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The included Interactive Textbook provides a host of additional engaging content including Interactive geography skills videos, source-based history videos, real-world case-study videos, andTextbook a range Included of digital activities that bring the study of the humanities to life.

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The included Interactive Textbook provides a host of additional engaging content including Interactive geography skills videos, source-based history Textbook videos, real-world case-study videos, and a range Included of digital activities that bring the study of the humanities to life. An Online Teaching Suite is also available for

Interactive Textbook Included www.cambridge.edu.au/GO www.cambridge.edu.au/education

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providing additional lesson planning, Investigating Humanities for the Victorian Curriculum provides a flexible, comprehensive andteachers, time-saving teaching and assessment resources, practical teaching and learning solution to cover the new curriculum, with lesson planning built explicitly into the tools for culturally responsive and inclusive resource. The highly visual and engaging resources draw on relevant Victorian sources, case studies teaching, downloadable resources and a powerful and examples, and include integrated skills activities and many opportunities for differentiated learning. Contributing authors, Sharon Davis (Bardi and Kija) and Julie Bover (non-Indigenous), have Learning developedManagement System.

Cooke, Carroll, Coburn, Cizzio Burgmann, Hankin, Hung, Lai Mangioni, Newton-Walters

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An Online Teaching Suite is also available for teachers, providing additional lesson planning, Investigating Humanities for the Victorian Curriculum provides a flexible, comprehensive and time-saving teaching and assessment resources, practical teaching and learning solution to cover the new curriculum, with lesson planning built explicitly into the tools for culturally responsive and inclusive resource. The highly visual and engaging resources draw on relevant Victorian sources, case studies teaching, downloadable resources and a powerful and examples, and include integrated skills activities and many opportunities for differentiated learning. Learning Management System. Contributing authors, Sharon Davis (Bardi and Kija) and Julie Bover (non-Indigenous), have developed integrated content across all subject areas to engage every student in learning about Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander histories and cultures.

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The included Interactive Textbook provides a host of additional engaging content including geography skills videos, source-based history videos, real-world case-study videos, and a range of digital activities that bring the study of the humanities to life.

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integrated content across all subject areas to engage every student in learning about Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander histories and cultures.

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The included Interactive Textbook provides a host of additional engaging content including Interactive geography skills videos, source-based history videos, real-world case-study videos, and aTextbook range Included of digital activities that bring the study of the humanities to life.

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Clarke, Bover, Bright, Bruseker Dunwoodie, Elliot, Finlay Munton, Powell, Preval-Mann Randev, Ritz

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Investigating Humanities for the Victorian Curriculum provides a flexible, comprehensive and time-saving SECOND teaching and learning solution to cover the new curriculum, with lesson planning built explicitly into the EDITION resource. The highly visual and engaging resources draw on relevant Victorian sources, case studies and examples, and include integrated skills activities and many opportunities for differentiated learning. Contributing authors, Sharon Davis (Bardi and Kija) and Julie Bover (non-Indigenous), have developed integrated content across all subject areas to engage every student in learning about Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander histories and cultures.

Visual and written primary and secondary sources for every topic provide truly engaging and wide-ranging connections to history. Historical concepts and skills are taught in context to build deep understanding and help you develop and apply your skills more meaningfully. Our evidence-based approach to building writing skills, overseen by NSW-based literacy experts, is underpinned by key high-impact writing strategies in every chapter.

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Chapter

The Ottoman Empire (c. 1299–c. 1683 CE)

SA D I M GI PL T A E L C O H N AP LY TE R S

Key questions

• Who were the Ottomans and where did they come from? • How big was the Ottoman Empire at its height? • Why were the Ottomans so successful? • Who were the key figures that made the rise of the Ottoman Empire possible? • What was life like for subject peoples in the Ottoman Empire? • What is the legacy of the Ottoman Empire?

Lessons

15.1

Setting the scene

15.2

The decline of the Byzantine Empire and the founding of the Ottoman Empire

15.3

Geographical context of the Ottoman Empire under Suleiman the Magnificent

15.4

The role and nature of warfare during the Ottoman expansion

15.5

Key victories during the Ottoman expansion

15.6

The role of Suleiman the Magnificent in expanding and maintaining the empire

15.7

The relationship with subject peoples

15.8

Perspectives on the experiences of subject peoples

15.9

Ottoman art and architecture

15.10 Site study: Hagia Sophia

15.11 The legacy of the Ottoman Empire

15.12 Chapter review and historical inquiry

Teachers access the Online Teaching Suite to: • plan, sequence and assign directed tasks for students and classes using Task Manager • view student activity reports • provide feedback to students • download a printable “Writing focus” workbook for this chapter • download a sample case study for this chapter.

Digital-only chapters • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Clarke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78788-8 • (03) 8671 1400

Chapter 15 The Ottoman Empire (c. 1299–c. 1683 CE)

15.1

Setting the scene

Learning intention

Success criteria

In this lesson, you will learn about key events that took place in the Ottoman Empire.

❏ I can outline key events that took place in the Ottoman Empire.

SA D I M GI PL T A E L C O H N AP LY TE R S

The Ottoman Empire began in the fourteenth century CE when the Turkish leader Osman I began a process of expansion and conquest. This was continued by his successors and, by 1683, the Ottoman Empire extended from Iran in the east to Hungary in the west. It also included parts of Africa and the Persian Gulf. The Ottoman Empire oversaw the spread of the Islamic faith into the West, and the introduction of new styles of law, arts and architecture.

1453

Fall of Constantinople

1396

Battle of Nicopolis

1354

Ottomans capture Gallipoli

1258 CE

Birth of Osman I

1389

Battle of Kosovo 1448

Second Battle of Kosovo Digital-only chapters • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Clarke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78788-8 • (03) 8671 1400

15.1 Setting the scene

1529

First Siege of Vienna 1520–66

SA D I M GI PL T A E L C O H N AP LY TE R S

Reign of Suleiman the Magnificent

1683

The Siege and Battle of Vienna

1522

Second Siege of Rhodes

1480

First Siege of Rhodes

Writing focus 15.1 Question words

Think, puzzle, explore

Working as a class or in small groups, study the image in Source 15.1.1 and brainstorm ideas for the following three areas: What do you think you know about the Byzantine Empire?

What questions can you puzzle to understand the fall of Constantinople?

Explore why this victory was significant for the Ottomans.

Source 15.1.1 The walls of Constantinople, which had protected the city for 1123 years since its founding by Constantine, but could not protect the city from the Ottoman attack in 1453 ➜

Digital-only chapters • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Clarke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78788-8 • (03) 8671 1400

Chapter 15 The Ottoman Empire (c. 1299–c. 1683 CE)

15.2

The decline of the Byzantine Empire and the founding of the Ottoman Empire

Learning intention

Success criteria

In this lesson, you will learn about key events that led to the founding of the Ottoman Empire.

❏ I can outline key events that led to the start of the Ottoman Empire.

SA D I M GI PL T A E L C O H N AP LY TE R S

Starter activity Think, pair, share

Why do empires rise? 1.

Think about reasons why a new empire might become powerful or what problems might make an existing empire weaker.

Pair with a classmate, compare your thoughts and choose the strongest argument for both features (e.g. why a new empire might become powerful; why an existing empire might become weak).

Create a clear topic sentence that comprises both ideas to share with the class. It should start with: “Empires rise when….”

Ottoman Empire a powerful Muslim empire ruled by Turkish sultans that began in the late 1200s and later controlled large parts of south-eastern Europe, western Asia and North Africa, including Constantinople after 1453

Byzantine Empire the eastern part of the Roman Empire that continued after the fall of Rome in 476 CE, with its capital at Constantinople

Seljuk Empire name given to the empire formed by the Seljuk Turks from Central Asia that lasted from the eleventh to thirteenth centuries and was highly influential culturally and religiously and paved the way for the Ottoman Empire

The Ottoman Empire began at the end of the thirteenth century, during a critical juncture of history that provided the opportunity for a new state to emerge from humble beginnings to rise and become one of the great empires of the medieval world. This was made possible by the decline of the Byzantine Empire, the rise and fall of the Seljuk Empire, and the impact of the Mongol Empire, which created a powerful combination of conditions that an ambitious ruler could take advantage of.

The Byzantine Empire

The Byzantine Empire (eastern half of Roman Empire) had been the dominant power in the eastern Mediterranean for centuries since the founding of Constantinople in 331 CE. The empire had reduced in size with the loss of Egypt and Jerusalem to the Arabs during the seventh century. However, the empire would last until 1453, when Constantinople was taken by the Ottomans. At the start of the thirteenth century, when the Ottoman Empire began to rise, the Byzantines were still a potent force in the region, as they controlled Anatolia, Greece and Bulgaria.

War against Persia

The Byzantine Empire had engaged in a draining and costly war against Sassanid Persia from 602–28, which ended with victory for the Byzantines. During this long conflict, the Byzantine Empire had lost substantial amounts of territory in Egypt, Armenia, Syria and North Africa, and its control of these territories was re-established only with the 628 victory. This meant that Byzantine control had weakened and the loyalty of the people within these territories was yet to be restored. However, with the end of the war, peace was now assured and the empire could look forward to decades Digital-only chapters • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Clarke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78788-8 • (03) 8671 1400 of quiet and prosperity to rebuild its losses in soldiers, materiel and money.

15.2 The decline of the Byzantine Empire and the founding of the Ottoman Empire

Spread of Islam This was not to be a time of peace for the Byzantine Empire. In 632 Muhammad died and the unified Arab tribes exploded out of the Arabian Peninsula, intent on spreading Islam through conquest. The Byzantine Empire, being the first power the forces of Islam encountered, was already weakened and not yet recovered from its victory over the Sassanid Empire. In 634, Damascus fell to the Islam army and in 636 the Byzantines suffered a decisive defeat at the Battle of Yarmuk, which effectively ended Byzantine control over Syria. In 637, Jerusalem was captured and Antioch fell in 638.

Mongol Empire name given to the continentspanning empire of the Mongols who expanded from Mongolia to form the world’s largest contiguous land empire from the thirteenth to eighteenth centuries

SA D I M GI PL T A E L C O H N AP LY TE R S

Egypt was invaded in 640 and conquered in 642, representing a substantial loss for the empire, which had relied upon Egypt to supply its cities with grain to feed the people. Byzantine Africa was invaded in 647 and by 698 it also had been conquered by the forces of Islam. This meant the Byzantine Empire had lost most of its overseas territories, with the exception of parts of Italy, Bulgaria and Greece. This substantially weakened the empire, leading to losses in soldiers, money and resources.

After 700, Islamic expansion slowed as they consolidated and organised control over their new territories, and the Byzantine Empire and Arab forces engaged in a grinding war in Anatolia that would drag on intermittently for the next three centuries.

The spread of Islam had a substantial impact on the Ottoman Empire by weakening the Byzantine Empire. By the time of the Battle of Manzikert in 1071, the Byzantines had been subjected to 300 years of near-continuous warfare with the forces of Islam, which left them weakened in terms of resources, soldiers and money, and they were unable to mount an effective resistance. This enabled first the Seljuks and the Mongols, and later the Ottomans, to expand their territories against the empire, already weakened by centuries of warfare.

KEY Territorial extent of the Arab conquests: Expansion under Muhammad, 622‒32 Expansion during the Rashidun Caliphate, 632‒61 Expansion during the Umayyad Caliphate, 661‒750

➜

Source 15.2.1 Map of Arab conquests in the seventh to eighth centuries Digital-only chapters • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Clarke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78788-8 • (03) 8671 1400

Chapter 15 The Ottoman Empire (c. 1299–c. 1683 CE)

The Seljuk Empire

SA D I M GI PL T A E L C O H N AP LY TE R S

sultan name given to the ruler of an Islamic civilisation during the medieval period, equivalent to a king or an emperor

The Seljuks, a semi-nomadic, Turkic people, migrated from Central Asia in the eleventh century and invaded south-west Asia to form an empire (1037–1308) that included Mesopotamia, Palestine, Syria and large parts of Iran. Led by Sultan Alp-Arslan, the Seljuk Empire invaded Anatolia as part of its western expansion. At the battle of Manzikert in 1071, the Byzantine Empire was dealt a blow that it would never fully recover from. The decisive defeat of its army at this battle meant that the Byzantines could only watch on as their territory in Anatolia was conquered piece by piece. The loss of a large portion of Anatolia stripped the Byzantines of vital resources, land and manpower that they could not replenish elsewhere.

vassal a person who holds land or a position granted by a superior, to whom they owe allegiance

Writing focus 15.2 Appositives

The Seljuk Empire’s power was concentrated in Persia (Iran) and internal divisions within the empire drew the attention of the sultan away from Anatolia. The governors of the new territories within Anatolia were granted large amounts of independence and essentially acted as vassals to the central authority of the sultan; in his absence, they were allowed to govern as they wanted with minimal oversight as long as they remained loyal.

