposition Leader Gough Whitlam gave the protesters legitimacy in the eyes of voters. The Embassy became a powerful centre for Aboriginal activism.

Aboriginal Tent Embassy a protest site established by Aboriginal activists on the lawn of Parliament House in Canberra in 1972. It symbolises the ongoing fight for land rights, sovereignty and self-determination by Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples, and asserts their status as First Nations with distinct political rights

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

On 26 January 1972, four young men marched onto the lawn of Parliament House, pitched an umbrella and declared the space an Aboriginal Tent Embassy. Their protest came a day after Australian Prime Minister William McMahon had declared he would reject any proposal for granting Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples their traditional land rights. Instead, he said that he wanted to grant them the opportunity to ‘lease’ land from the government.

Incensed that McMahon would make such a claim when the Lake Tyers, Yirrkala and Wave Hill disputes were still continuing, Aboriginal activists declared that a public statement about Aboriginal land rights needed to be a priority. In setting up the embassy, Gary Foley stated that Aboriginal people were:

…aliens in our own land, so, like other aliens, we needed an embassy.

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Source 2.9.8 Gary Foley

On 6 February 1972, the embassy representatives made a list of demands:

Anger rose in May 1972 when the Australian Capital Territory government made camping on unleased land illegal, thus paving the way for the removal of the Tent Embassy. On 20 July 1972, police clashed violently with hundreds of protesters as the tents were removed, only for the protesters to return the following Sunday and re-erect the tents, only for police to again tear them down. On 31 July 1972, more than 2000 people witnessed the tents being re-erected and then removed by protesters in a peaceful demonstration.

Prominent activist Chicka Dixon remembers the demonstration for another reason: it was one of the first public appearances of the Aboriginal flag.

• Legal ownership and control of the Northern Territory as a primarily Aboriginal state within Australia, including full mining rights

I was a wharfie at the time and joined them on the Friday. The Member for the ACT, Kep Enderby, informed me that there was no legislation under the Federal Act to remove campers, so we put up eight tents and gave ourselves portfolios. A dear, kind lady from Canberra gave us a big blue tent which became the official ‘Tent Embassy’. Like all embassies we needed a flag, so Harold Thomas, [designer of the Aboriginal flag] from Adelaide, gave us his flag to fly.

• Ownership of and mining rights over all existing Aboriginal reserve lands across Australia • Protection of all sacred sites

• Ownership rights in major cities, including mining rights

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• Compensation for lands that could not be returned, beginning with an initial A$6 billion payment and an annual percentage of the gross national income

Source 2.9.9 Chicka Dixon

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Tent Embassy – featuring a white spear over a black and brown background, representing the warrior spirit and the connection to people and the land. The Tent Embassy would be closed and removed and would re-appear over the next few decades. Today, it still exists as a symbol of Aboriginal protest and unity on the lawns of the original Parliament House in Canberra. It is currently listed by the Australian government as an Australian heritage landmark.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

This flag became the official flag for the Aboriginal Tent Embassy in Canberra after it was first flown there in 1972. A symbol of the unity and identity of Aboriginal people, Thomas sold the copyright for the flag to the Australian government in 2022. For some activists, this has meant the flag has lost its claim to political radicalism now that it is in the hands of the government. Elders such as activist Robbie Thorpe now promote the use of one of the other flags flown at the

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Source 2.9.10 Canberra, 30 July 1972: Aboriginal Tent Embassy officials arrive at the embassy after it has be re-erected on the lawns of Parliament House.

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Lesson 2.9 review Online quiz

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Research task

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2.9 Review questions 1 2 3 4

Explain why 26 January was used as the day the Tent Embassy was established. Identify the demands of the Tent Embassy. Analyse why the protest is recognised as a more aggressive action than those that took place before 1967. Evaulate the symbolic effect of the Tent Embassy protest.

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2.10

How was terra nullius defeated?

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Learning intention

In this lesson, we will examine how the notion of terra nullius and the possession of traditional land was challenged and won in Australian courts, changing the course of the Civil Rights movement.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

Compass points 1 2 3 4

What excites you about this image? What could potentially be worrisome about this image? What else do you need to know to understand this image? What is your current point of view on this image?

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Source 2.10.1 In 1975, Prime Minister Gough Whitlam symbolically acknowledged the Gurindji people’s enduring sovereignty by pouring soil into the hands of Vincent Lingiari, a senior Gurindji leader, at Wattie Creek (Daguragu) in the Northern Territory. This act publicly recognised the Gurindji people’s rightful connection to their Country. Printed 1999. Source: Mervyn Bishop (Australia, b.1945) Type R3 photograph, 30.5 × 30.5 cm Art Gallery of New South Wales Hallmark Cards Australian Photography Collection Fund 1991 © Mervyn Bishop/ Department of the Prime Minister and Cabinet Photo: AGNSW 58.2000

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Chapter 2: How have the rights and freedoms of First Nations Peoples evolved since 1938?

The end of the Wave Hill Walk-off The Australian government purchased the Wave Hill station from the British Vestey family and gave it back to Lingiari and the Gurindji people. At the station, Whitlam made a short speech.

On this great day, I, Prime Minister of Australia, speak to you on behalf of all Australians who honour and love this land we live in. For them, I want: first, to congratulate you and those who have shared your struggle on the victory you have won in that fight for justice begun nine years ago when, in protest, you walked off Wave Hill station;

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

In 1972, a new Australian government under Prime Minister Gough Whitlam made huge reforms in education, health, and the treatment of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples, women and migrants. One of the first acts of the Whitlam government was to address the issue of Aboriginal land rights. As part of his election campaign, Whitlam claimed his party would:

… legislate to give Aborigines land rights – not just because their case is beyond argument, but because all of us as Australians are diminished while the Aborigines are denied their rightful place in this nation.

Second, to acknowledge we have still much to do to redress the injustice and oppression that has for so long been the lot of black Australians; third, to promise you that this act of restitution we perform today will not stand alone. Your fight was not for yourselves alone, and we are determined that Aboriginal Australians everywhere will be helped by it;

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Source 2.10.2 Australian Labor Party policy speech delivered by Gough Whitlam at Blacktown Civic Centre on 13 November 1972 [podium version], item identifier 7747, Whitlam Prime Ministerial Collection, Whitlam Institute within Western Sydney University.

Finally, to give back to you formally, in Aboriginal and Australian law, ownership of this land of your fathers.

Source 2.10.3 Australian Prime Minister Gough Whitlam, Wave Hill Station, 1975

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On 16 August 1975, Prime Minister Gough Whitlam formally recognised the Gurindji people’s ongoing connection to their land. Led by Vincent Lingiari, the Gurindji people had walked off Wave Hill cattle station in 1966 in protest against poor wages, harsh conditions, and the broader injustices of dispossession. Their action grew into a powerful call not just for fair treatment as workers, but for the return of their ancestral land.

After his speech, Whitlam poured a handful of earth into the hands of Vincent Lingiari in a symbolic gesture of returning the land to the Gurindji.

Concepts and skills builder 2.10 Historical significance

‘From Little Things, Big Things Grow’ is an iconic Australian song, written by artists Kev Carmody and Paul Kelly. It celebrates the end of the Wave Hill Walk-off and recognises the huge victories that can be won from small actions.

1 Read through the lyrics of the song and find a performance of it online. Summarise your initial impressions of the song. 2 Identify and explain how Carmody and Kelly represent the story of Vincent Lingiari. 3 In the lyrics, Lingiari states that ‘others are rising’. Identify who you think these lyrics refer to. Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62420-6 • (03) 8671 1400

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4 Analyse how the lyrics reflect the protest methods of Indigenous people prior to 1975. 5 Evaluate the significance of Lingiari’s protest and the return of Gurindji land. Historical concepts and skills: historical significance

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Eddie Mabo

In 1976, the Australian government drafted a law that would grant land rights to Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples who could prove they were the traditional owners of their land. This law would be passed within the next few years. The end of the Wave Hill Walk-off protest signified a momentous moment in Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples’ fight for civil rights.

They said Eddie was a non-Islander, because he hadn’t lived there for so long. They thought he was too political and would stir up trouble … Six weeks later my father received a telegram saying that his father had died… My father never forgave the government authorities for this injustice. It fuelled his determination for recognition and equality in society. This began his ten-year battle for justice.

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In 1972, Eddie Koiki Mabo was planning to visit his dying grandfather on the Torres Strait Island of Mer (Murray Island). Mabo had always known Mer to be the traditional land of his people. The Queensland authorities refused his plans to visit.

Mabo’s daughter Gail recalled:

Source 2.10.5 Gail Mabo

In 1981, Mabo made a speech at Queensland’s James Cook University in which he explained the complex system of inheritance that governed the traditional ownership of Mer. Lawyers in the audience approached Mabo, suggesting that his claim to his land could be tested in Australia’s court system. Eddie Mabo spent 10 years fighting his case in court to prove Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples’ rights to their land. Some activists wanted faster or more radical action, but Mabo believed it was important to challenge the laws through the legal system. He showed that British and Australian claims to ownership were based on a false idea.

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Source 2.10.4 Torres Strait Islander activist Eddie

Koiki Mabo

On 20 May 1982, Mabo was the plaintiff in a High Court case to claim ownership of his traditional land. Central to the debate was the notion of terra nullius. The court ruled that this longheld legal notion – that Australia had

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Chapter 2: How have the rights and freedoms of First Nations Peoples evolved since 1938?

However, other people around Australia were concerned that the Mabo Decision would lead to land rights claims on the homes of White Australians. Victorian State Premier Jeff Kennett claimed that suburban backyards would be under threat. He later admitted he was wrong. Such land rights claims have never been made.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

belonged to no one when the British First Fleet arrived – was incorrect. It agreed with Mabo’s assertion that Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples had inhabited Australia for thousands of years and could rightfully make legal claims to traditional land. This decision overturned over 200 years of British and Australian claims to the ownership of Aboriginal land. Mabo did not live to see his people reclaim their land. He died at the age of 56, only months before the decision on 3 June 1992 in which the High Court of Australia decided in favour of Mabo.

The High Court judges had agreed that Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples had in fact lived in Australia for thousands of years and had rich, recognised cultures that signified proof of ownership of their traditional lands.

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Source 2.10.6 1 June 1995: Hubert Parerduj, Herman Malbunka, Joyce Malbunka and Jane Macpherson with solicitor Alfreda Ungwanaka at the Mabo Judgement in Federal Court

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Queensland Elder Douglas Bon was overjoyed at the ruling, claiming that it “gave us back our pride.”

Lesson 2.10 review Online quiz

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2.10 Review questions 1 2 3 4

Why did Eddie Mabo launch his lands rights claim? Under what circumstances did the court rule that Mabo’s case was successful? What did the case prove about the notion of terra nullius? In your own words, explain why the Mabo Decision was so significant in the course of the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples’ civil rights movement. 5 Evaluate the significance of the Wave Hill Walk-off in creating the pathway for land rights. Use evidence in your response.

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2.11

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

What attempts have been made at reconciliation? Learning intention

In this lesson, we will explore how recognising the impact of the Stolen Generations led to the Australian government delivering a formal apology to victims of the Stolen Generations.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

Step in, step out, step back

1 Step in: What do you think this person might feel, believe, know, or experience? 2 Step out: What would you like or need to learn to understand this person’s perspective better? 3 Step back: What do you notice about your own perspective and what it takes to take somebody else’s?

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Source 2.11.1 Nicky Winmar responds to racist abuse from the crowd by lifting his jersey and proudly pointing to his skin, declaring his pride in his Aboriginal identity. This powerful moment took place after a match at Victoria Park in 1993 and has become an iconic symbol of resistance to racism in Australian sport.

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reconciliation the process of restoring peaceful or friendly relationships after a period of conflict or trouble

the lack of real change. More than a century after the first Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people were killed in custody without a trial, their descendants faced the same risk. A Royal Commission into Aboriginal Deaths in Custody found that 99 Aboriginal people had died in custody between 1980 and 1991. This issue was identified by the Council as a priority for the Australian Government to address.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Council for Aboriginal reconciliation organisation created by the Australian government in 1991 to raise public awareness and consult on a ‘Document of Reconciliation’ within a 10-year period

The journey toward reconciliation between Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples and the wider Australian community is ongoing. While some progress has been made, governments have often failed to deliver consistent and meaningful change. Racism and structural inequality remain and many Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people continue to face racism in daily life. For generations, First Nations people have led efforts for both legal and social recognition, demanding their rights and calling for respect, not just acknowledgement. Racism is not only a local issue. It is a global issue, and it must be challenged at every level by governments and individuals who are committed to real change. Reconciliation in the context of Australia is an ongoing journey that aims to strengthen relationships between Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people and non-Indigenous Australians, for the benefit of all.

In 1991, the Australian government set up the Council for Aboriginal Reconciliation. This came after growing pressure from Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people and their supporters to take action on unfair treatment and inequality. During the 1980s, there had been little progress on land rights, and in 1988, major protests during the Bicentenary highlighted

The Council worked for 10 years to improve understanding between Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people and non-Indigenous Australians. It ran education campaigns, supported conversations across communities, and helped more people learn the truth about Australia’s history. It aimed to build respect and understanding as a first step toward a fairer and more just future.

After the Council ended in 2000, Reconciliation Australia was created to continue this work. The organisation leads national events like National Reconciliation Week and supports schools, businesses and governments through Reconciliation Action Plans. Reconciliation Australia focuses on five big ideas: race relations, equality, fairness in systems and institutions, shared pride in Australia’s identity, and accepting the truth of our history.

The Redfern Speech: 1992

On 10 December 1992, Australian Prime Minister Paul Keating made a landmark speech in Redfern. It was the first time an Australian political leader had

acknowledged the devastating impact of White settlement on Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples.

the starting point might be to recognise that the problem starts with us non-Aboriginal Australians. It begins, I think, with that act of recognition. Recognition that it was we who did the dispossessing. We took the traditional lands and smashed the traditional way of life. We brought the diseases. The alcohol. We committed the murders. We took the children from their mothers. We practised discrimination and exclusion. It was our ignorance and our prejudice. And our failure to imagine these things being done to us.

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Source 2.11.2 Australian Prime Minister Paul Keating

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Concepts and skills builder 2.11 Using historical sources as evidence Examine Paul Keating’s Redfern Speech. What stands out to you? Consider what you have learned to this point. What events and practices of the past is Keating referring to? What do you see as the main significance of this speech? How does this speech reflect an evolution in the thinking of Australian governments since 1967?

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

1 2 3 4

Historical concepts and skills: using historical sources as evidence

Reconciliation in sport

Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander athletes and migrants to Australia have long found a way to excel on the sporting field. Sport is a central pillar of the Australian identity. Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander athletes who played in the Australian Football League – pioneers like Polly Farmer, Maurice Rioli and the brothers Jim and Phil Krakouer – were trailblazers who forged legendary careers despite all of them suffering racist abuse from beyond the fence.

for racial abuse. Winmar and his teammate Gilbert McAdam were watching the reserves game (a curtain-raiser to the senior game) on the sidelines when the crowd began abusing them. As McAdam recalls:

I don’t want to say what it was, but it was full-on. I’ll just say that it was racial and it was bad – it was terrible.

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A 1993 players’ survey found that 36 per cent of all AFL players had been racially abused by an opponent. Collingwood player Tony Shaw later stated:

I’d make a racist comment every week if I thought it would help win the game.

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Source 2.11.3 Collingwood footballer Tony Shaw

in 1991

On 17 April 1993, legendary St Kilda footballer and Noongar man Nicky Winmar took take a stand against racism. His team were playing against the Collingwood Football Club at their home ground of Victoria Park. The Collingwood supporters’ cheer squad had a reputation

Source 2.11.4 Gilbert McAdam

Winmar went on to star in a 22-point win over Collingwood. The abuse from the cheer squad and around the ground only intensified after the final siren. The St Kilda player made a clear stand. Facing the cheer squad, he lifted his jumper and pointed to his chest, stating, ‘I’m black and I’m proud to be black!’ The image was captured by a newspaper photographer and plastered across the front page of the following day’s paper. The reaction to the incident was varied. While the majority of the public came to support Winmar’s stance, Alan McAlister, the President of Collingwood Football Club, issued a statement that said, in part:

Noongar collective term often used to refer to Aboriginal people from southwestern Western Australia

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Chapter 2: How have the rights and freedoms of First Nations Peoples evolved since 1938?

As long as they conduct themselves like white people, well, off the field, everyone will admire and respect … As long as they conduct themselves like human beings, they will be all right. That’s the key. ➜

Source 2.11.5 Alan McAlister, President, Collingwood Football Club

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The Bringing Them Home report: 1997 Bringing Them Home Australian government report dedicated to uncovering the impact of the Stolen Generations

In 1997, the Australian Government tabled the Bringing Them Home report in Federal Parliament. This report documented the deep and lasting impacts of the forced removal of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander children from their families, known as the Stolen Generations. Based on testimony from survivors, it exposed the trauma, loss and intergenerational harm caused by government policies of assimilation and child removal. Bringing Them Home was a powerful act of truth-telling that made the realities of these practices visible to many non-Indigenous Australians. The personal stories shared in the report prompted strong emotional responses in Parliament and across the country, and marked a significant step toward recognition and justice for those affected. Between 1910 and 1970, between one in 10 and one in three Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander children were forcibly removed from their families under government policies. Many of these children were placed into institutions or fostered out, often without consent or proper care. Survivors reported high rates of physical, emotional and sexual abuse, particularly in institutions.

Many were made to work as domestics or labourers without being paid.

Under international law, the policy of forced removals may meet the definition of genocide and racial discrimination. The report showed that these removals caused long-term trauma, not only for the children taken, but also for their descendants.

Follow-up research found that the descendants of the Stolen Generations are more likely to experience poor health, be involved with the justice system, and face social and economic disadvantage compared to other Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples.

The authors of the report recommended that the Australian government fund and establish a service that allowed members of the Stolen Generations to find and connect with lost family members. It also recommended an official acknowledgement of these policies and an apology for their effects from all Australian State and Federal governments. All States and Territories issued apologies soon after, but there was a long period of over 10 years during which the Australian Federal Government refused to apologise.

The road to saying sorry: 1997–2008 In 1997, Australian Prime Minister John Howard refused to apologise to Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander People on behalf of the Federal government. He issued a

statement that expressed regret for the actions of the past, but stopped short of apologising. Howard’s position was that modern Australians should not be

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made to feel sorry for the actions of their ancestors, a position he called ‘a black

armband view of history’. At the time, he stated:

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The Australian people know that mistakes were made in the past, the Australian people know that injustices occurred, the Australian people know that wrongs were committed … But for the overwhelming majority of the current generations of Australians, there was no personal involvement of them or of their parents and to say to them that they are personally responsible and that they should feel a sense of shame about those events, is to visit upon them an unreasonable penalty and an injustice.

Source 2.11.6 Australian Prime Minister John Howard

At the Aboriginal Reconciliation Convention in the same year, Howard gave a speech on reconciliation. As his speech began, Aboriginal and Torres

Strait Islander people and non-Indigenous members of the audience stood and turned their backs on the Prime Minister as an act of protest.

aboriginal reconciliation convention, 1997 a national gathering where over 1800 people came together to listen, learn and engage with Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people about justice, truth-telling, and the future of reconciliation in Australia. Attendees included Elders, community leaders, students, health workers, educators, legal professionals, and government representatives

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Source 2.11.7 National Sorry Day 2007 marked 10 years since the release of the Bringing Them Home report into the Stolen Generations.

Lesson 2.11 review Online quiz

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2.11 Review questions 1 Describe the significance of Paul Keating’s Redfern Speech (1992). How did it mark a shift in the Australian government’s acknowledgment of the impact of colonisation? 2 Explain the impact of Nicky Winmar’s stance against racism in 1993. How did his actions influence public discussions about racism in Australian sport? Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62420-6 • (03) 8671 1400

Chapter 2: How have the rights and freedoms of First Nations Peoples evolved since 1938?

2.12

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How did Australia apologise to the Stolen Generations? Learning intention

In this lesson, we will explore the Apology made to the Stolen Generations and consider how First Nations Peoples continue to seek recognition and reconciliation.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

See, think, wonder

1 What can you see? 2 What does it make you think? 3 What does it make you wonder?

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Source 2.12.1 Melbourne, 13 February 2008: thousands of people gather in Melbourne’s Federation Square to watch Prime Minister Kevin Rudd deliver an historic apology to Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples of Australia for injustices committed over two centuries of White settlement.

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The Sydney Olympics: 2000 Sorry Day held every year on 26 May to honour the Stolen Generations: Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander children who were forcibly removed from their families under government policies. First held in 1998, it continues to be a day of truthtelling, healing and reflection on the ongoing impacts of these removals

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The refusal of the Australian government to offer an apology to Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people led to the first National Sorry Day protest in 1998. These protests would continue annually for 10 years. It was in 2000, however, that the demand for an apology placed Australia on the world stage.

Source 2.12.2 Sydney, 2000: sky-writers trace the word ‘Sorry’ above the Sydney Opera House during the Sorry Day protests.

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Source 2.12.3 Sydney, 25 September 2000: Cathy Freeman after winning the 400 metres at the Sydney Olympics

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With Sydney as the host of the 2000 Olympic Games, Australia was on the global stage, ushering the world into the new millennium. Months earlier, at the annual Sorry Day protest, 300 000 Australians had marched across Sydney Harbour Bridge and in other capital cities around the country, seeking an apology. During the Olympics, many people took the opportunity to raise their demands for an apology before a global audience. At the Olympic opening ceremony, rock band Midnight Oil took to the stage in black clothing branded with the word ‘Sorry’. Later, after winning the gold medal for the 400 metres race, Kuku Yalanji and Birri Gubba athlete Cathy Freeman ran a victory lap carrying both the Australian and the Aboriginal flags. Public debate was once again stimulated about the rights of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people to express their identity and to push the case for reconciliation forward.

The Northern Territory National Emergency Response (The Intervention): 2007 In 2007, the Howard Government launched the Northern Territory Emergency Response, known as The Intervention. It targeted 73 Aboriginal communities in the Northern Territory, claiming to respond to child protection concerns raised in the Little Children are Sacred report.

The Little Children are Sacred report had found that conditions for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander children in some communities were at ‘crisis levels’ and called for urgent national action. However, the government’s response was highly controversial and widely criticised as racist and punitive.

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Chapter 2: How have the rights and freedoms of First Nations Peoples evolved since 1938?

The Intervention included:

There’s a cynical view afoot that the emergency intervention was a political ploy – a Trojan Horse – to sneak through land grabs and some gratuitous black head-kicking disguised as concern for children. These conspiracy theories abound, and they are mostly ridiculous. Those who did not see The Intervention in the Northern Territory coming were deluding themselves.

• Forcing Aboriginal people to have 50 per cent of their welfare payments controlled through a ‘Basics Card’, limiting how and where money could be spent • Banning alcohol and pornography, but only in Aboriginal communities

• Forcing compulsory health checks for Aboriginal children

• Giving the government power to take control of Aboriginal land for five years without negotiation or consent. Although the Intervention claimed to address child protection, it only acted on two of the 97 recommendations made by the Little Children are Sacred report. Instead of working in partnership with Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander communities, the government imposed top-down controls that disempowered communities and violated their rights. Aboriginal leaders, legal experts, and human rights organisations described the Intervention as an act of systemic racism.

Source 2.12.4 Professor Marcia, November 2007

However she later criticised the government’s approach for treating Aboriginal people as criminals, potential child abusers and welfare cheats rather than listening to communities and respecting their rights.

Langton emphasised that the situation for many children was urgent and needed serious responses. However, as the Intervention unfolded, she and others became deeply critical of how it was implemented without real community leadership or structural change. Langton later powerfully stated:

The Intervention treated Aboriginal people as criminals, potential child abusers and welfare cheats, rather than listening to communities about what they needed.

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Professor Marcia Langton, a leading Aboriginal activist, initially supported aspects of the Intervention because of concerns for Aboriginal children’s safety. In 2007, she defended action being taken, warning:

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• Increasing police presence in Aboriginal communities

Source 2.12.5 Professor Marcia Langton

The effects of the Intervention are still felt today, with many Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples continuing to call for policies based on self-determination, justice and respect.

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Concepts and skills builder 2.12 Change and continuity Learn about the Northern Territory Intervention and how Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander leaders responded.

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1 What actions during the Northern Territory Intervention were similar to things governments had done to Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples in the past? 2 How did Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people speak up against the Intervention? What were they asking for instead? 3 How did Professor Marcia Langton’s views about the Intervention change over time? Why is it important to understand that Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples had different opinions about the Intervention? 4 How do you think the Intervention affected the journey toward reconciliation between Aboriginal and nonIndigenous Australians? Give reasons for your answer. Historical concepts and skills: continuity and change

The Intervention would be built upon by Australia’s next Prime Minister, Kevin Rudd. Aboriginal academic Aileen Moreton-Robinson outlines the results of the Intervention under the two prime ministers.

The Aboriginal Rights Coalition’s research into experiences and attitudes towards compulsory welfare management revealed that ‘85 percent of respondents do not like the intervention and see the overall changes as negative. 90 percent of respondents experience serious problems with income management. The changes have caused problems within families for 74 percent and made no change for 23 percent.’

… The Federal Department of Health’s analysis of mandatory child checks revealed that out of the 7,433 mandatory health checks of Indigenous children in the Northern Territory, only 39 were considered at risk of neglect or abuse, and only 4 children were identified as being sexually abused.

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Source 2.12.6 Emeritus Professor Aileen Moreton-Robinson

Ultimately, many of the problems outlined in the 2007 report remained after the Intervention, with little changing socially or economically.

The Apology: 2008

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and Torres Strait Islander children from their families.

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In 2008, newly elected Prime Minister Kevin Rudd formally apologised to the Stolen Generations in Federal Parliament. This Apology recognised the harm caused by past government policies that forcibly removed Aboriginal

Rudd’s speech responded to the recommendations of the Bringing Them Home report, which had called for an official national apology.

Source 2.12.7

Prime Minister Kevin Rudd’s Apology speech

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Chapter 2: How have the rights and freedoms of First Nations Peoples evolved since 1938?

The time has now come for the nation to turn a new page in Australia’s history by righting the wrongs of the past and so moving forward with confidence to the future. We apologise for the laws and policies of successive Parliaments and governments that have inflicted profound grief, suffering and loss on these our fellow Australians.

Around the country crowds gathered in front of big screens. Schools held assemblies and people stopped what they were doing to watch the speech that finally, it seemed, made a crucial step in the process of reconciliation.

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We apologise especially for the removal of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander children from their families, their communities and their Country. For the pain, suffering and hurt of these Stolen Generations, their descendants and for their families left behind, we say sorry.

To the mothers and the fathers, the brothers and the sisters, for the breaking up of families and communities, we say sorry.

And for the indignity and degradation thus inflicted on a proud people and a proud culture, we say sorry. We, the Parliament of Australia respectfully request that this apology be received in the spirit in which it is offered as part of the healing of the nation. For the future we take heart; resolving that this new page in the history of our great continent can now be written.

We today take this first step by acknowledging the past and laying claim to a future that embraces all Australians.

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Source 2.12.8 Extract from former Australian Prime Minister Kevin Rudd, ‘Apology to Australia’s Indigenous Peoples’. Scan the QR code to watch a video.

Go online to access the interactive lesson review and more!

Source 2.12.9 Canberra, 13 February 2008: a man bows his head on the Australian Parliament lawn as Australian Prime Minister Kevin Rudd delivers an apology to Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people for injustices committed over two centuries of White settlement.

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A future where this Parliament resolves that the injustices of the past must never, never happen again.

Lesson 2.12 review Online quiz

Review questions

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Research task

Teachers can assign tasks and track results

2.12 Review questions

1 Define the importance of Sorry Day, The Intervention, and Little Children are Sacred report. How did each event contribute to the broader conversation about reconciliation in Australia? 2 How did events at the Sydney Olympics in 2000, including Cathy Freeman’s victory and symbolism, connect to the national conversation about reconciliation? Why was this moment so powerful, both in Australia and around the world? 3 Compare the goals and impacts of the Northern Territory Intervention with the goals of reconciliation expressed in the 2008 Apology. What do these examples show about different ways governments have responded to Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples and their rights? 4 Describe the significance of Prime Minister Kevin Rudd’s 2008 National Apology to the Stolen Generations.

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2.13

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How does the fight for civil rights and recognition continue today? Learning intention

In this lesson, we will explore continued efforts to improve the rights, freedoms and position of First Nations Peoples in Australian society.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

Lenses

1 Look closely at the image and write down as many observations as you can. 2 What ‘lens’ do you view this image through? How could your age, nationality, gender, or background influence these observations? 3 Share these observations and consider how others might see it differently. 4 Reflect on what you have learned. Have your observations changed?

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Source 2.13.1 Two women chat and eat a democracy sausage, out the front of Clovelly Surf Life Saving Club polling centre in Sydney, Australia. A referendum for Australians to decide on an Indigenous Voice to Parliament was held on October 14, 2023.

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Closing the Gap These gaps are not simply statistics, they reflect the ongoing impacts of colonisation, systemic racism, and government policies that have failed to meet the needs and uphold the rights of First Nations people.

Closing the Gap aims to improve the lives of all Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Australians. Since 2008, Australian governments have worked together to deliver better health, education and employment outcomes for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people, and to eliminate the gap between Indigenous and non-Indigenous Australians.

More than two decades after the release of the Bringing Them Home report, a deeply concerning number of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander children are still being separated from their families. In 2017, a report to Federal Parliament found that Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander children were nearly nine times more likely to be removed by child protection authorities than non-Indigenous children. Many Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Elders and advocates have warned that these practices risk creating another Stolen Generation.

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Closing the Gap Australian government strategy that aims to reduce disadvantage among Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people with respect to life expectancy, child mortality and access to early childhood education

Australian government initiatives have aimed to address the deep inequities created by colonisation to close the gap in health, education and life outcomes.

Source 2.13.2 From the 2019 Closing the Gap report

The 2019 Closing the Gap report to Federal Parliament acknowledged some areas of improvement, such as increased participation of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander children in early childhood education and rising Year 12 completion rates.

Despite these warnings, the Federal Government’s 2019 response stated:

Where children are genuinely at risk, are being neglected or abused, the state has a responsibility to take action and that should be regardless of whether a child is Indigenous or non-Indigenous.

However, more than a decade after the initiative began, many key targets were still not being met. These included:

• Lower school attendance rates for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander children

• National targets for improving literacy, numeracy and employment outcomes were not on track

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• A continued gap in life expectancy between Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples and non-Indigenous Australians

Source 2.13.3 From the 2019 Closing the Gap report

This response was widely criticised for failing to engage with the structural causes of overrepresentation in the child protection system, including poverty, intergenerational trauma and systemic racism, and for not centring communityled solutions that keep children safe and connected to culture.

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Concepts and skills builder 2.13 Continuity and change

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1 Explore the most recent Closing the Gap data. What are the goals and what areas are currently on track or off track? 2 Describe some of the changes that have occurred since the Closing the Gap strategy began. 3 What inequalities still remain? 4 Are government-led targets enough to support the health, rights and futures of First Nations communities? What other approaches could better support First Nations’ self-determination and justice? Historical concepts and skills: continuity and change

Contemporary challenges

So, where to from here? While there has been some progress, the process of reconciliation has often been slow to recognise and address the ongoing impacts of colonisation. Many of the systems and policies that created harm in the past still shape the lives of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples today. Issues such as unequal access to housing, education, justice and health care continue to create social, legal and economic injustices. Some communities no longer believe that reconciliation will address the injustices that harm their community. Others never believed in the idea of reconciliation in the first place. Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples hold many different views and it is important to recognise that reconciliation is not a one-size-fits-all solution. This is why it is important for non-Indigenous Australians to talk to local knowledge holders and Traditional Owners. Every community will have different ideas about how to address the injustices they are fighting.

January 26: a contested narrative

Wherever you are in Australia, you are on Aboriginal land, a truth that underpins the ongoing debates about Australia Day. The celebration of January 26 as Australia Day has not always been consistent, it was only nationally adopted in 1994.

Historically, national days were celebrated on different dates, reflecting diverse regional perspectives. The choice of January 26 commemorates the arrival of the First Fleet in 1788, a moment perceived by many Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples as the beginning of invasion and dispossession. Today, the celebration of Australia Day on this date remains deeply divisive. While some view it as a celebration of national unity and identity, others, particularly Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples, see it as a painful reminder of colonisation and its ongoing impacts. Lidia Thorpe, Australia’s first Aboriginal senator for Victoria, has been a vocal advocate for re-evaluating the celebration of Australia Day on January 26. She emphasises that the date marks the beginning of colonisation and the subsequent suffering of First Nations Australians. In an interview with the BBC, Thorpe stated, ‘The 26th of January is not a day to celebrate, it is a day of mourning… We were 100% of the population… now we are 3%’. Others, like former Prime Minister John Howard, maintain it as a cornerstone of national pride. In 2017, popular national youth radio station Triple J announced it would no longer play its annual Hottest 100 list of the most popular songs of the year on

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Chapter 2: How have the rights and freedoms of First Nations Peoples evolved since 1938?

These lyrics call out what Briggs sees as selective memory, where one form of historical grief is respected and solemnly commemorated, but the ongoing pain caused by colonisation is ignored, denied, or silenced. Briggs’ words remind us that reconciliation cannot happen unless all parts of Australia’s history are respected, remembered and reckoned with, not just the ones that are comfortable for the majority.

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January 26. Given the rising debate about what Australia Day / Invasion Day means to Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people, the station asked their listeners to vote. 60 per cent of Triple J listeners voted to move the Hottest 100 to another date. Significant public debate immediately followed. Should all Australians respect that First Nations people experience January 26 as Invasion Day? Or should the day the British First Fleet arrived on Australian shores remain Australia’s national day of celebration?

Briggs writes:

They tell us to ‘get over it, forget it and move on!’ Move on? Well, Gallipoli was about 100 years ago, so let’s f---ing move on from that too!

Source 2.13.5 Rapper, writer, comedian, actor activist and Yorta Yorta man Adam Briggs

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In his lyrics, writer and musician Adam Briggs (a Yorta Yorta man) challenges the double standards that exist in how Australia remembers its history. He points out that Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people are often told to ‘get over’ the traumas of colonisation, stolen land and systemic violence, while non-Indigenous Australians are encouraged to honour and commemorate events like Gallipoli, even after a hundred years have passed.

The ongoing debate about Australia Day reflects broader discussions about reconciliation, historical acknowledgment, and the recognition of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples’ sovereignty and connection to Country.

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Source 2.13.4 Adam Briggs

The 2023 Voice Referendum

In 2017 The Uluru Statement from the Heart was a landmark document created by many Indigenous leaders across Australia, calling for changes to Australia’s Constitution to recognise Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples. It proposed

a ‘Voice to Parliament’, which would give First Nations people a formal role in advising on laws and policies affecting their communities. The statement emphasised the need for truth-telling about Australia’s history.

The origins of the Voice to Parliament The proposal for the Voice to Parliament came from the 2017 Uluru Statement from the Heart, a document endorsed

by First Nations leaders and community representatives following a nationwide consultation process.

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Low-res

Source 2.13.6 The Uluru Statement From the Heart

The Statement called for three key actions:

and their supporters who were seeking lasting change.

1 Voice: A constitutionally enshrined advisory body to Parliament and the Executive, ensuring Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people had a say in laws and policies affecting them. 2 Treaty: A formal agreement between First Nations and the Australian government. 3 Truth-telling: A national process to educate Australians about the historical and ongoing injustices faced by First Nations Peoples.

Others, like Elder and activist Gary Foley, saw the Voice to Parliament as yet another failed Aboriginal advisory body.

Most of the talk I’ve heard on both sides of the argument is a total misrepresentation of the past. The Voice is simply yet another Aboriginal advisory body. And we’ve got a long history, at least a fifty-year history, of Aboriginal advisory bodies. The very first Aboriginal advisory body set up by the Federal Government consisted of three white men, Anthropologist Bill Stanner, Economist Nugget Coombs and former Australian Ambassador to Laos Barry Dexter…

The 2023 referendum was intended to implement the first pillar, the Voice, but not Treaty or Truth. However, public debate frequently conflated these issues, leading to misinformation and confusion.

People say – it’s to enshrine it in the Constitution. Well, that’s a bit of a problem. Because what if this advisory body turns out to be a dud like all the rest of them? We’re stuck with it into eternity because getting rid of it is going to be almost impossible.

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In 2023, the Australian government, led by newly elected Labor leader Anthony Albanese, put the question of a ‘Voice to Parliament’ to a referendum. This required Australians to vote for or against amending the Australian constitution for this purpose. The vote was a ‘No’ from the populace. Only 40 per cent of Australians voted ‘Yes’. This was seen by many as a bitter defeat for First Nations Peoples

Every one of these previous, numerous Aboriginal advisory bodies, you didn’t need a referendum to set them up, governments simply legislated for each of their versions. So, why do we need a referendum?

Source 2.13.7 Professor Gary Foley, October 2023

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Source 2.13.8

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Yes Campaign Director Dean Parkin reacts during a speech in Sydney after the referendum result, October 14, 2023 in Western Sydney.

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Source 2.13.9

Prime Minister Albanese addressing the media after the referendum result on October 14th 2023.

Go online to access the interactive lesson review and more!

Lesson 2.13 review Online quiz

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Research task

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2.13 Review questions

1 Define the terms Closing the Gap, Stolen Generations, and Voice to Parliament. 2 How do these concepts reflect the ongoing impacts of colonisation and the work Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples continue to lead toward justice and self-determination? 3 Describe the key findings of the 2019 Closing the Gap report. What progress had been made, and what goals remained unmet? 4 Explain the significance of the Uluru Statement from the Heart (2017) and the 2023 Voice Referendum. Was the outcome of the referendum a setback for reconciliation? 5 Compare the debate over changing the date of Australia Day with other efforts for reconciliation and truth-telling. How does this debate reveal deeper questions about how history is remembered, whose voices are heard, and what justice requires?

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2.14

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What were the differences between the 1967 and 2023 Referenda, and how did this contribute to the outcomes? Learning intention

In previous lessons, you have learned about the successful 1967 Referendum and the failed 2023 Voice to Parliament referendum. In this lesson, you will at the differences between them, and consider why one succeeded while the other did not.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

See, think, wonder

1 What do you see? 2 What do you think? 3 What does it make you wonder?

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Source 2.14.1 Posters for the 1967 and 2023 referenda

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Chapter 2: How have the rights and freedoms of First Nations Peoples evolved since 1938?

As you learned in previous lessons, the 1967 Referendum achieved a ‘yes’ vote to allow the Federal government to make laws for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people, and to have them included in the census. By contrast,

in 2023 the Australia people voted ‘no’ to the proposal for a Voice to Parliament, which would have given First Nations people a formal role in advising on laws and policies affecting their communities.

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Key similarities and differences between the 1967 and 2023 Referenda Feature What the vote was about

Did both major political parties agree? Public campaigning

Outcome

Simplicity vs complexity

Impact

1967 Referendum Removed unfair parts of the Constitution and let the Federal government make laws for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people. Yes – Both Labor and the Coalition supported it. The YES campaign focused on fairness and fixing past injustices. There was no official NO campaign.

2023 Referendum Proposed creating a group (Voice to Parliament) to give advice on laws affecting Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people.

No – The Liberal and National parties did not support it. The YES campaign looked towards a ‘better future’ and argued for recognition and listening. The NO campaign built on fear of change, and argued that the Voice would be divisive. 91% of Australians voted YES, and Only 40% voted YES, and no state all six states supported it. had a majority in favour. The change was simple and easy The change was more complex to understand. It had support from and harder for some people to both major parties, which helped understand. There was also strong people feel confident voting YES. opposition and misinformation, which made many voters unsure. The success of the referendum The failure of the referendum left allowed the Federal government uncertainty about how Aboriginal to make laws for Aboriginal and and Torres Strait Islander people Torres Strait Islander people and will be recognised in the future. It improved recognition. also increased negative and racist discussions in public debates.

Bipartisan support v political division

bipartisan having the support of both political parties

The 1967 Referendum had bipartisan support: both Labor and the LiberalCountry Coalition supported the proposal, presenting a united front. This meant voters saw no political divide and were more likely to trust the proposed change. In 2023, the Labor party supported the Voice, but the Liberal and National

parties opposed it, with Opposition Leader Peter Dutton campaigning against it. This politicised the issue, leading to division and uncertainty. Former Prime Minister John Howard reflected on the importance of bipartisanship:

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Bipartisanship is everything in a referendum. If you don’t have both sides of politics supporting it, history shows it is very unlikely to succeed. ➜

Source 2.14.2 John Howard

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Concepts and skills builder 2.14 Historical significance

1 Explain why bipartisanship helped the 1967 Referendum succeed. 2 Explain why a lack of bipartisanship helped the 2023 referendum fail. Historical concepts and skills: historical significance

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Source 2.14.3 Prime Minister Anthony Albanese and Opposition Leader Peter Dutton in 2023

Public understanding and clarity of the proposal In 1967, the Referendum focused on two straightforward changes – removing discriminatory sections and allowing the Commonwealth to make laws for Aboriginal people.

In 2023, the Voice’s role was more complex and newer, Every referendum campaign requires education, even if the extent of that or nature of that education may vary. The role of the media and the vast

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differences that exist between media and public communication channels in the 1960s and the 2020s should also be considered. Some Australians supported the principle

but were uncertain about its structure. The proposal allowed Parliament to define the Voice’s functions, which led to both flexibility and concerns about its impact.

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The opportunity of the Voice referendum revealed Australians’ poor understanding of the Constitution, and the level of racism in the community. Source 2.14.4 Professor Megan Davis, Uluru Dialogue Co-Chair

Fear was used as a powerful tool… the referendum failed because too many Australians didn’t know what to believe.

➜

Source 2.14.5 Professor Mark Rose

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➜

Source 2.14.6 Referendum ballot forms from 1967 and 2023

‘Shadow trial’ suggestion

Some experts, including Aboriginal (Gunditjmara) academic, Professor Mark Rose, argued that if the government had trialled the Voice as an advisory body before the referendum, it might have succeeded. This would have:

• Built public trust by showing real-world outcomes.

If Albanese had been able to do a ‘shadow trial’ of the Voice for a year and shown that it would work as an advisory body and not do all the things the No campaign claimed in their fear campaign, it could have worked.

• Demonstrated the Voice’s effectiveness in practice. • Disproved false claims from the No campaign.

➜

Source 2.14.7 Professor Mark Rose

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Education and generational change Professor Mark Rose and Professor Megan Davis have both stated that longterm change will come through education, not quick political decisions. The 1967

Referendum was preceded by decades of advocacy, whereas the 2023 referendum was proposed within a much shorter timeframe.

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U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Real change will come through education and generational change.

Source 2.14.8 Professor Mark Rose

Lesson 2.14 review Online quiz

Review questions

DOC

Research task

Go online to access the interactive lesson review and more!

Teachers can assign tasks and track results

2.14 Review questions

1 Define ‘bipartisan support’. 2 Describe how the lack of bipartisan support in 2023 made the campaigning before the referendum different from 1967. 3 Explain what Professor Mark Rose meant by a ‘shadow trial’, and why he thinks it could have changed the outcome of the 2023 referendum.

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2.15

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End of investigation review: how have the rights and freedoms of First Nations Peoples evolved since 1938? Access the Interactive Textbook for a range of digital tools to help you review this topic, including:

• Chapter summary • Auto-marked chapter test • Scorcher timed competitive quiz.

Brain dump

What ideas have you learned about the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander civil rights movement? For this activity, copy the diagram and fill out by explaining your understanding. Aim for two points per topic (one has been done for you).

The arrival of the British in 1788

Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples had been living in Australia for 40 000–60 000 years Diseases like smallpox ravaged the local populations. Captain Cook did not declare terra nullius, but it was a concept used to later dispossess Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples and their land.

• •

Dispossession of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples from their land Protest in America Protest before 1967 Protest after 1967 Reconciliation The Voice

Making thinking visible Circle of viewpoints

Complete the following statements to consolidate your understanding of the topic. Be an actor – take on the character of your viewpoint. What questions do you have from this viewpoint? What new ideas do you have about this topic that you didn’t have before? What new questions do you have? Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62420-6 • (03) 8671 1400

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1 I think the arrival of the British, from the point of view of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples, was … 2 I am thinking about the Aborigines Protection Act from the point of view of … 3 I am thinking about the American civil rights movement from the point of view of … 4 I am thinking about the 1967 Referendum from the point of view of … 5 I am thinking about the Apology speech from the point of view of …

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Practice questions Research and exploration

Research two of the following movements, companies, artists and activists who have attempted to continue the struggle for rights and freedoms. 1 For each one you research, explain who they are and how this effort focuses on modern issues. Present your findings back to class.

Rhys Ripper Yorta Yorta artist and designer, Ripper celebrates and promotes First Nations culture throughout the world.

Clothing the Gap Aboriginal-owned and run clothing label that campaigns to educate and elevate Aboriginal Peoples’ voices and causes.

Tarneen Onus Williams A Yigar Gunditjmara, Bindal, Yorta Yorta community organiser for Warriors of Aboriginal Resistance, working on Invasion Day, Black Deaths in Custody.

House of Darwin Darwin-based clothing label that invests profits back into remote communities

Baker Boy A Yolngu rapper, dancer, artist and actor. Baker Boy is known for performing original hip-hop songs incorporating both English and Yolŋu Matha.

ANTAR A national advocacy organisation working for justice, rights and respect for Australia’s First Nations Peoples.

Seed Mob A climate-focused First Nations group seeking to preserve traditional land and culture.

Pay the Rent Collective A collective advocating for the donation of money to provide for grassroots Indigenous programs.

Ziggy Ramo A rapper and musician focused on highlighting dispossession, racism and intergenerational trauma.

2 Based on what you have been able to learn about modern activism, how could these groups individually and collectively improve the rights and freedoms of First Nations Peoples?

Response to the chapter inquiry question: How have the rights and freedoms of First Nations Peoples evolved since 1938?

Write a paragraph in response to the inquiry question, using all the key terms listed. • Self-determination • Reconciliation • Closing the Gap • The Apology • Stolen Generations

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INVESTIGATION 2

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Australians at war (1914–1945)

OVERVIEW

During this period, a globalised world took shape, as societies connected through ideas, trade, migration, technological advancements, colonisation, war and peace to bring us to the present day.

Source: VCAA, Victorian Curriculum V2.0, ‘History’, ‘Band description – Levels 9 and 10’

TOPIC OPTIONS

CURRICULUM GOALS

This investigation is presented across three separate chapters so students can learn about Australians at war in chronological (the World Wars) and thematic order (the Holocaust).

• What shapes the modern world? • How have global developments

Chapter 3 – World War I

Chapter 4 – World War II

shaped Australia?

• What are the causes and consequences of war?

• How do individuals contribute to change?

Chapter 5 – The Holocaust

Source: VCAA, Victorian Curriculum V2.0,

‘History’, ‘Band description – Levels 9 and 10’

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CHAPTER 3

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Australians at war: What was the significance of World War I (1914–1918)?

…

LESSON TITLE 3.1

Setting the scene: what was World War I like?

3.2

What were the key events in World War I?

3.3

What were the long-term causes of World War I?

3.4

What were the short-term causes of World War I?

3.5

Why did Australians fight in World War I?

3.6

Where did Australians fight in World War I?

3.7

What was the significance of Gallipoli from both an Australian and a global perspective?

3.8

What was World War I like for First Nations servicemen and for Australian women?

3.9

What was the nature of trench warfare in World War I?

3.10

How did technological developments change the nature of warfare in World War I?

3.11

How did World War I end and what was the significance of the Treaty of Versailles?

3.12

What do historians say about the legacy of World War I?

3.13

End of investigation review: what was the significance of World War I (1914–1918)?

Source: The Landing, by the painter George Lambert, depicts Anzacs advancing on 25 April 1915.

This digital chapter can be accessed via Cambridge GO

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PLEASE NOTE

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The Investigation: Australians at war (1914–1945) and chapters: • What was the significance of World War I (1914–1918)?

• What was the significance of World War II (1939–1945)?

• How did the Holocaust happen?

are common to the Year 9 and 10 books, with alternating chapters in print, to offer schools maximum flexibility to teach WWI and WWII in the way that suits their class. You will find Chapter 3: What was the significance of World War I (1914-1918)? in the sample pages of the Year 9 textbook.

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CHAPTER 4

COMING SOON

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CHAPTER 5

COMING SOON

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INVESTIGATION 3

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The globalising world (1945 – present)

OVERVIEW

Levels 9 and 10’

TOPIC OPTIONS

CURRICULUM GOALS

This investigation is presented over five separate chapters so students can learn about the globalising world.

• What changes occur in relation

Chapter 7 Popular culture

Chapter 8 Environment movement Chapter 9 Migration experiences Chapter 10 Political crisis Chapter 11 Regional and global conflict

to developments in technology, public health, longevity and standards of living in the twentieth century?

• What are the origins and

significance of The Universal Declaration of Human Rights?

• How was Australia involved in the development of the UDHR?

Source: VCAA, Victorian Curriculum V2.0, ‘History’,

‘Band description – Levels 9 and 10’

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What is the globalising world?

LESSON TITLE 6.1

Setting the scene: What were the Four Freedoms?

6.2

What are the key events of this topic?

6.3

How did living standards develop throughout the twentieth century?

6.4

What were the origins and significance of The Universal Declaration of Human Rights?

6.5

What was Australia’s role in the creation of The Universal Declaration of Human Rights?

6.6

End of investigation review: What is the globalising world?

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6.1

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Setting the scene: What were the Four Freedoms? Learning intention

In this lesson, we will explore the speech given by Franklin D Roosevelt that delved into human rights and led to the creation of The Universal Declaration of Human Rights.

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FPO

Source 6.1.2

FDR’s Four Freedoms speech from 1941

On 6 January 1941, President Franklin Roosevelt delivered the 1941 State of the Union speech to the 77th Congress in the United States of America (USA). This speech is now also widely known as the ‘Four Freedoms’ speech. In this speech, Roosevelt spoke of what he thought the Four Freedoms for all humans were:

… Source 6.1.1 Official campaign portrait of Franklin D

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Roosevelt from 1944

…

Source 6.1.2 Quote from the Four Freedoms Speech of Franklin Roosevelt carved on stone memorial in Franklin D. Roosevelt Four Freedoms Park on Roosevelt Island, New York City.

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In the future days, which we seek to make secure, we look forward to a world founded upon four essential human freedoms. The first is freedom of speech and expression – everywhere in the world. The second is freedom of every person to worship God in his own way – everywhere in the world.

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The third is freedom from want – which, translated into world terms, means economic understandings which will secure to every nation a healthy peacetime life for its inhabitants – everywhere in the world.

The fourth is freedom from fear – which, translated into world terms, means a world-wide reduction of armaments to such a point and in such a thorough fashion that no nation will be in a position to commit an act of physical aggression against any neighbor – anywhere in the world. That is no vision of a distant millennium. It is a definite basis for a kind of world attainable in our own time and generation. That kind of world is the very antithesis of the so-called new order of tyranny which the dictators seek to create with the crash of a bomb.

…

Source 6.1.4 Excerpt from State of the Union address to 77th Congress, or Four Freedoms speech, Franklin D Roosevelt, 6 January 1941

In this same speech, President Roosevelt also spoke of healthy and strong democracies and set out what he believed were the basics needed by all:

Equality of opportunity for youth and for others. Jobs for those who can work.

Security for those who need it.

The ending of special privilege for the few. The preservation of civil liberties for all.

The enjoyment of the fruits of scientific progress in a wider and constantly rising standard of living.

These are the simple, basic things that must never be lost sight of in the turmoil and unbelievable complexity of our modern world. The inner and abiding strength of our economic and political systems is dependent upon the degree to which they fulfill these expectations. Many subjects connected with our social economy call for immediate improvement. As examples:

We should bring more citizens under the coverage of old-age pensions and unemployment insurance. We should widen the opportunities for adequate medical care.

We should plan a better system by which persons deserving or needing gainful employment may obtain it.

…

Source 6.1.5 Excerpt from State of the Union address to 77th Congress, or Four Freedoms speech, Franklin D Roosevelt, 6 January 1941

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could be held, but the Four Freedoms were front of mind for the representatives. These representatives drafted and then signed the United Nations Charter. This Charter formally created an international organisation where grievances and issues would be heard and discussed to overcome differences between nations in a peaceful manner. In the end, there were 51 original members for the UN Charter; today, there are 196 member states.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

charter a written grant by the sovereign or legislative power of a group, by which a body is founded or its rights and privileges defined

Only 11 months after delivering this speech, the USA joined World War II officially after the US naval base Pearl Harbor was bombed by Japan. In response to this military attack, the USA declared war on Japan. In August 1945, the USA dropped two atomic bombs on the cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki in Japan, killing thousands and injuring more. Although by this time Roosevelt had died, this ironically echoed his own words in the Four Freedoms speech, ending World War II with ‘the crash of a bomb’.

In 1945, while World War II was still ongoing, representatives of 46 countries came together in San Francisco, California. Between 25 April and 26 June, the group met to form an agreement on how to stop another world war like the one they were still witnessing. Roosevelt, a supporter of peace and human rights, had passed away just before this conference

This was not the end of the Roosevelt family’s involvement with the United Nations, with Mrs Eleanor Roosevelt being appointed as the USA’s delegate in the General Assembly of the newly formed United Nations (UN). She was later appointed as the chair of the Commission of Human Rights and played an instrumental role in the drafting of The Universal Declaration of Human Rights.

…

Source 6.1.6: At the headquarters of the United Nations in New York, a man looks at one of the first documents published by the United Nations, The Universal Declaration of Human Rights, which was ratified in 1948.

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Fast facts – League of Nations Before the United Nations was formed as an international group, there was the League of Nations: disarmament the act of reducing, limiting, or abolishing weapons

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

• It was created in 1920 at the Paris Peace Conference at the end of World War I. • Its main goal was to prevent wars, though collective security and disarmament. • It was set up to settle disputes with nations though negotiation and arbitration. • Originally, there were 42 founding members. There were 55 members by 1924. • By 1932, there were 58 member states. • Germany and Japan withdrew in 1933. • The League of Nations was concluded in 1946, as the League had not been in operation since World War II •

began in 1939. The principal ideas of the Leage of Nations were the building blocks for the United Nations being formed.

arbitration the use of a third party to help settle a dispute between two groups, nations, or people

…

Source 6.1.7 The first informal meeting of the League of Nations in Geneva. Delegates include Gustav Stresemann of Germany, Neville Chamberlain of Great Britain, and Jean Paul-Boncour.

Lesson 6.1 review Online quiz

Review questions

DOC

Research task

Go online to access the interactive lesson review and more!

Teachers can assign tasks and track results

6.1 Review questions 1 2 3 4

Carefully examine the two excerpts from the Four Freedoms speech. What parts speak about human rights? What do you think Roosevelt was trying to convey to his counterparts in this speech? Why do you think that Roosevelt was seen as a progressive leader? Why do you think the League of Nations failed? Why has the United Nations continued to exist?

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6.2

What are the key events of this topic?

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Learning intention In this lesson, we will explore the key events in understanding the development of human rights and the change those events had in our globalising world.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

…

KWL – know, want to know, learn

1 What do you already know about: a human rights b the civil rights of First Nations peoples c technological developments d the fight for women’s rights. 2 What would you like to find out about these topics? 3 After working though this investigation, return to these questions and identify one new thing you learnt about each of these sub-topics.

c. 528–486 bce In India, Gautama Buddha advocates morality, reverence for life, non-violence and right conduct

1760 bce In Babylon, King Hammurabi draws up the ‘Code of Hammurabi’, an early legal document that promises to ‘make justice reign in the Kingdom and promote the good of the people’

27 bce – 476 ce The Roman Empire develops the concepts of natural law and the rights of citizens

500 bce Confucian teaching develops based on ’jen’ or benevolence and respect for other people

613–632 In Arabia, Prophet Mohammed teaches the principles of equality, justice and compassion revealed in the Qur’ān

c. 26–33 ce In Palestine, Jesus Christ preaches morality, tolerance, justice, forgiveness and love. The Christian New Testament teaches equality before God: ’In Christ there is neither Jew nor Greek, slave nor free, male nor female’

1583–1645 Hugo Grotius, Dutch jurist credited with the birth of international law, speaks of brotherhood of humankind and the need to treat all people fairly

1215 Britain’s King John is forced by his lords to sign the Magna Carta, acknowledging that free men are entitled to judgment by their peers and that even a king is not above the law

Source 6.2.1 Confucious (551–479

bce), Chinese philosopher

1776 US Declaration of Independence proclaims that ’all men are created equal’ and endowed with certain inalienable rights

1689 In England, Parliament adopts the Bill of Rights, which curtails the power of the monarch and includes freedom from torture and from punishment without trial. The Bill sets out that it is the job of government to represent the people and their rights

1791 The United States Congress adopts their Bill of Rights, amending the US Constitution to include rights to trial by jury, freedom of expression, speech, belief and assembly

1789 In France, the National Assembly adopts the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen, which guarantees the rights to liberty, equality, property, security and resistance to oppression

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1833 The British Parliament abolishes slavery through the Slavery Abolition Act

1951 The Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees (’The Refugee Convention’) is adopted and opened for signature. It defines who a refugee is and what the rights and legal obligations of states are in relation to them. Genocide becomes criminal under international law

Timeline key: colour-coding of dots on the timeline Blue – human rights Brown – Australian Indigenous rights Green – technological improvements Purple – women’s rights

1950 Global child mortality exceeds 20%. Medical proof documented that smoking causes lung cancer

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1948 The United Nations adopts The Universal Declaration of Human Rights

…

1939–1945 World War II Germany’s Nazis murder 6 million Jews plus other minorities in Europe. Known as the Holocaust or Shoah

Source 6.2.2 An example of an

early telegraph

1884 Victorian Women’s Suffrage society forms

1903 Suffragette Vida Goldstein stands for election in the Federal Parliament. She is the first women in the British Empire to stand

1924 Women win the right to stand for election in the State of Victoria

1914–1918 World War I

1937 The Day of Mourning Protest signals the start of the Indigenous civil rights movement

1928 Antibiotics (Penicillin) invented

1901 Long distance radio-telegraph

1927 Television invented

1903 Commonwealth Franchise Act enacted on 12 June 1903. All women (other than Indigenous women) could now vote from the age of 21 in Federal elections and stand for Australian Parliament

1908 Women given the right to vote in Victoria; though they still cannot stand for election in Victoria

1918–1920 Spanish Flu – infects global population and kills 50–100 million people

Holocaust from a Greek term meaning ‘complete burning’, name given to the murder of millions of Jewish and other minority groups during World War II

Shoah Hebrew word for ‘calamity’ or ‘catastrophe’

Source 6.2.4 Warehouses converted to keep infected people quarantined during the Spanish Influenza pandemic, which killed more people than World War I

…

1891 Age of Consent raised from 13 to 16 in the British Empire 30 000 signatures collected calling for the right for women to vote in Victoria

1945 The United Nations is created ‘to affirm the dignity and worth of every human person’

…

Source 6.2.3 The signing of the Declaration of Independence by American politicians, breaking away from British rule

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Source 6.2.5 Rosa Parks’ mugshot after being arrested in 1955

December 1955 African American activist Rosa Parks refuses to give up her bus seat to a White passenger, sparking the Montgomery Bus Boycott and the American civil rights movement

1964 The Civil Rights Act is signed in Washington DC, outlawing discrimination on the basis of race

1953 Discovery of DNA structure

1956 The ‘Marriage Bar ’ was lifted, meaning that married women could now continue to work in education after marriage

1966 Protesting over poor wages, a group of Indigenous station hands stage the Wave Hill Walk-off The International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR) and the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (ICESCR) are adopted and opened for signature

1965 Freedom Rides – Charlie Perkins leads Australian activists on a tour of the NSW outback The Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination (CERD) is adopted and opened for signature. It is introduced to eliminate racial discrimination and promote understanding among all races

1972 Equal pay for men and women was first granted, lifting women’s wages by around 30% at the time Recognition by governments worldwide that fossil-fuel combustion threatens Earth’s atmosphere

1967 Referendum held – 90.7% of Australians vote YES to count Indigenous Australians in the census and to give the Commonwealth government the power to make laws regarding Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people

1974 Personal computer and the internet invented

1973 Global life expectancy exceeds 60 years

1979 The Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW) is adopted and opened for signature. It is introduced to prevent discrimination against, and to promote the rights of, women

1978 First human born using in vitro fertilisation

1982 Eddie Mabo launches legal proceedings to win back ownership of traditional lands on Mer, for the people of Mer, in the Torres Strait

1980 Eradication of smallpox

Low-res

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Source 6.2.6 Kids play with a Commodore 64 – an early personal computer – in 1983

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2008 Global life expectancy rises to 70 years

2013 The first National Children’s Commissioner is appointed in Australia 2011 The UN adopts the United Nations Declaration on Human Rights Education and Training

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1989 The Convention on the Rights of the Child is adopted and opened for signature World Wide Web invented

1997 Bringing Them Home report handed down in Australian Parliament, a national inquiry into the forced separation of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander families

2006–2007 The Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities is adopted (2006) and opened for signature (2007)

2024 Global child mortality is less than 4% – this has been achieved though vaccines, education and ongoing public health measures

1984 In Australia, the Sex Discrimination Act comes into force The Convention Against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment is adopted and opened for signature

2008 Prime Minister Kevin Rudd issues a formal apology to the Stolen Generations

2004 In Australia, the Age Discrimination Act comes into force

1986 In Australia, the Human Rights Commission Act is enacted, which establishes a national human rights commission, today known as the Australian Human Rights Commission Human population passes 5 billion people

1992 Australian Prime Minister Paul Keating makes the ‘Redfern Speech’ acknowledging the suffering experienced by Indigenous Australians through government policies and colonialism In Australia, the Disability Discrimination Act comes into force.

2007 The Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples is adopted by the United Nations in 2007, and the Australian government announced its support for the Declaration in 2009.

Low-res

Source 6.2.7 Crowds gather at Federation Square in Melbourne to watch Rudd’s apology

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1985 First discovery of a hole in the ozone layer – created by human activity

Lesson 6.2 review Online quiz

Review questions

DOC

Research task

Go online to access the interactive lesson review and more!

Teachers can assign tasks and track results

6.2 Review questions

1 Between 1760 BCE and 1833 CE, many types of human rights were being proposed around the world. What are most of these rights based on or who are they trying to help? 2 What do you notice about the ‘improving human rights declarations’ in relation to women’s and Australian First Nations peoples’ rights? 3 Infer the difference in health outcomes using the timeline. 4 Explain how health outcomes, like life expectancy and child mortality, have changed over time.

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6.3

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How did living standards develop throughout the twentieth century? Learning intention

In this lesson, we will investigate the change in living standards for people in Australia and around the world, using advertising from the time and statistical data. We will also investigate the change in technology and health outcomes.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

KWL – know, want to know, learn

1 What do you already know about the change of living standards between 1901 and today? 2 What would you like to find out about health outcomes for Australians between 1901 and today? 3 After working though this unit, return to these questions and identify one new thing you learnt about Australia’s change in regards to technology and health.

…

Source 6.3.1 Monty King, Mizpah King and Polly King, family of photographer Matt King, are seen talking to other family members online while they their eat dinner in their home on April 17, 2020 in Sydney, Australia. At the time Australian children of all ages spent more time at home with parents and carers as society attempted to slow the spread of the Coronavirus (COVID-19), before a vaccine had been developed.

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Here are some questions to consider as you look at the images: 1 What does the image definitely tell me? 2 What can I infer from the image? What guesses can I make? 3 What does the photography definitely not tell me? 4 What else would I like to find out? What other questions do I need to ask?

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During the twentieth century, Australia went through lots of changes. Australia had become a Federation, went to war, lived through the Depression, went to war again, and enforced the White Australia Policy, assimilation policy and migration policies. Though it all, advertisements captured these changes.

Source 6.3.2 Weet-bix: the health biscuit c.1930

Source 6.3.3 ElectrICE, refrigeration leaflet, 1936

Source 6.3.5 Hills Hoist ad, The Australian Women’s Weekly, November 1956

…

Source 6.3.4 Agee Pyrex, The Australian Women’s Weekly, February 1951

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…

Weekly, April 1957

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U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES Source 6.3.6 Simpson ad, The Australian Women’s

Source 6.3.7 Email limited, Time magazine,

February 1980

Source 6.3.8 Hotpoint, c. 1960

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Source 6.3.9 A stock image which is very similar to big-brand advertisments for air fryers c.2025.

Concepts and skills builder 6.3 Using historical sources 1 2 3 4

What was the purpose of these advertisements? How can we use these sources (images) to show change over time in Australia? What can these images tell us about changing technology in the home? What can these images tell us about society’s view of a female’s role in the home? Has this changed?

Historical concepts and skills: using historical sources

Alongside the changes to the home, and to cooking and gender roles, there were also changes in the medical field and therefore in health outcomes for Australians. Using data from Our World in Data we can investigate the change in health

outcomes just by looking at data. The following three graphs look at; child mortality, the proportion of children who die before age five, life expectancy, how long a person is expected to live and causes of death.

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Source 6.3.10 Child mortality rate 1870–2023, from Our World in Data. Explain what is meant by child mortality. How would you explain the graph to a friend? Investigate online why there is a sudden drop around 1905.

…

Source 6.3.11 Life expectancy at birth 1885–2023, from Our World in Data. Define life expectancy. How would you explain the graph to a friend? Can you investigate why life expectancy in 1900 is different to 2000? What factors might be considered?

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Source 6.3.12 Causes of death, Australia 2021, from Our World in Data. Define neonatal disorders. What is the difference between homicide and conflict and terrorism? Why are these defined this way? Why is conflict and terrorism on this list even though the count sits at 0?

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Research task

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Teachers can assign tasks and track results

6.3 Review questions 1 2 3 4 5

Discuss why the child mortality rates have dropped in Australia since the 1870s. Infer why the life expectancy rate risen since the 1800s? Why is malaria on the list for causes of death if Australia has none? What other data could we use to understandchanges in health outcomes overtime? Thinking about the above data, how might it have looked different during the following years?

• 1917 • 1927 • 1937 • 1947

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6.4

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What were the origins and significance of The Universal Declaration of Human Rights? Learning intention

In this lesson, we will explore the creation of The Universal Declaration of Human Rights and compare the fundamental ideas of this document with the experience of oppressed people in Australia and around the world.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

Think, puzzle, explore

1 Think: What do you think you know already about the The Universal Declaration of Human Rights? 2 Puzzle: What questions or puzzles do you have about why it was created and who it aims to protect? 3 Explore: How can you explore these questions or puzzles further? What can you do to find out more?

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Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) an internationally recognised document that outlines the fundamental rights and freedoms of all people

Source 6.4.1 Eleanor Roosevelt holding a copy of The Universal Declaration of Human Rights, November 1949, UN

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At the United Nations’ first meeting of the General Assembly in 1946, it was decided that a document needed to be created to safeguard and guarantee the human rights of every individual everywhere. This draft was known as the ‘Declaration of Fundamental Human

Rights and Freedoms’. It was then moved to the Economic and Social Council, within the UN, to consider and create a formal international bill of human rights. A committee was created from this council to formalise the drafting process.

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Main bodies of the United Nations To understand the creation of The Universal Declaration of Human Rights and how it was created, we need to understand the groups that function within the UN. Today, the United Nations is made up of 193 member states. The UN has six main bodies for it to continue its work. The General Assembly

The main body for discussions, policymaking and representations. All 193 members are part of the General Assembly. Each year a new president is elected to serve a 1-year term of office. The Security Council

The main role of the security council is to maintain international peace and security. It does this though its 15 members, who all have a vote to ensure that any threats to peace or acts of aggression are dealt with. Member states are supposed to comply with the Security Council rulings. The Economic and Social Council

The body for coordination of economic, social and environmental issues. It creates and coordinate internationally agreed goals looking at sustainable development. The Trusteeship Council

The trustee council was established in 1945. This council provided international supervision for 11 trust territories, which were working towards self-government. The Trusteeship Council was suspended in 1994 after the last trustee state gained independence. International Court of Justice

It is the judicial arm of the United Nations. It sits away from the main UN buildings in the Netherlands, in what is known as the Place of Peace in The Hague. Its role is to settle international law and legal disputes that are referred. The Secretariat

This consists of the secretary-general and their many UN staff members who carry out the day-to-day work for the UN as mandated by the General Assembly. UN staff members are recruited internationally and locally and work to maintain peace though peacekeeping missions all over the world.

The Commission of Human Rights was made up of 18 members from all over the world. Eleanor Roosevelt chaired the drafting committee, while other members of the group included René Cassin of France, Charles Malik of Lebanon, Peng Chung Chang of China, Hansa Mehta of India and John Humphrey of Cananda.

Hansa Mehta, a woman sitting on the Human Rights Commission, was a women’s rights advocate. She is credited with changing the phrase ‘All men are born free and equal’ to ‘All human beings are born free and equal’. This was an important change for the future of women’s rights around the world.

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The United Nations grew from the ashes of World War II. It sought to resolve conflict and create an enduring peace for the whole world. By adopting the UDHR, the

UN promoted ideas of civil and legal rights, freedom of speech, religion and political association. It claimed that all humans had the right to life, freedom and privacy.

The Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) create their own human rights laws inside their borders that protect their people, while others have chosen to not follow its lead.

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The UDHR’s main declaration is that human rights are universal, which means all people – no matter who they are or where they live – should be covered by it. The UDHR covers ideas such as: the right to life, liberty, free speech and privacy, as well as other matters like health, education, and the right to move to keep oneself safe.

Source 6.4.2

TED Talk: what are the universal human rights? Access this video via https://www. youtube.com/ watch?v= nDgIVseTkuE

The Universal Declaration of Human Rights is not a treaty, which means that it is a declaration of what countries that sign on will maintain for their people. The UDHR has inspired some countries to

When there are human rights abuses internationally, member states can be called out on their actions by other member states. Evidence can be brought forward to the International Criminal Court by the UN, but it cannot punish countries for their abuses. They can sanction nations and expel them from groups and committees. Other member states can support or denounce the actions of others.

Concepts and skills builder 6.4 Causes and consequences

1 Why did the UN feel the need to create a Universal Declaration of Human Rights? 2 Were there any other formal documents in existence before the UDHR was created to pave the way for human rights? 3 Explain in what ways the UDHR has promoted and supported human rights since its inception. 4 Explain in what way the UDHR has not promoted and supported human rights since its inception. 5 Infer why human rights are still being violated today. Historical concepts and skills: causes and consequences

In the years after the creation of the UDHR, we can look at the way in which the principles written in to the UDHR has helped create a code for humans all over the world.

• Australian civil rights movement: 1938 – continues • South African apartheid: 1948–1994

• American civil rights movement: 1954–1968

• treatment of Palestinians 1947 (UN) – continues; the UN originally proposed the plan for the partition of Palestine and have since supported Palestinian peoples’ rights to self-determination, national independence and sovereignty

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Source 6.4.3 The Universal Declaration of Human Rights, UN, 1948

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• Vietnam War: November 1955 – April 1975 • feminist movements: 1960s – continues • Cambodian genocide: April 1975 – January 1979 • Philippines People Power movement: February 1986

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• China, Tiananmen Square: April– June 1989

and human rights laws to overcome, punish and fight against the oppressors in these events. Some of these events have caused huge losses of life and liberty for the people who fought for their human rights in these times. But due to their ongoing struggles against human rights abuses and the ongoing pressure of the UDHR and its supporting laws, there have been many human rights abuses overcome and many human rights won.

