Issuu

Chapter

Imperialism in Asia (1750–1918)

Key questions

SA D I M GI PL T A E L C -O H N AP L Y TE R S

• What was the political and economic landscape of Asia in the period before European • • • • • • •

imperialism? How did early European trade and exploration shape relationships with China, Japan and Indonesia? How did European trading companies like the British and Dutch East India Companies gain and exert imperial control in Asia? How did Asian nations respond to imperial expansion and colonisation? What role did resistance movements and nationalism play in challenging imperial rule in Asia? How did Japanese expansion in the period reshape power dynamics in East Asia? What were the key treaties and conflicts that changed the balance of power in Asia during the period? How did World War I impact imperialism in Asia and the future of colonial rule in the region?

Lessons

4.1 Setting the scene 4.2 Asian empires and regional powers before 1750 4.3 Portuguese, Dutch and English exploration and trade with China and Japan before 1750 4.4 European trading companies in Asia after 1750: Rise of the EIC and decline of the VOC 4.5 European trading companies in Asia after 1750: The EIC in India and others 4.6 Key event: The Indian Rebellion (Sepoy Mutiny), 1857 4.7 Nationalism and resistance movements: China 4.8 Site study: Macau 4.9 The role of Japan in regional power dynamics 4.10 Asia and World War I (1914–1918) 4.11 Chapter review and historical inquiry

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4.1

Setting the scene Success criteria

In this lesson, you will learn about key events that contributed to imperialism in Asia between 1750 and 1918.

❏ I can outline key events that led to imperial powers gaining control over Asian territories between 1750 and 1918.

SA D I M GI PL T A E L C -O H N AP L Y TE R S

Learning intention

imperialism a policy of extending a country’s power and influence through colonisation using military force, political control or economic dominance

In the period 1750–1918, Asia experienced significant changes as European powers and rising empires like Japan expanded their influence over the region. Motivated by ambition for wealth, trade opportunities and power, imperialistic nations used military force, treaties and colonisation to exert influence and gain control over large parts of Asia, including China, India, South-East Asia and Korea. While some local rulers cooperated, many resisted, leading to wars, rebellions and lasting conflict in the region. This period of imperialism in Asia laid the foundations for modern borders, established national identities and sparked independence movements that would reshape Asia in the twentieth century. 1793

1639

Japan enacts the Sakoku Policy, closing its borders and banning most foreign contact and trade to protect its culture and avoid colonisation. This isolation lasted over 200 years

1511

The Portuguese seize the port city of Malacca, controlling access to the Spice Islands and becoming the first European power to dominate South-East Asian trade

1498

A Portuguese expedition led by Vasco da Gama reaches India, opening a new sea route for European trade with Asia

1600

The British East India Company is founded

1660s–1760s

European powers continue to compete for trade in tea, spices, textiles and porcelain

The Macartney Mission to China fails. Britain’s attempt to secure more favourable diplomatic and trade relations with China is rejected by the Qing Emperor Qianlong

1839–1842

The First Opium War between China and Britain

1842

1543

1602

1662

1765

1811–1830

The Portuguese reach Japan and introduce firearms and Christianity, sparking interest and resistance from Japanese leaders

The Dutch East India Company is formed

After ruling Taiwan for 38 years, the Dutch are expelled by Chinese Ming dynasty loyalists

The British East India Company gains control over the Indian province of Bengal

The Java War in Indonesia. Javanese rebels fought Dutch colonisation

The Treaty of Nanking ends the First Opium War and gives the victorious British control over Hong Kong island, free trade throughout China and compensation for opium destroyed in the war

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4.1 Setting the scene

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1899–1901

1850–1864

1868–1889

The Second Opium War sees Britain and France force more trade rights from China

The Meiji Restoration. A rapid modernisation in Japan to avoid colonisation

1858

The British Raj begins. India becomes a formal British colony when the British crown takes control from the British East India Company

1898

1910

Japan annexes Korea

SA D I M GI PL T A E L C -O H N AP L Y TE R S

The Taiping Rebellion in China. A bloody civil war that radically changed China politically and religiously, taking approximately 20 million lives

1856–1860

The Boxer Rebellion. Chinese nationalists rebelled against the growing influence of Western powers and Christianity but were suppressed

The US takes control over the Philippines after defeating Spain

1914–1918

1904–1905

1898–1899

1894–1895

1857–1858

1854

The Treaty of Kanagawa between Japan and the US ends centuries of Japanese isolation by opening Japanese ports to the US

The Indian Mutiny (also called the Indian Rebellion, or First War of Independence) is a major rebellion of Indian soldiers against British rule

1860s–1890s

The French colonise Indochina, taking control of Laos, Vietnam and Cambodia

The first Sino-Japanese War between Japan and China; Japan defeats China and gains Taiwan and influence in Korea

The “Scramble for Concessions” in China. Japan and European powers aggressively seek to carve out spheres of influence in China

The RussoJapanese War in which Japan became the first Asian power to defeat a European one when they emerged victorious against Russia

World War I. European empires like Britain and France relied heavily on their colonies to support the war effort. Japan fought on the Allied side, expanding its own empire as a result

Writing focus 4.1 Question words

See, think, wonder See, think, wonder

Look at Source 4.1.1.

What can you see in this image? (I see...)

What do you think about this image? (I think...)

What does this image make you wonder about the relationship between China and Britain at the time? (I wonder...)

Source 4.1.1 The reception of the Diplomatique (Macartney) and his suite, at the Court of Peking. Drawn and engraved by James Gillray, September 1792 ➜

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4.2

Asian empires and regional powers before 1750 Success criteria

In this lesson, you will learn how Asian empires and regional powers dominated global trade, culture and technology before 1750 through their advanced economies and innovations.

❏ I can identify the major Asian empires that dominated the region before 1750. ❏ I can explain how their geographic advantages, infrastructure and innovations made them world leaders in trade and culture.

SA D I M GI PL T A E L C -O H N AP L Y TE R S

Learning intention

Starter activity

See, think, wonder

Look at Source 4.2.1. 1.

What do you see in this image? (I see...)

What do you think these merchants are doing? (I think...)

What does it make you wonder about travel and trade between Europe and Asia before 1750? (I wonder...)

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Source 4.2.1 Illustrated map depicting the journey of the Venetian merchant Marco Polo (1254–1324) along the silk road to China Digital-only sample chapters • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Clarke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78794-9 • (03) 8671 1400

4.2 Asian empires and regional powers before 1750

In the period before European expansion into Asia, the region was home to some of the world’s most powerful and advanced empires. They were leaders in trade, culture, technology, art and religion, with many of the world’s most significant religious, cultural and technological advancements coming from the region. Asian countries possessed geographic advantages, rich mineral deposits, profitable agricultural land and good infrastructure that enabled lucrative trade, both at a local level and with their neighbours further afield.

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infrastructure physical and organisational structures and facilities that help a society operate; for example, roads, bridges and canals

SA D I M GI PL T A E L C -O H N AP L Y TE R S

The Mongol Empire In the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, the Mongols, led by the infamous Genghis Khan, united large parts of Asia to create the largest land empire in history, stretching from Eastern Europe to China. They were innovators in politics, military strategy and global trade and helped establish a flourishing exchange of goods, ideas and technology via the sophisticated transport network known as the Silk Roads.

EUROPE

Rome

Sea

nea

Antioch

Tigris River

Dunhuang

Chang’an

Kashgar

CHINA

Bactra

PERSIA

Kabul

In d

G a n g e s River

Irrawaddy Riv er

Euphrates River

EGYPT

Samarkand

Merv

Palmyra Seleucia

Alexandria

Bukhara

Yan gtz eR iv

rra

u s River

dite

Caspian

Black

Sea

Byzantium

MONGOLIA

Nile

ea Red S

River

SE ASIA

ARABIA

INDIA

KEY

Bay of Bengal

Arabian Sea

Main Silk Road

Eurasian steppe route

Main connecting routes

Great Wall of China

INDONESIA

1200 km

INDIAN OCEAN

➜

Source 4.2.2 Routes that made up the Silk Roads from Europe to Asia

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Chapter 4 Imperialism in Asia (1750–1918)

The Mughal Empire in India

SA D I M GI PL T A E L C -O H N AP L Y TE R S

maritime a general term that refers to anything connected to the ocean/sea

The Mughal Empire (1526–1857) ruled much of the Indian subcontinent and was a key member of global trade networks. Uniquely geographically positioned to take advantage of maritime and land trade routes, India held a 25 per cent share in global production in the centuries before the arrival of the British. India was a leading world economy, famous for its rich and opulent jewels, cottons and silks, exquisite craftsmanship and impressive architecture. The Mughal Empire was also known for its strong military and administrative leadership and organisation and was a centre of knowledge thanks to its extensive collection of books and manuscripts.

Source 4.2.3 Humāyūn’s Tomb in New Delhi. A grand dynastic mausoleum that was to become an example of Mughal architecture. The mausoleum was completed in 1570 and was the first gardentomb on the Indian subcontinent. It was designated a UNESCO World Heritage site in 1993. ➜

Confucianism an ancient Chinese belief system founded on the philosophical teachings of Confucius

China and the Ming Dynasty

Writing focus 4.2 Transitional phrases

Source 4.2.4 Ming dynasty vase, China, 1600s. Cloisonné enamel, 25.7 cm high. Cloisonné is an enamelling technique that uses melted strips of gold, brass, silver or copper to create the outline of a design before the gaps are filled with enamel paste. ➜

The Ming dynasty ruled China from the mid fourteenth to mid seventeenth centuries. Ming China had strong central government, technologically advanced cities and an effective navy. China became a centre of cultural, religious and technological advancement, and influenced much of Asia through the spread of ideas like Confucianism, Buddhism and writing systems. Ming China is perhaps best known for its high levels of craftsmanship in sculptures, ornamental carvings in jade, ivory, wood and porcelain, furniture, pottery and paintings.

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4.2 Asian empires and regional powers before 1750

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Japan and the Tokugawa Shogunate

SA D I M GI PL T A E L C -O H N AP L Y TE R S

The Tokugawa Shogunate (1603–1868) ended years of civil war called the “Warring States” period and ruled Japan for over 250 years. Using a feudal and military system to organise and govern society, it established a period of relative peace, stable government and cultural and economic development.

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Given the emphasis on centralised control, the economy was stimulated by the development Source 4.2.5 Gold koban of the Tokugawa Shogunate of large urban centres such as Edo (now Tokyo), Kyoto and Osaka. Agriculture, commerce and manufacturing sectors all grew, with the production and manufacture of fine silk and lacquerware decorative objects cotton fabrics, paper and porcelain and sake brewing. This led to the emergence of made from wood or a strong and wealthy middle class. Before the arrival of European traders, Japan had metal and painted productive trade links with its Asian neighbours, primarily China and Korea, exporting with a liquid varnish called lacquer to resources like copper and lacquerware and importing silk, ceramics and medicines make their surface from China. hard and shiny In 1639, the Tokugawa Shogunate enacted the Sakoku Policy to protect Japan from foreign influence, particularly Christianity, isolating itself from the rest of the world.

Sakoku Policy an isolationist Japanese policy that lasted over 200 years

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Source 4.2.6 A Japanese ship with foreign sailors, 1633

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Regional powers Under the Joseon Dynasty (1392–1897) Korea maintained independence from China despite being influenced by its culture and politics. A strong Confucian state, it is known for the invention of the Korean alphabet (hangul) and achievements in printing, science and ceramics.

SA D I M GI PL T A E L C -O H N AP L Y TE R S

Vietnam was another powerful Confucian state in the region that resisted Chinese control. Under the Lê Dynasty (1428–1789) the South-East Asian kingdom developed its own language and art and had a strong farming economy and emerging trade networks.

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Source 4.2.7 The Tale of Hong Gildong, written in The Cambodian Khmer Empire (802–1421) the Joseon Dynasty by Heo Gyun (1569–1618), is one of dominated much of mainland Southeast Asia the first novels written in Hangul, the Korean alphabet. during its peak, leaving lasting cultural legacies such as the Angkor Wat complex and a religious and cultural influence on the region, particularly on neighbouring Thailand and Laos, based on the practices of Hinduism and Buddhism. Java (now Indonesia) was ruled by the Majapahit Empire between the thirteenth and sixteenth centuries and was a major maritime power in the region, controlling key trade routes, particularly in the spice trade. It played a key role in the spread of Hinduism, Buddhism and Islam in the region and has a rich legacy of art, temples and literature.

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Source 4.2.8 An aerial view of part of the Angkor Wat temple complex near Siem Reap, Cambodia. Go to https://cambridge. edu.au/redirect/12177 to see a virtual rendering of Angkor Wat.

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4.2 Asian empires and regional powers before 1750

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Activity 4.2.1 Identify the location of each of the empires you have learned about in this section on a map. How might their locations in the region have contributed to their dominance prior to 1750?