➜

Source 15.2.2 View of the main entrance of the caravanserai Evdir Han, built from 1214–18 under the Seljuk sultan Alaettin Keykavus, to give overnight accommodation to trade caravans

beylik name given to a territory or principality within the Ottoman and Seljuk Empires

bey name given to a ruler of a territory within the Ottoman and Seljuk Empires; equivalent to a prince in European titles

The Mongol Empire

The Mongols invaded Persia in 1230, further weakening the power of the Seljuk Empire. In 1243, at the Battle of Kose Dag, the Seljuk Empire was defeated and lost half of its territory in Anatolia to the Mongols. This loss of power and influence meant that the remaining territories (beyliks) became independent principalities controlled by a bey (equivalent to a prince in European terms). Beys were free to pursue their own agenda in the absence of control from the Seljuks. Internal political problems drew the attention of the Mongol Khans back towards their homelands and Anatolia was left alone.

Digital-only chapters • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Clarke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78788-8 • (03) 8671 1400

➜

SA D I M GI PL T A E L C O H N AP LY TE R S

15.2 The decline of the Byzantine Empire and the founding of the Ottoman Empire

Source 15.2.3 The Battle of Kose Dag. From Fleur des histoires d’orient (1307) by Armenian historiographer Hayton of Corycus.

The Ottoman Empire

In approximately 1293, Osman rose to the position of bey over a small principality in north-western Anatolia. Sensing the opportunity presented by the absence of the Seljuk and Mongol Empires and the weakened state of the Byzantines, he undertook a series of military campaigns and gradually expanded his territory into western Anatolia, and into south-eastern Europe under his successors. The Byzantines were hampered by political turmoil and civil wars and were unable to regain their territory in Anatolia and stop this new threat from the Ottomans. The Ottoman Empire took its name from Osman I. Using the principles set by Osman, the empire developed a strong dynastic system of rule with an expansionist focus. This aggressive approach helped the Ottomans to develop from a small principality in Anatolia to a continent-spanning empire that included Egypt in the south, Bulgaria and parts of Hungary in the west, most of the old Persian empire in the east, and parts of Ukraine and the Crimea in the north.

Review 15.2

Online quiz

Knowledge and understanding

Thinking and researching

Students can access sample responses and results online

dynasty a succession of rulers from the same family

expansionist pushing an agenda of expansion; wanting to take more territory

Teachers can go online to assign questions, view results, reports and more!

Knowledge and understanding 1.

Identify the battle that caused the Byzantine Empire to be permanently weakened.

Define what is meant by an “expansionist civilisation”.

Explain how the Ottomans were able to expand.

Describe the role the Mongols played in the development of the Ottoman Empire.

Assess which factor contributed the most to the rise of the Ottoman Empire.

Thinking and researching 1.

Explain the role of Islam in the expansion of the Ottoman Empire.

Historical concepts: Cause and effect Historical skills: Comprehension – chronology, terms and concepts, Perspectives and interpretations Digital-only chapters • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Clarke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78788-8 • (03) 8671 1400

Chapter 15 The Ottoman Empire (c. 1299–c. 1683 CE)

Geographical context of the Ottoman Empire under Suleiman the Magnificent

15.3

Success criteria

In this lesson, you will learn about the extent of the Ottoman Empire under Suleiman the Magnificent, one of its most notable rulers.

❏ I can outline the different territories and advantages that the Ottoman Empire possessed.

SA D I M GI PL T A E L C O H N AP LY TE R S

Learning intention

Starter activity

See, think, wonder

The Ottoman expansion began in approximately 1299, when Osman I took control of a small territory in north-western Anatolia. By the time Suleiman the Magnificent came to power in 1520, it was already vast, and extended further during his reign. The Ottoman Empire under Suleiman was one of the largest empires of the medieval period. As Source 15.3.1 shows, it straddled three continents: Africa, Asia and Europe. 1.

What can you see in Source 15.3.1? (I see...)

Describe how you think the empire changed between 1300 and 1683. (I think...)

What does this make you wonder about the Ottoman Empire? (I wonder...) Kiev

EUROPE

NORTH ATLANTIC OCEAN

Budapest

Venice

Belgrade

Marseille

Baku

Athens

Tunis

Algiers

pia

Barcelona

Cas

Bucharest Black Sea Prizren Sofia Constantinople (Istanbul) Salonica

Rome

Alexandretta

Mediterranean Sea Tripoli

ASIA

Damascus

Alexandria

Baghdad

Jerusalem

Cairo

rsi a

AFRICA

Medina

Mecca

Red

Sea

KEY

Kassala

Expansion of the Ottoman Empire

Extent of the Ottoman Empire by the start of Suleiman’s reign Ottoman Empire expansion during Suleiman’s reign Acquisitions, 1566–1683

Zeila 0

1000 km

INDIAN OCEAN

➜

Source 15.3.1 The Ottoman Empire during the reign of Suleiman the Magnificent Digital-only chapters • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Clarke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78788-8 • (03) 8671 1400

15.3 Geographical context of the Ottoman Empire under Suleiman the Magnificent

Strategic advantages Land Ever since they had defeated the Byzantine Empire in 1453, the Ottomans recognised the strategic value of the city of Constantinople. It sat on the European side of the Bosporus Strait, yet was only 750 m from Anatolia across the strait. This enabled quick access by land to Europe in the west and Asia in the east, so the city was ideally situated for conquest. The city became the capital of the Ottoman Empire. It was renamed Istanbul, although outsiders continued to call it Constantinople.

SA D I M GI PL T A E L C O H N AP LY TE R S

Sea

Istanbul also had access to two of the most important seas in the world. To the south lay the Aegean Sea, which gave access to the Greek islands, and further south lay the Mediterranean Sea, which gave access to Europe, the Middle East and Africa and also opened to the Atlantic Ocean.

To the north of Istanbul lay the Black Sea, which allowed for trade access to Russia and Central Asia via the Dnieper River, the fourth-longest river in Europe. The Black Sea also connected to the Danube River, the second-largest river in Europe, which gave it direct access to Bulgaria, Hungary, Austria, Germany, Romania and Ukraine. This was an important trade and transportation system, and also acted as a natural barrier to defend against any enemies from northern Europe.

Writing focus 15.3 Conjunctions

Territory

The Ottoman Empire reached its greatest extent under Suleiman the Magnificent. Anatolia was the heartland of the empire and provided resources, soldiers and land to support Suleiman’s military campaigns of conquest. It was close to Armenia, Mesopotamia and Persia to the east and Jerusalem and Syria to the south-east. This enabled the Ottomans to control the Middle East and the lucrative trade flowing through the area, as this was the western terminus of the Silk Road, one of the most important trade routes in history. It also provided quick access to Persia and the trade of the Euphrates River. The Euphrates gave the Ottoman Empire access to the Persian Gulf and control of the sea trade from India and China. To the south, Suleiman ensured control was maintained over Egypt and its vast natural resources. Additionally, this allowed the Ottomans to control the lucrative Red Sea trade routes with the east and Africa.

Silk Road the major trade route that stretched from China to the Mediterranean world

➜

Source 15.3.2 The Euphrates River originates in Türkiye and joins with the Tigris River before emptying into the Persian Gulf.

Digital-only chapters • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Clarke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78788-8 • (03) 8671 1400

Chapter 15 The Ottoman Empire (c. 1299–c. 1683 CE)

In North Africa, Suleiman added Libya to the empire’s possessions, and then added the island of Rhodes in 1522. This achieved two goals: it solidified control over the eastern Mediterranean and removed one of the last Crusading orders of knights, the Knights Hospitaller, who were threatening Ottoman control over the holy land. A number of Greek islands were also captured during his reign, solidifying his control over the Aegean Sea.

SA D I M GI PL T A E L C O H N AP LY TE R S

In the west, Suleiman continued the expansions of his predecessors into Europe, adding large parts of Hungary and Moldavia to the empire and threatening the Austrian capital, Vienna. Crusading order an order of knights defined by its devotion to Christianity and the protection of pilgrims to Jerusalem and the crusading kingdoms that developed in the region after the First Crusade in the eleventh century

The Ottoman conquests focused on geostrategic locations that provided military or trade advantages. They took advantage of their location to control important trade routes such as the Silk Road, Red Sea and Persian Gulf, and controlled parts of some of the largest rivers and their trade including the Danube, Dnieper, Euphrates and Nile. They also maintained strong control over the eastern Mediterranean, Aegean, Red and Black Seas, and it was this control under Suleiman that pushed the Ottoman Empire to its greatest extent.

geostrategic offering a military or trade advantage because of where they were located

Activity 15.3.1 1.

Outline what advantages the conquest of Libya and Rhodes provided to the Ottoman Empire.

Describe the military benefit that adding parts of Hungary and Moldavia provided for Suleiman.

Explain the trade benefit that the Ottoman Empire gained from control of Egypt.

Historical concepts: Cause and effect, Significance Historical skills: Comprehension – chronology, terms and concepts

Review 15.3 Online quiz

Knowledge and understanding

Thinking and researching

Students can access sample responses and results online

Teachers can go online to assign questions, view results, reports and more!

Knowledge and understanding 1.

Identify five territories the Ottomans conquered.

Define what is meant by a “geostrategic location”.

Explain how the Ottomans’ location in Istanbul helped their goals of expansion.

Describe one land and one sea advantage the Ottomans possessed.

Thinking and researching 1.

Based on what you have learned in this lesson, research the Silk Road and explain why this was advantageous for the Ottomans to control.

Historical concepts: Cause and effect, Significance Historical skills: Comprehension – chronology, terms and concepts, Research Digital-only chapters • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Clarke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78788-8 • (03) 8671 1400

15.4 The role and nature of warfare during the Ottoman expansion

15.4

The role and nature of warfare during the Ottoman expansion Success criteria

In this lesson, you will learn what warfare was like during the Ottoman expansion in the years 1299 to 1481.

❏ I can outline the nature of Ottoman warfare. ❏ I can identify the military units the Ottomans used. ❏ I can outline how the role of warfare in the Ottoman state was instrumental to the ruling class.

SA D I M GI PL T A E L C O H N AP LY TE R S

Learning intention

Starter activity 1.

List all of the features you can see in the image in Source 15.4.1 that would allow you to identify which side is the Ottoman force.

Make a note of all the differences in weaponry and armour.

➜

Source 15.4.1 Sixteenth-century depiction of the Battle of Nicopolis in 1396, in which the Ottoman forces took the Bulgarian city of Nicopolis

Digital-only chapters • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Clarke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78788-8 • (03) 8671 1400

Chapter 15 The Ottoman Empire (c. 1299–c. 1683 CE)

SA D I M GI PL T A E L C O H N AP LY TE R S

The Ottomans were made up of people from multiple ethnicities, religions, civilisations and functions. Their expansion began in approximately 1299, when Osman I took control of a small territory in north-western Anatolia. At the time, this territory was made up of two main groups. One was the Christians from the Byzantine Empire who were Greek in culture and custom. The other was Seljuk Turkish warriors and their descendants, who were largely Muslim and had participated in the original invasion of Byzantine territory and settled in these territories. The Seljuk Turks were not a single ethnicity, but were made up of multiple nomadic tribes from Central Asia. The ancestors of Osman, the Kayi tribe, had been a part of this multi-ethnic force that established itself as the Seljuk Empire. In addition to these elements, with the collapse of the Seljuk Empire in 1293, wandering nomads and unemployed people were seeking opportunities to fulfil their religious duty to expand the territory of Islam. Many were drawn to the small Ottoman state and would form part of the religious warriors called Ghazi.

Ghazi a warrior of Islamic faith

Osman was able to meld these different groups together and emerge as the bey of what was the starting point of the Ottoman Empire. The Ottomans therefore were not a singular ethnicity, but an amalgamation of peoples. Osman I, in this early period, should be seen primarily as a military leader whom the other groups followed as long as he led them to victory and financial rewards.

Warfare during Ottoman expansion

Ottoman expansion was enhanced by a system that used the strengths of the various groups in Ottoman society, as well as other people the Ottomans encountered. A key feature was that the Ottomans were able to fund their early expansion through cheap soldiers. They used existing administrative systems to absorb the cost of military campaigns, and rewarded supporters with land grants that not only provided soldiers but paid for their expenses. This meant the Ottoman state did not become overburdened with military expenses, which is a key restriction in all civilisations. This allowed the Ottomans to expand rapidly in their first century of power and maintain a powerful military throughout their existence.

janissaries elite infantry soldiers comprised of Christian enslaved persons and children forcibly converted to Islam who formed into a powerful social class sipahi elite heavy cavalry soldiers of Turkish origin who, over time, formed into a powerful social class

Organisation of the Ottoman military

The Ottomans were successful in establishing an empire as their military was comprised of multiple unit types that supported each other in battle. They utilised a force of light cavalry (the Ghazi) to harass the enemy and inflict casualties with bow and arrow, and could then fight in a melee with swords, shields, axes and maces. The Ottomans used infantry (janissaries) in a minor role to pin the enemy in place and control the centre of the battlefield, while their heavy cavalry (sipahi) would flank the enemy and use a combination of arrows and melee weapons to finish them off. The Ottomans were noted for their early use of cannons and firearms, which provided them an advantage on the battlefield and in sieges.