• fall of the Berlin wall: November 1989 • Rwanda genocide: April–July 1994

While some of these events are ongoing, many people affected by these events have been able to use the UDHR

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But there is still a long way to go.

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Research task

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6.4 Review questions

1 Define human rights. 2 Using the list of events above, research an event and report back to the class using the history inquiry questions of Who, What, Where, When, Why and How. 3 What consequences did the event you chose have on us today? 4 Explain why it is important for all countries to be included in the United Nations. 5 Outline the ways the United Nations can investigate human rights violations.

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6.5

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What was Australia’s role in the creation of The Universal Declaration of Human Rights? Learning intention

In this lesson, we will investigate Australia’s role in creating a universal declaration of human rights and how human rights has developed in Australia over time to create human rights legislation for all Australians.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

See, think, wonder

…

1 What do you see in the image? 2 What do you think are some of the issues being discussed here? 3 What do you wonder about the people who marched? How could you find out more about this protest or others at the same time? Source 6.5.1 International Women’s Day March 1975

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Australia not only had a role to play in the creation of the UDHR, but also the United Nations as an international body. During World War II, a declaration was signed at St James Palace, London, on 12 June 1941. The Allies who signed this document in the hope of creating lasting peace were Australia, the UK, New Zealand, Canada and South Africa, as well as representatives from governments shut down during the war, such as Belgium, Greece, Luxembourg, Netherlands, Poland, France, Yugoslavia, Czechoslovakia and Norway. Three major resolutions were made in the

Declaration of St James Palace (or London Declaration): • to assist each other in the war against Germany • that there would only be peace once the Axis threat was past • to move towards the principle of peace based on ‘willing cooperation of free peoples’ in which ‘all may enjoy economic and social security’.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Declaration of St James Palace (London Declaration) a joint statement of goal and principles for lasting peace, set out by the Allied powers during World War II

After this initial declaration, the UN was built around consultation with most of the main players.

Herbert Vere (Doc) Evatt

collective security the cooperation of several countries in an alliance to strengthen the security of each

Herbert Vere (Doc) Evatt was a minister in John Curtin’s Labor government and was later appointed as the Minister of External Affairs. He was in consultation with Allies during World War II. However, he was not happy that the USA and the UK had agreed to peace terms with China without first talking to Australia. This speed bump led to Evatt developing ideas to

look after Australia and smaller countries like Australia when he worked with other nations to form the UN. He wanted to make sure that smaller counties like Australia would have a say in the international space and ensure collective security. Evatt ensured that the General Assembly gave power to smaller nations to enable them have a say. He pushed for greater economic and social roles for smaller countries within the organisation, leading to the UN working towards freedom for all, not just the major countries. Evatt wanted Australia not to be aligned with any particular nation, but instead to be able to look at every issue and make its own call on the merits of the issue. Thus, Australia would not just blindly follow other nations, but make its own decisions on what was best.

…

For his work in helping shape the UN, Evatt became the President of the UN General Assembly in 1948–1949 and worked on enacting the draft of the UDHR.

Source 6.5.2 Herbert ‘Doc’ Evatt with Sir Winston Churchill after World War II

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Concepts and skills builder 6.5 Historical significance 1 How does this image suggest Evatt’s significance as a politician of global standing? 2 Using the text and referring to Source 6.5.2, explain why Evatt was a significant figure in Australian history.

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Historical concepts and skills: historical significance, using historical sources

Australia’s changing ways The Immigration Act

Australia, at the same time as the UN was being established, was undergoing its own human rights issues. One of the first acts of the Australian Parliament in 1901 was to create The Immigration Act, also known as the White Australia Policy. This Act of Parliament meant that Parliament could limit the amount of nonwhite or non-British people immigrating to Australia. This desire for a White Australia was hugely racist towards ethnicities from outside Britain. It was only after World War II that Continental Europeans were included in immigration plans, allowing immigration from places like Greece, Italy and Yugoslavia. It was not until the 1970s that a new policy overrode this old policy. The Racial Discrimination Act was enacted in 1975, which paved the way for a multicultural Australia.

Strait Islander people; the second was to count Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people in census counts. Source 6.5.3 shows what parts of the Constitution would be removed or amended if the referendum was successful.

This referendum saw a 90.77 per cent ‘yes’ vote, which is still the highest yes vote on a any referendum in Australian history. This showed that Australia was ready and willing to embrace human rights for all.

51. The Parliament shall, subject to this Constitution, have power to make laws for the peace, order, and good government of the Commonwealth with respect to:-

…(xxvi) The people of any race, other than the aboriginal people in any State, for whom it is necessary to make special laws.

127. In reckoning the numbers of the people of the Commonwealth, or of a State or other part of the Commonwealth, aboriginal natives should not be counted.

1967 Referendum

Source 6.5.3 From the Constitution of the Commonwealth of Australia and the lines removed due to the 1967 Referendum

…

At the same time as the White Australia Policy was being tested and then replaced, Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people were fighting to be included in society and government policy. In 1967, a referendum was held in Australia which called for two changes in the Constitution. One was to remove or strike out the words which excluded the Commonwealth government from making policy specifically for Aboriginal and Torres

Vietnam War

As the war in Vietnam was near its end, massive numbers of South Vietnamese people were displaced or at risk from the North Vietnamese forces. Australia was one of many nations to come to the aid of the South Vietnamese people, opening up its borders to a large number of refugees.

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only with permission from their husbands. With it came a luxury tax of 27.5 per cent, making it expensive for families to use to help with planned parenthood. The contraceptive pill was seen as a way for women to take control of their lives, planning for children and work. It was released around the same time that they were calls for equal pay and equal treatment for women, and to end discrimination based on a person’s gender. In 1972, the new government under Gough Whitlam added the pill to the Pharmaceutical Benefits Scheme (PBS) and removed the luxury tax, making it more affordable. At the time, this reduced the cost of the pill to $1 a month. This gave women more choice and freedom, but upset the religious and social norms of the time.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

The first group from Vietnamese were orphan infants in a program known by Operation Babylift. Almost 3000 orphans were flown out of Vietnam to places like the USA, Canada, the United Kingdom and Australia. Many others travelled out of Vietnam by boat with little to guide them. Some were caught by the North Vietnamese forces; others struggled with attacks from pirates; while others made it to places like Hong Kong and Australia. Over 2000 people came by boat. Another 100 000 were resettled in Australia over the next 20 years, most coming legally via other Asian nations.

Contraceptive pill

In Australia, the contraceptive pill was available from 1961. At first it was only available to married women, sometimes

cultural rights the ability to participate in one’s culture, including language and religion

obligation an act or course of action to which a person is morally or legally bound; a duty or commitment

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Human rights in action today In 2006, the Victorian Parliament enacted the Charter of Human Rights and Responsibilities Act of 2006. This act has been amended several times since its inception; the current version 015 was published in 2023. This Charter covers the following: purpose of the charter, defining human rights including right to life, freedom

of movement, privacy, cultural rights, property rights and right to a fair trial, to name a few. It also covers how human rights are applied in Victoria, how laws are interpreted and the obligations of public authorities and workers. It also gives power to the commission and how the charter is to be reviewed.

Lesson 6.5 review Online quiz

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Research task

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6.5 Review questions

1 List the way that a referendum can be won; for example, the 1967 Referendum. 2 Create a timeline using the ‘Australia’s changing ways’ section to show change in Australia over the course of the four events listed. 3 Why it is important that how we view human rights continues to develop over time? 4 What lasting impact do ongoing human rights changes have? 5 Why do you think the State of Victoria has its own Human Rights Charter? What other organisations might have their own document on human rights?

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6.6

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End of investigation review: What is the globalising world? Access the Interactive Textbook for a range of digital tools to help you review this topic, including: • Downloadable chapter summary • Scorcher timed competitive quiz.

Brain dump

What have you learned about the globalising world since 1945? For this activity, copy the diagram and fill out by explaining your understanding. Aim for two points per topic.

Topic

What I have learned

Significant developments and events since 1945

Significant movements for social and political change since 1945 Significant events, individuals and groups in the women’s movement in Australia, and how they changed the role and status of women

Some of the continuing efforts to create change in civil rights and freedoms in Australia

Practice questions

Employing historical skills Chronology

Using the timeline from Lesson 6.2:

1 Why are different types of human rights being fought for at the same time? 2 What recent or current human rights should be included on this list? 3 What has changed over time for these changes to take place?

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Historical significance 1 What is the legacy of the UDHR? 2 Who were some people that you know who fought for change over the past 100 years in regards to human rights? 3 If you had to add a human right to the UDHR, what would it be and why?

Historical questions

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

1 What questions do you still have about human rights, the United Nations, or The Universal Declaration of Human rights? 2 How would you formulate these questions for your peers to use?

3 Where would you go or where would you direct your peers to answer these questions?

Research task

Using the United Nations website, research the women who shaped The Universal Declaration of Human Rights. Pick one of the eight women shown on the following link and answer the following questions. https://cambridge.edu.au/redirect/11429

1 What is her name, nationality and position?

2 What impact did she have on the creation of The Universal Declaration of Human Rights? 3 Was this impact just for women or did it impact other minority groups at the time? 4 What lasting impact does this change have on future women and men?

5 Thinking of a human rights issue today: does this women’s legacy help this current issue?

… Source 6.6.1

The Universal Declaration of Human Rights in monumental form at the Anne Frank Human Rights Memorial in Boise, Idaho, USA, is one of the few places on the planet where the complete text is on permanent public display.

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Response to the chapter inquiry question: what is the globalising world?

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Write a paragraph in response to the inquiry question. In this paragraph, use the learning from this chapter to support your understanding of how the world has changed and become more global. Think about the ways that the world, as a group, protects rights, freedoms and peace.

…

Source 6.6.2 December 2008: Astronauts Sandra Magnus, Mike Fincke and Yury Lonchakov display the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. The documents were carried into space with Space Shuttle Endeavour on 15 November 2008. The launch of the Declaration on board Endeavour was part of a year long calendar of celebrations to mark 60 years since the it was first adopted by the United Nations General Assembly at the Palais de Chaillot in Paris, France.

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CHAPTER 7

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How do we define popular culture? LESSON TITLE 7.1

Setting the scene: ‘Satisfaction’ and the Rolling Stones

7.2

What were the key events in this topic?

7.3

How did popular culture emerge in Australia during the 1950s?

7.4

How did popular culture evolve in the 1960s?

7.5

How did an Australian identity emerge in the 1970s?

7.6

How did Australian popular culture explode in the 1980s?

7.7

How did Australian culture grow after the end of the Cold War?

7.8

How did Australian culture develop in the twenty-first century?

7.9

How did technology alter the course of popular culture?

7.10

Who are the popular culture leaders of today?

7.11

End of investigation review: how do we define popular culture?

Image: A popular culture leader today? B-Girl Raygun of Team Australia competes during the Olympic Games, Paris 2024. Raygun’s unique performance scored a zero, but became an instant social media sensation, seen by millions around the world.

This digital chapter can be accessed via Cambridge GO

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CHAPTER 8

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How and why did our relationship with the environment change after 1945? LESSON TITLE 8.1 8.2 8.3 8.4 8.5 8.6 8.7 8.8 8.9

8.10 8.11 8.12 8.13

Setting the scene: how did we get to this point? What were the key events in our changing relationship with our environment? How and why did our perspective of the natural word begin to change in the twentieth century? How did the development of new chemical agents affect the environment and our understanding of it? How did the advent of the nuclear age threaten the health and survival of the planet? What effects have nuclear testing had on Australia and its Indigenous communities? How did environmental protest groups emerge to challenge governments’ treatment of the environment? How have localised environmental disasters changed the way people live and view the natural world? How have global environmental crises changed the way people live and view the natural world? How and why did the concept of climate change become so controversial? How has a new generation of environmental protestors attempted to challenge the political inaction on climate change? How have protest movements changed to meet the evolving environmental and political situation of the twenty-first century? End of investigation review: how and why did our relationship with the environment change after 1945?

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Image: One of the first images of Earth from space

Warning: Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples should be aware that this chapter contains images and names of people who have passed away.

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CHAPTER 9

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How has migration shaped modern Australia? LESSON TITLE 9.1

Setting the scene: how did Ahn Do come to Australia?

9.2

What were the key events in Australia’s migration history?

9.3

What were Australia’s attitudes towards migration before 1945?

9.4

How did migration to Australia change after World War II?

9.5

What led to changes in migration to Australia?

9.6

How did Australia’s attitudes to migration change over time?

9.7

What are the different perspectives and interpretations of Australia’s immigration history?

9.8

End of investigation review: how has migration shaped modern Australia?

Image: Australia is a nation built on immigration. Pictured: Vietnamese refugees from the Vietnam War learn English at the East Hills Migrant Hostel in Sydney, NSW. Foreground right is Ms Nguyen Thi Nguyet (right), 9 July 1975

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CHAPTER 10

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How did political crises affect postwar Australia?

LESSON TITLE 10.1

Setting the scene: Spies in Australia!

10.2

What happened during Australian political crises?

10.3

How did the Petrov Affair start?

10.4

What were the consequences of the Petrov Affair?

10.5

What perspectives emerged about the Petrov Affair?

10.6

What was the origin of the Whitlam Dismissal?

10.7

What were the consequences of the Whitlam Dismissal?

10.8

What perspectives emerged about the Whitlam Dismissal?

10.9

How did the ALP develop leadership crises?

10.10

How did the Coalition develop leadership crises?

10.11

End of investigation review: How did political crises affect postwar Australia?

…

Image: During Australia's constitutional crisis of 1975, Prime Minister Gough Whitlam addresses reporters outside the Parliament building in Canberra after his dismissal by Australia's Governor-General, 11 November 1975

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10.1

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Setting the scene: Spies in Australia! Learning intention

In this investigation, we will look at three political crises in Australian history. In this lesson, we will examine the 1950s’ Cold War drama of the Petrov Affair.

skills in espionage and code breaking. They had all the attributes of Cold War spies: they worked and travelled under multiple names (Vladimir was also known as Mr Proletarskii, Mr Shorokhov and Mr Allyson), they spoke multiple languages (Evdokia spoke Russian, English, Swedish and Japanese), and they knew how to keep a secret.

espionage the practice of secretly collecting and reporting information about other governments or organisations (spying)

embassy the office that represents a country in a foreign country

Vladimir and Evdokia fell in love and were married in 1940, and adopted the surname ‘Petrov’, which was chosen for Vladimir by the Soviet secret police. When the Cold War began, authorities in Moscow wanted to develop a global network of agents to collect and report information about Western nations. As part of this, the couple was given a new mission, to a remote part of the world: Australia.

…

Source 10.1.1 Russian spy Evdokia Petrov being ‘escorted’ by Russian secret service agents across the tarmac of Sydney Airport to board a plane bound for Russia, April 1954.

The strange case of Vladimir and Evdokia Petrov began 15 000 km from Sydney, in the Soviet Union. They were both born before the Russian Revolution, and were teenagers when they joined organisations set up by the Communist Party, which came to rule Russia and its neighbouring republics. In the 1930s, each of them started to work for the Soviet secret service, developing expert

The Petrovs arrived in Canberra in February 1951 and were given cover jobs in the Soviet Embassy. She was officially the embassy’s accountant, photographer and secretary, but unofficially she was the cypher clerk, which meant that she was in charge of classified cable messages with the secret service (KGB) in Moscow, and files about the undercover work of Soviet agents in Australia. He was supposedly a diplomat supporting relations between the Soviet and Australian governments, but his secret mission was to build a spy network across Australia, cultivating

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contacts who might be willing to hand over information about Australia’s government, military and businesses.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Vladimir and Evdokia’s superiors in the Soviet Union began to get very frustrated with the lack of progress they were making in Australia. They did not realise that Australia’s own spies, from the Australian Security Intelligence Organisation (ASIO, which had been established in 1949), had discovered their true identities and were working to counter their infiltration attempts. Vladimir began to worry. If he and Evdokia were not soon successful, he feared the worst. His superiors did not tolerate failure – execution was a common punishment.

When Soviet officials became aware of Vladimir’s defection, they took Evdokia from her Canberra home and imprisoned her within the Soviet Embassy. Armed guards were quickly arranged to transport her back to the Soviet Union. On 19 April, Evdokia was escorted to Sydney Airport. By this time, Vladimir’s defection had become public knowledge. A large anti-communist crowd descended on the airport to attempt to stop the guards and ‘save’ Evdokia. She was jostled as she crossed the tarmac with her escorts, and lost a shoe in the process. Eventually the plane managed to depart. Protesters contacted the Prime Minister to ask him to intervene.

In February 1954, a part-time ASIO spy, a Polish doctor called Michael Bialoguski, secretly approached Vladimir and offered him a deal. If he would defect to Australia and share information about Soviet spying, then the Australian government would keep him safe from his Soviet masters. For six weeks they negotiated the details of the deal, but Vladimir was so good at keeping secrets that he did not mention it to his wife! On 3 April 1954, he met ASIO agents in a warehouse in Sydney and officially defected.

Would Mrs Petrov be saved? What would her husband’s papers reveal about spying in Australia?

A very public inquiry and fierce debates in Parliament occurred about what became known as ‘The Petrov Affair’. One woman’s struggle at an airport triggered the first major political crisis in Australia after World War II. Other crises were to follow, as you will learn, including the sacking of an elected government in the 1970s and internal political party wars that brought down prime minister after prime minister in the twenty-first century.

Lesson 10.1 review Online quiz

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defect to abandon allegiance to one country and pledge allegiance to another

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10.1 Review questions 1 2 3 4

Identify who the Petrovs were, and why they came to Australia. Explain what spies did and what skills they needed. Develop three factual questions that you want to ask, to know more about the situation. Describe what you know about so far about Australian political crises.

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10.2

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What happened during Australian political crises? Learning intention

In this lesson, we will look at three thematic timelines covering the three main events of the investigation: the Petrov Affair, the Whitlam Dismissal and modern political turmoil in the major political parties.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

See, think, wonder

What do you see? Describe the body language of each leader. What does it make you think?

What do you wonder?

…

Source 10.2.1 Australia’s first female Prime Minister Julia Gillard (Labor) and Opposition leader Tony Abbott (Coalition) during House of Representatives question time at Parliament House, Canberra, February 2013

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Timeline of elections and key events 1951 Failed referendum to ban the Communist Party

1962 First Australians sent to the Vietnam War

1969 Apollo 11 lands on the Moon

LNP majorities

1983 1984

1980

1977

1974 1975

1972

1969

1966

1963

1961

1958

1954 1955

1951

1949

1946

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ALP majorities

1954 The Petrov Affair: communist defectors

1975 Whitlam ALP government dismissed

…

Source 10.2.2 Government majorities in the House of Representatives, 1946–1984. To form government, a party or coalition needs to win a majority of seats in the House at a federal election (held every 3 years, or more often in some situations). The further the line is above or below the horizontal axis (zero), the greater the government’s majority.

2007 Global Financial Crisis

2025

2022

2019

2020 COVID-19 global pandemic

LNP majorities

30 …

2016

2013

2010

2010 Julia Gillard becomes Australia’s first female PM

2007

2004

2001

1996

1993

1990

1987

1998

2001 September 11 terrorist attacks; ‘War on Terror’ begins

1991 Soviet Union collapses; end of the Cold War

ALP majorities

1999 Failed referendum for Australia to become a republic

2000 Sydney Olympic Games

Source 10.2.3 Government majorities in the House of Representatives, 1985–2025

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Source 10.2.4 Prime Minister Bob Hawke, speaking at the Australian embassy in Washington D.C not long after winning the 1983 federal election for the ALP

1991

Soviet Union collapses; end of the Cold War

3068116

1203762301

…

Source 10.2.6 American astronaut Edwin ‘Buzz’ Aldrin Jnr steps onto the lunar surface

Apollo 11 lands on the Moon

Source 10.2.5 Australian

troops marching in Vietnam (circa 1965)

1969

1954

The Petrov Affair: communist defectors

1975

Whitlam ALP government dismissed by the GovernorGeneral, creating a constitutional crisis

1951

Failed referendum to ban the Communist Party

1962 First Australians sent to the Vietnam War

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Timeline of significant events in Australia’s political history

2023

1614413448

Failed referendum for an Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Voice to parliament

2010–2018

Source 10.2.7 Australian

athlete Cathy Freeman at the 2000 Olympics in Sydney

2000

Sydney Olympic Games

…

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1212038213

Source 10.2.8 Self-

quarantining and the wearing of masks were mandatory in many parts of Australia.

2007

Four prime ministers in a row are replaced by a challenger from their own party: Kevin Rudd, Julia Gillard, Tony Abbott, Malcolm Turnbull

Global Financial Crisis

2020

COVID-19 global pandemic

1999

Failed referendum for Australia to become a republic

2001

2010

September 11 terrorist attacks; ‘War on Terror’ begins

Julia Gillard becomes Australia’s first female PM

1723108927

… Source 10.2.9 Campaign

posters for and against the 203 Voice to Parliament Referendum

Lesson 10.2 review Online quiz

Review questions

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Research task

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Teachers can assign tasks and track results

10.2 Review questions

1 Identify which political party had more success in winning majorities in Federal Parliament for the first four decades after World War II. 2 Identify when changes of government occurred between 1949 and 1983. Why might voters choose a different party? 3 Compare the makeup of Federal Parliament before and after 1983. How did the patterns change? 4 Which of the key events have you heard about before?

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10.3

How did the Petrov Affair start?

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Learning intention

Having learned about Evdokia Petrov’s crisis when boarding an aeroplane to leave Australia, in this lesson you will explore where the spying affair started.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

See, think, wonder What do you see?

What does it make you think?

…

What do you wonder?

Source 10.3.1 Vladimir and Evdokia Petrov after their defection, in a safe house provided by ASIO in Sydney

in 1954

Low-res

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Origins of the crisis

Menzies was Australia’s Prime Minister for 18 years, 1939–1941 and 1949–1966. He represented the seat of Kooyong, Melbourne, and was a founding member of the Liberal Party of Australia in 1944, which he led to victory in the 1949 election and in the next six elections in a row. Menzies saw himself as British Australian. He was very loyal to the British monarchy and its traditions, and he saw communism as a grave threat to Western civilisation. Menzies had originally passed a law to ban the Communist Party, abolish any trade unions that were considered to be communist-related, and blacklist any person who might damage Australia’s security and defence. However, the High Court had agreed with the Labor Party opposition that no government had the constitutional power to do this. So Menzies tried again, by asking voters to change the Constitution and permanently ban the communist party.

…

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Remember Evdokia Petrov, the Russian spy who was jostled through crowds of anticommunist protesters at Sydney Airport in April 1954? She and her husband Vladimir had arrived in Australia one month before a significant political event: A referendum to decide whether to ban the Communist Party of Australia. The party was small, with at most 20 000 members and no seats in Federal Parliament, but it had some influence over workers’ organisations, including several trade unions. With the Cold War under way between Western democracies and Eastern communist states, Prime Minister Robert Menzies wanted to make it illegal for communists to win seats in Australian parliaments.

Source 10.3.2 Sir Robert Gordon Menzies (1894–1978)

The Liberal Party failed to convince enough voters to change the constitution. A referendum requires both an overall national majority and a majority of states (four) to vote ‘Yes’. The Communist Party ban won neither, but it did come close. The ‘Yes’ vote secured 49.44 per cent of the national vote and a majority in three states: Queensland, Tasmania and Western Australia. Therefore, the party would not be banned, but the fiercely anticommunist Menzies would continue to lead the country until 1966.

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Concepts and skills builder 10.3 Analysing historical perspectives

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Examine the following source and then answer the questions about its perspective that follow.

Low-res

…

Source 10.3.3 A cartoon in the Sydney Morning Herald, 24 September 1951, after the ‘No’ vote won the referendum about banning the Communist Party.

1 Describe the symbols that are used to show that this is a communist office. 2 Identify what news the man is carrying. 3 Explain what ‘unfinished business’ the cartoonist has placed on the desk. What sort of people might be able to do these things? 4 Discuss the motive of the cartoonist: What is their message? Historical concepts and skills: using historical sources

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Intriguing developments Six days before Mrs Petrov was escorted to the airport, on 13 April 1954, Prime Minister Robert Menzies had announced Mr Petrov’s defection. He said that ‘The Petrov Papers’ included evidence of communist espionage across Australia, and called for a Royal Commission to investigate the scandal. Hearings would be held in Canberra, Melbourne and Sydney.

HAVE JUST SEEN SHOCKING SCENE HOW SOVIET POLICE IN PRESENCE INDIFFERENT AUSTRALIAN POLICE AND OTHER OFFICIALS HAVE FORCED MRS PETROV ON FREE AUSTRALIAN SOIL TO BOARD PLANE TAKING HER TO CERTAIN TORTURE AND DEATH.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

MOST RESPECTFULLY IMPLORE YOUR PERSONAL INTERVENTION TO FREE HER WHILE STILL ON AUSTRALIAN TERRITORY THUS MAINTAINING AUSTRALIA’S DEMOCRATIC RECORD IN FACE FREE WORLD AND SAVING ONE HUMAN LIFE.

ASIO agents were sent to intercept the plane as it refuelled in Darwin. They boarded the plane, separated Evdokia

Source 10.3.4 HR Krygier, Australian representative, Congress for Cultural Freedom (an American CIA funded anti-communist group), telegram to Prime Minister Menzies, 20 April 1954

…

After Evdokia’s plane departed Sydney, protesters begged Prime Minister Menzies to intervene, through phone calls and urgent telegrams. The last opportunity to intervene would be at the plane’s next stop, in Darwin, where it would pause to refuel, before continuing north towards the Soviet Union.

from the Soviet agents, and officially offered her asylum in Australia. After a brief phone conversation with her husband, she accepted. The Petrovs were moved to a safe house, to prepare to hand over their evidence.

Lesson 10.3 review Online quiz

Review questions

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Research task

Royal Commission the highest form of public inquiry a parliament can set up, with powers to summon witnesses to give evidence asylum the protection given to a person who has become a refugee from their home country

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10.3 Review questions 1 2 3 4

Identify what the Menzies Liberal Party tried to do in relation to communism in 1951. Explain the results of the 1951 referendum: what did they show? Discuss the significance of Vladimir Petrov’s defection. Explain why some people who saw or heard about Evdokia Petrov at the airport wanted the government to intervene.

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10.4

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What were the consequences of the Petrov Affair? Learning intention

We have seen how Australian agents kept the Petrovs safe in Australia. Now, we turn to how the Petrov Affair affected Australia’s political system.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

See, think, wonder

What do you see? How does her appearance compare with the photograph of her at the airport (source 10.1.1)? What does it make you think? What do you wonder, now?

… Source 10.4.1 Evdokia Petrov arriving at the High Court building in Melbourne to testify before the Royal Commission on Espionage, July 1954

Consequences of the crisis

Menzies announced the Royal Commission on Espionage on the last day of Parliament before the 1954 federal election campaign began. The hearings of the Royal Commission began two weeks before Australians had to vote, either to give Menzies a third term, or to give the leader of the Australian Labor

Party (ALP), Dr HV ‘Doc’ Evatt, the opportunity to form government. This meant that while voters knew that the hearings were under way, the findings would not be known until after the election. Evatt accused the government of an elaborate conspiracy to help reelect the conservatives.

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The 1954 election campaign, then, was conducted in the context of a spy scandal and before any proof of the activities of communists across the country had been made public. While people’s

votes may have been affected more by their concerns about the costs of living and employment security, both party leaders referred to concerns about communism and socialism in their campaigns.

socialism the belief that there should be collective control of how workers are treated and how things are produced

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Concepts and skills builder 10.4 Using historical sources to analyse perspectives

Examine the following sources and then answer the questions about their perspectives that follow.

We believe in the individual, in his freedom, in his ambition, in his dignity. If he becomes submerged in the mass, and loses his personal significance, we have tyranny. And because of this, we believe in free enterprise; not enterprise free of social obligation, but free enterprise in the sense that it embraces free choice, reward for effort and skill, encouragement to grow and be self-reliant, and strong.

…

… The Socialists say that we all ought to work for a Government Department; that we don’t need to be encouraged to work in any case, because an all-powerful Government will provide. In Australia the Socialists – who call themselves Labor – carry their ideas to the most cynical extremes.

Source 10.4.2 Robert Menzies (Liberal Party), election speech, May 1954

The primary aim of Labor will be to provide a government that will give the people every essential of security. First, there must be a real defence security. … With a firm resolve to achieve social and economic justice, we must take positive action to restore security to those adversely affected by the tremendous increase in living costs.

…

… On assuming office a Labor Government will act immediately if there is evidence of any offence against national security or of subversion on the part of any person. We shall not delay or hesitate. Don’t forget that anti-Labor parties always use the Communist cry during election time as a smokescreen to conceal their political wrongdoing.

Source 10.4.3 Herbert V Evatt (Labor Party), election speech, May 1954

1 2 3 4 5

Describe what Menzies claims the Liberal Party stands for. Describe what Menzies claims the Labor Party believes. Describe what Evatt claims the anti-Labor parties were doing. Explain what was happening at the time in relation to communism in Australia. Discuss what these sources show about the 1954 election.

Historical concepts and skills: using historical sources

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Continuities and change unsupported by any credible evidence’. However, Evatt was so determined to prove this that in 1955, he wrote to the Soviet foreign minister, Vyachslav Molotov, to ask him whether there were Russian spies in Australia. The parliament laughed at Evatt when he announced that Molotov had told him no, there were none. What else would a Soviet minister say?

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

In the 1954 election, Labor won a majority of votes (50.7%), but they failed to win a majority of seats. The Liberal/Country government retained government, but with a reduced majority: 64 seats in the House of Representatives to Labor’s 57. Menzies continued to emphasise the dangers of communism and socialism. The Soviet embassy was closed down and its staff returned to Moscow. The embassy would remain closed for five years.

At the Royal Commission, Vladimir and Evdokia Petrov were the star witnesses. Once the Petrovs completed their public appearances, they were hidden in a series of safe houses across Australia, and eventually assumed new identities and lived out their lives in private. The Royal Commission heard that people who had worked for the Labor Party – and even for HV Evatt’s own office – had at times had direct contact with communists or Soviet spies. This caused a crisis for the Opposition. Evatt tried to persuade the Royal Commission that some of the documents were forgeries and the accusations against his former staff members were a conspiracy to damage the Labor Party. In late 1954, the Royal Commission found that this allegation was ‘fantastic and wholly

The Commission issued its report in late 1955. It found that the Petrov Papers were genuine, that the Soviet Embassy had been used for espionage, and that some Australians had helped the espionage by providing documents and information. Although it did not recommend that any of the Australians implicated should be charged with a crime, the fallout from the report and from Evatt’s accusations would leave the ALP in opposition for a generation.

Long-running tensions within the ALP between its anti-communist members and more moderate factions boiled over. A number of ALP members quit the party to form a rival party, called the Democratic Labor Party (DLP). This became known as ‘The Split’. The votes of people who usually supported the ALP were now split between that option and the new option of voting for the anti-communist DLP.

The A.L.P., one the one hand, is drifting rapidly toward the establishment of a bureaucratic dictatorship, under which the country becomes the plaything of officialdom, and the door is left wide open to the infiltration of communism under the guise of socialisation and nationalisation. On the other hand, we have the Liberal Party, whose policy is dictated by monopolies, big business and vested interests.

…

… I am completely convinced that the D.L.P. is the only answer to the political mess this country is in. If the workers of Australia will only put aside their petty differences and stand firmly behind this ‘centre of the road’ party, the prosperity of Australia and its people will be assured.

Source 10.4.4 LC Hale (ex-Mayor of Fairfield and DLP supporter), in The Biz newspaper, 27 November 1957

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In the election of 1958, the DLP told its supporters to give their second preference votes to Menzies’ Liberal/ Country Party Coalition, which helped the conservative side of politics to retain a strong majority of seats. The DLP also held the balance of power in the Senate, meaning governments had to negotiate with them to pass laws.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

The DLP was particularly strong in Victoria, and among Catholic voters, who were concerned by communism’s opposition to religion. ALP members of the Victorian Parliament who split and joined the DLP brought down the Labor State government in 1955. In the Federal election of December 1955, the ALP vote fell by over 13 per cent across Victoria.

QLD SEATS LIB 8 CP 5 ALP 5

WA SEATS LIB 4 CP 2 ALP 3

SA SEATS LIB 5 ALP 6

NSW SEATS 17 LIB CP 8 21 ALP

VIC SEATS 20 LIB CP 3 ALP 10

PRIMARY VOTE BY STATE 44 46 48 50 52 54 75 COAL 47 ALP 0 OTH

TAS SEATS LIB 3 ALP 2

…

Source 10.4.5 The results of the 1955 federal election, which the Liberal-Country coalition won, aided by the DLP, increasing their majority in parliament. In which states did the L-CP win a majority of the available seats?

Lesson 10.4 review Online quiz

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Research task

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10.4 Review questions

1 Identify what the Royal Commission on Espionage found. 2 Explain what the Labor Party leader claimed about the Royal Commission. 3 Refer to the information about the Democratic Labor Party. a Describe why the DLP was formed. b Explain how the DLP affected Australian voting patterns. 4 Explain how political parties changed after ‘The Split’. Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62420-6 • (03) 8671 1400

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10.5

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What perspectives emerged about the Petrov Affair? Learning intention

Having learned about the impacts of the Petrov Affair on political parties, we will now explore perspectives and interpretations that emerged about the crisis.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

Claim, support, question

Make a claim: Based on this headline and your learning so far, what do you think was the perspective of Australian newspaper readers at the time about Russia? Support: What evidence or reasoning can you provide to support your claim?

Question: What questions do you have about your claim? How would you interrogate it to determine how accurate it is?

THE RED SPY INQUIRY …

EMBASSY WAS H.Q. FOR ESPIONAGE

RUSSIA’S top military espionage service, the G.R.U., may still be active in Australia.

…

The Royal Commission on Espionage said this in its report tabled in Parliament yesterday.

Source 10.5.1 Front-page headlines, The Argus newspaper, Melbourne, 15 September 1955

Perspectives at the time

The Petrov Affair fascinated Australians at the time, resulting in numerous front-page newspaper stories, and because of its mysteries and consequences, it continues to provoke discussion and debate. The first focus of media attention during the affair was the operation to

‘rescue’ Mrs Petrov from the plane to Moscow in April 1954. Newspaper reports at the time described her plight as a kidnapping, and her escorts as ‘two burly Russians’ who ‘pushed’ her to the plane against her will, terrified of what her captors might do, while crowds of

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protesters tried to save her. Some said that the one thing she left behind on the tarmac was a red shoe, but this was probably an invention to link to the ‘Reds’. Sympathetic Australians regarded Evdokia as a victim of the communist state who

deserved to be saved, rather than a secret agent of that state. Mrs Petrov’s own account was more complicated: she said that she was terrified of the crowd.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Immediately I left the car with the men the crowd started to shout to me – ‘Don’t go back – if you do you will be killed’ … The crowd were pushing us – I lost one of my shoes – my handbag was broken – two buttons were torn from my suit. I was terrified – I thought the crowd would hurt me – I thought they were against me …

…

The newspaper stories that I appealed for help are not true. I think if I had been asked to stay, at the time of the shouting and demonstration I would have had to reject it, although I did hope I might be rescued later.

Source 10.5.2 Evdokia Petrov, interview with ASIO, 22 April 1954

Mrs Petrov’s version of the event was not made public until after the Royal Commission hearings. Therefore, the

impression that she was a victim, fuelled by one version of the airport runway drama, stayed with the Australian public.

Concepts and skills builder 10.5

Analysing historical perspectives and communicating

Examine the following sources and then answer the questions about communicating that follow.

Vladimir Petrov told the Royal Commission on Espionage today he secretly met an Australian security officer almost opposite the Soviet Embassy in Canberra before he sought political asylum. … He appeared tense and strained, after 17 hours in the witness box, and nervously clasped and unclasped his hands. Security guards controlled every entrance to the High Court as big crowds, including more than 50 newsreel and Press photographers, also women reporters, crowded round the building.

…

The women journalists and most of the crowd were watching for the appearance of Mrs. Evdokia Petrov who is expected to start giving her evidence late this afternoon.

Source 10.5.3 ‘Fifth Day in the Witness Box for Vladimir Petrov’, various newspapers including Innisfail Advocate,

6 July 1954

…

Constantly she used her well-shaped and manicured hands to assist in telling her story … With her Frenchstyle pouting smile and shrug, the quick droop of the eyelids and the laugh that crinkles the corners of her grey-green eyes, she had the packed courtroom smiling. Source 10.5.4 ‘Meet Evdokia: Woman of the Year’, Front page story, The Argus newspaper, Melbourne, 7 July 1954

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Source 10.5.5 ‘The Petrovs are settling down’, Western Mail newspaper, Perth, 5 August 1954

1 2 3 4

Describe what aspects of the Petrovs the newspaper reports focus on. Describe the impact Mrs Petrov is said to have had on the courtroom. Discuss what these sources show about the Australian public’s interest in the case. Select one source and analyse its motive: how might the way the source communicated information and ideas have shaped people’s perceptions of Mrs Petrov?

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

…

Mrs Petrov, like a normal Melbourne housewife, prepares all the meals for herself and her husband. She does her own shopping for household requirements and is becoming an expert at keeping house the Australian way.

Historical concepts and skills: communicating, using historical sources

Historical interpretations

… Source 10.5.6 A Tasmanian newspaper headline from April 1954 breaking the news that the Soviet embassy in Canberra was closing and its diplomats would be expelled from Australia.

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At first, historical interpretations of the Petrovs’ sensational defection were shaped by what they said in the Royal Commission hearings and their book, as well as an account published by the double agent who negotiated Petrov’s defection, Dr Michael Bialoguski. Bialoguski downplayed Petrov’s abilities: he was often drunk, and not very competent. Both books presented the Petrovs as relatively low-level operators, who were victims of the Soviet system – which the Petrovs called an ‘Empire of Fear’ – and grateful to have escaped.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

After their ordeal, the Petrovs became Australian citizens, and eventually settled under assumed names in the Melbourne suburb of East Bentleigh. After writing a series of newspaper articles about the drama, which were later published as a book, they stayed out of the public eye, knowing that they had been placed on a KGB wanted list. Vladimir worked at a photographic business and Evdokia found a job with a tractor company. Sadly, Evdokia suffered from Vladimir’s abuse of alcohol.

…

The Soviet Embassy in Canberra, whose doors we entered for the first time on 5th February 1951, was, to a unique degree among foreign embassies, a microcosm of its parent. It was a Soviet fortress on alien territory, a little Moscow on Australian soil.

Source 10.5.7 Vladimir Petrov and Evdokia Petrov, Empire of Fear, London, Andre Deutsch, 1956

Later historians who reviewed the material, including declassified secret files, developed new interpretations. Perhaps, they said, everyone had underestimated the Petrovs.

Source 10.5.8 Professor Phillip Deery, Victoria University, ‘Vladimir Petrov: A Reappraisal’, The Australian Journal of Politics and History’, 2024, p. 1

…

Mr Petrov, Richard Kerbaj concluded in 2022, was ‘a skilled spymaster, capable of operating in the shadows, obtaining and concealing secrets’ [Richard Kerbaj, The Secret History of the Five Eyes: The Untold Story of the International Spy Network (London: Blink Publishing, 2022), pp. 104–05]. Perhaps he and his wife never revealed the full extent of what they knew, to protect their contacts or friends in Russia. Mrs Petrov in particular had been underestimated. As Phillip Deery wrote in 2024, investigators and journalists at first dismissed her as inconsequential or simply a victim, but ASIO soon realised how valuable her work had been, and how much insight she had into the operations of the entire Soviet spying system.

Defectors from the Russian Intelligence Services to the West were of critical importance. They exposed and neutralised hundreds of Soviet agents who had penetrated government departments and democratic institutions. … these Soviet defectors were highly prized for the intelligence they provided to security services. Ranked amongst the most valuable at the time was Vladimir Mikhailovich Petrov, who defected in Sydney in 1954.

One interpretation seems to be agreed by historians of the Affair: the key political consequence of the defection, the Royal Commission and the debates in parliament was ‘The Split’ in the Labor Party. This saw Labor lose many of its anti-communist members and voters for many years.

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Source 10.5.9 Professor Robert Manne, The Petrov Affair: Politics and Espionage, 1987, pp. xi – xii

Source 10.5.11

Robert Menzies recollects the Petrov Affair in 1970

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Source 10.5.10 Anti-communism helped Robert Menzies stay in power longer than any other prime minister (1949–1966), seen here during the Queen’s second visit to Australia, 1963.

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From the broadest perspective the Petrov Affair might be seen as the last in a series of major Soviet spy dramas which shook the Western democracies during the period of the Cold War (1945–1954) … Of all the great espionage cases it alone was responsible for altering fundamentally the political alignment within a Western nation. As we shall see, it was the Petrov Affair which precipitated a split in the Australian Labor Party, which in turn kept it from government for the best part of a generation.

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10.5 Review questions 1 2 3 4

Identify different perspectives about Evdokia’s airport experience. Explain how early interpretations of the Petrovs portrayed them. Explain how later interpretations of the Petrovs changed these portrayals. Analyse the lasting impacts of the Petrov Affair on Australian politics.

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10.6

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What was the origin of the Whitlam Dismissal? Learning intention

The previous lessons were about the major political crisis of the 1950s in Australia. This lesson is about the major crisis of the 1970s, when a prime minister was dismissed from oﬃce.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

See, think, wonder What do you see?

What does it make you think about Whitlam as a politician?

What do you wonder?

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Source 10.6.1 Labor leader Gough Whitlam and pop singer Little Pattie, who sang the Labor Party’s campaign song, ‘It’s Time’, photographed during the federal election campaign of 1972

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Origins of the crisis intervene in the economy to change people’s working and living conditions – through initiatives like universal health care and free education – and he called people ‘Comrade’, as socialists and communists did. For these reasons, conservative politicians claimed that he was a dangerously radical left-wing politician. They said this was proven when, as Leader of the Opposition, Whitlam visited China in 1971 and met with Premier Zhou Enlai, at a time when the Liberal/Country government refused to have any diplomatic relations with communist China. However, just days later, the conservative US President Richard Nixon announced his own plans to visit to China with a view to opening diplomatic relations. At a stroke, Whitlam was seen in Australia as a forwardthinking international statesman, and his popularity rose.

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By 1972, Australia had experienced 23 consecutive years of conservative government. For 17 of those years, one man – Robert Menzies – was prime minister. However, in the final six years, there were four prime ministers, some of whom became quite unpopular, as did the Vietnam War, to which they had committed troops. There was a mood for change.

social democrat a left-wing politician who believes in combining capitalist and socialist principles, especially in a democratic welfare state

In the Federal election, the ALP, under its charismatic new leader, Gough Whitlam, captured the mood in the simple phrase, ‘It’s Time’. Whitlam represented a new kind of Labor politician. While he represented working-class people in Western Sydney, he had grown up middleclass in Melbourne, Sydney and Canberra and become a lawyer. He was keen to involve more younger people and women in politics, and to use new media broadcast technologies to sell his message. Whitlam was no stranger to Cold War controversy. He was a social democrat who believed that governments should

Born in Melbourne, Whitlam grew up in Canberra, where his father was a

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Source 10.6.2 Edward Gough Whitlam (1916–2014) was Australia’s Prime Minister from 1972 to 1975 and introduced numerous social and economic reforms.

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leading government lawyer. He served in the air force during World War II, and then represented the Labor Party for southern Sydney. Whitlam saw Australia’s future as independent from Britain and the United

States, and won the Federal election of 1972 with a platform that promised to withdraw Australian troops from the Vietnam War and make widespread reforms to social and economic policy.

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Concepts and skills builder 10.6 Analysing historical perspectives

Examine the following sources and then answer the questions about perspectives that follow.

There are moments in history when the whole fate and future of nations can be decided by a single decision. For Australia, this is such a time. It’s time for a new team, a new program, a new drive for equality of opportunities: it’s time to create new opportunities for Australians, time for a new vision of what we can achieve in this generation for our nation and the region in which we live. It’s time for a new government – a Labor Government. Our program has three great aims. They are: to promote equality to involve the people of Australia in the decision-making processes of our land and to liberate the talents and uplift the horizons of the Australian people.

• • •

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We want to give a new life and a new meaning in this new nation to the touchstone of modern democracy – to liberty, equality, fraternity.

Source 10.6.3 Gough Whitlam, campaign speech, 13 November 1972

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… It is also an election about two fundamentally different ways of governing. The Liberal way which seeks to encourage the freedom, the talents, and the dignity of the individual, in a society in which the Government is the servant not the master. The other is the Labor philosophy of socialism and the allpowerful State, in a society where the Government is the master – not the servant. A Government which is dominated by the left wing and the powerful militant trade unions.

Source 10.6.4 William McMahon, campaign speech, 14 November 1972

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Identify how many times Whitlam refers to it being ‘time’ for change. What does this show? Describe what Whitlam says are the aims of his ‘program’. Discuss what McMahon’s speech had in common with Menzies’ speech in 1954. What does this show? Analyse how useful these speeches are as evidence of the perspectives about Australia that each party had at the time.

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Political developments the conservatives’ 57. However, the ALP did not command a majority in the Senate, which meant that their long list of proposed reforms would only be possible if they managed to win over the hostile upper house.

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In December 1972, Whitlam defeated William McMahon, winning 52.7 per cent of the two-party preferred vote. The ALP formed government, with 67 seats in the House of Representatives versus

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Source 10.6.5 In 1973, Gough Whitlam became the first Australian prime minister to visit China, and established diplomatic relations with China. Why might that have been both praised and criticised at the time?

The Whitlam government raced to introduce its program, passing a record 203 bills in its first year. These began a wide range of reforms that affected Australian society in areas generally regarded as ‘progressive’, including economic and gender equity, health, education and culture. His supporters were delighted to see so many changes take place so quickly, but his opponents and others were concerned about the pace of reform, and the lack of consultation. This was typified by Whitlam’s saying, ‘When you are faced with an impasse you have got to crash through or you’ve got to crash.’

Table 10.6.1 Policy reforms of the Whitlam Labor government

Policy area

Whitlam government reforms

Cities

Doubled investment in public housing; urban policy for more liveable suburbs

Education

Introduced needs-based funding for schools; abolished fees for university courses

Health

Started government-financed health insurance (Medibank, later called Medicare)

Gender

Equal pay for women; single mother parenting payments; first government in the world to appoint an adviser on women’s policies

Indigenous rights

First recognition of Aboriginal land rights (Gurindji)

Immigration

Completed the end of the White Australia Policy and promoted ‘multiculturalism’

Environment

Environmental impact statements to be required for development

The Arts

Established the Arts Council to fund artists

National identity

Replaced royal titles (Sir, etc.) with Order of Australia awards; replaced ‘God Save the Queen’ with ‘Advance Australia Fair’

Foreign affairs

Reduced trade barriers; opened relations with China; withdrew final troops from Vietnam; granted Papua New Guinea independence

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U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES Low-res

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Source 10.6.6 Whitlam pours soil into the hands of Vincent Lingiari of the Gurindji people, August 1975. What have you heard about land rights?

The lack of a majority in the Senate made it difficult to pass legislation, including laws that secured the budget for the government’s programs. Whitlam tried to break the deadlock by calling an election in 1974 for both the House and the Senate. However, while the ALP retained a majority in the House, it still failed to get a majority in the Senate. After the election, the Senate again refused to pass the government’s budget bills. A once-off joint sitting of both Houses was organised to break the deadlock – temporarily, it worked.

Meanwhile, the Whitlam government suffered some scandals. One was to do with a relationship: Treasurer and Deputy Prime Minister Jim Cairns appointed Junie Morosi, with whom he had a romantic affair, as his senior adviser, despite her lack of experience in public service. The media argued that this questioned the government’s judgement. The other was more serious: As financial pressures affected governments across the world, and the Senate maintained its pressure on the government’s budget, ALP ministers unwisely tried to borrow huge

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sums of money from the oil-rich Middle East through shady bankers, without following due process. The attempts backfired, embarrassing the government in parliament and forcing Whitlam to sack some of his ministers.

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The Opposition said that the Morosi and Loans affairs showed that the government could not be trusted. They increased their pressure on the government in two ways: First, when two ALP senators resigned from their seats, the conservative leaders of NSW and Queensland broke the convention of replacing them with a candidate from the same party and replaced them instead with Senators who opposed the government, which reduced the government’s numbers in the Senate. Second, in the Senate, the Opposition used its majority to reject the government’s ‘supply’ bills for the $21 billion it needed to run the annual budget. Opposition leader Malcolm Fraser said the government was at an impasse and should call a new election.

We will use the power vested in us by the Constitution and delay the passage of the Government’s money bills through the Senate, until the Parliament goes to the people. In accordance with long established constitutional practice which the Prime Minister has himself acknowledged in the past, the Government must resign.

Source 10.6.7 Malcolm Fraser, 16 October 1975

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I state again the basic rule of our parliamentary system; governments are made and unmade in the House of Representatives – in the people’s house. The Senate cannot, does not, and must never determine who the government shall be.

Source 10.6.8 Gough Whitlam, 16 October 1975

Australia was in the grips of a constitutional crisis, a war between its two Houses of Parliament.

Lesson 10.6 Review Online quiz

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10.6 Review questions

1 Identify why the Whitlam government faced obstacles in parliament. 2 Explain why the Whitlam government was regarded as achieving many reforms. 3 Explain problems that the Whitlam government created for itself, and problems that the Opposition created for it. 4 Discuss the different views of Whitlam and Fraser on the role of the Senate.

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10.7

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What were the consequences of the Whitlam Dismissal? Learning intention

Having learned how the Whitlam government faced a crisis, we now look at what happened next, and what the consequences were.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

Step in, step out, step back

Step in: Imagine you were a person on the steps of Parliament House at the time. What do you think you might feel, believe, know, or experience? Step out: What would you like or need to learn to understand these people’s perspective better?

Step back: What do you notice about your own perspective and what it takes to take somebody else’s?

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… Source 10.7.1 11 November 1975: Gough Whitlam surrounded by journalists and supporters after being dismissed by the Governor-General

The political crisis of the Whitlam government, compromised by some rogue ministers, raised questions about how to fix a deadlock in Australia’s political system. Who could resolve the battle between an ambitious government with a majority in the House and a defiant opposition in control of the Senate, who was refusing to

pass ‘supply’ bills that would give the government the funds it needed to operate? Who could settle the dispute between Whitlam and Fraser, two 6-foot-4 giants of Australian politics? Both believed they had a mandate to act as they saw fit. Neither was prepared to back down. For five weeks they were stuck in a constitutional crisis.

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The Dismissal set up federal elections; and to act as Commander-in-Chief of the Australian Defence Force. The Governor-General also has unwritten reserve powers, which are not stated in the Constitution, but are linked to conventions about the authority of the Queen or King: to appoint a prime minister if an election has not resulted in a clear outcome, and dismiss a prime minister if they have lost the support of the House of Representatives.

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In November 1975, Whitlam proposed a traditional solution: He would ask the Australian Governor-General to call for a half-Senate election, which would allow the voters to re-elect half of the seats in the Senate and potentially end the impasse. What he did not know was that Governor-General Sir John Kerr, after private discussions with opposition leader Malcolm Fraser and the Queen’s advisers at Buckingham Palace, had already decided to use his powers to resolve the situation himself.

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The Governor-General represents the Queen or King, and has a mostly ceremonial role. Under the Constitution, the Governor-General has executive powers: to turn a bill passed by the Senate and House of Representatives into law by giving it ‘Royal Assent’; to

Whitlam had not lost the support of the House, but his government was in crisis when, on 11 November, he arrived at Government House to recommend that Kerr call a half-Senate election. He entered Kerr’s office but, before he could hand over his recommendation, Kerr told him that he had decided to dismiss Whitlam and all of his ministers. The

Source 10.7.2 The Governor-General Sir John Kerr performing ceremonial duties in late 1974.

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government was sacked. The last time a prime minister under the Westminster system had been dismissed was in 1834, by King William IV! Whitlam later he said he felt shocked and ambushed.

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On the steps of Parliament House, with Whitlam looking over his shoulder,

the Governor-General’s secretary formally announced that parliament was dissolved and an election would be held. He ended the announcement with ‘God save the Queen’. Whitlam spoke next, saying, ‘Well may we say, “God Save the Queen”, because nothing will save the Governor-General.’

Concepts and skills builder 10.7

Analysing historical perspectives and considering causes and consequences Examine the following sources and then answer the questions that follow.

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Because of the principle of responsible government, a Prime Minister who cannot obtain supply must either advise a general election or resign. If he refuses, I have the authority, indeed the duty, under the Constitution to withdraw his commission. No other decision was open to me.

Source 10.7.3 Governor-General Sir John Kerr, statement to media, 11 November 1975

Ladies and gentlemen, well may we say, ‘God Save the Queen’, because nothing will save the Governor-General.

The proclamation which you have just heard read by the Governor-General’s official secretary was countersigned ‘Malcolm Fraser’ who will undoubtedly go down in Australian history from Remembrance Day 1975 as Kerr’s cur [a vicious dog].

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They won’t silence the outskirts of Parliament House, even if the inside has been silenced for the next few weeks … Maintain your rage and enthusiasm through the campaign for the election now to be held and until polling day.

Source 10.7.4 Gough Whitlam, on the steps of Parliament House, 11 November 1975

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Describe what duty Kerr claimed he had to do, and why. Explain what Kerr meant by ‘cannot obtain supply’. Describe how Whitlam claimed Fraser would be remembered. Explain how Whitlam’s supporters may have interpreted, ‘Maintain your rage’. Discuss what these sources show about emotions on 11 November 1975.

Historical concepts and skills: causes and consequences, historical significance, using historical sources

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Continuities and change The full details of 11 November 1975 were not common knowledge for some time after. Eventually, it emerged that Whitlam had been out-manoeuvred by Fraser and Kerr.

The Dismissal was the first and only time a Governor-General has ever used their reserve powers to end a government. This appeared to threaten to change Westminster practices, which kept the Crown separate from politics. Labor supporters were concerned that conservative forces had found a way to undermine a democratically elected government and stop its progressive agenda, and they arranged protests and rallies, some of which turned violent. Media outlets predicted that more chaos would follow.

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While Whitlam was being told that he was dismissed, Malcolm Fraser was waiting in another room of Government House, which meant that as soon as Whitlam left, he could be called in to Kerr’s office, and sworn in as caretaker prime minister. Afterwards, back in Parliament, Fraser organised for the Senate to approved the government’s budget supply bill, finally. The ALP majority in the House tried to overturn the plan by passing a motion of noconfidence in Fraser as prime minister and sending the Speaker to ask the Governor-

General to reappoint Whitlam, but it was too late, because Fraser had already arranged for Kerr to sign the papers arranging a general election for both houses.

Westminster the parliamentary system Australia inherited from Britain, with the Crown separate from politics and ministers responsible to the parliament for their actions

In Canberra protesters besieged Parliament House from early afternoon when first news came of the withdrawal of Mr Whitlam’s commission as Prime Minister. They were still there late last night. Other demonstrators were held back by police at Government House, the residence of the Governor-General.

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In Melbourne, wild demonstrations broke out when students and unionists stoned the Liberal Party headquarters in South Melbourne. Four youths were arrested as police and demonstrators had running battles using stones, banner poles and fists.

Source 10.7.5 Front page story, Canberra Times, 12 November 1975

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Australia, once one of the world’s most politically stable countries, now does not have a Government at all. It will take at least a month to organise an election.… The effect on the economy and the administration generally will be catastrophic.

Source 10.7.6 Front page story, The Guardian newspaper, London, 12 November 1975

Whitlam’s supporters may have ‘maintained their rage’, but the Liberal Party’s election campaign convinced many other Australians that the conservative side of politics offered an alternative, more stable future, and

a secure road out of the tumult of the Whitlam years. Fraser won the election in a landslide, enjoying a huge majority in the House: 91 seats to Labor’s 36, and a clear majority in the Senate. Labor’s share of the vote had fallen by over 7 per cent.

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U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

This election has been caused by a Prime Minister who refused to face the people, who tried to rule without Parliament, who defied a fundamental principle of our Constitution, and who finally forced the Governor-General to dismiss him; the man who took Australia the first significant step on the road to dictatorship. This election is about the way Labor has been destroying our way of life. … Australia needs change. Australia needs reform.

Australia needs idealism.

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Australia does not need socialism.

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Source 10.7.8 Malcolm Fraser after winning the December 1975 election. Fraser was sometimes described as ‘patrician’, meaning wealthy or aristocratic and aloof. How could this image be used to support that?

Source 10.7.7 Malcolm Fraser, election speech, 27

November 1975

Fraser’s government set out to manage the economy more on principles of individual freedoms than government stimulus, and scaled back government spending, particularly by reducing support for healthcare. However, it did not cancel or reverse all of Whitlam’s initiatives. Indeed, Fraser retained most of the

reforms that had been introduced from 1972 to 1975, which continued to shape Australian society and its multicultural future. John Kerr, on the other hand, never recovered his reputation, and retired in 1977 to spend most of his time away from Australia, in Europe.

Lesson 10.7 review Online quiz

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10.7 Review questions

1 Identify who dismissed the Whitlam government, and why. 2 Explain why the dismissal was controversial. 3 Compare Fraser’s election speech with McMahon’s in 1972 and Menzies’s in 1954 (source 10.4.2). What does this show? 4 Analyse in a paragraph to what extent the dismissal of the Whitlam government was justified. Consider both sides, and reach a conclusion.

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10.8

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What perspectives emerged about the Whitlam Dismissal? Learning intention

Having learned about the controversy that developed around the dismissal of the Whitlam government, we now look at different perspectives and interpretations about the actions of the main players.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

See, think, wonder What do you see?

What does it make you think? What do you wonder?

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Source 10.8.1 ‘This is your majority leader in the House of Representatives speaking …!’ says Whitlam, as Kerr sleeps, with Fraser as the dog at his feet. Jeff Hook, cartoon in Melbourne Sun, 21 November 1975

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Consequences of the crisis Later, debates would turn to concepts of justice, due process and fairness, and Australia’s relationship with the British royal family and their local vice-regal representative. Did the constitutional crisis of 1975 justify the Governor-General’s dismissal of Whitlam’s government? Could a better solution have been found? Lawyers and political analysts argued with each other over whether the action was legal or correct, and whether it set a precedent for future constitutional crises.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

The immediate consequence of ‘The Dismissal’ was the sudden end to a term of parliament, followed by a Federal election. Did Kerr do the right thing? Every political journalist in Australia had a viewpoint on the issue. Initial reports focused on the statements of Whitlam and Fraser, and concerns that the protests on the streets might lead to riots or civil unrest or threats to the life of the Governor-General.

Mr Whitlam, by his desperate and unprecedented attempt to defy the GovernorGeneral and retain office without going to the people, has diminished his personal stature as a national leader. Neither will Mr Fraser, should he remain Prime Minister, escape the opprobrium of what he has done. The Governor-General has not taken sides in a political dispute. He has made it possible for the people, the ultimate masters in a democracy, to make their own choice.

People who saw Whitlam’s government as arrogant, unstable and unwilling to compromise saw the Dismissal as justified, because it ended the impasse and the chaos and protected the Constitution by giving people a fresh vote. They pointed to Fraser’s landslide win in the election as proof that Whitlam’s pace of change and scandals had lost him the support of the electorate.

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Source 10.8.2 Editorial, Canberra Times, 12 November 1975

NT SEATS CLP 1 ALP 0

WA SEATS LIB 9 NCP 0 ALP 1

The Governor-General, Sir John Kerr, yesterday sacked the Prime Minister, Mr. Whitlam, and dissolved Parliament. Sir John appointed the former Opposition Leader, Mr. Fraser, as Prime Minister.

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Source 10.8.3 Front page, The Age, Melbourne, 12 November 1975

PRIMARY VOTE BY STATE 44 46 48 50 52 54 91 COAL 36 ALP 0 OTH

SA SEATS LIB 6 NCP 0 ALP 6

VIC SEATS LIB 6 NCP 0 ALP 6 TAS SEATS LIB 3 NCP O ALP O

NSW SEATS 10 LIB NCP 9 ALP 17

ACT SEATS LIB 1 ALP 1

Source 10.8.4 The results of the 1975 Federal election, which the Liberal-National-Country coalition won

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… Sir John’s unprecedented actions were taken without any warning to the Labor Government or Mr. Whitlam.

QLD SEATS LIB 9 NCP 8 ALP 1

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A key consequence of the crisis, then, was Australia was split between people who took sides for or against Fraser’s refusal to pass Whitlam’s budget, and for or against Kerr’s decision to dismiss the government. Few remained neutral. One neutral observer, Dr Stanley Bach, a legal expert from the United States, examined the records nearly three decades later and concluded that ‘Fraser and the Coalition acted constitutionally but irresponsibly’ (S Bach, Platypus and Parliament: The Australian Senate in Theory and Practice, 2003, p. 105).

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People who praised Whitlam’s reforms for modernising Australia and starting a new era of equity and opportunity saw the Dismissal as the unjustified sacking of an elected government by an undemocratically appointed and unpopular GovernorGeneral, using a power that was not written in the Constitution. There were also theories that America’s CIA, or someone in Buckingham Palace, had conspired to destroy a government whose policies they disliked.

Concepts and skills builder 10.8 Analysing historical interpretations

Examine the following source and then answer the questions about historical contestability that follow.

Excluding only the invasion of the British in 1788, [the Dismissal] remains the most contentious episode in the country’s political history, the moment when Australia’s parliamentary democracy broke down – although even to say as much is debatable, since some argue today, as many did in 1975, that GovernorGeneral Sir John Kerr’s actions were fundamentally democratic because they brought about an election.

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… the events of 11 November raised the spectre of serious civil violence for the first time since the Depression.

Source 10.8.5 Professor Frank Bongiorno, Dreamers and Schemers: A Political History of Australia, 2022

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Identify how Professor Bongiorno describes the Dismissal’s place in Australian history. Describe the author’s view of whether the Dismissal was democratic. Explain the counter-argument that the author recognises. Explain what the author means by ‘the spectre of serious civil violence’. Analyse whether the source appears to take a side in the debates about the Dismissal.

Historical concepts and skills: historical significance, using historical sources

Recent historical interpretations Gough Whitlam died at the age of 98 in 2014, and his life was celebrated by speeches in his memory in Parliament,

and at a grand state funeral. Powerful public figures from all sides of politics paid their respects and assessed his impacts.

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Whether you were for him or against him, it was his vision that drove our politics then and which still echoes through our public life four decades on.

An enormous optimism and all of us admire that, whether we voted for him in the 70s or our parents voted for him or whether we approved of what John Kerr did or not, all of that recedes. What people remember of Gough Whitlam is a bigness, a generosity, an enormous optimism and ambition for Australia and that is something we can all subscribe to.

Source 10.8.6 Tony Abbott, Liberal Party Prime Source 10.8.8 Malcolm Turnbull, Liberal Party Minister for Communications,

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

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Minister, October 2014

October 2014

I’ve often thought it was fitting that Gough Whitlam was Australia’s 21st prime minister, because with Gough Whitlam, Australian came of age. An Australia that once thought small was asked to think big. An Australia one closed and inward looking, open to the world.

Without this old man the land and human rights of our people would never have seen the light of day. … My chances in this nation were a result of the Whitlam program. My grandparents and parents could never have imagined the doors that opened to me which were closed to them.

… Gough’s reforms for women were landmark. They included the election of the first Labor woman to the House of Representatives, Joan Child in 1974.

… I don’t know why someone with this old man’s upper middle class background could carry such a burning conviction that the barriers of class and race of the Australia of his upbringing and maturation should be torn down and replaced with the unapologetic principle of equality.

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Source 10.8.7 Tanya Plibersek, Labor Party Deputy Leader of the Opposition, October 2014

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Source 10.8.9 Noel Pearson, Aboriginal activist and founder of Cape York Partnership, Eulogy speech at Gough Whitlam’s funeral, November 2014

The Dismissal debate resurfaced after Whitlam’s death, when historians asked for access to the previously unseen 1975 letters between Governor-General Kerr and Buckingham Palace. While confidential government records are normally declassified and made available to researchers after 30 years, the National Archives of Australia refused to release the documents, and spent nearly $2 million on court cases to try to keep what Kerr and the Queen had said to each other, secret. After a four-year legal battle, in 2020, Professor Jenny Hocking (of Monash University and the Whitlam Institute at the University of Western Sydney) finally won her case. The newly released documents became known as ‘The Palace Letters’.

The Palace Letters include over 200 documents, particularly letters between Kerr and Sir Martin Charteris, Private Secretary to the Queen, whose job was to pass the material to the Queen and respond on her behalf. The letters show that Queen Elizabeth, her staff and Prince Charles knew that the GovernorGeneral was considering using his reserve powers to dismiss the prime minister as early as September 1975, all without the prime minister’s knowledge. According to Professor Hocking, they include the ‘bombshell’ that Buckingham Palace told Kerr that he had the power to dismiss a government and effectively encouraged Kerr to dismiss Whitlam.

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The reserve powers, or the prerogative, of the Crown, to dissolve Parliament … do exist … But to use them is a heavy responsibility and it is only at the very end when there is demonstrably no other course that they should be used.

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… The fact that you have powers is recognized, but it is also clear that you will only use them in the last resort and then only for constitutional and not for political reasons.

The letters show that the Queen was not told in advance that Kerr was going to dismiss the government, and that decision was made entirely in Australia. However, the role of the Governor-General as the crown’s representative continues to concern people who point to the Dismissal as a reason for Australia to cut ties with the monarchy and become a republic.

…

Source 10.8.10 Martin Charteris, Buckingham Palace, letter to Governor-General John Kerr, 4 November 1975

The Queen’s fingerprints are not on the weapon and she was not involved directly at the decisive moment of the dismissal. However, the letters show that her private secretary knew what Kerr was considering and either tacitly accepted it or at least did nothing to dissuade him.

Hocking’s conclusion was that the letters prove that the Palace, the Opposition and the Governor-General colluded to deceive the Prime Minister.

… The idea that a head of state in another country had any role, however ambiguous, in Australian politics already seemed outdated in 1975 and it is even more so now that our ties with Britain have atrophied.

The Palace letters have dispelled the claim that the Palace was not involved in the dismissal. It was. And it fought for decades to ensure that this involvement was not known.

Go online to access the interactive lesson review and more!

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Source 10.8.11 Professor Jenny Hocking, ‘Royal Secrets and the Whitlam Government Dismissal’, Precedent, 2021

The political decisions we face in this nation should be taken in Australia by Australians.

Source 10.8.12 Editorial, The Age, 15 July 2020

Lesson 10.8 review Online quiz

Review questions

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Research task

Teachers can assign tasks and track results

10.8 Review questions 1 2 3 4

Explain the perspectives of people at the time who believed that the Dismissal was justified. Explain the perspectives of people at the time who believed that the Dismissal was unjustified. Discuss the key consequence of the crisis. Refer to what was said about Whitlam when he died. a Describe some terms that public figures used to describe Whitlam’s impact. b Identify some social groups that particularly praise Whitlam’s reforms.

5 Explain how the ‘Palace Letters’ revealed new insights into the Dismissal. What did they show?

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How did the ALP develop leadership crises? Learning intention

We have seen how political crises developed in Australia in the 1950s and 1970s. Now we will learn about leadership conflicts within the Australian Labor Party from the 1980s onwards.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

Claim, support, question

Make a claim: Based this image and on your learning so far, what pattern do you think emerged in the Labor Party between the 1980s and 2010s? Support: What evidence or reasoning can you provide to support your claim?

Question: What questions do you have about your claim? How would you interrogate it to determine how accurate it is?

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Source 10.9.1 Cartoon by Alan Moir, Sydney Morning Herald, 17 July 2010. From right to left: ALP leaders from the 1980s to the 2010s, wearing Roman togas like Julius Ceasar, are shown knifing each other.

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In 1991 and again in 2010, a prime minister who had led the Labor Party to victory in an election lost their job – not to an opponent on the other side of

politics, but to a challenger from their own team. To unseat a leader is controversial, and tends to leave a lasting impact on the party.

Hawke and Keating Australia’s financial system and trade to international partners.

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After defeating Malcolm Fraser and sweeping the ALP into power in 1983, Bob Hawke and Paul Keating formed a formidable team as prime minister and treasurer of Australia. In their first term in government, they negotiated a ‘Prices and Incomes Accord’ acceptable both to trade unions and business groups, reintroduced universal healthcare in the form of Medicare, and increased the role of the Federal government in environmental protection by saving Tasmania’s Franklin River from being dammed. In the economy, Hawke and Keating made major changes to open

Bob Hawke grew up in Western Australia, was a gifted student (a Rhodes Scholar at Oxford University) and moved to Victoria to work for the trade union movement. He had already turned 50 when he was first elected to Parliament to represent the Melbourne electorate of Wills in 1980, after 10 years as the high-profile and charismatic president of the Australian Council of Trade Unions. According to opinion polls, Hawke was Australia’s most popular ever prime minister, reaching an approval rating of 75 per cent in 1984.

NT SEATS CLP 0 ALP 1

WA SEATS LIB 3 NCP 0 ALP 1 8

…

PRIMARY VOTE BY STATE 44 46 48 50 52 54 50 COAL 75 ALP 0 OTH

QLD SEATS LIB 3 NCP 6 ALP 10

SA SEATS LIB 4 NCP 0 ALP 7

VIC SEATS LIB 7 NCP 3 ALP 23

NSW SEATS LIB 11 NCP 8 24 ALP

TAS SEATS LIB 5 ALP O

ACT SEATS LIB 0 ALP 2

Source 10.9.2 The results of the 1983 election, showing a clear victory for Bob Hawke’s ALP.

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Source 10.9.3 Troy Branston, Bob Hawke: Demons and Destiny, Viking, 2022, p. 536

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Ministers regarded him as a ‘chairman of the board’ who was a good manager of cabinet business and provided strategic direction for the government. He was an effective communicator and often a powerful persuader. He had a strong work ethic, energy and drive. While luck often ran his way – such as the facing a divided opposition – he also showed courage and took policy and political risks.

people’s company; he was known as an ideas man. As treasurer, Keating was the key minister responsible for economic reforms, including privatising the Commonwealth Bank and Qantas.

Paul Keating, Hawke’s right-hand man, grew up in Sydney, left high school aged 14, worked for the Labor Party and was elected to parliament aged just 25. Unlike Hawke, he was not fond of other

…

Source 10.9.4 Prime Minister Bob Hawke and Treasurer Paul Keating working as a team at their first Premiers conference, Canberra, 1983

… Source 10.9.5

The Hawke-Keating government is often now seen, even by non-Labor people, as the Australian gold standard … It is hard to identify any Australian government, before or since, that did as well in modernising and liberalising the economy; putting in place major health, education and welfare reforms; promoting community reconciliation; and positioning Australia abroad as a good international citizen.