SA D I M GI PL T A E L C -O H N AP L Y TE R S

Historical concepts: Cause and effect, Significance Historical skills: Research

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Source 4.2.9 The Brahu temple at the Trowulan archaeological site, believed to be the remains of the capital city of the Majapahit Empire in East Java, Indonesia

Activity 4.2.2 Source analysis

Use the sources in this section to answer the following questions. 1.

With a partner, identify how each of the sources might demonstrate political, cultural, religious or economic power in Asia prior to 1750. With reference to the sources, write a structured response to discuss the dominance of at least two of the Asian empires and regional powers mentioned in this lesson, prior to 1750.

Historical concepts: Perspectives, Significance Historical skills: Analysis and use of sources, Perspectives and interpretations, Communication

Review 4.2

Online quiz

Knowledge and understanding

Thinking and researching

Students can access sample responses and results

Teachers can go online to assign questions, view results, reports and more!

Knowledge and understanding 1.

Identify the longest ruling empire in the region before 1750.

Explain the significance of the policy that isolated Japan from the rest of the world.

Describe how the Ming Dynasty in China influenced other parts of Asia.

Explain why European traders might have been attracted to the Asian region.

Evaluate the importance of geographic location in the success of Asian empires.

Thinking and researching

Do some research into the Silk Roads. 1.

Identify some examples of what was traded along the Silk Roads, and the empires involved.

Explain why it might be important to understand any pre-existing interconnections in the region when studying imperialism in Asia from 1750.

Historical concepts: Continuity and change, Significance Historical skills: Comprehension, Research, Communication Digital-only sample chapters • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Clarke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78794-9 • (03) 8671 1400

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Chapter 4 Imperialism in Asia (1750–1918)

Portuguese, Dutch and English exploration and trade with China and Japan before 1750

4.3

Success criteria

In this lesson, you will learn how Portuguese, Dutch and English traders competed to establish trading relationships with China and Japan before 1750 during the Age of Exploration.

❏ I can compare the different approaches Portuguese, Dutch and English traders used to establish trade in Asia. ❏ I can explain why some traders were more successful than others in China and Japan before 1750.

SA D I M GI PL T A E L C -O H N AP L Y TE R S

Learning intention

Starter activity

See, think, wonder

Look at the map in Source 4.3.1. 1.

What do you see? (I see...)

What does it make you think about how and why European powers are exploring Asia? (I think...)

What do you wonder about how Asian people felt about European traders? (I wonder...)

Azov

EUROPE

MONGOLIA

pia

Carpets

CENTRAL ASIA

Constantinople Gems, textiles

Alexandria

Furs, gems and silver from Russia

Cas

Black Sea

Opium

PERSIA

Cairo

Per sia

ARABIA

ulf

Red

Sea

Copper, gems, spices Mocha

Gems

Fuzhoú 1643 Xiamen Porcelain, silk, tea 1762 1725 1684 Guangzhou 1557 Macao Chittagong

Opium

TIBET Cotton, silk, textiles INDIA Cambay 1690 Calcutta Cotton Balasore Textiles 1642 1612 Surat 1687 Bombay Masulipatam 1611 Arabian 1510 Goa Spices Madras 1639 Pondicherry 1672 1498 Calicut Sea Tranquebar 1616 1664 Cochin CEYLON

KEY

Main European trading ports English Portuguese French Spanish Dutch Goods imported to Asia from Europeans Jesuit travels in the 16th century Islamic trade routes

Colombo 1517

Sea of Japan Copper JAPAN Seoul KOREA Kyoto Tokyo r Osaka silve Yellow Nagasaki orld w Sea 1613 New 1540s er silv d l r East wo China Sea New Anping 1624

Bejing

1200 km

CHINA

SOUTHEAST ASIA Timber

Gold

Manila 1571

1641 1511 Malacca

1521 Pasai Copper, gold New World silver SUMATRA and opium from India Spices, sugar 1619 Batavia INDIAN OCEAN Demak

PACIFIC OCEAN

Ternate 1522

NEW GUINEA

Gold

Macassar

JAVA

1669 Spices

EAST INDIES

➜

Source 4.3.1 A map illustrating European exploration and expansion in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries

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4.3 Portuguese, Dutch and English exploration and trade with China and Japan before 1750

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SA D I M GI PL T A E L C -O H N AP L Y TE R S

During the Age of Exploration in the fifteenth to seventeenth centuries, European powers had begun to expand their trade networks and influence globally, notably into the Asia region. Driven by the demand for spices, silks, porcelain and other valuable goods, the promise of wealth attracted European traders to the region. Among the first to establish a presence were the Portuguese, then the Dutch and the English. While the Europeans initially came intending to trade, not conquer, they often used force or political pressure to establish and maintain profitable trading relationships. However, Source 4.3.2 A seventeenth-century engraving of Macau from a Chinese atlas powerful Asian empires in the region like Mughal India and Ming China had, up to this point, largely controlled the centuries-old trade routes. The Age of Exploration would usher in the Age of Imperialism, resulting in tensions that would have a lasting legacy, forever changing the international relations of the region.

The Portuguese

The Portuguese were the first European nation to establish maritime trade with Asia following Vasco da Gama’s journey to India in 1498. After establishing ports in Cochin (1503) and Goa (1510) in India, and Malacca in Malaysia (1511), they reached China in 1517 and eventually negotiated the lease of the southern port of Macau from the Ming Chinese in 1557. How the Portuguese achieved this is contested by historians, with one version suggesting the Chinese granted the Portuguese trading concessions in gratitude for ridding the region of pirates using their cannon. However, it is more likely the Ming rulers wanted access to goods from East Africa and India.

Source 4.3.3 Detail from a seventeenth-century Japanese folding screen. In this scene, we can see the arrival into port of Portuguese merchants (nicknamed by the Japanese as namban jin or “southern barbarians”). Goods are unloaded from the ship by servants, while the merchant seated on the deck has tea. ➜

Macau became a major Portuguese trading post and crucial waypoint before sailing north to Japan, or south to Indonesia. Portuguese traders in Macau were able to provide Chinese markets with silver from Japan and the Americas, pepper from India and sandalwood from Indonesia, while supplying European markets with Chinese silk, Ming porcelain, musk and gold. In the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, Macau also served as a base for Catholic missionaries in East Asia, although the Chinese made several attempts to restrict the conversion of Chinese people in the colony.

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Chapter 4 Imperialism in Asia (1750–1918)

While initially dominating the China–Japan trade route, the Portuguese started to face competition with the arrival of the English and Dutch in the area.

Jesuit a member of the Society of Jesus, a Roman Catholic order of priests founded in the 1500s to do missionary and educational work

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SA D I M GI PL T A E L C -O H N AP L Y TE R S

The Portuguese had limited influence in Japan. They arrived in 1543, introducing the Japanese to firearms and Christianity, and established a trading presence at Nagasaki. Portuguese Jesuits, like Francis Xavier, were initially Source 4.3.4 A depiction of the “Martyrdom of Nagasaki”, 1622. Fifty-five Christians, foreign and Japanese, were executed as part of the welcomed and were active in Tokugawa Shogunate’s ban on Christianity in Japan. their missionary work, but the Japanese Government became suspicious of Christian influence and consequently banned Christianity. The Portuguese were expelled from Japan in 1639. The Portuguese sent ambassadors to mend the relationship between nations, but the Tokugawa Shogun executed them, and trade with the Portuguese was never revived.

Activity 4.3.1 Source analysis

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Source 4.3.5 Extract from a letter by Saint Francis Xavier to the Society of Jesus in Europe, 1552. Francis Xavier was a Jesuit missionary, in Japan to spread Christian faith and convert people to Christianity. Japan is a very large empire entirely composed of islands … They are very polite to each other, but not to foreigners, whom they utterly despise …. Opposite to Japan lies China, an immense empire, enjoying profound peace, and which, as the Portuguese merchants tell us, is superior to all Christian states in the practice of justice and equity … Their country abounds in plenty of all things, and very many cities of great extent cover its surface. The cities are very populous; the houses ornamented with stone roofings, and very elegant. All reports say that the empire is rich in every sort of produce, but especially in silk. I find, from the Chinese themselves, that amongst them may be found many people of many different nations and religions …

St Francis Xavier, 1552. Quoted in Henry James Coleridge, ed., The Life and Letters of St. Francis Xavier, 2nd Ed., 2 Vols (London: Burns & Oates, 1890), Vol. II, pp. 331–350

Identify evidence that suggests Francis Xavier may have admired aspects of Chinese society.

Account for the perspective of this source.

Compare the descriptions of Japan and China. Based on the source, why might European traders be more interested in China?

Assess the value and limitations of this source to historians studying pre-1750 China.

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4.3 Portuguese, Dutch and English exploration and trade with China and Japan before 1750

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The Dutch The Dutch East India Company (Vereenigde Oostindische Compagnie, or VOC) was formed in 1602 and quickly became a dominant force in Asian trade. While predominantly focused on control of the spice trade in South-East Asia, they also had successful trading partnerships with China and Japan, notably being the only Europeans permitted to trade with Japan under the isolationist Sakoku Policy, enacted in 1639.

SA D I M GI PL T A E L C -O H N AP L Y TE R S

In 1636 the Japanese created an island in the bay of Nagasaki by cutting a canal through a narrow peninsula. Dejima (“Exit Island”) was a purpose-built trading post to house Portuguese, Chinese and Dutch traders. During the Tokugawa Shogunate’s isolationist period, it was the only place in Japan where direct contact with the outside world was allowed. Just 9000 sqm, it was strictly controlled by Japanese officials. Today, it is recognised as a national historic site in Japan. Dutch trade with China was restricted by the strength and near monopoly the Portuguese held through their port at Macau. After taking control of the Spice Islands (Indonesia) at the end of the sixteenth century, the Dutch unsuccessfully attacked Macau twice in the 1620s and then gradually spread west, taking over the Portuguese ports of Malacca (Malaysia), Colombo (Sri Lanka) and Cochin (India), so that by the 1660s only Macau and Timor remained in Portuguese control.

Writing focus 4.3 Appositives

monopoly the exclusive control of the supply of and/or trade in a product or service

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Source 4.3.6 Dejima, the Dutch East India Company (VOC) trading post in Japan, represented on a panel made of wood, mother of pearl and lacquer. It shows the details of the buildings and even has the VOC monogram on the flag, c. 1800.

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The English The British East India Company (EIC) was founded in 1600 and began competing with the Portuguese and Dutch for trade in Asia. They made multiple attempts to establish trade with China, with limited success before 1750. They were allowed to trade through Canton (now Guangzhou) but were under strict restrictions. By 1715, the EIC established their first permanent trading post in Canton, marking the start of significant involvement in China.

SA D I M GI PL T A E L C -O H N AP L Y TE R S

Activity 4.3.2 Source analysis

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Source 4.3.7 View of the Canton factories, William Daniell, late eighteenth/early nineteenth century

What impression does this source give of Canton port in the late eighteenth/early nineteenth century?

Observe the flags on the buildings in the port of Canton. Explain what this could suggest about the Chinese relationship with European traders.

Historical concepts: Perspectives, Contestability Historical skills: Analysis and use of sources, Perspectives and interpretations

English traders also established a trading post in Hirado in Japan in 1613. English merchants hoped to purchase Japanese silver and other valuable goods, while also gaining access to Chinese products such as silk. However, the English faced strong competition from Dutch merchants, who had already established successful trading links in Japan.

The Dutch were able to supply Japanese merchants with luxury goods from across Asia, including Chinese silk, Indian cotton textiles, and Southeast Asian spices. In contrast, the English merchants mainly offered European goods such as wool cloth, which were less popular with Japanese buyers. As a result, the Dutch gained a stronger position in Japanese trade and maintained stronger commercial connections within the region.

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4.3 Portuguese, Dutch and English exploration and trade with China and Japan before 1750

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Life at Hirado was challenging for the small English community. Trade profits were often disappointing, and communication with England could take many months. The EIC struggled to supply the trading post with goods that Japanese customers wanted to buy. Additionally, although the EIC were not directly expelled, the Tokugawa government’s restrictions on foreign trade and contact with Europeans also made trade more difficult. As a result, they failed to generate the profits that company officials had expected.

SA D I M GI PL T A E L C -O H N AP L Y TE R S

In 1623, after only 10 years of operation, the EIC closed the unprofitable Hirado trading post and decided to focus its resources on other parts of Asia. Although it was shortlived, the English trading post at Hirado remains historically significant. It demonstrated England’s early interest in expanding its commercial influence in Asia and highlighted the intense competition between European powers for access to Asian markets. At the same time, the experience showed that not all Asian states were passive victims of European expansion. The Tokugawa government retained control over foreign trade and determined the conditions under which Europeans could operate.