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15.4 The role and nature of warfare during the Ottoman expansion

Ghazis Ghazi refers to any warrior of Islamic faith who fights against non-Muslim enemies. Ghazis were employed as raiders whose job it was to engage with the enemy and harass them before the main Ottoman army was committed to the battle. When not engaged in battle, they would harass enemy towns and villages and capture any objects of value before retreating. Ghazi warriors sought opportunities to carry out their holy duty and volunteered to fight for the Ottomans and other Islamic powers. This provided the Ottomans with a group of motivated warriors who typically were paid with the wealth they could raid from the enemy.

SA D I M GI PL T A E L C O H N AP LY TE R S

Writing focus 15.4 Developing sentences

The downside of the Ghazis was that, in times of peace, they were happy to raid villages and towns from their own side in order to gain the wealth they needed to survive. A wise ruler therefore ensured there was always a military campaign to utilise the Ghazis’ enthusiasm for war.

Sipahi

The sipahi were a professional, full-time body of soldiers who fought as heavy cavalry for the Ottoman Empire. The concept was borrowed from the Seljuk Empire. Sipahi were led by the Turkish equivalent of nobles, and supported by land grants called the timar system. Under the timar system, men of the sipahi were given land by the sultan, but they were expected to provide military service when the sultan requested it, as well as to provide and equip a number of soldiers for service. This meant that, after the initial land grant, the sultan did not need to pay these people for military service. To ensure compliance, penalties were applied for land not properly utilised, and if a sipahi did not provide military service then the land could be given to another person. This system provided the motivation for heavy cavalry soldiers to join the sultan’s campaigns and enrich themselves through military service. Over time, they became an elite social class that could pressure the sultan for further campaigns and their support could be a factor in success on the battlefield.

noble a member of an important family with a social status just below the king or emperor timar a form of feudalism in which the holder provides soldiers and military service in exchange for the tax revenues of the land they are granted

infantry soldiers who fight on foot

Janissaries

devshirme a system of recruiting children from the Balkans by forcibly converting them to Islam and serving the sultan in military and administrative positions

Source 15.4.2 Sipahi cavalry serving in the Ottoman military ➜

Janissaries were a professional, full-time body of soldiers who fought as infantry for the Ottoman Empire. They were one of the earliest forms of standing armies and noted for being equipped primarily with firearms. Initially, they were recruited from Christian enslaved people and children taken from the Balkans region and forcibly converted to Islam. This process was called the devshirme system.

cavalry soldiers who fight on horseback

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Chapter 15 The Ottoman Empire (c. 1299–c. 1683 CE)

Janissaries were paid for their service, and they were highly disciplined and effective soldiers. They were developed to provide the sultan with a personal fighting force, that answered to the sultan only, which he could use to counter the power of the sipahi and Ghazi soldiers. Over time, they became an elite social class who assisted in military and administrative positions. Ultimately, they were removed from power when they overstepped their position and became too much of a threat to the sultan.

Activity 15.4.1 Source analysis 1.

Describe the uniform of the janissary soldiers.

SA D I M GI PL T A E L C O H N AP LY TE R S

Explain who made up the janissary infantry.

Explain the rise and fall of the janissary as a social class. Why did they fall out of favour with the sultan?

➜

Source 15.4.3 Janissary infantry in the Ottoman military

Historical concepts: Continuity and change, Significance Historical skills: Comprehension – chronology, terms and concepts

Political role of warfare

One of the key features of the Ottoman Empire was that the sultan was first and foremost a military leader. His political stability and right to rule depended on military success. When the sultan was successful, this would provide access to wealth and land. By carefully handing out rewards after a successful campaign, the sultan could control his army and favour particular groups to ensure their loyalty. The sultan used the janissaries in particular to counter the power of the sipahi, who were led by Turkish nobles. The janissaries were loyal to the sultan, and the sultan tried to have greater control over them and use them as his own army.

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15.4 The role and nature of warfare during the Ottoman expansion

The core idea of warfare providing land in the form of the timar system created competition among the different units of the Ottoman military. This competition proved useful as long as the sultan was successful in war. A wise sultan balanced the competing interests so that both groups would remain focused on fighting hard to gain the sultan’s favour and not plot to overthrow him.

Economic role of warfare

SA D I M GI PL T A E L C O H N AP LY TE R S

War provided a strong economic drive because gaining more land provided opportunities for more taxes, resources and manpower. The unique Ottoman system put the burden of supplying its army in the early period on the timar system and the vassal princes. This provided the Ottomans with access to multiple troops who were supplied and paid for through their own means rather than by the state. As a result, the Ottomans were able to frequently field large armies, which provided a clear advantage over their enemies, and this helped the empire spread rapidly during its first hundred years. The Ottomans focused their conquests on areas that would provide economic advantages. Their position in Anatolia enabled them to control the main Europe–Asia trade, their capital of Istanbul was a major stop on the Silk Road, and they controlled sea trade in the eastern Mediterranean, Black and Red Seas. These conquests and control were key drivers in ensuring the long-term survival of the Ottoman Empire.

Review 15.4

Online quiz

Knowledge and understanding

Thinking and researching

Students can access sample responses and results online

Teachers can go online to assign questions, view results, reports and more!

Knowledge and understanding 1.

What was the advantage of the Ghazi warriors to the early expansion of the empire?

Describe the social advantage the vassal princes provided to the empire.

Explain the benefit to the empire of the timar system.

What political advantage did the janissaries provide to the sultan?

Describe the tactics the Ottomans use on the battlefield.

Thinking and researching 1.

Assess the political and economic roles of warfare. Which was more important to the Ottoman state?

Historical concepts: Cause and effect, Significance Historical skills: Comprehension – chronology, terms and concepts, Research

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Chapter 15 The Ottoman Empire (c. 1299–c. 1683 CE)

15.5

Key victories during the Ottoman expansion

Learning intention

Success criteria

In this lesson, you will learn about key victories that helped the Ottomans expand.

❏ I can outline key victories that helped the Ottomans expand.

SA D I M GI PL T A E L C O H N AP LY TE R S

Starter activity

In addition to their defences, the Byzantines had a terrifying weapon: Greek Fire. We don’t know exactly what Greek Fire was made from, but we know that it could burn on water, it would stick to the flesh and it was very hard to extinguish.

➜

Source 15.5.1 Image from an illuminated manuscript showing Greek Fire in use against the fleet of the rebel, Thomas the Slav. The writing above the ship on the left reads “the fleet of the Romans setting ablaze the fleet of the enemies”. The manuscript is from the twelfth century, but the event that it describes occurred in the ninth century. 1.

Based on Source 15.5.1, how do you think Greek Fire was deployed?

Based on the source, what do you think the main purpose or intent was when using Greek Fire?

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15.5 Key victories during the Ottoman expansion

Source 15.5.2 shows the Ottoman expansion over time, and some of the key victories that supported this expansion.

NORTH ATLANTIC OCEAN

Budapest Venice

Belgrade

Marseille

KOSOVO, 1389

Athens RHODES, 1480 and 1522

Alexandretta ASIA

Damascus

SA D I M GI PL T A E L C O H N AP LY TE R S

Mediterranean Sea Tripoli

Baku

ea nS

Tunis

Bucharest Black Sea Sofia Constantinople, 1453 (Istanbul) Salonica

pia

Prizren

C as

Rome

Barcelona

Algiers

Kiev

Vienna, 1529, 1532 and 1683

EUROPE

Alexandria

Baghdad

Jerusalem

Cairo

rsi a

AFRICA

Medina

Mecca

KEY

Sea

Ottoman Beylik, 1300 Acquisitions, 1300–1359 Acquisitions, 1359–1451 Acquisitions, 1451–1481 (Mehmed II) Acquisitions, 1512–1520 (Selim I) Acquisitions, 1520–1566 (Suleiman the Magnificent) Acquisitions, 1566–1683

Red

Expansion of the Ottoman Empire

Kassala

Zeila

1000 km

INDIAN OCEAN

➜

Source 15.5.2 Expansion of the Ottoman Empire from 1300 to 1683

Kosovo, 1389

One of the most famous battles during the period of Ottoman expansion was the Battle of Kosovo, also known as the Battle of the Field of Blackbirds, in 1389. The Ottoman forces were led by the Sultan Murad I while the forces in Kosovo were led by a Serbian prince, Lazar Hrebeljanovi . Both men were killed during the bloody battle that almost wiped out both armies. In spite of their losses, the Ottomans were able to use the battle to convince other princes of the region not to fight them, but to join the empire as vassal states. It was better to serve the Ottoman sultan, they argued, than lose a whole army on the battlefield.

It was said that the Serbian prince, Lazar, had uttered a curse before the battle that would haunt all Serbs who were not prepared to defend their nation (see Source 15.5.3), and Serbians have since regarded the battle as an important part of their national story.

Writing focus 15.5 Developing sentences

vassal states states that were obligated to assist the sultan with the military service of their men and were also expected to contribute to the revenue of the empire

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Chapter 15 The Ottoman Empire (c. 1299–c. 1683 CE)

Activity 15.5.1 Source analysis ➜

Source 15.5.3 Lazar’s curse If any does not come to Kosovo, let his whole line be barren, let the wheat in the field wane, let the fruit on the grapevine wither! Undated oral poem about the Battle of Kosovo

SA D I M GI PL T A E L C O H N AP LY TE R S

Identify who Lazar is cursing.

Explain the meaning of the curse.

Explain how a historian could use this source. Identify what could be considered evidence of source.

Historical concepts: Significance Historical skills: Comprehension – chronology, terms and concepts, Analysis and use of sources

Constantinople, 1453

In the mid-fifteenth century the Ottomans, under 21-year-old Mehmed II, once again attacked Constantinople.

Activity 15.5.2 Source analysis

➜

Source 15.5.4 Siege of Constantinople, Chronique de Charles VII, Jean Chartier

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15.5 Key victories during the Ottoman expansion

➜

Source 15.5.5 Michael Kritovoulos of Imbros (d. 1470), in On the Fall of Constantinople (1453)

SA D I M GI PL T A E L C O H N AP LY TE R S

To begin with, the archers and slingers and those in charge of the cannon and muskets, in accord with the commands given them, advanced against the wall slowly and gradually. When they got within bowshot, they halted to fight. And first they exchanged fire with the heavier weapons, with arrows from the archers, stones from the slingers, and iron and leaden balls from the cannon and muskets. Then, as they closed with battleaxes and javelins and spears, hurling them at each other and being hurled at pitilessly in rage and fierce anger. On both sides there was loud shouting and blasphemy and cursing. Many on each side were wounded and many died. This kept up till sunset, a space of about two or three hours. Michael Kritovoulos of Imbros, 1453, On the Fall of Constantinople

Study the image in Source 15.5.4 and the extract in Source 15.5.5. Draw a table with two columns, one for the Ottomans and one for the Byzantines. a. List the weapons used by each in the columns. b. Identify the challenges faced by the Ottomans in their attempts to capture the city, and the advantages of the Byzantines.

Ottomans’ weapons and challenges

Byzantines’ weapons and advantages

When you have finished the next section of the text, go back to your table and add all the additional weapons, challenges and advantages not included in this source.

Using all of the information in your table, write a judgement of the strengths and weaknesses of both sides and an explanation for the Ottoman victory.

Historical concepts: Cause and effect, Significance Historical skills: Comprehension – chronology, terms and concepts, Analysis and use of sources

Constantinople presented two major challenges – its location and walls. The city was shaped like a triangle at the end of a peninsula, so it was protected on two sides by water. The inland boundary of the city had a wall stretching from one waterway to the other. The final defence was a chain in the water that ran from the tip of Constantinople to Galata (shown in Source 15.5.6). This prevented ships from sailing down the side of the city. Finally, as we’ve already seen, the Byzantines also had a terrifying defensive weapon they could call upon: Greek Fire.

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Chapter 15 The Ottoman Empire (c. 1299–c. 1683 CE)

➜

SA D I M GI PL T A E L C O H N AP LY TE R S

Source 15.5.6 The siege of Constantinople in 1453

Mehmed II strengthened the Ottoman navy and had powerful cannons developed. For protection against Greek Fire, the Ottomans used animal skins dipped in vinegar. To avoid the chain, they lifted their ships out of the water onto the land at Galata, rolled them across greased logs until they had passed the chain, and then relaunched the ships into the water. The Ottomans also outnumbered the Byzantine forces.