The ALP won three more federal elections in 1984, 1987 and 1990. In 1988, the pair discussed a plan for Hawke to retire and pass the leadership on to Keating. However, while in 1990 Keating was promoted to deputy prime minister,

there were no signs of Hawke retiring. The economy entered a recession and the government was coming under pressure, and in June 1991, Keating took the extraordinary step of publicly challenging the popular prime minister for his position.

Gareth Evans, Inside the Hawke-Keating Government: A Cabinet Diary, Melbourne University Publishing, 2014

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We have this chance to pull Australia into one of the preferred countries of the nineties and beyond. … Leadership is not about being popular; it’s about being right and about being strong. It’s about doing what you think the nation requires, making profound judgements about profound issues. …

Source 10.9.6 Paul Keating, speech to the National Press Club, December 1990

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caucus a decisionmaking meeting of members of a political party, in Australia meaning every elected member

In the June 1991 leadership vote, Keating secured 44 votes in caucus but Hawke had 66. It was a clear loss for Keating, who resigned from his ministerial roles. However, he continued to build support and talk to colleagues to convince them that he could do a better job than the man with whom he had worked so closely for so long. In December, Keating challenged again, and this time won – by 56 to 51. Hawke was admired by many for being one of the few male politicians to cry publicly, as he did when he was defeated and resigned.

According his biographer, Keating ‘raged about Hawke’ for not allowing Keating to become PM without a vote (Kelly, 2011) [Paul Kelly, The March of Patriots: The Struggle for Modern Australia, Melbourne University Publishing, 2011]. Keating’s leadership style was very different.

Keating led the ALP to victory their fifth consecutive term in government in 1993, in part due to his attacks on the Liberal Party’s John Hewson’s proposal to introduce a goods-and-services tax (GST). However, Keating never matched Hawke’s popularity: opinion polls put his approval rating at 17 per cent in 1993 and 40 per cent in 1994. In 1996, Keating lost the federal election to John Howard (who would in 2000 introduce a GST), and retired from Parliament.

Concepts and skills builder 10.9

Analysing historical perspectives and interpretations

Examine the following source’s interpretations, and then answer the questions that follow.

Keating’s extraordinary mix of intellect, verbal dexterity, passion, anger and ruthlessness made him by the late 1980s the most dominant political personality in the country. These attributes enabled him to claw his way to the office he had desired for so long. But it is also this same dominance which has left the Government's fortunes hostage to Keating’s performance.

…

For eight years Bob Hawke managed, arguably, the most talented Cabinet Australia has ever seen, with his own brand of consensus and common sense. Keating describes it as a weakness, but Hawke left it to his ministers to come up with the ideas …

Source 10.9.7 Tom Burton, political journalist, in Australian Financial Review, December 1993

1 2 3 4

Describe how the source describes Paul Keating’s strengths. Describe what Keating saw as Hawke’s weakness. Explain what perspective the journalist appears to take: does he admire Hawke or Keating more? Consider the origin of this source: Keating’s party had recently won an election, but his personal approval rating was low. How might the source be understood as predicting changes in the ALP as a government?

Historical concepts and skills: using historical sources

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Rudd and Gillard

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Kevin Rudd grew up in Queensland, earned a degree in Asian studies in Canberra, and then became a diplomat, fluent in Chinese. He ran the Queensland premier’s office in the 1990s, before being elected to Federal Parliament to represent the inner Brisbane seat of Griffith in 1997. He became Labor leader in late 2006, and one year later his ‘Kevin 07’ campaign defeated long-serving Liberal prime minister, John Howard. The ALP won a big majority – even Howard lost, becoming the first prime minister since 1929 to lose their own seat!

…

Source 10.9.8 Prime Minister Kevin Rudd and Deputy Prime Minister Julia Gillard after winning the election, November 2007, Parliament House, Canberra.

After 11 years Mr Howard has become stuck in the past. He simply doesn’t understand the new challenges that we face in the future. The challenges of climate change and water. The challenges of the digital economy. The challenge of the rise of China and India. The challenge to fix our hospitals, once and for all. And above all, the challenge to transform our education system.

…

… I am determined to make Australia part of the global climate change solution – not just part of the global climate change problem.

Source 10.9.9 Kevin Rudd, election launch speech, 14 November 2007

The Rudd ministry made history in gender equality, with Julia Gillard as the nation’s first female deputy prime minister, and Quentin Bryce as the nation’s first female governor-general. Gillard was born in Wales, grew up in Adelaide, and earned a law degree from the University of Melbourne, after which she represented workers in court cases. She entered Federal Parliament in 1998, at the same time as Kevin Rudd. In opposition, she had been responsible for multiple highprofile policy areas. In his first weeks in office, Rudd did two things that the Liberal-National coalition had refused to do: he signed the Kyoto Protocol to commit Australia to international climate change targets, and he formally apologised to the victims of previous governments’ policies of

forced child removal from Indigenous families, saying, ‘For the pain, suffering and hurt of these Stolen Generations, their descendants and for their families left behind, we say sorry.’

However, in its first year of office, the Rudd government faced the Global Financial Crisis, which was a worldwide collapse of banks and businesses, leading to many people losing their jobs. The government’s response was a huge spending program known as an ‘economic stimulus package’. The package spent $52 billion in rescuing banks, giving cash to families, subsidising home insulation and building new facilities at schools. The program prevented a recession, but it also increased Australia’s debt, and raised questions about the safety and efficiency of government programs.

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The ‘carbon tax’ was rejected in the Senate by the coalition (whose new leader Tony Abbott called it ‘a great big tax on everything’), but also the Greens, who said it did not go far enough. Some Labor members began to question whether Rudd could secure consensus on difficult issues, and whether he could lead the party to election victory. In June 2010, his deputy Julia Gillard challenged him, which he said came as a shock. When he realised he had lost majority support within his caucus, he stepped down before a vote was taken.

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According to opinion polls, Rudd was the second most popular ever prime minister, when he reached an approval rating of 74 per cent in 2009. He was a clear communicator, who took an academic approach to issues and generated many ideas, relying on his colleagues and staff to work on the details. He failed to secure enough support for two key policies: A Carbon Pollution Reduction Scheme, which planned to address climate change by putting a price on carbon emissions, and a proposed 40 per cent tax of the ‘super’ profits of the richest mining companies.

Can I simply say it is my intention to lead a government that is focused each and every day on meeting the needs of working families around the country. I accept that the government has lost track. We will get back on track. I have taken control for precisely that purpose.

…

I say about the former Prime Minister, the honourable Kevin Rudd, who is in the parliament with us today, that he certainly has the gratitude and respect of the Labor Party.

minority government where a government does not achieve a majority of seats in the lower house, and depends for its survival on the support of minor parties or independents misogyny dislike, hatred, or prejudice against women

Source 10.9.10 Julia Gillard, in the House of Representatives, 24 June 2010

Julia Gillard became Australia’s first ever female prime minister. In an unusual move, she appointed the man whom she defeated – Kevin Rudd – to the prestigious role of Minister for Foreign Affairs. Within a month of taking office, she announced there would be a Federal election, and that the ALP would not introduce a carbon tax. The mixed outcome of the 2010 election gave Gillard a difficult other first: The first minority government in the Federal Parliament since 1940.

Because the ALP did not have a majority, Gillard had to secure the support of three of the four Independents and the one Green MP to pass any laws. This required a different form of leadership, and Gillard showed a willingness to negotiate and build bridges. The Gillard minority government introduced the National Broadband

Network, a modified carbon emissions pricing scheme, plain packaging for cigarettes, a modified (30 per cent) mining profits tax, set up the National Disability Insurance Scheme, and passed measures to make school funding more equitable.

Gillard’s term as prime minister was marked by sexist attacks. She was criticised for not having children, and some journalists focused on what she wore rather than what she did and said. Interviewers did not treat her with the same respect that had been afforded to male prime ministers. Her scathing response in parliament to Tony Abbott, known as ‘the misogyny speech’, went viral across the world. With the public, her popularity never reached the levels that Rudd had achieved (a high of 56 per cent in 2010, down to 23 per cent approval in 2011).

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U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES Low-res

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Source 10.9.11 Opposition leader Tony Abbott and members of his coalition speak to an anti-Gillard / anti-carbon tax rally outside Parliament House, March 2011. How could this be used as evidence that Gillard was subject to sexist attacks?

In February 2012, Kevin Rudd challenged Julia Gillard for the leadership, which revealed divisions within the party, but Gillard won the vote. In June 2013, as criticisms continued, a second ballot was held and the ALP caucus chose Rudd to return as their leader, heading towards an election two months later. The leadership change resulted in Gillard’s retirement from politics. Rudd’s approval rating was much lower than before (32 per cent),

and the ALP was soundly defeated in the September 2013 election by Tony Abbott’s coalition. After this, Rudd too resigned from politics.

After the bitterness of the Rudd-GillardRudd era, the ALP changed its processes, so that any leadership contests would be decided not only within the federal parliamentary caucus, but with a vote of all members of the party around Australia.

Lesson 10.9 review Online quiz

Review questions

DOC

Research task

Go online to access the interactive lesson review and more!

Teachers can assign tasks and track results

10.9 Review questions

1 Identify differences in the leadership styles of Bob Hawke and Paul Keating. 2 Discuss why the ALP caucus was so important to leadership crises. 3 Refer to the information about the challenges that Kevin Rudd’s government faced. a Describe why the government went into debt. b Explain key policies that Rudd could not achieve. 4 Explain how Julia Gillard’s government had to negotiate to pass its laws.

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How did the Coalition develop leadership crises? Learning intention

Having learned about leadership crises that affected the Australian Labor Party, we will now explore leadership crises in the Liberal-National Party coalition.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

See, think, wonder What do you see?

What does it make you think?

What do you wonder, now?

…

Source 10.10.1 Communications Minister Malcolm Turnbull (L) and Prime Minister Tony Abbott (R) leave the House of Representatives on the day that a challenge to Abbott’s leadership failed, in February 2015. Turnbull was expected to stand for leader if the challenge had succeeded.

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How can prime ministers work with their senior colleagues when they know that some of them want to take their job

from them? This was the dilemma that rose in Liberal-National Party coalition governments between 2015 and 2017.

Abbott and Turnbull to win one more seat than Julia Gillard’s ALP in the 2010 election, but the ALP stayed in power as a minority government. Abbott consistently accused the government for wasting resources, committing too much to addressing climate change, and being soft on illegal immigration.

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Tony Abbott was born in England and grew up in Sydney. He was a gifted student and athlete, earning a Rhodes Scholarship to study in Oxford, and excelling in boxing. Abbott, a conservative Catholic, initially studied to become a priest, but later entered politics, and was associated with Australians for Constitutional Monarchy, opposing any moves to make Australia a republic. He was elected to represent the seaside electorate of Warringah in 1994, where he was a keen surf lifesaver, and became an experienced minister under John Howard, from 1998 to 2007.

In 2009, Abbott successfully challenged Malcolm Turnbull and became Leader of the Opposition. In this role, he led the coalition

In the 2013 election, Abbott faced an ALP that had declined in popularity and had just replaced its leader. Abbott’s campaign capitalised on public concerns that returning to Kevin Rudd as leader was returning to the past, and he promised three things: To scrap the carbon tax, stop asylum seeker boats from reaching Australia, and build more roads. The coalition regained power with a commanding majority.

This election is about making a great country even better; and that starts with changing the worst government in our history.

… It pits the Liberal and National parties’ positive plans for the future against more of the same from a confused and chaotic Labor Party. … We’ll scrap the carbon tax so your family will be $550 a year better off. We’ll get the budget back under control by ending Labor’s waste. We’ll stop the boats.

…

And we’ll build the roads of the 21st century because I hope to be an infrastructure prime minister who puts bulldozers on the ground and cranes into our skies.

Source 10.10.2 Tony Abbott, election speech, 25 August 2013

Like Abbott, Malcolm Turnbull had great success as a student and was a Rhodes Scholar at Oxford, but he became famous in Australia as a wealthy lawyer and investor, working

for high-profile media billionaire Kerry Packer. In the 1990s, Turnbull led the Australian Republic Movement, which failed in its attempt to change the Constitution by referendum to replace

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the royal head of state. In this campaign, Turnbull faced Prime Minister John Howard, who defended the constitutional monarchy, with another key opponent being Tony Abbott.

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Turnbull was elected to parliament in 2004 and became Leader of the Opposition in 2007. In 2009, due to Turnbull’s support for the ALP’s proposal to address climate change with a carbon tax, Tony Abbott challenged him and won the leadership, by just one vote. The two men remained in Parliament, despite tensions between them.

late 2013, while he made steps to get rid of the carbon tax and strengthen immigration rules. However, over the next year a series of opinion polls showed that the coalition was consistently less popular than the ALP, and in February 2015, Malcolm Turnbull’s supporters called for a leadership vote. This failed, but Abbott’s opponents continued to assess their chances, and in September 2015, a leadership ballot was held, which saw Malcolm Turnbull replace Abbott as prime minister. Turnbull enjoyed more positive public opinion polling (60 per cent approval rating in late 2015), but Abbott remained in Parliament and continued to speak his mind about issues.

Tony Abbott reached his highest public approval rating of 47 per cent in

Concepts and skills builder 10.10 Analysing historical perspectives

Examine the following source and then answer the questions about perspectives that follow.

Leadership changes are never easy for our country. My pledge today is to make this change as easy as I can. There will be no wrecking, no undermining, and no sniping. I’ve never leaked or backgrounded against anyone. And I certainly won’t start now.

… I am proud of what the Abbott government has achieved. We stayed focused despite the white-anting.

…

… The nature of politics has changed in the past decade. A febrile media culture has developed that rewards treachery.

Source 10.10.3 Tony Abbott’s remarks to the media on the day Malcolm Turnbull replaced him as prime minister,

16 September 2015

1 2 3 4

Describe what Abbott is pledging to do, after having lost the leadership. Define some key terms: undermining, sniping, white-anting. Discuss what Abbott’s use of these terms shows about what he claims happened to him when he was leader. Analyse why Abbott accuses the media of rewarding treachery. What does this mean?

Historical concepts and skills: historical significance, using historical sources

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Turnbull and Morrison

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Ten months after winning the party room vote to become prime minister, Malcolm Turnbull led the coalition to a narrow federal election victory. He was an extremely confident debater in parliament, and made some progress in middleground issues, moving away from Abbott’s more conservative policies.

In 2017 and 2018, Turnbull also faced divisions in his government over climate change policy. In the previous decade, from Opposition, he had offered bipartisan support to Labor commitments to reduce carbon emissions, and he was enthusiastic about renewable energy. However, members of his party were concerned not to introduce policies that hurt the mining sector, and seemed not to be in line with their leader. In February 2017, his Treasurer, Scott Morrison, brought a lump of coal into parliament to show his support for the continued use of coal-fired power stations.

…

Source 10.10.4 Treasurer Scott Morrison brings a lump of coal into Question Time, February 2017. ‘This is coal. Don’t be afraid. Don’t be scared. It won’t hurt you.’ What is the purpose of a stunt like that?

Through 2018, Turnbull’s popularity declined in opinion polls, and more conservative members of his party, led by Tony Abbott and Peter Dutton, Minister for Home Affairs, were concerned that Turnbull was taking the government too far to the ‘moderate’ centre of politics. Some also regarded his leadership style as arrogant. In August 2018, Dutton challenged Turnbull for the leadership, saying that Australians were paying too much for fuel and electricity. Turnbull won, but three days later Dutton challenged him again, and unexpectedly, a third candidate emerged: Scott Morrison.

plebiscite a direct vote by all voters on an important public question (technically the 2017 ‘plebiscite’ was only a postal survey, as it did not propose any change to the Constitution)

We need to be very clear and succinct about our message, about our policy ideas, about our vision for the country. At the moment I think people are struggling to understand what it is that the government stands for and we need to be very clear about the sorts of things I have spoken about.

…

The Turnbull government promoted innovation and technology and responsible economic management. He was known for two future-focused policies: Snowy Hydro 2.0, an enormous project in renewable energy in the Australian Alps, and the decision to hold a plebiscite on same-sex marriage, which surveyed voters’ opinions in 2017. This issue saw Turnbull confront internal opposition. Tony Abbott was a key voice against changing the definition of marriage, and Scott Morrison and Peter Dutton spoke against the reform. However, the plebiscite showed over 61 per cent public support, and in the end most coalition opponents of the idea made themselves absent from parliament rather than vote against the bill, which made same-sex marriage legal in December 2017.

Source 10.10.5 Peter Dutton, 22 August 2017

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prime minister when the nation faced the challenges of the Covid-19 pandemic. His peak approval rating was 68 per cent in April 2020, but his popularity declined towards the 2022 election, which he lost to Anthony Albanese’s ALP. Dutton replaced him but failed to improve his party’s position, resulting in an increased majority for the ALP in the 2025 Federal election.

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Morrison had grown up in Sydney, and was known as a devout Pentecostal Christian. He worked as a director of national tourism agencies in New Zealand and Australia before being elected to represent a suburban Sydney electorate in 2007. Under Tony Abbott, he had run ‘Operation Sovereign Borders’, to stop unauthorised boat arrivals into Australia, and as Treasurer, Morrison had focused on reducing national debt, tax rates and unemployment. Malcolm Turnbull would later criticise Morrison for leaking information about government policy thinking to the media while he was treasurer. In the second leadership vote, Turnbull stepped aside and Morrison won the vote by 45 votes to Peter Dutton’s 40, making him party leader and the new prime minister. Morrison led the coalition to victory in the 2019 election, and was

Go online to access the interactive lesson review and more!

What happened to the former leaders? Malcolm Turnbull resigned from politics a week after Morrison took his place. Tony Abbott continued on, but in the Federal election of 2019, he was defeated in his attempt to win his seat for the 10th election in a row. The successful candidate was the independent Zali Steggall, whose campaign was supported by the GetUp! organisation, and focused on greater responses to climate change.

Lesson 10.10 review Online quiz

Review questions

DOC

Research task

Teachers can assign tasks and track results

10.10 Review questions

1 Identify at least three policies or beliefs on which Tony Abbott and Malcolm Turnbull disagreed. 2 Discuss how long the Abbott–Turnbull rivalry affected the Liberal Party. 3 Refer to the information about the Turnbull and Morrison leadership crisis. a Explain who initially challenged Turnbull for the leadership, and why. b Explain how the outcome of the challenge was unexpected.

4 Discuss what the coalition leadership crises showed about political leaders in Australia.

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10.11

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End of investigation review: How did political crises affect postwar Australia? Access the Interactive Textbook for a range of digital tools to help you review this topic, including: • Downloadable chapter summary • Scorcher timed competitive quiz.

Brain dump

What have you learnt about Australian political crises? For this activity, copy the diagram and fill out by explaining your understanding. Aim for two points per topic.

Topic Attitudes to communism in 1950s Australia The Petrov Affair Political changes in 1970s Australia The Whitlam Dismissal Labor Party leadership crises Liberal Party leadership crises

What I have learned

Making thinking visible

This exercise in visible thinking asks you to track the difference between what you knew about political crises before, and what new understandings you have acquired since reading this chapter. Using the stem sentences here, write a paragraph explaining what you previously knew about the topic. Then write another paragraph explaining what you now understand about the topic.

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4A I used to think that espionage involved … 4B Now I think that espionage involved … 4C I used to think that the Governor-General … 4D Now I think that the Governor-General … 4E A simple explanation of political leadership issues is …

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4F A better explanation of political leadership issues is …

Practice questions 1

Identify: four Australian political leaders who were forced out of office, and how each of them were ousted.

Match each cause on the left with its consequence on the right.

Causes

Effects

Soviet spies were discovered in Australia

A wide range of reforms began in health, education and equity

Evdokia Petrov was escorted to the airport by Russian agents

A constitutional crisis

The Royal Commission into espionage implicated ALP staff members

Minority government, needing support from independents

Gough Whitlam was elected

The Petrovs were granted asylum as defectors

The Senate blocked Whitlam’s budget

Malcolm Turnbull became Prime Minister

The Governor-General asked the Opposition and Buckingham Palace what he could do

The ALP split, forming the DLP

Kevin Rudd’s climate and mining tax proposals were blocked by the Senate

The Dismissal

Julia Gillard did not win enough seats to form a majority in the House of Representatives

A Royal Commission was held to investigate espionage

Tony Abbott had poor results in several opinion polls

Julia Gillard became Prime Minister

Select two pairs of causes and effects that you have found the most interesting to learn about, and explain why you chose them, giving details.

Analyse: the following artefact as a historical source, using the questions below. a When was this source created, in the context of political leadership crises?

b What does it show about the experience of Australia’s first female prime minister? c What aspects of Australian politics does the source reveal?

d Explain how you could use the source to generate further research questions, and as evidence.

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I say to the Leader of the Opposition I will not be lectured about sexism and misogyny by this man. I will not. And the Government will not be lectured about sexism and misogyny by this man. Not now, not ever.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

The Leader of the Opposition says that people who hold sexist views and who are misogynists are not appropriate for high office. Well I hope the Leader of the Opposition has got a piece of paper and he is writing out his resignation. Because if he wants to know what misogyny looks like in modern Australia, he doesn’t need a motion in the House of Representatives, he needs a mirror. That’s what he needs. … Good sense, common sense, proper process is what should rule this Parliament. That’s what I believe is the path forward for this Parliament, not the kind of double standards and political gameplaying imposed by the Leader of the Opposition now looking at his watch because apparently a woman’s spoken too long.

…

I’ve had him yell at me to shut up in the past, but I will take the remaining seconds of my speaking time to say to the Leader of the Opposition I think the best course for him is to reflect on the standards he’s exhibited in public life, on the responsibility he should take for his public statements … and the Leader of the Opposition should think seriously about the role of women in public life and in Australian society because we are entitled to a better standard than this.

Source 10.11.1 Prime Minister Julia Gillard, House of Representatives, 9 October 2012

Perspectives: Imagine you are either Mrs Evdokia Petrov or Mr Vladimir Petrov. It is 20 April 1954, the day on which Russian agents are taking Evdokia to board a plane back to Moscow, after having been kept under watch at the Soviet embassy. Vladimir has defected to Australia and is waiting in a safe house with ASIO agents. • Write a one-page diary entry from the perspective of Mr or Mrs Petrov. What do you see? What are people saying? What are you thinking? How significant is your decision?

Response to chapter inquiry question: How did political crises affect postwar Australia?

Write a paragraph in response to the inquiry question, using all the key terms listed. Use these key terms in your answer: • espionage • defect

• socialism

• Westminster • Dismissal • crisis

• political parties • leadership.

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CHAPTER 11

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

How did regional and global conflict related to the Cold War affect the world after 1945? LESSON TITLE 11.1 11.2 11.3 11.4 11.5 11.6

11.7 11.8 11.9 11.10 11.11 11.12

Setting the scene: Tension under water in 1962 What happened during the Cold War? How did the Cold War start? How did the Cold War divide people? How close did the Cold War come to becoming a nuclear war? Which other conflicts occurred during the Cold War and how was Australia involved? What are the ethics of reporting on conflict? What did the Cold War have to do with space? What problems did the Soviet Union face? How did the Cold War end? What perspectives emerged about the end of the Cold War? End of investigation review: How did regional and global conflict related to the Cold War affect the world after 1945?

Image: People knocking out pieces of the Berlin Wall in November 1989. The Berlin Wall was a guarded concrete barrier that encircled democratic West Berlin from 1961 to 1989, separating it from communist East Berlin. The fall of the wall was a symbolic moment in the Cold War.

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11.1

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Setting the scene: Tension under water in 1962 Learning intention

In this first lesson, we will learn about how close the world came to nuclear destruction early in the Cold War.

On 27 October 1962, clear thinking by one man may have saved the world from catastrophe, but his actions were kept secret until the end of the century.

It was a time of extreme tension between the world’s two greatest military powers – the United States and the Soviet Union. Vasily Arkhipov, a 36-year-old Russian Officer, was aboard the B-59, one of four submarines that had sailed

8500 km to Cuba, within 150 km of the American mainland. The Russian navy was making a show of strength against the United States. Its mission was to support, and if necessary, defend the installation of Russian nuclear missiles on Cuba, governed by the communist Fidel Castro. In response, the US navy was blockading all shipping around Cuba, until the Russians accepted their demand to withdraw the missiles.

nuclear missile an explosive device based on nuclear fission reactions, attached to a self-propelled rocket

…

Source 11.1.1 A Russian submarine photographed by the US navy off the coast of Cuba in 1962, during the ‘Cuban Missile Crisis’.

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under attack, and began to give orders to do the unthinkable: Fire the deadly torpedo. ‘We’re gonna blast them now,’ he reportedly said. ‘We will die, but we will sink them all.’ Savitsky’s second-incommand agreed. The commander was about to press the launch button; however, all three senior officers had to approve the decision. The third officer, Arkhipov, saw things differently. He was not convinced that the Americans were doing anything other than warning and signalling, and despite the panic around him, he calmly refused to approve the launch.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

superpower an extremely powerful and influential nation that exercises massive influence around the world – the term was first applied to the USA and the USSR after World War II

For 13 days, the world’s media was engrossed by the stand-off between Russian Premier Nikita Khrushchev and US President John F Kennedy. Khrushchev asserted his right to place weapons wherever he wished. Kennedy accused the Russians of trying to plunge the world into war. Neither superpower wanted to be seen to back down. In the dangerous game of brinkmanship, who would blink first?

brinkmanship the practice of pushing a dangerous policy to the brink of safety, in the hope of forcing the other side to back down Cold War a state of hostility between countries, involving threats, propaganda and competition, without direct fighting

On the water around Cuba on 27 October 1962, Captain Vasily Arkhipov’s submarine was in trouble: cut off from radio communication for days, and forced to dive deeply to evade a dozen American destroyers that were imposing the blockade. Then its air-conditioning failed. The crew tried fix the machinery as the temperature reached an unbearable 50°C. They were bathed in sweat. Some fainted or became disoriented.

When the crew brought the B-59 to the surface that night, they found themselves surrounded by American ships and planes. Commander Valentin Savitsky, scaled the stairs to the conning tower – the platform above the water – and was blinded by the searchlights and deafened by explosions caused by depth charges. He wrongly believed they were under attack. He was convinced that war had begun.

In another version, the Commander was intercepted on the stairway, while Arkhipov stayed on the conning tower to assess what the Americans were doing. Arkhipov saw that the ‘enemy’ was signalling, not attacking. He called the commander back up and calmly showed him what was happening. Accordingly, Savitsky took a breath, and saw the wisdom in not giving the order to fire.

What the Americans did not know was that every Russian submarine sent to Cuba was armed with a nuclear torpedo, with the explosive force of over 10 000 tons of TNT. They were also unaware that each submarine commander was authorised to use their torpedo if they were attacked.

Source 11.1.2 Vasili Arkhipov was a Soviet naval officer who prevented a Soviet nuclear torpedo launch during the Cuban Missile Crisis in 1962.

…

There are different versions of what Commander Savitsky did next. One says that he raced down the stairs from the conning tower, shouted that they were

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Either way, Captain Arkhipov was calm in extremely tense circumstances, and thanks to his clear thinking, the lethal torpedo remained in its tube. Eventually, the Russian missiles were packed up and returned home. The fact that the commander had seriously considered launching a nuclear torpedo remained secret for 40 years, until after the end of the Cold War and the opening of secret Russian archives. Khrushchev once said, ‘Any fool can start a war’. Arkhipov showed that sometimes, a bit of wisdom can prevent a war.

… Source 11.1.3 US navy ships preparing for war off the coast of Cuba in 1962.

Lesson 11.1 review Online quiz

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Research task

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Teachers can assign tasks and track results

11.1 Review questions

1 Explain what happened off the coast of Cuba in 1962. 2 Develop three factual questions that you want to ask, to know more about the situation. 3 Develop three ‘what if’ questions that could be asked about the situation (what if something happened differently). 4 Describe what you know about the Cold War so far.

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11.2

What happened during the Cold War?

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Learning intention Last lesson, we learned about the actions of Soviet submarine commander Captain Arkhipov. In this lesson, we will learn about other key historical events in the Cold War.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

Question starts

Based on what you have read so far, brainstorm a list of questions about the Cold War. You can use some of these question stems to help you. 1 Who …?

2 Why …?

3 When …?

4 How many …?

5 What if …?

Come back to these questions as you finish each section of the chapter. Which questions can you answer now? Would you update questions based on your new knowledge? March 1946 British Prime Minister Churchill’s Iron Curtain speech declares that communism is a threat to civilisation

April 1961

October 1947

US Congressional House Un-American Activities Committe (HUAC) investigates communist influences in Hollywood

October 1949

The Communist Party comes to power in China after two decades of civil war

April 1954

Soviet cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin becomes the first person to travel into (and return from) space

The Petrov Affair sees two Soviet spies defect to Australia

1945

The end of World War II leaves Europe divided between the control of the Soviet Union and the allied Western nations

March 1947

US President Truman outlines his plans to contain communism in what becomes known as the Truman Doctrine

1948

1950–1953

The United States’ Marshall Plan provides economic assistance to Europe; Sovietcontrolled states are barred from participating

The Korean War erupts between communist North Korea and Western-backed South Korea, ending in a stalemate

November– December 1956

Melbourne hosts the summer Olympics, which results in the infamous ‘blood in the water’ water polo match between Hungary and the Soviet Union

October 1957

The Soviet Union launches the satellite Sputnik, the first artificial object in space

June–Nov 1956

… Source 11.2.1 Britain, the

USA and the USSR were allies in World War II …

Source 11.2.2 The Hungarian uprising

A nationwide uprising in Hungary against the communist government is brutally suppressed by the Soviet military

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Timeline of key events

December 1991 Dissolution of the Soviet Union and the end of the Cold War

… Source 11.2.3 Washington, DC,

…

1987: The US and Soviet flags hang during a summit meeting between US President Ronald Reagan and President of the USSR Mikhail Gorbachev.

Source 11.2.5 Young

November 1989

people celebrating the fall of the Berlin Wall, November 1989.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

The Berlin Wall, symbol of the division of Europe between West and East, comes down

… Source 11.2.4 Anti-war

protests spread through the 1960s and 70s

1962

October 1962

The Cuban Missile Crisis brings the world to the brink of nuclear war

May 1970

March 1966

Australian forces begin to travel to South Vietnam to fight in the Vietnam War

The Vietnam Moratorium protest against the Vietnam War sees the largest public demonstrations in Australia’s history

August 1964 The Gulf of Tonkin incident draws the US into the Vietnam War

June 1989

The election of the Australian Labor Party, led by Gough Whitlam, ends 23 years of conservative government in Australia

Students protesting for democratic reform are massacred in Tiananmen Square, Beijing

1985

Mikhail Gorbachev becomes leader of the Soviet Union and starts policies of perestroika and glasnost

1978–1980

Détente ends with Soviet invasion of Afghanistan and election of Ronald Reagan as US President; Reagan Doctrine increases confrontation with communism

November 1970

Australia begins withdrawing its troops from Vietnam and the war ends in 1973

July 1969

The US lands the first person on the Moon

Source 11.2.6 Gough Whitlam was one of the first Western leaders to visit communist China

…

Australia sends ‘advisers’ to South Vietnam to assist with fighting against the communist North Vietnamese army

December 1972

Lesson 11.2 review Online quiz

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11.2 Review questions 1 Identify which armed conflicts occurred during the Cold War. 2 Explain which nations achieved firsts in the ‘space race’. How do you think their rivalry may have helped them achieve these firsts? Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62420-6 • (03) 8671 1400

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11.3

How did the Cold War start?

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Learning intention Having learned how close the world came to nuclear war during the Cuban Missile Crisis, in this lesson we look at where the Cold War began.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

…

Hear, think, wonder

Source 11.3.1

Roy Acuff, ‘Advice to Joe’ [Stalin], song, USA, 1951

Listen to the following hit song from the United States, released in 1951. It is an anti-communist song directed to ‘Joe’, the American slang term for Joseph Stalin, the leader of the Soviet Union. What do you hear the singer say about what Russia wants to do?

What does it make you think about what Americans thought at the time? What do you wonder, now?

… Source 11.3.2 A statue of Soviet leader

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From allies to rivals the Soviet Union would be ‘friendly’ to the Soviet regime, to avoid future invasions like it had suffered in both world wars. After World War II, Britain struggled to rebuild its economy, and only two great powers remained: The USA and the USSR. They became known as superpowers, with only each other as rivals. Their rivalry would become a competition for territory and influence.

USSR a federation of 15 communist republics, the largest of which was Russia Soviet an elected council in a communist country; also an adjective for the Russian system

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

During World War II, the communist Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR, or Soviet Union) formed an alliance with the democracies Britain and the United States of America (USA), to achieve victory in Europe over Nazi Germany and in the Pacific over imperialist Japan. However, as soon as the allied victors began to negotiate what the postwar world should look like, their cooperation turned to rivalry. At the Yalta Conference of February 1945, Soviet Premier Joseph Stalin met with US President Franklin D Roosevelt and British Prime Minister Winston Churchill, confident that they would soon defeat the Nazis. The allied leaders publicly appeared united: They agreed to cooperate to occupy Germany after the war, and to share power in a future United Nations. However, privately they were divided. While Churchill and Roosevelt wanted postwar Europe to rebuild through democracy and free trade, Stalin’s priority was to ensure that the Eastern European nations between Germany and

…

Source 11.3.3 The ‘Big Three’ allied leaders – Churchill, Roosevelt and Stalin – meet at the Yalta Conference in February 1945, to discuss how to organise the postwar world. How does their meeting show that the allies were confident that their combined forces could win the war?

ideology system of beliefs about the world

The root of the rivalry between the Eastern and Western blocs was a difference in ideology. The United States was a capitalist and democratic nation, which since its Declaration of Independence of 4 July 1776 had prioritised individuals’ rights to ‘Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness’. The Soviet Union was communist and authoritarian, which since the Russian Revolution of 1917 had prioritised the collective good, and described the USSR as a ‘step towards the union of the workers of all countries’.

Stalin quickly ensured that communist governments won power in the countries of Eastern Europe that his Red Army had ‘liberated’ from the Nazis: Albania, Bulgaria, Poland, Romania, Hungary, Czechoslovakia and East Germany (German Democratic Republic). These nations became known as Soviet satellites, on the periphery of the existing family of 15 republics that were officially within the USSR. On the other side, West Germany and neighbouring nations grew closer to the United States, which sent them aid to resist communism. The intense rivalry that emerged between the two superpowers, but stopped short of direct armed conflict, came to be known as the Cold War.

capitalist/ capitalism a system in which property, business and industry are privately owned, directed towards making profits for successful organisations and people communist/ communism a system without different social classes in which the means of production are owned and controlled by all its members and everyone works as much as they can and receives what they need

authoritarian a belief that doing what leaders and authorities want is more important than individual freedom – often enforced with police and military force

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Concepts and skills builder 11.3 Using historical sources Examine the following sources and then answer the questions that follow.

…

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

From Stettin in the Baltic [Poland] to Trieste in the Adriatic [Italy/Yugoslavia] an iron curtain has descended across the Continent. Behind that line lie all the capitals of the ancient states of Central and Eastern Europe. Warsaw, Berlin, Prague, Vienna, Budapest, Belgrade, Bucharest, and Sofia, all these famous cities and the populations around them lie in what I must call the Soviet sphere, and all are subject in one form or another, not only to Soviet influence but to a very high and, in some cases, increasing measure of control from Moscow.

Source 11.3.4 Winston Churchill, former British prime minister, speech to Westminster College, Fulton Missouri,

USA, 5 March 1946

The Germans made their invasion of the U.S.S.R. through Finland, Poland, Rumania, Bulgaria and Hungary. The Germans were able to make their invasion through these countries because, at the time, governments hostile to the Soviet Union existed in these countries. … And so what can there be surprising about the fact that the Soviet Union, anxious for its future safety, is trying to see to it that governments loyal in their attitude to the Soviet Union should exist in these countries?

…

Source 11.3.5 Pravda (official newspaper of the Russian Communist Party), Interview with leader of the USSR Joseph Stalin, March 1946

One way of life is based upon the will of the majority, and is distinguished by free institutions, representative government, free elections, guarantees of individual liberty, freedom of speech and religion, and freedom from political oppression. The second way of life is based upon the will of a minority forcibly imposed upon the majority. It relies upon terror and oppression, a controlled press and radio; fixed elections, and the suppression of personal freedoms.

…

I believe that it must be the policy of the United States to support free peoples … to work out their own destinies in their own way.

Source 11.3.6 Excerpt from US President Harry S Truman’s ‘Truman Doctrine’ speech, to Congress in March 1947

1 2 3 4 5

Describe what Churchill claimed the Soviet Union was trying to achieve. Describe what Stalin claimed the Soviet Union was trying to achieve. Explain what Truman said the policy of the United States should be. Discuss what these sources show about postwar relations between the former allies. Select one source and analyse its motive: how might the source be understood as communicating both to a local audience and to their international rivals?

Historical concepts and skills: using historical sources

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The arms race and spheres of influence be needed to destroy the cities and infrastructure of a large nation. 45,000 40,000

United States USSR/Russia

Number of warheads

35,000 30,000

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

The superpower rivalry was also an arms race. German physicists were first to discover the incredible energy of splitting the atom through nuclear fission. But during World War II, American scientists led by J Robert Oppenheimer secretly developed a weapon to use that unprecedented power. It was a nuclear, or atomic, bomb. President Harry Truman, who had taken over after Roosevelt’s death, used two bombs to force Japan to surrender in August 1945. One year later, Russian scientists had also achieved fission, and they tested their own nuclear bomb in 1949.

20,000 15,000 10,000 5,000 0

1950

1960

1970

1980 Year

1990

2000

2010

Source 11.3.7 The number of nuclear warheads held by the superpowers. In which years did they have the same number of warheads as each other?

…

Neither side wanted to fall behind in the race to acquire more and better arms: A decade after World War II, the USA had over 2000 nuclear warheads and the USSR was approaching 100. So long as the other side possessed a similar quantity of ‘nukes’, any attack on them would result in a deadly retaliation, and both sides could be completely destroyed. This became known as the theory of Mutually Assured Destruction (MAD). By the late 1960s, the US stockpile of ‘nukes’ peaked at 31 000, while Russia would eventually accumulate over 40 000. Some experts calculated that no more than 200 bombs would

25,000

The danger of nuclear weapons inspired new approaches to collective security by both Western and Eastern blocs of countries. In 1949, the United States and its allies in Western Europe formed NATO (the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation). NATO headquarters were in Brussels, Belgium, and NATO members promised to defend each other, if ever they came under ‘an armed attack’. The US sent military and financial support to anti-communist nations and encouraged them to join NATO.

… Source 11.3.8 An

atomic bomb is tested under water at Bikini Atoll in Micronesia, 1946, one of 23 atomic bombs exploded at the island between 1946 and 1958. Why do you think the USA invited Soviet scientists and the international media to watch some of the tests?

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In 1955, the Soviet Union and its Eastern European allies established the Warsaw Pact, which established ‘a joint command for their armed forces’, with headquarters in Moscow, Russia.

Through the Warsaw Pact, Russia organised a network of communist governments along the Soviet Union’s border, forming what Churchill had coined as ‘the Iron Curtain’.

Key

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Cold War military alliances Founding menbers of the North Atlantic Alliance (NATO) 1949 Entry: Greece and Turkey 1952. West Germany 1955, Spain 1982 Founding members of the Warsaw Pact 1955 Entry: East Germany 1956 Withdrawal: Albania 1968

Iceland

Sweden

Finland

Norway

Denmark

Ireland

United Kingdom Netherlands

East Germany

Soviet Union

Poland

Belgium

… Source 11.3.9

Map of NATO and the Warsaw Pact. Where are the likely flashpoints (shared borders that look likely to cause conflict)?

Go online to access the interactive lesson review and more!

Portugal

West Germany Czechoslovakia France Liechtenstein Austraia Hungary Switzerland Romania San Marino Yugoslavia Monaco Italy Bulgaria Andorra Vatican City Albania Spain

Turkey

Greece

1000 km

Morocco

Algeria

Tunisia

Malta

Cyprus

Lesson 11.3 review Online quiz

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11.3 Review questions

1 Identify the two superpowers that remained after World War II, and what ideologies they represented. 2 Discuss why the allied victors of World War II became rivals. 3 Refer to the information about the arms race. a Describe why the superpowers wanted nuclear weapons. b Explain how the arms race developed over time. 4 Explain how Western and Eastern blocs of nations developed collective security measures.

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11.4

How did the Cold War divide people?

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Learning intention Having learned how the Cold War began, this lesson introduces you to two ways in which the Cold War divided people: with physical barriers, and with political divisions.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

See, think, wonder

What do you see in the photograph?

What does it make you think about how people lived in Berlin at the time? What does it make you wonder?

…

Source 11.4.1 American tanks and troops at Checkpoint Charlie, a crossing point between the American and Soviet sectors of Berlin, February 1961.

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Physical barriers: Berlin Germans were attracted to the shopping and consumer goods available in West Berlin, while at home, they were limited to state-approved housing, jobs and goods. As many as 2.5 million East Germans emigrated to the west for better jobs and a more modern and comfortable lifestyle.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

The German city of Berlin was a key source of tension during the Cold War. Although Berlin was located deep in the Soviet-controlled region of East Germany, half of the city, known as West Berlin, was managed by the Western powers of Britain, France and the US. West Berlin was supplied by highways that connected the city to the rest of West Germany.

The first conflict was known as the Berlin Blockade. In 1948, Stalin blocked access to West Berlin to try to force the Western powers to leave the city. In response to the blockade, for over 18 months American, British and other pilots carried a total of 2.3 million tons of food, coal, medicines and other essential supplies to the 2 million people of West Berlin, in an operation known as the Berlin Airlift.

containment the Truman Doctrine, stating that communist advances were to be stopped wherever they occurred to prevent communism from spreading

Eventually, Stalin recognised that the Western powers could supply West Berlin indefinitely and reopened the highways. The airlift is regarded as the first success of the Truman Doctrine policy of containment. It was a propaganda triumph for the West and had the effect of drawing West Germany closer to the NATO countries. Throughout the 1950s, residents of Berlin could move between the different sectors of the city, passing through checkpoints run by British, French, American and Russian soldiers. East

Over the next three decades, the Wall became increasingly sophisticated. It became a concrete wall, around 200 km long, up to 5 metres tall, and reinforced with a 100-metre-wide ‘death strip’ of raked sand and electric fences. From watchtowers, East German guards shot to kill anyone who tried to cross from East to West. Some escapees succeeded in tunnelling under the

…

Source 11.4.2 Children watch as an aircraft brings essential supplies to West Berlin in 1948. What do you notice about where the children were playing? Why do you think that US airmen started the habit of dropping little parachutes with chocolate and candy to the waiting children?

To stem the tide of emigration, in 1961 the Soviets built a physical barrier. Known as the Berlin Wall, this was a concrete representation of Churchill’s metaphorical iron curtain. The barrier appeared suddenly in August 1961, as a barbed wire fence through the city and around the perimeter of West Berlin. Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev said that the barrier protected his people from Western spies. It split neighbourhoods and in places divided relatives from each other.

Source 11.4.3 John Fitzgerald Kennedy (1917–1963)

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zone, flying over it, using false passports or ramming through checkpoints, but between 1961 and 1989, only approximately 5000 people escaped to West Berlin, while 5000 were captured trying to do so, and around 200 died in the attempt.

In June 1963, President John F Kennedy gave a speech at the Wall, in which he said: ‘There are many people in the world who really don’t understand, or say they don’t, what is the great issue between the free world and the Communist world. Let them come to Berlin.’ In solidarity with the divided people of the city, Kennedy famously said, ‘Ich bin ein Berliner’ (I am a Berliner too).

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Kennedy was the 35th President of the United States, and came to power during a time of tension and crisis between the superpowers. Coming from a wealthy and influential political family, Kennedy was a glamorous leader, who introduced civil rights reforms for racial equality and set ambitious targets

for the space program. Kennedy was assassinated during his first term in office, leaving unanswered questions about what else he may have achieved.

Concepts and skills builder 11.4 Using historical sources

of the East German National People’s Army erect barbed wire fences to close off a street.

1 2 3 4 5

Source 11.4.5 April 1962: a West Berlin girl

and her boyfriend look over the Berlin Wall to talk to her mother, who lived in East Berlin.

…

Source 11.4.4 August 1961: soldiers

…

Examine the following sources and then answer the questions that follow.

Source 11.4.6 A view of the Berlin Wall in

1969, with surveillance towers.

Describe how the Berlin Wall changed over the 1960s, using details from the images. Explain how the Berlin Wall could divide families and communities, with examples. Explain how the Berlin Wall became a tool for surveillance as well as separation. Discuss what these sources show about the city of Berlin from the 1960s. All of these photographs were taken from the West Berlin side of the Wall. Why might that be? Analyse what that reveals about the limitations of sources about the Cold War.

Historical concepts and skills: historical significance, using historical sources

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Social divisions: the Red Scare communists were active in Hollywood, and using movies to manipulate people. They investigated the so-called Hollywood Ten group of screenwriters. When they refused to cooperate with the committee, the Hollywood Ten were imprisoned, branded as traitors, and placed on a blacklist, which prevented them from working in the film industry. It is notable that six of the Hollywood Ten were Jewish, which suggests that other prejudices were at work.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

blacklist a list of people to be excluded from certain forms of employment or actions

The division between communists and capitalists also affected societies within the so-called ‘West’. In the United States, the suspicion that communist believers and spies were spreading their ideology resulted in a damaging period in the 1950s known as the Red Scare. Citizens were encouraged to name anyone whom they suspected of being a ‘Red’, i.e. supporting a communist invasion.

In Washington DC, the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) conducted surveillance and sent spies to leftwing meetings, while the House of Representatives used its Un-American Activities Committee (HUAC) to question anyone who was suspected of undermining national security in public hearings. HUAC and the FBI suspected that communists and spies had infiltrated American industries, including the public service, universities and entertainment. In its most famous investigation, in 1947 HUAC became concerned that

Merely being accused by HUAC could lead to people’s livelihoods being ruined. In 1950, 151 broadcasting professionals – musicians, poets, actors and writers – were publicly named, and most of them were banned from working in the entertainment field. Joseph McCarthy, a Republican Senator from the state of Wisconsin, was convinced that government agencies were overrun with communists and communist sympathisers. His ruthless campaign through Senate committee hearings made

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Source 11.4.7 US Senator Joseph McCarthy poses in 1950 with some of the 5000 letters he claimed to receive daily, from citizens who wished to name suspected ‘Reds’. Why would he want to be photographed with these letters?

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death, however, McCarthyism remained in American political culture.

When McCarthy overreached his authority in 1953–1954 and began accusing army officers of communist sympathies, it was discredited as a ‘witch hunt’ and he rapidly fell from power. McCarthy died in 1957 at the age of 48, probably of alcohol abuse. Long after his

Popular movies also contributed to the fear of being invaded by an alien power. In some cases, the invaders were depicted not as communists, but as aliens, who like alleged communist spies, were disguised as average Americans.

McCarthyism practice of accusing someone of wrongdoing without any evidence, simply to damage their reputation

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him one of the most powerful men in the United States.

Source 11.4.8 Poster for the 1956 science fiction film, Invasion of the Body Snatchers, which depicts an alien

force that takes control of the world. How was that a metaphor for Cold War fears?

Lesson 11.4 review Online quiz

Review questions

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Research task

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11.4 Review questions

1 Identify the first point of conflict over Berlin, and describe its outcome. 2 Explain why the Berlin Wall was built, and its effects. 3 Discuss why governments in Washington and Moscow were determined to have a say over Berlin, so far from their own homelands. 4 Explain how the Red Scare divided people in the United States. 5 Discuss how Hollywood’s movies industry was involved in the Red Scare.

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How close did the Cold War come to becoming a nuclear war? Learning intention

Last lesson looked at Berlin and the Red Scare as Cold War divisions. Now, we return in more detail to the major crisis in Cuba.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

See, think, wonder

What do you see in the map?

How do you think people living in American cities felt when they saw the map? What does it make you wonder?

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Source 11.5.1 A 1962 map published in American newspapers, illustrating where Russian nuclear missiles could reach if they were to be launched from Cuba

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The Cuban Missile Crisis across Cuba. The plan was a total failure – Cuban citizens did not support the returning exiles, and they were quickly defeated. To deter future United States intervention in Cuba, in July 1962, Castro secretly agreed to allow the Soviet Union to install nuclear missiles on his island. In October, US spy planes discovered evidence of the construction of launch sites for medium-range ballistic nuclear missiles, and President John F Kennedy organised an emergency meeting of his advisers. His military advisers urged him to bomb the sites and invade Cuba. Others cautioned him only to issue a warning to Castro and Khrushchev. Ultimately, Kennedy decided to cut off Cuba with a naval blockade or ‘quarantine’. It was a risk. Would the Soviet supply ships turn back, or provoke a nuclear war by trying to barge through?

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Remember how Vasily Arkhipov, onboard a Russian submarine, kept a cool head and may have prevented the outbreak of nuclear war? That was during the Cuban Missile Crisis, one of the most significant flashpoints of the Cold War.

In 1959, the Central American nation of Cuba had joined the communist bloc of nations when Fidel Castro, Che Guevara and other rebels led a popular revolution to overthrow the military dictator Fulgencio Batista, who had been supported by the United States. This meant that less than 150 km from the coast of the USA, a communist party was in control.

Castro would rule Cuba for nearly five decades, confiscating companies, factories and land owned by the wealthy and bringing the nation’s economy under state control. When the US tried to undermine Castro’s program, by banning trade with Cuba, the USSR agreed to buy Cuban sugar and other goods. In September 1960, Castro publicly embraced Nikita Khrushchev at the United Nations in New York, and delivered the longest ever speech to the UN (over four hours!) in which he described the United States as an ‘imperialist’ neighbour with an ‘aggressive and war-mongering international policy’. In 1961, the US Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) attempted to overthrow Castro in a covert operation, by training and arming over 1400 anti-communist Cuban defectors. The plan was for them to invade Cuba, landing at the Bay of Pigs. The CIA believed that this invasion would spark a general uprising

Source 11.5.2 Nikita Sergeyevich Khrushchev (1894–1971) was leader of the Soviet Union from 1953 to 1964. He led the USSR away from its history of repression under Joseph Stalin, and was popular for his achievements in the space race and regional conflicts. Khrushchev was a fiery speaker, whose unpredictable negotiating style – sometimes intimidating threats and sometimes warmth and charm – often gave him the upper hand.

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How did the superpowers come so close to nuclear war?

defector a person who abandons their country or cause to join an opposing group

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U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES Source 11.5.3 The United Nations Security Council reviews aerial photographs of the Soviet missile sites under

construction in Cuba, October 1962. Why might the US have shown these images to the UN?

pre-emptive strike a surprise attack on an enemy, to stop them from attacking you

Thirteen days of tense negotiations ensued. As neither side wanted to be seen to back down, conditions worsened: The construction of the nuclear launch sites neared completion, Castro urged Khrushchev to make a pre-emptive strike on American cities, a US spy plane was shot down over Cuba, and there were near misses between ships and submarines. Kennedy increasingly believed he had no choice but to order a military strike, and US forces were put on Defense Condition (DEFCON) 2. This meant just one step from launching nuclear weapons – the highest level of alert on which US forces have ever been placed. Ultimately, messages that were sent via secret ‘back channels’ managed

to negotiate a deal: On 28 October it was agreed that the missiles would be deconstructed and returned to the Soviet Union, and in return the US would stay out of Cuba. Kennedy’s Secretary of State (foreign minister) Dean Rusk said, ‘We’re eyeball to eyeball, and I think the other fellow just blinked.’ Kennedy also secretly agreed to remove missiles from Turkey to reduce Russian concerns about threats on the borders of the Warsaw Pact. When the agreement was announced, reporters around the globe welcomed the breakthrough with headlines like, ‘World Hails Easing of Tension in Cuban Crisis’ (The Canberra Times, 30 October 1962).

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Concepts and skills builder 11.5 Analysing perspectives

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Examine the following source and then answer the questions that follow.

Source 11.5.4 ‘Cold War arm wrestling’ by Leslie Illingworth, Daily Mail, London, 29 October 1962

1 2 3 4 5

Identify who is pictured in the cartoon and what they are sitting on. Describe their facial expressions and apparent moods. Explain the metaphor that the cartoonist is using about the relationship between the leaders. Discuss the origin of the cartoon: What does this show about attitudes to the Cuban crisis at the time? Analyse how useful this source is as evidence of perspectives about the Cuban crisis.

Historical concepts and skills: historical significance, using historical sources

What was learned from the Cuban crisis? The Cuban crisis showed the risks of miscommunication between the nuclear superpowers. In response, the White House and the Kremlin both agreed to install a ‘Hotline’ so that in future, leaders in Washington and Moscow could communicate instantly and prevent a dispute or misunderstanding

from escalating to nuclear catastrophe. Its nickname was the red phone, although they were actually teletype machines connected by underwater cable. There also emerged more willingness for the superpowers to hold talks to limit the types or numbers of nuclear weapons.

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soldier with communist beliefs, who had defected to live briefly in the Soviet Union and set up an organisation to support Castro’s rule in Cuba. In Moscow, Premier Khrushchev began to lose support from his communist party and became the first Soviet leader to resign rather than die in office, in late 1964. What has remained consistent across historical interpretations is the conclusion that the Cuban Missile Crisis was very nearly the start of World War Three, and had widespread impacts.

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Historians initially praised Kennedy, both for staring down the Soviet threat without blinking, and for avoiding war. Later, when historians gained access to previously secret documents, they gave more credit to other players – including back-channel negotiators, other nations, and individuals in control of weapons – for avoiding an escalation of the conflict. Neither leader remained in office for long after the crisis. President Kennedy was assassinated in Dallas in November 1963 by Lee Harvey Oswald, a former US

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We can say authoritatively that the world came closest to blowing itself up during thirteen days in October 1962 … the most dangerous moment in human history.

Source 11.5.5 Historian Arthur Schlesinger, who had worked as a presidential assistant in Kennedy’s White

House, 1999

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The Cuban Missile Crisis [created] the myth of calibrated brinkmanship – the belief that if you stand tough you win, and that nuclear superiority makes the difference in moments of crisis. This myth … had untold consequences for the planning of the Vietnam War and the nuclear arms race.

Source 11.5.6 Thomas Blanton, director of the National Security Archive at George Washington University, 1997

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The Cold War could have produced a hot war that might have ended human life on the planet. But because the fear of such a war turned out to be greater than all of the differences that separated the United States, the Soviet Union, and their respective allies, there was now reason for hope that it would never take place.

Source 11.5.7 Historian John Lewis Gaddis, The Cold War: A New History, 2005

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The Cuban Missile Crisis provides clear evidence that nuclear war is all too possible, especially during an emergency situation in which critical decisions must be made quickly, accurate information is unavailable, and events on the ground cannot be controlled. Moreover, it demonstrates that nuclear war is unlikely to be premeditated, but rather the result of misperception, miscalculation, and risk-taking.

Source 11.5.8 Kingston Reif, Arms Control Association, Washington DC, 2012

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The role that nuclear weapons had played in the first seventeen years of the Cold War was transformed by the Crisis. … the frightening realization that nuclear war could be only a stumble away, introduced a more cautious approach to nuclear diplomacy. … That realization led Khrushchev to finally accept the existence of a separate West Berlin, with a Western military presence there. Source 11.5.9 Historian Martin Sherwin, Wilson Center Cold War International History Project, 2012

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Source 11.5.10 Historian Alice George, The Cuban Missile Crisis: The Threshold of Nuclear War, 2013

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Khrushchev’s commitment to Cuba and his apparent defeat in the missile crisis caused him to lose prestige at a time when his domestic policies also were coming under fire. In October 1964, the Central Committee of the Communist Party forced him to resign.

Source 11.5.11 US residents at the beach in Florida in 1962, seeing anti-aircraft missiles that were pointed towards Cuba.

Lesson 11.5 review Online quiz

Review questions

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Research task

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11.5 Review questions 1 2 3 4

Identify how the Cuban Missile Crisis started. Explain why Americans were so concerned about the situation. Explain what the superpowers eventually agreed to do to end the Crisis. Discuss what the Crisis showed about the Cold War, quoting at least two historians mentioned in this lesson.

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11.6

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Which other conflicts occurred during the Cold War and how was Australia involved? Learning intention

Having learned about Berlin, Cuba, NATO and the Warsaw Pact, in this lesson we look at wars in Korea and Vietnam, in which Australians fought.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

Hear, think, wonder

Using the following weblink https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mGDhzVi1-bqU&rco=1 hit song from the Australian band ‘Redgum’, released in 1983. It narrates the singer’s brother-in-law’s experience during the Vietnam War. What do you hear the singer say about what the soldiers experienced? What does it make you think?

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What do you wonder?

Source 11.6.1 Australian troops in action in Vietnam, 1969, the year of the events described in the song ‘I Was

Only Nineteen’.

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Australian soldiers fought in two major wars in Asia to support their Cold War ally, the United States, and to try to hold back their Cold War ‘enemies’. The outcomes

of the wars and the experiences of the soldiers were notably different from the world wars that had given rise to the ‘Anzac legend’.

The Korean War a UN-approved mission, which eventually involved 21 nations, although 90 per cent of the foreign troops were American. Menzies said the Korean War would be the new UN’s ‘first crucial trial of strength’. Strategically, involvement solidified Australia’s alliance with the United States.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

During World War II, the Allies had liberated Korea from Japanese occupation. They split Korea in its centre, at the ‘38th Parallel’ (38° north of the Equator). To the south, the United States installed Synghman Rhee as the head of a military government. To the north, the Soviet Union supported Kim Il Sung, a young Russian-trained communist. Both men had fought against the Japanese and saw themselves as future leaders of a united Korea, but they held opposite political viewpoints.

In June 1950, the communist Korean People’s Army crossed the 38th Parallel and invaded South Korea. Kim Il Sung said their purpose was ‘a just war for the uniﬁcation and independence of the motherland and for freedom and democracy’. They took one week to capture the capital city, Seoul. The United States, under its policy of containment, intervened with troops to support the South Koreans. Later that year, Chinese soldiers, having just won victory in the communist revolution at home, crossed the border to help the North Koreans. The conflict raged for three years.

Each side amassed around 3 million soldiers. An unusual feature of this Cold War confrontation was that the support for South Korea had the approval of the United Nations Security Council (which passed the vote while Russia was boycotting the meeting, due to the UN’s non-recognition of communist China). Therefore, when Prime Minister Robert Menzies committed Australian soldiers, sailors and airmen to support the American-led forces, they did so as part of

An opinion poll at the time found that 70 per cent of Australians agreed with their nation’s participation in Korea. Australians who volunteered to serve gave various reasons, e.g.: ‘As a young man I was very concerned about the Communist threat to Australia,’ ‘further travel and adventure; an ideal opportunity to further test myself’, ‘I don’t have very strong convictions about Communism. Maybe it’s just because I like a certain amount of excitement’. Australia eventually committed over 17 000 troops to the Korean War, of which 340 were killed and over 1200 wounded.

The overall numbers are staggering: estimates of North Korean casualties include up to 406 000 military dead/ missing and 1.5 million military wounded, with China losing a further 600 000 military dead/missing and South Korea losing 217 000 military dead/missing and over 400 000 wounded. Tragically, many victims were non-combatants: up to 1.5 million North Korean civilians and 1 million South Korean civilians were left dead/missing. The United States lost over 36 000 soldiers and brought home over 100 000 wounded. An Armistice agreed in July 1953 ended the conflict back where it began: The two Koreas were divided at the 38th Parallel by a 2-km wide Demilitarized Zone. Kim Il Sung remained the dictator of North Korea until his death in 1994.

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He was succeeded by his son Kim Jong Il, who died in 2011 and was succeeded by his son Kim Jong Un, who continued North Korea’s pursuit of nuclear weapons in defiance of international condemnation. South Korean politics were dominated for decades by military leaders and plagued by corruption,

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

until democracy was put in place in the 1980s–1990s. Good relations with Western powers helped to make South Korea prosperous, led by technology companies including Hyundai, Kia, LG and Samsung. North Korea, by contrast, is one of the world’s most isolated and poorest countries.

Concepts and skills builder 11.6 Analysing causes and consequences

Examine the following source and then answer the questions that follow. 1 Identify the symbols used represent communist forces. 2 Describe what the map predicts could happen Korea, Formosa (Taiwan) Indo-China (Vietnam). 3 Explain the map-maker’s message about China. 4 In 1954, President Eisenhower coined term ‘domino theory’: If one state fell communism, the one next door could next, and so on. How could this map be used evidence of domino theory thinking?

to and

the to fall as

Source 11.6.2 A 1950 American newspaper map of northern and southern Asia, depicting possible communist advances

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Historical concepts and skills: causes and consequences, using historical sources

The Vietnam War

ANZUS Treaty military alliance between Australia, New Zealand, and the United States in which each nation pledged to aid the others if any one country was attacked

guerilla warfare unconventional or irregular warfare conducted in small independent groups

World War II saw the rapid collapse of British power in South-East Asia. In response, Australia turned to the United States to help secure Australian interests in the region. This was formalised in 1951 by the ANZUS Treaty of alliance between the three Pacific nations of Australia, New Zealand and United States. Australia’s role in Korea, and then in Vietnam, was proof of the importance of that alliance. As in Korea, in the 1950s the United States and its allies became concerned

that Vietnam could fall to communism, and then spread to topple the next ‘domino’ in the region. North Vietnam was a communist state led by Ho Chi Minh, who had won independence from France and was supported by China and the Soviet Union. South Vietnam, whose government was allied with the United States, came under attack by communist or ‘Viet Cong’ guerilla warfare in the early 1960s. When the US government initially sent ‘advisers’ to train and support south

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U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES …

Source 11.6.3 Australian soldiers prepare to board US Army Iroquois helicopters after searching the coastal village of Lang Phuoc Hai, southern Vietnam, August 1967. What does this show about the conditions of the Vietnam War?

We are ever mindful of the warmth of relations between ourselves and the people, of the United States of America – an association which I am sure can only grow in strength as both our countries work together in the cause of freedom and justice within the framework of the democratic way of life.

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Source 11.6.4 Robert Menzies (Australian prime minister, 1949–1966), Message to Governor of the State of Arizona, 29 August 1962

Vietnamese soldiers, Menzies committed small teams of Australian advisers to help. When the US increased its support to include hundreds of thousands of active combat units, it requested support from Australia and from 1965 Australian infantry troops were committed to Vietnam. The decision of Menzies’ Liberal Party government to send troops to Vietnam was controversial. Unlike Korea, this action was not authorised by the United Nations, and most Western allies,

including Britain, were not involved. Australia and New Zealand were the only nations from outside the immediate region of Vietnam to support the Americans. The leader of the Labor Party opposition, Arthur Calwell, said in May 1965 that Australians should not risk their lives to support ‘an unstable, inefficient, partially corrupt military regime’ in South Vietnam. The government also introduced conscription: men over the age of 20

conscription compulsory enlistment for national service, particularly in the military

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Wood Ventilation Firing post Supports shaft Gun

Punji trap Gun

Remote smoke vents

Kitchen

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Pots

Side tunnel

Air-raid shelter

3m 10 ft

Trap T Tra p doors

Narrow passageways

Drain

Ammunition Dump

hospital

Bucket

False tunnel

Water

water

Fi st-aid Bike generator First-aid beds

Storeroom

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Source 11.6.5 An illustration of the kind of underground tunnel complexes used by the Viet Cong during the Vietnam War. How might this strategy affect fighting conditions?

were randomly selected to serve in the army for two years. This ‘birthday ballot’ used a lottery system, whereby birthday numbers on wooden balls were drawn from a barrel. While it guaranteed that the army would have enough recruits, national service caused a great deal of anxiety for young people and their families. Between 1965 and 1972, of the 800 000 young men who were eligible, 63 000 were conscripted and over 19 000 served in Vietnam. More than 1200 of them were wounded and 200 were killed in action. In total, over 60 000 Australians fought in the war, 523 of whom were killed and 2400 wounded. Initially, opinion polls showed that most Australians supported the

deployment of troops: Up to 62 per cent support in a 1967 survey. However, USled forces struggled to make progress in the jungles and villages of Vietnam, despite committing over 2.7 million American troops and dropping more tons of explosives on North Vietnam than had been dropped on Germany, Italy and Japan during World War II. Napalm, a petrol-based gas, was used extensively to destroy forests and villages where Viet Cong soldiers might be hiding. An estimated 1.1 million North Vietnamese soldiers were killed, and up to 250 000 South Vietnamese soldiers and over 58 000 American soldiers killed or missing in action. In total, as many as 2 million Vietnamese civilians may have died.

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polls said that they thought sending troops to Vietnam was a mistake. The polls were similar in Australia.

moratorium suspension of activity to consider whether to continue or discontinue the activity

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Enormous protests began at Australian universities and later included the general population. They followed protests across America in October 1969, which involved over 500 000 protesters, calling for a moratorium against the war. On 8 May 1970, Australian moratorium marches involved over 200 000 protesters, the largest in Melbourne, with 70 000 people. Later protests, in September 1970 and June 1971, were marked by violent clashes with police.

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Source 11.6.6 Prime Minister Menzies is protected from protesters by police as he enters Sydney Town Hall, April 1965. Can you tell why these protesters opposed the war?

As people in Australia and America saw the devastation that the conflict was causing on the nightly television news, public opinion turned against the war. From 1969 onward, a majority of Americans who were surveyed in opinion

The Australian government eventually began to withdraw Australian combat troops from Vietnam. This process was completed after the Labor Party, led by Gough Whitlam, was elected in 1972. The US struggled to withdraw on terms that secured them ‘peace with honour’. But not long after the 1973 Paris Peace Accords ended the war and the US withdrew its forces, North Vietnam invaded the South and won a decisive victory, uniting the country as the Socialist Republic of Vietnam.

Lesson 11.6 review Online quiz

Review questions

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Research task

Go online to access the interactive lesson review and more!

Teachers can assign tasks and track results

11.6 Review questions 1 2 3 4 5

Identify the similarities in the reasons for the Korean and Vietnam Wars. Explain the difference between the allied involvement in Korea and Vietnam. Explain the outcome of the Korean War. Explain the outcome of the Vietnam War. Discuss why the Vietnam War was controversial in Australia.

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What are the ethics of reporting on conflict? Learning intention

Last lesson outlined the Vietnam War. This lesson looks at the role of the media in reporting on that conflict.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

See, think, wonder

What do you see in the photograph? What does it make you think?

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What does it make you wonder?

Source 11.7.1 ‘Saigon Execution’: photograph by Eddie Adams, February 1968

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War photography print the image next to a photograph of a child killed by the Viet Cong. This happened, but the general’s execution was the image that people remembered. Adams received money and awards for showing one man killing another, and it troubled him. American and southern Vietnamese troops killed tens of thousands of Viet Cong in combat. Was it fair to single out one death? Also, nearly 8000 South Vietnamese civilians had been killed in a few short days, and there was no freedom of the press on the procommunist side; no media to expose the ‘enemy’ in the act of committing atrocities.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

On 1 February 1968, General Nguyễn Ngo.c Loan, chief of the South Vietnamese police, shot dead a Viet Cong (North Vietnamese) prisoner. The execution happened on a main street in Saigon, the capital of South Vietnam, after 72 hours of chaotic street fighting, known as the Tet Offensive. This was a surprise attack by 85 000 pro-communist troops from the north. It began with a suicide bombing on the American embassy under the cover of fireworks celebrating the Vietnamese new year (Tết ). The photograph of the execution was published the very next day on the front page of many newspapers, and it shocked the world. Here was proof that America’s ally would execute an unarmed prisoner in handcuffs, without trial, in plain sight. In a single image, an American photojournalist had captured the brutality of the Vietnam War. He expected to witness an arrest, but to his shock, he captured an execution, which might be regarded as a war crime. He was Eddie Adams, and for this work he won the Pulitzer Prize for the best news photo of the year.

On the day, Adams saw General Loan as a cold-blooded killer. After pulling the trigger that killed the captive, named Nguyễn Văn Lém, General Loan simply said, ‘They killed many of our people and many of yours.’ The image helped to move public opinion in the USA and elsewhere against the Vietnam War, which became an increasingly unpopular conflict as the American death toll rose to 500 per week. Was this a war worth fighting to preserve democracy, or were both sides equally at fault? Could the war ever be won? Negative public opinion was one reason why the USA began to plan its withdrawal, ending the Vietnam War sooner that it might have otherwise finished. However, Adams later had regrets. He said that, for balance, newspapers should

Shortly after the event, the photographer spent time with General Loan, and learned more. A group of soldiers had frogmarched the prisoner to their general, who was waiting in a jeep. The soldiers reported that Lém was suspected of having been involved in the deaths of over 30 civilians found in a mass grave, and to have killed the family one of Loan's colleagues. Loan was furious that Lém was a soldier hiding in the checked shirt of a civilian. Without hesitation, Loan fired his pistol. ‘If you hesitate, if you didn't do your duty, the men won't follow you,’ the general said later. General Loan continued to fight for the South Vietnamese, and was admired as a brave leader. He lost a leg to machine gun fire while leading a charge over a bridge. After the communist victory, he started a new life in the United States. He was a qualified pharmacist and pilot, but he ran a pizza and Vietnamese restaurant in Washington, DC. Partly due to the photograph, immigration authorities wanted to deport him, and asked Adams to testify against him. Instead, Adams testified in Loan’s favour, saying that he might not agree with the act he photographed, but he admired the general’s character, and

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was concerned that his whole life was judged by one image. ‘The general killed the Viet Cong; I killed the general with my camera,’ reflected Adams. Loan was

allowed to remain in the USA. However, people who recognised him from the 1968 photograph sometimes harassed him at his business.

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U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Still photographs are the most powerful weapon in the world. People believe them, but photographs do lie, even without manipulation. They are only half-truths. What the photograph didn't say was, ‘What would you do if you were the general at that time and place on that hot day, and you caught the so-called bad guy after he blew away one, two or three American soldiers?’

Source 11.7.2 Eddie Adams, Time magazine, 1998

Concepts and skills builder 11.7 Asking historical questions

Reflect on the narrative above and discuss the following questions in groups.

1 Why did the ‘Saigon Execution’ photograph influence public opinion? 2 Was General Loan justified in shooting the prisoner? 3 Is there an ethical difference between the killing in the photograph and other deaths in combat (e.g. exchange of gunfire / bombing / land mines)? 4 Did Eddie Adams make the right decision in shooting the photograph and sending it out to newspapers? 5 What do you think photographers and reporters should do during a war? Historical concepts and skills: communicating, historical questions

The first television war

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Source 11.7.3 An American couple watches a television report of the Tết Offensive in their living room, 1968. What can the couple see on their screen?

Over 70 per cent of Australian homes and over 90 per cent of American homes owned a black and white television set by the time their nations had begun sending troops to the conflict. Therefore, television reporters joined radio and newspaper journalists in Vietnam, and for the first time it was possible for people back home to view the progress of a war in the nightly news.