The English had more lasting success in India, but maintained a minor role in East Asian trade compared to the Portuguese and Dutch in the period prior to 1750. However, as we will learn, the English were to play a greater role in China in the late eighteenth century onwards, sparking wars, rebellions and nationalist sentiment.

Review 4.3

Online quiz

Knowledge and understanding

Thinking and researching

Students can access sample responses and results

Teachers can go online to assign questions, view results, reports and more!

Knowledge and understanding 1.

Outline how European traders established and maintained trading routes throughout Asia and provide an example of each.

Explain the purpose of Dejima. Which European traders were permitted there under the Sakoku Policy?

Using examples from the sources, account for reasons that motivated European traders to explore and trade with Asia before 1750.

Compare and contrast the response of China and Japan to foreign influence before 1750.

Identify the two reasons given for the Ming Emperor granting Portuguese use of Macau as a trading post and discuss which you think is most likely to be the truth. Justify your response.

Thinking and researching 1.

Using a blank world map and Source 4.3.1, chart the progress of European expansion into Asia using different colours to demonstrate Portuguese, Dutch and English routes. Indicate major ports and trading centres.

Historical concepts: Continuity and change, Cause and effect, Significance Historical skills: Comprehension, Analysis and use of sources, Research

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Chapter 4 Imperialism in Asia (1750–1918)

European trading companies in Asia after 1750: Rise of the EIC and decline of the VOC

4.4

Success criteria

In this lesson, you will learn how the British and Dutch East India Companies transformed from commercial traders to colonial powers in Asia after 1750.

❏ I can account for the decline of the Dutch East India Company. ❏ I can explain how the British East India Company expanded its influence in China.

SA D I M GI PL T A E L C -O H N AP L Y TE R S

Learning intention

Starter activity

See, think, wonder

Look at Source 4.4.1. 1.

What do you see in this image? (I see...)

Why do you think a trading company might need soldiers? (I think...)

What do you wonder about the lives of these soldiers? (I wonder...)

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Source 4.4.1 A watercolour painting from 1783 depicting the uniform of Dutch East India Company (VOC) soldiers.

capitalism an economic and political system based on private ownership of the means of production to make a profit

colonialism the act of taking control and possession over another territory to exploit its resources, economy and people

Driven by the effects of the Industrial Revolution in western Europe from the 1750s, as well as growing emphasis on the ideas of capitalism, imperialism and colonialism, Europeans strove to expand their global empires to access new markets. After 1750, European trading companies, such as the East India Company (EIC) in China and Dutch East India Company (VOC) in Indonesia, expanded beyond trade and became powerful colonial forces in Asia. They exercised their political influence, military power and territorial control to dominate many of their Asian trading partners. These powers came to be characterised by exploitation, violence and injustice, with lasting consequences for colonised populations.

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Source 4.4.2 A duit (coin) minted in 1735 by the Dutch East India Company

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Both the EIC and the VOC maintained private military forces to help protect trade and suppress resistance and they are often likened to a modern corporation with a board of directors, publicly traded shares and global influence. They built infrastructure, administered their own laws, negotiated treaties and minted their own currency.

Source 4.4.3 A coin minted in 1794 by the British East India Company ➜

European powers also began to introduce Western administrative, religious and legal systems to those they began to colonise, disrupting local structures.

The Dutch East India Company

The Dutch had established a lucrative trade network in Asia before 1750, with ports, agreements and settlements in China, Japan and Indonesia. However, they had also maintained trading interests in India since the early 1600s. They were granted a generous farman (royal decree) by the Mughal Emperor, which lasted for over a century and gave them permission to trade in Surat.

Writing focus 4.4 Developing sentences

There were regular clashes between European traders throughout the period as each tried to expand their trade opportunities. This conflict led to the need for costly forts and private armies to protect trade interests. As a result of this competition, predominantly from the EIC, the Dutch were forced to abandon India as the eighteenth century progressed.

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Source 4.4.4 A gate at the VOC fort at Cochin, India. Despite the loss of Indian trade, the VOC Dated 1740 continued its dominance of the spice trade, especially in Indonesia. Gradually evolving from trade to territorial control, they enforced monopolies through force and naval supremacy, particularly in Java and its surrounding islands.

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Source 4.4.5 A Dutch East India Company merchant ship. The company’s ships were known for their advanced design, speed and navigation, contributing to the company’s dominance in the region.

However, in the mid-eighteenth century, the VOC’s fortunes took a drastic downturn. Since their peak in the 1670s, profits had been gradually declining, as administrative costs (such as paying their army and maintaining their ships) and competition from other European trading companies rose. They were also drawn into the costly Third Javanese War of Succession (1749–1757).

In the Fourth Anglo Dutch War (1780–1784) the British Navy took over several Dutch settlements and trade routes in Asia. This disruption of trade, coupled with years of internal company corruption, competition from the increasingly powerful EIC and soaring administrative costs led to the VOC’s collapse. It declared bankruptcy and was taken over by the Dutch government in 1799. But Dutch imperialism in Asia did not end there. The country continued to colonise the region, consolidating and expanding the VOC’s economic and political influence to include control over the rest of the Indonesian archipelago by the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries.

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The British East India Company in China In an opposite trajectory to the VOC, after 1750 the EIC gradually came to dominate and control Asian trading routes. Despite a challenging start, the period after 1750 saw a rise in EIC interest in and trade with China. Having initially started trading from Canton in silks, tea and porcelain, the British had difficulties selling their own products to an uninterested Chinese market. They were also frustrated at only being allowed restricted trade through the southern port of Canton (modern-day Guangzhou).

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To correct the trade imbalance, the EIC increased exports of opium grown in their own Indian colonies to Chinese markets. The profits from this trade also helped pay for the export of Chinese tea, which had become the British public’s most popular drink by the early 1800s. It has been estimated that the average Londoner spent five per cent of their household budget on tea.

Activity 4.4.1 Source analysis 1.

Contrast the depiction of “Britannia” with that of the colonies.

Account for the perspective of this source.

Discuss the usefulness of this source for historians studying the motivations of European trading companies in this period.

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Source 4.4.6 United Kingdom Tea Company magazine advert, 1890s

Historical concepts: Cause and effect, Perspectives Historical skills: Analysis and use of sources, Perspectives and interpretations

The Chinese already valued and used opium as a medicine to reduce pain and stress and assist sleep. However, with the increased supply, the use of this highly addictive, dangerous drug spread rapidly through the Chinese population and caused huge addiction issues. By the late nineteenth century, it has been estimated about 10 per cent of the population regularly used opium.

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Source 4.4.7 An illustration of a Chinese opium den, 1843

Activity 4.4.2 Source analysis 1.

Identify the perspective of this source. Using evidence from the source, outline the methods it is suggested the British are using to sell opium in China. Outline how this source might indicate a change in the role of the EIC in Asia. Compare and contrast the portrayal of the British and Chinese in this source with that of Source 4.1.1. Discuss how this source might indicate a change in the role of EIC in Asia.

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Source 4.4.8 A German cartoon illustrates what it believed to be the hypocrisy of the British forcing a reluctant China to buy its opium, 1886.

Historical concepts: Continuity and change, Perspectives Historical skills: Analysis and use of sources, Perspectives and interpretations Digital-only sample chapters • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Clarke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78794-9 • (03) 8671 1400

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Despite China banning opium in 1796, the EIC continued to smuggle it illegally into the country. By the early nineteenth century, they were smuggling over one million kg of opium into China, even though smugglers risked the death penalty if caught.

Activity 4.4.3 Scan the QR code to watch the video about the effects of the Opium Wars in China and answer the following questions. 2.

Outline the steps that led to the First Opium War.

Source 4.4.9 Video: The Opium Wars in China

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Identify the reasons given for the decline of the Qing Dynasty in China.

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Account for why the Chinese call the Treaties of Nanking and Tientsin as the “unequal treaties”.

Historical concepts: Cause and effect, Perspectives Historical skills: Comprehension, Analysis and use of sources

Source 4.4.10 The Honourable East India Company’s iron steam ship Nemesis destroying the Chinese war junks in Anson’s Bay, 7 January 1841 ➜

In 1839, a Chinese official tasked with stopping opium smuggling introduced a system that required traders to sign a bond stating they had no illegal goods, which the British ordered their merchants not to sign. Other events that contributed to a rise in tensions included Chinese officials seizing large amounts of opium from foreign ships and throwing it into the sea, a Chinese villager being killed by British merchant sailors and the British being expelled from Macau and forced to move their operations to nearby Hong Kong Island.

Tension developed between Britain and China over opium, and in September 1839 the First Opium War broke out between the British and China. It was not an even match-up. The British had just fought the Napoleonic wars in Europe and had access to modern weapons including muskets, heavy artillery and paddlewheel gunboats, all of which were far superior to China’s weapons and ships. The British were also able to call on EIC troops from nearby colonies in India and South-East Asia for support.

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The British were victorious, and as part of the Treaty of Nanking (1842) were granted Hong Kong Island. However, the opium trade had still not been legalised in China. Foreign traders still faced restrictive trading conditions in the country, with Chinese officials becoming increasingly resentful of the growing foreign influence.

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The Second Opium War broke out in 1856 when the British demanded the Treaty of Nanking be renegotiated. They wanted all of China to be opened up for trade, for opium to be fully legalised, exemption from some customs duties and a British ambassador to be appointed to the imperial capital Peking (Beijing). China refused all these demands. The British, this time also joined by French forces, once again defeated and imposed the new Treaty of Tientsin in 1860. As well as forcing the Chinese to agree to all the terms they initially refused, the British were also granted Kowloon, an area just north of Hong Kong Island. The Chinese refer to the treaties of Nanking and Tientsin as the “unequal treaties”.

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Source 4.4.11 A British map showing territory gained in the Opium Wars

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Even though the EIC was formally dissolved in 1874, the British Government continued its territorial expansion in China, enlarging British Hong Kong to include territory above Kowloon (now called the New Territories) in a 99-year lease from the Chinese.

Review 4.4 Online quiz

Knowledge and understanding

Thinking and researching

Students can access sample responses and results

Teachers can go online to assign questions, view results, reports and more!

SA D I M GI PL T A E L C -O H N AP L Y TE R S

Knowledge and understanding 1.

Outline the role of the VOC in Asia after 1750.

Identify the reasons for the VOC’s eventual decline into bankruptcy.

Describe the methods used by the Chinese to combat the EIC’s refusal to follow trade restrictions.

Explain the reasons for the Opium Wars in China.

Using examples from the text and the sources, discuss the changing nature of the EIC and the VOC in Asia.

Thinking and researching 1.

Research the Macartney Mission to China (1792–1793).

Write a letter from the perspective of a member of the Chinese court outlining the British demands, and justifying why the Chinese reacted as they did.

Historical concepts: Continuity and change, Cause and effect, Perspectives, Significance Historical skills: Analysis and use of sources, Perspectives and interpretations, Research, Communication

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4.5

European trading companies in Asia after 1750: The EIC in India and others Success criteria

In this lesson, you will learn how the British East India Company transformed from commercial traders to a colonial power in India after 1750.

❏ I can explain how the British East India Company gained control of India. ❏ I can outline the impact of EIC rule on the Indian population.

SA D I M GI PL T A E L C -O H N AP L Y TE R S

Learning intention

Starter activity

See, think, wonder

Look at Source 4.5.1. 1.

What do you see in this image? (I see...)

What do you think the relationship is between the characters in this source? (I think...)

What do you wonder about how local people viewed British officials like Fullerton during this period? (I wonder...)

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Source 4.5.1 William Fullerton of Rosemount, EIC surgeon in Patna and mayor of Calcutta, receiving a visitor, attended by servants with fly-whisks, 1764. Victoria and Albert Museum, London

The British East India Company in India

Writing focus 4.5 Creating topic sentences

Despite EIC actions in China, it was their acquisition of large parts of India in the century after 1750 that have become synonymous with debate about the negative impacts of imperialism and colonisation on local populations.

Having been initially squeezed out of any profitable trade opportunities in South-East Asia, China and Japan in the 1600s by competition from the Dutch and Portuguese, the British had turned their focus to India. When the EIC was formed, it had been granted a monopoly on any English trade in India by Queen Elizabeth I. They held this monopoly for 250 years, and in that time their employees gathered enormous personal wealth by looting treasures, exploiting local labour forces, and collecting huge amounts in taxes, with very little regard for the Indian population.

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4.5 European trading companies in Asia after 1750: The EIC in India and others

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In the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, the extremely profitable trade in teak, spices, cotton, tea and silks brought European traders to Indian shores. Initially, like the other European traders in India, the EIC established trading posts in coastal areas like Madras, Bombay and Bengal and experienced success in the textiles industry. It gradually expanded into new areas and new industries, building fortresses to protect its assets. Like other European traders in India, the EIC used farmans to legitimise its trade and even levy taxes.