Constantinople held out for just over 50 days, but in the end the Ottomans breached the walls, and the city fell. Mehmed II set about rebuilding the great Byzantine city into the new Ottoman capital.

Rhodes, 1480 and 1522

In 1480, Mehmed II decided to expand the Ottoman Empire further by taking the city of Rhodes, which is situated on the island of the same name. At this time, the island was under the authority of a Crusading order, the Knights Hospitaller, who had wrested control from the Byzantine Empire in the early fourteenth century. Mehmed II’s invading force failed to take the city. The fighting was ferocious and thousands of the Ottoman invaders were killed.

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15.5 Key victories during the Ottoman expansion

Activity 15.5.3 Source analysis

Identify whether Source 15.5.7 is a primary source or a secondary source.

Explain what the purpose of the source might have been.

Identify the Ottoman camp. Justify your decision, using features in the image.

SA D I M GI PL T A E L C O H N AP LY TE R S

Explain how a historian might use this image. Identify what it might be used to prove.

➜ Source 15.5.7 Siege of Rhodes, illumination,

Master of Cardinal de Bourbon, c. 1483

Historical concepts: Significance Historical skills: Analysis and use of sources

In 1522, with Suleiman the Magnificent as sultan, the Ottomans returned to Rhodes. For six months the Ottomans battered the heavy walls with their artillery, and blew up sections of the fortifications using mines. Finally, the knights agreed to Suleiman’s terms of surrender. They left the island for a new home further west, and Rhodes became part of the Ottoman Empire.

Vienna, 1529, 1532 and 1683 Siege of 1529

Following his success at Rhodes, in 1529 Suleiman led the first Ottoman siege of Vienna. However, Austria was cold, wet and far from home, and the soldiers’ morale was low after the long journey. The Viennese managed to locate and destroy the mines designed to bring down the walls, and the Ottomans retreated, having failed to make any major breaches of the city’s walls.

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DOC

Extension 15.5.1 The Peterborough Chronicle

Chapter 15 The Ottoman Empire (c. 1299–c. 1683 CE)

SA D I M GI PL T A E L C O H N AP LY TE R S

➜

Sources 15.5.8 and 15.5.9 Two illustrations of the 1529 Siege of Vienna. On the left is an engraving by German artist Barthel Beham (1502–40), and on the right is a miniature by Ottoman artist Nakkaş Osman, who lived in the latter half of the sixteenth century.

Siege of 1532

On his next effort in 1532, Suleiman did not even make it to the outskirts of the city. A rare account of the events in English tells us that in 1532, “thousande turkes fledde in to certayne mountaynes wenyng to saue themselves” (a thousand Turks fled in to certain mountains, wanting to save themselves). This account, called The Tryumphant Victory, celebrates the failure of the Ottoman Empire to capture Vienna. It also offers some insight into the ferocity of the attack. Suleiman may have failed, but he was not going to take defeat lightly, as the extract in Source 15.5.10 shows. ➜

Source 15.5.10 The Tryumphant Victory was printed in English (translated from a French account) in 1532.

The emperor taketh his way towarde Hongry for to conquere and make it subgect to him … the turke hath brent many goodly places and slayn men women and children in the playne countree, the whiche were too longe to be wryten.

The Tryumphant Victory, 1532

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15.5 Key victories during the Ottoman expansion

Activity 15.5.4 1.

Rewrite the text in Source 15.5.10 in modern English.

Using your rewritten account and the Ottoman depiction of the 1529 siege in Source 15.5.9, write a short story about a member of the Ottoman forces and his experiences of the events in 1529 and 1532. You may need to do some more research. Remember that the Ottoman forces were made up of people from across the empire, so think hard about what your perspective (point of view) of the campaigns of Suleiman the Magnificent might be.

SA D I M GI PL T A E L C O H N AP LY TE R S

Historical concepts: Perspectives Historical skills: Analysis and use of sources, Perspectives and interpretations, Research

Siege of 1683

In 1683 the Ottoman army again stood outside Vienna. It seemed that this time the city would fall, but a relief army, led by the Polish king, John III Sobieski, arrived just in time to help the Viennese. The Ottomans, about to breach the city walls, were attacked by Sobieski’s army. They suffered heavy losses and a disastrous defeat. The Ottoman forces retreated and the empire never again threatened Vienna. After 1683, the Ottoman Empire began to decline, and by 1914 it had lost all of its European territories.

Review 15.5

Online quiz

Knowledge and understanding

Thinking and researching

Students can access sample responses and results online

Teachers can go online to assign questions, view results, reports and more!

Knowledge and understanding 1.

List the defences the city of Constantinople used against the Ottomans.

Explain who the Knights Hospitaller were.

Identify reasons for Suleiman’s failure to take Vienna in 1529.

Explain why Mehmed II’s tactics were successful in overcoming Constantinople’s defences.

Thinking and researching 1.

Research the two different sieges of Rhodes in 1480 and 1522. Write a report that explains why the siege of Mehmed II failed while the siege of Suleiman the Magnificent succeeded. Was this a consequence of weapons and technology? Tactics and strategies? Leadership or luck? You decide, but be sure to justify your judgement with support from the evidence that you find in your research.

Imagine you are a fifteenth-century apothecary (research what an apothecary is) tasked with discovering the secret of Greek Fire. a. Research its use and impact and the various theories about its composition. b. Come up with your best theory for what was in Greek Fire. c. You will need to be able to justify your thinking with reference to specific aspects of your research such as what it did, how it was deployed, and what was available to the Greeks at the time in terms of resources and technology.

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Chapter 15 The Ottoman Empire (c. 1299–c. 1683 CE)

15.6

The role of Suleiman the Magnificent in expanding and maintaining the empire Success criteria

In this lesson, you will learn about the reign of Suleiman the Magnificent and the contributions he made to Ottoman society.

❏ I can outline the key events of Suleiman’s reign and his contributions to Ottoman society.

SA D I M GI PL T A E L C O H N AP LY TE R S

Learning intention

Starter activity

See, think, wonder

Look at Source 15.6.1. 1.

Create a quick list of the key visual details you can see in this portrait. This might include clothing, colours, objects and how Suleiman is positioned in the frame. (I see...)

What do you think this portrait suggests about Suleiman’s status or power? Use your list of key visual details as evidence. (I think...)

What do you wonder about how useful this source is for learning about Suleiman as a ruler? (Iwonder...)

➜

Source 15.6.1 Portrait of Suleiman

Suleiman the Magnificent, who reigned from 1520 to 1566, was the son of Selim I. Selim I was an immensely successful sultan who had managed to expand the Ottoman Empire and institute a system of self-funding conquests in which the lands that he conquered were forced to pay the empire for the privilege of being conquered. When he died, people on the outskirts of the empire, particularly in south-eastern Europe, were relieved, thinking that Suleiman could not match his father’s ferocity, tenacity and extraordinary achievements.

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15.6 The role of Suleiman the Magnificent in expanding and maintaining the empire

Imperial adventures

SA D I M GI PL T A E L C O H N AP LY TE R S

Suleiman inherited from his father a finely tuned fighting force and a system of administration that helped to fund and facilitate the waging of war. He also seemed to inherit Selim I’s talent for warfare, and ability to impress important groups, such as the janissaries, with his skills as a commander. Only a year after he became sultan, Suleiman successfully conquered the Serbian city of Belgrade. At the siege he showed himself to be just as much of a strategist as his father, sending troops in different directions to distract the city from the main attack and using siege artillery. He also proved to be brutal in victory, executing prisoners in order to make people wary of challenging Ottoman power.

Source 15.6.2 Suleiman the Magnificent watches the execution – by elephant trampling – of two prisoners outside Belgrade. Ottoman miniature, sixteenth century. ➜

Suleiman went on to destroy the Hungarian army at the Battle of Mohacs in 1526, striking fear into the hearts of all European monarchs, and then captured Rhodes, Tunis, Baghdad, Yemen and Aden. He also finished the incorporation of Egypt into the Ottoman Empire.

Suleiman suffered only two real setbacks in his imperial adventures: he failed to capture Vienna (as discussed in Section 15.5) and Malta. However, he still managed to expand the empire in practically every direction.

siege artillery heavy weaponry

Activity 15.6.1 Source analysis 1.

Identify the figure of Suleiman the Magnificent in this source, and explain why you think that.

List the information that this source provides about the Ottoman forces at Mohacs.

Is this source useful for a historian studying the life of Suleiman the Magnificent? Explain your answer.

➜

Source 15.6.3 Miniature (small painting) of the Battle of Mohacs (Hungary) from an Ottoman manuscript, 1588 Historical concepts: Significance Historical skills: Comprehension – chronology, terms and concepts, Analysis and use of sources Digital-only chapters • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Clarke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78788-8 • (03) 8671 1400

Writing focus 15.6 Creating topic sentences

Chapter 15 The Ottoman Empire (c. 1299–c. 1683 CE)

Fame and fortune With the expansion of empire came greater riches. Suleiman the Magnificent also presided over the flourishing of arts and architecture: poetry, painting and the construction of important mosques and other buildings, both in Constantinople and abroad. One of his most significant contributions was to have the Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem restored.

Different perspectives on Suleiman

SA D I M GI PL T A E L C O H N AP LY TE R S

Even before his death, Suleiman was described as the perfect ruler, and this image of him grew after he died at the age of 72. He was a conqueror, a poet, a builder, a law-giver, an educator of children and a protector of all his subject peoples.

grand vizier chief adviser to the sultan

However, he was also a ruthless and pragmatic man, like his forebears and the leaders who came after him. His conquests were ambitious and unforgiving of any resistance. He had his eldest son strangled in his own tent, under his watchful eye, in order to ensure that he would present no challenge to his own power. When two of his other sons waged a war, he chose one son to support and ensured the death of the other. He executed his most trusted friend and adviser – Pargali Ibrahim Pasha – who was his Grand Vizier. For those who benefited from his policy of religious toleration he was Suleiman the Just, but for those he thought were betraying him or challenging his right to rule, he was Suleiman the Avenger.

Activity 15.6.2 Source analysis ➜

Source 15.6.4 Suleiman also wrote poetry, using the pen name Muhibbi.

The people think of wealth and power as the greatest fate, But in this world a spell of health is the best state.

What men call sovereignty is a worldly strife and constant war;

Worship of God is the highest throne, the happiest of all estates.

Muhibbi (Suleiman)

➜

Source 15.6.5 The following summary of Suleiman’s achievements comes from the New York Metropolitan Museum of Art’s Timeline of Art History. Under Süleyman, popularly known as “the Magnificent” or “the Lawmaker,” the Ottoman empire reached the apogee of its military and political power. Süleyman’s armies conquered Hungary, over which the Ottomans maintained control for over 150 years, and they advanced as far west as Vienna, threatening the Habsburgs. To the east, the Ottoman forces wrested control of Iraq from the Safavids of Iran. In the Mediterranean, their navy captured all the principal North African ports, and for a time the Ottoman fleet completely dominated the sea. By the end of Süleyman’s reign, Ottoman hegemony extended over a great portion of Europe, Asia, and Africa.

Yalman, S., 2002, The Age of Süleyman the Magnificent (r. 1520–1566), New York Metropolitan Museum of Art

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15.6 The role of Suleiman the Magnificent in expanding and maintaining the empire

➜

Source 15.6.6 The book Destiny Disrupted presents world history from an Islamic, rather than a Western, perspective. In this extract, the author considers Suleiman’s failure to take Vienna.

SA D I M GI PL T A E L C O H N AP LY TE R S

The earlier [event] was Suleiman the Magnificent’s failure to take Vienna. Ottoman forces had never stopped pushing steadily west, and in 1529 they reached the gates of Vienna, but the sultan set siege to the famous Austrian city too late in the season. With winter coming on, he decided to let Vienna to this time and conquer it the next time around. But there was no next time for Suleiman, because other issues cropped up and he got distracted – the empire was so big, after all, and its borders so long, that distractions were constantly sprouting up on those borders somewhere. The sultan never made another attempt on Vienna but his contemporaries saw no sign of weakness in this. “Conquer Vienna” remained on his to-do list always; it’s just that the man was busy. … And yet historians looking back can see quite clearly that Suleiman’s failure to take Vienna marked a watershed. At that moment the empire had reached its greatest extent. After that moment, it was no longer expanding.

Ansary, T., 2010, Destiny Disrupted: A History of the World Through Islamic Eyes, PublicAffairs Books, pp. 221–2

In Source 15.6.4, identify what Suleiman is saying about his achievements.

Source 15.6.5 considers Suleiman’s rule a golden age, while Source 15.6.6 focuses on failure. Compare these two perspectives and explain whether they can be reconciled. Justify your decision.