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he expected “the bloody experience of Vietnam...to end in a stalemate” and that the only “rational way out” is to negotiate an end to the war. In March 1968, US Army photographer Sergeant Ron Haeberle took photographs of American soldiers indiscriminately killing up to 500 people, including women and children who were sheltering in an irrigation ditch, at a village called My Lai. The photographs were published in the very popular Life! magazine, and sparked national outrage.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Historians argue that media coverage influenced people’s attitudes to the Vietnam War. As we have seen, Adams’ photograph of a South Vietnamese general shooting an unarmed prisoner in the street made the front page of newspapers including the New York Times, which led to debates across the country about the ethics of the war. Later that month, famous CBS television host Walter Cronkite raised serious questions about whether the US could ever win, stating on the nightly news on 27 February 1968 that

…

Source 11.7.4 South Vietnamese children flee from their village after it was accidentally bombed and set on fire with American-supplied napalm in June 1972. How many reporters can you see filming their pain? The girl in the middle, Phan Thi Kim Phuc, survived by tearing off her burning clothes, but required 14 months in hospital to heal her burns. Her naked photo was put on the front page of the New York Times. What does this show about the role of war photography?

Lesson 11.7 review Online quiz

Review questions

DOC

Research task

Go online to access the interactive lesson review and more!

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11.7 Review questions 1 Explain why media coverage of the Vietnam War was different from previous wars. 2 Describe an example of disturbing details about the war that were shown to people back home. 3 Explain the link between media coverage and public opinion. Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62420-6 • (03) 8671 1400

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What did the Cold War have to do with space? Learning intention

Previous lessons explored conflict and tension between the Cold War superpowers across the Earth. This lesson looks at competition in space.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

Think, puzzle, explore

Why do you think space exploration related to the Cold War?

What questions do you have about space and how it affected international relations? How can you find out more?

…

Source 11.8.1 ‘Earth Rise’, the first photograph of the rising Earth from the Moon, taken by Apollo 8 astronauts as they became the first humans to orbit the Moon, December 1968. Earth is over 380 000 km away. Poet Archibald MacLeish in the New York Times said: ‘To see the Earth as it truly is, small and blue and beautiful in that eternal silence where it floats, is to see ourselves as riders on the Earth together, brothers on that bright loveliness in the eternal cold.’

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The Space Race 1957, the satellite Sputnik entered Earth’s orbit, circling the globe every 90 minutes. This was the first human-made object in space, and it spread fear throughout the United States that the Soviet Union was making rapid advances that could undermine national security. Concerns about America falling behind worsened in November 1957 with the launch of Sputnik II, this time containing a live dog, and in September 1959 when the Soviet Union landed the first unoccupied probe on the Moon. In April 1961, cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin became the first person to fly in orbit, aboard the Vostok I space capsule. Gagarin became a national hero and Soviet superiority in rocket science was clear.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

While the United States and the Soviet Union were locked in competition with each other to gain territory and alliances across the planet, they also sought to beat each other into space. The rivalry to achieve first place in this complex and dangerous field became known as ‘The Space Race’.

One reason that the superpowers focused energy and resources on space programs was strategic: There could be military advantages to sending rockets and satellites into orbit. Another reason was propaganda: The nation that could achieve ‘firsts’ in space could claim that its scientists and engineers were superior, and every achievement and every setback for Russian ‘cosmonauts’ and American ‘astronauts’ took place under intense media scrutiny. The Soviet space program took the initial lead in the Space Race. In October

In an effort to catch up, a United States space program was established, called the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA). Between 1960 and 1973, NASA spent US$28 billion

…

Source 11.8.2 The first animal to be launched into space, Laika, was a stray dog from the streets of Moscow. Laika survived the launch but died soon after due to overheating. Why might the test flight have included an animal?

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spacewalk procedure in which astronauts/ cosmonauts leave their space capsule to perform activities in open space

developing rockets, spacecraft and ground systems (equivalent to over $300 billion today): up to 4 per cent of the federal government’s budget, involving over 20 000 companies and universities. According to secret reports from US spies, the Russian space program was spending between one-quarter and one-half that amount.

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In February 1962, America launched its first astronaut into orbit, John Glenn. However, the Soviets continued to set the

pace – cosmonaut Valentina Tereshkova became the first woman in space in 1963, Alexey Leonov became the first individual to complete a spacewalk in March 1965, and a Soviet probe landed on Venus in 1966. The only way the Americans could overtake the Soviets was to shoot for a different ‘first’, and in 1962, President John Kennedy announced that their mission would be to land a piloted craft on the Moon.

Concepts and skills builder 11.8

Analysing perspectives and evaluating interpretations

Examine the following sources and then answer the questions that follow.

The recently announced launching of an earth satellite by the Soviet is but more proof of growing Communist superiority in the all-important missile field. If this now known superiority over the United States develops into supremacy, the position of the free world will be critical.

At the same time we continue to learn of the missile accomplishments of the possible enemy. For fiscal reasons this Government, in turn, continues to cut back and slow down its own missile program. I have been warning about this growing danger for a long time, because the future of the United States may well be at stake.

…

Source 11.8.3 Senator Stuart Symington commenting on Sputnik I and demanding an investigation, as reported in “Congressional Investigation is Demanded,” Winston-Salem Journal, October 6, 1957

But why, some say, the Moon? Why choose this as our goal? And they may well ask why climb the highest mountain? Why, 35 years ago, fly the Atlantic? We choose to go to the Moon. We choose to go to the Moon in this decade, and do the other things – not because they are easy, but because they are hard. Because that goal will serve to organise and measure the best of our energies and skills. Because that challenge is one that we are willing to accept, one we are unwilling to postpone, and one which we intend to win.

…

Source 11.8.4 US President John F Kennedy’s explanation for wanting the US to land a man on the Moon, September 1962

1 2 3 4 5

Identify how the 1957 source described the Soviet Union and its achievement. Describe what warning Senator Symington gave. Explain the reasons President Kennedy gave for the Moon mission. Compare these sources: How are they different perspectives about the Space Race? Analyse how Kennedy’s language shows that his choice to go to the Moon was designed to inspire Americans.

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stepped out of their module and walked on the Moon’s surface, the astronauts’ incredible experience was broadcast live on television across the world. Armstrong famously said, ‘That’s one small step for [a] man, one giant leap for mankind.’ Arguably, the ‘giant leap’ was such a singular event that the history of human exploration could be divided into two: Before and after the Moon landing. Five more landings followed, with a total of 12 American astronauts walking on the lunar surface. It was a propaganda triumph, despite all the Russian firsts that came before. The United States was then regarded to have ‘won’ the Space Race. In the 1980s, NASA developed a reusable Space Shuttle that marked the next innovation in space travel.

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Kennedy’s political pledge to go to the Moon became an enormous technical challenge for thousands of scientists and engineers, with no guarantee of success. It became known as the Apollo program, and each spacecraft was numbered, testing more systems on each launch. The program had setbacks, including the deaths of three astronauts while testing Apollo 1 on the ground, and an explosion that prevented the Apollo 13 mission from landing on the Moon. On 20 July 1969, Apollo 11 landed a person on the Moon, which many had thought was impossible. In doing so, NASA captured the imagination of the world. The rocket burned 18 000 kg of liquid fuel per second at lift-off. When Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin

…

Source 11.8.5 Harrison H Schmitt, the 12th and last person to step onto the Moon, with Apollo 17, December 1972. Why did astronauts plant their flag?

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Cooperation in space for improving international cooperation. In 1971, the Russian space program began establishing a space station in orbit, as a base for cosmonauts to live while conducting their scientific research. This would later form the core of the International Space Station, which today is a 100-metre-long solar-powered living quarters for seven astronauts, run by 15 countries.

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A series of treaties were agreed in the 1960s and 1970s to improve cooperation and reduce conflict in space. In 1967, the Outer Space Treaty was finalised, which banned the stationing of nuclear weapons and weapons of mass destruction in outer space, and the Recovery Treaty, under which nations agreed to assist each other to recover astronauts and objects if they were stranded in space. In 1984, the Moon Agreement stated that the Moon and other celestial bodies should be used exclusively for peaceful purposes.

In 1975, a joint US–USSR mission involved the Apollo and Soyuz spacecrafts docking together in space and forming a combined spacecraft for two days.

After the Moon landings, space also presented practical opportunities

…

Source 11.8.6 Commander of the Soviet crew of Soyuz, Alexei Leonov (L) and commander of the American crew of Apollo, Thomas Stafford (R), make the first-ever international handshake in space, on 17 July 1975.

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Technologies developed specifically for space travel have since become widely available and in everyday use.

Quartz crystal wristwatches

Laptop computers

Mini digital computers

Pool and spa water purification

Smoke detectors

Computer mouse

Solar panels

Global Positioning System (GPS)

Cordless drills

Freeze-dried food

Digital photography

Handheld vacuum cleaners

Air-cushioned athletic shoes

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Wireless headsets

…

Table 11.8.1 Space program inventions (1960s–1990s), which were developed for astronauts but then became commercially available to the general public. Which of them do you think are so useful and beneficial that they could justify the huge costs of the space program?

…

New Image to come getty 1404397558

Source 11.8.7 March 1982: From mid-air, astronaut C. Gordon Fullerton, pilot, grabs a bite of cereal which he had

just spooned from a plastic food container on the Space Shuttle Columbia's mid-deck. Fullerton was making his first true space flight and had never before experienced microgravity.

Lesson 11.8 review Online quiz

Review questions

DOC

Research task

Go online to access the interactive lesson review and more!

Teachers can assign tasks and track results

11.8 Review questions 1 2 3 4 5

Identify what the Soviet space program achieved before the Americans. Explain the effects of the Sputnik launch. Discuss why the United States decided to go to the Moon. Explain how the Space Race became a propaganda success for the USA. Discuss how the Space Race had an impact on people’s lives.

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11.9

What problems did the Soviet Union face?

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Learning intention Having learned about crisis points, conflicts and the Space Race, you will now look at two problems that threatened to bring down the USSR in the 1980s: Afghanistan and Chernobyl.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

Claim, support, question

Make a claim: Based this image and on your learning so far, why do you think that failure to defeat Afghan fighters might have placed pressure on the leaders of the Soviet Union? Support: What evidence or reasoning can you provide to support your claim?

Question: What questions do you have about your claim? How would you interrogate it to determine how accurate it is?

…

Source 11.9.1 A group of Afghan Mujahideen fighters, Kunar Province, Afghanistan, c.1980. The Soviet Union’s army tried for nine years to defeat these fighters, and failed.

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Two disasters placed pressure on the Soviet Union in the 1980s. One was a war on its southern border, in Afghanistan, where the USSR spent nearly a decade

in trying and failing to keep a communist government in power. The other was a catastrophic accident in the west, at the Chernobyl nuclear power plant in Ukraine.

Failure in Afghanistan cancel planned arms control talks with the USSR, and refuse to send a team of American athletes to the Moscow Olympic Games. The United States and 65 of its allies boycotted the 1980 Moscow Olympics, which were the first to be held in a communist country. Later, the US would give direct aid and funding of up to $20 billon to the Islamic resistance, not because the Americans supported the Mujahideen ideology, but because they were causing deep problems for Moscow.

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In 1978, a small band of Soviet-trained Afghan fighters seized power in Afghanistan on the USSR’s southern border and established a communist regime. Islamic leaders opposed them, and proclaimed a jihad (armed struggle) against the new regime, which resulted in a civil war. In December 1979, the Soviet premier Leonid Brezhnev ordered Soviet troops to invade Afghanistan and support the communists. They faced fierce opposition from rebel militias known as the Mujahideen, who believed they were fighting for their religion and for their nation’s freedom. Soviet intervention in Afghanistan was seen in Moscow as an extension of the foreign policy known as ‘the Brezhnev Doctrine’, which promised that the Soviet Union would respond to any threat to socialist rule. In Washington, however, this was perceived as an attempt to take over a neighbouring country. A week after the invasion, US President Jimmy Carter condemned ‘this new Soviet threat to world stability,’ and announced that he would cut trade and

For nearly a decade, the Soviet Union was bogged down in a guerilla war. Over 500 000 soldiers were sent to Afghanistan, one in eight of whom were killed or missing action. In the mid-1980s, US President Ronald Reagan began supplying anti-aircraft missiles for the Mujahideen to shoot down Soviet aircraft. By 1986, the new Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev recognised that the war was futile, and blamed ‘imperialist’ foreign interference. Afghanistan, he said, had become ‘a bleeding wound’. The last Soviet soldiers left Afghanistan in February 1989.

Concepts and skills builder 11.9 Using historical sources

Examine the following source and then answer the questions that follow. 1 Identify how the painting shows guerilla warfare tactics. 2 Describe the environment in which the war occurred.

… Source 11.9.2 Mujahideen fighters use an American-

supplied anti-aircraft ‘Stinger’ missile to shoot down a Soviet helicopter, in 1986. (Source: CIA Museum) Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62420-6 • (03) 8671 1400

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3 Explain why the American Central Intelligence Agency might have included this painting in its museum, even though it depicts a war that did not directly involve the USA. 4 Analyse how this painting could be used as evidence of the difficulties faced by Soviet forces in Afghanistan. Historical concepts and skills: historical significance, using historical sources

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Chernobyl nuclear disaster

On 26 April 1986, the worst nuclear accident in history occurred, when one of the reactors at the Chernobyl nuclear power plant in Ukraine exploded, releasing radioactive material into the atmosphere. Fire fighters took nine days to extinguish the fire, and thousands of emergency responders were exposed to doses of radiation hundreds or even thousands of times the safe level, developing serious radiation sickness. People who lived near the power plant were exposed to radiation through the air and their food at levels 37 000 times stronger than an x-ray.

radiation sickness poisoning caused by exposure to unsafe levels of ionising radiation, e.g. from a nuclear power plant accident, with symptoms including nausea, vomiting, skin disease, hair loss, organ damage and sometimes death

Bolv

Dnie

per

Smolensk

Mogilev

Minsk

Krychaw

a Berezin

BELARUS

RUSSIA

Cherykaw Slawharad Krasnapolle

Bykhov

Bryansk

Babruysk

Rahachow

Sozh

Chachersk

iep

sna

Novozybkov

Vetka

Gomel

Luninets

Kalinkavičy

Pripyat

Dobrush Kuz'minichy

Kimovo

Mazyr

Korosten

Chernobyl Plant

Poliske

Kiev Reservoir

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per

Key

Dnie

UKRAINE

Sey

sn a

Chernobyl

Kiev

Zhytomyr

Chernihiv

Pripyat

Vystupovichi

Pershotravneve Ovruch Lypnyky Narodychi

Khoiniki

Narowla

Dnie per

Yelsk

Confiscated/closed zone Greater than 40 curies per square kilometer (Ci/km²) of Cesium-137 Permanent control zone 15 to 40 Ci/km² of Cesium-137 Periodic control zone 5 to 15 Ci/km² of Cesium-137

100 km

Unnamed zone 1 to 15 Ci/km² of Cesium-137

Source 11.9.3 Map of Chernobyl radiation. Which Soviet states were most

affected?

Clouds of radioactive particles from Chernobyl were carried by wind across Belarus, Ukraine and Russia, and some neighbouring nations, until they fell to earth as ‘fallout’ dust. This was first detected by routine tests of workers’ shoes in Sweden. Western media coverage speculated that a major meltdown had occurred.

Soviet government media at first denied that there was a crisis, and authorities did not start evacuating the nearest city (Pripyat, population 50 000) for 36 hours, by which time many of the residents were showing symptoms of radiation poisoning, particularly the children. One of them, Alexander Sirota, who was nine years old, later wrote that the evacuation ‘seemed like an exciting game … We did not know and did not understand then that we were leaving our town for ever.’ Chernobyl had far-reaching effects. A 30-km ‘closed’ zone was established around the site, from which 200 000 people were relocated. More than half a million people worked as ‘liquidators’, to sweep up and bury contaminated materials. The initial clean-up cost over 14 billion rubles (over US$20 billion today). Across Europe, for several months, various agricultural products such as milk, vegetables and meat were declared unfit for human consumption. Many children were disabled, and there was an enormous rise in the rates of

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The environmental and health catastrophe caused by Chernobyl made many people question the safety of nuclear energy. Politically, it raised questions about the Soviet Union’s ability to protect its people and its tendency to hide the truth. In the most affected states, Ukraine and Belarus, anti-Moscow movements gained more support.

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cancer in the population. In Ukraine alone, 1.8 million people were officially recognised as victims, and decades later, 36 000 women received state pensions as widows of men who died as a result of their exposure to Chernobyl. It is expected that the region will be uninhabitable for at least 3000 years, due to radiation in the soil.

…

Source 11.9.4 Children at a hospital in Belarus awaiting treatment for cancer, believed to be caused by exposure to radiation from the Chernobyl disaster, 1995. Why might photographers have taken pictures of child victims and published them across the world?

Lesson 11.9 review Online quiz

Review questions

DOC

Research task

Go online to access the interactive lesson review and more!

Teachers can assign tasks and track results

11.9 Review questions 1 2 3 4

Identify why the Soviet Union invaded Afghanistan. Explain why the Soviet Union became bogged down in Afghanistan. Explain what happened after the Chernobyl nuclear reactor exploded. Discuss how Chernobyl affected people’s attitudes to the Soviet government.

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11.10

How did the Cold War end?

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Learning intention Having learned about problems the USSR faced in the 1980s, you will now look at plans that the final leader of the Soviet Union made to try to change his country.

Lesson starter

…

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

Source 11.10.1

What do you hear the US president say, to the people of Berlin and to the leader of the Soviet Union? What does this make you think?

What does it make you wonder?

…

Ronald Reagan, “Tear down this wall!” 12 June 1987

Hear, think, wonder

Source 11.10.2 Ronald Reagan speaks at the Berlin Wall, 12 June 1987.

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Glasnost and perestroika Gorbachev declared that the economy of the Soviet Union was in urgent need of ‘restructuring’, known as perestroika, and that the political system needed openness, known as glasnost.

Reforms to introduce glasnost included: • Allowing local elections and non-communist candidates

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

A series of perestroika laws between 1986 and 1988 aimed to make significant changes to the communist system, to move away from government control of all industries. These laws:

workers, and the prices of many essential goods and services rose. At shops and grocery stores, people found empty shelves and long queues.

• Allowed individuals to keep the profits of their own work

• Encouraged foreign investment in state enterprises • Empowered local managers to decide what to produce, according to local customer demand

• Permitted private ownership of businesses for the first time since 1928. However, some perestroika reforms worsened the situation. Company directors and trade union leaders enriched themselves without looking after their

• Permitting more freedom of speech • Relaxing censorship of ‘Western’ books and products

• Creating a Congress of People’s Deputies (similar to a parliament), with free elections by 1989.

At the time, Gorbachev was praised around the world for relaxing government control of people’s lives. However, the result was widespread discussions across the Soviet Union of what had gone wrong in their history, the effect of which according to historian Sheila Fitzpatrick was ‘to undermine the public’s confidence rather than rally it for reform’.

… Source 11.10.3 Mikhail Sergeyevich Gorbachev

(1931–2022), the eighth and final leader of the USSR, from 1985 to 1991. Gorbachev was a lifelong communist, but when he came to power in 1985, he saw problems in the Soviet system. The war in Afghanistan and the arms race drained the state’s budget, while the living standards of its people fell. As he prepared for his first day in office, he told his wife Raisa, ‘We just can’t go on living like this’.

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Concepts and skills builder 11.10 Determining historical significance

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Examine the following sources and then answer the questions that follow.

…

Source 11.10.4 Customers queue at the state fish market in Moscow, 1990. A typical wait in this queue was two hours, even to purchase tinned fish.

…

The Law on State Enterprise of 1987 gave factory managers more freedom from central control and powers to set wage levels and product prices, though in practice it resulted in little beyond raising prices for goods of still mediocre quality. … By the end of 1991 [the people lining up in queues] blamed [Gorbachev] for their economic misery, for the loss of an empire, for casting away all that the glorious victory of 1945 had brought (at colossal sacrifice) and for ‘selling out’ to the West. He had inherited a superpower. Little over six years later it had gone.

Source 11.10.5 Ian Kershaw (a British historian), Personality and Power: Builders and destroyers of a modern

Europe, London: Penguin, 2022, pp. 345, 358

1 2 3 4 5

Identify what the photograph shows about daily life in a Soviet city after Gorbachev’s reforms. Explain how queuing might affect people’s view of the government. Identify what Professor Kershaw says was the result of the Law on State Enterprise. Explain what Kershaw says the ordinary shoppers blamed Gorbachev for. Analyse how these sources could be used to support a claim that Gorbachev’s reforms had unintended consequences.

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Arms control Arms control talks between the superpowers into the 1980s sought to reduce tensions and bringing weapons of mass destruction under control. While they

would not bring about total disarmament, they brought leaders together and showed that both nations recognised the costs and risks of the Cold War.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Reagan: ‘For the first time in history, the language of ‘arms control’ was replaced by ‘arms reduction’ … We can only hope that this history-making agreement will not be an end in itself but the beginning of a working relationship that will enable us to tackle the other urgent issues before us …’

Gorbachev: ‘The treaty whose text is on this table offers a big chance at last to get onto the road leading away from the threat of catastrophe. It is our duty to take full advantage of that chance and move together toward a nuclear-free world, which holds out for our children and grandchildren and for their children and grandchildren the promise of a fulfilling and happy life without fear and without a senseless waste of resources on weapons of destruction.’

…

Source 11.10.6 The US and Soviet leaders speak after signing the Intermediate Nuclear Forces Treaty, Washington, 8 December 1987

Date 1968

1972, 1979

1987

1991, 1993

2002

…

2010

Talks Non-Proliferation Treaty

Agreement To prevent the spread of nuclear weapons: States without nuclear weapons would not acquire them; states with nuclear weapons would pursue disarmament. Strategic Arms Limitation To set limits on total numbers of missile defences, missile launch Talks (SALT I and II) silos and strategic delivery vehicles. Intermediate Nuclear To eliminate an entire category of nuclear weapons: All Forces Treaty ground-launched ballistic and cruise missiles with ranges of 500 to 5500 km. Strategic Arms Reduction To reduce deployed strategic arsenals to 1600 delivery vehicles, Talks (START I and II) carrying no more than 6000 warheads (later to be reduced to 3000). Strategic Offensive To reduce deployed strategic arsenals to no more than Reductions Treaty (SORT) 2200 warheads each. New START To reduce each side to 1550 strategic nuclear warheads deployed on 700 strategic delivery systems, with inspections to verify.

Table 11.10.1 Nuclear treaties and talks, 1968–2010

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The fall of the Berlin Wall 50 000 soldiers from East Germany, Czechoslovakia and Hungary. He also encouraged them to introduce glasnost and perestroika in their countries. The East German government was isolated and weak. Public protests grew in number, calling for reforms and a relaxation of the border between East and West Germany. Still, it came as a surprise when on 9 November 1989, East German soldiers finally allowed people to pass through checkpoints. Families from the two sides of the city reunited, and for weeks, people came to the wall with hammers and other tools, to chip away at the hated barrier. The Berlin Wall had fallen, and the two Germanys were reunified within a year.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

The Berlin Wall stood, since 1962, as a concrete representation of the way the Iron Curtain divided Europe. In 1987, the fiercely anti-communist US President Ronald Reagan – who had in 1983 described the USSR as an ‘evil empire’ – visited the wall and delivered one of the most famous speeches of the Cold War. Before an audience of 20 000 West Berliners, Reagan challenged Gorbachev to show that he was serious in his reforms, and ‘tear down this wall’. In 1988, Gorbachev reformed Soviet foreign policy by cutting off economic and military support to member states of the Warsaw Pact. He removed Soviet tank divisions and withdrew

…

Source 11.10.7 East German soldiers stand by as the Berlin Wall is dismantled, November 1989. How would you describe the body language of the soldiers?

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The end of the Iron Curtain Russia, Boris Yeltsin, a former communist who had become independent, headed off the coup and became the real powerbroker. At the end of 1991, he established the Commonwealth of Independent States with Belarus and Ukraine, Gorbachev resigned, and the Soviet Union was no more.

coup d’état a violent and illegal attempt by a military group to overthrow a government

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Independence movements quickly emerged. When unpopular communist governments lost the backing of the USSR, they collapsed. This was mostly achieved through non-violence, such as the ‘Velvet Revolution’ in Czechoslovakia and general strikes calling for freedom of religion and democracy organised by the ‘Solidarity’ workers’ trade union in Poland. Solidarity’s charismatic leader, Lech Wałe˛sa, won a huge majority in Poland’s first free elections. At the border between Hungary and Austria, people held a ‘PanEuropean Picnic’ in August 1989. The Iron Curtain was finally opening.

Low-res

Change occurred differently across the 15 republics of the Soviet Union. Gorbachev planned to allow them to develop democracy, but not independence. However, the governments that were elected supported independence, and began to break away, starting in the Baltic states. Attempts to keep the USSR together by force failed.

Source 11.10.8 Cartoon by Estonian-born American cartoonist Edmund Valtman, published in American newspapers, 31 August 1991. What does the symbol represent and why is it broken? How would you describe Gorbachev’s body language?

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In August 1991, senior communists tried to stage a coup d’état, arrest Gorbachev and seize control of the country. The newly elected leader of

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11.10 Review questions 1 2 3 4 5

Identify the two policies that Mikhail Gorbachev introduced to reform the Soviet Union. Explain the unintended consequences of Gorbachev’s policies. Discuss the significance of the fall of the Berlin Wall. Explain what happened when communist governments lost the backing of the USSR. Research the status of nuclear weapons around the world, using the online resource of the Bulletin of Atomic Scientists, at: https://cambridge.edu.au/redirect/11430. How successful was arms control?

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11.11

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What perspectives emerged about the end of the Cold War? Learning intention

Having learned about glasnost and perestroika and the end of the Iron Curtain, you will now explore the debate over why the Cold War ended in the way that it did.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

Step in, step out, step back

Step in: Imagine you were a person standing in this line. What do you think you might feel, believe, know or experience? Step out: What would you like or need to learn to understand these people’s perspective better?

Step back: What do you notice about your own perspective and what it takes to take somebody else’s?

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Source 11.11.1 The queue outside the first McDonald’s in Moscow on its opening day, January 1990. 5000 customers waited up to five hours in the queue to buy a burger, which cost as much as a monthly bus pass.

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Did anyone win the Cold War? state too soon? Did ordinary people make the most difference? People who had led nations and movements during the Cold War also contributed their perspectives, often to defend their reputations.

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When the Cold War ended, journalists and historians began to analyse why. Did Ronald Reagan win the Cold War, by increasing the pressure on communists? Did Gorbachev lose the Cold War, by dismantling the Soviet

Concepts and skills builder 11.11

Analysing historical perspectives and evaluating historical interpretations Examine the following sources and then answer the questions that follow.

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What we may be witnessing is not just the end of the Cold War, or the passing of a particular period of postwar history, but the end of history as such: that is, the end point of mankind’s ideological evolution and the universalization of Western liberal democracy as the final form of human government.

Source 11.11.2 Francis Fukuyama, The End of History?, 1989

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He [Ronald Reagan] won the Cold War without firing a shot.

Source 11.11.3 UK Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher, 1990

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The end of the cold war has been a victory for all humanity. A year and a half ago, in Germany, I said that our goal was a Europe whole and free. Tonight, Germany is united. Europe has become whole and free, and America’s leadership was instrumental in making it possible.

Source 11.11.4 US President George Bush, State of the Union speech, January 1991

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Although it has become fashionable to credit the Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev with ending the Cold War, in truth it was the Reagan administration that forced Moscow down a path of reform that ultimately led to drastic disarmament and the end of the Soviet empire in eastern Europe.

Source 11.11.5 Niall Ferguson, ‘How to Win the New Cold War’, Foreign Affairs journal, January 2025, p. 26

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We are living in a new world: An end has been put to the Cold War, and the arms race and the insane militarization of the country, which disfigured our economy and the public consciousness and morals, have been halted. The threat of a world war has been removed. … The changes ran up against our intolerance, low level of political sophistication, and fear of change. … The old system collapsed before a new one had time to begin working.

Source 11.11.6 Mikhail Gorbachev, Resignation speech, December 1991

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Gorbachev did not understand that, in a vast territory stretching from the Bug to the Kuriles, from Taimyr to Kushka, it was impossible to transform the psychology of the people overnight in one huge market-oriented melting pot … as a result, the country began to burst at the seams from an overload of ideas and schemes, before falling apart in tiny pieces.

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Source 11.11.7 Valery Boldin, former adviser to Gorbachev, Ten Years That Shook the World, translated by Evelyn Rossiter, New York: Basic Books, 1994, pp. 294, 296

The ending was, in a way, a ‘victory’ of the West, but … the role of longer-term processes within the Soviet Union (the erosion of ideology, the pent-up desire for relaxation) played a much greater role than the shortterm measures of the Reagan or Bush administrations.

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Source 11.11.8 Vladislav M. Zubok, ‘Why Did the Cold War End in 1989? Explanations of "The Turn"’, in Westad (ed.), Reviewing the Cold War, Routledge, 2001, p. 361

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Identify claims that credit US leaders with ending the Cold War. Identify counter-claims that credit other factors with ending the Cold War. Select three sources that argue that the end of the Cold War was significant, and explain their reasons. Analyse which two sources you find the most useful explanations of the end of the Cold War, and explain why.

Historical concepts and skills: historical significance, using historical sources

Russia after Gorbachev

When the Berlin Wall came down, an ambitious 37-year-old secret service agent proud to represent the Soviet Union at the KGB office in Dresden, East Germany, found himself surrounded by a crowd of anti-Russian protesters. He called the nearby Soviet base for backup, but got no reply. To his horror, he realised that Moscow had abandoned its agents and that he was on his own. The agent returned to Russia to look for a different job. He never forgave the Soviet leadership for allowing the USSR to fall apart, and eventually moved to Moscow to become a politician. His name was Vladimir Putin.

A decade later, the Russian government headed by Boris Yeltsin was in crisis and heavily in debt. Yeltsin chose Putin – first to run the new security service that had replaced the KGB, then as Prime Minister, and then as Acting President when Yeltsin resigned in December 1999. In the March 2000 elections, Putin won 54 per cent of the popular vote, and he has remained as leader ever since. Putin’s aim to rebuild part of the Soviet empire threatens a return to Cold War-like mistrust between world powers.

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The demise of the Soviet Union was the greatest geopolitical catastrophe of the century … As for the Russian people, it became a genuine tragedy. Tens of millions of our fellow citizens and countrymen found themselves beyond the fringes of Russian territory. Source 11.11.9 Russian President Vladimir Putin, State of the Union address, April 2005

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teams have been banned from Olympic Games and World Cup football finals, and sanctions were imposed on Russian companies. A further sign of the isolation came during the Covid pandemic, when Russia developed its own vaccine separately from global efforts, named Sputnik V.

sanctions economic penalties, e.g. bans on trade, imposed on a country to try to achieve policy outcomes

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After 2014, when Putin ordered the Russian army to annex the region of Crimea from Ukraine, Russia was increasingly isolated from international organisations. Putin lost his seat at the ‘G8’, for leaders of the world’s most industrialised economies, and the group became known as the G7. Russian

A new Cold War?

Putin has been described as starting a New Cold War. In 2021, he had the Russian Constitution changed to remove the restrictions on how long he could serve as president, making him the longest-serving leader since Stalin. When Russia invaded eastern Ukraine in February 2022 (which Putin claimed was ethnically Russian) and displaced millions of people, Russia was suspended from the UN Human Rights Council. However, Russia retains its permanent seat on the UN Security Council, meaning that Russia can veto any decision to which it objects.

The war in Ukraine echoed Cold War conflicts: It began in part because Ukraine’s president Volodymyr Zelenskyy wanted to join the NATO alliance, which Putin claimed threatened Russian security, and Western allies have not directly sent troops, but have committed heavily to support Ukraine. In 2024, President Putin made efforts to secure alliances around the world. Within a month, he visited three nations ruled by communist governments: China, where he signed a partnership for a

‘new era’ of cooperation with Xi Jinping; North Korea, where he signed a security pact with Kim Jong Un; and Vietnam, for energy cooperation. At the same time, Russian warships visited Cuba for joint military exercises.

Many of the weapons of mass destruction that were developed during the Cold War arms race remain. Thousands were dismantled under disarmament deals; however, Russia and the USA still possess over 5000 nuclear warheads each, 1500 of which are deployed on bombers or other missile delivery systems. The rest are stockpiled. There remains a division of opinion over whether nuclear weapons make the world safer because they deter conflict, or more dangerous, by creating fear and distrust. A non-government International Campaign to Abolish Nuclear Weapons (ICAN) was started by concerned citizens in Melbourne in 2007, and in 2017 resulted in a United Nations Treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons, to prevent ‘the catastrophic humanitarian consequences’ of nuclear conflict.

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Up until now there has been the uproar and screaming about inflicting a strategic defeat on Russia on the battlefield. Now they are apparently coming to realize that it is difficult to achieve, if possible at all. In my opinion, it is impossible by definition, it is never going to happen. … Everyone in the West thinks that the Russian people have been split by hostilities forever. No. They will be reunited. The unity is still there.

Source 11.11.10 Vladimir Putin, television interview with Tucker Carlson (USA), 2024

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on the world’s nine nuclear weapon states. Although Australians started the campaign for the treaty, the Australian government did not support or sign the treaty, due to its alliance with the United States.

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ICAN won the 2017 Nobel Peace Prize for their efforts. To date, over 90 member states of the United Nations have signed on. However, international treaties only apply to states that agree to sign them, so the ban has limited impact

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Source 11.11.11 The International Campaign to Abolish Nuclear Weapons won the Nobel Peace Prize in 2017. Setsuko Thurlow, of ICAN, and survivor of the nuclear attack on Hiroshima, poses with the Nobel Peace Prize in 2020.

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11.11 Review questions 1 2 3 4

Identify three reasons people gave to explain why the Cold War ended. Explain how Vladimir Putin’s Cold War experience shaped his views. Explain recent events that echo issues from the Cold War. Explain Australia’s role in efforts to ban nuclear weapons.

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11.12

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End of investigation review: How did regional and global conflict related to the Cold War affect the world after 1945? Access the Interactive Textbook for a range of digital tools to help you review this topic, including:

• Downloadable chapter summary • Scorcher timed competitive quiz.

Brain dump

What have you learnt about the Cold War? For this activity, copy the diagram and fill out by explaining your understanding. Aim for two points per topic.

Topic How the Cold War started Berlin crisis Cuban missile crisis Korean War Vietnam War The Space Race Afghanistan Chernobyl The end of the USSR

What I have learned

Making thinking visible

This exercise in visible thinking asks you to track the difference between what you knew about the Cold War before, and what new understandings you have acquired since reading this chapter. Using the stem sentences here, write a paragraph explaining what you previously knew about the topic. Then write another paragraph explaining what you now understand about the topic.

2A I used to think that the Cold War involved … 2B Now I think that the Cold War involved …

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2C I used to think that Americans and Russians were … 2D Now I think that Americans and Russians were … 2E A simple explanation for how the Cold War ended is … 2F A better explanation for how the Cold War ended is …

Practice questions

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1 Identify four wars or conflicts that occurred during the Cold War, including where and when they happened and who was involved. 2 Match each cause on the left with its consequence on the right.

Causes USA and USSR both developed nuclear weapons Stalin wanted to keep East and West separate Americans feared communist invasion Communist forces invaded from the north Soviet missiles were installed near the USA Superpowers wanted to prove their technical superiority Reporters showed people the realities of war The USSR suffered disasters in Afghanistan and Chernobyl Gorbachev introduced reforms to the communist system

Consequences Innocent people were accused of being traitors The superpowers came close to nuclear war A space race began An arms race began Public support for wars decreased The Iron Curtain The Soviet Union was weakened The Korean War and the Vietnam War The USSR changed rapidly and collapsed

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3 Select two pairs of causes and consequences that you have found the most interesting to learn about, and explain why you chose them, giving details.

Source 11.12.1 CBS News anchorman Walter Cronkite conducts an interview with an American officer during the

Tết Offensive, February 1968.

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4 Analyse the following artefact as a historical source, using the questions below. a When was this source created, in the context of the Cold War? b What does it show about conflicts during the Cold War? c What aspects of how the Cold War affected people’s lives does the source depict?

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d Explain how you could use the source to generate further research questions, and as evidence. 5 Perspectives and parallel narratives: There were at least two sides to all events and debates during the Cold War. Choose a key event from either the start, middle or end of the Cold War, and develop parallel narratives about its causes and effects. On the left side of the page / table, provide a narrative from the perspective of the East (e.g. Soviet) and on the right side, provide a narrative from the perspective of the West (e.g. American). Write at least one paragraph on each side. Then reflect on what the activity made you think.

Event: Eastern narrative:

Western narrative:

Reflection:

Response to chapter inquiry question: how did regional and global conflict related to the Cold War affect the world after 1945?

Write a paragraph in response to the inquiry question, using all the key terms listed below.

• superpower

• arms race

• ideology

• brinkmanship

• warfare

• space race

• containment

New Image to come getty 815005342

… Source 11.12.2

Soviet propaganda image from late 1947. In what ways is this a significant image from the early years of the Cold War?

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U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES Image: In Investigation 1, you will learn about environmental change and how it is managed around the world. In Investigation 2, you will study the ways that geography impacts our wellbeing as a species.

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Part 2

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Geography

Watch the video for an introduction to Geography in Year 10 and the geographical skills and concepts you will be working with.

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INVESTIGATION 1

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Environmental change and management

OVERVIEW

Environmental change and management examines the functions of the environment that support people’s lives and wellbeing, as well as ways of assessing the sustainability of these functions. Students identify environmental changes that threaten sustainability and therefore need management. Students examine the impacts of people’s attitudes, values and ways of thinking on their views of environment management, first generally and then through the ways of thinking and practices of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples. Students have the opportunity to examine the causes and consequences of a change within the context of a specific environmental issue and the strategies to manage the change, including the application of geographical concepts and methods. Source: VCAA, Victorian Curriculum V2.0, ‘Geography’, ‘Band description – Levels 9 and 10’

CURRICULUM GOALS

• How can geographical thinking help in understanding and responding to an environmental issue?

Source: VCAA, Victorian Curriculum V2.0, ‘Geography’, ‘Band description – Levels 9 and 10’

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CHAPTER 12

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How do environments change and what are the associated impacts?

LESSON TITLE 12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 12.6 12.7 12.8

Setting the scene: unsustainable tourism in Thailand What is an environment? What are the characteristics of different environments? What are the causes of environmental change? What are the impacts of environmental change? Is the fishing industry sustainable? Why is climate change both a cause and consequence of environmental change? How do people influence environmental change and sustainability?

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12.1

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Setting the scene: unsustainable tourism in Thailand Learning intention

This opening lesson considers some of the ways in which a seemingly innocent activity like visiting a tourist destination can cause a range of environmental changes.

erosion gradual wearing away and removal of rock, soil or sediment by wind, water or other natural forces

Despite its clear water, white sand and vibrant vegetation, Maya Bay’s characteristics did not completely suit what was needed for filming the movie. Therefore, some of the vegetation was removed and replaced with foreign palm species to match what viewers would perceive as a typical coastal paradise. This led to protests from local Thai environmentalists who were worried about the environmental sustainability of the site. After filming, the site was revegetated. However, since new plantings were not completely established, the dune system was left vulnerable to erosion. Although bamboo barriers were constructed to

protect the dunes, subsequent high tides and strong storms led to significant erosion and sand was washed into the sea, damaging the bay’s fragile coral reef.

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revegetation process of replanting vegetation on land that was previously degraded

You may have heard of an old movie released in 2000 called The Beach, starring Leonardo DiCaprio. It was a movie adaptation of a novel by Alex Garland. The story is about an American backpacker who discovers a secret beach in Thailand that is rumoured to be a pristine paradise, unspoiled by local people and tourists. In the real world, this place is known as Maya Bay and it is part of the island of Phi Phi Leh in southern Thailand. As shown in the aerial photo in Figure 12.1.1, the island is surrounded by limestone hills up to 100 metres tall, giving the 300-metre-long bay the allure of secrecy.

Figure 12.1.1 Movie poster for The Beach, starring Leonardo

DiCaprio

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Following the success of The Beach, Maya Bay became a tourist attraction. Visitors flocked to the site, craving the same experience as DiCaprio’s character in the movie. While they were expecting to find an isolated paradise, in reality they were faced with hordes of other visitors, ruining the very attraction they were coming to see. While the bay received an average of 171 daily visitors in 2008, this increased to over 5000 daily visitors in 2018 arriving on around 200 boats. Studies from Thailand’s Kasetsart University showed that approximately 90 per cent of the coral system had been damaged, largely from boat anchors, and that the site needed time to naturally recover. In response to this degradation, Thailand’s Department of National Parks, Wildlife and Plant Conservation closed the beach to visitors on 1 June 2018. As part of the rehabilitation efforts, coral was propagated from local species to help

restore the ecosystem, and a restriction was placed on boats, forcing them to remain 300 metres away from the shoreline. Although the closure was initially meant to last only four months, it was extended indefinitely to allow the environment time to fully recover.

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U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES Figure 12.1.2 Maya Bay is surrounded by steep limestone cliffs.

rehabilitate restoring an area of land back to its original state after it has been damaged

propagate to use existing plants to grow more specimens of the same plant

Figure 12.1.3 Thai environmentalists protest the opening

of The Beach.

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U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES ecological relating to the environment Gross Domestic Product measure of a country’s economic activity based on the total value of goods produced and services provided in that country in one year

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Figure 12.1.4 By 2018, Maya Bay was receiving up to 5000 visitors daily.

Early observations have shown that these steps have been successful in rehabilitating the site. Blacktip reef sharks have returned to the area, which is a sign of its returning ecological health. The site reopened to visitors in January 2022 with new tourism regulations. Numbers are capped at 2000 people per day and boats will be forced to use new infrastructure to reduce the impact on the coral reef. The bay is expected to close periodically to allow it to recover following busy tourism seasons.

Tourism is a vital industry in Thailand, accounting for an estimated 18 per cent of the country’s Gross Domestic Product. However, approximately 80 per cent of Thailand’s coral reefs have been destroyed due to pollution, damage from boat anchors and development of the coastline. Thailand’s natural environment is a drawcard for tourists. Therefore, its degradation is not only threatening its environmental sustainability, but also the economic sustainability of the tourism industry itself.

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12.1 Review questions Think, pair, share

Answer the following questions by considering both positive and negative impacts. Share your thoughts with a partner and justify your opinion. 1 Do you think tourism should be permanently banned in Maya Bay? 2 Would you visit Maya Bay? 3 Can you think of any examples of unsustainable tourism in Australia?

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12.2

What is an environment?

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Learning intention In this lesson, you will learn what environment means, the components that make up an environment and the ways in which environments can be classified.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

Describing an environment

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1 Describe the different features of the environment that you can see in Figure 12.2.1. 2 Have you ever seen an environment that is similar to this? Consider places you have been to, heard about in a book, or seen on television. 3 What connection to you think people might have with this place? How do you think people might use the place or have changed the place? Figure 12.2.1 An environment in Otago, New Zealand

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What is an environment? the forest floor. Non-living components such as the shape of a landscape, the amount of sunlight it receives, soil types and moisture levels determine the types of habitat within an environment and therefore the types of organisms that live there. As shown in Figure 12.2.2, these components can be broadly grouped as the atmosphere, lithosphere, hydrosphere and biosphere.

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habitat area of an environment in which an organism lives

The term ‘environment’ comes from the French word environ, meaning ‘that which surrounds’. In geography we define the environment as being all the living and non-living components within and surrounding a place. In a forest environment, living components range from the tallest tree receiving the most sunlight right down to the tiniest insects breaking down plant matter on

ecosystem community of living organisms that interact with the non-living components within an environment

Atmosphere: the thin, fragile layer of gases that surround the Earth

ATMOSPHERE

photosynthesis process by which plants convert solar energy and carbon dioxide into glucose and oxygen

fossil fuels resources such as coal and gas that are formed from the buried and decaying remains of organisms

Lithosphere: the Earth’s crust, including landforms, rock and soil

Biosphere: living matter on Earth, including all plant and animal life forms

LITHOSPHERE

Crust Mantle

Hydrosphere: the water on the Earth's surface and its atmosphere, including water in gaseous, liquid and solid form

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respiration when living organisms release carbon dioxide during the production of energy such as when food is consumed

BIOSPHERE

process series of natural steps or human actions that lead to change

Figure 12.2.2 The hydrosphere, lithosphere and atmosphere together support the biosphere, which contains all

the living things within an environment.

What is an ecosystem?

An ecosystem is a community of living organisms that interact with the non-living components within an environment. Elements of an ecosystem are interconnected through processes such as nutrient cycles and energy transfers. For example, Figure 12.2.3 shows the different processes within the carbon cycle. In the carbon cycle,

carbon dioxide is released from organisms during respiration and absorbed from the atmosphere into plant material via photosynthesis. Dead and decaying organisms release carbon back to the atmosphere. Organic matter that doesn’t break down turns into fossil fuels such as coal, which is a resource used by people.

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Figure 12.2.3 The carbon cycle

Concepts and skills builder 12.2 Interpreting a flowchart

Figure 12.2.3 is a flowchart of the carbon cycle. It demonstrates the way that carbon moves between plants, animals and microbes from the earth’s crust up into the atmosphere. Flowcharts are diagrams that use arrows to show processes and links between parts of a process. Key terms within this flowchart include: Combustion: The process of burning something such as coal or wood Assimilation: The incorporation of carbon from the atmosphere into organic molecules Respiration: When living organisms release carbon dioxide during the production of energy Decomposition: The release of carbon when dead organisms are broken down by bacteria and fungi.

• • • •

Analyse the carbon cycle flowchart to help answer the following questions:

1 List three ways that carbon moves into the atmosphere as carbon dioxide. 2 List three ways carbon moves from the atmosphere back to the earth’s surface. 3 State which of the processes in the cycle are due to human actions. Geographical concepts and skills: environment, interconnection

What is biodiversity?

Biodiversity is defined as the variety of living things within an environment, including plants, animals and microorganisms. It is an important measure of the health of an environment. The natural components and processes

within a healthy environment help to maintain high levels of biodiversity. On the other hand, when the biodiversity of an environment is reduced it is a sign that the environment has been modified, damaged or has experienced degradation.

biodiversity the variety of living things within an environment, including plants, animals and microorganisms – the more living things in an environment, the higher its biodiversity degradation reduction in the quality and health of a natural environment due to natural processes or human activities

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geographic characteristics physical and human characteristics of a place

Geographers classify environments based on their combinations of geographic characteristics. In land-based environments, these include climate, elevation, topography, vegetation and soil types. In marine environments, characteristics include water quality and depth. The location of a place often plays a large role in determining its environment. For example, a forest found near the equator within the tropical climate zone, such as a forest in Indonesia, is likely to have a consistently warm temperature and experience high rainfall. It will therefore be classified as a tropical rainforest. However, a

forest located within in a wet temperate zone, like a forest in Tasmania, will be classified as a cool temperate rainforest. The characteristics of human or built environments vary significantly based on their population density and features such as roads, buildings and land uses.

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climate long-term trends in the weather conditions of a place; for example, average rainfall and temperature

How are environments classified?

elevation the height of a place above sea level

topography relief, or shape, of the surface of a landscape

vegetation all the types of plants found in a place; for example, grasses, shrubs and trees

Although environments can be classified based on similar characteristics, they can also vary greatly within these classifications. Figure 12.2.4 shows three distinct examples of coastal environments that vary based on the natural processes that formed them and their level of modification by people.

population density number of people per square kilometre

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water quality condition of water in terms of its chemical, physical and biological properties

Figure 12.2.4 Three distinct examples of coastal environments: Apollo Bay, south-western Victoria (left), Waianapanapa

Beach, Maui, Hawaii (middle), Surfer’s Paradise, Gold Coast, southeastern Queensland (right)

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12.2 Review questions

1 Define the following terms, providing an example where appropriate: a environment c biodiversity e lithosphere g biosphere. b ecosystem d atmosphere f hydrosphere 2 List some of the non-living components in an environment that can determine the types of plants and animals living there. 3 ‘Biodiversity is the most important measure of the health of an environment.’ Explain what this statement means and discuss whether you agree with it. 4 Describe the differences in the characteristics of the three coastal environments shown in Figure 12.2.4.

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12.3

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What are the characteristics of different environments? Learning intention

This lesson introduces the difference between environment types and their characteristics.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

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Describing the characteristics of different environments

Figure 12.3.1 The Amazon rainforest, Brazil (left) and the Dandenong Ranges, Victoria (right)

Figure 12.3.1 depicts two forest environments that share some common characteristics but are also very different. The Amazon Rainforest is a tropical rainforest covering more than five million square km in the northern region of South America. The Dandenong Ranges is located 35 km east of Melbourne’s CBD. It is a temperate rainforest dominated by Mountain Ash trees with an undergrowth of tree ferns. 1 In a table, list the similarities and differences of the two forests shown in Figure 12.3.1. Consider the density and diversity of the vegetation (trees, shrubs and grasses). 2 Search online to find additional images of these forests and use Google Earth to view these places from above using satellite imagery. Add any observations to your table. 3 Suggest a reason why you think these forests have different characteristics.

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Common types of environments environments and their characteristics. Urban environments might seem like a strange inclusion; however, human environments are becoming increasingly common as humans continue to modify natural environments to suit their needs.

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This unit explores many different types of environments, many of which may already be somewhat familiar to you from places you have visited or from the settings of some of your favourite movies or television series. Table 12.3.1 summarises five common types of

floodplain the area of flat, low-lying land beside a river which is prone to flooding

Table 12.3.1 Descriptions of five types of environments

Type of environment Terrestrial

riparian relating to the banks of a river or lake

continental shelf part of the edge of a continent that is submerged beneath shallow ocean salinity measure of the amount of salt in water or soil acidity measure of the amount of acid in water, measured using the pH scale

turbidity measure of the transparency, or cloudiness, of a liquid, caused by the concentration of suspended particles within it dissolved oxygen amount of oxygen contained in water, used by aquatic organisms for respiration

estuaries environments in which the mouth of a freshwater river meets the open sea wetland place where stagnant or flowing water covers the soil at various times throughout a year

Freshwater

Coastal

Marine

Urban

Description Terrestrial, or land, environments are likely the first type that come to mind when considering different types of environments. They include different types of forests from dense tropical rainforest to drier temperate woodlands. They also include deserts, grasslands, mountain ranges and ice environments such as Antarctica. Land environments vary greatly based on climate (see Figure 12.3.6), soil types, elevation, vegetation and topography. Freshwater environments include rivers, lakes and wetlands, and the landscapes that surround them. As rivers flow, they erode the landscape, transport sediment and deposit it downstream. These processes create distinctive landforms such as valleys, waterfalls and floodplains. Freshwater bodies contain aquatic plants within the water and riparian vegetation along banks that maintain the health of ecosystems. Coastal environments are the link between the land and sea. They transition from components typically found in inland environments, such as dune vegetation, to components typically found in marine environments, such as coral reefs. Coastal environments are dynamic, meaning they are constantly changing. This is due to process driven by the action of the tides, wind and waves. Oceans are the largest environment on Earth covering 71 per cent of its surface. Marine environments can be divided into two main categories: Coastal and open ocean. The coastal zone includes areas as far inland as a high tide can reach, and as far out as the edge of the continental shelf. Marine environments vary based on water temperature, salinity, acidity, turbidity, nutrient levels and the degree of dissolved oxygen. Urban environments are places that have been highly modified by people and are dominated by manufactured materials. Examples include dense cities such as Melbourne, including its outer suburbs, and regional centres such as Ballarat. The Australian Bureau of Statistics defines urban environments as places that contain at least 1000 residents and have a population density of more than 200 people per square kilometre.

Environments do not exist in isolation. In fact, some of the most unique ecosystems are found where these environments meet. For examples, estuaries are environments in which the mouth of a freshwater river meets the open sea, providing a habitat containing a mix of riverine and marine characteristics (Figure 12.3.2). Wetlands are places where stagnant or flowing water covers

the soil at various times throughout a year (Figure 12.3.3). They act like giant sponges, absorbing and filtering excess nutrients and pollutants from freshwater, which supports the health of rivers and creeks. During high rainfall events, rivers flood outwards onto the landscape, depositing rich sediment over floodplains, recharging wetlands and maintaining the health of nearby forests (Figure 12.3.4).

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Figure 12.3.3 Loch McNess (Nyungar: Wagardu Lark), a coastal freshwater lake that forms part of a series of wetlands near Perth, Western Australia

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Figure 12.3.2 The Daintree River flows into the ocean near Cape Tribulation, Queensland, and provides a unique habitat for species such as estuarine crocodiles.

land cover the physical land type covering the Earth’s surface including vegetation, water, ice and bare soil latitude the angular distance of a place north or south of the earth’s equator

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Figure 12.3.4 The Lake Eyre Basin in central Australia, known by the local Arabana people as Kati Thanda, is a dry and salty lakebed covering around one-sixth of Australia’s land area. Roughly every three years, this barren landscape becomes a thriving oasis as floodwaters travel more than 1000 km down rivers such as Warburton River to recharge the basin.

The spatial distribution of land environments Figure 12.3.5 shows the spatial distribution of land cover across the globe. This distribution is based on a range of factors including:

• Latitude, which broadly determines climate zones • How close a place is to the coast • Elevation, which can determine rainfall and temperature

Key 0 Water 1 Evergreen needleleaf forest 2 Evergreen broadleaf forest 3 Deciduous needleleaf forest 4 Decidous broadleaf forest 5 Mixed forest

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• The presence of major landforms, such as mountain ranges.

6 Closed shrublands 7 Open shrublands 8 Woody savannas 9 Savannas 10 Grasslands 11 Permanent wetlands

12 Croplands 13 Urban and built-up 14 Cropland/natural vegetation varieties 15 Snow and ice 16 Barren or sparsely vegetated 17 Tundra

4000 km

Figure 12.3.5 The global distribution of land cover

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3 February 2024, was hot and dry with a minimum of 20.0°C and a maximum of 36.7°C. Based on Melbourne’s climate, the weather in February is usually between an average of 14 and 25.3°C and so the weather on this date was above the seasonal average. Figure 12.3.6 shows the climate ranges for different land environments based on temperature and precipitation.

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precipitation any type of water that falls from the atmosphere onto Earth’s surface, such as rain, snow, sleet or hail

Climate is one of the main factors determining the type of environment found in a particular location. Climate is defined as the long-term average weather of a place including its average rainfall and temperature. It is not to be confused with weather, which is the temperature and precipitation at a particular time. For example, the weather in Melbourne on

Annual precipitation (cm)

400

Tropical rainforest

300

Tem

200

Temperate seasonal forest

100

Boreal forest

… Figure 12.3.6 Precipitation and

temperature are the two main climate factors that determine the type of terrestrial environment that will exist in a place.

rest

info

te ra pera

–10

Woodland/ shrubland

assland/ Temperate gr cold desert

d Tun

Tropical seasonal forest/ savanna

0 10 20 Average annual temperature (°C)

Subtropical desert

Concepts and skills builder 12.3 Determining environments based on climate

Figure 12.3.6 shows the precipitation and temperature ranges for different types of terrestrial environments. For example, temperate season forests have an annual precipitation of between 50 mm and 230 mm and a temperature range between 6°C and 22°C. Tropical rainforests exist in areas that receive over 240 mm of rainfall and have a temperature range of between 22°C and 30°C. 1 Using Figure 12.3.6, draw a table summarising the annual precipitation and average temperature ranges for each type of terrestrial environment. 2 Mount Dandenong averages 116.6 mm of rainfall annually and has an average maximum temperature of 15.2°C. Which type of environment would this place be classified as based on climate? 3 Mildura averages 28.6 mm of rainfall annually and has an average maximum temperature of 24.0°C. Which type of environment would this place be classified as based on climate? 4 Innisfail in northern Queensland averages 354.9 mm of rainfall annually and has an average maximum temperature of 28.0°C. Which type of environment would this place be classified as based on climate? Geographical concepts and skills: environment, interconnection, place, space

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east. This makes it the second driest place on earth behind the McMurdo Dry Valleys in Antarctica.

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While factors like latitude and climate zone are often a large determinant of the type of environment found at a location, there are many cases when the combination of additional factors have a big influence. Southern Peru and northern Chile on the western coast of South America are located north of the Tropic of Capricorn, which should be classified as a subtropical climate and therefore should be a similar environment to the Amazon rainforest to the east. However, this location is extremely dry and is known as the Atacama Desert. This is because it is located in a rain shadow in which the coastal mountains, known as the Chilean Coast Range, stop rain coming from the west, and the Andes mountain range blocks rain from coming from the

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Figure 12.3.7 The Atacama Desert, northern Chile, is the second driest place on Earth, averaging just 15 mm of rainfall each year with some regions receiving less than 3 mm.

Amazing but true…

The Atacama Desert has been used by NASA as a test site for rovers prior to missions to Mars because of the similarities with the Martian landscape.

Lesson 12.3 review Online quiz

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12.3 Review questions

1 Figures 12.3.1 to 12.3.4 and 12.3.7 are photographs of some unique and contrasting environments. Describe the characteristics of each of these environments including the shape of the landscape, the presence or absence of water, and the characteristics of the vegetation. 2 Explain what an estuary is and why they are unique environments. 3 Use Figure 12.3.5 to answer the following: a Name three places that have barren or sparsely vegetated land. b Name the dominant type of land cover in South America. c Latitude is a major factor determining the type of environment and land cover that exists at different locations. Find evidence that supports this idea and examples that do not. 4 Explain why northern Chile is a desert despite being located within a subtropical climate zone.

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12.4

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

What are the causes of environmental change? Learning intention

This lesson introduces some of the causes of environmental change due to both natural processes and human activities.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

Analysing the effects of environmental changes

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1 List the environmental changes that might occur due to a large-scale bushfire or the widespread deforestation of a natural forest, as shown in Figure 12.4.1. 2 Explain why bushfires might be considered both a natural and human cause of environmental change. 3 What evidence suggests that the deforestation in the second image has caused by people rather than a natural process?

Figure 12.4.1 Changes to forests in British Colombia, Canada, due to bushfires (left) and deforestation (right)

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The causes of environmental change As populations grow and technology improves, people are having an increasingly large impact on environments. For example, people are able to permanently remove an entire forest, dam a large river or drain a wetland to create farmland. When these disturbances are large enough, ecosystems are unable to recover, leading to permanent changes. The ways people cause environmental changes can be direct or indirect. Clearing a forest to create grazing land for cattle is a direct change because it involved physically changing the land cover. However, population growth is an indirect cause as it leads to a subsequent increase in demand for food which then drives deforestation.

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Natural environments are dynamic. This means they are constantly changing. On a local scale, environments change owing to the processes occurring within an ecosystem such as photosynthesis, nutrient cycling or erosion. Despite these constant changes, undisturbed natural environments are usually in a state of equilibrium. This means that all the components and processes within an ecosystem are balanced. For example, if a tree dies within a forest, it will decay and add nutrients to the soil. Its death provides space and food so that a new tree can grow in its place. Natural disturbances such as landslides and bushfires can temporarily disrupt an environment’s balance and lead to significant changes until a system once again reaches a state of equilibrium.

state of equilibrium a balance between all the components within an ecosystem

Classifying factors that cause environmental change The circumstances that contribute to changes are known as factors. Factors determine the reasons for and the extent of environmental changes. For example, the development of a luxury hotel on a coastline might be driven by the opportunity for profit, which is an economic factor. Residential development might be occurring nearby to house a growing population, which is a social factor. Government regulations will

determine where these developments are allowed to occur and the scale of the development – these are political factors. The scale and type of development will also be determined by environmental factors such as the shape of the landscape and risks associated with sealevel rise and flooding. Factors can be grouped into different classifications to help understand links and patterns. These classifications are listed in Table 12.2.

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Table 12.4.1 Factors can be classified using the acronym SHEEPT (Social, Historical, Economic, Environmental, Political, Technological)

Classification Description Social Factors relating to people, including culture, values, religion, population structure, education and ethnicity Historical Factors relating to actions or events from the past that might influence the present Economic Factors relating to the earning or spending of money Environmental/ Factors relating to the influence of the characteristics of natural or human environments Physical Political Factors relating to governments and the impacts of their decisions Technological Factors relating to the influence and uses of difference types of technology

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Forest loss and protection in Ethiopia places of worship. This has resulted in religious leaders protecting forests close to churches, while forests further away from churches have been cleared. These uncleared forests have created pockets of high biodiversity, providing a habitat for insects that can help to pollinate crops. This has made the farmland near churches more productive. Seeds from these forests are also being used to revegetate surrounding regions in an attempt to once again change the environment back to its original form.

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Over the last century, Ethiopia’s forest cover has reduced from 45 per cent to just 5 per cent. The main factor driving this environmental change has been rapid population growth and the resulting increase in demand for firewood and agricultural land. Despite rapid deforestation, around 35 000 forests remain in the areas surrounding Ethiopia’s churches (see Figure 12.4.2), ranging in size from 3 to 300 hectares. Orthodox Tewahedo churches in Ethiopia view forests as spiritual environments and

deforestation process of clearing land to turn a forest environment into a different type of land for uses such as agricultural, residential or urban

… Figure 12.4.2

Forests surrounding churches are the last remaining examples of the lush forest that once covered Ethiopia.

Concepts and skills builder 12.4 Using satellite imagery to collect data

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Figure 12.4.3

Geography skills video: Digital skills: Using a GIS – Google Earth satellite imagery

Figure 12.4.2 is an example of satellite imagery – a photo taken by a satellite orbiting the Earth. As technology improves, satellite imagery is becoming an increasingly useful way of viewing land cover and tracking environmental changes, especially in remote areas. Although there are many types of satellite imagery, one of the most common and easy to access is via Google Earth. In an article for the Nature journal in 2019, Alemayehu Wassie Eshete wrote, ‘If you see a forest in Ethiopia, you know there is very likely to be a church in the middle’. Evaluate this statement using evidence from satellite imagery by following these steps or by accessing the video tutorial. 1 Open Google Earth and search for Anbesame, a town to the southeast of Lake Tana. 2 Zoom into forest regions within a 20-km radius. 3 Count how many church forests you can find like the one shown in Figure 12.4.2, and how many forests you can find without churches. Adding placemarks might help you record your findings 4 Evaluate Wassie’s statement by stating the degree to which you agree based on the data you have collected. Geographical concepts and skills: environment, interconnection, place, space

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The Great Pacific garbage patch the marine environment. As a result, microplastics have been found in 210 fish species consumed by humans. There have been many attempts to clear the oceans of plastic. The Ocean Cleanup is a company aiming to help restore the marine environment by removing pollution in the patch and by intercepting plastic in rivers before it enters the ocean. Long U-shaped barriers are used to create artificial coastlines that guide the plastic to where it can be collected, removed and sorted. The Ocean Cleanup aims to clean up 90 per cent of floating plastic pollution by 2040.

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Between Hawaii and California there is a massive accumulation of plastic debris floating in the North Pacific Ocean. It is known as the Great Pacific Garbage Patch and covers an estimated 1.6 million square km! The sources of the debris include discarded fishing nets and singleuse plastics such as packaging and bottles. The patch is growing with around two million tonnes of plastic washed out to the ocean each year which are carried to the patch by wind and ocean currents. These plastics eventually break down into smaller particles known as microplastics where they continue to cause harm to

microplastics small pieces of plastic less than five millimetres in length

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Figure 12.4.4 The Ocean Cleanup is a company that tows floating U-shaped barriers to trap and remove floating plastic from the Great Pacific Garbage Patch.

Lesson 12.4 review Online quiz

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Research task

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12.4 Review questions

1 Define environmental change. In your definition, include one example due to natural causes and one due to human activity. 2 Using the SHEEPT acronym, classify the following factors that could lead to environmental change:

a A State government has decided to widen a highway requiring the clearing of roadside vegetation b Tractors provided to a remote village in Bhutan are allowing local people to grow crops in mountainous regions c A residential construction boom in the outer Melbourne suburbs has led to a demand for Merbau timber from Indonesia d Celebrities have taken selfies at remote natural locations, leading to a rapid growth in local tourism.

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12.5

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What are the impacts of environmental change? Learning intention

This lesson explores four common ways in which changes to environments lead to a range of positive and negative impacts: land degradation, habitat fragmentation, river regulation and pest and weed infestation.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson. See, think, wonder

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1 See: describe the scene shown in Figure 12.5.1. 2 Think: the Aral Sea, Central Asia, was formerly the third-largest lake in the world. What do you think must have happened to turn it into a barren wasteland? 3 Wonder: suggest three impacts that might have resulted from this environmental change.

Figure 12.5.1 Abandoned ships within a barren wasteland are all that remain of the Aral Sea’s fishing industry.

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The impacts of environmental change unsustainable agricultural practices (see Table 12.5.1). Removing forests to increase agricultural land in Ethiopia has led to short-term economic and social benefits for many local people by lifting them out of poverty and increasing their quality of life. However, in the long term it has led to widespread land degradation through soil erosion, which has reduced crop productivity, caused a loss of rural livelihoods and threatened wildlife habitats.

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Environmental changes lead to a range of positive and negative consequences, which geographers call impacts. Some of these impacts are environmental, affecting both human and natural environments. Others are social, affecting peoples’ lives, or economic, affecting different aspects of the economy. Although environmental changes often lead to predominantly negative environmental impacts, there are often economic or social benefits that are driving the change. For example, the Aral Sea, located between Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan, was once a large lake covering 68 000 square km and supporting a thriving fishing industry. In the 1960s, the rivers that supplied water to the lake were diverted so that the water could be used for irrigation. Since then, most of the lake has dried up and has become a desert, destroying the local fishing and agricultural industries and causing one of history’s worst environmental disasters (see Figure 12.5.1).

Land degradation

Land degradation refers to a reduction in the quality of soils within an environment, which reduces the productivity of land for agriculture as well as its ability to support an ecosystem or environment. There are several types of land degradation, including soil erosion, increased salinity, desertification (see Lesson 13.6) and a decline in soil fertility. In some cases, land degradation occurs due to natural processes. For example, high-intensity monsoonal rains can erode precious topsoil layers, while dry conditions during a drought can make topsoil vulnerable to wind erosion. However, land degradation is predominantly due to human activities. Land shortages, poverty and rapid population growth can force communities to cultivate food on less productive land and to increase the yield by using

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Table 12.5.1 Examples of human activities that can lead to land degradation

Human activity Cause of land degradation Deforestation The removal of trees makes the soil vulnerable to erosion from wind and water Overgrazing Intensive grazing of livestock does not allow vegetation to recover from trampling, compaction of the soil or the overconsumption of vegetation Over-cultivation Excessive cultivation of land degrades soil quality, reducing its ability to grow crops in the future Excessive Irrigation can cause the water irrigation table to rise, bringing salt to the surface and increasing the salinity of the soil

irrigation the practice of supplying land with water so that crops and plants will grow soil fertility ability of soil to grow plants, especially in agriculture soil erosion the wearing away and removal of the topsoil layer, usually by wind or water

land degradation a reduction in the quality of soil within an environment water table the level below the surface of the ground at which you start to find water

Habitat fragmentation

Habitat fragmentation is when a large area of continuous habitat is divided into a number of smaller areas. This changes the spatial distribution of the remaining habitat, leaving populations of species isolated and eliminating the interconnection between them. Habitat fragmentation can occur naturally due to events such as large-scale bushfires or lava flows following a volcanic eruption.

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Fragmentation

Interior habitat with interior species Edge habitat with edge species

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Interior habitat and interior species decrease Edge habitat and edge species increase

not have suitable conditions in terms of shade, temperature and wind protection. Habitat fragmentation also leads to a reduction in genetic diversity. Fragmented animal populations have a smaller pool of breeding partners. This can lead to genetic abnormalities, increased vulnerability to disease and even local extinction.

Figure 12.5.2 Habitat fragmentation turns one large environment into

multiple, smaller environments.

flow regulation controlling a river’s flow, water level and variability to meet the demands of domestic, industrial and agricultural use

However, humans are more often responsible for habitat fragmentation through actions like logging forests for agriculture, urban development and the construction of roads and railway lines.

The main impact of habitat fragmentation is the reduction in the size of a habitat. This impacts larger species that need large areas in which to roam. It also increases competition among species for food and other resources. Figure 12.5.2 demonstrates how some species that adapted to living within an environment, such as the interior of a forest, can find themselves living on what are now the edges of that environment. This new habitat may

River regulation

All civilisations rely on inland water sources for their survival. As such, inland water sources are among the most modified and degraded environments on Earth. One of the biggest changes to river environments is flow regulation through the construction of dams. By constructing dams, rivers are regulated to ensure they provide a reliable supply of water for agricultural and urban uses. However, as shown in Figure 12.5.3, flow regulation causes a range of negative impacts on river environments by reducing the flow of sediment and movement of fish through the river system. While dams protect cities and agricultural environments from flooding, this in turn stops floodwaters from recharging nearby water-dependent environments such as wetlands.

Rotting vegetation releases greenhouse gases and reduces water quality

Dam walls blocks fish migration and can prevent successful fish breeding

Transportation of sediment is blocked, which damages downstream habitats

Dam flow regulation alters the natural flow of rivers and prevents flood cycles

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If dams fail or overflow then the rapid of stored water can severely flood downstream communities

Figure 12.5.3 Damming rivers provides a reliable water supply, but creates a

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Pest and weed infestation

indigenous species particular species of vegetation that occur naturally within an environment

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Pests and weeds are plants and animals that have been introduced into an environment in which they do not naturally occur. Pest animals such as cane toads, foxes, rabbits and deer have been introduced to Australia since colonisation. Introduced predators such as foxes and feral cats have led to the direct extinction of many of Australia’s native species, while other introduced species have indirectly impacted native species by competing for food and habitat resources. Larger pests such as deer, horses and pigs damage native vegetation and soils through grazing and by compacting the soil.

Invasive weeds are a serious threat to both natural and rural environments. They typically produce large numbers of seeds to help them to spread over vast areas and out-compete local species for water, sunlight, nutrients and space. As weeds establish over large regions, they reduce the biodiversity and abundance of indigenous species, including the animals that rely on those plants for habitat. The spread of weeds can cause havoc for farmers by decreasing agricultural outputs and affecting profits. A study by the Cooperative Research Centre for Australian Weed Management estimated that weeds cost Australian farmers around A$1.5 billion each year in weed management and a further A$2.5 billion in lost agricultural production.

Weeds are broadly defined as plants growing where they are not wanted.

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Figure 12.5.4 Eucalypts are native to Australia, but have been introduced to many places around the world, like this farm in California.

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Amazing but true… exotic species nonindigenous plant species that have been introduced to an area

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native species species that are from a particular country, but not necessarily indigenous to the local region

While many exotic species of plants grow as weeds and change Australian environments, many Australian native species are causing the same impacts overseas. Many species of Eucalypts, such as blue gum, were planted around the world as a source of timber. These species now grow out of control in places such as California, replacing local indigenous species and leading to an increased bushfire risk.