Activity 4.5.1

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Source analysis 1.

Identify the perspective of each source.

Compare how the British and Indian characters are portrayed in the sources.

Discuss the usefulness of these sources to a historian investigating the changing nature of the relationship between the EIC and Indian rulers in the period.

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Source 4.5.3 Mughal ruler Shah Alam II granting the rights of dominion of the provinces of Bengal, Behar and Odisha to the EIC in return for their help to take over the territories of a rival ruler, 1765. ➜

Source 4.5.2 Sir Thomas Stood Before the Mogul (c. 1908). Thomas Roe (1581– 1644) was an English diplomat and the first ambassador from Great Britain to India. His primary role was to obtain protection for the East India Company’s factory at Surat.

Historical concepts: Continuity and change, Perspectives Historical skills: Analysis and use of sources, Perspectives and interpretations

Before the arrival of Europeans, India had been divided into princely states and ruled by the Mughal Empire. However, after the Battle of Plassey (1757), the EIC began to govern Indian territories itself, collecting taxes and maintaining an army. By either subjugating or negotiating with the local rulers of the princely states, the EIC eventually came to control large parts of India, using its own administrative and military bodies, the latter of which were primarily made up of sepoys. In both systems, British men would be given positions of responsibility, while Indians were unable to gain promotion past a certain position. The EIC was well known for exacerbating tensions between local Indian rulers, intervening and eventually taking control of territories, using the company-owned military force of sepoy soldiers to enforce its position. Another particularly audacious and hated move was the EIC’s introduction of a “lapse doctrine”, whereby, if a state’s ruler died without a male heir, the EIC could annex the territory.

subjugate to bring under control, especially by conquest sepoy a professional Indian soldier hired by the EIC to protect its interests; sepoys were volunteers and generally signed up seeking steady income and regular meals

annex to formally take control of the territory of another state

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Chapter 4 Imperialism in Asia (1750–1918)

Source 4.5.4 India in 1765 and 1805, showing EIC governed territories in pink

However, the EIC still benefitted from a range of trading and economic rights and privileges unlike any other European trading company at the time. As we will learn in Lesson 4.6, the EIC brutally repressed any dissent in the Indian population, subduing their colonial subjects using military force, the brutality of which would eventually lead to the company’s downfall, and the British Government formally taking charge of the colony of India in 1858.

Source 4.5.5 This illustration from the early 1800s depicts sepoys in the Madras Army. A highly professional military force owned by the EIC, which was used to subdue rebel uprisings. The uniforms used by native troops working for the EIC were a colourful blend of traditional European military uniforms and Indian items, such as elaborate turbans. ➜

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Once in control of a province or territory, the EIC imposed crippling taxes, stirring resentment with the local population. Additionally, by putting profits before all else, the EIC was responsible for several famines in the period, and productivity dropped as a result. The British Government had become increasingly concerned about the EIC’s growing political power and mismanagement of Britain’s most lucrative asset. The Great Famine of 1770, which caused the deaths of approximately 10 million Bengalis, was attributed to the EIC’s economic policies and monopoly of food supplies, exacerbated by a failed monsoon and drought. In the 60 years following, the British Government introduced several regulatory acts to dilute the Company’s power.

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Activity 4.5.2 Source analysis

Identify the characters representing Britain, India, China and Africa in this source.

Contrast the portrayal of the British, African and Asian countries in this source.

Identify the perspective of this source and compare it to that of Sources 4.5.4 and 4.5.5.

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Explain how this source could be considered propaganda in support of the EIC.

➜ Source 4.5.6 The East offering its riches to

Britannia, Spiridione Roma, 1778. Commissioned by the East India Company in 1777 as a ceiling piece for the Revenue Committee Room in East India House, London.

Historical concepts: Continuity and change, Perspectives, Contestability Historical skills: Analysis and use of sources, Perspectives and interpretations

Other European trading companies

Other European trading companies from France, Denmark, Sweden and Spain also had success trading in Asia, although not to the extent of the English and Dutch. Rising costs, frequent skirmishes with other European powers and the growing dominance of the Dutch, and then the English, in the region saw a reduction in these country’s profits as the eighteenth century wore on.

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Source 4.5.7 A map of Canton from the diary of Carl Johan Gethe, a cartographer on board a Swedish East India Company (SOIC) ship on a three-year trading expedition to Asia, 1746. The SEIC operated from 1731–1813 and was the largest trading company in Sweden during the eighteenth century. Digital-only sample chapters • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Clarke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78794-9 • (03) 8671 1400

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Activity 4.5.3 1.

Research the trading companies from France, Denmark, Sweden and Spain in the region. Create a table to show the products they traded and the countries in Asia they traded with.

Discuss any similarities and differences you notice between: a. these European traders b. these European traders and the EIC and VOC. Briefly explain how these similarities may have caused tensions in the region.

Identify the most common outcome of these tensions.

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Compare and contrast any changes in the role of European trading companies over the period.

Historical concepts: Continuity and change, Significance Historical skills: Analysis and use of sources, Perspectives and interpretations, Research, Communication

Review 4.5 Online quiz

Knowledge and understanding

Thinking and researching

Students can access sample responses and results

Teachers can go online to assign questions, view results, reports and more!

Knowledge and understanding 1.

Identify the methods used by the EIC to gain control over territory in India.

Define “lapse doctrine” and briefly explain how the EIC used it.

Discuss the impact of EIC policies on the Indian population.

Account for the EIC’s decline.

Using examples from the text and the sources, summarise the changing nature of the EIC in India from 1750 to the late 1800s.

Thinking and researching

Visit the website of the Clive Museum at Powys Castle in Wales, UK, (https://cambridge.edu.au/redirect/12036) and answer the following questions. 1.

Identify and explain the methods that the website suggests Clive used to build his wealth. Use quotes and language from the text to support your response.

Discuss how the National Trust addressed the unethical element to the collection.

Do you think some or all the items in the collection should be returned to India? Justify your response in a discussion with a partner or class debate.

Historical concepts: Perspectives, Contestability Historical skills: Analysis and use of sources, Perspectives and interpretations, Research, Communication

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4.6 Key event: The Indian Rebellion (Sepoy Mutiny), 1857

4.6

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Key event: The Indian Rebellion (Sepoy Mutiny), 1857 Success criteria

In this lesson, you will learn how the Indian Rebellion of 1857 was sparked by British policies and religious tensions, and how it transformed British rule in India.

❏ I can explain the causes and consequences of the Indian Rebellion of 1857. ❏ I can account for how this event ended the East India Company's rule and established direct British control through the Raj.

SA D I M GI PL T A E L C -O H N AP L Y TE R S

Learning intention

Starter activity

See, think, wonder

Look at Source 4.6.1. 1.

What do you see in this image? (I see...)

Why do you think this man has been shot? (I think...)

What do you wonder about what happened next? (I wonder...)

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Source 4.6.1 “The Death of Colonel Finnis on the Parade Ground at Meerut.” Illustration for The Illustrated Times, 18 July 1857. Colonel John Finnis, 11th Regiment, Bengal Army, was shot off his horse and fell dead to the ground. He was the first European officer to be killed in the Rebellion.

In the decades leading up to 1857, the EIC had put profit before all else and had let large parts of vital Indian infrastructure, such as roads, canals and irrigation systems, lapse into disrepair, causing famines. In the mid 1800s, the EIC’s private army employed around 45 000 British soldiers and over 230 000 sepoys. Among the sepoys, discontent had grown over pay, conditions and humiliating treatment by British officers. Tensions in India had reached a boiling point by 1857.

Despite all these issues, it was the spread of Christianity in India that, arguably, sparked the 1857 Rebellion. As well as goods to trade, the British had also brought their ideas to the colonies. There was a patronising attitude among Western Europeans that the native populations of their colonies required “civilising”, and that it was their duty to do so. Underpinning the British role in Asia were Enlightenment ideas about science, rationality and individual rights.

Enlightenment a European intellectual and philosophical movement of the eighteenth century that emphasised reason and individualism rather than tradition

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The British brought Christianity and British customs, along with legal and administrative systems to Asia. As part of their “civilising” mission, the British had sent out missionaries, independent of the EIC, to spread Christianity in India and had introduced laws that many Indians believed were designed to erode their religion. This, inevitably, caused issues as the missionaries clashed with India’s ancient religious traditions.

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Tensions reached an all-time high in 1857, when sepoys heard reports that a new type of gun cartridge coated in pig and cow fat was about to be introduced. When soldiers loaded their rifles, they had to bite the end off the cartridge. The new coating was offensive to both Muslims and Hindus, who observed strict rules about certain foods. Muslims must not eat pork, while Hindus believe cows are sacred and so do not eat beef. This also added to concerns over existing rumours of forced conversions to Christianity in the EIC army.

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Source 4.6.2 English orientalist and missionary William Carey baptising the first Hindu convert, a carpenter named Kristno, in the Hooghly River, India, 1837. caste the ancient Indian system of organising Hindu society into strict hierarchical groups (jati), ranked according to status maharajah an Indian prince

Known by many names, including the Indian Mutiny, Indian Rebellion, Sepoy Rebellion and First War of Independence, the conflict began in April 1857, when 85 Indian soldiers refused to bite into the fat-smeared cartridges for fear it would cause them to fall out of caste.They were court-martialled and sentenced to 10 years in jail.

A few weeks later, when their comrades broke them out of jail, they went on a rampage through Delhi, killing any Europeans they encountered. The British response was slow, and the mutineers took control of Delhi. News spread and more dissatisfied Indians – both military and civilian – joined. The violence continued for over a year.

Some of the thousands of civilians involved joined in for religious reasons, and some to support their traditional local ruler. Some just joined in for the opportunity to engage in looting. However, the mutiny was mostly contained to the Bengal Army, and not all sepoys took part. Some refused to support either side and some remained loyal to their British officers. Disgruntled local rulers who had been dispossessed by the EIC’s various tactics for acquiring territory became a rallying point for mutineers, but other Princes and maharajahs thought they may gain more by supporting the British or even staying neutral.

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Source 4.6.3 A depiction of the streets of Delhi during the Indian Rebellion, 1857 Digital-only sample chapters • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Clarke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78794-9 • (03) 8671 1400

4.6 Key event: The Indian Rebellion (Sepoy Mutiny), 1857

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However, although the sepoys took over important centres like Delhi, they lacked overall command, structure and coordination and did not have access to the resources the British did.

Activity 4.6.1 Source analysis ➜ Source 4.6.4 The Siege of Cawnpore.

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Miss Wheeler (possibly Margaret Wheeler, daughter of British Major General Sir Hugh Wheeler) defending herself against sepoy attack during the Siege of Cawnpore (now Kanpur), June 1857.

Writing focus 4.6 The language of source analysis

Source 4.6.5 Nana Sahib’s ambush

Both sides adopted mass murder as an instrument of policy. It was used most infamously by Nana Sahib … at Cawnpore. He accepted terms under which the British would be allowed passage by boat down to the river to Allahabad. On 27 June, at Nana Sahib’s orders, a detachment of sepoys ambushed the refugees … and many were shot or drowned. Sahib proclaimed the massacre a victory and celebrated it accordingly, inviting “all the peasants and landed proprietors of every district to rejoice at the thought that the Christians have been sent to hell!”

Lawerence James, Raj: The Making and Unmaking of British India, Little, Brown and Company, London, 1997, p. 251

Account for the perspective of Source 4.6.4.

Identify what may have caused Nana Sahib to order the ambush and massacre of British refugees in Source 4.6.5.

Discuss the usefulness of these sources as evidence of the violence of the Indian Rebellion.

Historical concepts: Cause and effect, Perspectives, Significance, Contestability Historical skills: Analysis and use of sources, Perspectives and interpretations

Eventually, the EIC armies, reinforced by their Madras and Bombay Armies, Sikh, Gurkha and British troops, overcame the mutineers and rebels. Both sides had committed acts of extreme violence towards the other, and the Rebellion deeply shocked the British, who had hugely underestimated the strength of the resentment against them.

Before the Rebellion, concerns had been building in the British Parliament about the EIC’s repressive methods of rule in India. The events of 1857 and fears of further Indian rebellion intensified those concerns. In 1858, the British Government took direct control of India through the Government of India Act, marking the end of the East India Company’s rule in South Asia and the beginning of the Raj.