Why do you think the authors of Sources 15.6.5 and 15.6.6 have different perspectives?

Historical concepts: Perspectives, Significance Historical skills: Comprehension – chronology, terms and concepts, Analysis and use of sources, Perspectives and interpretations

Review 15.6

Online quiz

Knowledge and understanding

Thinking and researching

Students can access sample responses and results online

DOC

Extension 15.6.1 Other significant individuals

Teachers can go online to assign questions, view results, reports and more!

Knowledge and understanding 1.

2. 3.

4. 5.

Who was the father of Suleiman the Magnificent? Identify three places conquered by Suleiman the Magnificent. Identify two other achievements of Suleiman the Magnificent. Why was Suleiman the Magnificent considered a great ruler? How could Suleiman the Magnificent be considered deserving of his name?

Thinking and researching

Jerusalem was an important city to both Muslims and Christians. Research the Dome of the Rock and Jerusalem during the time of Suleiman the Magnificent, including the walls that he had built around the city during this time.

In your research for both questions, you should review the sultan’s ideas about religious tolerance and the cultural and economic impact of his rule on the people and city of Jerusalem. 1.

Why do historians argue that Suleiman the Magnificent’s reign was a Golden Age for Jerusalem?

What does Suleiman’s life teach us about the impact of Islam on the Christian and Jewish peoples of the region?

Historical concepts: Continuity and change, Significance Historical skills: Research Digital-only chapters • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Clarke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78788-8 • (03) 8671 1400

Chapter 15 The Ottoman Empire (c. 1299–c. 1683 CE)

15.7

The relationship with subject peoples Success criteria

In this lesson, you will learn about the relationship with the peoples the Ottomans conquered and develop an understanding of their lives from an administrative, taxation, military service and religion perspective.

❏ I can outline how the subject peoples were administered, taxed, served in the military and worshipped on a daily basis.

SA D I M GI PL T A E L C O H N AP LY TE R S

Learning intention

Starter activity

What makes a good ruler? 1.

Think: How do you think a ruler should treat their subject peoples? What challenges might they face?

Pair: Compare your ideas with a partner and decide on two key principles a ruler should follow when treating subject peoples.

Share: Share your two principles with the class and see if you can identify any common themes, such as “fairness” or “control”.

The Ottomans were, in many ways, a pragmatic people. They understood the value of a cooperative and peaceful population, and the high cost of a rebellious and unhappy population, and so to a certain extent the Ottoman leaders tried to keep the people of the empire happy.

Early Ottoman leaders were parts of councils formed of the major groups who jointly decided domestic policies. It was not until later that Ottoman rulers were able to exert greater control over their followers in both foreign and domestic policy. As a result, throughout Ottoman rule the sultan had to address the demands of his supporters. Over time, these people formed different social classes within Ottoman society and the sultan, while still the most important figure, had to continually balance these competing interests. These social classes provided advantages to the sultans and assisted in Ottoman expansion throughout its history.

Administration

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Source 15.7.1 Coronation ceremony of Sultan Selim III showing subject peoples of the empire coming to display their allegiance to the new sultan

Subject peoples could be administered in a wide variety of ways depending on their geographical location, their place on the fringe or within the empire’s borders, and their religious and cultural background. The Ottomans’ unique method of administration reflected the vast diversity within the empire.

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15.7 The relationship with subject peoples

Central administration Overall control resided with the sultan, who had complete authority over all aspects of the empire. Below the sultan was the Divan, which was a ruling council consisting of ministers responsible for the various aspects of the state. The seat that any ambitious young man wanted in the Ottoman administration was one on the Imperial Council. A counsellor, or vizier, gave political advice to the sultan.

Geographical administration

vizier high-ranking political adviser, common in Islamic empires; advised the sultan or caliph on matters of finance, law and administration

SA D I M GI PL T A E L C O H N AP LY TE R S

The Ottoman Empire was split into two main administrative areas, Rumelia and Anatolia, representing the western and eastern portions of the empire. Overall command of each area was given to a beylerbey. This position oversaw all provinces under their command called sanjaks, which were ruled by a bey.

Divan council of ministers which assisted in the running of the Ottoman Empire

Territories that were yet to be brought under direct control of the empire were called vassal or tributary states. These were areas on the fringe of the empire, typically within Rumelia. In these areas, people’s lives went on relatively uninterrupted; they were able to worship and follow their religions, and paid taxes following the system already established within the vassal state. The state now owed its allegiance to the empire and had to make contributions of taxes, supplies and men for armies each year, but otherwise the people were left alone to continue their lives as normal. Within the sanjak, special variations existed in order to ensure social harmony and to respect the variety of religious that existed.

Vassal princes

As the Ottoman Empire expanded into Europe and eastward into Anatolia, it encountered and conquered independent territories ruled by princes, lords and beys. Ottoman rulers found it advantageous to leave established political and administrative systems intact as much as possible and to include defeated leaders as vassals as much as possible. This system meant that after defeating an enemy lord, the Ottomans would allow the ruler to remain in power, but they had to now supply soldiers and resources when requested. This ensured a smooth transition of power as the lives of everyday people within these territories were largely unaffected, and the conquered lord was able to remain in power and less likely to rebel as he was still able to exercise control. Furthermore, his experience in administering the territory ensured that taxes continued to be collected and provided the Ottomans with free sources of soldiers and resources in order to fund future conquests.

Rumelia the Ottoman Empire’s European territory Anatolia the Ottoman Empire’s Asian territory beylerbey a governor-general of a wide territory sanjak a territory of the Ottoman Empire, similar to a province or state allegiance loyalty or obedience to a king or the state millet an autonomous and self-governing religious community milletbasi the leader of a millet

The millet system Source 15.7.2 Mehmed II granting authority to Gennadios II of the Eastern Orthodox Church ➜

The millet system allowed for communities to be divided by religion and be self-governing so as to reduce social conflict. The millets were under the command of a milletbasi or ethnarch, who had complete control of all secular and ecclesiastical power within their millet.

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Chapter 15 The Ottoman Empire (c. 1299–c. 1683 CE)

They were answerable only to the sultan and were responsible for fulfilling tax and security obligations. Within the millet, people followed their own laws regarding marriage, divorce, death, births, health, education and justice. One example was the Eastern Orthodox Christian community, known as the Rum millet.

The timar system

SA D I M GI PL T A E L C O H N AP LY TE R S

In Anatolia, the timar system, especially early in the empire, provided a form of administration similar to the feudal system of Europe. The timar was a land grant to an Ottoman sipahi, who could keep all the revenue in the grant as long as they contributed to the sultan’s military campaigns in the form of military service and provided soldiers. The sipahi had complete control over the land and all people within the land grant became the equivalent of serfs and came under the control of the sipahi. They were subject to the rules and laws set by the holder of the timar. Over time, the timar system and vassal states were absorbed into the direct control of the Ottoman Empire. Most subject peoples had freedom to follow their own customs and religions, and groups were split into religious followings and protected to an extent by the sultan. They were still subject to the laws of the empire, but they did not have to convert to Islam and their day-to-day lives remained relatively unaffected.

Other administrative roles Men of learning

The men of learning were the judges or magistrates in the provinces of the empire. They made decisions about crime and punishment, and also helped with the implementation of imperial decrees.

Men of the sword

The men of the sword were the frontier lords, the Ghazi or banner commanders. The banner commander was both an administrative and military post. Administrative responsibilities included collecting taxes and fines. Military responsibilities included making sure that the banner had a full fighting regiment, ready to serve the sultan when needed, and leading the regiment of the banner into battle.

Men of the pen

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Source 15.7.3 Kara Mustafa Pasha was Grand Vizier from 1676 to 1683. Before and during his time as vizier he was a military leader – a man of the sword.

A man of the pen was a scribe. A scribe did not necessarily aspire to be a vizier, but his role was respected for its importance in maintaining the administration of the empire.

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15.7 The relationship with subject peoples

Taxation

SA D I M GI PL T A E L C O H N AP LY TE R S

Some historians have suggested that people living in Byzantine or Arab systems who were conquered by the Ottomans often found themselves better off because the Ottomans demanded less tax. After taking control of an area, the Ottomans would conduct surveys to determine what the taxable resources might be of a town or village. The taxation rights were granted to a local governor or military commander or cavalryman. The tax could then be used to maintain horses and weaponry. This was known as the timar, and the value of a timar could depend on how important the sultan thought the person collecting the tax was. Taxation drawn from resources and land was, therefore, a way of paying important people for their services to the empire.

However, as firearms started to become more important than cavalry, the tax system began to change. The leaders needed to purchase guns, rather than relying on local governors or military men to maintain their own forces. To do this, they needed a direct supply of cash. They began selling the right to collect taxes in some areas. Using the information gathered by the administrator who counted resources in each village, the Ottomans would calculate how much tax could be expected from an area and then auction the area. This provided an influx of cash to the Ottoman administration. The highest bidder would then collect and keep taxes, making a profit if more was collected than had been paid at auction.

Military service

An account of the invading Ottoman forces appears in a poem set during the second Siege of Rhodes in 1522. The account described, “An infinite number of well-equipped, true native-born Turks, janissaries, Mamelukes and renegades, in company with many mercenaries, Greeks and Albanians – all well-versed in war – together with many Serbs from Wallachia, all covered with coats of mail, to give mortal battle to Rhodes.”

Mameluke an enslaved soldier

The account captures the varied nature of the Ottoman military. People from across the empire were drawn into service and fought for their conquerors. But there was one group that shared a particularly interesting and important story: the people whose military service came via a system known as the devshirme.

Wallachia an area in Romania

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The devshirme began during the reign of Sultan Murad I, and it was instrumental to the success of the Ottomans from this period. Ottoman officials would go to villages and towns in conquered areas, such as in the Balkans, and choose the best male children to become devshirme. Some were Muslim, although most were Christian, and all would be taken from their homes to a big city, maybe even Constantinople, where they would be educated and trained. These boys had to convert to Islam, and were expected to serve either by the pen – as an administrator or even a vizier – or by the sword/rifle as a member of the janissary corps. The janissaries had the best training, the best weapons technology and an impressive record of victories.

mercenary a soldier who fights for payment rather than political interests or patriotism

Source 15.7.4 Janissaries in full uniform, 1893

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Chapter 15 The Ottoman Empire (c. 1299–c. 1683 CE)

Religion The Ottoman Empire had a policy of religious tolerance. As an Islamic empire, the Ottomans respected the Christians and Jews in their territories as “People of the Book”. This Islamic concept recognised that Jews and Christians, like Muslims, had a holy book or scripture that documented the revelations of God. This meant the Ottomans generally respected the religious beliefs and practices of the Christians and Jews of the empire. There was little attempt made to convert non-Muslims to Islam, and there were certain rights and freedoms extended to non-Muslims, as well as certain taxes and conditions. On the whole, people in the Ottoman Empire had a good deal of cultural independence, economic opportunity, social mobility and access through the law courts to a system of justice.

SA D I M GI PL T A E L C O H N AP LY TE R S

Writing focus 15.7 Conjunctions

Turkish yoke the name given to the period in Bulgarian history between 1396 to 1878, when the Ottoman Empire ruled Bulgaria; refers to the sense of being harnessed (against their will) to the TurkishOttoman ruling power

Even so, it was rare for political power to be held by those who were not part of the Muslim Ottoman ruling class, and political discrimination remained a constant feature. Christian and Jewish people were sometimes subject to intolerable laws or conditions, and they were, at times, persecuted and even killed. There is no doubt that many groups within the empire’s boundaries felt oppressed. Those not in the Muslim ruling class feared the destruction of their identities, their independence and sometimes their lives. The Bulgarians, who were mostly Christians, describe their 500 years under Ottoman rule as the time of the Turkish yoke. A yoke is a harness that is fastened around the necks of animals and then attached to a plough or cart that they have to pull. The Bulgarians saw themselves as imprisoned by the Turks, and bearing the weight of their oppression as the horse or ox bears the weight of its load.

Review 15.7 Online quiz

Knowledge and understanding

Thinking and researching

Students can access sample responses and results online

Teachers can go online to assign questions, view results, reports and more!

Knowledge and understanding 1.

Identify the differences between how Rumelia and Anatolia were administered.

Define what is meant by the “Turkish yoke”.

Explain how the timar system could help the Ottomans expand quickly.

Describe the variety of positions that a vizier could hold.

What was the Ottoman policy regarding religion?

Thinking and researching 1.

Based on what you have learned in this lesson, assess the contribution of the timar and devshirme systems to Ottoman society.

Historical concepts: Cause and effect, Significance Historical skills: Comprehension – chronology, terms and concepts, Analysis and use of sources, Research

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15.8 Perspectives on the experiences of subject peoples

15.8

Perspectives on the experiences of subject peoples Success criteria

In this lesson, you will learn about the perspectives on the experiences of the variety of people who made up the Ottoman Empire.