Concepts and skills builder 12.5

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Using a Geographic Information System to collect and analyse data

Figure 12.5.5

Geography skills video: Digital skills: Using a GIS – FeralScan

A geographic information system (GIS) is a form of technology used to gather, manage and analyse spatial information such as the prevalence of pest species. Geographers can organise this data in layers using interactive maps to compare data sets at various scales and over various time periods. FeralScan is an example of a tool that uses GIS to record and manage the spread of pest species. Users are able to use the phone app to log sightings of various pest species, which are uploaded to a GIS database.

Visit the Australian government’s FeralScan website and choose a pest species to track. Either use the steps below or follow along via the video tutorial. 1 Click on the map of Australia in the top right corner. Based on this map, in which regions of Australia is this pest the most prevalent? 2 Zoom into Victoria and compare the distribution of your pest species in rural and urban locations. 3 Click on ‘Select Data’ on the top right of screen and change the reporting period to explore how the distribution of sightings changed over various years. 4 FeralScan relies on local citizens to upload data using a mobile app. Why do you think this is an essential part of managing pests and weeds? What challenges does this create? Geographical concepts and skills: environment, interconnection, place, space

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Lesson 12.5 review Online quiz

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12.5 Review questions

1 Using Table 12.5.1, write a paragraph or draw a diagram explaining how land shortages, poverty, population growth and unsustainable agricultural practices can lead to land degradation. 2 Explain the causes of habitat fragmentation and its environmental impacts. 3 Discuss why constructing dams to regulate the flow of rivers can have both positive and negative impacts. 4 Summarise the ways in which pests and weeds can impact the natural environment. Research some examples to include in your summary.

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12.6

Is the fishing industry sustainable?

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Learning intention This lesson focuses on overfishing as an example of an impact of environmental change due to unsustainable practices.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

See, think, wonder

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1 See: what is your initial reaction to seeing Figure 12.6.1? 2 Think: why do you think this situation has occurred? 3 Wonder: what questions do you have about this situation?

Figure 12.6.1 A shark caught as bycatch during a commercial fishing operation

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What is overfishing? considerably, with some populations consuming more than 100 kg of fish per person each year. Current rates of fishing are increasing to meet this growing demand, which is leading to overfishing. At the current rate in which fishing occurs, fish stocks are not able to be naturally replenished at a fast enough rate, leading to a decline in supply and impacting marine environments.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

overfishing the taking of fish at a rate that the species cannot replenish itself

Over 140 million tonnes of seafood are consumed by people each year, serving as a daily source of protein for 1.2 billion people. As the global population continues to rise, so does the demand for seafood. Seafood consumption has doubled over the last 50 years to more than 20 kg per person per year. Figure 12.6.2 shows that the global distribution of the amount of fish consumed by people varies

… Figure 12.6.2

Fish and seafood consumption per person per year, 2022

Concepts and skills builder 12.6

Analysing change over time using a choropleth map

Choropleth maps represent data by shading or colouring areas, such as countries, based on a data value. Figure 12.6.2 is a choropleth map in which darker blue colours are used to represent countries with populations that consumed large amounts of fish and seafood in 2022. Follow the steps below to explore how this data has changed over time: 1 Access the ‘Fish and seafood consumption per capita’ page on the Our World in Data website. List five countries that consume a large amount of fish and five who consume a small amount. 2 Suggest a reason why some populations consume more fish than others. 3 Click on a country to view a graph of how its seafood consumption has changed over time. Describe this trend. 4 Suggest a reason why a country’s fish consumption per person may have changed. 5 Use the time slider under the map to change the year. Record observations of which regions have increased or decreased their fish consumption. 6 Suggest a reason for the trend identified in question 5. Geographical concepts and skills: environment, interconnection, place, space

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Why is overfishing unsustainable? the use of this resource is considered unsustainable. In other words, the supply may eventually run out and future needs will not be met. When overfishing occurs, not only is this unsustainable in terms of the marine environment, it also threatens the economic sustainability of fishing businesses which in turn affects the social sustainability of people who rely on this industry.

sustainability whether an environment is able to maintain current needs without compromising its ability to meet the needs of future generations

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Sustainability refers to whether an environment is able to meet current needs without compromising the ability to meet the needs of future generations. Sustainability is often defined as having three spheres: Environmental, social and economic (see Figure 12.6.2). In lesson 12.1, you learnt about unsustainable tourism in Maya Bay, Thailand. In this example, overtourism degraded the natural beauty that was attracting tourists, threatening the environmental sustainability of the bay and the economic sustainability of the local tourism industry. The decision to halt tourism may have led to the loss of employment, threatening the social and economic sustainability of the region.

Equitable

Bearable

Sustainable

Environmental

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Fishing itself is not necessarily an act that causes environmental change. Fish stocks can be classified as a renewable natural resource that will regenerate without the need for any input from people. However, if fish stocks are diminished at a rate that is faster than they are being replenished then

Social

Viable

Economic

Figure 12.6.3 The three spheres of sustainability

What are the impacts of overfishing?

Figure 12.6.4 The trend in fish stocks that are underfished, sustainably fished and overfished

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According to the State of World Fisheries and Aquaculture 2024 report, around 38 per cent of global fish stocks had been fished beyond their sustainable limit, a significant increase from just 10 per cent in 1974 (see Figure 12.6.4). At this rate, adult fish are caught at such a high rate that they are not able to breed fast enough to replenish the population. If this trend continues, fish stocks will continue to decrease. As yield decreases, commercial fishing fleets are venturing deeper into the ocean and harvesting fish further down the food chain to meet demands. This is further damaging the ecological balance of marine environments.

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U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES bycatch fish and other marine animals that are unintentionally caught in commercial fishing operations

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Figure 12.6.5 A fisherman emptying a net full of fish onto his trawler

With fish stocks depleting and global demand for fish continuing to rise, it is projected that the global fishing industry, which is worth over $200 billion, could collapse as early as 2050. This is a cause for concern for the three billion people who rely on the fishing industry for income and as a food source. In an attempt to remain financially viable and meet demand, fishing businesses have moved away from traditional forms of fishing and are now using fish trawlers. These large commercial fishing vessels

drag nets through the ocean and along the sea floor. Super trawlers are particularly large vessels, often 100 metres in length, with the capacity to stay at sea for several weeks and catch and transport thousands of tonnes of fish. Along with the intended profitable fish, the large nets from trawlers catch lots of unintended additional fish such as turtles, sharks and inedible fish. This is known as bycatch. It is estimated that between 10 and 25 per cent of all marine animals caught globally is bycatch and therefore tossed overboard.

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12.6 Review questions

1 Define overfishing and list the impacts of this environmental change. 2 Explain why overfishing is considered to be unsustainable. Consider environmental, social and economic sustainability. 3 a Using Figure 12.6.3, describe how the proportion of fish stocks that are underfished, fished sustainably and overfished has changed between 1974 and 2021. b List the likely impacts that will occur if the level of unsustainable overfishing continues its trend. 4 Reflect on what you have learnt about the use of fish trawlers and bycatch. Has this information changed your view of the fishing industry or prompted you to re-evaluate your consumption habits?

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12.7

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Why is climate change both a cause and consequence of environmental change? Learning intention

This lesson introduces climate change as a natural process and a consequence of environmental change. It also considers how anthropogenic climate change is impacting environments on a global scale.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

See, think, wonder

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1 See: what do you think has caused coral bleaching shown in Figure 12.7.1? 2 Think: what do you think the impacts will be if the Great Barrier Reef is destroyed? Consider environmental, social and economic impacts. 3 Wonder: do you think saving the Great Barrier Reef should be a major priority for Australians? Justify your answer. Figure 12.7.1 Bleached coral in the Great Barrier Reef near Cairns, Australia

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Climate change as a natural process period, which was around 20 000 years ago, the climate was an average of 6°C cooler, around one-quarter of the earth’s land surface was covered in ice and sea level was around 125 metres lower than it is today. Since then, the climate has warmed and most of the ice has melted, except in polar regions and places with high elevation, which has caused sea levels to rise to their current levels.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Climate change refers to changes in the pattern of weather, known as climate, over larger periods of time. It is a natural process responsible for large-scale climate cycles called glacial and interglacial periods. Glacial periods, commonly referred to as ice ages, occur roughly every 100 000 years. During these periods, ice sheets expand over much of the world’s land surface. During the last glacial

Climate change as a consequence of environmental change

greenhouse effect an increase in the amount of carbon dioxide and other gases in the atmosphere that causes a gradual warming of the surface of the Earth anthropogenic caused by human activity

When solar radiation hits the Earth, some of it is absorbed and some is reflected back into space. However, some atmospheric gases, called greenhouse gases, absorb and reflect this heat back towards the Earth. This is known as the greenhouse effect (see Figure 12.7.2). Without the greenhouse effect, the Earth’s average temperature would be –18°C and most of the land would be covered in ice. Since the Industrial Revolution, the actions of people have been increasing the concentration of greenhouses gases in the atmosphere. For example: • carbon dioxide has been emitted through the burning of fossil fuels such as coal (see Figure 12.7.3)

• methane has been emitted during the production and transport of coal, natural gas and oil, and emitted by livestock and other agricultural practices

• nitrous oxide has been emitted from various agricultural and industrial activities.

Environmental changes also contribute to greenhouse gas emissions. For example, deforestation is responsible for up to one-fifth of global emissions. Forests absorb carbon dioxide as vegetation grows. This carbon is stored within the vegetation and is released when vegetation is removed or burnt.

The increase in the volume of these greenhouse gases in the Earth’s atmosphere is causing the enhanced greenhouse effect in which more heat is being absorbed by the atmosphere (see Figure 12.7.2). As a result, the Earth’s average temperature is rising, precipitation patterns are changing, ice sheets and glaciers are melting, sea levels are rising, and ocean waters are becoming more acidic. These impacts are together known as anthropogenic climate change – climate change due to the activities of people.

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Natural greenhouse effect

Human enhanced greenhouse effect

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

More heat escaptes into space

adiat

CO2 CH 4 N2 O More greenhous e gas

heat

Solar r

tion radia

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More re-emitted heat

Figure 12.7.2 The enhanced greenhouse effect means more heat is trapped and re-emitted by greenhouse gases.

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heat

Re-r

ted

adia

ted

Re-r

Less re-emitted heat

Solar

use gas Greenho N 2O CO 2 CH 4

ion

Less heat escapes into space

Figure 12.7.3 Although the concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere has always naturally fluctuated, its growth in the last 100 years

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Climate change as a cause of environmental change and there is a 50 per cent chance it will reach 1.5°C of warming by 2040. If emissions policies remain without any significant change the climate is projected to reach an average global warming of 3.2°C by the of the century (see Figure 12.7.4).

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Anthropogenic climate change is expected to have far-reaching impacts on all types of environments. According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), the global average temperature as of 2023 has already risen by 1.1°C since 1880 °C 5

SSP5-8.5

SSP3-7.0

SSP2-4.5

SSP1-2.6 SSP1-1.9

1 0

–1 1950

2000

2015

2050

2100

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Figure 12.7.4 Projections for global average surface temperature change by the end of the century compared with the pre-industrial climate from 1850–1990. SSP stands for Shared Socioeconomic Pathways. These projections differ based on different scenarios depending on the extent to which greenhouse gas emissions are managed at a global scale. For example, the SSP1-1.9 projection is likely if greenhouse gas emissions are reduced significantly whereas the SSP5-8.5 projection is more likely if greenhouse gas emissions increase.

thermal expansion increase in the volume of a material due to an increase in temperature

Increases in global temperatures are already changing rainfall patterns, which is increasing the prevalence of droughts and the frequency and magnitude of bushfires. In the summer of 2019–2020, the Black Summer bushfires burnt more than 24 million hectares of Australian bushland and killed 33 people and an estimated one billion animals. A study from Australia’s Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO) confirmed that the disastrous fire season was fuelled by conditions formed by anthropogenic climate change and that bushfires of a similar scale are likely to become more common in the future. If warming reaches 1.5°C, around 7 per cent of the Earth’s environments will shift into a new climate zone. Many species will be forced to migrate towards

the poles, up mountains or into deeper water as the climate of their original habitat becomes unsuitable. Habitat fragmentation means that some species will not be able to migrate and therefore will be vulnerable to local extinction. Under this warming scenario, 14 per cent of all land-based animal and plant species will face a high risk of extinction, rising to 29 per cent of species if warming reaches 3°C. Anthropogenic climate change is also expected to raise sea levels due to thermal expansion and melting glaciers and ice sheets. Scientists have calculated that the average global sea level has already risen around 25 cm since 1880. Projections show that it could rise by between 29 and 88 cm by 2100 (see Figure 12.7.5). This could have disastrous

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impacts on coastal environments due to increased erosion, flooding and the displacement of millions of people who live in low-lying coastal regions. Within marine environments, increased ocean temperatures, along with acidification

because of an expected increase in the concentration of carbon dioxide in ocean waters, are already leading to widespread coral bleaching and harming species such as molluscs and plankton (see Figure 12.7.1).

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2 1.5

Low-likelihood, high-impact storyline, including ice-sheet instability processes, under SSP5-8.5

0.5

0 1950

2000

2020

2050

SSP5-8.5 SSP3-7.0 SSP2-4.5 SSP1-2.6 SSP1-1.9

2100

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Figure 12.7.5 Projections for global mean sea-level rise compared with levels in 1900. SSP stands for Shared Socioeconomic Pathways. These projections differ based on different scenarios depending on the extent to which greenhouse gas emissions are limited on a global scale.

Concepts and skills builder 12.7

Projections of sea-level rise have often been criticised based on local data. However, sea-level rise is going to be uneven on a global scale due to ocean dynamics (wind, currents, heating, evaporation and precipitation) and because the earth’s gravity field is uneven. In other words, just because sea-level may not have risen much at one particular location does not mean it has not risen elsewhere. In order to gain a clearer understanding of global sea-level rise, NASA have developed a sea-level projection tool (see Figure 12.7.6). Launch this tool from the NASA website and follow the steps below or use the video tutorial to complete an analysis of global sea level rise. 1 Click on locations in three different world regions and record how much sea level is projected to rise by 2100 at these locations. Is there a significant difference in the regions you chose? 2 On the toolbar on the left, change ‘Decades’ to 2150 and update the map. Have the projections for your locations changed? Use the map legend and colours to determine the regions of the earth that are expected to experience the highest and lowest rise. 3 Change ‘Decades’ back to 2100 and change the ‘Data’ to ‘Warming Level’. Change the ‘Scenario’ to various degrees of warming and record how your data changes for each scenario. 4 Using the information gathered, write a paragraph summarising the impact that anthropogenic climate change is expected to have on global sea level rise over the next century.

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Analysing projected data using an interactive map

Figure 12.7.6

Geography skills video: Digital skills: Using a GIS – NASA sea-level rise data

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Figure 12.7.7 NASA’s sea-level projection tool enables users to access global sea-level projection data from the IPCC’s 6th Assessment Report.

Geographical concepts and skills: environment, interconnection, place, space

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12.7 Review questions

1 Explain why climate change can be considered both a natural process and an unnatural process due to the actions of people. 2 Using Figure 12.7.2, explain the greenhouse effect and the causes and consequences of the enhanced greenhouse effect. 3 Using Figure 12.7.3, describe the trend in carbon dioxide levels over the last 800 000 years. 4 Using the data from this lesson, summarise the projected impacts of climate change including average global temperature and sea-level changes. 5 Explain the link between anthropogenic climate change and environmental change.

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12.8

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

How do people influence environmental change and sustainability? Learning intention

This lesson considers the ways in which the worldviews and actions of people can influence environmental change and sustainability.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

See, think, wonder

1 See: based on the placards held by the people in Figure 12.8.1, what do you think the protest was about? 2 Think: do you think it is appropriate for students to miss school for a day to protest about this issue? 3 Wonder: would you consider missing school to protest about an issue for which you feel strongly?

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Figure 12.8.1 On 15 March 2019, around 20 000 people attended a School Strike for Climate rally outside Melbourne’s Parliament House.

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People’s worldviews play an important role in environmental management. Society can help to manage the environment through their actions and lifestyles. This

can include participating in environmental activism, making informed consumer decisions or voting for a political party that best aligns with their views.

Environmental activism In 2018, Swedish environmental activist Greta Thunberg began protesting about climate change outside the Swedish Riksdag, or Parliament. She was 15 years of age at the time. As the popularity of her cause grew, it led to the development of the School Strike for Climate movement. This movement involved around 2000 simultaneous protests across 125 countries by over a million students.

• Stop the development of the Carmichael coal mine in Queensland.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

environmental activism the actions of individuals or groups aiming to protect or support the natural environment citizen science the collection and analysis of data by members of the general public in collaboration with professional scientists

On 15 March 2019, around 100 000 Australian school students chose to skip school to participate in this event. Across Australia’s capital cities and regional centres, students demanded that the Australian government: • Say no to all new fossil fuel development

• Commit to powering Australia with 100 per cent renewable energy by 2030

This protest sparked debate between those who supported the students and their cause, and those who believed that students should not sacrifice time in the classroom to attend a protest.

Protesting is a form of environmental activism, actions taken by people to protect, support or improve the national environment. Environmental activism also includes volunteer projects such as participating in a community tree planting or cleaning up coastal pollution. It can also include citizen science initiatives such as the Aussie Bird Count or FeralScan (see page 372) where local people upload environmental observations which become important data sources to help scientists monitor environmental changes.

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Figure 12.8.2 Thousands of indigenous trees, shrubs and grasses have been planted by a community group of volunteers in Melview Reserve, Ringwood North.

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Consumer choice sustainably and choosing wood products that have been harvested from plantation forests rather natural forests (see Figure 12.8.3). Fish and seafood certified by the Marine Stewardship Council meet standards based on sustainability. Fisheries that meet these requirements only fish healthy stocks, manage stocks so that they can continue to be fished in the long term, and minimise their impact on other species and the wider marine environment.

plantation forests stands of trees planted by people to be grown in rows for the production of timber

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

One common way in which all people influence environmental change is through the choices they make as consumers. People can choose products and brands that align with their worldview, which flows on to the profits of companies and therefore the choices they make in production. Examples include purchasing brands based on the packaging material to reduce single-use plastics, choosing fish and seafood that has been certified to have been fished

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Figure 12.8.3 Trees in plantation forests are grown solely for harvesting timber. Unlike natural forests, trees are planted in straight rows to maximise space and do not contain any understorey shrubs or grasses. Harvesting timber from plantation forests is a more sustainable option than the deforestation of natural forests.

Unfortunately, trends towards preferences for more sustainable products have led to the growth of greenwashing. Greenwashing is when a company misleads consumers about the positive environmental impact or sustainability of their products and services. Clever advertising, false claims and misleading information are used to overstate environmental benefits to capitalise on the growing demand for sustainable products. Examples include car companies who deceive consumers about the emissions

ratings of their vehicles, manufacturers claiming products, such as textiles, are made using sustainable materials such as bamboo when they are actually made primarily from other synthetic materials, and companies who claim their items, such as coffee pods, are recyclable when only a small amount can be recycled at very specialised waste-management facilities. Although companies who deliberately mislead consumers face financial penalties, fines do not always provide enough of a disincentive.

greenwashing when a company misleads consumers about the positive environmental impact of their products and services

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Concepts and skills builder 12.8 Participating in citizen science

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Participating in a citizen science project is a great way to learn about environmental management, data collection and geospatial technology. Research one of these projects and download the necessary tools to participate. Ensure you choose a project that is suitable for the time of year and your location. Examples include Aussie Bird Count, eBird, FeralScan, Fluker Post, iNaturalist (see Figure 12.8.4), Frog Census, Australian BioBlitz, Climate Watch and National Waterbug Blitz. 1 Whether you participated in collecting data or just downloaded the necessary app, discuss the degree of simplicity and accessibility in collecting data. 2 Access the data collected from other users or from previous years. Do you think this data would be useful for groups that manage environmental impacts? 3 What other types of data do you think would be useful for citizens to collect to help raise awareness and manage environmental issues?

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Figure 12.8.4 iNaturalist is an app used by people around the world to identify and map different species of plants and animals to collect biodiversity information. Users can take geo-tagged photos of species using the app and upload this information to the map portal. Other users can review images to help identify or verify species.

Geographical concepts and skills: environment, interconnection, place, space

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U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES Figure 12.8.5 Greenwashing is a technique used by companies to mislead consumers

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12.8 Review questions

1 Define environmental activism and provide two examples. 2 a Undertake research to learn more about School Strike 4 Climate. For example, when was the most recent action? How many students in Australia got involved? Are there any strikes planned for the future?

b State whether you think this form of environmental activism should be encouraged and whether you think it will be effective.

3 a Recall a time when you have seen a company advertise its products with claims of sustainability or positive environmental impact. Do you think this form of advertising is effective? Do you think it should be allowed? Do you think you are influenced by it? b Research noteworthy examples of companies who have been penalised for greenwashing. Do you think the penalty they received was severe enough to solve the problem?

4 Based on what you have learnt in this lesson, discuss the extent to which the opinions of the public are able to influence environmental change and sustainability.

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CHAPTER 13

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How are the impacts of environmental change managed?

LESSON TITLE 13.1

Setting the scene: lamenting the loss of the night sky

13.2

How is environmental change managed?

13.3

Case study: restoring penguin habitat on the Summerland Peninsula

13.4

Case study: using the knowledge of First Nations people to manage Kakadu

13.5

Case study: monitoring and insuring the health of the Mesoamerican Reef

13.6

Case study: battling land degradation in northern China

13.7

Fieldwork: evaluating the success of local environmental management

13.8

End of investigation review: Environmental change and management

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13.1

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Setting the scene: lamenting the loss of the night sky Learning intention

This lesson explores the ways in which an increase in the use of artificial lighting has caused significant environmental change in our urban areas.

The world’s first electric streetlights were installed in Paris in 1878. Australia was not far behind with its first streetlights used in Waratah, Tasmania, in 1886 and installed across all of Tamworth, New South Wales, in 1888. Since then, streetlights have become a standard feature of cities across the world and Australia alone has an estimated 2.5 million. While streetlights have improved visibility and safety on our roads, they have caused a gradual yet significant change to our urban environments called light pollution. Light pollution exists when the light from artificial sources, such as streetlights,

overpowers the light emitted by stars at night. The brighter the sky glows due to these light sources, the less visible the stars become. In addition to a growth in the number and intensity of artificial lights, light pollution has increased due to lights shining upwards and bouncing off clouds, glare from lights that are not shielded and the reflection of light off surfaces. The recent shift towards the use of LED lights was expected to reduce energy consumption due to their increased efficiency. However, this also encouraged cities to increase their use of lights, leading to a further increase in light pollution while also reducing any actual energy savings.

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Figure 13.1.1 Streetlights, internal building lights, advertisements and floodlights have brightened the night sky in urban areas like Victoria Harbor, Hong Kong

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1 Excellent Dark Sky Site

3 Rural Sky

4 Suburban/Rural Transition

6 Bright Suburban Site

5 Suburban Sky

7 City/Suburbia Transition

8/9 City/Inner City Sky

Figure 13.1.2 Light pollution increases and the visibility of stars decreases towards dense urban environments

Milky Way our home galaxy seen as a thick band of stars stretching across the night sky

circadian rhythm the 24-hour cycle that is part of the body’s internal clock

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2 Dark Sky Site

Scientists have estimated that around 80 per cent of people live in places that experience light pollution, with around one-third no longer able to view the Milky Way in the night sky. Data collected from a project called Globe at Night has revealed that the average light pollution across the globe increased by an average of 10 per cent per year from 2011 to 2022. While Australia has the lowest proportion

of land affected by light pollution among other developed countries, it has one of the highest rates of light pollution per person. While the ability to view stars at night may seem trivial, humans have evolved without artificial light. As natural darkness is replaced with artificial light, our circadian rhythm and sleep cycle is affected which can increase the risk of physical and mental health issues.

Figure 13.1.3 A map showing the visual impacts of light pollution across the world

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Amazing but true… At an increase in light pollution of 10 per cent per year, a child who could see 250 stars at their home when they were born will only be able to see 100 stars when they turn 18.

they head towards the artificial lights of nearby cities. Lighter nights have been shown to delay the breeding season of tammar wallabies, meaning joeys are born at times when food resources are less abundant. Just like humans, the sleep cycle of magpies is affected by the white-blue shade of streetlights. Nesting magpies are unable to get their required 10 hours of sleep, increasing their need for an afternoon nap and decreasing their ability to forage for food.

rookery the nesting location of populations of sea turtles

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Animals are also impacted by light pollution, relying on natural darkness for navigation, reproduction and safety. Studies have been undertaken showing the impact of artificial light on the sea turtle population in Western Australia. Glowing skies near sea turtle rookeries cause turtle hatchlings to lose their sense of direction. While hatchlings naturally crawl from their nests towards the illuminated horizon to find the ocean, many get confused and die as

hatchlings a young animal that has recently emerged from its egg tammar wallaby a type of small wallaby native to South and Western Australia

Figure 13.1.4 Artificial lights disorient sea turtle hatchlings, impacting their ability to access the ocean.

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the use of artificial light only to places where and when it is needed. A recent study conducted in Canberra showed that adaptive lighting can be used to reduce light pollution. This involves dimming or brightening streetlights to adapt to weather conditions, seasonal changes and the time of night. They found that for every 10 per cent that they dimmed the lights, the unnatural brightness of Canberra’s night sky decreased by 5 per cent, helping to restore the environment to its original condition.

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While light pollution presents a range of challenges, there is a potential to solve its problems relatively quickly. Unlike greenhouse gases in our atmosphere or plastics in our oceans, light pollution can be removed instantly by simply turning off artificial lights. While this itself is an unrealistic option, approaches that will have a similar effect include directing light downwards towards the ground, using warmer colours, shielding light sources so they don’t produce glare and reducing

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Figure 13.1.5 Light pollution over the US city of Phoenix, Arizona

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13.1 Review questions Circle of viewpoints

Although in some ways light pollution is a relatively easy environmental problem to solve, its solution may impact people in different ways. Examples of people who may be affected include local residents, environmentalists, people who work late at night, advertising companies and people of different age groups. Choose one of these perspectives and complete the following sentences: 1 I am thinking of the issue of light pollution from the viewpoint of … 2 My opinion is … 3 A question I have from this viewpoint is …

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13.2

How is environmental change managed?

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Learning intention

This lesson presents five different ways in which environments can be managed: preventing changes, reversing changes, monitoring and assessing changes, using artificial structures, and incorporating the expertise of First Nations peoples.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

See, think, wonder

…

1 See: describe the environment shown in Figure 13.2.1. 2 Think: suggest an environmental and social benefit of preserving and enhancing these types of environments within metropolitan Melbourne. 3 Wonder: describe an environment located near your home or school. Include its main features and the reasons why it is significant to you or to other people.

Figure 13.2.1 The Brushy Creek Wetlands at Melbourne’s Chirnside Park

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waterways. Environmental management strategies are often introduced by countries at a national scale. In 2020, France introduced a law stating that all disposable cups, cutlery and plates had to be made of compostable material. Some environmental changes such as overfishing, climate change and land degradation affect large world regions or the entire earth. In these cases, strategies are required that are coordinated between several countries.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Management strategies are used to reduce the negative impacts and support the positive impacts associated with environmental change. At a local scale, this might involve the revegetation of a coastal dune system or wetland. Figure 13.2.1 is a photo of the Brushy Creek Wetlands near Chirnside Park, where Melbourne Water have planted 60 000 aquatic plants. This wetland helps to filter runoff, improving the quality of the stormwater that enters local

Preventing environmental change One way to manage environmental change is by preventing it from occurring in the first place or stopping it from becoming more severe. Although Australia’s landscape has historically suffered from the infestation of many weed and pest species, strict biosecurity laws currently manage these threats and attempt to prevent the introduction of new threats. It is cheaper and far more effective to prevent invasive species from coming to Australia than it is to remove them once they have established.

…

Creating national parks is another way of preventing environmental change. Although countries vary in the way they

manage national parks, the underlying aim is to conserve the natural environment by limiting development and disturbances by people. The Grampians National Park (Gariwerd) (Figure 13.2.2), located 260 km west of Melbourne, became a national park in 1984. It is recognised on the Australian National Heritage List as a place of natural beauty and as a home to one of the best examples of Aboriginal rock art. National parks are areas reserved for the protection and conservation of unique ecosystems with high levels of biodiversity, places with significant natural or geological features and places of cultural significance.

Figure 13.2.2 The Grampians National Park is known for its rugged sandstone mountain ranges.

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Figure 13.2.3A Grampians National Park 1:25 000 topographic map extract showing the town of Halls Gap. Contains Vicmap information © The State of Victoria, Department of Sustainability and Environment, 2007. Reproduced by permission of the Department of Sustainability and Environment

SCALE 1:25 000 METRE 0

500

1500

1000

2000 METRE

CONTOUR INTERVAL 10 METRES

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Windbreak Contours

Built up area, recreation area Central business district

Depression contours

Sealed surface road with route marker, bridge

Cliff, rock outcrops

Unsealed road or minor road in urban area

Sand

Vehicular track

Unstable sand dunes

Foot track with foot bridge

River, creek

Gate, cattlegrid, leveebank

Aqueduct, channel, drain

Embarkment, cutting Railway, multiple track, single track Railway station, railway siding

Lake penennial, intermittent Dam or weir, dam carrying road, dam batter

Railway disuse, dismantled or under construction Railway bridge, railway tunnel

Culvert

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Falls, rapids

Building, post office, church, public hall

School, police station, hospital, fire station

Rapids in large river

Fence

Waterhole, dam, swimming pool

Power transmission line with pylon

Water well or bore, spring

Pipeline disappearing underground

Land subject to inundation

Trigonometric station, spot elevation

Swamp or marsh

Landmark area, quarry

Shoreline with mud or sand flats

Landmark object, tank or well Windpump, mine

Rock bare or awash, rocky ledge or reef

Pine plantation, orchard or vineyard

Wreck, marine navigation light or lighthouse

Timber, recreation area

Breakwater, pier or jetty, boat ramp

Scattered timberm oval Scrub

Wharf

Navigation beacons

…

Mangrove

Minor administrative boundary

Figure 13.2.3B Legend for Grampians National Park topographic map

Concepts and skills builder 13.2

…

Reading a topographic map

Figure 13.2.4

Geography skills video: Working with topographical maps to calculate area

Topographic maps are representations of features of the Earth’s surface. This includes hydrology (lakes, rivers, wetlands), relief (mountains, valleys, ridgelines), vegetation, and human features such as roads, place names and cities. These features are represented using the symbols and colours found in the legend. One of the most prominent features of these maps is contour lines which show changes in elevation. See the video below for a guide to using topographic maps. Use these instructions to answer the questions below. (AR stands for Area Reference and GR stands for Grid Reference.)

1 What is the scale of the topographic map in Figure 13.2.3A? Explain what this means. 2 What is the approximate distance of the drive from Boulder Rock (AR 3588) to Little Joe Hill (AR 3785)? Measure between the nearest points on a sealed road to these features. 3 Name the features located at the following coordinates.

• GR 363874 • GR 343849 • GR 345861

…

FPO

Figure 13.2.5

Geography skills video: Creating a cross section

4 Name the three types of vegetation found in AR 3485. 5 What is the bearing of Peverill Peak (AR 3687) from The Pinnacle lookout (AR 3486)? 6 Draw a cross-section from Belfield Peak (AR 3485) to the peak at GR 369863. What is the average gradient from Bellfield Peak to the Fyans Creek? 7 Using information from the previous questions, describe the shape of the landscape and the natural features surrounding Halls Gap. Suggest why it is an ideal location for a town. Geographical concepts and skills: environment, place, scale

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Monitoring and assessing environmental change and relationship. Global Forest Watch is an example of a GIS that can be used to create maps and analyse forest trends anywhere in the world, and to add local data and observations. As shown in Figure 13.2.4, this data can be used to monitor tree loss over time due to a range of causes. The interactive map can be used to determine the distribution, spatial extent and types of forests lost anywhere in the world.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

While monitoring and assessing environmental impacts does not directly influence changes to the environment, the data gathered is used to inform management decisions. A Geographic Information System (GIS) is a form of spatial technology that involves gathering, managing and analysing spatial data. Data is organised in layers using interactive maps and used to find spatial patterns

… Figure 13.2.6

Global Forest Watch is a GIS containing data layers about forest gains and losses.

Reversing environmental change

Environmental management sometimes involves a reversal of the actions of previous management strategies that have been deemed unsuccessful. This can be driven by changes in technology, the opinions of local residents or environmental management priorities. Historically, many urban rivers in Australia were diverted, channelled using concrete, or enclosed in pipes to reduce the risk of flooding and to accommodate nearby land uses. Although this management aided urban development,

it severely degraded the health of these waterways. During 2017 and 2018, the Victorian government daylighted 830 metres of the Dandenong Creek in Heathmont that had previously been converted to an underground pipe. As shown in Figure 13.2.5, the piped waterway was replaced with an open channel that closely resembled the original shape of the creek. Additional management of the Dandenong Creek has involved the revegetation of its riparian zone and revitalising the nearby wetlands. Similar actions have been undertaken in urban waterways across Melbourne’s suburbs.

daylighting to restoring a waterway to its original form by replacement of an underground pipe with an open stream channel

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… Figure 13.2.7

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A section of the Dandenong Creek was changed from an underground pipe in December 2017 (left) to an open stream in July 2018 (right)

artificial something produced by people, as opposed to something that occurs naturally

Using artificial solutions to replace natural processes

Artificial solutions are often used to mimic natural processes within a changed

environment. This allows ecosystems to still function within human environments such as an urban or agricultural region. Table 13.2.1 summarises four examples.

Table 13.2.1 Examples of management strategies using artificial solutions to reduce the negative impacts of environmental change

Management strategy

Explanation

Wildlife corridors

Wildlife corridors are thin, vegetated corridors of land that join previously isolated habitats. They reduce the impacts of habitat fragmentation by restoring the interconnection between places. This wildlife bridge in Banff National Park, Canada, enables the movement of large mammals between habitats that were fragmented by the construction of a highway.

Fish ladders

Fish ladders reduce the impact that dams and other flow regulation infrastructure have on fish migration and breeding cycles. They allow fish to travel over or through obstructions using a series of ascending pools. Fish ladders on the Murray River, New South Wales, facilitate fish movement within this highly regulated system.

Sea walls

Sea walls are large vertical structures that run parallel to the shoreline. They are designed to protect coasts in urban areas from erosion, from flooding due to storm surges and from rising sea levels. This sea wall at Dawlish, in southern England, protects this resort town from damaging coastal processes.

Raingardens

Raingardens are a specific type of garden bed that use different layers of soil, sand and gravel to filter and treat stormwater runoff in urban settings. They serve the same purpose as natural wetlands. Raingardens have replaced traditional nature strips and drains in Ringwood North, Melbourne.

Example

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Environmental management involving First Nations peoples

are started early in the dry season to reduce fuel load and create firebreaks, establishing a mosaic of burnt and unburnt areas. The vegetation within this environment has evolved to adapt to fire. Strategic use of fire helps this vegetation to regenerate and increase its biodiversity. It also reduces the likelihood of uncontrolled wildfires later in the dry season, avoiding damage to ecosystems, habitats and expensive infrastructure.

Evaluating the effectiveness of environmental management

In places like Arnhem Land in the Northern Territory, rangers use traditional Aboriginal knowledge and techniques along with modern technology to manage controlled burns. These smaller fires

A common task that geographers undertake is measuring and evaluating the effectiveness of a management strategy. This involves investigating whether a strategy is successful, or is likely to be

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

In Australia, the expertise of First Nations peoples is being used in conjunction with modern methods to manage environments across Australia. First Nations peoples lived sustainably across Australia for tens of thousands of years using traditional burning techniques, fish traps, cropping and hunting practices to survive. These sustainable methodologies are a stark contrast to the changes that have been made to the landscape since European settlement.

controlled burns (also known as prescribed burns) use of fire for forest management purposes, such as the reduction of fuel load fuel load amount of flammable material within an area

Canopy

up to 17 m

The canopy is not burned during cultural burning. This gives shelter to animals while also preserving seeds and fruits. Caring for the canopy also provides shade and helps the landscape to recover.

In ‘hot fires’, the flames often reach high into the canopy of the trees and destroy the entire landscape. The soil is often baked, all wildlife, fruits and seeds are often destroyed.

Non-Indigenous fire management practices often burn large areas of land at a higher height than cultural burning. These fires are also considered ‘hot fires’.

Shrubs

up to 5 m

Cultural burning, or ‘cool fires’, involves burning grasses, leaf litter, and the lower bark of trees. The fire spreads slowly and is closely watched. Animals have time to flee. They are sometimes channelled and hunted as they flee. Grasses

With cultural burning, seeds, nutrients and roots remain safe and some moisture remains in the soil. This helps the landscape to recover and the native grasses and herbs to regrow. Fallen logs remain largely unburnt. This leaves behind habitat for animals. …

Source 13.2.8 This diagram shows an example of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples’ cultural burning

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Figure 13.2.9 Monica uses a firestick to burn off dry grass before a monsoon strikes the Arnhem Land. This is to avoid more serious, uncontrolled fire as a result of lightning strikes.

successful in the future. A range of criteria are used to judge the effectiveness of a strategy such as whether it: • has met or is likely to meet its specific targets or intended outcomes • is affordable and economically viable • is fair for all stakeholders

• is likely to meet its deadlines or achieve its goals within the intended time scale

In cases where only some of the criteria have been met, or where criteria have been partially met, a judgement call is needed. This involves weighing up the positives and negatives. In following lessons, you will have the opportunity to evaluate several management strategies through a series of Australian and international case studies.

• is economically, socially and environmentally sustainable.

Go online to access the interactive lesson review and more!

Lesson 13.2 review Online quiz

Review questions

DOC

Research task

Teachers can assign tasks and track results

13.2 Review questions

1 Using a table, summarise the five types of environmental management presented in this lesson. Include an example for each either from this lesson or one that you have found yourself. 2 a Using Figure 13.2.7, describe the change in the geographic characteristics of the Dandenong Creek between 2017 and 2018. b Discuss whether you think this sort of management is beneficial and should be undertaken in more creeks across Melbourne. 3 a List a criterion that could be used to evaluate each of the management strategies in Table 13.1. b Discuss which of these strategies are likely to have the biggest positive impact on the local environment.

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13.3

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Case study: restoring penguin habitat on the Summerland Peninsula Learning intention

This lesson is case study exploring the environmental change of the Summerlands Peninsula from a housing estate back into a penguin habitat.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

Think, pair, share

You have an obligation as the custodians of the land or people responsible for the time being to see the long term and not just the immediate past and the immediate future. – John Cain, former Premier of Victoria

1 Think: explain how John Cain’s quote relates to the concept of sustainability. 2 Pair: with a partner, discuss whether you think it is important to consider the future condition of environments rather than just focusing on short-term impacts. 3 Share: this lesson is based on efforts to try to sustain Phillip Island’s penguin population. Suggest why this is a priority for the region. Discuss as a pair, and be prepared to share your answers with the class.

Silverleaves

Cowes

Ventnor

Rhyll

Phillip Island

Wimbledon Heights

Sunset Strip

Summerlands Peninsula

Smiths Beach

Newhaven

Surf Beach

…

Phillip Island is located in Victoria’s Western Port Bay, approximately 80 km south-south-east of Melbourne. About 90 per cent of the island’s 100 sq km has been cleared and is currently used for urban and agricultural uses. The remainder of the island is made up of woodlands, wetlands and coastal areas. The Summerland Peninsula is located on the western tip of the island near the internationally recognised Penguin Parade (see Figure 13.3.1).

Cape Woolamal

5 km

San Remo

Figure 13.3.1 The Summerlands Peninsula is located on the western tip of

Phillip Island.

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Environmental change: Summerlands Estate

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Unlike the rest of Phillip Island, the Summerland Peninsula has little agricultural value and therefore has been left relatively unchanged since the 1920s. This means that it still has natural features that support a healthy penguin colony. All other penguin colonies on the island have been destroyed. As described in the excerpt in Figure 13.3.2, the region’s natural characteristics sparked the interest of property developers and in 1927 the Summerlands Estate was established, subdividing the region into 986 residential housing blocks. By 1985, the estate contained 183 houses, one motel, one shop, a ninehole golf course and a network of roads throughout the estate.

The impacts of environmental change: a decline in penguin numbers

During the 1950s, the Department of Fisheries and Wildlife began to realise that the size of the Summerland Peninsula’s Little Penguin population was falling rapidly. The local penguin habitat had been reduced in size, degraded by vegetation removal and weed infestation, and fragmented by the construction of roads. Hundreds of penguins were killed each year by residents’ dogs, wild foxes and road accidents.

… Figure 13.3.3

…

With a further 2000 residents expected to move into the remaining vacant blocks, a 1984 study by Phillip Island Nature Parks projected that the penguin colony would become extinct by 1997 (see Figure 13.3.3). In addition to environmental concerns, the economic sustainability of the region was also at risk. The closure of the Penguin Parade would have been a disaster for Phillip Island’s tourism industry and the local economy.

Numbers of penguins at the Parade and projected numbers

800 700

Annual mean numbers

In 1984 Dr Peter Dann from Phillip Island Nature Parks projected that the local penguin colony would be extinct by 1997 if land uses at the time continued.

Figure 13.3.2 Excerpt from a 1927 Phillip Island Holidays Development brochure

600 500 400 300 200 100

0 1976

1979

1982

1985

1988

1991

1994

1997

2000

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Managing environmental change: Penguin Protection Plan

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

In 1985, John Cain, Premier of Victoria, announced the establishment of the Penguin Protection Plan. His decision was based on lobbying from conservation groups and on consultation with local residents and the local tourism industry. The conservation strategy was based on a land buyback. The Victorian government would buy properties within the Summerlands Estate and then remove

houses and other urban infrastructure like power lines (see Figure 13.3.4). Foxes and weeds were also to be removed, and the penguin habitat was to be revegetated and turned into a wildlife reserve. In 2011, the final houses were removed from the estate. All that remains today are a few scattered power poles and some underground cables. Revegetation and rehabilitation of the penguin habitat is ongoing and is now managed as part of the Phillip Island Nature Park.

… Figure 13.3.4

Houses were removed from the Summerlands Estate and replaced with thousands of indigenous plants and penguin boxes

Evaluating environmental management: Was the Penguin Protection Plan effective? Environmental sustainability

In terms of environmental targets, the Penguin Protection Plan was an overwhelming success. The penguin colony’s population grew from 12 000 breeding birds in 1984 to a stable 40 000 at present. Rangers have counted the number of penguins crossing the beach at the Penguin Parade each night since

1977 (see Figure 13.3.6). Variation in their population is based on changes in the number of penguins, the distribution of suitable habitat and the availability of food sources. An average of 940 penguins crossed the beach each night during the 2017–2018 season, making it the ninth year in a row that the population has been above the long-term average of 636. Since then, the number of penguins have continued to grow, with 5219 penguins counted in May 2022, the highest number recorded since 1968.

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The increase in the size and quality of the penguin habitat, along with the construction of 2000 penguin boxes (Figure 13.3.6), has meant that the distribution of the population has also increased. Weeds have also been managed over 400 hectares, and 120 000 grasses, shrubs and trees have been planted. This has benefitted other species, such as the short-tailed shearwater. Fox eradication was also completely successful, leading to the reintroduction of the critically endangered eastern barred bandicoot into the area.

… Figure 13.3.5

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Houses on the Summerland Estate were replaced with over 2000 penguin nesting boxes which allow them to raise their chicks with protection from predators.

Average number of penguins crossing Penguin Parade beach each evening

1600

Average number of penguins

1400

1200 1000

800 600 400

2023

2021

2019

2017

2015

2013

2011

2009

2007

2005

2003

2001

1999

1997

1995

1993

1991

1989

1987

1985

1983

1981

1979

1977

200

…

Year

Figure 13.3.6 Number of penguins crossing the beach at the Penguin Parade from 1977 to 2023

Economic sustainability

Gross Regional Product measure of a region’s economic activity based on the total value of goods produced and services provided in a region in one year

The growth in the number of penguins in the region is a positive for the local economy. The Penguin Parade is Phillip Island’s primary attraction, contributing the largest share of the A$529 million that Phillip Island Nature Parks contributes to Victoria’s economy each year. In the 2023– 24 season, 709 527 people visited the Penguin Parade, approximately one-third of whom were international tourists. These tourists spend over A$300 million annually on local accommodation, restaurants

and other tourism activities. This in turn supports over 3000 jobs on the island and contributes nearly 40 per cent of the region’s Gross Regional Product. The recent growth in tourism numbers has enabled the movement and upgrade of the Penguin Parade Visitors Centre. This has allowed the rehabilitation of the wetland habitat where the old Visitors Centre was located, as well as the realignment of roads and car parks. This realignment will reconnect areas of divided habitat and reduce habitat fragmentation.

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U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

their houses. Many residents described these circumstances as living in a state of limbo. Others felt guilty about their unintentional impact on the penguin colony. Although properties were initially sold to the government on a voluntary basis, many residents did not want to leave and 42 properties had to be compulsorily acquired. Ms Verwey, a local resident, stated that:

…

Figure 13.3.7 Hundreds of thousands of tourists visit Phillip Island’s Penguin Parade each year.

Social sustainability

Despite its successes, not all aspects of this strategy were successful. The property buyback was expected to take 15 years and was budgeted at A$1 million per year. This eventually grew to 25 years due to a lack of funding. During this time, landowners could not develop vacant blocks and homeowners could not make any improvements or modifications to

… we were horrified and deeply shocked and incredibly saddened that all of this was going to come to an end.

– Fiona Pepper, ‘When Phillip Island penguins won, and land owners lost’, ABC News, 8 April 2018

Despite these negative impacts, the long-term social impacts are expected to be positive in terms of recreation, local jobs and environmental conservation.

Concepts and skills builder 13.3 Evaluating a management strategy

Geographers evaluate management strategies, such as the Penguin Protection Plan, to determine their success now and into the future. The level of success is often determined based on the extent to which goals have been achieved. Undertake research using the prompts below to evaluate the Penguin Protection Plan in terms of its environmental, economic and social sustainability.

1 Determine the health of Phillip Island’s penguin population. Find data such as the recent number of penguins crossing the beach and information about recent rehabilitation works to improve the penguins’ habitat. 2 Determine the amount of money generated from Phillip Island Nature Parks and the Penguin Parade in recent years. Consider the significance of the penguin colony to the local economy. 3 Determine the number of visitors to the Penguin Parade in recent years. Consider whether this growth in tourism justifies the social impacts of the compulsory acquisition of properties in the Summerlands Estate. 4 Based on the research you have undertaken, discuss the extent to which the Penguin Protection Plan has been successful.

Geographical concepts and skills: environment, interconnection, place, space

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…

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES Go online to access the interactive lesson review and more!

Figure 13.3.8 Penguins arriving after dark during the Penguin Parade at Phillip Island.

Lesson 13.3 review Online quiz

Review questions

DOC

Research task

Teachers can assign tasks and track results

13.3 Review questions

1 Search for Summerland Peninsula on Google Maps. a Describe the location of the Summerland Peninsula within Phillip Island. b Turn on satellite view by clicking on the box in the bottom left corner. Using the satellite image, describe the natural and human geographic characteristics of the region.

2 a Refer to Figure 13.3.2. What features were advertised to attract people to the Summerlands Peninsula in 1927? b List the environmental impacts of the Summerlands Estate following this environmental change. 3 What did the 1984 study by Phillip Island Nature Parks reveal about the projected future of the Summerland Peninsula’s penguin colony? Explain why this was both environmentally and economically unsustainable. 4 Suggest how the views of different groups of people might have caused conflict during the implementation of the Summerlands land buyback. 5 Explain how Phillip Island’s environment and economy are interconnected.

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13.4

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Case study: using the knowledge of First Nations people to manage Kakadu Learning intention

This lesson is a case study considering how the knowledge of First Nations peoples can be used to rehabilitate degraded wetlands in Kakadu by restoring the traditional fire regime.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

Reflecting on land management by Traditional Custodians

This earth, I never damage. I look after. Fire is nothing, just clean up. When you burn, new grass coming up. That means good animal soon, might be goanna, possum, wallaby. Burn him off, new grass coming up, new life all over. – Bill Neidjie, the last surviving speaker of the Gaagudju language, an Indigenous language from northern Kakadu after which Kakadu National Park is named

Reflect on the quote by Bill Neidjie. Consider the role fire plays in the culture and lifestyle of First Nations peoples. Compare this to the way bushfires are managed by non-Indigenous Australians.

including one-quarter of Australia’s fish species and one-third of its bird species.

Figure 13.4.1 The East Alligator River drains from the inland stone country of Kakadu, a flat and rocky region that endures extreme heat, long dry spells and torrential rain

…

Kakadu National Park is located in the Northern Territory, around 150 km southeast of Darwin. It is Australia’s secondlargest national park, covering almost 20 000 sq km. Kakadu contains a range of environments within its area, including coastal zones, floodplains, wetlands, savannah, woodlands, rainforest and stone country (Figure 13.4.1). Figure 13.4.2 shows the distribution of these environments within the region. This rich diversity of environments is home to many rare and endemic plants and animals,

endemic species that are endemic are only found in a particular place and nowhere else on Earth

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12°S

Gardangarl (Field Island)

132°E Van Diemen Gulf

Gularri (Point Farewell)

133°E

Djidbordu Waldark Irrmbal (Barron Island) (West Alligator Head)

Ea to iga All st

iv e

r Kunbarlanja (Gunbalanya)

Ubirr ator River h Allig Sout

Alliga West

tor River

River man Wild Four Mile Hole

Aurora Kakadu Resort

Two Mile Hole

Manbiyarra (Border Store) Jabiluka Mineral Lease

Bowali Vistor Centre Nourfa ngie Cree k

Ranger Project Area

Jabiru

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

The region has two groups of First Nations people who are considered the Traditional Custodians and Owners of the land: The Bininj in the north and the Mungguy in the south. These two First Nations groups have an intimate knowledge of the local environment, its cycles and seasonal changes (see Figure 13.4.3). For the last 65 000 years, First Nations people have cared for the land around Kakadu. They have passed down their spiritual connection through generations using art, language, ceremonies, kinship and land management techniques.

ighw

em H

Arnh

Darwin 140 km

Ngurrungurrudjba (Yellow Water)

Old

Jim

Burrungkuy Djarradjin (Nouriangie) (Muirella Park)

Cooinda

Jim

13°S

k ee Cr

ARNHEM LAND

Gudjewg Monsoon season

Djimdjim (Jim Jim Falls)

Maguk

Twin Falls

JAN

OCT

Ka the rin eR ive

Drainage

Floodplain

Gurrung Hot dry weather season

Lowland woodland and forest Stone country

20 km

Rainforest

Threatened Sandstone Shrubland Complex

Yegge Cooler but still humid season

14°S

Figure 13.4.2 Distribution of environments within Kakadu National Park

Wurrgeng Cold weather season

Figure 13.4.3 A detailed understanding of Kakadu’s seasonal climate is essential to its management by First Nations people.

…

DRY

Banggareng Knock em down storm season

SEP

4WD track

JUN

Unsealed roads

Pine Creek 60km

AUG

Sealed roads

NOV

Park boundary

WET

MAY

Gunumeleng Pre-monsoon storm season

Yurrmikmik

MAR

JUL

Riv er

FEB

APR

Ma ry

Key

DEC

Gunlom

low-intensity bushfire fire that burns mainly grasses and lowlying vegetation rather than trees

fire regime pattern of fires that occurs within an ecosystem, classified by the frequency, intensity, size and seasonality of fires

high-intensity bushfire fire that generates very high heat, burning both the ground surface and trees, and eliminating all fauna

In addition to its environmental assets, Kakadu is valued for its cultural history.

Environment change: a new fire regime Prior to European settlement, First Nations people managed Kakadu using fire. Low-intensity bushfires were used to aid hunting, protect food resources, clear campsites, communicate between groups, and as part of spiritual and cultural rituals. Over time, traditional fire regimes became an essential component of the local ecosystem, helping to provide habitat for species that had adapted to these conditions. When Europeans arrived in the region, many First Nations people left their land, were removed, or died of

disease. This meant that traditional fire practices decreased in frequency. The landscape changed accordingly. During the wet season, monsoonal rains lead to rapid plant growth. In the absence of traditional burning during the dry season, this vegetation dried out and accumulated into a large fuel load. This led to more frequent high-intensity bushfires. While low-intensity fires had benefitted the environment, these more powerful fires were destructive, altering the balance of the ecosystem and changing the distribution of plants and animals.

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Environmental change: pests and weeds day. The absence of buffalo meant that the native mudja grass (Hymenachne acutigluma) and introduced para grass (Brachiaria mutica) spread rampantly throughout Kakadu’s wetlands, outcompeting other plant species. This prevented water birds from feeding, reduced local biodiversity and increased the bushfire fuel load. Combined with an absence of traditional fire management, this further increased the vulnerability of Kakadu to high-intensity bushfires.

Asian water buffalo were introduced in Kakadu in the 1820s. By the 1960s, their numbers had grown to approximately 20 000 and they were particularly prominent across the Alligator Rivers region (see Figure 13.4.4). These pests eroded river banks, muddied water, ate large amounts of grasses and competed with native wildlife for habitat. During the 1980s and 1990s, most buffalo were removed from Kakadu to prevent further destruction. However, the successful eradication of this pest led to further changes. Each buffalo used to eat an average of 20 kg of grass each

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Since European settlement, the spread of pests and weeds has become an environmental issue within Kakadu. Weed species present include Mimosa, a woody shrub from Central America that forms thickets across floodplains, and Salvinia, an aquatic fern that can choke waterways. Feral animals introduced to the region, both intentionally and accidentally, include cattle, pigs, horses, cats, dogs, rats, cane toads and Asian water buffalo.

Figure 13.4.4 Buffalo cause considerable damage to Kakadu’s waterways.

Managing Kakadu: a partnership with the Bininj/ Mungguy peoples Since the 1970s, half of Kakadu has been classified as Aboriginal land under the Aboriginal Land Rights Act. The traditional custodians of the land, the Bininj/ Mungguy peoples, lease the land back to the Director of National Parks, which is part of the Australian government. These two groups manage the park in partnership.

The Kakadu National Park Management Plan (2016–2026) outlines current priorities for management. Its vision is that Kakadu is a place where:

This partnership enables Aboriginal knowledge about fire management, as well as knowledge about other aspects of the local environment, to be incorporated into management strategies.

• Bininj/Mungguy peoples are involved in all aspects of managing the park.

• The cultural and natural values of the park are protected and Bininj/Mungguy culture is respected.

• Knowledge about country and culture is passed on to younger Bininj/Mungguy people and future generations of Bininj/

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Mungguy people have the option to stay in and look after the park. • World-class visitor experiences are provided and tourism is conducted in culturally, environmentally, socially and economically sustainable ways.

• Disturbed areas are rehabilitated and reintegrated into the park. • Bininj/Mungguy peoples gain sustainable social and economic outcomes from the park.

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Burning for biodiversity: a return to the traditional fire regime The Burning for Biodiversity project is an example of successfully involving First Nations peoples in environmental management. The Australian Government’s Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO), together with the Bushfire Cooperative Research Centre work with a family of Traditional Custodians and Owners of the land to manage the biodiversity of the floodplains of the South Alligator River. The management process involves the yearly burning of two types of fires. Low-intensity protective burns occur on the edges of the floodplain in May, which is early in the dry season when the fuel load is still moist. The early protective burns prevent these later, larger fires from spreading into the surrounding woodlands. Higher-intensity burns take place throughout the floodplain at the end

of the dry season in October, when water levels are low and fuel loads are high. This burning regime continues until the wet season arrives in December.

Burning for Biodiversity has been a success, transforming the region back into a diverse wetland habitat thriving with waterbirds. Additional benefits of the program have included the return of food resources for local Aboriginal people, the opportunity to teach the younger generation about traditional practices, and for these methods to serve as an example of how traditional environmental management could be applied throughout other parts of Australia. It is hoped that similar prescribed burns can be used elsewhere in Kakadu to restore the delicate balance of its ecosystems.

… Figure 13.4.5

Park rangers and First Nations Traditional Owners work together to use cultural burning techniques to manage the local environment.

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Concepts and skills builder 13.4 Evaluating a management response Access https://vimeo.com/118081463 to watch the video from the CSIRO demonstrating an example of a traditional burn as part of the Burning for Biodiversity project. Use the information from the video and the information in this chapter to answer the following questions: What do you think is meant by the phrase, ‘You look after the country and the country will look after you’? Describe the characteristics of the landscape that the family are burning. Why are wind and rainfall essential for fire management? Why are the fringes of the wetland burnt early in the dry season? What have been the benefits of removing Hymenachne (mudja grass) from the region? Why is it essential that Aboriginal peoples contribute to the management of Kakadu? Using the information from the previous questions, evaluate the effectiveness of the Burning for Biodiversity project. Consider:

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• environmental sustainability in terms of changes to biodiversity • economic sustainability in terms of positive and negative impacts that it could have on the tourism industry • social sustainability in terms of the education of the local community about traditional practices.

Geographical concepts and skills: environment, interconnection, place, space

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13.4 Review questions

1 a Why is Kakadu considered to be such an important natural environment? b What are the names of Kakadu’s Traditional Custodians and Owners? For how many years have they lived in and managed Kakadu? c Describe two factors that have led to changes in Kakadu’s landscape.

2 Refer to Figure 13.4.2. a What type of vegetation covers most of Kakadu? b In which direction do you think the rivers are flowing? Why? c What type of impact do you think the different types of roads might have on the local environment? 3 Using buffalo as an example, discuss how the management of a pest or weed can lead to additional environmental impacts. 4 Summarise the main features of the Burning for Biodiversity management strategy.

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Case study: monitoring and insuring the health of the Mesoamerican Reef Learning intention

This lesson is a case study exploring the threats to the Mesoamerican Reef and the ways in which an environment insurance scheme is attempting to ensure its sustainability.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

Thinking about investments in environmental protection

We’ve made really great progress precisely quantifying what you can achieve by investing in nature. – Mark Tercek, CEO, The Nature Conservancy

1 What are the reasons why people might invest in nature and what do you think might be ways in which this can be done? 2 What does quantifying mean? 3 Why do you think it is unique and challenging to be able to quantify the achievements of an investment in a natural environment?

The Mesoamerican Reef is a marine system stretching over 1000 km from the northern tip of Mexico’s Yucatan Peninsula, along the east coasts of Belize and Guatemala, ending at the Bay Islands in the north of Honduras (see Figure 13.5.1). This marine system supports mangrove forests, coastal

wetlands, seagrass beds and the world’s second-largest coral reef. The reef provides a habitat for 65 species of coral and 500 species of fish, including whale sharks, and other marine creatures such as turtles and manatees. This makes it one of the most biodiverse ecosystems in North and South America.

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Major rivers Coastal lagoons Lakes

Urbanised areas Coral reefs Mangroves

Land elevation (m) 1–500 2001–2500 501–1000 2501–3000 1001–1500 3001–3500 1501–2000 3501–4000

Bathymetry (m below sea level) 3001–4000m 1–10m 4001–5000m 11–50m 5001–6000m 51–100m 6001–7000m 101–200m 7001–8000m 201–2000m 8001–9000m 2001–3000m

Figure 13.5.1 Location and physical characteristics of the Mesoamerican Reef

Amazing but true… Coral reefs have very high biodiversity. They are home to 25 per cent of all marine species on Earth despite only covering 0.1 per cent of the ocean’s total area.

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U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES Figure 13.5.2 Coral polyps are tiny organisms found in tropical waters. Their bodies are soft, but they contain

a protective limestone skeleton at their base, which they use to attach to rocks on the sea floor. These tiny organisms then clone themselves, forming a colony and joining with other corals to form a reef.

subsistence fishing fishing that is done primarily to provide food for the people doing the fishing as opposed to being sold for profit runoff water that flows over the surface of the land rather than being absorbed macroalgae large marine algae, such as seaweed and seagrass, that typically grow in shallow water

turbidity a measure of the cloudiness of a body of water

In addition to its biological importance, the Mesoamerican Reef provides a source of income for two million local people who work in commercial fishing and tourism industries. It also provides a vital food source for those who rely on it for subsistence fishing. Tourism is a very significant industry in this region, contributing almost a quarter of Belize’s

Gross Domestic Product. The reef system also acts as a buffer that absorbs the force of large waves, protecting the shoreline from severe storms, coastal erosion and floods. A healthy coral reef can absorb up to 97 per cent of a wave’s energy. This is particularly vital because the reef’s location in Central America makes both it and the coastline vulnerable to hurricanes.

Environmental change: local causes The Mesoamerican Reef faces several threats that are damaging its environmental assets at an alarming rate. These include mining, agriculture, commercial development, tourism and overfishing. Figure 13.5.1 shows the topography of the region, with higher elevations further inland and river systems that flow towards the coast. The shape of this landscape means that inland pollution will eventually drain into river systems and discharge into the reef, including untreated waste like raw sewage and agricultural runoff

that contains pesticides and fertilisers. These nutrients and pollutants cause the excessive growth of macroalgae which compete with corals and can cause them to perish.

The clearing of coastal vegetation such as mangrove forests (Figure 13.5.3), and the subsequent construction and farming that occur in their place, is adding excessive sediment into river systems flowing out to the reef. This is increasing the water’s turbidity, depriving corals of the sunlight needed to grow.

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Figure 13.5.3 Roots of mangroves protect the shoreline from storm waves, wind and erosion, and filter out sediment to prevent it flowing into the sea

Environmental change: global causes In addition to local impacts, the Mesoamerican Reef is being threatened by climate change in a number of ways: • Warming ocean temperatures will cause widespread coral bleaching.

• Sea-level rise will cause increased coastal erosion and increase turbidity. • The coastline will be more vulnerable to more frequent storms and subsequent flooding. • Increased rainfall will increase the runoff of pollutants.

Increased amounts of carbon dioxide absorbed by the ocean will lead to ocean acidification, which will reduce the ability of corals to grow and recover from damage. Corals and zooxanthellae algae have a symbiotic relationship, meaning they rely on each other to survive. It is this algae that gives corals their colour. As can be

seen in Figure 13.5.4, increased ocean temperatures make the algae leave the corals tissue, which turns the corals white and leaves them without their major food source. This is known as coral bleaching. Although corals can survive bleaching, bleached coral is far more vulnerable to other disturbances such as pollution or severe storms and far more likely to die as a result. In 2023, a long-lasting heatwave between May and August raised temperatures more than 3.5°C above the summer average. This caused bleaching throughout the Mesoamerican Reef, including the death of species that had not previously been affected. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change projects a global temperature rise of 1.5°C above the pre-industrial average could kill or severely degrade up to 80 per cent of coral reefs.

zooxanthellae algae tiny plantlike organisms that live in the tissue of corals coral bleaching when water is too warm, corals will expel the algae living in their tissues causing the coral to turn completely white

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… Figure 13.5.4

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Up to 80 per cent of the coral in the southern region of the Mesoamerican Reef are showing signs of bleaching.

Coastal Management Trust: insuring the reef Each year, more than 12 million tourists visit Mexico’s Yucatan Peninsula, generating US$9 billion annually. The region is reliant on the Mesoamerican Reef, both as a major tourist attraction and as a buffer that protects the coastline from hurricanes which are also the biggest immediate threat facing the future of the reef. In order to ensure the sustainability of the reef and the industries that rely on it, Nature Conservancy partnered with the State Government of Quintana Roo in Mexico to establish the Coastal Management Trust scheme in 2018. This scheme is an insurance policy. The Trust receives money from the tourism industry and uses it to insure 60 km of the reef against damage from hurricanes.

The money is used to finance the ongoing maintenance of the reef in order to improve its health and therefore its ability to protect the coastline. Following any large storms and hurricanes, the scheme will fund restoration activities such as stabilising uprooted corals, helping the reef to recover so that it can once again protect the coastline. In this way, the trust helps to ensure the ecological conservation of the reef while ensuring the survival of the tourism that relies on it. Although the trust is currently only applied to 60 km of coastline near Cancun, it is hoped that this model will be applied to other regions, and that similar schemes might be developed for other ecosystems.

Healthy Reefs Initiative: assessing and monitoring the reef Assessing and monitoring the health of an environment is an essential component of environmental management. The Healthy Reefs Initiative is a collaboration of 48 different non-government organisations throughout Central America that

monitor and evaluate the health of the Mesoamerican Reef. Figure 13.5.5 shows this data organised in a Geographic Information System that can be used to explore various data layers and to compare data from different time periods.

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… Figure 13.5.5 GIS is used to

Legend

2006 Sites

2016 Sites

Critical

Poor Fair

Poor Fair Good

Very Good

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Good

assess and monitor changes to the Mesoamerican Reef.

Concepts and skills builder 13.5

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Using a Geographic Information System (GIS) to monitor environmental health

A geographic information system (GIS) is a form of technology used to gather, manage and analyse spatial information such as environmental change. Geographers can organise this data in layers using interactive maps to compare data sets at various scales. A GIS has been used to map, explore and analyse data from the Healthy Reefs Initiative. By manipulating digital maps and data layers, users can view photos of the Mesoamerican Reef, explore the health of various sites over time and analyse the extent of various impacts. Follow these steps to gain an understanding of the health of the Mesoamerican Reef:

Figure 13.5.6

Geography skills video: Digital skills: Using a GIS – Healthy Reefs

1 Visit the Healthy Reefs Initiative website and select ‘Data Explorer’ from the top menu. Click on various sites within the reef to see photos. Compare the characteristics of at least two of the sites. 2 Click on the ‘2006–2016’ tab and select the ‘Reef Health Index–Sites’ tab. Using the slider, describe the change in the overall health of the reef between 2006 and 2016. In your answer, refer to specific sites and subregions as evidence. 3 Select either the ‘Coral Disease’ or ‘Coral Bleaching’ tab and summarise the extent of the impacts using dot points. 4 Access the most recent Report Card from the Healthy Reefs Initiative website. Describe how the recent assessment of the reef’s condition compares with its health in 2016. Geographical concepts and skills: environment, interconnection, place, space

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Figure 13.5.7 Coral in the Mesoamerican Reef near Cancun, Quintana Roo, Mexico

Lesson 13.5 review Online quiz

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13.5 Review questions

1 List three reasons why the Mesoamerican Reef is a significant environment. 2 Refer to Figure 13.5.1. a Using the linear scale, estimate the area of coastline that contains mangroves. b What impact might this have on the health of nearby corals? c Describe the physical characteristics of the surrounding landscape, including the variation in elevation and the distribution of rivers. d Why are these features important factors in contributing to the damage to the Mesoamerican Reef? 3 Summarise the local and global threats to the health of the Mesoamerican Reef. 4 a Describe how the Coastal Management Trust is aiming to achieve environmental, social and economic sustainability in Mexico. b List three criteria that could be used to evaluate the success of the Coastal Management Trust in the future. 5 Download the latest Report Card from the Healthy Reefs Initiative website. a Which subregion has the highest Reef Health Index (RHI) score? b Which country has the highest average RHI score? c Compare the latest data with the data from previous report cards. Comment on the trend.

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Case study: battling land degradation in northern China Learning intention

This lesson is case study focusing on a type of land degradation occurring in China called desertification. It considers the ways in which local action and national strategies are aiming to reverse this environmental change.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

Thinking about the human impact of land degradation

I’d rather die from exhaustion than from being bullied by sand. – Yin Yuzhen

Towards the end of this lesson you will learn about Yin Yuzhen, a resident of the Mu Us Desert in northern China, who has dedicated her life to restoring the land by planting forests. In the quote above, what do you think Yuzhen means when she refers to be being ‘bullied by sand’?

Desertification in northern China Desertification is a type of land degradation in which drylands gradually become drier until areas that once were arable can no longer be used for agricultural production. This essentially turns the land into a desert, making it uninhabitable. Drylands are particularly vulnerable to desertification because they have very low and irregular rainfall. Despite these unfavourable conditions, one-third of the world’s population live in drylands and rely on the land for both subsistence and commercial agriculture.

Desertification is one of the most significant environmental challenges faced in China. More than one-quarter of China’s land area has been affected, totalling over 2.5 million sq km. As shown in Figure 13.6.1, desertification is occurring primarily in China’s northern and northwestern regions. Each year, the Gobi Desert spreads over an additional 3600 sq km of grassland, turning it into a barren wasteland.

desertification the process by which land changes into desert, usually due to drought, deforestation or unsustainable agricultural practices drylands dry regions that experience very low and very irregular rainfall arable land that is suitable for growing crops

subsistence agriculture farming crops that are used to feed the farmer’s family and for local trade commercial agriculture largescale production of crops for sale on the wholesale or retail market

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Causes of desertification A leading direct cause of desertification in China is the widespread deforestation that occurred throughout the twentieth century. Trees were cut down for firewood and to make room for farmland. While the root systems of these trees would normally hold soil in place, their removal made the soil vulnerable to wind erosion, blowing away valuable topsoil. Deforestation was followed by a combination of unsustainable land management practices including overgrazing by livestock, overcultivation of the land, and poor water management, which leads to soil salinity.

Hailar Harbin

Burqin

Changchun Ürümqi Shenyang Kashgar

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Baotou Hohhot

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Figure 13.6.1 Distribution of soil degradation caused by desertification in China

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Zhengzhou

Xian

Chengdu

Lhasa

Lianyungang

Figure 13.6.2 Deforestation, overgrazing and overcultivation are turning arable land in northern China into a

desert-like wasteland.

carrying capacity maximum number of people a region can support without damaging the environment

The unsustainable land management that caused desertification throughout the twentieth century was driven by China’s rampant population growth and its global agriculture industry. China is the second-most populous country in the world, with over 1.4 billion people to feed (see Figure 13.6.3). In addition, China’s

thriving agriculture industry produces food for 20 per cent of the world’s population and provides jobs for 35 per cent of China’s labour force. The demands on the land in these dryland regions have meant they have exceeded their ecological carrying capacity. The landscape has not been able to recover.

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China’s population has grown significantly since 1960.

Anthropogenic climate change is also likely to continue contributing significantly to China’s rate of desertification. Studies have shown that climate change will continue to make many places on Earth hotter and drier, leading to a reduction in soil moisture. An increase in the frequency of severe storms might also lead to further soil erosion. According to the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization, China’s semi-arid and dry subhumid zones have experienced steady increases in temperature and decreases in precipitation since the 1970s.

have a severe impact on the health of people living in places such as Beijing, with links found to cardiovascular and respiratory diseases. When combined with industrial pollution, dust storms can raise the air quality in Beijing to extremely hazardous levels. On an international scale, these storms also impact agriculture in Japan and Korea, costing billions in loss of productivity. Traces of particles from China’s deserts have even been found as far away as New Zealand.

Impacts of desertification

Another severe impact is an increase in the frequency and intensity of sandstorms due to the exposed soil that is more susceptible to erosion. Sandstorms

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Around 400 million people in China are currently impacted by desertification. Farmers in the most affected regions are forced to abandon their land due to a decline in productivity. It is estimated that this loss in production alone costs China US$6.9 billion each year.

Figure 13.6.4 Sandstorms are a serious health risk for Beijing’s

21 million residents.

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Concepts and skills builder 13.6 Summarising information using a concept map A concept map is a diagram that visually represents the relationship between concepts or ideas. These concepts are written inside boxes or circles and organised in a logical way. Arrows containing linking terms are used to demonstrate the links between these concepts.