Sikh a follower of Sikhism, an Indian religion founded in the Punjab region in the fifteenth century Gurkha a member of a regiment in the British army made up of recruits from Nepal and northern India, renowned for their military prowess

Raj a Hindi word meaning king or ruler; also used to describe the period of British rule of India from 1858 to 1947

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The Rebellion led to a widespread call for a fundamental shift in British–India relations and a desire to return to more traditional Mughal systems of rule. Indians had participated in the largest anti-imperial revolt against any European empire anywhere in the world to date, and it would change the British-Indian relationship permanently. In the years to come, the British were fearful and hyper-vigilant of a repeat of the violence, and, as a result, squashed any perceived disobedience rapidly and ruthlessly. DOC

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Extension 4.6.1 The Java War (1825–1830)

For future independence leaders in the twentieth century, like Mohandas Gandhi, Jawaharlal Nehru and Muhammad Ali Jinnah, the Rebellion was an important moment in India’s colonial past, used to draw out nationalist sentiments, highlighting British imperialistic brutality, the need for Indian self-governance and, eventually, for independence in 1947.

Review 4.6 Online quiz

Knowledge and understanding

Thinking and researching

Students can access sample responses and results

Teachers can go online to assign questions, view results, reports and more!

Knowledge and understanding 1.

Identify the causes of famine in India in the period of EIC rule.

Describe the conditions for sepoys in the EIC army.

Outline the outbreak and course of the Rebellion.

Explain why the Rebellion ultimately failed.

Account for the limited availability of sources about the Rebellion from the Indian perspective.

Explain how the Indian Rebellion might have influenced later Indian independence movements.

Thinking and researching

In small groups or individually, explore the different perspectives of those involved in the Indian Rebellion (1857). 1.

Research the role of one of the following: a Gurkha, a British officer, an Indian farmer, a local maharajah, a Christian missionary, an Indian Prince loyal to the British, a sepoy.

Select an engaging way to present your character’s perspective about the cause of the Rebellion, their opinion of British rule in India, and their hopes and/or fears for India’s future.

Write a reflection to discuss the reasons for different Indian perspectives about British rule.

Historical concepts: Cause and effect, Perspectives, Significance, Contestability Historical skills: Analysis and use of sources, Perspectives and interpretations, Research, Communication

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4.7

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Nationalism and resistance movements: China Success criteria

In this lesson, you will learn how Chinese nationalism emerged in response to foreign imperialism, and how the Treaty of Nanking and Qing dynasty decline reduced China’s regional influence.

❏ I can identify the events that sparked Chinese nationalism and resistance to imperialism. ❏ I can explain the decline of the Qing dynasty and China’s regional influence.

SA D I M GI PL T A E L C -O H N AP L Y TE R S

Learning intention

Starter activity

See, think, wonder

Look at Source 4.7.1. 1.

What do you see in this image? (I see...)

Why do you think the Boxers would want to kill foreigners? (I think...)

What do you wonder about what might happen next? (I wonder...)

➜

Source 4.7.1 Chinese people read a Boxer manifesto in Peking (Beijing), which says “Kill the Foreigners” during the Boxer Rebellion, 1900.

The response of Indians to British colonialism and imperialism in India was mutiny and rebellion, sparking the first notion of an “Indian” nationalism. The Chinese had a similar response to imperialism in the period, with nationalism and resistance movements playing a key role. The Chinese faced increasing influence from several foreign powers during the period, including the British, French, United States, Japan, and other European countries. Outbreaks of violence against imperialism including the Opium Wars (1839–1860), Sino-Japanese War (1894–1895) and Boxer Rebellion (1899–1901) demonstrated emerging nationalistic and anti-imperialist sentiments in China and eroded the sovereignty of the Qing dynasty. Not as modernised as other militaries, China suffered numerous defeats and increasing foreign encroachment into its territories. However, by World War I, China was beginning to develop a distinct identity, seeking to regain political autonomy, modernise the nation and protect its traditions.

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Impact of the Treaty of Nanking

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Writing focus 4.7 Developing sentences

The Chinese had fought to resist increasing European attempts to subvert Chinese trade laws and spread Christianity. The Treaty of Nanking (1842) marked a significant moment, initiating a “Century of Humiliation” characterised by foreign domination and internal disorder in China. The ease of British victory in The First Opium War highlighted China’s military weaknesses, damaged its prestige and power and sparked early nationalist sentiments and calls for reform within the Qing dynasty.

Source 4.7.2 The Treaty of Nanking, 1842

The treaty set an example to other foreign powers of what they could gain, having been governed so tightly by Chinese trade restrictions. The British were given territory (the island of Hong Kong), paid compensation and their citizens were given special rights that meant they were subject to British, not Chinese, law while in China. Furthermore, new ports were opened to British trade and habitation.

concessions things that are given up or granted, usually in response to demands

In 1843 France and the United States, and Russia in 1858, negotiated similar treaties. More ports were now opened to foreign merchants, and foreigners and missionaries were allowed freedom of movement and trade anywhere in the country. Through the rest of the nineteenth century more concessions were forced out of China including Russian claims in China’s west and northeast in 1850 and 1860, British demands for access to the upper Yangtze River in 1876, the French in northern Vietnam in 1884, Japan in Korea and northeast China in 1895 and other foreign powers who demanded spheres of influence around railroads and mines. Each conflict and defeat caused more foreign demands, greater Chinese reparations, greater foreign pressure and presence and increased foreign participation in Chinese politics and economy.

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RUSSIA

CHINA

gH e R i ver )

Lake Baikal

Port Arthur (Russia)

Qingdao (Germany)

KOREA

Sea of Japan JAPAN

Weihaiwei (Britain) Yellow Sea Shanghai

Tokyo

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( Ye

Beijing

TIBET

Chongqing

BHUTAN

a ng es R

NEPAL

TAIWAN Hong Kong (Britain) Macao (Portugal)

BURMA

Bay of Bengal

Rangoon Bangkok

KEY Spheres of influence British French German Japanese Russian Foreign colonies British French Japanese

Zhanjiang (France) Guangzhou

i v er

INDIA

Chan g Jiang (Yangtz e R iver

SIAM

FRENCH INDO-CHINA

PACIFIC OCEAN

Manila

PHILIPPINES (U.S)

Qing Empire, 1850 China, 1911

South China Sea

INDIAN OCEAN

1000 km

➜

Source 4.7.3 Foreign spheres of influence in China before World War I

Not just at risk from European colonialism, China was also threatened by its increasingly imperialist neighbour Japan. The Sino-Japanese War (1894–1895) further revealed China’s vulnerability when Japan seized Taiwan. Chinese intellectuals and reformers began to argue that China would need to rapidly modernise to resist further imperial colonisation.

Activity 4.7.1 Source analysis 1.

Identify each country represented in this source.

Identify the message of this source.

Explain how Source 4.7.4 could be used to support what is depicted in Source 4.7.3. Use examples from the sources in your response.

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Source 4.7.4 A caricature titled China – the cake of kings and of emperors, 1898

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The Boxer Rebellion

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Yihetuan “Righteous and Harmonious Fists” were a Chinese secret society who practised a form of martial arts

The Boxer Rebellion (1899–1901) was a violent uprising led by the Yihetuan and peasants against Western influences in China. There was increasingly widespread frustration across China about growing economic hardship and the humiliating political and trade concessions granted to foreign powers by the Qing rulers. Violence erupted in the north with peasants targeting foreigners, missionaries and Chinese who had converted to Christianity.

Source 4.7.5 Imperial Chinese troops, 1900

Although started by peasants, the rebellion was supported by parts of the Qing government who sent imperial troops to fight alongside the rebels.

In June 1900, the violence against foreign diplomats, missionaries and Christians had intensified and they had been forced to seek shelter in the Legation Quarter of Beijing. Besieged by the Boxers, they issued an urgent appeal for international assistance. The Boxer Rebellion was ultimately crushed by a coalition of eight foreign powers after a siege lasting 55 days.

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Source 4.7.6 A Japanese source depicting the “Eight-Nation Alliance” of Austria-Hungary, France, Germany, Italy, Japan, Russia, the United Kingdom and the United States that crushed the Boxer Uprising, 1900. Digital-only sample chapters • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Clarke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78794-9 • (03) 8671 1400

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This victorious international force divided Beijing into districts that they administered themselves, looting treasures and summarily executing suspected Boxers. The Boxer Protocol, signed in 1901, officially ended the Rebellion and forced China to pay reparations to the nations involved. It also led to foreign troops being allowed to be stationed in Beijing and the destruction of several fortifications. Despite its failure, the Boxer Rebellion intensified Chinese resentment towards foreign influence and interference in China and inspired further nationalist movements.

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Activity 4.7.2

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Source 4.7.7 The Real Trouble Will Come With the ‘Wake’, a political cartoon representing the international force that ended the Boxer Rebellion in China, 1900. 1.

Identify each country represented in this source.

Outline the message of this source.

Compare and contrast this source with Source 4.7.4.

Historical concepts: Perspectives, Significance Historical skills: Analysis and use of sources, Perspectives and interpretations

The end of the Qing dynasty

The Xinhai or Hsinhai Revolution of 1911 ended over 2000 years of imperial rule in China by removing the Qing dynasty and replacing it with a republic, putting modernisation, nationalism and sovereignty front and centre in China.

There were some efforts by the Qing dynasty throughout the late 1800s to respond to the increasing threat of imperialism. The “Self-Strengthening Movement” (1861–1895) modernised China’s armed forces by adopting Western technology and military practices and established modern industries to produce the new weapons and equipment. Digital-only sample chapters • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Clarke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78794-9 • (03) 8671 1400

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The Hundred Days’ Reform (1898) was initiated by progressive intellectuals and officials to modernise China’s education system, government institutions and the military. It also introduced Western-style reforms to strengthen China against further foreign influence. Finally, the New Policies (1901–1911) were implemented after the Boxer Rebellion to further accelerate modernisation and reform in education, the military and the economy.

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However, from being a previously dominant power in the region, since the Opium Wars in the mid-1800s China had lost much of its influence as instability and foreign influence exposed its fragile imperial system. Early military defeats in the Opium Wars and SinoJapanese Wars signalled a dramatic shift in Asian regional power away from China towards a rapidly modernising Japan. As the Qing dynasty weakened through the 1800s, it lost control over its traditional influence in tributary states such as Korea and Vietnam and was subject to increasing spheres of foreign influence over its own territories. Western powers carved out domination by securing rights to trade, building railroads and stationing troops in strategically important areas, further reducing China’s sovereignty.

Additionally, the Qing were blamed for being unable to maintain internal stability as events like the Boxer and Taiping Rebellions demonstrated. This further weakened central authority and led to warlords and independent rulers taking control of some provinces.

The period of warlordism in China

A trend of provincial autonomy and decentralised power had begun to emerge during the late Qing Dynasty. However, the death of President Yuan Shikai in 1916 left a power vacuum that national institutions could not fill. As central government authority weakened and dissolved, powerful military commanders known as warlords carved China up into spheres of influence and governed their own individual province or region. Each warlord maintained their own army and governed their territory independently. Some collected taxes, issued their own laws and fought neighbouring warlords for land and influence.

This “Warlord Era” lasted from 1916 to 1928 during which time China became politically fragmented and unstable. The era was dominated by volatile, complex alliances among three main northern cliques and various southern factions. The constant conflict between warlords disrupted trade, damaged infrastructure and created hardship for ordinary people. Many peasants were forced to pay heavy taxes or provide food and supplies to local armies. Foreign powers also took advantage of China’s weakness by expanding their economic and political spheres of influence.

The Warlord Era ended in 1928 after the Northern Expedition led by General Chiang Kai-shek defeated the major warlord armies and nominally unified the country. It highlighted the challenges facing the new republic. Many Chinese people were dissatisfied with the weakness of the republic and the continued influence of foreign powers. They believed that a stronger government was needed to reunify the country and restore stability. This desire for national unity helped encourage the growth of new political movements that would shape China’s future. Two major political movements emerged that sought to rebuild China: the Nationalist Party (Kuomintang or KMT) and the Chinese Communist Party (CCP).

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Changes in society and culture The collapse of the Qing Dynasty brought significant social and cultural change to China. Many reformers argued that it was China’s traditional institutions and customs that had contributed to its weakness, and they needed to be modernised.

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Education was expanded, and universities became centres of debate about China’s future. Intellectuals increasingly promoted nationalism, democracy and social reform. New schools taught science, mathematics and Western ideas alongside traditional subjects and newspapers and magazines spread new ideas to a growing, literate, audience. Women also experienced new opportunities. Practices such as arranged marriages were criticised and greater access to education for girls was promoted. Although gender equality remained limited, women’s participation in public life gradually increased. Despite these changes, many Chinese people continued to value traditional beliefs and customs. The early twentieth century was therefore a period of both continuity and change, as China struggled to balance its cultural heritage with the desire to build a modern nation.

The decline and end of the Qing dynasty may have reduced China’s immediate influence in the region, but it paved the way for nationalist ideologies that would seek to reclaim China’s former status and restore their power in the region – and beyond.

Review 4.7

Online quiz

Knowledge and understanding

Thinking and researching

Students can access sample responses and results

Teachers can go online to assign questions, view results, reports and more!

Knowledge and understanding 1.