❏ I can outline the positive and negative experiences of subject people with regard to multiculturalism, and the millet and devshirme systems.

SA D I M GI PL T A E L C O H N AP LY TE R S

Learning intention

Starter activity For or against

Consider the statement: “A government takes children from their families to educate them and train them for powerful jobs.” 1.

With a partner, decide on a joint position for or against this action. Summarise your position in a single sentence. For example: “We disagree with this action because it takes away children’s freedom and family connections” or “We agree with this action because it gives children opportunities they may not otherwise have.”

Be ready to explain your reasoning using one strong piece of evidence or an example.

The Ottomans created a unique empire that was a blend of Turkish, Greek, Slavic and Arab peoples. They had to not only blend these multiple cultures, but also find a way to unify, or at least pacify, the tensions between varieties of religions. It was not always perfect, but their system did allow for a degree of harmony between these sometimes hostile ethnicities and religious outlooks.

An attempt at multiculturalism

The millet system may seem a more than reasonable attempt to allow a degree of autonomy to the religious groups of the empire. It allowed followers of a faith to continue their lives and practices without interruption, answer to people of their own background and culture, and go about their lives with little interference. When compared with the Roman Empire’s attempt to integrate subject people, it is a substantial leap forward in approaching the question of multiculturalism. Under the Roman Empire, a subject people were free to worship their own gods, as long as they also paid homage to the Roman gods as well. While the Roman system did not force people to abandon their beliefs, it still required a degree of devotion to a religion that the monotheistic faiths (i.e. worshipping only one god) of Christianity and Judaism were not willing to accept. It is important to note that while the Ottomans allowed religious and cultural freedoms, the expectation was obedience to the Ottoman state.

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Chapter 15 The Ottoman Empire (c. 1299–c. 1683 CE)

Activity 15.8.1 Source analysis ➜

Source 15.8.1 Historian Dr Latif Tas writes about the Ottoman state I do not wish to suggest that there was no group repression or persecution under the Ottoman rules. The Ottoman state might intervene in some elections for community or religious leaders. It also did not tolerate any challenge to its overall power and could be ruthless to those who found it difficult to fit into the Ottoman organisational system. Tas, L. (2014). The Myth of the Ottoman Millet System: Its Treatment of Kurds and a Discussion of Territorial and Non-Territorial Autonomy. International Journal on Minority and Group Rights, 21(4), 497–526. https://doi.org/10.1163/15718115-02104003

SA D I M GI PL T A E L C O H N AP LY TE R S

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Source 15.8.2 In 1772 Shaikh Hasan Al Kafrawi, a Muslim scholar in Cairo, was asked how Jews and Christians should be treated. This is an extract from his answer. They are forbidden to build new churches, chapels, or monasteries in any Muslim land. We should destroy everything that is of new construction in every place, such as Cairo, for instance, founded under the Muslim religion, for it is said in a tradition of Umar: “No church shall be built in Islam.” They shall no longer be permitted to repair the parts of these [post-Islamic] buildings which are in ruins. However, the old buildings [of preIslamic times] which are found in a land whose population had embraced Islam need not be destroyed. They shall not, however, be enlarged by means of repairs or otherwise.

Shaikh Hasan Al Kafrawi, 1772

Explain how Source 15.8.1 demonstrates that the millet system is far from perfect.

Describe the restrictions placed on Jews and Christians.

How does Source 15.8.2 support the idea that people of non-Islamic faith are not completely free to live their own lives?

Historical concepts: Significance Historical skills: Comprehension – chronology, terms and concepts, Analysis and use of sources

Therefore, while the Ottoman system did not require a conversion to Islam, Muslims were given preferential treatment in holding political offices and positions of power. Over time, this became a necessary requirement for any person who aspired to climb the social ranks of Ottoman society. A person could convert to Islam and gain access to the full opportunities within Ottoman society, or they could remain true to their faith and live their life to their liking, but would need to be content with reduced opportunities.

Forced integration

The devshirme system provided the sultan with a military force of educated men who fulfilled two main needs. It provided men who were disciplined and educated and could be relied upon to assist in the running of the empire. Because these men had been taken primarily from Christian families as children, they were seen as less likely to rebel against the sultan as they had no experience of Turkish political intrigue. After their forcible conversion to Islam and rigorous education, they became a personal army that the sultan could use to balance the other competing arms of Ottoman society in the Turkish nobles.

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15.8 Perspectives on the experiences of subject peoples

Activity 15.8.2 Source analysis ➜

Source 15.8.4 Extract from a sermon by the Bishop of Thessaloniki, Isidore Glabas, 1395

SA D I M GI PL T A E L C O H N AP LY TE R S

Which one shall the father lament, himself or his son? Shall he lament himself because he has been deprived of the staff [support] of his old age? Because the light of his eyes has perished? Because he will not have his son to send him to his grave in fitting manner, and to perform the other rites and honours? … Or shall he lament his son because a free child becomes a slave? Because being nobly born, he is forced to adopt barbaric customs?

Isidore Glabas, 1395

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Source 15.8.3 Miniature of janissary recruitment, 1558

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Source 15.8.5 A Greek song sung during the time of the Ottoman Empire

Be Damned, Emperor, thrice be damned.

For the evil you have done and the evil you do.

You catch and shackle the old and the arch priests, In order to take the children as janissaries.

Their parents weep, their sisters and brothers, too And I cry until it pains me; As long as I live I shall cry,

For last year it was my son and this year my brother.

Anonymous song from Epirus (Greece)

Describe what you see in Source 15.8.3.

How does what you see in Source 15.8.3 support what you have read about the devshirme?

Identify the key problem that the bishop is discussing in Source 15.8.4.

Why is the devshirme a tragedy for both a father and a son in Source 15.8.4?

How does Source 15.8.5 criticise the devshirme?

Source 15.8.5 is a song. Explain how this affects how we might use this source to investigate opinions of the devshirme.

Historical concepts: Perspectives, Significance Historical skills: Comprehension – chronology, terms and concepts, Analysis and use of sources, Perspectives and interpretations

From our perspective, the devshirme may seem like a cruel and terrible system, but some historians have suggested that although the empire was certainly exploiting its peoples, it was also creating opportunities. Boys from isolated villages received education and had brilliant careers because of the devshirme system. They could Digital-only chapters • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Clarke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78788-8 • (03) 8671 1400

Chapter 15 The Ottoman Empire (c. 1299–c. 1683 CE)

become rich and important military commanders, governors or viziers. One of the most important Grand Viziers in all Ottoman history was an Albanian, Koprulu Mehmed, who was brought to the attention of the sultan through the devshirme. Although their military service was forced, it was also a path to economic and social mobility.

SA D I M GI PL T A E L C O H N AP LY TE R S

Nevertheless, it must have been heartbreaking for families whose sons were taken. It would also have been immensely difficult for the boys uprooted from their homes, cultures and everything they had known. As a historical phenomenon, the devshirme has had both negatives and positives views associated with it and many people have argued about how best to understand the experience and its legacy.

Activity 15.8.3 Source analysis

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Source 15.8.6 Extract from the work of historian Barbara Jelavich

Reports exist of attempts of families to buy their children both out of the (devshirme) collections and into them. Newly converted Muslims of Bosnia, in particular, requested that they be included.

Jelavich, B., 1983, The History of the Balkans, Cambridge University Press, p. 41

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Source 15.8.7 Extract from the work of Lela Ivankovic

The Ottoman Empire established the devshirme institution as a response to the empire’s increasing needs for qualified military men to be employed by the sultans in their private army, the janissary corps. The Christian families looked at the devshirme system as an inhumane act aimed to permanently cut off their children from their ethnic and cultural environment. From the point of view of the devshirme youths, the process of the devshirme was more complex and intricate. The devshirme system could be a vehicle toward social advancement or an inhumane act depending on the devshirme youth’s ability and willingness to build a new national and religious identity. … was the devshirme system an inhumane act or a path toward social advancement? Or both?

Ivankovic, L., 2013, Controversy about the Devshirme, thesis, Georgetown University

How does Source 15.8.6 provide a different perspective of the devshirme? Explain why the Muslims of Bosnia might have supported this perspective.

Does the modern historian in Source 15.8.7 claim that the devshirme was good or bad? Explain how the perspective of the youths would have an impact on this outcome.

Historical concepts: Perspectives, Significance Historical skills: Comprehension – chronology, terms and concepts, Analysis and use of sources, Perspectives and interpretations

Writing focus 15.8 Note-making

Perhaps how we judge the nature of the devshirme depends on what we personally regard as important. Do we think it better for a child to remain with their family or to have access to opportunities for promotion and economic success? For the historian, a judgement has to be based on the perspectives of the time, using all the available evidence. For example, whose perspective can we access? And what do the sources suggest people felt and thought about this system at the time? Digital-only chapters • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Clarke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78788-8 • (03) 8671 1400

15.8 Perspectives on the experiences of subject peoples

Activity 15.8.4 1.

a. In your first paragraph, compare the negatives and positives that you have discovered. b. In the second paragraph, outline what your judgement is and how you arrived at that point of view (which sources might have been most convincing, how much of your own sense of what people would most likely have felt that you think informed your judgement, and so on). In your third paragraph, reflect on the process of source analysis, and comment on the problems that the historian faces when writing about history.

SA D I M GI PL T A E L C O H N AP LY TE R S

Create a table in order to assess the perspectives of the sources in Activities 15.8.2 and 15.8.3. a. In the first column write the name of the source and any information you have about the source that you think might be useful for determining perspective. b. In the second column write what you think the perspective is – against the devshirme, for it or somewhere in between. Once you have finished your table, imagine that you are a historian and have to make a judgement, not only about the impact of the devshirme on the subject peoples of the empire, but also on the empire as a whole.

Historical concepts: Perspectives Historical skills: Comprehension – chronology, terms and concepts, Analysis and use of sources, Perspectives and interpretations

Review 15.8

Online quiz

Knowledge and understanding

Thinking and researching

Students can access sample responses and results online

Teachers can go online to assign questions, view results, reports and more!

Knowledge and understanding 1.

How did the Muslim Ottomans define the Christians and Jews?

Identify the source of most of the Ottoman Empire’s tax revenue.

Define “timar”.

Explain who the devshirme were.

Summarise the reasons for the effectiveness of the Ottoman system of administration and taxation.

Explain the Ottoman use of subject peoples in its military.

Why was good administration so important to the Ottoman Empire?

Account for how the Ottomans’ treatment of subject peoples strengthened or weakened their empire.

Explain whether subject peoples were unfairly treated by the systems of administration and taxation in the Ottoman Empire.

10.

“The devshirme system offered great opportunities for males.” Explain and justify the extent to which you agree with this statement.

Thinking and researching 1.

Assess the impact of the devshirme system politically and socially on the empire.

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Chapter 15 The Ottoman Empire (c. 1299–c. 1683 CE)

15.9

Ottoman art and architecture Success criteria

In this lesson, you will learn about which places influenced the Ottomans to create their unique art and architecture.

❏ I can outline the different cultures that played a part in influencing the Ottomans and identify a number of examples of their cultural output.

SA D I M GI PL T A E L C O H N AP LY TE R S

Learning intention

Starter activity Think, pair, share 1.

Why do you think societies create art and architecture? What might art reveal about a culture?

Pair with a partner and consider two reasons why art is important. Select one reason that considers personal or individual importance and one reason that considers wider social and cultural importance.

Share your reason for social and cultural importance with the class and discuss what these suggest about the way art can reflect a society.

Art

illuminated highly decorative/ decorated

The Ottoman Empire was an Islamic empire, and Islam prohibits the portrayal of humans and animals in much of its art. This is why, when we think of art or art forms in the Ottoman Empire, we might think of beautifully decorated tiles, intricately patterned carpets or elegant calligraphy, rather than paintings of people. The history of the art and architecture of the Ottoman Empire reflects the nature of the empire itself: it was diverse and it changed over time. This is not surprising, given that the empire stretched across North Africa and the Middle East, worked its way north into Anatolia and south-eastern Europe, and lasted for six centuries. The art and architecture of the Ottoman Empire is therefore unique, but it is unique because of the traditions that it combines from the Persians, the Greeks and Byzantines, and from places such as Egypt. Regions such as Iznik were known for their ceramics, Egypt was the home of magnificent carpet weavers, the people of Baghdad produced wonderfully illustrated or illuminated texts and Bursa was renowned for its silk.

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Source 15.9.1 Late sixteenth- to early-seventeenthcentury rug from Cairo (Egypt) during the Ottoman Empire

The rug in Source 15.9.1 includes the favourite flowers of the Ottomans – tulips, hyacinths and carnations. Decoration could appear anywhere, including on the weapons of the empire, as can be seen on the sabre shown in Source 15.9.2.