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Draw a concept map to show the links between the causes and consequences of desertification in China using information from within this lesson. Consider the links between direct and indirect causes and the ways in which environmental impacts can lead to additional economic and social impacts. Complete your concept map by hand or by using a digital design tool. Geographical concepts and skills: environment, interconnection, place

One woman v desertification: a local response

Yuzhen’s forest has created a protective windbreak that successfully protects her village from sandstorms and has halted desertification. She now lives amongst 100 different species of trees and shrubs that support populations of wild roosters, rabbits and foxes. Her local village is also thriving economically, earning money from agriculture, honey production and as a tourist attraction. Yuzhen has won over 60 awards locally and internationally and was nominated for a Nobel Peace Prize in 2005. On two occasions, Yuzhen was selected as one of the 10 most powerful

women in China and she was honoured as one of the torchbearers for the 2008 Beijing Olympics. Many people have benefitted from her expertise in forest management and sustainable agriculture, applying her techniques within other dryland regions.

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When Yin Yuzhen was 19 years old, she moved to a small village in the Mu Us Desert region of Inner Mongolia following an arranged marriage. She struggled with feelings of isolation due to the desolate environment that surrounded her home. Despite having no experience or knowledge of forestry, she began planting trees in the hope she could bring some life to what was a barren wasteland. Although most of her initial plantings failed, after 30 years of persistence, Yuzhen and her villagers planted over 600 000 trees covering 4000 hectares.

Figure 13.6.5 Yin Yuzhen

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U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES Figure 13.6.6 Trees act as a windbreak, protecting farmland from sandstorms and advancing sand.

The Great Green Wall of China: a national response Since 1978, China has been planting billions of trees along its northern and northwestern regions as part of the ThreeNorth Shelterbelt Project, more commonly known as the Great Green Wall. It is hoped that this large-scale afforestation will protect the country from desertification by creating a 4800-km protective buffer between desert and farmland. To date more than 66 billion trees have been planted, with planting set to continue until 2050 with a goal of planting around 80 billion trees.

The success of this response is currently mixed. Since the program began, tree cover in China’s north has increased from 5 to 12 per cent. The project has

also increased the world’s forest cover. A study from NASA using satellite imagery has determined that the global green leaf area has increased by 5 per cent since the start of the twenty-first century. At least 25 per cent of this increase has occurred in China. Figure 13.6.7 shows the regions of China that have had the largest growth. However, this data only accounts for the total amount of vegetation and not the quality or type of vegetation. Nearly one-third of this vegetation is due to intensive agriculture, which may also be contributing to desertification through overcultivation and does not necessarily provide any environmental benefit.

afforestation planting vegetation in an area to establish a forest global green leaf area measure of vegetation coverage that includes forests, plantations and agriculture

… Figure 13.6.7

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• increasing the biodiversity of planted forests to decrease their vulnerability to disease • prioritising the maintenance of existing trees to increase their likelihood of survival • facilitating natural regeneration of forests in addition to plantations.

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Some regions in China have shown a reduction in the rate of desertification. For example, the Loess Plateau has seen a 20 per cent increase in forest cover. However, many regions have been unsuccessful in rehabilitating the landscape. One of the major criticisms of the project is that young trees need lots of water to grow and that there is insufficient water to sustain them in dryland regions. In some cases, these trees are actually contributing to desertification by absorbing additional water from dwindling groundwater supplies. Tree growth has also been slower than expected and many trees have died from disease or due to a lack of water. Studies have shown that only an estimated 15 per cent of the trees planted since 1978 have survived. Recommendations for the future of the project include:

• planting grassland species instead of trees in drought-prone areas • choosing local tree species that use less water

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Figure 13.6.8 Over 50 000 people gather to plant trees in Shandong Province.

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• thinning out existing plantations to increase the stability of remaining trees and reduce their water consumption

Lesson 13.6 review Online quiz

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13.6 Review questions

1 Define desertification with reference to causes, impacts and examples. 2 Using Figure 13.6.1, describe the spatial distribution of places where the soil is most degraded in China. In your answer, include specific place names and try to estimate the area of China that is degraded. 3 With reference to Figure 13.6.3, explain how China’s population growth has indirectly led to desertification. 4 Using the example of sandstorms, explain why environmental change on a regional or national scale can have impacts of an international scale. 5 Explain why the increase in global green leaf area shown in Figure 13.6.7 does not necessarily represent progress in afforestation and a decrease in desertification. 6 In one paragraph, compare the effectiveness of the local and national responses to desertification in China.

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13.7

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Fieldwork: evaluating the success of local environmental management Learning intention

In this lesson, you will have the opportunity to design a fieldwork investigation, in which you will investigate a local example of environmental change and management. Fieldwork is an essential part of studying geography. It enables you to investigate many of the concepts studied in the classroom while out in the real world. In this example, it also provides the opportunity to apply your knowledge to answer a research question based on the impacts of environmental change. In this investigation, your aim is to investigate a local example of environmental management and evaluate its effectiveness. The following structure will help to form the basis of your study.

Table 13.7.1 Fieldwork report: tasks to be completed

Section

Explanation

Examples

Title and introduction

Choose a suitable topic and title for your investigation. It should include the scope and location of your investigation. Write a brief introduction outlining the main aspects of your study including the type of environmental change you will be investigating and a summary of its management

• A comparison of the health of the Dandenong Creek from its source to the sea • An investigation into the success of beach renourishment at Hampton Beach • An evaluation of the health and biodiversity within the Yea Wetlands • An evaluation of the success of weed eradication

Research some background information about your chosen topic and locations. This will provide some context for your study.

• Geographic characteristics of your chosen locations and a map showing your study area • Regional information such as the natural and

Research question

Write a research question that you intend to answer using the data that you collect. You may prefer to write one overall research question and multiple sub questions.

• How does the health of the Dandenong Creek

Hypothesis

A hypothesis is a clear and concise statement that can be tested. It should be written prior to collecting your primary data.

• Renourishment at Hampton Beach has restored

Background information

in the Mornington Peninsula National Park

human history of the area and its land uses

and its surrounding environment vary from its source in the Dandenong Ranges to its confluence with Eumemmerring Creek in Patterson Lakes?

the area to make it usable by people but has led to additional negative environmental impacts

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Explanation

Examples

Primary data collection

Primary data is data you collect yourself in the field specifically for your investigation. Consider the types of primary data that you will need to collect to answer your research question. Consider the equipment and preparation required.

• Photos and field sketches • Vegetation identification and abundance using quadrants • Observations of processes such as erosion • Assessment of water quality including pH, turbidity, temperature, nutrient levels • Waterbird identification and count • Interviews with local environmental groups

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Section

and relevant organisations

Secondary data is data that other people have collected that you can use as part of your investigation. Undertake research to find suitable sources of information that you can apply to your topic.

• Water quality data collected by Melbourne Water • Climate data from the Bureau of Meteorology • Information about local vegetation species from council websites • Websites of local environment groups and social

Presenting and analysing your data

Summarise your findings in visual formats that are easy to read and understand.

Discussion, conclusion and evaluation

Use your primary and secondary data to answer your research question. Provide a concise summary of your major findings. Evaluate the success of your data collection and your overall investigation.

• Different types of graphs (pie, line, bar) and maps (choropleth, thematic, political) • Annotated photos and field sketches • Data summary tables • The extent to which your hypothesis has been supported or disproven • An answer to your research question • The positive and negatives of your data collection

Secondary data collection

References

Include a bibliography listing any sources used.

media campaigns

methods and how they can be improved

Melbourne Water 2022, Rivers and Creeks: Dandenong Creek, Victorian State Government, accessed 8 August 2024, https://www. melbournewater.com.au/water-and-environment/ water-management/rivers-and-creeks/dandenongcreek

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End of investigation review: Environmental change and management Access the Interactive Textbook for a range of digital tools to help you review this topic, including: • Downloadable cummary • Scorcher timed competitive quiz.

Making thinking visible Headlines 1

Write a headline for one of the environmental changes outlined in the case studies in Lessons 13.3–13.6. Consider the most important aspect of the change and its impacts.

Write a second headline based on the level of success of the management response. Consider how the situation has changed and any subsequent changes to the environment.

Extended response questions 1

Use the information from the case studies presented in Chapter 13, evaluate the effectiveness of a management response to environmental change.

In your response.

• Outline the type of environmental change and its impacts • Describe the management response

• Weigh up the positives and negatives of the response and its ability to manage environmental change using statistics as evidence • Conclude with a statement of the effectiveness of the response.

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Choose one of the following quotes from naturalist Sir David Attenborough. Using information you have learnt from this chapter, explain what Attenborough is referring to and discuss the extent to which you agree with him. • ‘A hundred years ago, there were one-and-a-half billion people on Earth. Now, over six billion crowd our fragile planet. But even so, there are still places barely touched by humanity.’ • ‘Many individuals are doing what they can. But real success can only come if there is a change in our societies and in our economics and in our politics.’

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• ‘The only way to save a rhinoceros is to save the environment in which it lives, because there’s a mutual dependency between it and millions of other species of both animals and plants.’ • ‘If we [humans] disappeared overnight, the world would probably be better off.’

Solving geographical problems

Choose one of the impacts of environmental change outlined in Chapter 12 and design your own strategy to manage the impact. Consider whether your strategy will: • Assess and monitor the change • Reverse or adapt to the change • Provide an artificial solution

• Involve an Indigenous perspective

• Indirectly respond to the impact by raising awareness.

…

Swap your response with a classmate and evaluate each other’s response using a range of suitable criteria.

Figure 13.8.1 Environmentalist Sir David Attenborough

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Research task Choose one of the types of environmental change discussed in this chapter, or one of your own choice. Examples include habitat fragmentation, the spread of pests and weeds, deforestation, or river regulation. Prepare a case study relating to a specific place. Undertake research using a variety of sources and media in the following areas: • Background information including location and geographic characteristics

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• A summary of factors that led to environment change

• A description of the environmental change including a variety of impacts

• An outline of at least one management strategy seeking to reduce negative impacts or enhance positive impacts • The success or likely success of the management responses outlined.

…

Present your findings in a report that includes relevant maps, data and statistics.

Figure 13.8.2 Deforestation on the Sunshine Coast, Queensland

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INVESTIGATION 2

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Geographies of human wellbeing

OVERVIEW

Geographies of human wellbeing focuses on the question of human wellbeing, how it may differ from the concept of development and how it can be measured and mapped. Students consider the global pattern of wellbeing and then examine the spatial distribution of wellbeing within a country at a regional scale, for example using India (a country of growing importance to Australia) as the case study. Students examine the spatial distribution of wellbeing among Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples. This is extended by a study of wellbeing in Australia at the scale of the students’ city or rural area. Finally, students investigate programs to raise human wellbeing in Australia and overseas, and the role of the United Nations’ Sustainable Development Goals. Source: VCAA, Victorian Curriculum V2.0, ‘Geography’, ‘Band description –

Levels 9 and 10’

CURRICULUM GOALS

• How does changing the scale of an investigation change our understanding of the issue being studied?

Source: VCAA, Victorian Curriculum V2.0, ‘Geography’, ‘Band description – Levels 9 and 10’

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What is human wellbeing?

LESSON TITLE 14.1

Setting the scene: Hong Kong – a harbour of disparity

14.2

What is human wellbeing and how is it measured?

14.3

How do wealth, total fertility rate and adult literacy rate contribute to wellbeing?

14.4

How do health, sanitation and life expectancy contribute to wellbeing?

14.5

How are wellbeing indicators interconnected?

14.6

How does human wellbeing vary at a global scale?

14.7

Why does human wellbeing vary spatially at a global scale?

14.8

What are the consequences of global variations in wellbeing?

14.9

Case study: how does human wellbeing vary within Vietnam?

14.10

How can human wellbeing vary at a local scale?

14.11

The wellbeing of Australia’s Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples

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14.1

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Setting the scene: Hong Kong – a harbour of disparity Learning intention

This lesson is an introduction into human wellbeing, looking at an example of inequality in living conditions in Hong Kong. At first glance, Hong Kong’s Victoria Harbour (Figure 14.1.1) depicts an idyllic urban paradise. Tall, modern skyscrapers stretch out along a tranquil coastline surrounded by luscious forests. For the 15 per cent of the population who are millionaires, and its 60 billionaires,

it is indeed a place of luxury. However, household income within Hong Kong varies enormously. In 2023, the average household income for the region’s richest 10 per cent was nearly 60 times greater than the poorest!

Amazing but true…

In 2019, Hong Kong became the city with the highest concentration of rich people in the world.

Rent in Hong Kong is among the most expensive in the world. Even a one-bedroom apartment in a mid-range suburb is unaffordable for most of Hong Kong’s working class. As a result, many families are forced to live in cramped conditions with three generations (children, parents and grandparents) under one roof. An estimated 100 000 people who are less fortunate live in subdivided apartment units that each measure less than 4 square metres! As for instance

shown in Figure 14.1.2. Many of these subdivisions are illegally built and do not meet safety standards. The least fortunate people are forced to live in cubicles or cages that are barely large enough to fit a bed (see Figure 14.1.3). Living conditions for poor people are very tough – many elderly women collect and sell cardboard to scrape together a very basic living (Figure 14.1.4). Homelessness is on the rise and the waiting list for public housing is up to six years.

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U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES Figure 14.1.4 Many elderly people in Hong Kong scavenge cardboard from the streets to sell to recycling plants.

…

Figure 14.1.3 Thousands of low-income workers live in ‘cage homes’ that are only large enough to fit a sleeping mat.

Figure 14.1.2 Life inside one of Hong Kong’s subdivided apartments

…

Figure 14.1.1 View of Hong Kong’s Victoria Harbour

Lesson 14.1 review Online quiz

Review questions

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Research task

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Teachers can assign tasks and track results

14.1 Review questions

What makes you say that?

https://www. gapminder.org/ dollar-street

Visit the Dollar Street website, produced by the Swedish Gapminder organisation, and explore the homes of different families around the world. In pairs, ask each other the following questions and then prompt each other to justify your opinions by asking ‘what makes you say that?’ 1 Which of the families you investigated do you think would have the highest level of wellbeing? 2 What do you think are some of the challenges facing some of the families at either end of the income spectrum? 3 Which of the families you investigated do you think has a lifestyle similar to yours? 4 What has this exercise shown you about wellbeing across the world?

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14.2

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What is human wellbeing and how is it measured? Learning intention

This lesson provides a brief introduction into what human wellbeing means for different people and the ways in which it can be measured and compared.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

Analysing different living standards in the same place

…

Figure 14.2.1

Geography skills video: Digital skills: Using a GIS – Google Street View

1 Compare the characteristics of what you can see in the left and right sections of the aerial photograph in Figure 14.2.1. Using a table, list the differences in living conditions. 2 Use Google Street View to visit Kyra Sands and access photographs of the region. It might help to turn on the satellite image on the base map so you can choose areas that look similar to the ones shown in Figure 14.2.2. Add observations to your table. 3 The housing shown on the left of Figure 14.2.2 is an informal settlement, commonly known as a slum. In these regions, residents do not have legal ownership of the land and live in densely packed housing that is built using scrap materials. They lack basic services such as piped water, sanitation and electricity. a Why do you think some people in Johannesburg live in large houses while others live in these slums? b Research more about slums in Johannesburg by watching a video or reading an article. How does life in a slum compare to life in the suburbs? c Do you think Australia has slums? Why?

…

Figure 14.2.2 An aerial photograph of Kyra Sands, an informal settlement located in Johannesburg, South Africa.

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Defining wellbeing health, income, education and happiness are more common measures of wellbeing. In many cases, individuals make decisions about what they consider to be the qualities of a prosperous life and then measure their level of wellbeing based on whether they have the ability and resources available to them to achieve those qualities in their own lives.

human wellbeing overall measure of the health and quality of life of a group of people

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Human wellbeing can be defined as an overall measure of the health and quality of life of a group of people. Human wellbeing varies significantly depending on the place and population for which wellbeing is measured. In the world’s poorest regions, wellbeing involves having the basic requirements needed for survival, such as food, clean water, shelter, clothing and safety. In wealthier regions,

Measuring wellbeing

There is no single measure of human wellbeing. Instead, comparing the wellbeing of populations involves using a variety of indicators or measures. When combined, these indicators give an overall view of a population’s wellbeing. Examples of indicators include wealth, life expectancy and access to health and education services. Some wellbeing indicators, such as infant mortality rate (IMR), are objective and quantitative. This means that they can be measured and quantified, making them easy to compare. Other indicators, such as happiness, are subjective and qualitative, making them more difficult to measure and compare.

Happiness is one of the most important indicators of wellbeing, but it is one of the most difficult to measure. The United Nations World Happiness report ranks countries based on their economic situation, social support, life expectancy, freedom, generosity and perceptions of corruption. In 2024, Finland was ranked the happiest country, largely due to its strong sense of community, while Australia just scraped into the top10. In contrast, the least happy countries were Afghanistan, Lebanon, Lesotho and Sierra Leone – places facing political instability, economic hardships and war.

… Figure 14.2.3

Since 1972, Bhutan has made happiness its most important measure of wellbeing and have made efforts to increase the happiness of its population. Measures include encouraging citizens to wear traditional clothing and teaching mindfulness to school students.

indicators measures used to assess and track changes in progress and performance infant mortality rate (IMR) measure of the number of children per 1000 children born who die aged under 1 year of age objective result or judgement that is not influenced by the personal feelings or opinions of an individual subjective result or judgement based on personal beliefs and feelings quantitative data based on numerical quantities that can be counted or measured qualitative data not based on numeric quantities, usually measured using techniques including observations, interviews and surveys mindfulness technique for achieving a calm mental state by focusing awareness on the present moment

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Concepts and skills builder 14.2 Classifying indicators Geographers find it useful to classify the world around them to increase their understanding and enable comparison. Classifying means arranging things into groups, classes or categories based on common characteristics. In this lesson, you have learnt the difference between an objective and subjective measure and that some measures are quantitative while others are qualitative. 1 Fill out a table like the one below to classify the following wellbeing indicators. Objective/subjective Quantitative/qualitative

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Wellbeing indicator

Wealth

Happiness

Job satisfaction

Social connectedness

Environmental qualities (climate, green space, air quality) Infant mortality rate Work-life balance

Personal security and safety

Percentage of people who have finished secondary school

2 Choose two of the wellbeing indicators from the table above and justify their classification. In other words, why are they objective or subjective? Why are they measured using qualitative or quantitative data? Geographical concepts and skills: environment, interconnection, place

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Lesson 14.2 review Online quiz

Review questions

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Research task

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14.2 Review questions

1 a What are wellbeing indicators and why are they used? b Explain the difference between a qualitative and quantitative indicator and provide an example of each. c Explain the difference between an objective and subjective indicator and provide an example of each. 2 What do you think is one of the most important indicators or measures of human wellbeing? Justify your choice. 3 a What is a slum? b Suggest a way that a country like South Africa could improve its wellbeing for those currently living in slums. 4 Research a list of the happiest and least happy countries in the world. Suggest reasons for large differences in happiness between countries.

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14.3

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How do wealth, total fertility rate and adult literacy rate contribute to wellbeing? Learning intention

In this lesson, you will be introduced to three common indicators of wellbeing: wealth, total fertility rate and adult literacy rate.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

Analysing a cartogram

Figure 14.3.1 is a cartogram, a type of map in which the sizes of countries are manipulated to represent the variable being mapped. In this example, wealthier countries with a higher GDP are larger than poorer countries. 1 Based on Figure 14.3.1, list the countries and regions which are the wealthiest and poorest. 2 Which countries or regions have been distorted the most in the cartogram? In other words, which ones are much larger or smaller on the cartogram than on a traditional map? 3 Brainstorm a list of ways in which increased wealth can improve human wellbeing and why people in poorer countries often have lower levels of wellbeing.

cartogram type of map in which the sizes of countries are manipulated to represent the variable being mapped Gross Domestic Product (GDP) a measure of a country’s economic output

…

Figure 14.3.1 Cartogram showing the relative sizes of countries based on their wealth, measured as Gross Domestic Product (GDP)

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Wealth the people living within their suburb or region. Another important consideration is the cost of living within a place compared with the average income. Table 14.3.1 shows that Switzerland has the third-highest annual income at $95 490; however, it is also ranked the second-most expensive country in which to live based on the cost of rent and groceries. This shows that a higher income does not always lead to a higher standard of living.

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One of the most common measures of wellbeing is wealth. Wealth provides access to life’s necessities and opportunities, and affects all other wellbeing indicators. For example, regions with greater wealth have a greater access to health services, higher levels of education and a higher life expectancy. A common way of measuring and comparing wealth between countries is Gross Domestic Product (GDP) per capita. GDP is a measure of a country’s economic output based on the total value of goods produced and services provided in a year. ‘Per capita’ means per person. GDP per capita is therefore a measure of a country’s wealth divided by its total population. Wealth can also be measured by average annual income, as shown in Table 14.3.1.

per capita per person

absolute wealth wealth compared to a fixed standard (for example, whether a person is above or below the national poverty level) relative wealth how a person’s wealth compares with the other people in their community

cost of living amount of money needed to afford basic necessities such as housing, food, clothing and health care

When considering an individual’s wellbeing based on their wealth, it is important to differentiate between absolute and relative wealth. Absolute wealth refers to wealth compared to a fixed standard, such as whether a person is above or below the national poverty level or the national average. On the other hand, relative wealth relates to how a person’s wealth compares with the other people around them, including their family and friends, colleagues and

Table 14.3.1 Countries with the highest average incomes in 2022 in United States dollars (USD)

Country

Average annual income (USD)

Monaco

186 080

Bermuda

125 210

Switzerland

95 490

Norway

94 540

Luxembourg

89 200

Ireland

79 730

United States

76 770

Denmark

73 520

Qatar

70 120

Iceland

68 660

Source: World Data website

Total fertility rate

total fertility rate (TFR) total number of children expected to be born to a woman in her lifetime if she lives to the end of her childbearing years

The total fertility rate (TFR) is the total number of children expected to be born to a woman in her lifetime if she lives to the end of her childbearing years. In 2024, the TFR in Australia was 1.6 babies per woman. This does not mean every woman in Australia will give birth to 1.6 babies, though! This value is calculated based on the average number of children each woman gives birth to in a country – this

means on average Australian women have one or two children. In contrast, the TFR in Niger in 2024 was 6.4, meaning on average women in Nigeria have six or seven children. Table 14.3.2 shows the 10 countries with the highest and lowest TFR. Globally, the TFR has fallen from approximately five in the 1960s to 2.3

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in 2024 (see Figure 14.3.2). There are many factors responsible for this trend, including advancements in contraception, greater access to family planning, better health care and a higher life expectancy.

Furthermore, greater career opportunities for women have meant many have delayed the age at which they choose to have children, resulting in women having fewer children overall.

Table 14.3.2 The 10 countries with the highest and lowest TFR

Countries with the lowest TFR

Country

TFR

Country

TFR

Niger

6.64

Spain

1.30

Angola

5.70

Italy

1.26

Congo (DRC)

5.49

Puerto Rico

1.26

Mali

5.35

Moldova

1.26

Benin

5.34

Macau

1.24

Chad

5.24

Hong Kong

1.24

Uganda

5.17

Ukraine

1.11

Somalia

5.12

Singapore

1.17

South Sudan

5.09

South Korea

1.12

Burundi

4.90

Taiwan

1.11

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Countries with the highest TFR

family planning services that help women to gain greater control over the number of children they have, and the timing between births

Source: CIA World Factbook, 2024

…

Figure 14.3.2 The change in the TFR from 1950 to 2023 for five selected countries, compared with the

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Concepts and skills builder 14.3 Describing the trend of a line graph Geographers use line graphs to analyse how phenomena change over time. These types of graphs are created by plotting data for each year on a set of axes. Years are marked on the x-axis and the variable being measured is marked on the y-axis. Each data point is then joined with a line so that the trend of change can be seen. Figure 14.3.2 is an example of a line graph showing how TFR has changed since the 1950s.

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1 Choose three of the countries and describe their trends. Include the following: An overall description of what the graph is showing. What variable is the graph representing? Has it increased, decreased, or remained stable over the time period? What values support your description? How much has the variable gone up or down? Over how many years? Mention any time periods that stand out as being unusual due to their rapid or slow growth. Include any peaks (high values) or troughs (low values) and quote the values for these.

• • •

2 Compare the trends of the three countries analysed in question 1. Are their trends similar or different? 3 Explain whether the countries analysed in question 1 match the global trend. Suggest a reason for this. 4 Choose one country and suggest a reason for the trend. For example, why do you think China’s TFR dropped sharply during the 1960s and 1970s? Why do you think Niger’s TFR is still much higher than the other countries? Undertake research to see if your suggestion is correct. 5 Based on the analysis you have undertaken, justify which of the countries in Figure 14.3.2 are likely to have the highest and lowest levels of human wellbeing. Geographical concepts and skills: environment, interconnection, place, space

Adult literacy rate

adult literacy rate (ALR) proportion of adults in a population who can read and write

sub-Saharan Africa region of Africa located south of the Sahara Desert

The adult literacy rate (ALR) refers to the proportion of adults in a population who can read and write. It is an important indicator of wellbeing. One of the main reasons is that being able to read can improve a person’s employability and earning potential. Literacy is also often used as a measure of a population’s overall level of education. Back in 1800, the adult literacy rate was just 12 per cent of the total world population. In 2024, it reached 86.3 per cent, 90 per cent for males and 82.7 per cent for females. However, there is a large variation in the ALR between world regions. In subSaharan Africa the average ALR is just 67.7 per cent, compared to 99.9 per cent in northern Europe. Rates also vary within

a country. Females have lower levels of literacy rates in countries in which they have less educational opportunities. Lower rates are also found in ethnic minorities and low-income earners.

In addition to the basic ability to read and write, an important measure of wellbeing is health literacy. The World Health Organization defines health literacy as the ability of individuals to gain access to, understand and use information in ways that promote and maintain good health. Although the ALR in Australia is over 99 per cent, a national health survey by the Australian Bureau of Statistics in 2018 showed that 14 per cent of Australians found it

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difficult to navigate the healthcare system. As shown in Figure 14.3.3, this varied considerably throughout the different age groups. Low levels of health literacy

affect wellbeing as it can lead to higher rates of hospitalisation, less frequent use of health services and overall higher government costs.

…

Figure 14.3.3 Results from Australia’s Health Literacy Survey showing whether people found it difficult or easy to navigate the healthcare system

persons

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18–24 years 25–34 years

Australians

35–44 years 45–54 years 55–64 years

65 years and older

English as a main language spoken at home

Language other than English spoken at home

Category

Difficult

Usually easy

50 60 percent

100

Always easy

Source: Health Literacy Survey, 2018

Lesson 14.3 review Online quiz

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14.3 Review questions

1 a Define Gross Domestic Product per capita and explain why it is used as an indicator of human wellbeing. b Refer to Table 14.3.1. In which world regions are most of the countries with the highest and lowest annual incomes located? 2 a Define total fertility rate and explain why it is used as an indicator of human wellbeing. b Outline some of the challenges that countries with a very high or low total fertility rate might face. 3 a Define ‘adult literacy rate’ and explain why it is used as an indicator of human wellbeing. b Suggest an impact that lower literacy rates in females might have in a country such as Niger. c What is health literacy and how does it affect wellbeing? d Using Figure 14.3.3, describe how the level of health literacy is associated with age in Australia. Suggest a way this may affect the wellbeing of different age groups. 4 ‘Education is the fundamental key to providing improvement in wellbeing.’ To what extent do you agree or disagree with this statement?

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14.4

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How do health, sanitation and life expectancy contribute to wellbeing? Learning intention

In this lesson, you will be introduced to three common indicators of wellbeing: health, sanitation and life expectancy.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

See, think, wonder

1 See: describe what life might be like for the boy depicted in Figure 14.4.1. 2 Think: suggest the dangers of not having safe and clean access to a toilet. 3 Wonder: reflect on what this image makes you feel about your own level of wellbeing.

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Figure 14.4.1 Simple latrine situated over a lake in a slum in Bangladesh

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Health and disease of malaria-related deaths occurred in sub-Saharan African countries (see Figure 14.4.2). This suggests that there is a correlation between the impact of malaria and other factors such as wealth and access to health care.

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The ability for a population to treat and control the spread of diseases, and to provide appropriate health care, is an important indicator of wellbeing. Although many diseases affect all people irrespective of their living conditions or wealth, there are many preventable and treatable diseases that occur predominantly in poorer regions. For example, malaria is a life-threatening disease caused by parasites spread when Anopheles mosquitoes bite people. In 2022, malaria was responsible for the deaths of 608 000 people worldwide and it was also one of the leading causes of death for young children. Although climate is a major factor determining the prevalence of malaria, 93 per cent

Amazing but true…

In 2019, an article in The New York Times described mosquitoes as the deadliest creatures to humans on the planet. An estimated total of 52 billion people have been killed by mosquitoes over the last 200 000 years.

Anopheles genus of mosquito containing 460 species, 100 of which can spread malaria

Figure 14.4.2 Global distribution of deaths due to malaria in 2021, measured as the number of deaths per 100 000

individuals

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Concepts and skills builder 14.4 Describing spatial distribution using a choropleth map

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phenomena facts, circumstances, or situations that can be observed; for example, GDP or life expectancy in each country

Choropleth maps represent data by shading or colouring areas, such as countries, based on a data value. Figure 14.4.2 is a choropleth map in which darker colours are used to represent countries with a larger number of deaths due to malaria. Geographers use maps to analyse the distribution of phenomena in space. In this context, space refers to spatial location and distribution refers to the way things are arranged. By analysing the spatial distribution of phenomena, geographers are able to identify trends and patterns. When describing spatial distribution, there are three important things to include: the pattern, quantification and an exception. This is also known as the PQE method. Use at least one sentence to answer each of these questions relating to the spatial distribution of deaths due to malaria. Make sure you refer to specific countries and regions, and use the legend to refer to specific values. Pattern: give a general overview of the distribution. – Is the overall distribution even or uneven? – Which regions or countries have a high and low number of deaths? Provide some examples.

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• Quantification: provide specific evidence to demonstrate the pattern. Use the legend and approximate areas

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using percentages. – Roughly how much of the Earth has a high or low number of deaths? – What percentage of Africa has a high or low number of deaths? – How prevalent are deaths across Europe? Exception: identify an example or several examples of specific places that do not fit your pattern. – Where is there a place that has a high number of deaths surrounded by places with a low amount? – Where is a place that has a much higher or lower amount than anywhere else?

Geographical concepts and skills: environment, interconnection, place, space,

physician medical practitioner, such as a doctor, nurse or surgeon

excreta faeces, urine and other waste material discharged from the body

Another factor determining wellbeing based on health and disease is access to physicians, such as doctors or nurses. This is often measured in terms of the number of physicians per 1000 people. The global average is 1.5 physicians per 1000 people, yet this measure can be is as high as 5.9 in Cuba or 4.1 in Australia, and as low as 0.04 in Liberia.

Cardiovascular diseases, including heart attacks and strokes, are the leading cause of death around the world. Three-quarters of deaths due to cardiovascular diseases still occur in low- and middle-income countries due to a lack of health care services that can offer things like early detection and treatment.

Sanitation

According to the World Health Organization (WHO), sanitation refers to the provision of facilities and services for

the safe management and movement of human excreta from a toilet to storage, treatment and safe use or disposal. In

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diarrhoea, cholera, typhoid and dysentery. This can be especially dangerous if infected faecal matter contaminates water supplies (see Figure 14.4.1) and if there is a lack of access to physicians. Every year, half a million children die from diarrhoea, which causes dehydration and related illnesses such as malnutrition. This makes diarrhoea the second leading cause of death in children aged under five. A lack of sanitation also drastically reduces school attendance, particularly for girls, which ultimately leads to a reduction in the literacy rate.

latrine communal toilet or a simple form of sanitation; for example, an open trench malnutrition medical condition resulting from a lack of nutrition by not eating enough food, eating an imbalance of foods or eating an excessive amount of food

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other words, access to a clean and safe toilet. Around the world, approximately 2 billion people live without adequate sanitation like a toilet or latrine, something that most people in Australia take for granted. Figure 14.4.3 shows that almost all people in North America and Europe have access to basic sanitation, while nearly 30 per cent of people in Central and South Asia don’t have access to any form of sanitation. In addition to making life difficult and unpleasant, a lack of sanitation leads to the spread of infectious diseases like

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Figure 14.4.3 Percentage of world regions that have access to various levels of sanitation

Regions

0.7

North America and Europe

77.9

Australia and New Zealand

68.2

Eastern Asia and South-East Asia

6.1

13.6

53.3

22.4

35.7

28.1

5.0

12.2

3.3

4.5 5.4 4.1

63.3

50.1

Oceania (excluding Australia and New Zealand) Sub-Saharan Africa

21.7

32.8

Central Asia and South Asia

2.1

31.8

55.3

Western Asia and northern Africa

Latin America and the Carribean

19.3

8.2

4.0

48.2

17.9

31.2

6.2 3.0

29.5

12.1

22.9

Percent of the population

Safely managed

Basic

Limited

Unimproved

Open defecation

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Life expectancy life expectancy the number of years someone is expected to live from birth

all world regions showing a similar growth trend, there is a significant difference between current life expectancy in regions such as sub-Saharan Africa and southern Europe. For example, in 2024 France had an average life expectancy of 83.3 years, whereas in Nigeria life expectancy was only 56.1 years. There is also a significant difference between the life expectancy of males and females. In Monaco, which has one of the highest life expectancies in the world, males live to an average of 85.29 years, whereas females live to 89.11 years. This is due to biological differences, but also behavioural factors like higher smoking rates in males.

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food security measure of people’s access to enough food to meet their dietary needs

Life expectancy refers to how long a person can expect to live from birth. It is calculated based on the average age that members of a particular population are when they die. Life expectancy is an important indicator of wellbeing – it increases as other areas of wellbeing improve. For example, countries with high life expectancy usually have universal access to sanitation, medical facilities, food security and education, and enough wealth to provide all of these things.

As Figure 14.4.4 shows, average life expectancy across the world has risen significantly over the last century. Despite

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Figure 14.4.4 Life expectancy has increased dramatically in all world regions since 1880.

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Figure 14.4.5 In 2023, Japan had the third-highest life expectancy in the world at 84.95 years, below Macao at 85.51 years and Hong Kong at 85.83 years. The Japanese government invests large amounts of money to ensure its elderly population maintain healthy and fulfilling lives.

Lesson 14.4 review Online quiz

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14.4 Review questions

1 a Define health and explain why it is used as an indicator of human wellbeing. b Suggest a factor contributing to the variation in the number of physicians per 1000 people in different countries. 2 a Define access to sanitation and explain why it is used as an indicator of human wellbeing. b Refer to Figure 14.4.3. Describe how access to sanitation varies across the world. Refer to specific world regions and data from the graph. 3 a Define life expectancy and explain why it is used as an indicator of human wellbeing. b Using Figure 14.4.4, describe the change in life expectancy in the different world regions. Have all regions increased by a similar amount? c Suggest a reason for the overall trend in life expectancy shown in Figure 14.4.4. d Figure 14.4.4 shows a small decrease in life expectancy in 2020 and 2021. What do you think was responsible for this? e Suggest a reason why life expectancy in Africa is far below the rest of the world. 4 Describe a way in which sanitation, health and life expectancy are linked.

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14.5

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How are wellbeing indicators interconnected? Learning intention

In the last three lessons, you learnt about a variety of indicators used to measure human wellbeing. In this lesson, you will explore ways in which these indicators are interconnected.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

Thinking about fertility rates

1 Why do you think the total fertility rate is so high in Chad compared to a country like Australia or Germany? 2 What might be some of the challenges facing Chad given its high total fertility rate? 3 In what ways might having lots of children provide an economic opportunity for a country like Chad?

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Figure 14.5.1 Chad, central Africa, has a total fertility rate of children born per woman.

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Interconnection between wellbeing indicators Conversely, countries in the lowest income level have a life expectancy of interconnection around 60 years. Although there is clearly the relationship between places an association between these variables, and people, and this does not mean that one necessarily the ways in which causes the other. A stronger economy and they influence each a high-paying job do not guarantee a long other variable life, although it does provide access to characteristic, health care and healthier living conditions, factor or quantity which may contribute to a longer life. It that increases or is also important to consider exceptions decreases over time to the trend. For example, Guyana has a relatively high GDP per capita of US$34 400, yet a life expectancy of only 64.3 years. This is due to a shortage of health care workers, a high prevalence of chronic diseases such as diabetes and a relatively high child mortality rate.

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Many of the indicators used to measure wellbeing are interconnected. This means that they are linked and affect each other. For example, access to adequate sanitation can affect the prevalence of many preventable diseases, while higher levels of education can lead to an increase in wealth. Some of the poorest countries in the world, such as Chad, have the largest families due to a lack of money to purchase contraception, a lack of access to family planning services, and cultural and religious preferences. Figure 14.5.2 shows the relationship between wealth and life expectancy. Countries with a high GDP per capita above US$32 000 tend to also have a life expectancy of above 70 years.

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Figure 14.5.2 A scatter

graph showing the relationship between GDP per capita and life expectancy. The colours on the graph represent different world regions, as shown on the location map beneath the graph.

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Concepts and skills builder 14.5 Analysing the relationship between variables using scatter graphs

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dependent variable variable that tends to change as values of the independent variables change

Figure 14.5.2 is an example of a scatter graph. They show the relationship between two different variables. The dependent variable goes on the y-axis (vertical axis). A dependent variable is a value that tends to change as the independent variable changes. The independent variable goes on the x-axis (horizontal axis) of a scatter graph. In Figure 14.5.2, GDP per capita is the independent variable and life expectancy is the dependent variable. This is because life expectancy changes based on changes to GDP per capita. The data points represent values from different countries with the size of the circles representing the size of the population.

independent variable variable which changes in value are not thought to be determined by other values under consideration

The relationship between variables is known as a correlation. When increases in an independent variable are related to increases in a dependent variable, the direction of this correlation is said to be positive. When increases in an independent variable are related to decreases in the dependent variable, the direction of this correlation is said to be negative. The strength of a correlation is determined by how closely the data points are aligned (see Figure 14.5.3).

correlation relationship between variables – for example if the dependent variable increases or decreases as the independent variable increases, there is a correlation between those two variables

Strong postive correlation Strong postive correlation Strong postive correlation

Strong negative correlation Strong negative correlation Strong negative correlation

Week postive correlation Week postive correlation Week postive correlation

Week negative correlation Week negative correlation Week negative correlation

No correlation No correlation No correlation

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Figure 14.5.3 The direction and shape of the data points on a scatter graph determines whether the relationship is strong, moderate or weak and whether it is positive or negative

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Either follow the steps shown in the video tutorial, or which follow in writing.

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Figure 14.5.4

Geography skills video: Digital skills: Using Gapminder

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Visit the Gapminder website and click on the Tools item in the menu bar. 1 Describe the direction and strength of the correlation between GDP per capita and life expectancy. 2 Using the colour legend, list the world regions with the highest and lowest income and life expectancy. 3 Using the year slider underneath the graph, describe how income and life expectancy, and the relationship between them, has changed over the last 200 years. 4 Change the dependent and independent variables to some of the other wellbeing indicators introduced within this chapter. For example, explore the correlation between adult literacy rate and child mortality or life expectancy and total fertility rate. Describe the relationship between these variables. Geographical concepts and skills: environment, interconnection, place, space

Lesson 14.5 review Online quiz

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14.5 Review questions

1 Define interconnection and provide an example of how two or more wellbeing indicators are interconnected. 2 a Explain the difference between the dependent and independent variables and outline where they are located on a scatter graph. b If a correlation between two variables is positive, what tends to happen to the dependent variable as the independent variable increases? 3 Why should you avoid using the word ‘causes’ when describing the correlation between variables? 4 a Using Gapminder, describe the correlation between adult literacy rate and babies per woman. Include examples in your description including reference to specific countries, regions and statistics. b Explain why you think the correlation from part a exists.

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14.6

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How does human wellbeing vary at a global scale? Learning intention

This lesson focuses on a comparison of the distribution of different human wellbeing indicators at a global scale.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

Reflecting on overpopulation

A common misunderstanding is that if we save all the poor children, the world will become overpopulated. This may sound logical, but it’s wrong. It’s the other way around. Saving the poor children’s lives is required to end population growth. – Hans Rosling, physician and cofounder of the Gapminder Foundation

1 Why do you think some people claim that saving poor children will lead to overpopulation? 2 Justify whether you agree or disagree with this claim. 3 Why do you think Hans Rosling claims that saving poor children will end population growth?

child mortality rate the percentage of children who die before reaching the age of five

Geographers use maps to analyse the spatial distribution of phenomena such as wellbeing indicators. Concepts and skills builder 14.3 introduced a method for describing spatial distribution of phenomena where a pattern, quantification and exception are identified. This skill can be used to analyse how wellbeing varies on a global scale. For example, it is clear from Figure 14.6.1 that Europe contains clusters of countries with very low child mortality rates (CMR) whereas the rate is far greater in sub-Saharan Africa. On the other hand, as can be seen from Figure 14.6.2, around 20 per cent of the countries in sub-Saharan African have a total fertility rate (TFR)

of above four children born per woman compared to fewer than two in Europe.

Regardless of how clear a distribution pattern may seem, the real world is full of exceptions. An exception is a place that doesn’t have the same qualities as the places surrounding it, and therefore doesn’t fit the pattern. When looking at the distribution of wealth in Figure 14.6.3, Saudi Arabia is an exception because it has a Gross Domestic Product (GDP) per capita of US$40 000–50 000, which is much higher than that of the countries that surround it within the Middle East region.

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changes to wellbeing. Study the five choropleth maps on the following pages and see if you can spot a clear pattern, quantify this pattern and find an exception.

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An analysis of the way wellbeing indicators vary across the globe can help to allocate resources, track progress in improving wellbeing and project future

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Figure 14.6.1 The global distribution of the child mortality rate measured as the percentage of newborns who die before reaching the age of five, 2023

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Figure 14.6.2 The global distribution of the total fertility rate measured as children born per women, 2023

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Figure 14.6.3 The global distribution of wealth measured as GDP per capita, 2023

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Figure 14.6.4 The global distribution of adult literacy rate measured as the percentage of adults aged 15 and over who can read and write, 2023

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Figure 14.6.5 The global distribution of life expectancy at birth, 2023

Concepts and skills builder 14.6

Describing spatial association using choropleth maps

In the previous lesson, scatter graphs were used to analyse the relationship between two variables in terms of the influence that one variable had on another. In a similar way, we can look at the link between variables or phenomena by analysing their spatial association – the degree to which they share a similar distribution. For example, is there a spatial association between CMR and TFR? Do countries with a high CMR tend to also have a high TFR? Why might these two indicators be interconnected? Do countries with a low GDP per capita also have lower life expectancies? Are there any exceptions? When describing spatial association, there are three important things to include: the degree of the association, quantification and examples, and an exception. This is known as the DQE method.

spatial association the degree to which two or more phenomena share a similar distribution on the Earth’s surface

A strong spatial association between two phenomena would mean that their distributions are very similar; for example, if areas that have a high amount of something in one map also have a high amount of something else in the other map. A moderate spatial association between two phenomena would exist if some regions of the map share a similar distribution while other regions of the map do not.

A weak spatial association between two phenomena would exist if the two maps do not appear to have many or any regions that correlate.

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1 Use at least one sentence to answer each of the following questions relating to the spatial association between CMR (Figure 14.6.1) and TFR (Figure 14.6.2). Make sure you refer to specific countries and regions and use the legend to refer to specific values. Degree: state whether the spatial association is strong moderate or weak. ‘There is a strong/moderate/ weak spatial association between … and …’

•

– Which regions have both high CMR and high TFR? – Which regions have both low CMR and high TFR? – Use the legend to quantify the examples above. Exception: are there any exceptions to the degree of spatial association you have described?

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•

– Do countries/regions with a high CMR rate also have a high TFR? – Do countries/regions with a low CMR also have a high TFR? Quantification: provide specific examples and evidence to demonstrate the degree of spatial association.

– Is there a country that has a high CMR but a low TFR? 2 Repeat this same process to compare the spatial association of another pair of wellbeing indicators in Figures 14.6.1 to 14.6.5. Geographical concepts and skills: environment, interconnection, place, space

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14.6 Review questions

1 Refer back to Concepts and skills builder 14.4 in lesson 4. Choose one or more of the maps in Figures 14.6.1 to 14.6.5 and describe the global distribution of the wellbeing indicator represented. 2 Explain what spatial association means and why describing the spatial association between wellbeing indicators is useful for geographers. 3 Refer back to Han Rosling’s quote in the lesson opener. Use your knowledge of the spatial association between CMR and TFR to justify why saving poor children’s lives is required to end population growth.

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14.7

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Why does human wellbeing vary spatially at a global scale? Learning intention

The last lesson considered how the distribution of wellbeing varies across the world and the spatial association between wellbeing indicators. This lesson looks at the some of the reasons for these variations.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

Think, pair, share

Education is a human right with immense power to transform. On its foundation rest the cornerstones of freedom, democracy and sustainable human development. – Kofi Annan, former Secretary-General of the United Nations

1 Think: explain why you think Kofi Annan thinks education is such an important factor contributing to wellbeing. 2 Pair: suggest another factor that contributes to human wellbeing. Compare your factor with a classmate and discuss your ideas to determine which factor is the most significant. 3 Share: prepare to share your factors with the class.

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Factors contributing to variation in wellbeing Political decisions can also play a vital role in determining a country’s wellbeing. Many Central American countries, such as Guatemala and El Salvador, are battling poverty, crime and political instability. In contrast, Costa Rica is politically stable, economically prosperous and the happiest country in this region. It also has the highest adult literacy rate at 90 per cent and an infant mortality rate of just 6.5 infant deaths per 1000 live births. This is largely because it has not had an army for 70 years – the money saved on defence has been spent on education and health care.

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Geographers recognise that there are many factors that contribute to variations in human wellbeing between countries. Factors in Geography can be classified using the SHEEPT acronym, which stands for Social, Historical, Economic, Environmental, Political and Technological. These classifications are summarised in Table 14.7.1. For example, Saudi Arabia owns 20 per cent of global oil reserves, which is the main reason it has the strongest economy in the Middle East. The presence of oil in Saudi Arabia is an environmental factor while the resulting strong economy is an economic factor.

Table 14.7.1 Factors can be classified using the SHEEPT acronym

Classification

Description

Social

Factors relating to people, including culture, values, religion, population structure, education and ethnicity

Historical

Factors relating to actions or events from the past that might influence the present

Economic

Factors relating to the earning or spending of money

Environmental/Physical

Factors relating to the influence of the characteristics of natural or human environments

Political

Factors relating to governments and the impacts of their decisions

Technological

Factors relating to the development and uses of difference types of technology

Concepts and skills builder 14.7 Classifying factors

For each of following factors: 1 State how each of the following factors could contribute to a low or high level of human wellbeing. Australia has a large supply of natural resources, such as coal and uranium. Many people in Niger follow a strain of Islam that encourages followers to have as many children as possible. An aid organisation has provided free contraception and education to women in a village in Ethiopia. Afghanistan has been involved in violent conflict for several decades and has a life expectancy of just 62 years. Luxembourg was ranked the wealthiest country in the world in 2024 with a GDP per capita of US$131 000. The population density of Manila, Philippines, has reached over 40 000 per sq km. A new malaria vaccine has been developed and the Nigerian government has made it freely available.

• • • • • • •

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2 Use the information in Table 14.7.1 to classify each of the factors as social, historical, economic, environmental, political, or technological. 3 Write a brief statement justifying your choice for each example. Note that some factors could have more than one classification.

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Geographical concepts and skills: environment, interconnection, place, space

The link between economic development and human wellbeing Economic strength, often measured as GDP per capita, is an underlying factor influencing wellbeing. This is because wealthy countries often have other strengths, such as higher levels of health care, greater access to education and better living conditions.

Countries with strong economics are known as developed countries. They are more industrialised and have a stronger economy than poorer developing countries. The distribution of countries with these classifications is shown in Figure 14.7.1.

developed country country with a high GDP per capita, higher standards of living and greater access to medical care and technology industrialised country or region that has transformed its economy from one based on agriculture to one dominated by industries such as manufacturing developing country country with a low GDP per capita and a low level of industrialisation

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Figure 14.7.1 The location of countries with different levels of economic development

Countries are generally considered to be developed if they have a gross domestic product (GDP) per capita of above US$12 000, although many developed countries have a GDP per capita closer to US$40 000 or more. Developing countries

are defined as having a low GDP per capita and a low level of industrialisation. They generally rank low in a range of indicators such as adult literacy, access to sanitation and life expectancy. They also often have high levels of unemployment, widespread

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poverty, poor living conditions, a less safe environment to live in and rapidly growing populations.

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Less economically developed countries are a subcategory of developing countries. They have the lowest level of social and economic development and often depend on developed countries to

support them in establishing industries. On the other hand, countries transitioning towards being economically developed are referred to as emerging markets. For example, China has the world’s second-largest economy but it also has a relatively low GDP per capita due to its enormous population.

Composite statistics: Human Development Index

composite statistic measure that combines several other measures or variables into one value

Because there are so many factors that contribute to human wellbeing, it can be useful to compare countries using composite statistics. Composite statistics combine a variety of measures into one value. The United Nations Human Development Index (HDI) is an example, which ranks countries by their level of human development. It is calculated based on three areas: • Health – life expectancy at birth

• Education – expected years of schooling for children and average years of schooling for adults

The result is a HDI value between zero and one. The countries with the top three HDI values in 2024 were Switzerland, Norway and Iceland, while Australia ranked 10th. The bottom three countries were Somalia, South Sudan and Centra African Republic. A full list of countries ranked by their HDI can be found on the World Population Review website. You can access this site via the following weblink: https://worldpopulationreview.com/ country-rankings/hdi-by-country

• Income – measured by Gross National Income per capita.

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14.7 Review questions

1 a Define ‘factor’. b Outline one factor that affects human wellbeing for each of the SHEEPT classifications. 2 Compare the differences between developed and developing countries. 3 a List five developed, developing and least developed countries using the information in Figure 14.7.1.

b Evaluate whether developing and developed countries are distributed according to region. In other words, do all countries within a world region have a similar level of development? Provide examples to support your evaluation. 4 Explain why composite statistics are a useful tool in comparing something like human wellbeing.

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14.8

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What are the consequences of global variations in wellbeing? Learning intention

This lesson outlines three of the consequences of the global variations in wellbeing outlined in the previous lessons.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

Analysing a data source: Where do the world’s millionaires live?

1 List the three countries with the greatest number of millionaires. 2 Comment on whether the distribution of the world’s millionaires is even. 3 Suggest a reason why the United States has so many millionaires compared to the rest of the world. Country United States: 41% Australia Canada France China Germany Italy Korea Japan Rest of world Switzerland United Kingdom United States

China: 8%

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Figure 14.8.1 The distribution of the world’s millionaires

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Economic inequality inequality a lack of equality in size, degree or circumstances

adults owned nearly half of the world’s wealth, while the poorest half owned less than 1 per cent (see Figure 14.8.2). This wealth gap is widening. Each year the richest 1 per cent of the population earn nearly twice as much as the rest of the world put together!

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economic inequality differences in wealth within a population

Variation in human wellbeing between and within countries leads to inequality. In many cases, this stems from economic inequality in which part of a population has a far greater share of wealth than another part. The Global Wealth Report 2023 published data demonstrating that the wealthiest 1.1 per cent of the world’s

…

Figure 14.8.2 The global wealth pyramid, 2022, showing the number of adults in each range of wealth and the proportion of the world’s wealth that they own

Population growth

ageing population population in which the proportion of people 65 years old or older is growing

Wellbeing indicators, such as access to physicians and infant mortality rate (IMR), can influence both life expectancy and total fertility rate (TFR). When combined, these indicators can determine whether a population is growing, stable or declining. Economically developed countries usually have better health care resources which lowers the IMR and raises life expectancy. These countries also tend to have a lower TFR due to the reasons outlined in Lesson 14.3. Due to fewer babies born, populations in these countries usually remain stable or decline. As their populations live longer, the

median age in these countries is high, as is their proportion of population aged over 65 years.

Germany’s population is stable with a growth rate alternating between periods of growth and decline, reaching –1.9 per cent in 2011 and 0.8 per cent in 2023. While a large annual intake of immigrants keeps its population stable, it has an ageing population with a median age of just under 45 years and over 22 per cent of its population aged over 65 (see Figure 14.8.3).

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U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES … Figure 14.8.3 Germany’s

population pyramid in 2023

In developing countries, particularly the least developed countries, the total fertility rate (TFR) is usually very high. Although life expectancy is relatively low, the number of births far outweighs deaths, leading to rapid population growth. At 3.66 per cent in 2023, Niger has the thirdhighest annual population growth rate in the world. This is due to it having the world’s highest TFR of 6.5 children per woman. If this growth rate is maintained,

Niger’s population of 27.2 million in 2023 will reach 67 million by 2050. Figure 14.8.4 shows that Niger’s population is very young. This can lead to economic growth by providing a demographic dividend in which there is a large number of people of working age. However, if it is not managed correctly, this factor can also create high youth unemployment, a lack of universal education, political unrest and a lack of food security.

demographic dividend potential economic growth that can occur when the largest proportion of the population is of working age

… Figure 14.8.4 Niger’s

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Concepts and skills builder 14.8 Analysing population pyramids Figures 14.8.3 and 14.8.4 are known as population pyramids. These are a type of graph that shows a population’s structure in terms of its age and sex. These graphs display the proportion of the population in five-year intervals which are divided into males and females. This information can be used to determine whether a population has a high or low life expectancy and TFR, whether a population is growing, stable or shrinking, and whether a population is predominantly old or young.

Fall in death rate: Death rate low: High death rate: short higher life expectancy more elderly life expectancy Figure 14.8.5 shows how these graphs 60 have a triangular 60 can be interpreted. Less 60 60 developing countries tend to Very high Still high shape indicating both a high number of births and a low life expectancy – a growing population. Graphs that are Birth rate Lower death rate: birth rate: High death birth rate lower more middle-agedlife expectancy more rectangular represent developed a growing – a stable large base countries with rate a declining TFR and 15 15 15 15

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Low death rate: long life expectan Declining birth rate

population. The most developed countries have an upside-down triangle shape showing a very low TFR and a large Females (%) Males (%) Females (%) Males (%) Males (%) Females (%) proportion of the country aged overMales 60(%) – a declining population. High birth and death rates

Developing nations

60 Very high birth rate: large base 15

High birth rate, falling death rates

High death rate: short life expectancy High death rate

Males (%) Females (%) High birth and death rates

60 Very high birth rate: large base 15

Developing nations High death rate: short life expectancy 60 Still high High death birth rate rate 15

Males (%) Females (%) High birth and death rates

Developing nations High death rate: short life expectancy 60 Still high High death birth rate rate 15

60 Very high birth rate: large base 15

Males (%) Females (%) High birth and death rates

Fall in death rate: higher life expectancy

Death rate low: more elderly

Birth rate lower 15

Lower death rate: more middle-aged

Females (%) Declining population: birth rate below replacement level Develope Death rate low: nations more elderly 60

Birth rate lower 15

Males (%) Females (%) Ageing population: declining birth and death rates

Death rate low: more elderly

Males (%) Females (%) Ageing population: declining birth and death rates

Lower death rate: more middle-aged

Males (%) Females (%) High birth rate, falling death rates

Birth rate lower 15

Males (%) Females (%) High birth rate, falling death rates

Developing Fall in death rate: Low death rate: nations Death rate low: higher life expectancy more elderly long life expectancy Fall in death Death rate low: 60 short 60 rate: High death rate: higher life expectancy more elderly life expectancy Birth rate Lower death rate: 60 Declining 60 60 Very high lower Still high more middle-aged birth rate Lower death 15 15 rate: Birth rate birth rate: High death birth rate lower more middle-aged large base rate 15 15 Males (%) 15 Females (%) Males (%) Females (%) Females (%) Ageing population: declining Declining population: birth , falling death rates Males (%) Females (%) Males (%) Females (%) Males (%) Females (%) birth and death rates rate below replacement level High birth and death rates Ageing population: declining High birth rate, falling death rates Developed birth and death rates nations loping tions

Males (%) Females (%) High birth rate, falling death rates

Fall in death rate: higher life expectancy Lower death rate: more middle-aged

60 Still high birth rate

Ageing population: declining birth and death rates Fall in death rate: higher life expectancy 60

Declining birth rate

Males (%) Females (%) Declining population: birth rate below replacement level

Declining birth rate

Developed nations

Low death rate: long life expectancy Declining birth rate

Males (%) Females (%) Declining population: birth rate below replacement level

Developed nations

…

Figure 14.8.5 The general shape or structure of a population pyramid reveals whether the population is growing, stable or shrinking and their level of development.

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Males (%) Fem Declining populatio rate below replacem

Low death rate: long life expectancy

Males (%) Females (%) Declining population: birth rate below replacement level

Developed nations

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Download a copy of the population pyramids for Germany and Niger from populationpyramid.net and follow these steps to complete an analysis: 1 Describe the overall shape of the pyramid. 2 Quote the proportion of the population in important age cohorts (e.g. 0–4, 25–29, 65–69). 3 Make note of an bulges or indentations and explain what they might refer to. For example, why does Germany’s pyramid have a bulge in 55–59 and 30–34? 4 Discuss what the population pyramids for Germany and Niger reveal about their relative level of human wellbeing. Repeat these steps to compare wellbeing in Australia, Brazil and the United States of America. Geographical concepts and skills: environment, interconnection, place, space

Migration

Variations in wellbeing within or between countries can lead to internal and international migration. Emigrants from places with lower levels of wellbeing often leave their homes either permanently to seek a better life, or temporarily to seek employment or educational opportunities. International migrant workers often send money home to their families in their home countries in the form of remittances. While this has a very positive economic impact on the emigrants’ countries of origin, it often has a negative economic impact on the country to which they have migrated. For example, a country’s local economy does not benefit from the earnings that are sent to emigrants’ home countries, while the unemployment rate of nationals can rise due to emigrants being employed in the place of locals. This situation has occurred in Saudi Arabia, where approximately one-third of its population are immigrant workers from places like India and Bangladesh. This has led to high levels of unemployment for Saudi Arabians.

In some cases, people migrate not by choice but due to fears that their home country is unsafe. Each year, people from places such as Mexico, Guatemala and Venezuela flee the inequality, violence and economic hardship they experience in their home countries, seeking better living conditions in the United States. In 2019, Guatemala was considered one of the most dangerous places to live because of its longstanding civil war, while Venezuela was battling a severe economic crisis. According to the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, many of these people fleeing their home countries are refugees who are legally seeking asylum. In May 2019 alone, 132 887 migrants were stopped by the US Border Patrol after crossing the US–Mexico border seeking asylum. Many of the asylum seekers who cross the US–Mexico border are detained for processing. The vast majority are denied refugee status, meaning that they are not allowed to settle within the United States.

internal migration the temporary or permanent movement of people within a country international migration the temporary or permanent movement of people between countries

emigrant person leaving their country of origin

remittances money that an international migrant earns and sends back to an individual or family in their home country national a citizen of a country

immigrant person moving to a foreign country refugee person who has fled their home country and is unable or unwilling to return due to fear of being persecuted asylum seeker person who flees their home country and enters another country to apply for protection as a refugee

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Figure 14.8.6 Central and South American migrants gathering inside a makeshift detention centre in Texas

Lesson 14.8 review Online quiz

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Research task

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14.8 Review questions

1 Using Figure 14.8.2, summarise the severity of economic inequality between the world’s adults. 2 Explain how differences in wellbeing, particularly TFR and life expectancy, can determine whether a country’s population is growing, stable or in decline. 3 Suggest why having an ageing population might create economic and social challenges for developed countries. 4 a Explain why variations in wellbeing can lead to international or internal migration. b Explain how a refugee is different to a migrant worker. 5 ‘Inequality is both a cause and a consequence of variations in human wellbeing.’ Evaluate this statement with reference to some of the topics and specific examples explored in this chapter.

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14.9

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Case study: how does human wellbeing vary within Vietnam? Learning intention

The previous two lessons have considered how human wellbeing varies across the world. This lesson looks at how wellbeing can vary within a country at a national scale with a focus on wellbeing within Vietnam.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

See, think, wonder

The images in Figure 14.9.1 depict the contrasting living conditions and lifestyles between Vietnam’s rural (a and b) and urban (c and d) regions. 1 See: what can you see in each image? Consider both the people and their environment. 2 Think: what do you think life would be like in these contrasting regions? 3 Wonder: what do you wonder about the differences in wellbeing in rural and urban Vietnam?

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Figure 14.9.1 Images representing life in Vietnam’s rural and urban areas: a. Women working in the rice fields in Sa Pa in northwestern Vietnam b. Rural village amongst the terraced rice fields of Sa Pa c. Traffic in Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam’s most populous city d. The skyline of Hi Chi Minh City

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How does human wellbeing vary at a national scale? Inequality can be defined by measures like wealth, safety, air quality and internet speeds. For example, Mexico has a very high variation in homicide rates, ranging from just 2.4 murders per 100 000 people in Yucatan on the eastern peninsula, to almost 65 per 100 000 in Guerrero on the Pacific coast.

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region a defined area that usually shares a particular set of characteristics

Variations in human wellbeing can occur on a national scale, which means they can vary from place to place across an entire country. This variation is often measured by region. Geographers use regions as a way of dividing an area into smaller areas that differ in their characteristics. Differences in wellbeing within a country are often referred to as inequality.

urban environments with a high population density that have highly developed infrastructure, such as cities, suburbs and large towns

Variations in wellbeing within Vietnam Northwest

Northeast

rural environments with a low population density with sparse infrastructure, such as farms, open spaces and natural areas

Red River Delta

North Central Coast

Hoang Sa

South Central Coast

Central Highlands

Vietnam is a developing country with one of the fastest growing economies in Southeast Asia. Its economic reform, known as the Doi Moi, began in 1986. Since then, Vietnam’s economy has grown significantly, which has led to a considerable reduction in poverty and vast improvements in living standards. However, this economic growth has also widened the gap between rich and poor people. This gap is particularly prevalent when comparing relatively wealthy urban regions with surrounding poorer rural areas.

Southeast

Truong Sa

Mekong River Delta

Key

Rural: population 63.5 million (66%) Urban: population 32.65 million (34%) Total population: 96.2 million % of poplulation by region Southeast 61% 39% South Central Coast 62% 38% Red River Delta 67% 33% Central Highlands 28% 72% Northeast 25% 75% Mekong River Delta 25% 75% North Central Coast 20% 80% Northwest 17% 83%

… Figure 14.9.2 The distribution of 0

200 km

Vietnam’s rural and urban population. One-third of Vietnam’s population lives in urban areas, which make up just 5 per cent of the land mass.

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inequality, rural regions fall behind urban regions in many wellbeing areas:

Amazing but true…

• Although Vietnam’s overall total fertility rate (TFR) is 1.94 births per woman, the TFR remains higher in the Central Coast and Central Highlands regions, both at 2.43 births per woman. This is largely due to a lack of contraception and family planning services.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

The richest person in Vietnam earns more in one day than the poorest person earns in 10 years. This richest person could spend US$1 million every day for six years before they ran out of money.

Differences in wellbeing between Vietnam’s rural and urban regions

Vietnam’s economy was once based largely on agriculture, dominated by the production of rice, sugarcane, corn and sweet potato. Recent government expenditure and foreign investment have led to a transition towards manufacturing and services industries. However, although Vietnam’s urban regions have become growth centres, rural regions are still largely agrarian and have shown only minor economic growth (see Figure 14.9.3). In addition to economic

• In Vietnam’s large cities, such as Hanoi and Ho Chi Minh City, the infant mortality rate (IMR) is around 7 deaths per 1000 live births, a value in line with many developed countries. In contrast, the IMR in Vietnam’s remote rural areas is more than twice as high due to limited access to health care.

• Although over 80 per cent of Vietnamese people have access to a safe water supply, remote mountainous regions still lack this access. • On average, residents in urban areas of Vietnam have attended two more years of schooling compared to those in rural areas.

agrarian relating to agriculture and the cultivation of land

Percent of overcrowded households

NSW

Victoria

Qld

SA WA State and Territory

Tasmania

Urban areas

ACT

Rural areas

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Figure 14.9.3 Monthly average income per capita in Vietnam’s rural and urban areas over time, measured in thousand Vietnamese Dong

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Urbanisation in Vietnam

To manage the urban–rural divide, the Vietnamese government is faced with a number of challenges, including: • Providing economic support for disadvantaged people (for example, subsidies to help rural farmers to maintain economic growth in the agricultural sector)

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

urbanisation migration of people from rural to urban areas

One of the biggest impacts of the economic divide between urban and rural areas has been rapid urbanisation. The rapid expansion of the business sector in urban areas of Vietnam has created an increase in the demand for labour. Consequently, many Vietnamese people have left rural areas for large cities such as Hanoi in search of better employment opportunities and living conditions. Figure 14.9.4 shows the growth in Vietnam’s urban areas associated with a decline in rural areas.

Associated impacts include a reduction in housing availability and affordability, increased traffic congestion and poorer air quality.

While rural-to-urban migration often improves the wellbeing of those who migrate, it also increases the unevenness of wealth distribution – urban areas continue to prosper while neighbouring rural regions struggle to retain workers. As a result, even less money is invested in poor rural regions, further reducing the wellbeing in these areas. On the other hand, while urban areas prosper economically, rapid urbanisation can lead to increases in population densities.

• Investing in rural areas to develop industries that will provide jobs

• Increasing the level of education in rural areas, particularly for females and ethnic minorities • Managing urbanisation to ensure it is sustainable and doesn’t adversely affect urban regions

• Attracting foreign investment to establish industries in rural areas that will help to evenly distribute wealth, job opportunities and the population.

Population (millions)

Population in Vietnam

Urban

Rural

1950

1960

1970

1980

1990

2000

2010

2020

2030

2040

2050 Year

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Figure 14.9.4 Changes in the number of people living in urban and rural regions of Vietnam between 1950 and 2023, projected to 2050

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Concepts and skills builder 14.9 Analysing overlapping area graphs An area chart is a combination of a bar graph and a line graph. They show values changing over time. These values can be tracked in the same way you can track change in a line graph and can be read vertically at any time as you would a bar graph.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Figure 14.9.4 is known as an overlapping area graph because it contains a comparison of two variables which overlap to show their comparison. Both variables need to be read from the bottom of the Y-axis to record their total. For example, in 2000 Vietnam had 22 million people living in urban areas and around 61 million living in rural areas, making a total of 83 million people. 1 How many people were living in Vietnam’s rural and urban areas in 2020 and what was the total population? 2 What significant change is projected to occur in 2037? 3 What is expected to be the distribution of people living in rural and urban areas in 2050? 4 What issues may develop as a result of the change in rural and urban populations towards 2050? Geographical concepts and skills: environment, interconnection, place, space

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Research task

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14.9 Review questions

1 Use several examples to summarise the inequality in wellbeing between rural and urban regions in Vietnam. 2 Using Figure 14.9.2, describe the distribution of urban and rural areas across Vietnam. Where are urban areas located? How are they arranged? How much of Vietnam contain urban areas? Which region contains the most urban areas? 3 Using Figure 14.9.3, quantify how the difference in income monthly income in rural and urban areas has changed between 2010 and 2022. State whether the gap has closed or widened. 4 ‘Unsustainable levels of rural-to-urban migration can lead to a reduction in wellbeing in both rural and urban areas. ’ To what extent you agree with this statement? Use information from this chapter to justify your argument. 5 Of the five management challenges facing the Vietnamese government, justify which you think will be the most effective in reducing inequality across Vietnam.

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14.10

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How can human wellbeing vary at a local scale? Learning intention

The previous lesson considered how human wellbeing can vary across countries. This lesson focuses on variations at a local scale within cities and regions.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

Calculating the number of schools in an area

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Figure 14.10.1 Number of primary schools per 2000 students in Windy City; a fictional suburban area of a fictional

Australian city.

Figure 14.10.1 is a summary of the average number of schools per 2000 students in different regions within Windy City (a fictional suburban region). A value of 1.5 does not mean there are one and a half schools containing 2000 students, it means on average there are 1.5 schools for every 2000 students. 1 Calculate the average size of the schools for each of the locations in Figure 14.10.1. To do this, divide 2000 by the number of schools. For example, 2000 divided by 1.5 equals 1333.3 students per school. 2 Compare the average size of schools in Windy City with the average for Greater Greenswood. 3 Discuss why a limited number of schools, or excessively large schools, could lead to a reduction in wellbeing within a local area.

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Contrasts in wellbeing at a local scale the Westminster region, for example, the average life expectancy in Lancefield Street, Queens Park, is 83.72 years. In comparison, the life expectancy of Grosvenor Cresent, Belgravia, is over 94 years (see Figure 14.10.2). Across London, the gap between the places with the highest and lowest life expectancy is 20 years – similar in scale to the divide between economically developed and developing countries.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Human wellbeing varies between countries and within countries, but it also varies at a local scale. In geography, ‘local scale’ refers to a specific place or small region. This could be a village, town or city, or a suburb within a city. Comparing human wellbeing at a local scale involves making comparisons between places and analysing the variation within places. There is a large amount of variation in wellbeing within London, England. In

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Figure 14.10.2 Google Street View images of Lancefield Street, Queens Park (left) and Grosvenor Crescent, Belgravia (right) in London

In 2017, Melbourne was voted the world’s most liveable city for the seventh year in a row, based on criteria such as education, health care and safety. However, within Melbourne there are varying levels of wellbeing based on environmental factors like climate,

access to green space, employment levels and the availability of services. Newer suburbs in Melbourne’s growth regions often struggle with a shortage of schools (see Figure 14.10.1) and public transport, leading to longer commute times and traffic congestion.

Measuring wellbeing at a local scale In many countries, data relating to demographic, economic, social and health factors is collected on a regular basis using a census. In Australia, this data is collected and updated every five years by the Australian Bureau of Statistics. The data is collected based on the location of every person in Australia on the night of the census. Examples of the data collected include the size of families,

the method of travel to work, household incomes and the prevalence of long-term health conditions. Geographers analyse this data to determine demographic and wellbeing trends, which in turn can assist with informing decisions about the allocation of funding or construction of new infrastructure such as hospitals and train lines.

green space area of vegetation reserved for recreational or aesthetic purposes within an urban environment demographic relating to the structure or characteristics of a population

census official count or survey of a country’s population, usually occurring at regular intervals

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Comparing individual suburbs residential development, retail and health care, and in the provision of utilities, such as water and power. Table 14.10.1 and Figures 14.10.3 and 14.10.4 show a comparison between two Local Government Areas (LGAs), the City of Stonnington and the City of Casey, using census data accessed via the location profiles on the informed decisions website.