Identify the key terms imposed on China by the Treaty of Nanking in 1842.

Account for how foreign concessions after 1842 reduced China’s sovereignty and regional influence.

Summarise the circumstances that led to the decline and end of the Qing dynasty.

Discuss the reasons why China refers to this period as the “Century of Humiliation”.

Explain how the Boxer Rebellion demonstrated growing Chinese nationalism and anti-foreign sentiment.

Discuss the impact of the end of the Qing dynasty in China.

Thinking and researching 1.

Research the 1997 transfer of Hong Kong from British control to China. In what ways does modernday Hong Kong reflect its colonial history?

Research the Taiping Rebellion (1850–1864). Explain how the Taiping Rebellion could be used by historians as an example of early Chinese nationalist sentiment.

Historical concepts: Perspectives, Significance Historical skills: Analysis and use of sources, Research, Communication

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4.8

Site study: Macau

Success criteria

In this lesson, you will learn about the historic significance of the port of Macau.

❏ I can identify and explain the reasons for Macau’s importance during the period of study. ❏ I can discuss the influence of European empires on urban life in Asia during the period of study.

SA D I M GI PL T A E L C -O H N AP L Y TE R S

Learning intention

Starter activity Think, pair, share

Look at Source 4.8.1. 1.

Think about how the location of Macau benefits China.

Pair with a classmate to discuss your thoughts.

Share with the class.

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Source 4.8.1 Macau is one of the two Special Administrative Regions of the People's Republic of China, the other being Hong Kong. Macau lies on the western side of the Pearl River delta across from Hong Kong. Note the blend of European colonial architecture with modern Chinese skyscrapers.

Macau is an autonomous region on the south coast of China, across the Pearl River Delta from Hong Kong. A Portuguese territory from the mid-sixteenth century until 1999, it was the first and last enduring European colony in China. Macau developed into a strategic port that linked Asia and Europe via global trading networks.

Today, Macau reflects a mix of cultural influences. The 400 years of imperial rule by Portugal left behind many public buildings, churches, streetscapes and fortifications built in European styles of its time. The city blends colonial architecture with giant modern buildings such as casinos and malls on the Cotai Strip, which have earned the nickname, “Las Vegas of Asia”.

UNESCO has identified the Historic Centre of Macau as a World Heritage Listed Site for over 20 culturally significant buildings and monuments. UNESCO have noted that the site highlights one of the earliest sustained encounters between East and West and its unique fusion of Portuguese and Chinese architectural and cultural influences. Digital-only sample chapters • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Clarke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78794-9 • (03) 8671 1400

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➜ Source 4.8.2 The ruins of the sixteenth-century

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Cathedral of Saint Paul in Macau. Built by the Jesuits, the Cathedral was the largest Catholic church in Asia at the time. Destroyed by a fire in 1835, the ruins now consist only of the façade, reinforced after calls for the dangerously leaning structure to be demolished. In 2005, it was included in the Historic Centre of Macau UNESCO World Heritage Site.

Source 4.8.4 Guia Church and Lighthouse at Guia Fortress in Macau. This historic site is a seventeenthcentury chapel and lighthouse. ➜

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Source 4.8.3 Historic canon overlooking the city of Macau from Fortaleza do Monte. This major defensive fort was built to protect the city from rival European powers such as the Dutch.

Site study questions 4.8 1.

Outline why Macau displays a blend of European and Chinese architecture.

Discuss the geographical importance of Macau to European trading companies and empires.

Describe how Macau is an example of the ways that the Portuguese Empire was able to shape culture, architecture and urban life in Asia.

Explain how Macau could be considered a good example of a site for a study on imperial history.

Visit the UNESCO website.

a. Research why the Historic Centre of Macau was granted World Heritage Listing in 2005. b. Create a short presentation using your research that justifies Macau’s World Heritage Listing. Include maps, images, text and a timeline of events in the history of Macau.

Historical concepts: Continuity and change, Cause and effect, Perspectives, Significance Historical skills: Comprehension, Analysis and use of sources, Perspectives and interpretations, Research, Communication

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4.9

The role of Japan in regional power dynamics Success criteria

In this lesson, you will learn how Japan transformed from an isolationist nation to a major imperial power, reshaping regional dynamics.

❏ I can explain how the Treaty of Kanagawa ended Japanese isolation and sparked rapid modernisation. ❏ I can account for how Japanese expansionism transformed East Asian power dynamics and inspired nationalist movements across the region.

SA D I M GI PL T A E L C -O H N AP L Y TE R S

Learning intention

Starter activity

See, think, wonder

Look at Source 4.9.1. 1.

What do you see in these images? (I see...)

Who do you think the intended audience for each image is and why? (I think...)

What do you wonder about how he “opened Japan”? (I wonder...)

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Source 4.9.1 (Left) An undated image of Mathew Brady Commodore Matthew Calbraith Perry (1794–1858), the man who "opened” Japan. (Right) A Japanese portrait of Perry from 1854.

For over 200 years, the Japanese had followed an isolationist policy called Sakoku. Implemented by the Tokugawa shogunate, the policy included directives banning Christianity, foreign visitors, travel abroad, and restricting foreign trade and diplomatic relations. Sakoku was a result of Japan’s mistrust of foreigners, who had brought guns and Christianity to their country. The examples of rapid European colonial expansion in the sixteenth century in the Philippines, Macau and South-East Asia also served as a warning of what could happen to Japan. By 1639, Japan was almost entirely closed off from the outside world and only Dutch merchants were allowed on the tightly controlled island of Dejima to trade. The beginning of the end of Sakoku could be traced from the mid-nineteenth century with China’s defeat in the Opium Wars. Increased Western influence in China brought additional foreign pressure to East Asia, and the United States started demanding access to Japanese ports for resupplying their ships on the way to China.

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The Treaty of Kanagawa (1854) Writing focus 4.9 Creating topic sentences

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The Treaty of Kanagawa (1854) marked the end of the Sakoku Policy in Japan. When modern American ships arrived for negotiations, Japanese people saw firsthand the technological superiority of the US Navy, which they realised they could not match. The Japanese eventually had to concede to American demands and signed the Treaty in 1854, opening ports to American ships, creating a US consulate and agreeing that shipwrecked American sailors would receive care. Similar treaties with other foreign nations followed, and the Tokugawa shogunate’s control over foreign contact was severely weakened.

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Source 4.9.2 American officers, led by Commodore Perry, meeting Japanese officials after the signing of the Treaty of Kanagawa to discuss trade access to the port and city of Hakodadi, 1854.

consulate a government office in a foreign country

The political unrest in Japan that followed the Treaty of Kanagawa between those who favoured isolationism and those who welcomed the introduction of Western ideas ended the rule of the shogunate and led to the Meiji Restoration (1868–1889). This period saw rapid Westernisation and modernisation in Japan as it worked to “catch up” to the west.

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Source 4.9.3 “Progress of Civilisation in Japan”, printed in The London Illustrated News, 1875

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feudalism a social system in which the ruler owns all the land and allows others to occupy and use it, in return for taxes, money, goods or services

The Meiji abolished feudalism, which made social and political change possible by allowing people freedom of movement and occupation. The government established a national education system; built railway, telegraph and telephone networks; established shipyards, mines, munitions works; and increased consumer industry.

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munitions military weapons, ammunition and equipment

Source 4.9.4 A railway map of Japan, 1900

In 1894, Japan used its new legal system (based on the European example) to convince Western powers to revise the treaties signed in the 1850s, including the Treaty of Kanagawa. Japan was acknowledged as an equal to the Western powers, although it was not yet recognised as an international power. In a relatively short period of time, Japan had strengthened itself enough to remain independent of total Western dominance, and even to become a colonising power itself.

The impact of the end of Japan’s isolationism and the Treaty of Kanagawa on the region was significant. By the late nineteenth century, Japan began pursuing its own imperial ambitions in the region. This expansionism was driven by a desire for natural resources, security in the region and recognition as a great power equal to Western nations.

The Sino-Japanese War (1894–1895)

vassal state a country with limited independence, controlled by a more powerful state

The Sino-Japanese War was fought between China and Japan primarily over influence in Korea. Traditionally in China’s sphere of influence as a vassal state, Korea was strategically important in the region. As a military adviser to the Japanese suggested, Korea was a “dagger pointed at the heart of Japan”. The Korean peninsula is the closest part of Asia to Japan and could act as a buffer zone to protect against attack. It also had deep water ports, access to regional trade routes, raw materials, land to settle and food security, making it important for Japan’s imperial ambitions.

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RUSSIAN EMPIRE

MANCHURIA GOBI DESERT

Pyongyang

Sea of Japan

gH e R i ver )

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Tianjin (Britain, 1860) Beijing

Port Arthur (Russia, 1898; Japan, 1905)

ow (Ye Qingdao (Germany, 1898)

TIBET (autonomous after 1912) HIM ALA YA NEPAL

Delhi

BRITISH INDIA

Calcutta

Bay of Bengal

KOREA (Japan, 1895) Kyoto CHOSHU

Seoul

Yellow Sea

Nagasaki Nanjing (France, 1858) SATSUMA Chang Jiang Suzhou ze R Shanghai ngt iver (Japan, 1895) East China (Britain, 1842) (Ya Xiamen (Amoy) Sea Ryukyu Is. (Britain, 1842) (Japan, 1872) Guangzhou Fuzhou (Britain, 1842) TAIWAN (Britain, 1842)

CHINA

Chongqing (Britain, 1890)

BHUTAN

Longzhou (France, 1886)

Hanoi

BURMA

Hong Kong (Britian, 1842) Macao (Portugal, 1555)

SIAM Bangkok

South China Sea

FRENCH INDO-CHINA

Saigon

JAPAN

Edo(Tokyo) KEY

Colonial Spheres of possessions influence

Russia Britain Japan France Germany

PACIFIC OCEAN

Boxer rebellion, 1898–1901 Treaty ports

Manila

PHILIPPINES

1000 km

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Source 4.9.5 A map showing East Asia 1850–1900

Japan’s modernised military proved effective over China’s forces and Japan achieved a decisive victory on land and sea, exposing the weakness of the Qing dynasty. Japan gained influence over Korea and increased its territory, also seizing Taiwan from the Chinese.

This marked a turning point in regional power dynamics. It was the end of China’s dominance in East Asia with Japan replacing them as the leading power in the region.

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Source 4.9.6 “Jap in a China Shop”, a cartoon published in British magazine Punch, 1895

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The Russo-Japanese War (1905)

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By 1904, Russia was looking to expand its influence in East Asia, bringing it into direct conflict with Japan by threatening to establish control over Korea and the Manchurian region in northeastern China. Despite Russia’s size and military reputation, Japan won several key battles, including the destruction of the Russian Baltic Fleet at the Battle of Tsushima.

Source 4.9.7 A Japanese illustration of the Battle of Tsushima, 1905

Japan’s victory over Russia in 1905 marked the first time a European nation had been defeated by a non-European power in a modern war. It shocked the world and confirmed Japan’s status as a major imperial power. European powers were no longer invincible. Nationalist movements were inspired across Asia, and those colonised by Western powers used it as an example to challenge foreign dominance.

Japan’s annexation of Korea (1910)

Following its victories over China and Russia, Japan tightened its control over Korea and formally annexed it in 1910, turning it into a colony. They removed Korean political autonomy, introduced land reforms that benefitted Japanese settlers and companies, suppressed Korean language, culture and identity, and used force to crush any resistance. Korea was also exploited economically for its agricultural and industrial resources. The annexation of Korea demonstrated Japan’s commitment to imperialist expansion and mirrored the colonial practices of the Western powers.

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4.9 The role of Japan in regional power dynamics

Source 4.9.9 “Japan: I see your cruisers and raise you a Dreadnought!”, the cover of American magazine Puck, 1909 ➜

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Source 4.9.8 “When?”, a cartoon published in the American magazine Puck after the Russo-Japanese War, 1905

Review 4.9

Online quiz

Knowledge and understanding

Thinking and researching

Students can access sample responses and results

Teachers can go online to assign questions, view results, reports and more!

Knowledge and understanding 1.

Outline the key terms of the Treaty of Kanagawa (1854).

Identify the systems established by the Meiji government to rapidly modernise Japan in the late 1800s.

Explain how the Treaty of Kanagawa (1854) ended Japan’s isolationist Sakoku Policy.

Account for Japan’s victory over China in the Sino-Japanese War (1894–1895).

Discuss the significance of Japan’s victory in the Russo-Japanese War (1905) for Asian nationalism.

Thinking and researching 1.

Identify the message of Source 4.9.8 and Source 4.9.9. Using the information in this Lesson and Sources 4.9.7, 4.9.8 and 4.9.9 to support your response, discuss how Japan moved from isolationism to imperial power in the late nineteenth and early twentieth century. Research the 1910 Japan–British Exhibition. Compare how Japan is represented at the Exhibition with how it is portrayed in the sources you have analysed in this Lesson.