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15.9 Ottoman art and architecture

Writing focus 15.9 Conjunctions

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SA D I M GI PL T A E L C O H N AP LY TE R S

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Source 15.9.3 Video: Exploring the sabre

Source 15.9.2 Turkish (Ottoman) sabre, sixteenth century

Source 15.9.4 demonstrates the beautiful style of illustrations and calligraphy that developed in parts of the Ottoman Empire. This example is Persian, drawn by someone calling themselves Suzi, which means “the burning one”. The text tells the story of Khusrau and Shirin, by the Persian poet Hatifi. Khusrau and Shirin is a romantic tragedy about a Persian king and an Armenian princess. Nothing goes well for either of them, and in the end Khusrau is murdered by his own son, who is also in love with Shirin, and Shirin commits suicide rather than marry Khusrau’s killer.

Architecture

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Like art, architecture in the Ottoman Empire varied from place to place and throughout time. It was also inspired by Persian, Turkish and Byzantine traditions and managed to bring all of these influences together in a unique Ottoman style. The architect Sinan in the sixteenth century helped Suleiman the Magnificent build hundreds of public buildings across the Ottoman Empire, including the Sehzade Mosque. Suleiman commissioned the mosque to commemorate one of his sons who had died young, possibly of smallpox, or perhaps murdered after a court intrigue.

Source 15.9.4 Illustrated manuscript from the fifteenth century, drawn by Suzi

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Chapter 15 The Ottoman Empire (c. 1299–c. 1683 CE)

DOC

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SA D I M GI PL T A E L C O H N AP LY TE R S

Extension 15.9.1 Buildings designed by Sinan

Source 15.9.5 The interior of the Sehzade Mosque

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Source 15.9.6 Interior of the Blue Mosque

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15.9 Ottoman art and architecture

The work of architects such as Sinan helped to take Ottoman culture to the different parts of the empire. Domes, tall and narrow minarets, enclosed courtyards with gardens, highly decorated interiors, and symbols including the favoured flowers, calligraphy and patterns became a feature of the built environment of all Ottoman territories. Sinan’s work also inspired later architects, such as the designers of the famous mosque built for the sultan Ahmet I known as the Blue Mosque because of the tiles that decorate the interior.

SA D I M GI PL T A E L C O H N AP LY TE R S

However, from 1453 onwards, there was always one other great source of inspiration for Ottoman architects, including Sinan: the Hagia Sophia, which we examine in the Site study in the next lesson.

Review 15.9

Online quiz

Knowledge and understanding

Thinking and researching

Students can access sample responses and results online

Teachers can go online to assign questions, view results, reports and more!

Knowledge and understanding 1.

Why does Ottoman art tend not to feature people and animals?

Identify three different cultures that helped to shape Ottoman art and architecture.

Why did Suleiman the Magnificent commission the Sehzade Mosque?

Explain the importance of architecture to the development of the Ottoman Empire.

Just by looking at the art of the Ottoman Empire, summarise the empire and its history. Explain what the art tells us.

“Art and architecture are very useful sources for historians.” Do you agree with this statement? Explain your thinking carefully, with reference to examples of art and architecture in the text.

Is it fair to talk about “Ottoman” art and architecture, or should we instead identify all of the influences separately?

Thinking and researching

You are a gallery owner who has been commissioned to bring different forms of Ottoman art from all over the world in order to create a special exhibition commemorating the 100-year anniversary of the end of the empire (1922). 1.

Using the internet, you must choose 10 pieces that can be displayed in a pamphlet or digital presentation such as a PowerPoint, Prezi or website. You can include carpets, textiles such as silk, ceramics (including tiles), calligraphy, miniatures, intricately carved and decorated weapons, books and more. You can decide whether you want to organise your exhibition around a single theme (a single sultan, perhaps, or a particular art form, such as weapons or carpets) or whether you want to try and capture the diversity and great length of the Ottoman period. Whatever you decide, you must include an explanation of your decision and how it directed your choices of art with your visual presentation.

Historical concepts: Perspectives, Significance Historical skills: Comprehension – chronology, terms and concepts, Perspectives and interpretations, Research, Communication

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Chapter 15 The Ottoman Empire (c. 1299–c. 1683 CE)

15.10

Site study: Hagia Sophia

Learning intention

Success criteria

In this lesson, you will learn about the Hagia Sophia, a famous mosque in Istanbul.

❏ I can outline the history of the Hagia Sophia. ❏ I can describe the architectural style of the Hagia Sophia.

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Starter activity

See, think, wonder

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Source 15.10.1 The Hagia Sophia in 2023

Look at Source 5.10.1. 1. What buildings or structures can you see in the image? What stands out? What natural and human-made features of the surrounding area do you notice? (I see…) 2.

What does the size and location of this building make you think about its importance? What kind of people or activities might be connected to this site? (I think…)

What do you wonder about why this building might have been built in this location? How might its purpose have changed over time? What use might different groups have for the site? (I wonder…)

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15.10 Site study: Hagia Sophia

C E B

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Source 15.10.2 The Hagia Sophia A Minarets: Four towers, 60 m high, used for the call to prayer B Semi-dome: Covers the semi-circular interior spaces (hemicycles) on either side of the dome C Central dome: Rises 55 m, and has a diameter of 33 m D Pendentives: Four concave triangles inside the dome, which give it a circular shape rather than a rectangular base E Arcade: The dome is surrounded by 40 arched windows

The Hagia Sophia was built in the sixth century by the Byzantine emperor, Justinian, and is one of the most famous structures in the world. Construction took only six years due to the 10 000 workers Justinian employed to build it. In the sixth century, it was the world’s largest building and today it is still the fourth-largest church in the world. It has had a challenging history. After 20 years, the great dome collapsed during an earthquake, and had to be rebuilt. In 1453, when the Ottomans conquered Constantinople, the Hagia Sophia was turned from a Christian church into a mosque, minarets were added to the exterior, and all of the Byzantine mosaics depicting Christian figures and scenes were plastered over. However, in 1934 the new government of the Turkish Republic declared that it would be a museum and work was begun on restoring the beautiful mosaics of the Byzantine era.

Source 15.10.3 Geometry of the Hagia Sophia ➜

One reason for the wonder that the Hagia Sophia inspires is because it is not just a marvel of art and architecture, but also of geometry. The dome (a circle) needed to be supported by the structure underneath (a square) and this was achieved using what is called a pendentive (a triangle!). So miraculous did this achievement seem that a man at the time called Procopius wrote of the dome, “It seems not to be founded on solid masonry, but to be suspended from heaven …”

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minaret tower of a mosque where the call to prayer is made

Chapter 15 The Ottoman Empire (c. 1299–c. 1683 CE)

History of the church Christian era The Hagia Sophia was originally a Christian church dedicated to the concept of Holy wisdom. It is the third church built on the site; the first church was built in 360 by the Emperor Constantius II, but was destroyed by an unknown cause, possibly riots in 404. The second version Source 15.10.4 Interior of the Hagia Sophia of the church was built in 415 by the Emperor Theodosius II. This church was burnt down during the Nika revolt in 532. The current form of the church was built by the Emperor Justinian in 537 and, despite an earthquake in 558 that destroyed the dome, the church has remained standing to this day. ➜

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The church continued to function as a Christian church until 1453, when Constantinople was captured by the Ottomans. During this time, as one of the five great sees of the Christian church, it was at the forefront of development of Church doctrine. After the loss of Alexandria, Antioch and Jerusalem to the Arab forces in the seventh century, Constantinople and Rome were the two remaining great sees still in Christian hands, and the church grew in importance as a rivalry developed between the pope in Rome and the patriarch in Constantinople regarding supremacy over Source 15.10.5 A Christian mosaic in the Hagia Sophia Church doctrine and practice. This resulted in the schism in 1054 between the two churches and resulted in the creation of Orthodox Christianity led by the patriarch, and Latin Catholicism led by the pope.

Catholic era

The Hagia Sophia was briefly converted into a Catholic church between 1204 and 1261 after crusaders captured Constantinople during the Fourth Crusade. The church was desecrated and damaged during this time. When Constantinople was recaptured in 1261 by the Byzantines, it had to be repaired and restored, which damaged relations between the two churches. Hagia Sophia reverted to an Orthodox church and continued in that form until 1453.

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15.10 Site study: Hagia Sophia

Islamic era Hagia Sophia was converted into a mosque from 1453 to 1935 and its physical appearance was changed slightly to reflect the Islamic faith. Four minarets were added to proclaim the call to prayer, the marble floor was covered in carpet and Christian mosaics on the walls and ceilings were plastered over. A mihrab was built in place of the altar to indicate the direction of Mecca. The church was repaired and renovated through its time as a mosque and eight giant medallions, reflecting significant figures of Islam, were added in the nineteenth century.

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The sheer scale and architectural features of the Hagia Sophia served to inspire the Ottomans and the church served as a blueprint for mosque design throughout the Ottoman and Islamic world – the Suleymaniye, Blue and Sehzade mosques, in particular, were based in part by Hagia Sophia’s awe-inspiring features.

Secular era

With the defeat and collapse of the Ottoman Empire following World War I, the new republic of Türkiye converted the Hagia Sophia into a museum from 1935 to 2020 to secularise and modernise the country by separating church and state and give the new country a new identity. The conversion was also intended to honour the shared histories of Christianity and Islam and act as a representation of Türkiye’s past. During this time, the Christian elements of Hagia Sophia were uncovered and restored and the church was listed as a United Nations World Heritage site.

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Source 15.10.6 Ceiling decoration in the Hagia Sophia

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Chapter 15 The Ottoman Empire (c. 1299–c. 1683 CE)

In 2020, Türkiye announced that the Hagia Sofia would once again be a mosque, which resulted in some support and some criticism from international and domestic commentators, demonstrating the enduring influence of this famous building and its place as a symbol that continues to resonate in the minds of all who see it.

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Source 15.10.7 Chandelier in front of one of the main windows of the Hagia Sophia

Site study questions 15.10 1.

Explain what the site of Hagia Sophia tells us about the history of Constantinople.

Why do you think the building was turned into a museum in 1934?

How would you describe the building if you had to explain its size and shape to someone who had never seen an image of it?

Describe how the building has helped to shape Türkiye’s past and present.

Assess which religion the Hagia Sophia has had a greater impact upon. Give reasons.

Identify some of the reasons why the Hagia Sophia might be considered so significant, not just in Ottoman history, but also in history more generally.

Go online and find some images of the Blue Mosque in Istanbul (Constantinople). Identify features of the Blue Mosque that you think might have been inspired by the Hagia Sophia.

Historical concepts: Significance Historical skills: Comprehension – chronology, terms and concepts, Research

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15.11 The legacy of the Ottoman Empire

15.11

The legacy of the Ottoman Empire

Success criteria

In this lesson, you will learn about the legacy of the Ottoman Empire and the various aspects that they created that have influenced the world.

❏ I can outline the variety of contributions that the Ottomans made in regard to the military, technology, medicine, law, society, trade, architecture and nationalism.

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Learning intention

Starter activity Class discussion

Consider the statement: “Empires from the past can still influence how people live today.” 1.

Decide whether you agree or disagree, using at least one example. You may like to consider the following:

• buildings and architecture • religion • laws and governance

• language • cultural traditions.

Be ready to explain your thoughts with to the class.

The legacy of the Ottoman Empire is rich and diverse. The empire had a lasting impact on art, architecture and fashion – even food and drink. In 1683, when the Ottomans retreated from Vienna, it is said that Viennese troops, picking through the Ottoman camp, came across a sack of coffee beans and decided to try them. This, according to the story, is how the famous Viennese coffee houses started. Some even claim that the croissant is a product of Viennese bakers, who observed the crescent moon on the Ottoman flag as the sultan lay siege to their city.

Technology Cannons

Source 15.11.1 Jerzy Kulczycki was a Polish nobleman and diplomat who was involved in the Siege of Vienna, and according to legend, started the first coffee house in the city in 1683. ➜

The Ottoman Empire was one of the first civilisations to employ gunpowder effectively. Its use of cannons in siege warfare to batter down walls that had previously seemed impregnable is all the more remarkable for the fact that the Ottoman army began as essentially a raiding army with no siege equipment and no ability to reduce town defences and fortifications. The siege of Constantinople was a significant event in world history. The walls of Constantinople had held firm against all attackers since the city was founded by Constantine in 330 CE. The world took notice, and fortifications had to be altered as the idea of having thick walls was no longer sufficient to ensure security.

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Chapter 15 The Ottoman Empire (c. 1299–c. 1683 CE)

Military tactics The creation of the janissary corps was influential as it was one of the first standing armies of the medieval and modern period and would provide a blueprint for other states. The janissaries provided a system of training and indoctrination that would ensure their dominance of the battlefield for well over 200 years. They were one of the first units in the world to be equipped exclusively with firearms and demonstrated the superiority and variety of ways that these new weapons could be utilised.