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U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Local Government Area (LGA) an area managed by a local council

Demographic and wellbeing data can be organised by location to directly compare different places. A Melbourne-based company called informed decisions (generally known as ‘.id’) provides local area profiles containing various types of demographic and socio-economic data. Informed decisions’ data services are used to inform local and state government decisions in areas such as education,

Table 14.10.1 Demographic and wellbeing data for City of Stonnington and City of Casey, 2021

City of Stonnington

City of Casey

Population

111 335

392 110

Population density (persons per sq km)

4 343

958

Median age

Average number of children per family

1.7

1.9

Median weekly household income

$2 210

$1 918

University qualification

53.1%

22.0%

Unemployment rate

4.1%

4.7%

Public transport to work

8.4%

3.3%

People with a long-term health condition

28.8

27.1

Concepts and skills builder 14.10 Collecting and summarising data

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Figure 14.10.5

Geography skills video: Digital skills: Using a GIS – informed decisions and the ABS

The data in Table 14.10.1 was gathered using information in the area profiles within the informed decisions website. Similar data can be found in the census summaries within the website of the Australian Bureau of Statistics. Nine data measures were chosen out of a much larger list. Visit either the informed decisions or Australian Bureau of Statistics websites and follow the steps below to complete a comparison of wellbeing at a local scale. You can also follow along using the video tutorial. 1 Choose the locations for your comparison. You may wish to compare your local area to another nearby place, or somewhere in another region of Melbourne or Victoria. 2 Draw a table similar to Table 14.10.1 and enter the data you gather for your two chosen locations. Consider adding some rows to your table and choosing some additional categories to add to your summaries. 3 Locate population pyramids for your two locations from the informed decisions website.

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4 Compare the data you have gathered. Consider: Which data indicator showed the greatest variation? How many of the indicators show higher levels of wellbeing at one location compared to the other? Is there a significant difference in the age–sex distributions of your locations as shown in their population pyramids?

• • •

5 Summarise your findings by justifying which location has a high level of human wellbeing.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Geographical concepts and skills: environment, interconnection, place, space

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Figure 14.10.3 2021 population pyramid for the City of Stonnington, located in Melbourne’s inner southeast, between 3 and 13 km from the Melbourne CBD

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Figure 14.10.4 2021 population pyramid for the City of Casey, located in Melbourne’s southeast, between 28 and 60 km from the Melbourne CBD

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14.10 Review questions

1 a Use Google Street View to visit Lancefield Street, Queens Park and Grosvener Crescent, Belgravia. Compare the geographic characteristics of these places such as the types of buildings, the types of cars driven and the presence of green space. b Choose two streets in different parts of an Australian city or town and compare them in the same way. Discuss which is likely to have a higher level of wellbeing. 2 a Explain what a census is and how its data is used. b Access a sample Australian census household form from the Australian Bureau of Statistics website. Choose three questions and explain why the data might be useful. 3 a Justify which three types of data in Table 14.10.1 reveal the most about wellbeing in different LGAs. b Compare the population pyramids for the City of Stonnington and City of Casey using the skills learnt in Concepts and skills builder 14.10. What clues do they provide about the level of wellbeing in these areas? c Overall, justify whether people in the City of Stonnington or the City of Casey are likely to have a high level of wellbeing.

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14.11

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The wellbeing of Australia’s Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples Learning intention

This lesson explores the wellbeing of Australia’s First Nations Peoples broadly across Australia and at local scales.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

Discussing efforts towards Reconciliation

Reconciliation will not work if it puts a higher value on symbolic gestures rather than the practical needs of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islanders in areas like health, housing, education and employment. – Warren Mundine AO, Bundjalung man, business leader and ex-politician

1 What do you think Mundine means when he refers to symbolic gestures rather than practical needs? 2 Do you predict that there is a significant difference in the wellbeing of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islanders and non-Indigenous Australians in the areas of health, housing, education and employment?

In 2024, Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples represented approximately 3.8 per cent of Australia’s total population. However, there is a wide gap between the wellbeing of Indigenous Australians and non-Indigenous Australians, based on demographics, education, employment and health. This gap is even wider when comparing the 15 per cent of Indigenous Australians living in remote communities (see Figure 14.11.2).

… Figure 14.11.1 Warren Mundine AO

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Very remote

Remote

Outer regional Inner regional Major cities

1000 km

Discrete First Nations communities

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Figure 14.11.2 Location of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander communities in Australia

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Measuring the wellbeing of Australia’s First Nations peoples Demographics

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The differences in the wellbeing of Indigenous and non-Indigenous Australians becomes apparent when comparing demographics. The life expectancy for Australians is 81.2 years for males and 85.3 years for females. This is considerably higher than for Indigenous Australians at 71.9 years for males and 75.6 years for females. These differences are visible when comparing age structures. Figure 14.11.3 shows the age structure of Australia’s Aboriginal

and Torres Strait Islander population compared with its non-Indigenous population. Non-Indigenous Australians have a population pyramid similar to most other developed countries with a narrow base indicating a low total fertility rate (TFR) and rectangular body and broad top depicting a high life expectancy. The pyramid for Indigenous Australians is similar to those of developing countries with a broad base and a triangular that tapers inwards, indicating a high TFR and low life expectancy.

Age group (years) 100+ 90–94 90–94 85–89 80–84 75–79 70–74 65–69 60–64 55–59 50–54 45–49 40–44 35–39 30–34 25–29 20–24 15–19 10–14 5–9 0–4

12 11 10 9

7 6 5 % Males

Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples Non–Indigenous people

5 6 7 % Females

9 10 11 12

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Figure 14.11.3 Population pyramids comparing Australia’s Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander and non-Indigenous

populations

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Employment

The differences in wellbeing between Indigenous and non-Indigenous Australians extend beyond demographic measures. The 2021 Australian Census revealed that only 68 per cent of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Island Peoples aged between 20 and 24 years had completed year 12. While this was a large increase from 32 per cent in 2006, it is still very low when compared with 91 per cent for non-Indigenous Australians. While year 12 completion rates were high in major cities at 76 per cent, they were far lower in remote and very remote areas at 53 and 42 per cent.

At the time of the 2021 census, 7.4 per cent of Indigenous Australians aged between 15 and 64 were unemployed, far higher than non-Indigenous Australians at 3.9 per cent. Furthermore, Indigenous Australians are underrepresented in the workforce with low rates of employment in all age groups (see Figure 14.11.4). Participation in the workforce influences median household income. Median household income for Indigenous families in 2021 was A$825 per week, far below A$1141 for non-Indigenous Australians. Incomes were even lower in remote communities, in which households earned an average of A$459 per week.

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unemployed an individual who is without a job and who wants to and is available for work

Education

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Figure 14.11.4 Employment rate for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander People compared with non-Indigenous Australians by age group, 2021

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Health

There are several factors that contribute to the severity and prevalence of scabies and other diseases within these communities. This includes overcrowded housing, and the sharing of beds, clothes and towels. Within the Katherine region, Northern Territory, approximately one in four Aboriginal people are homeless due to the high price of rental houses and the lack of public housing. This rate of homelessness is over 30 times the Australian average. People in Katherine who live in houses are often living with three or four generations (children, parents, grandparents and greatgrandparents) under the same roof in very crowded conditions (see Figure 14.11.5). This allows infections like scabies to quickly pass between family members.

scabies skin condition caused by microscopic mites burrowing under the skin

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One of the biggest concerns facing Aboriginal communities is the prevalence of treatable and preventable diseases. Scabies is a treatable skin infection that spreads from person to person. It is widespread throughout remote Aboriginal communities, but rare throughout the rest of Australia. Within Aboriginal communities, studies have shown that up to 70 per cent of children are infected with scabies within the first year of their life. This is the third-highest rate of infection in the world. If left untreated, this infection can lead to kidney disease and heart conditions, or develop into a more severe form of infection known as crusted scabies. It is estimated that up to 1 per cent of all Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples living in remote communities have crusted scabies,

which is life threatening without adequate treatment.

public housing housing provided by governments for people with low incomes, including those who have experienced homelessness or family violence

Percent of overcrowded households

NSW

Victoria

Qld

SA WA State and Territory

Tasmania

Urban areas

ACT

Rural areas

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Figure 14.11.5 Percentage of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander houses that are overcrowded (defined as needing at least one additional bedroom)

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Concepts and skills builder 14.11 Writing summary statistics

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An important skill in Geography is writing summary statistics taken from paragraphs of text. This can assist you in learning evidence that you will later use in reports, presentations and examinations. Once you have read and understood information from a source such as a textbook, summarising material as notes means you do not have to keep referring back to these sources to find key information. 1 Create headings that you will use to organise notes regarding the wellbeing of Australia’s Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples. 2 Scan through the text and write down any key information under these headings. This should include definitions of key terms, summaries of important explanations and summary statistics such as facts and Sources. Ensure your notes are as concise as possible. 3 Refer to the data within Sources and record key findings from these graphs. 4 Consider transferring these summaries onto digital or handwritten cue cards to use as revision. 5 Use this technique to summarise notes from other case studies and key lessons throughout this chapter. Geographical concepts and skills: environment, interconnection, place, space

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14.11 Review questions

1 Find a map online of Australia’s total population distribution and compare it to the distribution of Indigenous communities using Figure 14.11.2. Suggest a reason for any similarities and differences. 2 Compare the population pyramids for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples and non-Indigenous Australians using Figure 14.11.3. Refer to specific age cohorts as well as the overall shape of the pyramids. Explain why this data is relevant in understanding the difference in wellbeing between these two groups. 3 Refer to Figure 14.11.4. a State the youth employment rate (ages 15–24) for Indigenous and non-Indigenous Australians. b In which age group is there the biggest gap in employment? 4 Explain how the number of Indigenous Australians living in overcrowded houses can impact health and wellbeing.

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CHAPTER 15

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How can human wellbeing be improved?

LESSON TITLE 15.1

Setting the scene: reinventing the toilet

15.2

Can human wellbeing be improved on a global scale?

15.3

Can Australia ‘Close the Gap’ and improve the wellbeing of First Nations Peoples?

15.4

How is India improving its adult literacy rate?

15.5

How can spatial data be used to monitor wellbeing at a local scale?

15.6

Fieldwork: comparing the wellbeing of local places

15.7

End of investigation review: geographies of human wellbeing

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15.1

Setting the scene: reinventing the toilet

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Learning intention This lesson will look at the efforts of the Gates Foundation to improving health outcomes on a global scale.

In rich countries we have sewers that take clean water in, flush some of the dirty water out, in almost all cases there’s a treatment plant. Could you process human waste without that sewer system?

– Bill Gates, Reinvented Toilet Expo 2018

philanthropist a person who donates their personal time and money to helping others informal settlements also known as slums, densely packed housing made of scrap materials in locations where residents do not have legal ownership of the land

In 2000, Bill Gates, philanthropist and billionaire founder of Microsoft, established the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation, now known as the Gates Foundation. This non-government organisation aims to improve health care and reduce poverty in some of the poorest regions of the world. Examples of their achievements have included the reduction in the spread and impact of infectious diseases such as HIV/AIDS and malaria, improving educational attendance in poorer regions, reducing poverty and inequality, and expanding health care services to poorer communities around the world. A recent focus of the Gates Foundation has been improving sanitation in developing countries within sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia. The aim is to improve the safety of sanitation facilities and reduce preventable deaths from diseases such as cholera, diarrhoea and

dysentery. The rapid growth of cities and informal settlements in these poor regions has created a need for innovative sanitation solutions, since traditional sewerage systems are not financially viable. Since 2011, over US$200 million has been spent on the Reinvent the Toilet Challenge. The aim was to develop a toilet that could remove germs from human waste while recovering useful resources such as energy, clean water and nutrients. It also had to be able to operate ‘off the grid’ – without a connection to a water supply, sewerage system or an electricity grid while remaining affordable. Several toilets have been designed to meet these criteria, using localised chemical treatment rather than expensive sewerage infrastructure. The next step is reducing the cost and producing these toilets at a large enough scale to enable widespread access to safe and sustainable sanitation services in the world’s poorest regions.

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Figure 15.1.2 This self-contained toilet was developed as a solution to sanitation in denselypopulation urban areas within developing countries.

Figure 15.1.1 Beijing, 2018: Bill Gates presenting at the Reinvented Toilet Expo using a beaker of faeces to highlight the health concerns related to a lack of sanitation

The Gates Foundation is just one example of many organisations aiming to improve human wellbeing on local, national and global scales. These include government organisations such as the Australian Government’s Department of Social Services, which manages national policies that aim to create an equitable society in areas such as rent assistance, homelessness

and the National Disability Insurance Scheme. The Gates Foundation is an example of a non-government organisation (NGO). These not-for-profit organisations work independently of governments and are funded by grants, memberships, private donations, and the sale of goods and services. Other examples include Oxfam and the Australia Red Cross.

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not-for-profit organisation an organisation that does not operate for the profit or personal gain of its members

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15.1 Review questions See, think wonder

1 Write down your initial reaction to the work of the Gates Foundation in designing toilets such as the one shown in Figure 15.1.2. 2 What do you think about the likely success of this initiative across informal settlements in developing countries? 3 What do you wonder about the implementation of this program? Consider the barriers that the organisation is likely to face. 4 Undertake research to determine what has currently been achieved and what will likely to be achieved in the near future.

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Can human wellbeing be improved on a global scale? Learning intention

This lesson focuses on the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, which is a global approach to improving human wellbeing.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

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See, think, wonder

Figure 15.2.1 The United Nations’ 17 Sustainable Development Goals

The Sustainable Development Goals, listed in Figure 15.2.1, are a set of 17 goals seeking to assist all countries in achieving a higher level of human wellbeing. Answer the following three questions, ensuring that you justify your choices. 1 See: State the three goals that you think should be the highest priority. 2 Think: State the goal that you think is the least significant. 3 Wonder: Suggest a goal that you think should be added to this list.

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2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development are expected to establish their own national policies to achieve each goal and are involved in reviewing their progress at a local, regional and national scale. Data demonstrating the progress made for each of the SDGs can be accessed using the SDG-Tracker. Figure 15.2.2 shows data from this tracker relating to the first goal, No Poverty. It reveals that the developed world has managed to maintain or improve its progress towards alleviating poverty, whereas the situation in subSaharan Africa remains challenging. The progress in individual countries can also be accessed. Figure 15.2.3 shows that although Chad has managed to achieve a reduction in greenhouse gas emissions, it is struggling in many critical areas such as poverty, health, gender equality and access to clean water and sanitation.

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In 2015, the United Nations adopted the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development. This Agenda involves all 193 developing and developed member countries of the UN working together to achieve 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) by 2030. The goals are listed in Figure 15.2.1. These goals include an overall aim to reduce poverty while improving wellbeing in terms of education, sanitation, equality and peace. They also include aims to tackle climate change and ensure the sustainable management of marine and terrestrial environments. A fundamental part of the 2030 Agenda is sustainability, which is defined by the UN as ‘development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs’. The SDGs cover all three elements of sustainability: economic, social and environmental. The UN acknowledges that all three of these elements are interconnected and therefore are a crucial part of maintaining the wellbeing of individuals and entire populations. The 17 SDGs contain a total of 169 targets against which the success of the goals will be measured. Each of these targets has a set of indicators that are used to determine whether each target has been met. The goals are non-binding, meaning that governments are not legally forced to meet them. However, countries

terrestrial relating to dry land

The main obstacle to the success of many of the SDGs is funding. An article published in The Economist suggested that achieving all 17 goals will require US$2–3 trillion each year for the entire 15-year period. This is considered to be unrealistic. Studies have shown that just solving the issue of access to clean water and sanitation is estimated to require US$200 billion. Unless major changes are made to the funding of SDGs within UN member countries, it is unlikely that many countries will meet their targets.

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Figure 15.2.2 Progress in achieving the first SDG, no poverty, as of 2024

Figure 15.2.3 Chad’s progress in meeting the SDGs, as shown in the Sustainable Development Report Dashboard, 2024

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Concepts and skills builder 15.2 Evaluating management strategies using data

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Geographers evaluate management strategies, such as the SDGs, to determine their ongoing success and likelihood of future success. The level of success is often determined based on the extent to which goals have been achieved. Search online for ‘SDG Country Profiles’ and go into this The Sustainable Development Report site. Then follow the steps below to evaluate the extent to which a country has achieved the SDGs. 1 Select a country and record its SDG Index Rank. Click on its SDG Index Score and analyse the graph on the left of the screen. State whether the country is scoring high overall and whether it has shown progress since 2000. 2 Count how many goals still have major challenges remaining (red), significant challenges remaining (orange), challenges remaining (yellow) and goal achieved (green). 3 Select one of the goals and record which indicators within this goal have been achieved or are showing progress and which are still barriers to meeting the goal. 4 Repeat these steps with multiple countries to determine which are showing better progress in meeting the SDGs and achieving higher levels of human wellbeing. Geographical concepts and skills: environment, interconnection, place, space

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15.2 Review questions

1 The SDGs are not legally binding. a What does legally binding mean? b Do you think it would be more effective to make the SDGs legally binding? c Why do you think the SDGs are not legally binding? 2 Search online for ‘SDG Interactive Map’. a Choose a goal and describe the distribution of its success. Which countries or regions have achieved the goal and which still have major challenges remaining? b Choose an indicator from the menu on the left. What does this indicator mean? Is its distribution similar to the overall goal? c Click through multiple goals. Overall, which regions appear to have the highest and lowest levels of success in meeting the goals? d Suggest reasons for your answer to part c by considering the link between various goals and the factors that might determine success.

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Can Australia ‘Close the Gap’ and improve the wellbeing of First Nations Peoples? Learning intention

This lesson focuses on Australia’s ‘Closing the Gap’ national agreement, which seeks to improve the wellbeing of Australia’s First Nations People.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson. Closing the Gap

In a country like Australia it is shocking that there are still communities who don’t have a clean and reliable source of drinking water. Many of these communities are remote, First Nations communities.

– The Hon. Tanya Plibersek MP, Minister for the Environment and Water, 2023

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1 What is Plibersek referring to by ‘ a country like Australia’? 2 Why do you think some Aboriginal communities still do not have access to a clean and reliable water source? 3 What do you wonder about other levels of human wellbeing within these communities?

Figure 15.3.1 Tanya Plibersek, pictured in 2024

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established a strategy called Closing the Gap in 2005. This national approach involved setting 19 targets (see below) seeking to reduce disadvantage in the areas of health, life expectancy, education and employment by 2031, while strengthening culture and increasing participation in decisionmaking.

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One of Australia’s most significant social issues is the wellbeing gap between Australia’s Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples and non-Indigenous Australians. A vast inequality exists in areas such as wealth, education and health. To improve the wellbeing of First Nations Peoples and reduce this inequality, the Australian government

Closing the Gap targets

The following are a selection of 8 of the 19 targets that make up the National Agreement on Closing the Gap. • Close the Gap in life expectancy within a generation, by 2031.

• By 2031, increase the proportion of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander babies with a healthy birthweight to 91 per cent.

• By 2031, increase the proportion of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander People (20–24 years) attaining year 12 or equivalent qualification to 96 per cent. • By 2031, increase the proportion of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander youth (15–24 years) who are in employment, education or training to 67 per cent.

• By 2031, increase the proportion of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander People living in appropriately sized (not overcrowded) housing to 88 per cent. • By 2031, reduce the rate of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander young people (10–17 years) in detention by at least 30 per cent.

• By 2031, the rate of all forms of family violence and abuse against Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander women and children is reduced by at least 50 per cent, as it progresses towards zero. • By 2031, there is a sustained increase in number and strength of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander languages being spoken.

Closing the gap in life expectancy

Indigenous males and females born in 2021 were expected to live to 71.9 and 75.6 years, respectively, compared with 80.6 and 83.8 years for non-Indigenous Australians. This demonstrates a gap of 8.8 years for males and 8.1 years for females. The gap is much larger in Western Australia (13.4 years) and the Northern Territory (12.8 years). Although Figure 15.3.2 shows that overall gap in life expectancy has reduced from around 10 years in 2005, it is well above the necessary trajectory to meet the target of closing the gap to zero by 2031.

Improvements in life expectancy since 2005 have come largely from a reduction in death due to circulatory diseases such as heart disease and stroke. However, this has coincided with an increase in the cancer rates of Indigenous Australians which is responsible for the slight widening of the gap since the 2015–2017 period. Other factors contributing to the remaining gap include a prevalence of risk factors such as smoking, obesity, alcohol use and poor diet within Aboriginal communities.

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Figure 15.3.2 The gap in the life expectancy between Indigenous and non-Indigenous males and females (actual) compared with the trajectory that is needed to close the gap by 2031.

Closing the gap in education

The proportion of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander People attaining year 12 or equivalent has increased from 39.4 per cent in 2001 to 68.1 per cent (see

Figure 15.3.3). While it still falls short of non-Indigenous Australians at 90.7 per cent, the gap is certainly closing. Despite this success, the target to achieve a rate of attainment of 96 per cent is still unlikely to be met by 2031.

… Figure 15.3.3

The gap in the proportion of Indigenous and non-Indigenous Australians who have attained a Year 12 or equivalent qualification.

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Concepts and skills builder 15.3 Projecting trends using a line of best fit

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Concepts and skills builder 15.2 focused on evaluating a management strategy based on the extent to which goals have been achieved. Data can be used as evidence to determine whether targets have been met. However, this process is more challenging when the targets are for the future. In these cases, current data trends must be projected to determine the likelihood of future success. One way to do this is by using a line of best fit. Refer to Figure 15.3.2 and follow the steps below to evaluate whether the gap in life expectancy is likely to be closed by 2031. 1 In Figure 15.3.2, the ‘actual’ dots in brown represents the gap in life expectancy. Use a ruler to draw a straight line that best represents the trend of the four ‘actual’ dots. This is known as a line of best fit. This line should be drawn so that it minimises the distance between itself and the data points – it might go through some points and between others. 2 Extend your trend line in a straight line through to 2031. 3 Interpret your trend line. Based on what you have drawn, and assuming the current trend continues, what will be the gaps in life expectancy for males and females in 2031? 4 Repeat the same steps using Figure 15.3.3 to determine whether the target to increase the proportion of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander People (age 20–24) attaining year 12 or equivalent qualification to 96 per cent is like to be met. Geographical concepts and skills: environment, interconnection, place, space

Closing the gap progress report

A 2024 report revealed that 5 of the 19 Closing the Gap targets are on track, which was an improvement compared to previous years. The proportion of First Nations babies born at a healthy weight has improved and is expected to meet the targeted 91 per cent by 2031. This is encouraging considering this indicator determines the likelihood of health later in life, including a reduction in the prevalence of diabetes and heart disease. The target to provide a 15 per cent increase in the land mass subject to Aboriginal and Torres

Strait Islander People’s legal rights is also on track to be met and exceeded. Unfortunately, the target to reduce adult imprisonment is not on track and is showing signs of worsening.

Closing the gap successes

Table 15.3.1 provides a snapshot from the Productivity Commission from July 2025 showing the progress on Closing the Gap targets. Overall there were many positive results worth analysing.

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Table 15.3.1 Closing the Gap Dashboard, Productivity Commission, July 2025

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15.3 Review questions

1 Figure 15.3.1 shows a sample of the 19 targets as part of the Closing the Gap initiative. Find a full list online at the Closing the Gap website. This can be accessed here https://www.closingthegap.gov.au/ national-agreement/targets a Classify each of the targets based on whether they are addressing economic, social or cultural wellbeing issues. Economic is to do with finances and employment, social is to do with people and cultural is to do with language, tradition and spirituality. b Choose three of your classifications and justify your choices.

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2 a Life expectancy data from the 2020–2022 period was seen as alarming compared to the previous years. Explain why using data from Figure 15.3.2. b Research more recent life expectancy data from the Closing the Gap website and outline whether this alarming trend has continued. 3 Explain why a greater number of Indigenous Australians completing a Year 12 or equivalent qualification is a useful indicator in determining their future wellbeing. 4 a Repeat the steps from Concepts and skills builder 15.3 to analyse the likelihood of other targets being met. Data for each target can be found on the Closing the Gap website. b Explain the important assumption that must be considered when projecting data into the future.

…

Figure 15.3.3 On 30 July 2020, Scott Morrison, who was then the Australian Prime Minister, with Minister for Indigenous Australians, Ken Wyatt, and CEO of the National Aboriginal Community Controlled Health Organisation, Pat Turner announce the targets for the Closing The Gap initiative to reduce disadvantage for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples at Parliament House

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How is India improving its adult literacy rate? Learning intention

This lesson focuses on the ways in which India is working towards improving its literacy rate on a national scale.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson. See, think, wonder

Figure 15.4.1 is a photo of a class in India that is likely very different to your own.

…

1 See: What do see in the image? What are the similarities and differences between this school and your own? 2 Think: What do you think a school day would be like for these students? 3 Wonder: What do you wonder about other aspects of wellbeing in rural India?

Figure 15.4.1 A small rural school in Rajasthan, northern India

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What is India’s adult literacy rate? Table 15.4.1 Change in India’s literacy rate for those aged over seven years, from 1921 to 2021, based on data from the Indian Government Census.

Year 1921 1931 1941 1951 1961 1971 1981 1991 2001 2011 2021

Male % 12.20 15.60 24.90 27.16 40.40 45.96 56.38 64.13 75.26 82.14 84.70

Female % 1.80 2.90 7.30 8.86 15.35 21.97 29.76 39.29 53.67 65.46 70.30

Combined % 7.20 9.50 16.1 18.33 28.30 34.45 43.57 52.21 64.83 74.04 77.70

UNESCO the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, an agency seeking to build peace through international cooperation in education, science and culture

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

According to UNESCO, around 765 million people in the world cannot read or write. Around 300 million of these people live in India. Although this sounds like an alarming statistic, India has made significant progress in improving its adult literacy rate (ALR) from just 18 per cent in 1951 to 74 per cent in 2011 and 78 per cent in 2023 (see Table 15.4.1). Despite this steady increase, over one-fifth of India’s 1.4 billion people still lack literacy skills, while an additional one-quarter have only very basic literacy skills. As a result, India is struggling to grow its economy and support and stabilise its booming population.

Concepts and skills builder 15.4

Geographical concepts and skills: environment, interconnection, place, space

Figure 15.4.2

Geography skills video: Line graphs

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In Concepts and skills builder 11.3 you learnt to analyse the trend of line graphs. In this lesson, you will learn to plot data to create a line graph to demonstrate change over time. Use the data from Table 15.4.1 and follow the steps below to graph the change in India’s combined adult literacy rate from 1921 to 2021. This will be easier to complete using graph paper. 1 Write an appropriate title for your graph. 2 Draw a set of axes. Your x-axis should be labelled as ‘Year’ and your y-axis should be labelled as ‘Combined adult literacy rate in India’. 3 Determine an appropriate scale for your graph and mark appropriate increments. The data for years is already in 10-year increments. You will need to determine an appropriate increment for adult literacy rate. Ensure this is consistent. For example, consider increments of 5, 10 or 20 per cent. 4 Plot each data point as accurately as possible. Use a ruler to determine where each data point fits within each increment. 5 Rule a straight line between each of your dots to show the trend of the graph. 6 Repeat this process to graph the change in India’s male and female ALR. If you plot this on the same set of axes, ensure you use different colours and include a legend to differentiate between the datasets. Line graphs can also drawn using Excel or a similar spreadsheet program. This is particularly useful for large datasets. Follow the steps in this video and compare your results to your hand-drawn graph.

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Plotting data to create a line graph

Figure 15.4.3

Geography skills video: Digital skills: Line graphs

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How is India’s adult literacy rate distributed? areas are lagging behind at just 73.5 per cent. In remote rural areas, government schools lack adequate infrastructure including classrooms, learning materials and toilets, and many cannot attract qualified teachers. There is also an uneven distribution of expenditure on education, with rich states spending up to six times more on education per student than poorer states. Many underprivileged families from poorer regions are not able to prioritise education, which perpetuates the poverty cycle.

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In 2009, the Indian Parliament passed the Right to Education Act, which mandates that all children aged between 6 and 14 have access to free and compulsory education irrespective of their socioeconomic background. Although this has led to an overall increase in the number of children attending school, its success has not been universal (see Table 15.4.2). In Kerala, on India’s southwestern coast, the literacy rate is above 99 per cent, similar to most developed countries. In contrast, the literacy rate is below 80 per cent in Bihar in the north, and close to 70 per cent in Andhra Pradesh on the southeastern coast.

Table 15.4.2 The Indian states with the highest and lowest adult literacy rates

Highest ALR Lowest ALR State ALR State ALR Kerala 99.31 Andhra Pradesh 70.66 Ladakh 96.74 Rajasthan 72.98 (see Figure 15.4.1) Mizoram 95.78 Arunachal Pradesh 74.52 Lakshadweep 95.28 Telangana 75.76 Uttarakhand 93.32 Bihar 78.32

Similar inequality exists based on gender. While average male literacy rate across India is 84.7 per cent, the rate is far lower for females at 70.3 per cent. Forty per cent of girls drop out of school before reaching secondary school, often due to a need to contribute to domestic duties.

Amazing but true…

A study of 188 schools in central and northern India showed that 89 per cent of Indian schools had no toilets, and that there was an average of 42 students for every teacher.

In India’s urban regions, the ALR has improved significantly and currently averages 87.8 per cent, above the global average of 87.01 per cent. However, rural

How is India improving its adult literacy rate?

Bollywood nickname for India’s film industry, based in Mumbai (formerly Bombay), ‘Bombay’ + ‘Hollywood’ = ‘Bollywood’

same language subtitles television or movie subtitles that are in the same language as the audio

Non-government organisations have implemented several innovative strategies to try to improve literacy rates in India. Planet Read is an organisation that seeks to raise awareness of this issue and educate millions of people using Bollywood movies. Same language subtitles are used when broadcasting weekly Bollywood movies. As part of this program, the lyrics to songs are highlighted in a style similar to karaoke so that viewers are able to follow along with

the singing. This is an extremely effective strategy, considering an estimated 780 million Indians watch an average of more than three hours of television every day! Studies have shown that 90 per cent of Indian viewers using same language subtitles have improved their literacy skills by viewing these programs. Furthermore, this approach is simple to implement, very affordable, and can reach hundreds of millions of people, even in remote communities.

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just 53 of the 161 regions involved in the scheme. The main criticism of the initiative was the way in which funding was distributed, with spending largely focused on publicity rather than measures seeking tangible improvements in the health and education of females. Despite varied success in India’s approaches, the overall ALR in India is on the rise. It is predicted that India will achieve universal primary education by 2050. If India can continue to strive for gender equality and invest in improving education in rural areas, it is likely that it will achieve universal literacy by 2060.

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Another initiative seeking to improve India’s literacy is Beti Bachao, Beti Padhao, translated as Save Daughters, Educate Daughters. Launched in 2015, this government campaign seeks to address gender-based discrimination by promoting the education of girls. In addition to improving the literacy of India’s females, it is hoped that this program will reduce sexism in India and reduce the alarming trend of female foeticide in which families preference male offspring. This is a particular problem in states such as Bihar where sex-selective abortions have led to a gender imbalance. Overall, the initiative has failed to achieve its goals, with progress seen in

foeticide sexselective abortion in which parents choose to terminate pregnancies based on the gender of a foetus

… Figure 15.4.4 Millions of

Indians watch Bollywood movies with same language subtitles to help improve their literacy.

Lesson 15.4 review Online quiz

Review questions

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Research task

Go online to access the interactive lesson review and more!

Teachers can assign tasks and track results

15.4 Review questions

1 Explain and quantify the inequality between males and females in terms of ALR in India. 2 Explain why India’s ALR is higher in urban areas than rural areas. 3 Use the line graph created in Concepts and skills builder 15.4 to project India’s ALR for the next three decades. Justify whether it is likely that India will achieve universal adult literacy by 2060. 4 Compare the effectiveness of Planet Read and Beti Bachao, Beti Padhao. Which of these strategies has had the most success in raising India’s literacy rate? Why do you think it has been more successful?

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How can spatial data be used to monitor wellbeing at a local scale? Learning intention

This lesson considers how a Geographic Information System such as the Victorian Women’s Health Atlas can be used to monitor and manage wellbeing at a local scale.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

Discussing the importance of accurate health data

Access to reliable data is critical to our efforts to improve health outcomes. It is an important tool in program and policy design and evaluation. Until now we haven’t been able to easily access gender-specific data on key health issues. The Victorian Women’s Health Atlas makes visible the differing experiences of women and men and provides an evidence base for planning and monitoring which will contribute to lasting improvements in women’s health.

– Rita Butera, Executive Director of Women’s Health Victoria

1 Using an example from what you have learnt so far in this Investigation, justify why access to reliable data is critical in improving health and wellbeing. 2 This lesson focuses on how data can be used to explore the inequality in the wellbeing of men and women in Victoria. Suggest three areas in which you suspect this inequality might exist.

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Gender inequality in health and wellbeing in Victoria • Women are twice as likely as men to be hospitalised for self-harm • Men are three times more likely than women to die by suicide. In order to try to achieve gender equality in health and wellbeing, the Victorian government established its first gender-equality strategy, Safe and Strong. It sets out a framework for action to achieve gender equality, defined as ‘the equal rights, responsibilities and opportunities of women, men and transand gender-diverse people’. This will involve long-term changes to attitudes and behaviours towards different genders and reforms in schools, workplaces, community groups and the media. A key component of the program involves tracking progress using data so that actions can be altered if goals are not being met.

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In 2015, the Royal Commission into Family Violence determined the extent of gendered inequalities within Victoria. This refers to wellbeing issues that disproportionately affect particular genders. For example: • 75 per cent of the victims of family violence are women

• Men are more likely than women to experience alcohol-related harm, although the rate among women is increasing

• While 34.2 per cent of Victorians have ever been diagnosed with anxiety of repression, the proportion is significantly higher in women (41.1%) compared with men (26.5%) • Men are less likely than women to seek professional help for a mental-health issue

Victorian Women’s Health Atlas In response to the wellbeing challenges facing Victoria’s women, an independent non-government organisation called Spatial Vision developed the Victorian Women’s Health Atlas in 2015. The Atlas is an interactive data tool used to assess gender and health inequalities across the state. More than 50 health and socioeconomic indicators are mapped by Local Government Area (LGA). Users can compare data for a range of health and wellbeing indicators, create visualisations, track trends over time and compare data at local, regional and state-wide levels. Examples of the types of data that can be analysed using the Atlas include the proportion of women earning above

the median wage across Victoria’s LGAs, the prevalence of mental health issues such as anxiety and depression and rates of family violence (see Figure 15.5.1). This up-to-date and reliable data can be used by state and local government as well as health groups and social services to compare wellbeing in different regions, to make informed policy and program decisions, to allocate funding and resources based on priorities, and to monitor progress and impact over time. The overall goal is to recognise diversity and disadvantage so that fair wellbeing outcomes can be achieved for both women and men.

Local Government Area (LGA) an area managed by a local council

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Female State 2014

Mildura

Region

Metro 2022

Wagga Wagga Albury

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Swan Hill

Male

Bega

Portland

0 to 18.3 18.4 to 117.2 117.3 to 228.6 228.7 to 291.3 no data

…

Figure 15.5.1 The spatial distribution of the rate of family violence towards women in Victoria in 2022, measured per 10 000 women

Figure 15.5.2 A comparison of the rate of violence towards men and women in various LGAs compared with the

state average

Concepts and skills builder 15.5

…

Using a Geographic Information System to analyse spatial data

Figure 15.5.3

Geography skills video: Digital skills: Using a GIS – Victorian Women’s Health Atlas

A geographic information system (GIS) is a form of technology used to gather, manage and analyse spatial information such as wellbeing data. Geographers can organise this data in layers using interactive maps to compare data sets at various scales. The Victorian Women’s Health Atlas is an example of a GIS which contains a wealth of health and wellbeing data for Victorians.

Search online for the Victorian Women’s Health Atlas and follow the steps below, or the online tutorial, to use the Victorian Women’s Health Atlas GIS to analyse wellbeing data. You can also follow the steps in the video tutorial. 1 Choose a priority health area such as ‘Violence Against Women’. 2 Select an indictor within this area such as ‘Family Violence’. 3 Choose rate (per 10 000) as the measure as this provides a fairer comparison between LGAs since it does not take population size into account.

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4 The map will show the rates of family violence across Victoria in 2022 as the default view (as per Figure 15.5.1). A value of 200 means 200 out of every 10 000 women in that region experienced family violence in 2022. Read the text on the left of the screen to learn more about the source of the data. Switch between the maps for males and females using the buttons on the top right. Click on various LGA on the map to view comparison data for males and females. Use the buttons on the top right to switch between a map of Victoria, a Victorian region or the Melbourne metropolitan region. Use the year slider to view changes to data over time. 5 Hover your mouse over the bar graphs at the bottom of the screen they should look something like (Figure 15.5.2). This provides the rates of family violence towards males and females in all LGAs ranked from lowest to highest. 6 Follow the same steps to explore data for other wellbeing indicators such as mental health, education, income and obesity.

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• • • • •

Geographical concepts and skills: environment, interconnection, place, space

Lesson 15.5 review Online quiz

Review questions

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Research task

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Teachers can assign tasks and track results

15.5 Review questions

1 Explain why collecting and analysing data like the Victorian Women’s Health Atlas is essential in improving wellbeing at a local and regional scale. 2 Spatial Vision claim the following benefits of the Victorian Women’s Health Atlas: a Translates volumes of statistical data into a dynamic and engaging resource b Easy to use for a non-technical audience c Allows the identification of patterns and anomalies through the use of map-based presentation. Evaluate each of these claims based on your user experience. 3 a Choose a wellbeing indicator from the Atlas, such as individual weekly income, and use the steps from Concepts and skills builder 14.4 to describe the spatial distribution of this indicator at a regional scale across Metropolitan Melbourne. Remember to refer to specific patterns, place names, quantified values and exceptions. b Use the year slider to determine how the distribution has changed over time. 4 With a partner, choose two wellbeing indicators from the Atlas, such as anxiety or depression and obesity, and view their maps side-by-side. Use the steps from Concepts and skills builder 14.6 to describe the spatial association between these indicators. Remember to refer to the degree of association, examples, quantified values and exceptions.

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Fieldwork: comparing the wellbeing of local places Learning intention

In this lesson, you will have the opportunity to design a fieldwork investigation in which you will compare the level of wellbeing within two different places.

Fieldwork is an essential part of studying geography. It enables you to investigate many of the concepts studied in the classroom while out in the real world. It also provides the opportunity to apply your knowledge to answer a research question based on issues regarding wellbeing in your local area. In this investigation, your aim is to determine the level of human wellbeing at a local scale and compare the level of wellbeing in two or more different places. The following structure will help to form the basis of your study.

Table 15.6.1 Fieldwork instructions for comparing the wellbeing of places

Section Title and introduction

Explanation Examples A comparison of the wealth of Ringwood and Croydon Choose a suitable topic and title for your in Melbourne’s east investigation. It should include the scope and A comparison of the health and wellbeing of young location of your investigation. Write a brief people in Shepparton and Euroa introduction outlining the main aspects of An investigation into the level of happiness within your study including the type/s of wellbeing Melbourne’s inner and outer suburbs you will be investigating and the places you The impact of rapid urban development on the will be comparing. wellbeing of people in Melbourne’s growth suburbs Geographic characteristics of your chosen locations and Research some background information a map showing your study area about your chosen topic and locations. This Regional information, such as the history of the area will provide some context for your study. Is there a significant difference in the wealth of Write a research question that you intend residents in Ringwood and Croydon? to answer using the data that you collect. Are people happier in Melbourne’s inner suburbs You may prefer to write one overall research compared to its outer suburbs? question and multiple sub questions. Does living in a rapidly growing suburb decrease your level of wellbeing? People in Melbourne’s inner suburbs are happier than A hypothesis is a clear and concise statement people in Melbourne’s outer suburbs that can be tested. It should be written prior to collecting your primary data.

• • • • • • • • •

Background information Research question

•

Hypothesis

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Explanation Primary data is data you collect yourself in the field specifically for your investigation. Consider the types of primary data that you will need to collect to answer your research question. Consider the equipment and preparation required.

Examples Interviews with local residents, councillors, businesses, police, youth workers Surveys of residents living in a particular street A comparison of the styles and sizes of houses and types of cars on the road Measurements of the quality of public services such as green space and sporting facilities Photos and field sketches Census data including population density, median age, employment data, method of transport to work, household size, education level Demographic data such as population pyramids Satellite imagery and maps showing the location of relevant geographic characteristics Different types of graphs (pie, line, bar) and maps (choropleth, thematic, political) Annotated photos and field sketches Data summary tables The extent to which your hypothesis has been supported or disproven An answer to your research question The positive and negatives of your data collection and how they can be improved Australian Bureau of Statistics 2021, Community Profiles, Australian government, accessed 5 September 2023, https://www.abs.gov.au/census

• • • • • •

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Section Primary data collection

Secondary data Secondary data is data that other people collection have collected that you can use as part of your investigation. Undertake research to find suitable sources of information that you can apply to your topic. Presenting and analysing your data

Summarise your findings in visual formats that are easy to read and understand.

Discussion, conclusion and evaluation

Use your primary and secondary data to answer your research question. Provide a concise summary of your major findings. Evaluate the success of your data collection and your overall investigation. Include a bibliography listing any sources used.

References

• • • • • • • • •

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15.7

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End of investigation review: geographies of human wellbeing Access the Interactive Textbook for a range of digital tools to help you review this topic, including:

• Downloadable chapter summary • Scorcher timed competitive quiz.

Making thinking visible

I used to think …, now I understand that …

Throughout this unit, you have learnt about different ways in which wellbeing is measured and how it varies across different countries. This has helped you to overcome some common misunderstandings. Use the following sentence stems to write a sentence or short paragraph demonstrating your understanding of these concepts. Refer to examples from the unit wherever possible. 1A I used to think that nearly everyone in the world has access to a toilet. 1B Now I understand that …

2A I used to take the ability to read and the opportunity to attend school for granted. 2B Now I understand that …

3A I used to think that families in poorer countries often had lots of children because … 3B Now I understand that …

4A I used to think that all countries in Africa were suffering from low levels of wellbeing. 4B Now I understand that …

5A I used to think that wellbeing would not vary much across a city like Melbourne. 5B Now I understand that …

6A I used to think that Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples had a similar level of wellbeing to non-Indigenous Australian people. 6B Now I understand that …

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Extended response questions ‘Low levels of wellbeing are a cycle that will continue unless there is specific intervention from government or non-government organisations.’ Discuss the extent to which you agree with this statement by referring to one or more of the case studies presented within this unit.

Discuss the importance of spatial technology, such as GIS, in assessing, monitoring and managing wellbeing at a local, national and global scale.

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Solving geographical problems

Design your own strategy to manage one of the wellbeing issues identified in this unit. Consider the scale of your initiative, the targets that need to be achieved, the organisations that would be involved, whether the cost would be realistic and the timeframe for which specific targets would need to be met. Some ideas for issues to tackle include: • The wellbeing gap between Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples and non-Indigenous people within Australia • Inequality within a city such as London or a country such as Vietnam • The prevalence of treatable diseases within vulnerable communities

• The variation in life expectancies between and within countries and the association between life expectancy and the total fertility rate

• The impacts associated with one particular aspect of wellbeing, such as sanitation, literacy or happiness. Share your initiative with a classmate and ask them to evaluate its likely success.

Research task

Choose one or more of the wellbeing indicators discussed throughout this chapter and prepare a case study relating to a specific place at a local, regional or national scale. For example, an investigation into why the total fertility rate is so high in Niger or why the adult literacy rate in Morocco has grown significantly. Undertake research using a variety of sources and media to find information in the following areas: • Detailed information about the indicator, including the factors that change it and the impacts it can have • Background information about your chosen location, including data about your chosen indicator and related indicators • A summary of factors that have led to this wellbeing situation

• An example of a management initiative seeking to manage or improve wellbeing and an evaluation of its success or likely future success. Present your findings in a report that includes relevant maps, data and statistics.

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Part 3

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Economics & Business

Watch the video for an introduction to Economics & Business in Year 10 and the skills and concepts you will be working with

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INVESTIGATION

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Why is there so much inequality in income and wealth?

OVERVIEW

This text addresses the curriculum content and learning framework used for investigating inequality of income and wealth.

CURRICULUM CONTENT

The VCAA prescribes the following curriculum:

Students examine the interdependence of economic decision-making between consumers, businesses and government. They consider the need for economic intervention by government and the Reserve Bank of Australia through fiscal and monetary policy, the circular flow model and the economic indicators used to measure economic performance.

Students consider the implications of Australia’s participation in the global economy and changing patterns of international trade. Source: VCAA, Victorian Curriculum V2.0, ‘Economics & Business’, ‘Band description –

Levels 9 & 10’

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LEARNING FRAMEWORK This text provides students with lessons related to the above question and curriculum content, using an investigative learning framework.

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The learning framework is presented in two chapters covering the following investigations: How does the Australian economy operate? (Chapter 16), including:

• How do the circular flow and business cycle models explain an economy?

• How can the strategies of economic growth and redistribution improve people’s material wellbeing?

• What economic policies can the government use to contribute to these strategies?

What is Australia’s place in the global economy? (Chapter 17), including:

• What are the types of international money flows? • What are the economic benefits and costs of globalisation?

At the end of each chapter there is an opportunity for a student to write a paragraph about their investigation.

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How does the Australian economy operate?

LESSON TITLE

FPO

16.1

Setting the scene: how could the least advantaged be supported?

16.2

What is economic growth performance?

16.3

What is income distribution performance?

16.4

What is the circular flow model?

16.5

What is the business cycle model?

16.6

What is the importance of fiscal policy?

16.7

What is the importance of monetary policy?

16.8

What is the importance of supply-side policy?

16.9

What is the importance of redistribution policy?

16.10

Research task: who are the least advantaged in Australia?

16.11

End of topic task: how does the Australian economy operate?

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Setting the scene: how could the least advantaged be supported? FPO

Learning intention

In this lesson, we will look at people’s materal wellbeing and how this can be improved. Why is there so much inequality in income and wealth? Is this wide material inequality fair? Is it fair that people get riches from their parents? If people are equal, do the more fortunate have an obligation to help the less fortunate live a decent life? People work and live together to enjoy a decent lifestyle. These dealings and interactions form a society. Part of a society is the economic dimension arising because resources are insufficient to produce all the goods and services desired by the population for their material wellbeing.

Material wellbeing, both for individuals and the nation as a whole, is based on the happiness or satisfaction obtained from consuming produced goods and services. But, while there is growth in goods and services for the nation, it is not shared fairly. There are too many individuals living below a minimum acceptable level of consumption. Figure 16.1.1 provides a plan for a fairer society. The vision for a better society is to ensure that all individuals receive a fair share of the goods and services produced annually. A fair sharing means everyone enjoys a minimum level of goods and services for living an acceptable and decent life. The goals for the economy to achieve this vison in the future are:

• sustained maximum growth in the total level of production and income • fair inequality in sharing the total level of production and income.

Maximising growth is being economic – using available resources to produce the highest material wellbeing. This requires efficient use of available resources. Efficiency strategies include: • efficient allocation of resources for making the most-preferred products

society all the activities of people living together in a region economic dimension that part of a society that involves decisions to maximise the output from using the available resources

• efficient methods of production in businesses

• efficient distribution of products to markets • efficient market exchanges

• efficient government involvement in the economy.

The other goal is the fair sharing or equitable use of the growing total amount of goods and services produced for consumption. This means taking income from the richer people and directing it to the least advantaged people so that all enjoy an acceptable minimum level of consumption. Equity strategies include: • determining the minimum acceptable level of income

resources things used to make desired products; this includes human and wealth resources

material wellbeing the happiness or satisfaction a person gains from material goods and/ or services vision a long‑term general objective

• identifying those receiving less than the minimum acceptable income • investigating the needs of the least advantaged.

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Vision All enjoy a decent material wellbeing – a minimum acceptable level of goods and services to consume

Economic goals

Fair inequality in income shares

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Maximum growth in total income

So, more total goods and services produced and then shared in a fairer way will enable all citizens to enjoy an acceptable minimum level of material wellbeing. For the least advantaged people, this will mean a redistribution of income, which is growing, from the rich to them in order to enable them to purchase the minimum necessary goods and services for consumption.

Efficiency in using resources

Policies

Redistribution policies • Taxation • Welfare

…

Equity in income distribution

Figure 16.1.1 A plan for a fairer society

…

Stabilisation policies • Demand management • Supply-side

Strategies

Figure 16.1.2 A meeting of senior government staff to decide how to increase efficiency in the economy.

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The Victorian Curriculum lists a range of skills that you will need to develop. To help you practise and integrate these skills in Economics and Business, we have developed the Q-CAFÉ method of investigation. There are opportunities to apply this method throughout the lessons, as well as in a final research task (Lesson 16.11). Q-CAFÉ method of investigation Questions are formed to investigate an issue, problem or system. This leads to a definition of the problem.

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Collect and compare data and information relevant to the problem.

Analyse and interpret data. Describe relationships using graphs, models or in writing. These relationships may be association, cause-and-effect or trend.

Findings and conclusions from the investigation are identified and summarised. Data sources are checked for authenticity.

Evaluate your findings against a chosen standard regarding benefits (advantages) and costs (disadvantages). Express your findings clearly and convincingly in the research task.

Note that the research task is designed to be completed over the duration of the unit, rather than in the final few weeks. Be sure to get started as soon as possible!

Lesson 16.1 review Online quiz

Review questions

DOC

Research task

Go online to access the interactive lesson review and more!

Teachers can assign tasks and track results

16.1 Review questions 1 2 3 4

Explain what material wellbeing is. Distinguish the material wellbeing of a nation from that of an individual. Describe the strategies that could be used to increase the rate of economic growth. Describe the strategies that could be used in improving the sharing of products among the people of a nation.

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16.2

What is economic growth performance? FPO

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Learning intention

Setting the scene considered the material wellbeing of people in Australia. Individual material wellbeing can be improved with economic growth and a fairer sharing of that growth. In this lesson, you will learn about the Australian economy’s growth performance over recent years.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

Sector snapshot discussion

1 Look at the chart showing different sectors’ contributions to Australia’s production. 2 In small groups, discuss what factors might limit economic growth based on what you see. 3 Choose one person from your group to summarise your discussion for the class. 80.00%

70.00%

% contribution

60.00% 50.00% 40.00% 30.00% 20.00% 10.00% 0.00%

Services

Mining

Construction Manufacturing Industry names

Agriculture

Source: Australian Bureau of Statistics, December 2024

…

Figure 16.2.1 Approximate contributions of major sectors to Australia’s GDP. ‘Services’ includes finance, education, health care and professional services.

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The economy The resources for making goods and services are owned privately and collectively (publicly). Private resources owned by individuals in households are: a

human resources – labour hours and skills, including enterprise in business

economy all the activities of the people in society using available resources efficiently to produce the maximum output of desired goods and services; an economy is a subset of a society

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An economy is a major part of a society, which is all the activities people undertake living together. An economy, then, is those ‘doings’ that involve getting the most material wellbeing from consumption of goods and services produced with available resources. Being economic is using resources efficiently to maximise consumption of goods and services. The doings in an economy include accumulating resources, employing resources, producing goods and services, distributing to market, trading products, consuming products, spending, earning income, saving, lending, taxing, importing and exporting.

wealth resources – natural (e.g., land), physical capital (e.g., computers), financial resources (e.g., bank deposits).

Collective or public resources include the national wealth of natural resources (crown land), physical resources (buildings) and money resources (bank accounts).

Economic growth

Australia is the thirteenth-largest economy in the world. Growth in the size of the economy means more doings; in particular, more production of goods and services. Such national economic growth can be due to more labour hours and/or higher labour productivity. More labour hours are provided by an increased number of workers employed. The extra work hours may come from:

a b

higher overtime by existing workers a natural increase in the population, and/or more immigration of people with wanted skills.

Higher labour productivity can come from: a

b c

improved skills from training and education working with better machinery and equipment working in better business management systems.

The broad indicator of growth in the economy is the growth in the national production of goods and services. This is measured by the growth in GDP (chain volume) on a three-monthly basis by the ABS.

being economic maximising the output obtained from using available resources human resources labour hours and skills useful in producing goods and services

wealth resources natural, physical and financial assets useful in making products economic growth an increase in the total amount of goods and services produced over time

Measurement of economic growth National

doings the activities that people engage in, such as accumulating resources, producing goods and services and consuming those goods and services; through these doings, people interact and form an economy

labour productivity the output of goods and services produced by a person over a specific time period

Since the circular flow model (see Lesson 16.4) demonstrates the equality of total spending and total income with the total value of total production, the ABS estimates GDP by averaging those three different measures it calculates.

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GDP (chain volume) the total real amount of goods and services produced over a period, with prices held constant

Recent performance

The average growth in goods and services available to an individual is measured by GDP (chain volume) per head. Of course, half the people are below the average and half are above the average.

Table 16.2.1 provides recent growth measurements for the national economy and for the average individual in Australia.

Table 16.2.1 Australia’s recent economic growth: annual rate

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

GDP (chain volume) per head the total real amount of goods and services produced over a period divided by the population, giving the average product per person

Individual

Financial year

GDP growth rate p.a. (A) 2017–18 2.9 2018–19 2.2 2019–20 –0.1 2020–21 2.1 2021–22 4.2 2022–23 3.4 2023–24 1.4 7-year average p.a. 2.3

Population growth rate p.a. GDP/head growth rate p.a. (B) (A–B) 1.3 1.6 0.6 1.6 1.5 –1.6 0.4 1.7 0.5 3.7 2.1 1.3 2.4 –1.0 1.3 1.0

Source: ABS Quarterly GDP (Chain Volume) and Population growth rates

Over the recent seven-year period, the national economy has grown by an average 2.3 per cent per year (per annum, p.a.). This increase has come with average population growth of 1.3 per cent p.a. Consequently, the extra amount of goods and services available per person only grew by 1 per cent p.a. With such

a low growth for individuals on average, the additional amount going to the least advantaged would not have been much over the seven years covered.

Note that individual material wellbeing has declined on average over the last financial year, as measured by the GDP (chain volume or real) per head.

Concepts and skills builder 16.2 Investigating economic growth performance

Consider the following stimulus and apply the Q-CAFÉ method of investigation by answering the questions that follow.

You are working as an economic research assistant for a leading Australian media outlet. Recent reports indicate that while Australia’s GDP has grown steadily, the benefits have not been evenly distributed among individuals. With population growth driven by immigration and natural increase, your task is to explore how production and population changes have affected real GDP per head. Investigate whether factors like the composition of production and the rate of population growth have limited the maximum potential of individual economic growth.

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Q (Question) What factors limit the maximum growth in the economy? Collect data by searching online for information about the three largest types of production contributing to total production over the last year in Australia.

A (Analyse)

Analyse the composition of population growth over the last year and its impact on labour productivity.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

C (Collect)

F (Findings)

Summarise your findings by comparing whether real GDP per head increased by more than the average, as indicated in Table 16.2.1.

Evaluate the influence of immigration on this growth. Do you think the level of É (Evaluate) immigration is too high, and what might be its long-term effects on economic performance?

Economics and Business concepts and skills: communicating, concluding and decision-making, evaluating, interpreting and analysing data and information, investigating

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Figure 16.2.2 People working in a warehouse aim to optimise their labour productivity by working efficiently to deliver the right products to the right customers.

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Lesson 16.2 review

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16.2 Review questions Explain the meaning of being economic. Explain the meaning of a resource. Explain the meaning of labour productivity. Is economic growth shared fairly?

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U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

1 2 3 4

Figure 16.2.3 The population growth in Old Delhi affects their economy.

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16.3

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

What is income distribution performance? FPO

Learning intention

The previous lesson considered Australia’s economic growth performance recently. In this lesson, you will learn about how the total amount of income (the purchasing power to buy material goods and services) has been shared among households in Australia in recent years.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

Income debate exchange

…

1 In pairs, one of you will take the role of a policymaker who supports government intervention to redistribute income, while the other defends a free-market approach. 2 Spend a few minutes preparing your arguments about how income should be shared in society. 3 Prepare to share your debate points with the class. Figure 16.3.1 Debating systems of income distribution

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inequality of income the unequal distribution of people’s income over a wide range

The problem with inequality of income is that if it is too great, then the share of too many people is not enough for them to enjoy a decent material wellbeing. This is not fair, given that all members of a nation are equal citizens living and cooperating together in the economy and society.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

household disposable income the income available to a household for spending or saving, made up of income from resource employment, transfer payments and collective services less taxation

Total income generated in a year goes directly or indirectly to households. The sharing of total income is unequal. Some households get more than others – a lot more, in some cases. Inequality is not a bad thing because it provides people with incentives to gain more skills, accumulate more wealth, and create more things.

collective services services provided for everyone; for example, education, which a person does not pay for directly standard one person household (SOPH) equivalent to one individual

Lorenz curve a curve displaying the unequal spread of incomes line of equality a 45° line showing equality of income for all

Gini index the ratio of income shared unequally to total income quintile one‑fifth of the group being considered (20 per cent)

Household disposable income (DY) = Incomes from resource employment + transfers of income from governments + collective services – taxes. Households comprise adults and children. Different household sizes can be converted to single individuals. The ABS calculates this by converting household size, rating the first adult as 1.0, each additional adult as 0.5, and each child under 15 years as 0.3. So, a household with two adults and one child is the equivalent of (1 + 0.5 + 0.3) 1.8 people.

may receive only 30 per cent of the total income. If those 50 per cent of the people received an equal share, then they would receive 50 per cent of total income (a point on the line of equality). The extent of the inequality is measured by the Gini index. Area A (between the line of equality and the Lorenz curve) represents the national inequality in income shares. If this area of inequality is divided by the triangle (A+B), then a Gini index is calculated.

100%

The disposable income of this household would be divided by 1.8 to give the income of a standard one-person household (SOPH). This method allows the comparison of individual incomes.

The total distribution can be illustrated by a Lorenz curve (see Figure 16.3.2). A Lorenz curve illustrates the percentage share of total income going to each group of people from the lowest to the highest. For example, 50 per cent of the people

e Lin

e of

( lity

re eg

es)

-c nz

urv

Cumulative share of income earned

transfer income income received without providing any service in return

The ABS measures income in terms of household disposable income.

100% Cumulative share of people from lowest to highest incomes

…

resource employment employment in which a resource is engaged to produce a good or service

Measuring income inequality

Figure 16.3.2 The Lorenz curve and Gini index

Income distribution performance The sharing of total income by individuals (estimated by SOPHs) was very unequal in

Australia in 2019–2020. Table 16.3.1 shows the quintile shares of Australia’s wealth.

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Table 16.3.1 Quintile shares of SOPH disposable income 2019–20

Quintile

Average individual income (mean DY of a SOPH) ($/week) 456 966

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Q1 (lowest 20% of SOPHs) Q2 Q3 Q4 Q5 (highest 20% of SOPHs)

Nation’s DY quintile share % 7.4 12.6 17.2 23.0 39.8

2234

Source: ABS Income distribution

times the average income of the least advantage (Q1).

Table 16.3.1 indicates:

• The least advantaged 20 per cent (Q1) of people received only 7.4 per cent of total income for buying goods and services to consumer, whereas the most advantaged 20 per cent (Q5) of people received almost 40 per cent of total income. • The average individual income of the most advantaged (Q5) was five

• The lowest 40 per cent (Q1+Q2) of people received only 20 per cent of total income, whereas the highest 40 per cent (Q4+Q5) of people received over 60 per cent of total income– three times as much income to share for the same number of people.

least advantaged the people in the lowest quintile of household disposable income

most advantaged the people in the highest quintile of household disposable income

Income inequality performance In the 2010s decade, the Australia Gini index, before redistribution, increased from 0.43 to 0.44 but, after redistribution by government, decreased from 0.33 to

0.32. Thus, government redistribution, with taxes, transfers and services, has reduced income inequality by about 25 per cent over the decade.

Concepts and skills builder 16.3

Investigating income distribution performance

Consider the following stimulus and apply the Q-CAFÉ method of investigation by answering the questions that follow.

In recent years, the Australian Bureau of Statistics and major news outlets like The Sydney Morning Herald have reported notable shifts in income distribution. While the overall economy has grown since 2019–20, the gains for the least advantaged have remained minimal. There is an ongoing debate on whether increased government production – through enhanced public services and infrastructure – could better address unfair inequality than relying solely on private sector outcomes.

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Can unfair inequality be reduced with increased government production rather than private production?

C (Collect)

Collect information by searching the web for data and analyses on changes in income distribution in Australia since 2019–20.

A (Analyse)

Analyse whether the collected data indicate that the situation for the least advantaged changed during the 2020s.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Q (Question)

F (Findings)

Summarise your findings regarding the trends affecting the least advantaged in the 2020s.

É (Evaluate)

Evaluate the perspective that the government should not alter market outcomes through redistribution. What is your opinion, based on the evidence gathered?

…

Economics and Business concepts and skills: communicating, concluding and decision-making, evaluating, interpreting and analysing data and information, investigating

Figure 16.3.3 A modern open-plan studio apartment for a single person

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Lesson 16.3 review Online quiz

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Research task

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16.3 Review questions Explain the meaning of a SOPH. Distinguish between unfair and fair inequality. Distinguish between a Lorenz curve and a Gini Index. Describe the argument for the government to redistribute income?

…

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

1 2 3 4

Figure 16.3.4 Surgeons are the highest paid professionals in Australia.

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16.4

What is the circular flow model? FPO

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Learning intention

The previous two lessons considered the performance of the Australian economy in achieving the twin goals of growth in, and fair sharing of, the national product. In this lesson, you will learn about an idea that explains the total production performance in a national economy.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

Follow the money

The circular flow model shows how money moves between different sectors of the economy.

1 In groups of four, take on these roles: households, businesses, government, financial institutions. (For example, one student is ‘households’, another is ‘businesses’ and so on.) 2 Simulate as many transactions between sectors as you can think of in the time given (e.g. 10 minutes), such as: a b c d

households earn money from businesses (via work) households spend money on goods and services businesses and households pay tax government spends money on services and welfare payments.

3 Share one observation about how money ‘flows’ between sectors with the class.

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Snapshot of a static economy funds, the ASX, etc., who are lenders and borrowers of money 4

Government sector – federal, state and local governments and their agencies, who are taxers, common service providers, regulators, etc.

circular flow model a model of the total flow of money as income and expenditure through the sectors of an economy snapshot model a static picture of the economy at a particular moment; for example, the circular flow model

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

The level of national production varies over the years. This level at any time can be illustrated with a circular flow model. This model is a snapshot model of a static national economy at a particular short timeperiod. The next lesson will consider a movie model of a dynamic national economy. It shows changes in the level of production over time. The circular flow model (Figure 16.4.1) illustrates the movement or flow of money between the sectors of the total economy. These are: 1

Household sector – all people of a nation living in houses and being consumers, income earners, tax payers, savers, resource accumulators, etc.

Business sector – private and public owners of businesses, which are producers, innovators, employers, etc. Financial institutions sector – banks, credit unions, superannuation

Overseas sector– households, businesses, financial institutions and governments resident overseas.

Note that a person acting on behalf of a sector or a component of a sector is an agent.

The circular flow of money is a model of the flow of money between the sectors of an economy, based on the idea that spending money determines the level of income payments. Indeed, total spending on final products (E) equals total income paid for producing those products (Y). It helps to appreciate the model by imagining that a liquid (water) is flowing through pipes joining the sectors. The flow

Businesses Total production

Spending on consumer products

Payments

Savings

Tax

Importing

Financial institutions

Governments

Overseas residents

sector a major part of an economy household sector the set of all households in society, assumed to include all people business sector the set of all businesses in the economy, which are ultimately owned by households financial institutions sector the set of institutions that borrow and lend finance to other sectors; for example, banks

Total income (Y)

Households

movie model a dynamic model showing the economy over a number of years

government sector the set of all government bodies in the economy

Total spending (E)

overseas sector households, businesses, financial institutions and government agencies resident overseas

Investing

Public spending

Exporting … Figure 16.4.1 Circular flow model

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The diagram shows that the total spending on Australian production equals the total value of goods and services produced by businesses and, in turn, the total incomes paid for resources employed in the production. By implication, the circular flow level determines the levels of employment and prices.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

is circular and represents the level of total economic activity – total spending, total production, and total income over a short period of time, such as a month (static view). Changes in the flow over time represent changes in the level of the circular flow or economic activity (dynamic view). This is covered in the next lesson.

Concepts and skills builder 16.4 Investigating the circular flow model

Consider the following stimulus and apply the Q-CAFÉ method of investigation by answering the questions that follow.

In 2021, the Victorian government announced the Melbourne Metro Tunnel project, one of Australia’s largest public infrastructure investments. Following the announcement, local media and economic analyses reported a noticeable boost in consumer confidence. Households began increasing their discretionary spending, and several local businesses planned expansion projects in anticipation of higher demand. This example illustrates relationships between the sectors of an economy and their money flows.

How does the circular flow model illustrate the interactions between the key sectors of the Australian economy?

Collect information by searching online for recent quarterly data and analyses on government spending, household consumption and business investment in Australia, using reliable sources such as ABS reports or the Reserve Bank of Australia. Analyse the connections between these sectors, focusing on how changes in one area (e.g. increased government spending) could affect the others (such as household consumption and business investment).

Summarise your findings by outlining the contributions of each sector to overall economic activity.

Evaluate the usefulness of the circular flow model for understanding the current economic situation in Australia. What additional factors or modifications might improve its ability to explain today’s economy?

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16.4 Review questions

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

1 Explain the meaning of a model of an economy. 2 Explain the meaning of the circular flow of money in an economy. 3 What comprises total spending on final products in the economy (E)? Why does this total spending equal total income from production (Y)? 4 Which sector spends the highest amount in the economy? What proportion of total spending is it?

…

Figure 16.4.2 The Australian stock market (ASX) offers an investment opportunity for individuals and provides an insight into spending in Australia and the rest of the world.

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16.5

What is the business cycle model? FPO

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Learning intention

The previous lesson considered the representation of a static economy with the circular flows of spending and income. In this lesson, you will learn about the business cycle model – an idea illustrating growth in the Australian economy over time.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

Economic timeline walk

1 Create a simple timeline on the classroom wall using tape and markers, spanning from 2018–19 to 2023–24. 2 Move to the point on the timeline where you believe key economic changes (like spikes in unemployment or recovery phases) occurred. 3 As a class, discuss these trends briefly, focusing on recession and recovery.

…

Figure 16.5.1 The stock market tends to be cyclical. Market values typically go through recurring patterns of rises and falls over time, with these cycles often mirroring broader economic trends.

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Business cycle model The circular flow model looked at in the last lesson represents one period of activity within a national economy. It illustrates the total levels of spending, production, employment and income.

period of expansion a period when the rate of economic growth increases steadily each year period of slowdown a period when the rate of economic growth decreases steadily each year

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

From period to period, these totals change in a dynamic world. The level of circular flow increases in periods of expansion. The circular flow level

decreases in periods of slowdown. According to Keynes (back in the 1930s), these changes in the level of economic activity over time are the result of total spending changes. It is total spending (total demand) that determines the circular flow level and, thus, the level of total production and income from period to period.

Periods of expansion

A period of expansion is a number of years in which the circular flow level of economic activity keeps rising. So, with increasing total production, there will be more employment and reduced unemployment. As the economy tightens and moves to full

employment, the growing total spending (total demand) will increase the price level (inflation). Passing the full employment level of total production results in a ‘boom’ with too much demand. This excess demand causes an inflation rate that is too high.

Periods of slowdown

A period of slowdown is a number of years in which the circular flow level keeps declining. With steadily decreasing total production, there is reduced employment and rising unemployment. As the economy slackens, the lower

boom the peak in the economic growth rate at the end of a period of expansion

recession when the economic growth rate is negative over a six‑month period depression a very severe recession when unemployment is very high

total spending (demand) will reduce the pressure on prices. Unemployment will increase and inflation will reduce. This will lead to a recession, or even worse a depression, which is disastrous for people’s wellbeing.

business cycle the movement of economic activity levels up and down over a period of years

Movie of the economy

Over the seven financial years 2017–18 to 2023–24, the economic growth rate has varied (see Figure 16.5.2). This variation has included a period of expansion and periods of slowdown either side of the expansion. The circular flow moves in a cycle over time and this is called a business cycle.

full employment the highest level of employment achieved by raising total spending

This business cycle has occurred over seven annual periods. But this is not standard. Cycles vary and can take over 10 years or more. They could also go to higher or lower percentage growth levels.

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4.5

4.2

4 3

2.9

3.4 2.2

2.5 2

2.1

1.5

1.4

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Percentage growth p.a.

3.5

0.5 0

–0.5 2017–18

–1.0

2018–19

2019–20

2020–21 Real GDP

2021–22

2022–23

2023–24

…

Source: ABS National Accounts

Figure 16.5.2 Economic growth rates, Australia

Need for government action

low inflation a rate of inflation in the price level that is below 3 per cent p.a. total supply the total amount of goods and services available for sale over a period

Business cycles with totally free markets would have very high peaks with high inflation and troughs with high unemployment. Keynes’ idea is that governments must intervene with their budgets to manage the expansion and slowdown periods in the business cycles. This is so that they can avoid unacceptable high inflation and high unemployment. This intervention requires changing the short-run total spending (total demand) in the economy.

The target position for the total spending in the economy is to have enough to enable maximum growth in total production due to full employment (where unemployment is about 4 per cent of the labour force) and low inflation (at 2–3 per cent annual increase).

In the long-term, the government needs to intervene with the total supply of goods and services, using fiscal policies in order to stabilise the economy at a sustainable growth rate.

Concepts and skills builder 16.5

Investigating recession and recovery dynamics in Australia

Consider the following stimulus and apply the Q-CAFÉ method of investigation by answering the questions that follow.

In early 2020, Australia experienced a sharp recession as the COVID-19 pandemic disrupted total spending in the economy, leading to a rapid increase in unemployment and a contraction in GDP. Subsequent data from the Australian Bureau of Statistics showed that while unemployment soared during the recession, gradual spending measures – including fiscal stimulus and improved consumer confidence – contributed to a gradual recovery. Unemployment began to decline as economic growth resumed.

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Why did Australia experience a recession in the first half of 2020, and what factors contributed to the subsequent recovery?

Collect data by searching online for unemployment and economic growth statistics from 2018–19 to 2023–24, using reliable sources such as ABS reports and RBA publications.

Analyse the data by matching the trends in unemployment with the economic growth in Figure 16.5.2. Is there a connection?

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Summarise your findings by describing the relationship between economic growth and unemployment.

Evaluate whether economic growth alone can guarantee full employment.

…

Economics and Business concepts and skills: communicating, concluding and decision-making, evaluating, interpreting and analysing data and information, investigating

Figure 16.5.3 Just like trees, businesses and the economy require time and effort to grow.

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Lesson 16.5 review

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16.5 Review questions Explain the meaning of a business cycle. Distinguish between periods of expansion and periods of slow-down. Distinguish between full employment and unemployment. Explain the meaning of low inflation. Why is high inflation unacceptable?

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

1 2 3 4

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Figure 16.5.4 Growth in an economy is often linked to the amount of spending of the population. Consequently, the economy is affected by changes in production and employment rates.

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16.6

What is the importance of fiscal policy? FPO

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Learning intention

The previous two lessons looked at models about the level of the national product. In this lesson, you will learn about budget action by the Federal government to change the level of national product and achieve macroeconomic targets.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

Budget headline review

1 Listen carefully as your teacher reads a recent headline about the Federal Budget. 2 In pairs, discuss which fiscal measures might be used to moderate an expanding economy. 3 After a few minutes, share your ideas with the class.