Historical concepts: Continuity and change, Cause and effect, Perspectives, Significance Historical skills: Perspectives and interpretations, Research, Communication Digital-only sample chapters • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Clarke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78794-9 • (03) 8671 1400

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4.10

Asia and World War I (1914–1918)

Success criteria

In this lesson, you will learn how World War I impacted Asia.

❏ I can explain how World War I impacted Asia. ❏ I can describe Japan’s involvement in World War I.

SA D I M GI PL T A E L C -O H N AP L Y TE R S

Learning intention

Starter activity

See, think, wonder

Look at Source 4.10.1. 1.

What do you see in the image? (I see...)

What do you think Japan is doing in this image? (I think...)

What does this make you wonder about Japan’s role in WWI? (I wonder...)

➜

Source 4.10.1 “Brave little Japan (?)”, published in the United States, 1914

Writing focus 4.10 Transitional phrases

Although most of the fighting in World War I happened in Europe, the war had a significant impact on Asia. It reshaped regional power dynamics and undermined the foundations of imperialism in the region. As the European nations like Britain, France and Germany focused their resources and attention on the European fronts, colonial control in Asia became strained. Military force in these colonies was reduced, and European authority appeared less secure and permanent. This shift created opportunities for regional powers, especially Japan, to extend their influence.

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Throughout the region there was increased taxation, resource extraction and labour demand from colonial powers to support the war effort. However, many Asian countries saw the war as an opportunity to end colonial exploitation, hoping for a new world in which they were included in the international democratic process. These countries expected greater rights or even independence in return for their contributions to World War I but were bitterly disappointed when these expectations were not met. This resentment towards the colonial powers in the region led to the growth of nationalist and anti-imperial movements, notably in India, China and Korea.

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Japan

Japan fought on the side of the Allied powers and used the conflict as a chance to expand and strengthen its position in Asia. They had limited involvement beyond Asia, mainly providing naval support to the Allies and protecting trade routes in the Pacific and Indian Oceans. Japan increased its control over trade routes and resources using their strong naval presence in East Asian waters. Across Asia, traditional trade patterns were disrupted and European imports declined. While in general the war caused a worsening of living conditions across Asia, Japan had increased industrial production and exports and accumulated wealth and resources while the European economies were disrupted. The war also created power vacuums in Asia that Japan sought to fill, such as in German-controlled territories in China and the Pacific. Many Chinese nationalists viewed Japan’s behaviour in the region as imperialistic and exploitative, which laid the foundations for growing anti-Japanese sentiment and future conflict in the region.

India

India provided the British Empire with about £146 million (approximately $14 billion today) and over 1.2 million men (Australia contributed just over 400 000 men). Indian soldiers fought and died alongside British and Commonwealth troops from all over the empire at places like Gallipoli, Palestine, Iraq and on the Western Front in France. The war had many negative consequences for India. As well as rising food and land rental prices and general food shortages, influenza brought back to India by returning troops in 1918 and 1919 killed over 20 million Indians (6.6 per cent of India’s population at the time). The British had also introduced repressive war time controls on Indian civil rights, which were then passed into law after the war. Despite their contribution, the British did not allow any Indian leaders to attend the Versailles Peace Conference. Resentment in India boiled over, culminating in the Jallianwala Bagh or Amritsar massacre in April 1919, when British troops fired on an unarmed crowd of people gathering for a religious holiday. The independence movement that followed in India would eventually see them granted independence from the British Empire in 1947.

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Activity 4.10.1 Source analysis 1.

Compare how the British and Indians are represented in the painting. Who does the artist seem to sympathise with more?

Discuss the usefulness of this source to a historian studying the impact of imperialism on India. ➜

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Source 4.10.2 An Indian girl looks at a painting at the Jallianwala Bagh Martyr’s Memorial in Amritsar, 2019.

Historical concepts: Perspectives, Significance Historical skills: Analysis and use of sources, Perspectives and interpretations

China

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Source 4.10.3 Members of the Chinese Labour Corps in France during the First World War

Similarly, China also contributed men and resources to the Allied war effort. The Chinese Labour Corps, often called the “forgotten army” of World War I, recruited approximately 140 000 men between 1916 and 1918, most of whom served on the Western Front. Although not in combat roles, they completed essential tasks such as digging trenches, building and maintaining railroads, loading and unloading ships, clearing battlefields, and maintaining equipment and supplies. China also supplied raw materials, allowed Allied access to Chinese ports and infrastructure and supported Allied trade routes in Asia.

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China had hoped that supporting the Allies would strengthen its international standing and that they would regain German-controlled territory like the Shandong peninsula. However, China was hugely disappointed when their contribution was deemed minimal by the Allies and these territories were awarded to Japan in the Versailles Peace Treaty. This triggered the May Fourth Movement of 1919, a major anti-imperial nationalist protest movement. The Source 4.10.4 Chinese students gather to protest outside the movement emphasised the need for Westernisation Gate of Heavenly Peace (Tiananmen) in Beijing on 4 May 1919. to create a strong, independent and modern China rather than remaining a feudal society subject to semi-colonial rule by imperial powers. This movement was a transformative step in China’s modernisation and a turning point in China’s relationship with the West.

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4.10 Asia and World War I (1914–1918)

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Korea

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During World War I, Korea was subject to brutal imperial rule by Japan. Since annexing the country in 1910, Japan had exploited Korean labour and resources to support its growing industry, but wartime demands worsened conditions in Korea. Many Koreans were pushed into poverty under food shortages, earned low wages and worked in harsh conditions. Cultural and political suppression worsened as Japan sought greater control during the war and the strain of wartime conditions fueled underground resistance networks. Combined with global discussion of self-determination after World War I, the tensions lead to the March First Movement in March 1919, in which Koreans demanded independence from Japan. The Japanese authorities violently suppressed the peaceful demonstrations, killing and imprisoning thousands. The movement strengthened Korean nationalism and increased international awareness of Korea’s struggle, although they did not achieve independence from Japan until 1945.

Source 4.10.5 A caricature depicting Japanese rule in Korea, 1920

Nationalist movements and decolonisation

One of the earliest examples of a nationalist political independence movement in the Asia region was the Indian National Congress (INC), founded in 1885. In 1906 it proclaimed that its main aim was swaraj or “home rule”. Neighbouring Burma and Ceylon (also part of the British Empire) and the Dutch East Indies also had early nationalist movements. Although the process of decolonisation would not gain significant momentum in the region until after World War II, the groundwork for these anti-imperialist movements was laid during World War I and its aftermath.

The war had accelerated the decline of European global dominance and strengthened Japan’s imperial position in Asia. Japan’s transition from an isolationist to an imperial power had a profound impact on Asia.

decolonisation the process of challenging and taking apart economic, political, social, cultural and psychological colonial systems and restoring indigenous knowledge and selfdetermination

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It demonstrated not only that modernisation could help a nation resist Western dominance but that non-Western powers could also be imperialistic. Japanese expansion reshaped regional power dynamics and contributed to rising sentiments of nationalism and resistance.

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Colonies had participated in World War I and sacrificed for the “mother country” in the hope that their loyalty might be rewarded. Woodrow Wilson’s principle of self-determination and the establishment of the League of Nations system of mandates for the German Empire’s ex-colonies led many anti-colonialists to hope that decolonisation might begin to advance. However, the 1919 Treaty of Versailles failed to provide colonial nations with what they thought they deserved, or were owed. In 1919 leaders from Vietnam and the Philippines unsuccessfully petitioned for help achieving self-determination, and the Korean March First Movement and the Chinese May Fourth Movement represented the strength of anti-colonial sentiments towards Japan. Tensions in India reached a violent boiling point and British imperial forces frequently clashed with Indian anti-colonial protesters.

The post-war disappointments of 1919 fuelled existing tensions, and nationalist movements continued to develop and agitate for independence throughout the interwar years and beyond. However, it was to be the global instability caused by World War II, and the power vacuum in the region created by the defeat of Japan in 1945, that finally gave the opportunity for independence movements to achieve their goal. Decolonisation swept through Asia in the decades after World War II, with the majority of nations achieving independence from imperial powers in the 1950s and 1960s. The last stages of the process included the British transferring Hong Kong to China in 1997, and the Portuguese transferring Macau to China in 1999. Finally, East Timor, a former Portuguese colony, achieved independence from Indonesia in 2002, marking the official end of colonisation in Asia.

Review 4.10 Online quiz

Knowledge and understanding

Thinking and researching

Students can access sample responses and results

Teachers can go online to assign questions, view results, reports and more!

Knowledge and understanding 1.

Describe India’s contributions to the British war effort in World War I.

Define the term “decolonisation movement”.

Summarise how World War I strengthened Japan’s position while undermining European colonial control in Asia.

Explain how World War I pushed China towards independence.

Thinking and researching 1.

Research the history of decolonisation in Asia since 1900. Using your findings, create an annotated timeline of key events.

Historical concepts: Continuity and change, Cause and effect, Significance Historical skills: Comprehension, Analysis and use of sources, Research, Communication Digital-only sample chapters • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Clarke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78794-9 • (03) 8671 1400

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4.11 Chapter review and historical inquiry

4.11

Chapter review and historical inquiry Access the Interactive Textbook for a range of digital tools to help you review this chapter and build confidence.

• Auto-marked questions for fast feedback and fun practice • Self-assessment tools to track your progress, review answers (if enabled

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by the teacher), and flag questions for extra help • Downloadable worksheets for class or homework revision

Summary

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Summary notes

What have you learned about imperialism in Asia? Copy the table and fill out by explaining your understanding. Aim for two points per topic.

Topic

What I have learned

Asian empires and regional powers before 1750

Portuguese, Dutch and English exploration and trade with China and Japan before 1750 European trading companies in Asia after 1750

Key event: the Indian Rebellion (Sepoy Mutiny), 1857

Nationalism and resistance movements: China The city of Macau

The role of Japan in regional power dynamics Asia and World War I (1914–1918)

Visible thinking routine

I used to think … Now I think …

Reflect on your thinking about imperialism in Asia, now that the unit is complete. Using the prompts below, complete the sentences. Share your thoughts with the class.

• I used to think imperialism in Asia … • Now I think imperialism in Asia … • I used to think that China … • Now I think that China … • I used to think that Japan … • Now I think that Japan …

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Download chapter summary

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Chapter 4 Imperialism in Asia (1750–1918)

Questions and activities Scorcher quiz Access a fast and competitive quiz that puts your understanding to the test.

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Quick questions 1.

In 1498, a expedition led by Vasco da Gama reached India, and opened a new sea route for European trade with Asia.

In 1600, the British

India Company was founded.

technology allowed European empires to explore the world by 1750.

During the 1660s to 1770s, and porcelain.

The Treaty of

Describe the historical impact of the British and Dutch East India Companies in Asia.

Explain why the Indian Rebellion of 1857 was a significant event.

Describe the types of architecture found in Macau.

Explain what Japan did when they enacted the Sakoku Policy in 1639.

10.

Explain why nationalist movements became popular for Asian countries that fought in World War I.

powers competed for trade in tea, spices, textiles

(1854) marked the end of the Sakoku Policy in Japan.

Group work and research activity

In groups, research the following four events:

• Indonesia and the Netherlands in the Java War (1825–1830) • The Opium Wars in China • The Meiji Restoration in Japan • Japan’s annexation of Korea (1910).

Each group should research the motives and outcomes of their assigned event, then teach their findings to other students. Then, as a class, compare and contrast the varied impacts of imperialism across Asia.

Creative task

Write a series of three diary entries from the perspective of a fictional member of a group mentioned in this chapter. Each entry should reflect a different stage of their experience and reflect their various encounters with European imperialism in Asia – for example, a member of the Boxer Rebellion in China or the Indian Mutiny in India.

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4.11 Chapter review and historical inquiry

Writing focus

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The following activities offer ways to demonstrate your understanding of the chapter and allow you to continue to practice your writing skills.

Answering questions in paragraphs You can use this as a model when writing your own answers to the questions that follow. Refer to the downloadable file for further guidance.

Download single paragraph model

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Question: Explain why European trading companies, such as the British and Dutch East India Companies, were able to gain increasing influence in Asia after 1750. Model answer:

Topic sentence: the first sentence of the paragraph; directly answers the question

Elaborate: additional information, connections, historical significance, change and continuity, cause and consequence

Examples: provide credibility and illustrate the argument

European trading companies were able to gain influence in Asia after 1750 because they established strategic trading bases that allowed them to control key trade routes. By securing coastal ports and using superior naval technology, companies like the British and Dutch East India Companies were able to expand their economic power and political standing. These strongholds enabled them not only to dominate trade, but also to gradually extend their power into surrounding regions. The image of Macau in Source 4.3.2 shows a Portuguese trading post, demonstrating how European powers held long-term positions along major Asian trade routes. This source also helps explain how similar European outposts, such as British factories in India or Dutch bases in Indonesia, provided the physical and military presence needed to expand influence beyond trade into governance. Therefore, the ability of European trading companies to set up strategically valuable ports was a major reason they were able to increase their power across Asia after 1750.