Medicine

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The Ottoman Empire played a significant role in the development of medicine and the melding of Eastern and Western treatment methods. The Ottomans used the concept of humoralism, the idea that the body was made up of four humours and that illness was a result of an imbalance between the four aspects. The Ottomans also began an integrated, holistic approach to healthcare where quality of life and care were seen as just as important as resolving the medical issue. Mental health was also prioritised, and music was seen as effective to assist in treating the mind.

Vaccination

The Ottomans were among the first to experiment with and implement a form of vaccination against smallpox. The process, called variolation, involved the injection of a live virus of smallpox in a small form into a healthy person, which provided some immunity against the disease. This practice, conducted among the elite of Ottoman society, was a source of inspiration for Lady Mary Wortley Montagu who, having witnessed the practice in her time as the wife of the British ambassador to the Ottoman Empire in 1717, advocated for inoculation in Great Britain.

Astronomy

The Ottoman Empire contributed to the study of astronomy through the Ottoman polymath Taqi al-Din (1526–85). He wrote a number of works on astronomy and his observations were noted as being more accurate than his Western contemporaries due to his use of decimal point notations. The construction of the Constantinople Observatory in 1577 rivalled similar structures in the West and was noted for its advanced equipment and observations. Taqi al-Din also created a mechanical astronomical clock, which greatly improved the accuracy of his observations.

Geography

The Ottoman Empire contributed to the study of geography and cartography through the Ottoman admiral Muhiddin Piri Reis. He created a map of the world in 1513 called the Piri Reis map, which is one of the oldest maps of the Americas in existence. He also created one of the most detailed maps of the Mediterranean Sea then in existence; called the Kitab-I Bahriye, it translates to the Book of the Sea.

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15.11 The legacy of the Ottoman Empire

Other areas of contribution Law The Ottoman Empire also had an influence on laws. Suleiman the Magnificent created a single law code that brought together shariah (Islamic law) with the laws that had been written by Ottoman sultans in the centuries before his rule. The law code that Suleiman created lasted for 300 years after his death. He also strengthened laws that protected the Jews and Christians of his empire.

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Society Under the Ottoman rulers, Constantinople became the heart of a new Turkish-dominated empire. The Ottoman expansion led to the development of Muslim populations, alongside existing non-Muslims, in European places such as Bosnia and Albania. The Ottomans continued the role that the Byzantine Empire had held before them, straddling two continents and some of the world’s largest trade routes. As a result, the Ottoman Empire became a melting point of different cultures, ideas and religions. While predominantly Islamic, Christianity and Judaism were allowed to flourish and, more importantly, were protected from time to time from persecution. Like the Byzantines before them, the Ottomans came to represent a bridge between Western and Eastern civilisations and were a moderating influence, where both cultures could coexist and provided an example for modern multiculturalism.

Trade and globalisation

At their position at the crossroads between East and West, the Ottomans became a major force in world trade. They were situated with access to the Silk Road and major overland trade with the East; controlled eastern Mediterranean shipping; and were able to influence trade far to the south in the Red Sea area as well as the major river trade of Europe and the Black Sea. Their dominance of this trade played a major role in the discovery of the Americas, as Italian explorer Christopher Columbus was seeking a way to circumvent the Ottoman monopoly on trade with the East when he discovered the “New World”. This in turn led to the Age of Discovery, which was spurred on in part by Western states seeking to gain access to the trade routes that the Ottomans controlled.

Architecture

Source 15.11.2 A caravan traversing part of the Silk Road, one of the key trade routes of the world the Ottomans were able to influence ➜

Inspired by the Hagia Sofia, Ottoman architecture became the blueprint for Islamic mosques and temples the world over. Buildings such as the Blue Mosque and Selimiye Mosque are masterpieces of design and beauty and their architect, Mimar Sinan, influenced architecture all over the world. Aspects of his concepts were incorporated into the construction of the Taj Mahal in India.

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Chapter 15 The Ottoman Empire (c. 1299–c. 1683 CE)

Nationalism

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Writing focus 15.11 Creating topic sentences

The Ottoman collapse resulted in the British and French dividing the Middle Eastern and Arabic lands between them. This led to ongoing disputes over territory that continue to this day. Many Serbs will say that Kosovo is Serbian, stolen by the Ottomans and peopled with non-Serbs to prevent Serbian possession. Many Iraqis say that Kuwait is Iraqi, stolen from them by the British when the Ottoman Empire collapsed. Disputes between the Turks and the Kurds have been ongoing and violent. All of these disagreements over territory have a long and bloody history, and headlines about some of these disagreements can be seen in the international news to this day.

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Source 15.11.3 The Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem was restored by Suleiman the Magnificent, who also rebuilt many of the city walls.

Thus, the influence of the Ottomans is mixed. It is a story of conflict, but also of rich cultural contributions. You can wander the streets of modern-day Istanbul (formerly Constantinople) and admire the walls that have stood for hundreds of years, the mosques and bath houses, the palaces and gardens. Or you can gaze over the city of Jerusalem and recall the work of Suleiman the Magnificent to restore this city so that Muslims, Christians and Jews could live and prosper there. In judging the influence of the Ottoman Empire today, the good, the bad and the inbetween need to be considered. No empire that spans hundreds of years leaves an uncomplicated story behind, and the Ottoman Empire is certainly no exception to this rule.

Review 15.11 Online quiz

Knowledge and understanding

Thinking and researching

Students can access sample responses and results online

Teachers can go online to assign questions, view results, reports and more!

Knowledge and understanding 1.

Identify the city that became the capital of the Ottoman Empire after 1453.

Identify the modern nation in which the city is located.

Identify two modern nation-states affected by the period of Ottoman rule.

Summarise the key features of the Ottoman legacy. To answer this question, you should consider section 15.11 and the text as a whole.

Summarise the positive contributions of the Ottoman Empire. (For example, you could consider the Ottoman emphasis on religious tolerance as well as art and architecture.)

“The most vivid legacies of Ottoman history, without doubt, can be seen in the cultural sphere, especially in architecture.” Explain the extent to which you agree with this statement.

Thinking and researching 1.

Assess the contributions of the Ottoman Empire to world history. What is its most enduring legacy?

Historical concepts: Perspectives, Significance, Contestability Historical skills: Comprehension – chronology, terms and concepts, Perspectives and interpretations Digital-only chapters • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Clarke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78788-8 • (03) 8671 1400

15.12 Chapter review and historical inquiry

15.12

Chapter review and historical inquiry Access the Interactive Textbook for a range of digital tools to help you review this chapter and build confidence.

• Auto-marked questions for fast feedback and fun practice • Self-assessment tools to track your progress, review answers (if enabled

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by the teacher), and flag questions for extra help • Downloadable worksheets for class or homework revision

Summary

DOC

Summary notes

What have you learned about the Ottoman Empire? Copy the table and fill it out by explaining your understanding. Aim for two points per topic.

Topic

What I have learned

The rise and expansion of the Ottoman Empire Key figures, events and military strategies that shaped the empire How geography and resources helped the Ottomans maintain power

Governance and experiences of subject peoples What the Ottomans created and how their legacy can be seen today

Visible thinking routine

I used to think … Now I think …

Think about everything you have learned about the Ottoman Empire.

Reflect on what you have learned throughout the course of this topic by writing five statements that begin with: “I used to think … “, “Now I think … “

Compare your statements in small groups or as a class.

Questions and activities Scorcher quiz

Access a fast and competitive quiz that puts your understanding to the test.

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Download chapter summary

Chapter 15 The Ottoman Empire (c. 1299–c. 1683 CE)

Quick questions 1.

The Ottoman Empire began under the leadership of ________ in the late thirteenth to early fourteenth century.

In 1453, the Ottomans captured the city of ________, marking a major turning point in the empire’s expansion.

The elite infantry soldiers of the Ottoman army were known as the ________.

The system where children were taken from conquered regions and trained to serve the state was called the ________ system.

Suleiman the ________ was one of the most famous Ottoman rulers, known for expanding and strengthening the empire.

Define what is meant by an “expansionist” empire.

Identify one way the Ottoman Empire controlled its subject peoples.

Outline how the Ottoman Empire expanded and became powerful.

Summarise the key features of the Ottoman Empire.

10.

Describe life for subject peoples in the Ottoman Empire.

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Group work activity

The role of significant individuals

As a group, choose one individual other than Suleiman the Magnificent. Research the life of your chosen individual. On your own:

• list ways in which this individual was significant • find good examples to demonstrate your argument for significance (what did they do/ what did they achieve/what did they build?).

Now, come together as a group and:

• compile your research (bring all of your research together) • discuss what you think are the best examples/most important points • consider the evidence that you have – how does it demonstrate significance?

Once you have worked through this group stage, your last task is to develop a dialogue between two historians of the Ottoman Empire. Your historians should be discussing significant times and figures of the empire, and they should discuss your individual and why they think that he or she is significant. You could frame this dialogue as part of a documentary on the Ottomans if you wish and film your historians as “experts”. This would allow you to use many visual sources.

Research activity

Research the life of Vlad the Impaler, the history of vampires, and the writing of the story The Vampyre and the novel Dracula. Why do you think the Ottoman Empire inspired so many vampire stories? Was it because of the expansion of the empire into lands that already had vampire stories or was it a consequence of the Ottoman conquests?

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15.12 Chapter review and historical inquiry

Write up your research under three sub-headings:

• Vlad the Impaler • Ottoman settings for visions of vampires • The teeth-marks of empire: how the Ottomans inspired the undead. Creative task

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Imagine that you are an Ottoman or Christian soldier during a siege of either Vienna or Rhodes. Research the siege that you want to use for the setting of your story and then write a diary entry or letter home from your soldier, offering an account of the siege, the conditions of battle (including weaponry) and the nature of the campaign (e.g. what is your side trying to achieve? How do you feel about it?).

Writing focus

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The following activities offer ways to demonstrate your understanding of the chapter and allow you to continue to practise your writing skills.

Answering questions in paragraphs

You can use this as a model when writing your own answers to the questions that follow. Refer to the downloadable file for further guidance. Question: Explain how geography helped the Ottoman Empire become powerful.

Model answer:

Topic sentence: the first sentence of the paragraph; directly answers the question

Elaborate: additional information, connections, historical significance, change and continuity, cause and consequence

Examples: provide credibility and illustrate the argument

Geography played a key role in helping the Ottomon Empire become powerful. The Ottomans controlled land between Europe and Asia, giving them access to important trade routes and the ability to move between continents. This central position meant they could trade goods, collect taxes and quickly send armies to different regions. Control of key waterways and cities also helped them defend their empire and expand more easily. Source 15.3.1, a map of the Ottoman Empire under Suleiman’s reign, shows that the empire stretched across Europe, Asia and Africa. This highlights its control over vast and strategic territory. For example, Constantinople was located between two major seas and connected land routes, allowing the Ottomans to control trade and movement between regions. Therefore, the Ottoman Empire’s geographical position helped it gain wealth, expand territory and maintain power over a large area.

Explain: clarify, define and describe

Evidence: specific, relevant evidence to support your arguments Linking sentence: reconnects to the topic sentence using the language of the question

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Download single paragraph model

Chapter 15 The Ottoman Empire (c. 1299–c. 1683 CE)

Extended-response questions 1.

Identify factors that contributed to the greatness of the Ottoman Empire.

Identify features that might have led to weaknesses in the Ottoman Empire.

Explain the role of the sultans in the development of the Ottoman Empire.

Describe the legacy of the Ottoman Empire.

Historical inquiry

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Investigating significance In this historical investigation into the significance of the Ottoman Empire, you will undertake the following steps:

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Download Historical inquiry

Part 1: Develop historical questions

• Step 1: Select an aspect of the Ottoman Empire that interests you. Examples include: ● ● ● ● ●

the life of the Prophet Muhammad a significant invention of your choice a significant individual of your choice the Golden Age of Islam representations of Islam.

• Step 2: Brainstorm what you already know. • Step 3: Develop a historical inquiry question. Examples include: ● ● ● ● ●

What were the key events in the life of the Prophet Muhammad? How did the invention of your choice change the world? Why was the individual of your choice significant in the expansion of Islam? Why has the Golden Age of Islam been described as "Islam's glory days"? How has the Islamic religion been depicted in a representation of your choice?

• Step 4: Explain why the question is important.

Part 2: Locate and analyse evidence

Part 3: Communicate historical findings Part 4: Reflect

Teachers, access the Online Teaching Suite for digital resources and tools that support review, assessment and reporting, including:

• student and class activity reports • a test generator to create custom assessments • built-in feedback tools • editable downloadable support material • a downloadable and printable “Writing focus” workbook for this chapter • download a sample case study for this chapter.

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