…

Figure 16.6.1 University students on campus at Monash University as Treasurer Jim Chalmers delivered the 2025–26 Australian Federal Budget on 25 March 2025, focusing on cost-of-living relief and economic growth. The Treasurer said the economy is ‘turning a corner’, with plans for a ‘new generation of prosperity’ in an uncertain global economic climate.

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Keynes’ ideas expansion the government could reduce its contribution to total spending with a surplus budget and reduced debt. In periods of slowdown, the government could increase its contribution to total spending with a deficit budget and increased borrowing. The Keynesian idea is that governments should balance their budgets over the business cycle, but not annually.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Great Depression the depression of the 1930s when around one‑third of workers were unemployed with no government support

John Maynard Keynes presented revolutionary economic ideas in the middle of the Great Depression in the 1930s. This was a time when about 1 in 3 people were unemployed. Worse, there was little or no government assistance to the unemployed and their families.

Budget (government) the financial plan of the government for spending, taxation and borrowing in the coming year

fiscal policy government actions using its budget and components to influence economic activity surplus budget a budget where taxation exceeds spending

deficit budget a budget where spending exceeds taxation, requiring borrowing

progressive tax a tax in which the tax rate increases as income increases

His basic macroeconomic idea was about the circular flow of money. Total spending leads to the total production of goods and services. This leads to the total income paid to those involved in production as well as the total level of employment.

So, if employment was not high enough, then the circular flow needs boosting with more spending. Keynes showed that if total spending needed to increase, then it was only spending by the government sector that could be relied on to do this. The government needed to use its budget to raise total spending, even when this will increase borrowing and public debt. This is called fiscal policy. The Government Fiscal Policy is where the government uses its budget to manage national demand (the total spending on goods and services). The general idea, following Keynes, is to reduce total spending in periods of expansion and increase total spending in periods of decline.

The government can also use its budget to change other sectors’ spending.

Household consumption spending

The government can change personal income tax, which is the main form of tax collected by the Federal government. This is a progressive tax, whereby a higher marginal tax rate is paid for income in a higher income bracket. For example, the current tax rate for income over $18 200 and up to $45 000 is 16c/$. A tax rate of 30c/$ applies to income over $45 000 and up to $135 000. So, a person earning $50 000 in the year pays 16c/$ for $26 800 (= $4288) plus 30c/$ for $5000 (= $1500) = a total of $5788. This, in effect, is an average tax rate for all dollars earned of 11.5c/$(5788/50 000).

• Receipts: revenue from income tax, other taxes, sale of assets, borrowing

A government wishing to reduce household spending would increase income tax collected. This can be done by changing tax rates and/or tax brackets. It should be noted that moving up to higher tax brackets happens automatically with inflation as incomes rise, whether or not there is an expansion in total spending.

• Outlays: spending on current services, transfer payments, spending on capital.

Private business investment spending

The government can change its budget in order to change total spending in the economy. This can be done in a number of ways. In general, in periods of

Businesses buy new buildings, machines and equipment to remain competitive with rivals. Many borrow to buy, and spread the purchase cost over a number of years.

The Budget

The budget comprises receipts and outlays:

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Decisions to buy are based on the profit return from the investment.

The government could do this in times of slowdown.

If the government reduces company tax rates on profits or increases depreciation allowances that may be claimed as an expense, then businesses will find the return on their investment is greater. This will encourage more investment, provided that they expect rising demand for their products in future.

Government services spending

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Government spending on education, health and other services can be increased in times of slowdown. Transfer payments benefits given to pensioners and unemployed persons can also be increased in times of slowdown.

Concepts and skills builder 16.6

Investigating fiscal policy in periods of expansion

Consider the following stimulus and apply the Q-CAFÉ method of investigation by answering the questions that follow.

During a period of economic expansion, the Australian government’s Budget features measures aimed at tempering total demand and controlling inflation. These measures include adjustments in tax rates, revisions to transfer payments, and disincentives for business investment. These measures are designed to influence household consumption, business spending, government service delivery, and the balance of exports and imports.

What fiscal policy is appropriate in periods of expansion?

Collect information by searching online for data on the latest Federal Budget using sources, such as the official Australian Government Budget website and established news outlets. Analyse whether the latest Budget was in surplus or deficit, and identify the main items intended to influence household spending, business spending, government services, government transfer payments, and exports and imports.

Summarise your findings to determine whether the Budget is likely to increase or decrease total spending in the economy.

Evaluate whether you agree that total spending will move in the direction indicated by your analysis, supporting your opinion with evidence from your research.

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… Figure 16.6.2

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Individuals, companies and governments should have a budget in which they prioritise their spending. This way, they can be prepared to pay any fees they have (including taxes) and focus on the things that are important to them.

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16.6 Review questions 1 2 3 4

Explain the meaning of ‘fiscal policy’. Explain the meaning of a ‘progressive tax’. How can the Federal Budget be used to reduce inflation? Describe Keynes’ idea for reducing unemployment.

… Figure 16.6.3 More often than

not, the Australian government will spend more money than it earns. This is called a budget deficit, because it puts Australia into more debt. When the Australian government earns more than it spends, it is called a budget surplus. In these years, the government will use the surplus to reduce the national debt.

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16.7

What is the importance of monetary policy? FPO

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Learning intention

The previous lesson considered how the federal government uses fiscal policy to manage total demand in the national economy. In this lesson, you will learn about the use of monetary policy, which also manages total demand in the national economy, but with shorter-term effects.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

Monetary policy on the spot

…

1 In pairs, consider the question: ‘What happens when the Reserve Bank raises the cash rate?’ 2 Discuss your ideas about how such a change might affect borrowing costs, consumer spending, or business investment. 3 Prepare to share your responses with the class for a brief discussion.

Figure 16.7.1 Display on the outside of the Reserve Bank of Australia, February 2025, showing the RBA’s long history.

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monetary policy actions by the Reserve Bank of Australia to change interest rates and monetary conditions in order to influence the level of economic activity

Monetary policy is action by the Reserve Bank of Australia to vary the cash rate so as to cause other interest rates to follow. The underlying idea is that an interest rate is the price of borrowing money to finance spending. Putting interest rates up then raises the cost of loans and reduces total spending. Lowering interest rates increase total spending. How does this work?

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

cash rate the interest rate one bank pays another for an overnight loan of cash; the lowest rate due to its very short term and minimal risk

Monetary policy is designed to keep inflation in the economy between 2–3 per cent and employment at the maximum level that is consistent with maintaining that low inflation. Achieving these price stability and employment targets enables a strong and sustainable growth in the economy over the longer term, according to the Reserve Bank.

Reserve Bank of Australia Australia’s central bank, which implements monetary policy

transmission channel a channel through which Reserve Bank action passes to spenders; for example, the exchange rate

The cash rate

The cash rate is the interest rate charged by banks to each other for temporary loans overnight (one day). It is the lowest or base interest rate in Australia. All other money loans are for longer time periods and with higher risk – so their interest rates are higher. The Reserve Bank sets the cash rate daily because it controls the process for

bank lending to each other. It does this by determining the daily total cash in the cash market and ensuring that the appropriate supply of money matches. The Reserve Bank meets eight times a year to decide whether or not to change the cash rate and, therefore, most interest rates for loans.

Total demand management

There are a number of ways (transmission channels) through which a change in interest rates affects total spending flows by the sectors: household spending, business spending, government spending and overseas dealings. These are considered below when, for example, monetary policy is to increase interest rates. The general idea is that in periods of expansion, monetary policy should

be to increase interest rates. This leads, through the channels, to a decrease in total demand and total spending, followed by a decrease in inflation. Whereas in periods of slowdown, monetary policy should be to decrease interest rates and thereby encourage more demand and total spending in the economy.

Household spending channel The decisions of the total household sector to spend on consumer goods and services are affected by many factors, including disposable income and interest rates. Consider a monetary policy of increased interest rates. Higher interest rates on credit cards and

home loans will leave consumers with lower bank deposits for spending on consumer products and large assets. Total household spending will decrease, although this is partly offset by extra income from higher interest earned from bank deposits.

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Business spending channel Business spending on investments is determined by the need for new physical capital and the return on such spending. Borrowing money with a higher interest rate will reduce the profitability of an investment project. The spending decision may be delayed or dropped. Total business spending will decline.

wealth effect a channel through which changes in household asset values affect household spending

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Higher home loan interest rates will decrease the demand and spending on buying houses, which are considered to be investment products. Further, the reduced demand for houses will lower their prices and reduce the amount people or businesses may borrow with the house as security (called the ‘wealth effect’).

exchange rate the rate at which one currency trades for another

Government spending channel If the government is running a large debt, then its interest payment will increase with higher rates. This is paid for with higher taxes or with additional interest at the higher rates. Either way, total spending will decrease with reduced private sector or government spending.

Note that it is important that tightening monetary policy with higher interest rates is combined with a fiscal policy that involves a budget surplus (or lower deficit) which contracts total spending.

Exchange rate channel

The exchange rate is the value of the Australian dollar (AUD) in terms of another currency. If the RBA increases interest rates above other nations, then this will encourage overseas residents to invest in Australia. Their investment currencies will need to be changed into Australian dollars and so push up the demand for the Australian dollar and increase

its purchasing power. This will result in higher export prices, lower demand and reduced export sales (X). On the other hand, there will be lower import prices, higher demand and increased import purchases (M). Spending on net exports (X–M) will decrease and contribute to the reduction in total spending on Australian production.

Concepts and skills builder 16.7

Investigating monetary policy and its impact on the least advantaged

Consider the following stimulus and apply the Q-CAFÉ method of investigation by answering the questions that follow. In recent years, the Reserve Bank of Australia has adjusted the cash rate several times in response to changing economic conditions. Official data and analyses from credible sources such as the RBA and major economic research institutions show that these cash rate changes correlate with variations in overall economic growth over the business cycle. Some critics argue that while these monetary policy moves aim to stabilise the economy, they may inadvertently exacerbate financial challenges for the least advantaged by influencing borrowing costs and consumer spending patterns.

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Does monetary policy make life worse for the least advantaged?

Collect information by searching online for data on changes in the cash rate over recent years, using sources such as the Reserve Bank of Australia and reputable economic news outlets.

Analyse the relationship by comparing the cash rate trends with the economic growth rate over the business cycle, as illustrated in Figure 16.5.2.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Summarise your findings by describing the connection between the cash rate and the economic growth rate.

Evaluate whether the connection observed is what you expected and explain why.

Conversion rate of $1 AUD to USD

Economics and Business concepts and skills: communicating, concluding and decision-making, evaluating, interpreting and analysing data and information, investigating

1.15 1.1 1.05 1 0.95 0.9 0.85 0.8 0.75 0.7 0.65 0.6 0.55 0.5

0.45 2000

2005

2010

Year

2015

2020

2024

…

Figure 16.7.2 The Australian dollar has fluctuated in value between 2000 and 2025. It was at its lowest in 2001 and reached the highest value in 2011.

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Lesson 16.7 review Online quiz

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16.7 Review questions

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

1 Explain the meaning of monetary policy. 2 Explain the meaning of transmission mechanism. Describe the four main channels in transmitting interest rate changes. 3 Why are interest rates changed by the Reserve Bank of Australia? 4 In times of high unemployment, what should monetary policy be and why?

…

Figure 16.7.3 World events often affect the financial market. The recession in Australia during the early 2020s was largely caused by the COVID-19 virus.

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16.8

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What is the importance of supply-side policy? FPO

Learning intention

The previous lesson considered managing total demand with monetary policy. In this lesson, you will learn about the management of total supply in the Australian economy.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

Concept map relay

1 In pairs, quickly sketch a concept map linking wages, prices, inflation and economic growth on a piece of paper. (The aim is to visualise the relationships between these economic variables.) 2 After a few minutes, share one key connection you identified with the class.

…

Figure 16.8.1 Inflation can cause the price of everyday essentials, like groceries, to become unaffordable. This can lead to some tough decisions in the supermarket and beyond.

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The supply-side refers to the provision of goods and services to consumers. This is an opposite and complementary force to demand or spending in markets.

Supply-side factors causing increasing inflation include:

supply side the side of a market representing sellers providing the product economic policy government action aimed at changing the level of economic activity stagflation a situation where economic activity slows while inflation rises

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Recall that the business cycle involves a period of expansion in economic growth (leading to increasing inflation) and a period of slowdown in economic growth (leading to increasing unemployment). The Federal government’s economic policy is to manage these ups and downs, which are caused by changes in total spending (total demand). So, the government policy is national demand management to stabilise total spending at a sustainable level.

Sometimes in periods of slowdown, there is not only increasing unemployment but also increasing inflation (called ‘stagflation’). With insufficient demand the inflation cannot be caused by too much demand. It is caused by supplyside factors.

increased wage costs

increased cost of materials

increased profit taking.

cost of materials the cost businesses pay for items used in making their product; for example, the cost of wheat for making cereal, excluding physical capital cost

These causes push up prices being charged by businesses in general and increase the inflation rate.

Wage costs

When overall wages increase, this adds to the cost of production, unless the increase is covered by an increase in productivity.

profit taking when sellers raise prices to increase profit

If not, then this leads to the total supply of products decreasing and prices increasing, adding to the inflation rate.

Material costs

The prices of imported machinery and materials may increase leading to higher costs of production. These are passed on to consumers in the form of higher prices, adding to the inflation rate. Domestic costs of materials may also increase with higher wage rates.

In addition, there may be rising costs of electricity, gas and water because of government policies. If overseas material costs of production increase, then this will also add to product prices. Some buyers will not buy at the higher prices, so businesses reduce their supply.

Profit taking

Some businesses with little competition may decide to take extra profits from increasing prices above cost increases.

Again, the demand for their products decreases and there is now no need to produce as much. Total supply decreases.

Stagflation

Overall, general cost increases reduce the total production and the total supply of goods and services. Product prices increase and add to increasing inflation. When this occurs with rising

unemployment, this is referred to as stagflation. Demand management does not work in these circumstances. Supply-side policies are required.

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Examples of supply-side policies include wage controls, raising the value of the AUD so imports are cheaper, keep utility prices steady and boosting competition between businesses.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

… Figure 16.8.2 Inflation is when the price of products increase in general. This means that the cost of household items such as food and clothing will become more expensive.

Concepts and skills builder 16.8 Investigating the wage–price spiral

Consider the following stimulus and apply the Q-CAFÉ method of investigation by answering the questions that follow.

Between 2021–22 and 2023–24, both inflation rates and wage costs in Australia have increased noticeably. Some economists have suggested that these concurrent rises may indicate the onset of a wage–price spiral, where higher wages lead to increased production costs and, consequently, higher prices. This pattern has raised concerns about the possibility of stagflation – a scenario marked by slowing economic growth combined with rising product prices.

What is a ‘wage–price spiral’?

Collect data by searching online for information on inflation rates and wage cost increases in Australia from 2021–22 to 2023–24.

Analyse whether there is a connection between the increases in wage costs and inflation during this period.

Summarise your findings to determine if the evidence suggests that the Australian economy experienced stagflation, defined by a slowdown in growth alongside rising product prices.

Evaluate which supply-side policies, if any, were implemented to address these conditions and mitigate the wage–price spiral.

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… Figure 16.8.3

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Stagflation can cause a lot of stress to those who are not in a financial position to deal with a rise in prices.

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16.8 Review questions 1 2 3 4

Explain the meaning of ‘supply-side’ policies. Explain the meaning of ‘stagflation’. What could cause stagflation in the economy? What supply-side policies can the government use to remove stagflation?

…

Figure 16.8.4 An Australian bird flu outbreak was the main factor in the price spike of eggs in 2024. Per the ABS, the real cost of eggs is 16 per cent higher in 2025 than it was in early 2020 and the highest it has been in the past 15 years.

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16.9

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What is the importance of redistribution policy? FPO

Learning intention

The previous lesson considered managing total supply when there is stagflation. In this lesson, you will learn about the redistribution of income so that all receive enough to purchase the products that they require for a decent lifestyle.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

Welfare payments pros and cons

…

1 Think about what you believe ‘means tested’ means in regard to welfare payments. Discuss your thoughts with a partner. 2 Take a sheet of paper and draw two columns. Label one column ‘Means Tested’ and the other ‘Not Means Tested’. 3 Write down examples of welfare payments you know under each column. 4 Discuss with your partner one question you have about how means testing affects fairness in the welfare system. Figure 16.9.1 The Australian age pension is means tested.

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This is intended to allow the poorer group of people in the nation to enjoy a minimum acceptable level of consumption for a decent living. This can be represented by a lower GINI index and a Lorenz curve that moves towards the line of equal incomes. This redistribution requires government action in its budget to help raise the consumption levels of the poorer groups in the nation. This action involves taxation, welfare payments, social services, and income-earning capability building.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

The previous three lessons were about government policies to manage the macroeconomy. Their purpose is to maximise sustainable economic growth in the total production of goods and services in the nation. This is strategy 1 (of Lesson 16.2) and is represented by the circular flow and business cycle diagrams in Lessons 16.4 & 16.5).

Strategy 2 (of Lesson 16.3) requires a redistribution of total income from the most advantaged high-income earners to the least advantaged low-income earners.

Taxation

Taxation is a budget item. Governments redistribute income by taxing the most advantaged with a higher rate of tax than the least advantaged. This is known as a progressive tax, whereby high-income earners pay a higher proportion of their income in taxes than low-income earners. If there are still many below the minimum

income, then the progressive tax rates will need to be increased. In addition, there is a Medicare levy which is a percentage of income. But low-income earners do not have to pay it. There are also benefits for low-income earners to offset and reduce their tax amount.

Some payments are given only if the person can pass a means test. For example, an age pensioner has to have income below a certain level or the pension reduces or eventually stops. Similarly, the pensioner has to also have assets valued at less than a certain level.

disability pension a payment by the government to people with a disability

rental support a payment by the government to renters who are struggling to pay their rent

means test an assessment to determine whether a person is in need of a welfare payment

Social services

In addition to welfare payments, the least advantaged can obtain services which the government pays. Health services, education services, transport services, etc. are examples of services

aged pension a payment by the government to people who have retired

jobseeker payment a payment by the government to unemployed people

Welfare payments

The government in its Budget pays people with insufficient or no income aged pensions, disability pensions, unemployment support (Jobseeker payment), rental support, childcare subsidies, etc. These payments are intended to give needy people assistance with living their lives.

welfare payments payments by the government aimed at improving the material wellbeing of the least advantaged

the government pays. The government may not pay the total cost, such as for transport services. But concessions can reduce the amount paid by a poorer person.

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Building capabilities … Figure 16.9.2

Centrelink delivers a range of government payments and services for retirees, the unemployed, families, carers and parents, among others.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

A person’s income depends on the skills and wealth possessed. But many people may not get the opportunity to obtain skills that pay higher wages. Access to capabilities due to bad luck should not prevent people becoming better skilled. The government may provide the finance in its budget for such people to become more skilled.

Concepts and skills builder 16.9

Investigating welfare payments and means testing

Consider the following stimulus and apply the Q-CAFÉ method of investigation by answering the questions that follow.

You are a social policy analyst at a leading research institute. You have been asked to examine the effectiveness and fairness of Australia’s welfare payment system as outlined in the latest Federal Budget. Currently some welfare payments, such as the age pension and disability support pension, are subject to means testing, while other payments, like certain family assistance benefits, do not require means testing. Debates continue over whether expanding means testing could improve the targeting of support, or if maintaining a mixed approach is more equitable.

Should welfare payments be ‘means tested’?

Collect information by searching online for data on the amounts and criteria for welfare payments in the latest Federal Budget, using sources such as the official government Budget website and reputable news outlets.

Analyse the data to identify the main types of welfare payments made in the Budget.

Summarise your findings by determining whether the primary welfare payments are targeted exclusively at the least advantaged.

Evaluate the fairness of the current welfare payment system, considering the potential benefits and drawbacks of implementing means testing.

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U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES …

Figure 16.9.3 People who are struggling to get a job can get help from the government until they are able to support themselves again.

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16.9 Review questions 1 2 3 4

Explain the meaning of welfare payments. Explain the meaning of a means test. Give an example. Describe the progressive tax system in Australia. What are the main social services provided by governments in Victoria?

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16.10

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Research task: Who are the least advantaged in Australia? FPO

This research task is designed to be completed over multiple weeks, as you complete the chapter. It should not be left until the end. By completing this research task, you will have the

opportunity to consolidate the ideas learned through this chapter, and demonstrate your understanding of Business and Economics concepts and skills.

Research topic: who are the least advantaged in Australia?

…

Figure 16.10.1 In 2013, Prime Minister Julia Gillard announced that the Federal government was going to increase the Medicare Levy on income tax to help fund the National Disability Insurance Scheme (NDIS).

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Investigate and evaluate the research question and develop your response using the following questions to guide you. You should follow the Q-CAFÉ method of investigation, as described in the box at the end of Lesson 16.1. You will also prepare a report of your investigation. Q

What does it mean to be ‘least advantaged’ in Australia, and why is it important to identify who falls into this category?

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Search online to collect current data and reports from sources such as the Australian Council of Social Service (ACOSS). Find information on:

a How income is distributed across the population (in quintiles). b The characteristics of people in the lowest income quartile. c How many Australians fall into this category. Analyse the information you have collected. Identify the main groups that are least advantaged in terms of income by comparing the data you found. Consider factors such as:

a Which demographic groups (e.g. people with disabilities, single parents, unemployed individuals) appear most affected. b How their income levels compare with national averages. c Your estimate of the number of people in each group. Summarise your findings in a clear and concise manner. Outline your conclusions regarding the extent of income inequality by estimating how much extra income each disadvantaged group might need to obtain a minimum acceptable standard of living. Use tables or bullet points to present your data, if helpful. Evaluate the evidence you have gathered. Consider the fairness of the current income distribution and whether those with the highest incomes should contribute more to support the least advantaged. Explain your opinion by referencing the data, your analysis, and examples of existing redistribution measures (such as the Medicare Levy).

The report

Your teacher will tell you how you should present your report (written, oral, multimedia). However, your report should include: • An introduction defining key terms (such as ‘income inequality’, ‘least advantaged’, and ‘redistribution’)

• A summary of the data and information collected (including statistics on household income distribution, the number of households in the lowest income quintile, and relevant trends)

• An analysis that evaluates the fairness of income distribution by comparing the data with recognised standards (such as the poverty line or minimum income benchmarks) • A conclusion that states your final decision on whether current income inequality is fair

• A recommendation suggesting one policy change or alternative approach to reduce income inequality in Australia.

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16.11

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End of topic task: how does the Australian economy operate? FPO

Access the Interactive Textbook for a range of digital tools to help you review this topic, including:

• Downloadable cummary • Scorcher timed competitive quiz.

Brain dump

What have you learned about how the Australian economy operates? Copy and complete the table to explain your understanding. Aim for two points per topic.

The circular flow of income The role of households and businesses The business cycle Economic growth and GDP Unemployment and the labour market Fiscal and monetary policy Income inequality Material and non-material living standards

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Making thinking visible Apply the 3-2-1 routine to summarise your findings from this investigation. 1

Recall three main points or ideas from the topic.

Identify two interesting or surprising facts related to the topic.

State one question that you still have or something you want to learn more about.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Practice questions 1

What are the key components of the circular flow model, and how do they interact?

How do government decisions about taxation and spending influence economic activity?

What is the relationship between economic growth and unemployment in Australia?

How does the Reserve Bank of Australia use monetary policy to manage the economy?

In what ways does income inequality affect material wellbeing in Australia?

How can fiscal or monetary policy support economic recovery during a downturn?

Filler Image To Come

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Response to the chapter inquiry question: how does the Australian economy operate? Write a paragraph in response to the inquiry question. Include the following key terms: • circular flow • households • businesses

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

• government spending

• gross domestic product (GDP) • unemployment • Inflation

• fiscal policy

…

• monetary policy.

Figure 16.11.1 Reserve Bank of Australia (RBA) governor Michelle Bullock, pictured in Sydney in July 2025.

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CHAPTER 17

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

What is Australia’s place in the global economy?

LESSON TITLE 17.1

Setting the scene: should Australia provide trade or aid to help other nations’ development?

17.2

What are exports?

17.3

What are imports?

17.4

What are Australia’s current payments internationally?

17.5

What are foreign investment flows?

17.6

What is the FOREX market?

17.7

What are the benefits of globalisation?

17.8

What are the costs of globalisation?

17.9

What is global material wellbeing?

17.10

Research task: what impact does Australia’s foreign aid have on recipient nations?

17.11

End of investigation review: what is Australia’s place in the global economy?

This digital chapter can be accessed via Cambridge GO

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U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES Image: In Year 10 Civics and Citizenship, you will look closely at Australia’s place in world politics.

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Part 4

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Civics & Citizenship

FPO

Watch the video for an introduction to Civics & Citizenship in Year 10 and the skills and concepts you will be working with

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INVESTIGATION

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What is Australia’s role on the global stage?

OVERVIEW

This text addresses the curriculum content and learning framework used for investigating Australia’s part in global affairs.

CURRICULUM CONTENT

The VCAA prescribes the following curriculum: Students further develop their understanding of Australia’s democratic institutions and compare these with those of other countries in the Asia – Pacific region. They examine the roles and responsibilities that governments, institutions and citizens have towards global issues and global citizenship. Source: VCAA, Victorian Curriculum V2.0, ‘Civics and Citizenship’, ‘Band description – Levels 9 & 10’

LEARNING FRAMEWORK

This text provides students with lessons related to the above question and curriculum content, using an investigative learning framework. The learning framework is presented in two chapters covering the following investigations: What are the political and legal systems of Australia and India? (Chapter 18), including: • How are Australia and India governed?

• How are the legal systems in Australia and India different?

What does it mean to be a citizen in a liberal democracy? (Chapter 19), including:

• What makes a liberal democracy resilient? • How does the media influence identity and attitudes to diversity? At the end of each chapter there is an opportunity for a student to write a paragraph about their investigation. Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment • De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62420-6 • (03) 8671 1400

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CHAPTER 18

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What are the political and legal systems of Australia and India?

LESSON TITLE 18.1

Setting the scene: which nations belong to the Asia–Pacific region?

18.2

What are Australia’s roles in the region?

18.3

How is Australia governed?

18.4

How is India governed?

18.5

How do international agreements affect Australian laws?

18.6

Should Australia ratify international agreements?

18.7

What is the legal system in Australia?

18.8

What is the legal system in India?

18.9

Research task: what are the implications of the AUKUS agreement for Australia?

18.10

End of investigation review: what are the political and legal systems of Australia and India?

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18.1

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Setting the scene: which nations belong to the Asia–Pacific region? Learning intention

In this lesson, you will learn about the composition of the Asia–Pacific region – a large part of the globe.

Asia–Pacific region the region bordering Asia and the northern Pacific, consisting of over 30 nations including Australia East Asia seven nations on the South China Sea, including China, Japan and sometimes western North America

Australia and India are part of the Asia–Pacific Region. This region is the area including nations in East Asia, South Asia, Southeast Asia, Oceania, and, in some contexts, the western parts of North America (e.g. the western United States, Canada and Mexico.)

Asia

South Asia India Pakistan Bangladesh Sri Lanka Nepal Bhutan Maldives Myanmar

South Asia eight Asian nations bordering the Indian Ocean, including India

Southeast Asia nine nations in the southeast of Asia, including Indonesia and The Philippines

Southeast Asia Vietnam Thailand Malaysia Singapore Philippines Indonesia Brunei Cambodia Laos

Indian Ocean

…

Oceania nations in the deep south on the Pacific Ocean, including Australia and various Pacific Islands

East Asia China Japan South Korea North Korea Mongolia Taiwan Russia (east)

West North America USA – Hawaii USA – Alaska Canada (west) Mexico (west)

Pacific Ocean

Oceania Australia New Zealand Papua New Guinea Pacific islands

Source 18.1.1 Asia–Pacific nations

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Features of the Asia–Pacific region Economic

(APEC), Australian free trade agreements and the AUKUS defence agreement.

Cultural Culturally and socially, there are nations in the region with many differences in tradition, language and religion. There are also different styles of government with democratic and non-democratic sovereignty.

air pollution air quality is diminished by carbon and other emissions released into it deforestation clearing of natural forests in countries such as Indonesia

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Some of the largest economies in the world belong to the Asia–Pacific region, such as China, Japan and India. There are also many emerging economies, such as Cambodia, with low economic growth rates. There is great inequality of income and wealth between the nations and within each nation.

Political

World War II in the early 1940s saw Japan’s aggression greatly affecting most nations in the region. At the end of the war there was a division of lands among the Allies. This led to Vietnam being ruled by the French. In addition, some former colonies soon after became independent, such as India and Indonesia.

Many nations are former colonies of European nations in the past: e.g. the British colonies of India, parts of China, Malaysia and Australia; the French colonies of Vietnam, Laos and Cambodia; and the Dutch colony of Indonesia.

Hundreds of ships pass through the South China Sea and the Malacca Strait each day for business and pleasure. There is a dispute currently about the use of the South China Sea, with China claiming it belongs to them, but other nations, including Australia, defending the right for all nations to sail in the open sea. The USA, Australia and other nations send warships sailing through the area.

The region has always been subject to natural disasters such as the annual typhoons (in India), occasional earthquakes, tsunamis, fires (in Australia) and floods. These natural disasters are complicated today with disasters being ever more severe due to global warming. Part of the cause is the high air pollution in the region, mainly from China’s industrialisation. There is also the deforestation occurring in Indonesia and other nations to obtain wood for buildings and paper.

Governments in the region have organised cooperating groups and associations, especially for trade and defence such as the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), the Asia–Pacific Economic Cooperation group

Environmental

global warming the average temperature around the globe and in the oceans is heating up over the years ASEAN Association of Southeast Asian Nations

APEC Asia– Pacific Economic Cooperation group of nations

AUKUS a security deal between Australia, the UK and USA aimed at promoting a free and open Indo-Pacific region, with submarine arrangements as a key part

Rising sea levels are due to global warming melting ice. This is threatening to flood many islands in the Pacific Ocean. … Source 18.1.2 A

busy day in Bengaluru (formerly Bangalore) city, India

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The Victorian Curriculum lists a range of skills that you will need to develop. To help you practise and integrate these skills in Civics and Citizenship, we have developed the QUED method of investigation. There are opportunities to apply this method throughout the lessons, as well as in a final research task (Lesson 18.9). QUED method of investigation

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Q Questions are formed to investigate a political, legal, or civic issue. U Undertake the collection and analysis of a range of information.

Evaluate the quality and breadth of information relevant to the issue. Evaluate how the principles of justice are achieved through the legal system. Evaluate the political power of actors involved with an issue and their connections E with institutions. Evaluate the effectiveness of democratic decision-making. Evaluate the methods and strategies of civic participation in relation to an issue.

Decide, recommend and justify changes regarding the issue.

Deliver your response to the issue using the most effective method of communication.

Note that the research task is designed to be completed over the duration of the unit, rather than in the final few weeks. Be sure to get started as soon as possible!

Go online to access the interactive lesson review and more!

Lesson 18.1 review Online quiz

Review questions

Research task

DOC

Teachers can assign tasks and track results

18.1 Review questions

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1 Explain the meaning of a global region. 2 Describe climate change. 3 What are the main differences between nations in the Asia–Pacific region?

Source 18.1.3 Giant pandas are endemic to China.

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18.2

What are Australia’s roles in the region?

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Learning intention The previous lesson looked at some geopolitical elements of the Asia–Pacific region. In this lesson, you will learn about the roles and responsibilities of Australia in the Asia–Pacific region and in the world.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

Global role circle

1 Stand up and move to one of four designated stations (e.g. corners) in the room – one each labelled ‘diplomacy’, ‘trade’, ‘security’ and ‘humanitarian aid’. 2 At each station, spend one minute with a partner discussing what role Australia plays in that area within the Asia–Pacific region. 3 When the minute is up, move to the next station, as indicated by your teacher, and discuss the role Australia plays in that area. Repeat until you have visited each station. 4 Return to your desk, and write down two discussion points that you found particularly interesting or would like to know more about.

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Source 18.2.1 In 2008, following a devastating cyclone, Australia provided emergency food aid to Myanmar.

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Chapter 18: What are the political and legal systems of Australia and India?

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Australia has responsibilities to look after and promote the wellbeing of the people of the world. These global responsibilities include: • promoting peace and security for all nations

• providing humanitarian aid to those badly affected by natural disasters and wars. In carrying out these responsibilities, Australia engages in a number of international activities in the Asia–Pacific region and in the world.

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• fostering trade between all to grow their national economies

• reducing income and wealth inequality around the world

Roles in the Asia–Pacific region

a Building relationships with individual nations

Australia seeks to maintain diplomatic relationships with specific nations that are important to Australia. This includes building relations through discussions, trade and security partnerships. China and India (the two most populated nations), Japan, Indonesia and South Korea are key nations for Australia’s strategic relationships.

treaty an agreement between two or more parties, usually nations Paris Agreement a multi-nation agreement on action to reduce greenhouse gas emissions globally

b Involvement in regional economic integration Australia is involved in a number of regional forums, promoting trade and security in the region.

• ASEAN (Association of Southeast Asian Nations)

developments; for example, the Pine Gap installation and the increased US military presence in the Northern Territory.

There is also the AUKUS agreement between Australia, the UK and the USA. This agreement involves submarine manufacture and joint underwater defence of the Indo-Pacific Region.

d Climate change

Australia is a signatory to international climate agreements, such as the Paris Agreement. Australia is also a key player in regional climate change initiatives, such as disaster relief in the Pacific Islands. These islands are vulnerable to rising sealevels (e.g. Tuvalu) and natural disasters (cyclones, earthquakes, etc.).

• APEC (Asia–Pacific Economic Cooperation) • PIF (Pacific Islands Forum)

• ANZUS (Australia–New Zealand–United States) Treaty

• QUAD (Quadrilateral Security Dialogue)

• CPTPP (Comprehensive and Progressive Agreement for Trans-Pacific Partnership)

c Promoting regional security

Source 18.2.2 Current policies implemented around the world are projected to result in a 2.7°C increase in average global temperature from pre-industrial levels. Under the Paris Agreement in 2015 – a legally binding international treaty on climate change – countries agreed to keep temperatures below an increase of 2°C from pre-industrial levels. After that level, the consequences on our climate become even more severe.

…

Australia promotes peace in the region with defence cooperation with neighbouring nations. There is the long-standing ANZUS Treaty, whereby Australia, New Zealand, and the United States of America agree to defend each other. The treaty underlies various

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Broader roles c Nuclear non-proliferation

Australia pursues global security by promoting peace and stability in the world. It is an original member of the United Nations and, since WWII, a member of the ‘Five Eyes’ defence intelligence arrangements between Australia, the UK, the USA, Canada and New Zealand. Included in these arrangements are the current export controls on Russia.

Australia actively advocates for global nuclear disarmament and nonproliferation, particularly in the context of the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) and the Treaty on the NonProliferation of Nuclear Weapons (NPT).

International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) Agency representing 180 nations on the use of nuclear power Treaty on the NonProliferation of Nuclear Weapons (NPT) the NonProliferation Treaty aims to prevent the spread of nuclear weapons and technology – 190 nations are parties to the treaty

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a Global security

Australia supports the rule-based international order. This means the freedom to navigate in international waters as well as retention of territorial integrity.

b Peacekeeping missions

…

Australia contributes to UN peacekeeping operations. It provides humanitarian aid in conflict zones around the world, such as in East Timor.

d Counterterrorism

Australia works closely with international partners on counterterrorism efforts. It works with the Global Coalition to Defeat ISIS and Interpol. This involves joint intelligence training and intelligence services. Australia contributes to the UN Global Counter-Terrorism Strategy. It also promotes efforts to combat violent extremism.

e Refugees

Australia contributes to global development by receiving refugees from war-torn and undeveloped nations. But they must be chosen before they come to Australia.

counterterrorism methods to combat or eliminate terrorism Interpol a global organisation facilitating worldwide police cooperation and crime control

Source 18.2.3 Anonymous hackers can corrupt global systems and are a national security threat.

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Concepts and skills builder 18.2 Investigating Australia’s global security Consider the following stimulus and apply the QUED method of investigation (outlined at the end of Lesson 18.1) by answering the questions that follow.

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Recent developments in the Asia–Pacific have seen Australia increase its participation in a range of regional initiatives. Australia plays a key role by building diplomatic relationships and participating in forums such as the Pacific Islands Forum, QUAD and the CPTPP. These engagements are designed to promote regional security, foster trade, and support economic stability. They reflect Australia’s commitment to a secure and prosperous Indo-Pacific region, while also raising debates about the best strategies to further safeguard national interests.

Describe how Australia contributes to regional security and economic stability in the Asia–Pacific region.

Search online for information on Australia’s participation in the Pacific Islands Forum, QUAD and the CPTPP, and gather data on how these platforms enhance regional security and trade.

Explain how Australia’s involvement in these regional initiatives strengthens its security and trade relationships.

Decide whether Australia should adopt additional measures – such as revising trade policies D or deepening security partnerships – to further reinforce its role in the region. Justify your recommendation.

Civics and Citizenship concepts and skills: communicating, evaluating democratic institutions and systems, investigating contemporary civics and citizenship issues, participating in civic processes

Go online to access the interactive lesson review and more!

Lesson 18.2 review Online quiz

Review questions

DOC

Research task

Teachers can assign tasks and track results

18.2 Review questions 1 2 3 4

Describe the roles Australia plays in the Asia-Pacific Region. Explain the meaning of counterterrorism. What is Australia doing in this regard? Distinguish between the ANZUS and AUKUS agreements. Should Australia allow boats with refugees to enter Australia?

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18.3

How is Australia governed?

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Learning intention The previous lesson defined Australia’s roles in the Asia–Pacific region of the world. In this lesson, you will learn about the Australian system of government.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

Parliament snap

1 Look at the image of Parliament House. 2 In pairs, discuss which features of the building might symbolise Australia’s democratic system. 3 Share one observation with the whole class.

…

Source 18.3.1 Parliament House in Canberra was specifically designed with symbolic elements to reflect Australia’s core democratic values.

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democracy a system of government by all citizens with the majority deciding

The values underlying the Constitution and the governing of Australia are liberal values; that is, the values of freedom, equality, opportunity, caring and respect for each other as equals. Australia, therefore, is a society whereby interactions are underlined by liberal values and government rules democratically. It is a ‘liberal democracy’.

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constitutional monarchy a form of democracy where government is regulated by a constitution and a monarch is head of state

Australia is a democracy in the form of a constitutional monarchy. Government is by a parliament comprising two representative houses making laws and a king or delegate giving Royal Assent to those laws. The formation of the government and its ruling are in accordance with the1901 Constitution of Australia.

parliament the law‑making body, with houses of representatives determining laws

Royal Assent in Australia, the assent given by the King or his delegate to bills passed by Federal Parliament Constitution of Australia the rules for governing the nation, which came into effect on 1 January 1901 liberal values the values of a society including rights, freedoms, opportunities and equity

egalitarian society a society in which people have equal rights and freedoms together with fair opportunities to participate in society

bills proposed laws put to Parliament that, when approved, become Acts

Society’s underlying liberal values Individual freedoms

Caring for all

Australian citizens have a high level of freedoms such as freedom of speech, freedom of association and freedom of religion. The only restriction is that the freedoms of others are not to be interfered with, especially minority groups.

The least fortunate are treated with care in enabling them to live a decent and peaceful life.

Fairness

People are to be treated fairly. Sometimes with equality, such as equality of opportunity. Other times with equity, such as rewards for effort and redistributing income to help poorer Australians. Australia is mainly an egalitarian society.

Respect

Everybody is treated equally as individuals living together in the same society.

Just laws

The rule of law applies to all in Australia. Laws are made and applied to all equally. Everyone is protected by the law equally. No one is favoured by the law.

Features of Australia’s constitutional democracy Representative democracy

Federal Parliament makes the laws that build peoples’ wellbeing and protect individuals. Members of Parliament are elected as representatives of regions within Australia. There are two Houses – the House of Representatives and the Senate. The House of Representatives is made up of local representatives for 150 regions around Australia. The Senate is made up of groups of representatives from each State and Territory.

Federation Australia is divided into six States (former British colonies) and two Territories. Each State has a Constitution and Parliament,

which apply only to the State concerned. There is also the Australian Constitution and Federal Parliament.

Elections

Federal elections are held in or within every three years for the House of Representatives and for half the Senate. Voting is compulsory and each person’s vote has one equal value.

Government

After an election, the government is formed with those members in the House of Representatives making up a majority when voting on bills (potential laws).

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Independent judiciary Australia is ruled by laws within the powers given by the Constitution and the laws of past governments. A judicial system exists to ensure new laws fit within the Constitution and to judge disputes and wrongdoings according to the law. New laws must also be fair and applied consistently. They must protect the rights of minority groups.

Governor‑General the representative of the King in Australia

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The government puts Bills for approval to the House of Representatives first and then to the Senate. If approved by both Houses, then the GovernorGeneral (on behalf of the monarch) endorses the new law by giving it Royal Assent on behalf of the King.

Concepts and skills builder 18.3

Investigating Australia’s system of government

Consider the following stimulus and apply the QUED method of investigation by answering the questions that follow.

Australia’s system of government is built on a constitutional monarchy combined with a federal democratic structure. Power is divided between the executive, legislature and judiciary, and democratic accountability is maintained through processes such as Question Time in Parliament. Recent debates have focused on whether these procedures effectively scrutinise government actions and uphold transparency.

What questions can be asked to uncover the key features of Australia’s system of government, including its constitutional monarchy, federal structure and the roles of its major institutions? Try to answer these questions. Search online for information on how Australia’s federal system ensures government sovereignty and maintains democratic accountability – focus particularly on the legislative process and mechanisms like Question Time and Senate committees. Evaluate how effectively these processes work by examining recent examples of Question Time or other parliamentary scrutiny. Explain, with an example, how laws are made and government decisions are held to account. Based on your findings, recommend a specific improvement to enhance the transparency and effectiveness of Question Time in Parliament. Justify your proposal with reference to the issues identified in your evaluation.

Civics and Citizenship concepts and skills: communicating, evaluating democratic institutions and systems, investigating contemporary civics and citizenship issues, participating in civic processes

… Source 18.3.2 King of Australia

Charles III shakes hands with Australian Prime Minister Anthony Albanese in October 2024.

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Lesson 18.3 review

Go online to access the interactive lesson review and more!

Online quiz

Review questions

DOC

Research task

Teachers can assign tasks and track results

18.3 Review questions Explain the meaning of democracy. Explain the meaning of ‘liberal values’ in Australia. What makes Australian democracy a constitutional monarchy? Who governs Australian society?

…

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1 2 3 4

Source 18.3.3 The Statue of Liberty located in New York City, USA, is a global symbol of freedom, given to the USA

by France.

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18.4

How is India governed?

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Learning intention The previous lesson considered the system of government in Australia. In this lesson, you will learn about India’s system of government and its similarities and differences with Australia’s system.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

‘Liberty will not descend to a people, a people must raise themselves to Liberty, it is a blessing that must be earned before it can be enjoyed.’

– Inscription on the door of Indian Parliament

• Consider what you know about India. • How many people do you think there are in India? • Think about the lifestyle people in India have: is the country well developed or wealthy? • Estimate the average temperature in India in summer and in winter. Do you think it is similar all around

…

the country?

Source 18.4.1 Visiting the Indian Parliament, New Delhi

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India is a democracy and a former British colony, similar to Australia. Both have inherited aspects of the British system

of government. The main features of the Indian system of government are listed below and compared to Australia.

1 Type of democracy whereas Australia is a constitutional monarchy with a king as head of state. Both President and King have mostly ceremonial roles.

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republic the national head of state is a president and not a monarch; for example, in India, France, or the USA

Each nation has a constitution, a parliament and prime minister. The type of democracy in India is a republic with an elected president as head of state,

president head of state of a republic

fundamental rights the detailed rights provided to the citizens of a nation

Council of Ministers the group of ministers appointed to manage government service departments in India

simple majority the candidate receiving more votes than any other, also known as first‑past‑the‑post

2 Rights

Both democracies are governed in accordance with details in a constitution. Australia does not have a

rights declaration, whereas India has Fundamental Rights included in its Constitution.

3 Federal system

Both nations are organised on a federal basis. Australia has the Commonwealth and State governments, while India has

a central and State governments. The difference is that Indian States do not have as much power as those in Australia.

4 Parliament

Both have a Parliament with two houses – upper and lower houses. Both systems are based on the British Westminster system. One difference is the State

representatives to the upper house are elected by the people in Australia. In India, they are elected by each State Parliament.

5 Government

For Australia and India, the prime minister and other ministers determine the laws proposed to Parliament and carry out those laws. The Governor-General acts

on the advice of the Prime Minister in Australia. But, in India, the President usually acts on the advice of the Council of Ministers.

6 Judiciary

In both India and Australia, the judiciary is independent. In India, the highest court is the Supreme Court of India, and in

Australia, the High Court of Australia. Both can rule on the constitutionality of laws passed in their respective parliaments.

7 Elections Voting is compulsory in Australia, but voluntary in India. In the Lower House in India, candidates elected are those with

a simple majority (first-past-the-post) of votes.

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In Australia, candidates elected are those getting an absolute majority (50% + 1) of the votes based on their votes and the preferences of others eliminated due to those candidates receiving lower votes.

In the upper house, both countries use a proportional representation system of voting.

absolute majority a majority where more than 50 per cent of the votes are received, with candidates eliminated and votes redistributed until 50 per cent +1 is achieved

Concepts and skills builder 18.4

proportional representation a voting system where seats are allocated according to the proportion of votes received

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Investigating India’s system of government

Consider the following stimulus and apply the QUED method of investigation by answering the questions that follow.

India is a federal parliamentary republic where the President serves as a largely ceremonial head of state, and the prime minister leads the government. The system is based on the British Westminster model and features a multi-party electoral process with coalition politics playing a significant role in legislative decision-making. Recent central elections have revealed the complexity of political representation and the dynamics of coalition governance in India.

What questions can be asked to uncover the key features of India’s system of government, and how does its federal parliamentary republic differ from other forms of government?

Search online for details of the last Indian central election, focusing on the major political parties, coalition dynamics and election outcomes.

Evaluate the fairness and effectiveness of India’s electoral process by examining aspects such as voter turnout, representation and the impact of coalition politics.

Based on your investigation, decide whether Australia’s current constitutional monarchy should D be maintained or if a shift to a republic might better serve its democratic principles. Justify your recommendation.

Civics and Citizenship concepts and skills: Communicating, evaluating democratic institutions and systems, investigating contemporary civics and citizenship issues, participating in civic processes

… Source 18.4.2

Voters standing in a queue to cast a vote in Mumbai, India.

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Lesson 18.4 review

Go online to access the interactive lesson review and more!

Online quiz

Review questions

DOC

Research task

Teachers can assign tasks and track results

18.4 Review questions Distinguish between a republic and a constitutional monarchy. Distinguish between simple majority and absolute majority in deciding an election winner. Describe three main differences between the Australian and Indian systems of government. Describe three main similarities between the Australian and Indian systems of government.

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1 2 3 4

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Source 18.4.3 Indian head of state President Droupadi Murmu was elected in 2022. India remains a member of the Commonwealth despite not having a monarch as head of state.

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18.5

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How do international agreements influence Australian laws? Learning intention

The previous lesson looked at the governance of India compared to Australia. In this lesson, you will learn about Australia’s global legal obligations and how they shape policies in Australia.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

International influence flash

…

1 In pairs, take a minute to recall one international agreement that you know has influenced Australian law (e.g. one related to human rights or environmental protection). 2 Spend another minute discussing how that agreement might shape domestic policies. 3 Each pair then shares a brief summary of their example with the class.

Source 18.5.1 When Australia signs international agreements, their provisions tend to influence Australian law.

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Australia has signed many international treaties and agreements. These have led to Australia having many legal obligations. These legal obligations may mean Australia’s domestic laws have to comply. The matters particularly affected are human rights, environment protection, and indigenous peoples’ rights.

Note that governments sign international treaties, but parliament(s) implement these treaties. This means that treaties are not law in Australia without Acts of Parliament(s). The distinction between international law and domestic law is important.

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International laws that have influenced Australian laws

ratify sign and endorse an international agreement so that Australia is subject to international law for that agreement

Australia does not generally ratify international treaties on human rights unless domestic laws comply with them. However, both the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR) and the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (ICESCR) have been ratified by Australia. This means they have both been signed and Australia agrees to be bound by them under international law and external courts. Some international laws that have influenced Australia’s domestic laws are listed below.

1 International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR) Ratified by Australia in 1980. It means that Australian domestic laws should protect civil and political rights, including the rights of indigenous peoples. So, freedom of expression, assembly, privacy and related laws must meet this international law.

The Racial Discrimination Act (1975) prohibits racial discrimination in Australia and is one of the domestic laws influenced by this treaty.

2 International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (ICESCR)

This covenant has influenced domestic policies to ensure that Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples have access

to health care, education and employment opportunities.

3 Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination (CERD)

Australia’s commitment to this convention has led to various laws and policies that promote racial equality and prohibit discrimination, including the Native Title Act (1993). This Act recognises and protects the land rights of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples.

4 United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples (UNDRIP)

UNDRIP establishes the framework for minimum standards for the survival, dignity and wellbeing of indigenous people around the world.

Australia signed this agreement in 2009. It is not legally binding because it has not been ratified. It demonstrates a commitment to protect and promote Indigenous rights, such as land rights, preserving their cultures and involvement in decision-making. Relevant domestic laws include the Native Title Act (1993) to recognise and protect the land rights of Indigenous peoples. Also, the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Heritage Protection Act (1984) protects significant cultural sites from damage or destruction. The referendum on ‘The Voice’ was an attempt to provide representation of

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Indigenous views into Parliament. Most Australians (60 per cent) rejected the proposed method of representation.

5 The UN Convention on the Rights of People with Disabilities

The Paris Agreement on Climate Change (2015) was signed by Australia. Its goal is to reduce greenhouse gas emissions globally, so that average global temperature increases to 1.5°C above pre-industrial levels. Australia decided to set a target of reducing greenhouse gas emissions by 43 per cent by 2030.

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This has been incorporated into Australian law with the Disability Discrimination Act (1992).

6 The Paris Agreement

Concepts and skills builder 18.5

Investigating the connection between international law and Australian law

Consider the following stimulus and apply the QUED method of investigation by answering the questions that follow.

The Paris Agreement of 2015 is an international treaty aimed at reducing global greenhouse gas emissions and limiting climate change. Australia, as a signatory, has incorporated elements of the Agreement into its domestic policies, establishing specific targets for emission reductions and renewable energy development. This framework illustrates how international law can shape national legal and policy decisions.

What questions can be asked to explore the connection between international law and Q Australian law, particularly in the context of climate change?

Undertake research to find information about the Paris Agreement of 2015, including its key U provisions and objectives, and identify the specific climate targets that Australia has adopted as a result. E

Evaluate how these international commitments have influenced Australia’s domestic climate policies and the specific goals set by the government to meet the Agreement’s targets.

Decide whether, based on your investigation, it is beneficial for a small nation like Australia D to sign and implement international agreements such as the Paris Agreement, and justify your conclusion.

Civics and Citizenship concepts and skills: communicating, evaluating democratic institutions and systems, investigating contemporary civics and citizenship issues, participating in civic processes

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Source 18.5.2 Protesters in Melbourne march in opposition to nuclear energy and its climate risks. These protesters demand Australia to find climate solutions through renewables.

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Lesson 18.5 review Online quiz

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Research task

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18.5 Review questions 1 2 3 4

Distinguish between ‘signing’ and ‘ratifying’ an international agreement. Explain the meaning of ‘rights’: civil and political, economic, social and cultural. Describe three examples of where international agreements have influenced Australian law. Explain UNDRIP and describe a domestic law enacted as a result of it.

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Source 18.5.3 Australian citizens are entitled to basic human rights such as freedom of speech, which is often demonstrated in peaceful protests.

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18.6

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Should Australia ratify international agreements? Learning intention

The previous lesson considered Australia’s global legal obligations and how they shape laws in Australia. In this lesson, you will learn about issues related to ratifying international laws and their obligations.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

Ratification quiz

• Consider the following list of international agreements: • Treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons • Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora • United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea • International Convention on the Protection of the Rights of All Migrant Workers and Members of Their Families • Convention on Biological Diversity. • In pairs, decide on which you think Australia has ratified, and which it has not. (Hint: There are two that Australia has not yet ratified, as of 2025.) • Check your ideas as a class. Were there any surprises?

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Source 18.6.1 Our modern world is highly globalised, which means that countries can work together to tackle global issues such as climate change, poverty and health.

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Australia has signed many international agreements. These imply Australia will introduce similar laws. One issue is Australia’s federal system of

government. Another is the generality of international laws. Yet another issue is the specific area for which the law is intended.

Applying international law to Australian law: issues There are a number of issues that arise when applying international law to Australian law. One is whether or not Australia should ratify an international agreement into domestic law.

Simply put, it says that Indigenous people living today have the right to land used by their distant ancestors. So, does this mean that English people can claim that they have a right to land that their AngloSaxon ancestors of 2000 years ago used before the Romans invaded? This comes down to interpretation. How can Australia ratify such a treaty and not be the interpreters of the law for Australia?

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international law laws for international disputes that are applied by an international body

Australian law laws of Australian bodies that apply to Australian people and to permanent residents and visitors in Australia

In examining treaties and agreements on human rights, it should be remembered that having a right does not guarantee that you can exercise that right. We all have the right to be employed, but there also needs to be the freedom to be employed and an opportunity to do so for it to happen.

Issue 1: Ceding sovereignty

To ratify an international agreement means ceding some of Australian’s sovereignty to other nations.

Issue 2: Interpretation of words

UN treaties and declarations are general in order to meet the wishes of many nations. So, if there is one or a number of articles or clauses that are not applicable or acceptable to Australia, then the document cannot be ratified. No legal power is given to the UN. Why would we put legal interpretations of the documents to others and not to Australians?

Consider UNDRIP Article 26 section 1

‘Indigenous peoples have the right to the lands, territories and resources which they have traditionally owned, occupied or otherwise used or acquired.’

Consider also UNDRIP Article 28 section 1

‘Indigenous peoples have the right to redress, by means that can include restitution or, when this is not possible, of a just, fair and equitable compensation, for lands, territories and resources which they have traditionally owned or otherwise occupied or used, and which have been confiscated, taken, occupied, used or damaged without their free, prior and informed consent.’

Again, it says that Indigenous people living today have the right to compensation for land that their distant ancestors used. Presumably tax money of the multicultural peoples of Australia is to be used to pay this compensation for what the British government did, when most people in Australia are not linked to British ancestors. Why wouldn’t the British government, which took the land in the first place, be liable for such compensation? Again, it comes down to interpretation. Australians cannot ratify such vagueness and make itself vulnerable to non-Australian decision-makers.

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Issue 3: Federation jurisdictions

Issue 4: Election prospects

Australia has a federal system of government and so there is the difficulty of all jurisdictions signing and ratifying international proposed treaties affecting the Commonwealth and the States.

For a treaty relevant only to the Commonwealth, there may be reluctance on the part of the Federal government for fear of losing the next election.

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Concepts and skills builder 18.6

Investigating the wellbeing of First Nations Australians

Consider the following stimulus and apply the QUED method of investigation by answering the questions that follow.

First Nations peoples have deep cultural roots across the nation. However, disparities in health, education, employment and overall quality of life continue to affect many First Nations communities, particularly in remote and regional areas. International human rights frameworks call for equal treatment and the protection of Indigenous rights, raising questions about how well Australia is addressing these challenges.

What are the key factors that influence the wellbeing of First Nations Australians Q across different states and territories, and how do these compare with the wellbeing of non-Indigenous Australians?

Undertake research to find recent statistical data on the distribution and wellbeing of First U Nations Australians, including population numbers by state and key indicators such as health, education and employment. E

Evaluate how these wellbeing indicators differ between Indigenous and non-Indigenous Australians. Identify the main disparities and consider the reasons behind them.

Decide whether Australia’s current policies adequately protect the rights and improve the D wellbeing of Indigenous Australians in line with international human rights standards, and justify your decision.

Civics and Citizenship concepts and skills: communicating, evaluating democratic institutions and systems, investigating contemporary civics and citizenship issues, participating in civic processes

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Source 18.6.2 The Board of the Uluru–Kata Tjuta National Park voted unanimously to prohibit Uluru from being climbed. This rule was enacted from 26 October 2019.

Civics & Citizenship concepts and skills: applying the QUED method of investigation, recalling and applying key terms

Go online to access the interactive lesson review and more!

Lesson 18.6 review Online quiz

Review questions

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Research task

Teachers can assign tasks and track results

1 2 3 4

Explain the connection between ‘rights’, ‘freedoms’ and ‘opportunities’. Explain the meaning of a ‘treaty’? What are the issues with adopting international laws into Australian laws? How is Australian sovereignty affected by ratifying an international agreement?

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18.6 Review questions

Source 18.6.3 On 9 December 2024, Australia signed the Nauru–Australia Treaty, with the promise to supply

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18.7

What is the legal system in Australia?

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Learning intention The previous lesson looked at the issues related to the application of international legal obligations into Australian law. In this lesson, you will learn about the Australian legal system.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

Justice snapshot

1 In pairs, discuss a recent example or news story about how Australia’s legal system operates (for example, a case where legal aid made a difference). 2 Write one key point from your discussion on a sticky note. 3 Place your sticky note on a board or piece of paper labelled ‘justice in Australia’, then a few volunteers share their points with the class.

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Source 18.7.1 Australia has a hierarchical court system, where different disputes are held in different courts depending on the matter and severity of the dispute. The lowest level is the local court, called the Magistrates Court in Victoria, and the highest level is the High Court of Australia.

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Australia’s legal system is well-established and based on common law. It provides all with access to legal action and protects

human rights. It is administered efficiently and fairly with independent judges.

Legal framework The Constitution of Australia sets out the legal powers of the Federal and State governments. There are Federal and State courts, each with its own jurisdiction. The Constitution specifies the High Court of Australia as the top court and last court

of appeal. It hears disputes between Federal and State laws. Common law, which is law determined by judges’ decisions in the past, is the basis of the legal system.

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High Court of Australia the highest court in Australia and the last court of appeal common law laws made by judges using similar cases as precedents over the years legal representation a trained lawyer approved to represent a citizen in a court case

public defender a trained lawyer who is appointed by the court to represent a citizen where there is no legal representative legal aid provision of a lawyer for people who cannot afford one

justice the fair treatment of people civil law laws involving disputes between citizens, such as fraud

mediation an attempt to settle a dispute out of court with the help of a mediator

statutory law laws made by parliaments

Bill of Rights a document explaining the rights of individuals in society

Access

Everyone is equal before the law. Everyone is entitled to legal representation in criminal cases. If you do not have legal representation, then there are public defenders and legal aid to help you. Access to justice is a right for all. But this does not mean all have the freedom

to exercise that right. Legal costs may prevent this access in practice. If a person cannot afford legal representation, then legal aid is available. This can be free in some cases of civil law and family law. But legal costs can be high due to lengthy times taken. Mediation is sometimes used to reduce these costs.

System efficiency

Australia’s legal system is mostly efficient. There are delays and case backlogs. Mediation is encouraged to make the system more efficient by

reducing the time of trials. Court reforms such as electronic filing have been introduced to streamline processes and improve system efficiency.

Human rights protection

The human rights of Australians are protected by common law and statutory laws, although there is no bill of rights. They are also protected by international treaties put into law, such as the Racial Discrimination Act 1975. This is especially

important for Australians as the nation is highly multicultural. Indigenous rights are somewhat protected. But there is still a high proportion of Indigenous people in jail.

Independent judges

Australia has an independent and impartial justice system. This is partly due to the powers of the High Court in reviewing the

constitutionality of laws and government actions. This is also due to judges being appointed on merit.

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Source 18.7.2 The most recent addition to the team of Australian High Court Justices was Robert Beech-Jones, who was appointed on 6 November 2023.

Concepts and skills builder 18.7 Investigating access to justice in Australia

Consider the following stimulus and apply the QUED method of investigation by answering the questions that follow. Australia’s legal system is founded on the principle of equal justice for all, yet concerns remain about the affordability of legal processes. Sizeable court fees, lawyer charges and other associated costs can create barriers for individuals seeking legal recourse, particularly those who are economically disadvantaged. This situation raises questions about whether the system truly provides equal access to justice and how systemic injustices, such as wrongful imprisonment due to lack of resources, can be addressed.

What questions should be asked to assess whether Australia’s legal system provides equal justice for all, considering the impact of legal costs and barriers to access?

Search online for recent estimates of legal costs – such as court fees and lawyer charges – and identify who typically bears these expenses in Australia.

Evaluate how injustices in the legal system can be corrected by proposing two concrete E measures (e.g. increasing funding for legal aid or streamlining court procedures) that could reduce barriers to accessing justice.

Decide what justice would look like in the case of an innocent person imprisoned for years, and D propose how the legal system might be reformed to better protect individual rights and prevent such miscarriages of justice.

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Source 18.7.3 In Australia, people who cannot afford legal counsel can receive free (pro bono) legal services through various community legal centres, such as Legal Aid.

Lesson 18.7 review

Go online to access the interactive lesson review and more!

Online quiz

Review questions

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Research task

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18.7 Review questions

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1 2 3 4

Describe the legal system in Australia. Distinguish between criminal law and civil law. Distinguish between common law and statutory law. Is Australia’s legal system just?

Source 18.7.4 Australian journalist and WikiLeaks founder Julian Assange enters a plea deal after pleading guilty

in a US court to publishing classified information.

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18.8

What is the legal system in India?

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Learning intention The previous lesson looked at the Australian legal system. In this lesson, you will learn about the extent to which India’s legal system is different to Australia’s.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

1 2 3 4 5

On a blank sheet of paper, write down one question you have about how legal systems work in general. In pairs, share your question and discuss what you think might be different in a country like India. Then, walk over to a designated area in the classroom where you can post your question on a ‘curiosity board’. Once everyone has posted their questions, form small groups and review the questions together. Each group selects one question they find most interesting to share with the whole class.

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Legal curiosity walk

Source 18.8.1 What is similar, and what is different, between Australia’s and India’s legal systems?

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The Indian legal system is similar to Australia’s. It relies on common law, but has specified fundamental rights. It guarantees access, but legal aid

is not efficient due to long backlogs in hearing cases. Further, the judiciary may not be as independent as in Australia.

Legal framework The Constitution of India provides the framework for the legal system in India. The highest court is the Supreme Court of India, which interprets the Constitution and protects the rights of citizens. Like Australia, the Supreme Court resolves disputes between federal and state laws. Unlike Australia, India has extensive human rights listed in the Constitution.

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Constitution of India the document that guides law‑making in India

The Supreme Court over the years has expanded fundamental rights, and checked the powers of the government and parliament.

As in the Australia, the basis of law is common law – a system inherited in both countries from the British. Also, as in Australia, the Indian system is federal with both central and state systems and laws.

…

Supreme Court of India the highest court in India, which makes judgments about constitutional issues and disputes between people and organisations

Source 18.8.2 A typist works on the footpath outside

City Civil Court, Mumbai, preparing legal documents for a client. India has a hierarchical justice system like Australia with the Supreme Court at the highest level. There are Metropolitan courts at a state level and District and Session courts on a district level.

Access

The Constitution of India guarantees all the right to legal representation, especially in criminal cases. They also have access to legal aid as in Australia. There is free

legal aid for the poor, but it is not effective due to lack of funding and a shortage of trained legal professionals.

System efficiency

The system in India is not as efficient as in Australia. There is a sizeable backlog of millions of cases leading to lengthy delays,

sometimes for decades. Fast-track courts have been introduced, but little relief to the backlog has occurred.

Human rights protection

Adivasis the indigenous people of India, the original inhabitants of India

The Constitution of India provides protection for many rights such as freedom of speech, the right to life, equality before the law, gender equality, minority rights and freedom of religion.

The indigenous people (Adivasis) have problems with land rights, discrimination and inequality. The legal system is seeking to protect their rights, but displacement due to development and land acquisition are significant issues.

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Independent judges The appointment of judges has been questionable and there are concerns about political interference. The legal system is not as independent as Australia’s system.

… Source 18.8.3 Justice Sanjiv

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Khanna is the current Chief Justice of the Supreme Court of India. He was elevated to the position on 18 January 2019.

Concepts and skills builder 18.8 Investigating justice in India and Australia

Consider the following stimulus and apply the QUED method of investigation by answering the questions that follow.

Both India and Australia operate under legal systems derived from British common law, yet significant differences exist in how justice is delivered. In India, long court backlogs, procedural delays and limited access to legal aid often hinder the timely delivery of justice. For example, some high-profile criminal cases in India have taken many years to reach verdicts, sparking public debate about judicial efficiency. By contrast, Australia’s legal system has benefited from recent reforms – such as the adoption of electronic filing and streamlined court procedures – which have contributed to quicker case resolutions and more accessible legal support. These differences have become more apparent in discussions about legal reform and access to justice across the two countries.

Q What are the key challenges that hinder India’s legal system from providing justice for all?

Search online for two documented cases that highlight inefficiencies or barriers in India’s legal system.

Evaluate the factors affecting the delivery of justice in India compared with in Australia, focusing on efficiency, accessibility and judicial independence.

Decide whether the Australian legal system is more effective in providing justice for all than India’s, and explain your reasoning.

Civics and Citizenship concepts and skills: communicating, evaluating democratic institutions and systems, investigating contemporary civics and citizenship issues, participating in civic processes

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Source 18.8.4 In India, citizens who cannot afford legal fees receive free legal aid by the National Legal Services Authority (NALSA).

Lesson 18.8 review

Go online to access the interactive lesson review and more!

Online quiz

Review questions

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Research task

Teachers can assign tasks and track results

18.8 Review questions 1 2 3 4

Explain the meaning of fundamental rights. Explain the meaning of an efficient legal system. What are the main differences between the Indian and Australian legal systems? What are the main similarities between the Indian and Australian legal systems?

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Source 18.8.5 Indians celebrate Republic Day on 26 January (coincidentally the same day as Australia Day). On this day in 1950, India adopted the Indian Constitution and transitioned into a republic.

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18.9

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Research task: What are the implications of the AUKUS agreement for Australia?

This research task is designed to be completed over multiple weeks. It should not be left until the end. By completing this research task, you will have the opportunity to consolidate the ideas learned through this chapter, and demonstrate your understanding of Civics and Citizenship concepts and skills.

Investigation: what are the implications of the AUKUS agreement for Australia?

…

Source 18.9.1 The defence ministers of Australia, UK and USA gather to discuss the security of their countries and the broader Indo-Pacific region.

AUKUS is a trilateral security partnership between Australia, the United Kingdom and the United States. Announced on 15 September 2021, the agreement aims to promote a free and open Indo-Pacific that is secure and stable. It involves two main pillars. • Pillar 1 focuses on Australia acquiring nuclear-powered attack submarines and providing rotational basing for US and UK nuclear-powered submarines in Australia. • Pillar 2 entails the collaborative development of advanced capabilities in undersea technologies, quantum technologies, artificial intelligence and autonomy, advanced cyber, hypersonic and counter-hypersonic capabilities along with electronic warfare, innovation and information sharing.

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Investigate and evaluate the research question and develop your response using the following questions to guide you. You should follow the QUED method of investigation, as described in the box at the end of Lesson 18.1. You will also prepare a report of your investigation. QUED investigation Q

What are the implications of the AUKUS agreement for Australia in terms of national security, economic impact and regional influence?

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Undertake research to collect data and information on the AUKUS Agreement. In your research, identify: U a the primary security concerns expressed by Australia, the UK and the US b the benefits Australia gains from the agreement c the costs or trade-offs associated with the partnership.

Evaluate how effectively the AUKUS Agreement addresses Australia’s national E security concerns and enhances regional stability. In your evaluation, consider both the immediate and long-term effects on the security of the Indian and Pacific Oceans.

Based on your investigation, decide whether Australia’s decision to sign the AUKUS Agreement is justified. Support your decision by discussing one or more D policy recommendations that could further strengthen Australia’s position in the Indo-Pacific region.

The report

Your teacher will tell you how you should present your report (written, oral, multimedia). However, your report should include:

• An introduction defining key terms (such as ‘trilateral security partnership’ and ‘nuclear-powered attack submarine’)

• A summary of the data and information collected

• An analysis comparing the benefits and drawbacks of the agreement

• A conclusion with your final decision and any recommended policy changes.

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18.10

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End of investigation review: what are the political and legal systems of Australia and India? Access the Interactive Textbook for a range of digital tools to help you review this topic, including: • Downloadable cummary • Scorcher timed competitive quiz.

Brain dump

What have you learned about the political and legal systems of Australia and India? Copy and complete the table to explain your understanding. Aim for two points per topic.

National sovereignty and policy autonomy International agreements and treaties Diplomatic relations and negotiation

Regional cooperation and multilateral forums Trade partnerships and economic integration Defence strategies and alliances Global security alliances

Political and legal institutions

Differences between Australia and India

Similarities between Australia and India

Making thinking visible

Apply the 3-2-1 routine to summarise your findings from this investigation. 1

Recall three main points or ideas from the topic.

Identify two interesting or surprising facts related to the topic.

State one question that you still have or something you want to learn more about.

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Practice questions How do regional forums such as ASEAN and AUKUS enhance Australia’s global security and influence?

In what ways do international agreements shape Australia’s domestic policies on human rights and environmental protection?

How does Australia balance its national sovereignty with commitments made through multilateral defence and trade partnerships?

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Compare the benefits and challenges of Australia’s involvement in regional economic integration versus traditional bilateral trade agreements.

What role does diplomatic engagement play in sustaining Australia’s position in the Asia–Pacific region?

How does participation in global security alliances impact Australia’s strategic and economic decision-making?

Response to the chapter inquiry question: What are the political and legal systems of Australia and India?

Write a paragraph in response to the inquiry question. Include the following key terms: • diplomatic relations

• political system of Australia and India

• trade partnerships

• international agreements

• multilateralism

• regional cooperation

• defence alliances

• global security

• national sovereignty.

…

• legal system of Australia and India

Figure 18.10.1 Australia’s Foreign Minister Penny Wong pictured at the 2025 ASEAN summit in Kuala Lumpur,

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CHAPTER 19

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What does it mean to be a citizen in a liberal democracy? LESSON TITLE 19.1

Setting the scene: what is the role of a global citizen?

19.2

How do individuals contribute to civic life in Australia?

19.3

What do groups contribute to civic life in Australia?

19.4

What are some challenges to a resilient democracy?

19.5

How is a liberal democracy sustained?

19.6

What keeps a society cohesive?

19.7

How does the media influence individual identity?

19.8

How does the media influence attitudes to diversity?

19.9

Research task: was National Service a fair and effective measure for addressing Australia’s defence needs during the Vietnam War?

19.10

End of investigation review: what does it mean to be a citizen in a liberal democracy?

This digital chapter can be accessed via Cambridge GO

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