Explain: clarify, define and describe

Evidence: specific, relevant evidence to support your arguments Linking sentence: reconnects to the topic sentence using the language of the question

Extended-response questions 1.

Evaluate the role and impact of imperialism in Asia over the period of study (1750–1918).

Assess the importance of the British and Dutch East Indies Trading Companies for the development of European colonies in Asia.

Evaluate Japan’s actions in Asia after World War I. Were they imperialistic? What was the historical irony regarding their actions?

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Historical inquiry

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Investigating significance Download Historical inquiry

In this historical investigation into the significance of imperialism in Asia, you will undertake the following steps: Part 1: Develop historical questions

• Step 1: Select an aspect of imperialism in Asia that interests you. Examples include: ●

An Asian nation before European imperialism

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How European trade and exploration changed an Asian nation of your choice The role European trading companies played in bringing colonisation to Asia

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The role of a resistance leader from an Asian nation of your choice

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The rise of nationalism and resistance movements in an Asian nation of your choice.

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• Step 2: Brainstorm what you already know. • Step 3: Develop a historical inquiry question. Examples include: ●

How did the Asian nation of your choice operate before European imperialism?

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How did European trade and exploration change the Asian nation of your choice?

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How significant a role did European trading companies play in bringing colonisation to Asia?

What was the significance of the resistance leader from the Asian nation of your choice? To what extent did nationalist and resistance movements in the Asian nation of your choice succeed in challenging European colonisation?

• Step 4: Explain why the question is important. Part 2: Locate and analyse evidence

Part 3: Communicate historical findings Part 4: Reflect

Teachers, access the Online Teaching Suite for digital resources and tools that support review, assessment and reporting, including:

• student and class activity reports • a test generator to create custom assessments • built-in feedback tools • editable downloadable support material • a downloadable and printable “Writing focus” workbook for this chapter • download a sample case study for this chapter.

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Chapter

Key ideas and movements (1750–1918)

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Key questions

• What ideas about rights and fairness emerged in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries? • What were the backgrounds and origins of key ideas and movements? • Who were the significant groups and individuals in the ideas and movements? • What were the impacts and how do their legacies affect the world today?

Lessons

5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 5.6 5.7 5.8 5.9 5.10 5.11 5.12 5.13 5.14 5.15 5.16 5.17 5.18 5.19

Setting the scene Political rights: Democracy and universal suffrage Political rights: Egalitarianism Political rights: Chartism Economic fairness: Capitalism Economic fairness: Socialism Economic fairness: The abolition of slavery The Enlightenment The Industrial Revolution The American War of Independence The French Revolution The Haitian Revolution The American Civil War The impact and legacies of ideas and movements globally: Movements for political rights and economic fairness Site study: New Lanark The impact of key ideas and movements in Australia: Political rights The impact of key ideas and movements in Australia: Economic fairness Impacts on Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples Chapter review and historical inquiry

This topic includes historical sources that may contain outdated and offensive terms, images or descriptions. These have been included for educational purposes and historical context only.

Teachers are encouraged to create a culturally safe and respectful learning environment. Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander People are advised that the content includes references to violence, conflict and the impacts of colonisation, including the Frontier Wars and the loss of life, land and culture. Some material may be distressing. Digital-only sample chapters • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Clarke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78794-9 • (03) 8671 1400

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5.1

Setting the scene Success criteria

In this lesson, you will learn how a timeline of key events from 1750 to 1918 sets the scene for the major ideas and movements about political rights and economic fairness.

❏ I can identify key events on the timeline from 1750 to 1918 and summarise how these events connect to major ideas about political rights and economic fairness.

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Learning intention

In the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, great thinkers examined the world around them and developed new ideas – about how nature worked, and how human societies should improve. Some, like Jean-Jacques Rousseau, saw that most people were powerless, while the wealthy few had influence and privilege. Some, like Frederick Douglass, had personal experience of inequality (in his case, slavery), and fought to abolish the practice. Others, like Karl Marx, saw how workers were oppressed by rich industrial factory owners, who concentrated economic wealth. People read, discussed and adopted these ideas, and turned some of them into movements. Some fought for political rights and others focused on economic fairness. These ideas still influence the way people approach major questions.

1833

1799

Slavery Abolition Act 1833 is passed, leading to abolition of slavery

Robert Owen buys New Lanark mill

1762

1789

JJ Rousseau publishes The Social Contract

French Revolution begins

1838

1804

1750

1788

1792

Industrial Revolution begins in England

The First Fleet lands in Australia

Mary Wollstonecraft publishes A Vindication of the Rights of Women

Chartism rises in England

End of Haitian slave revolt, and Haiti declares independence

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5.1 Setting the scene

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1918

World War I ends

1914 1901–1902

Australia becomes a federation

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1865

World War I begins

The American Civil War ends and American slavery is abolished

1838–1848

Chartist leaders are transported as convicts to Australia

1917

1902

1891

1848

The Australian Labor Party is established

Russian Revolution begins

Australian women gain the right to vote in Federal elections

Writing focus 5.1 Question words

Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels publish The Communist Manifesto

See, think, wonder See, think, wonder

Look at Source 5.1.1.

What can you see in this image? (I see…)

What do you think this image shows about the time? (I think…)

What does this image make you wonder about key ideas from the time? (I wonder…)

Source 5.1.1 Child labourers and the machines they operated six days per week in a textile mill, 1908 (North Carolina, US) ➜

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5.2

Political rights: Democracy and universal suffrage Success criteria

In this lesson, you will learn how democracy and universal suffrage emerged as key political ideas in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, and how individuals like Vida Goldstein and events like the 1848 Revolutions shaped this movement.

❏ I can explain how democracy and universal suffrage emerged as key political ideas. ❏ I can identify significant individuals and groups who fought for the right to vote.

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Learning intention

Starter activity

Look at Source 5.2.1. What does this image suggest about how French people decided to change the way their country was governed? What do you notice about the people who are making the decision?

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Source 5.2.1 French revolutionaries vote by a show of hands to work together to introduce democracy to France, in the 1789 “Tennis Court Oath”. Painting by French artist Auguste Clouder, c. 1789.

status quo the present situation or condition, especially one to which people have grown accustomed (a Latin phrase)

Ideas are ways of organising our world. When an idea gathers a following, it starts a movement for social change. Political ideas and movements revolved around who has the power to govern a society. Economic ideas and movements focused on who has a share in the production and consumption of goods, services and resources. The movements typically began with someone looking at the status quo, asking questions and imagining a better way.

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5.2 Political rights: Democracy and universal suffrage

Over the course of human existence, people have debated how to organise power, and how to manage wealth fairly. What have you learned about the dynasties that ruled ancient Egypt and China, the emperors who led Rome, or the experiments with people power in ancient Greece? What do you know about medieval kings and queens across Europe, and emperors in Japan, who controlled people’s lives through the idea of feudalism? Thinkers in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries studied these different ways of governing society, and asked, if feudalism was ending, what should take its place?

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feudalism a social system in which the ruler owns all the land and allows others to occupy and use it, in return for taxes, money, goods or services

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Activity 5.2.1 Source analysis 1.

Explain what you can see in the foreground. What would this kind of work be like?

Make a list of words that could describe the castle in the background.

Describe what ideas someone who lived in this castle might have about the status quo.

Describe what ideas someone who worked in these fields might have about how things are currently done.

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Source 5.2.2 Illustration from the Grimani Breviary, an Italian illuminated manuscript from around 1520 CE, when feudalism remained in place in many parts of Europe.

Historical concepts: Perspectives, Significance Historical skills: Analysis and use of sources

Enlightenment a European intellectual and philosophical movement of the eighteenth century that emphasised reason and individualism rather than tradition popular sovereignty political theory that government is created by and subject to the will of the people

The emergence and features of democracy and universal suffrage

Democracy – the belief in rule by the people – originated in the ancient world. However, in 1750, it was rare. During the Enlightenment, the belief in individual rights spread, and so too did the belief that everyone should have the right to have a say in who governed them. A key idea emerged: To replace rule by one person (a monarchy) with a government elected by the people – known as popular sovereignty. This idea was behind the American War of Independence from 1775, the French Revolution from 1789, and the 1848 revolutions across Europe.

Writing focus 5.2 Transitional phrases

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If democracy meant rule by all the people, then it followed that the right to vote – the suffrage – should not be limited. This was the idea of universal suffrage, that all citizens should participate in elections to choose who would represent them in law-making bodies. The revolutionary French Constitution of 1793, for example, made “Every man born and domiciled in France, fully twenty-one years of age” a citizen, with one vote each. However, in practice, many nations that became democracies only allowed limited suffrage. The suffrage often excluded women, non-landowners, and other people on the basis of their race.

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The path of democracy and universal suffrage may be traced through many movements. In the single year of 1848, for example, there was an extraordinary uprising of democratic energy. Numerous conflicts, known as “the 1848 Revolutions” or “the Springtime of Nations”, broke out. Most of Europe was governed by absolutist monarchies, where wealth and power was concentrated in one family’s hands. However, in recent years many people had become unemployed and suffered from food shortages. They began to blame the monarchs and their local officials. People rallied in the streets to demand the right to govern themselves democratically.

The first 1848 revolution started in Sicily. The region was held by the Spanish Bourbon dynasty, whom local people resented. Ferdinand II had failed to support the people when they suffered from poverty and a recent cholera epidemic. Sicilians argued that if ordinary people had decision-making powers, these tragedies would not occur. They wanted Italians to govern Italians. After riots on the streets, in which people waved a tricolour green, white and red flag, the Bourbons were replaced by a local parliament with representative democracy. Sicily became an independent state. Although this success was temporary – the Bourbon army recaptured Sicily the following year – the movement sowed the seeds of Italian independence. A decade later, starting in Sicily, Giuseppe Garibaldi’s forces expelled foreign powers and created modern Italy. The new nation adopted the green, white and red flag that had been waved in 1848.

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Source 5.2.3 A painting depicting Sicilian people protesting in the streets of Palermo, in the 1848 revolution that sparked the idea of the modern nation of Italy. Digital-only sample chapters • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Clarke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78794-9 • (03) 8671 1400

5.2 Political rights: Democracy and universal suffrage

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Other 1848 revolutions shared the Sicilians’ anger with existing conditions and their hope for a democratic future. In Austria, Germany, France, Poland and Denmark, workers and middle-class professionals joined uprisings to try to replace monarchies. An 1848 revolution in France ended the French monarchy, which had been revived since the original French Revolution of 1789, and brought back to life the principle of universal male suffrage. In Germany, people revolted against the Austrian Habsburg monarchy, and created a unified German nation, to be governed by a parliament in Frankfurt. As in Sicily, the achievement was temporary, and the monarchy returned, but it demonstrated the will of the people. Independent Germany would eventually be achieved in the 1870s under Otto von Bismarck, with the same black, red and gold tricolour flag that was waved in 1848.

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Source 5.2.4 Key democratic articles of the German Constitution, approved by the Frankfurt Parliament in 1849 (but never fully put into effect) 93. The House of the People consists of the representatives of the German people. 94. Members of the House of the People are elected for the first time for four years, and thereafter for three years. 137. Before the law, there shall be no distinction of rank. The nobility as a class is abolished. All privileges of rank are abolished. Germans are equal before the law.

Constitution of the German Empire, 1849

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Source 5.2.5 A painting depicting revolutionaries fighting royal troops in Berlin, Germany in March 1848.

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Also in 1848, United States feminists held an American Women’s Rights Convention. The convention discussed the fact that voting and financial independence were denied to American women, and issued a “Declaration of Sentiments,” which described the injustices that women faced. The women continued to meet resistance, and the campaign to achieve women’s suffrage would continue into the twentieth century.

Activity 5.2.2

Source 5.2.6 Extract from the Declaration of Sentiments, 1848

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Source analysis

The history of mankind is a history of repeated injuries and usurpations [violations] on the part of man toward woman … He has withheld from her rights which are given to the most ignorant and degraded men – both natives and foreigners. Having deprived her of this first right of a citizen, the elective franchise [suffrage], thereby leaving her without representation in the halls of legislation, he has oppressed her on all sides. … He has taken from her all right in property, even to the wages she earns.

… Now, in view of this entire disfranchisement of one-half the people of this country, their social and religious degradation, – in view of the unjust laws above mentioned, and because women do feel themselves aggrieved, oppressed, and fraudulently deprived of their most sacred rights, we insist that they have immediate admission to all the rights and privileges which belong to them as citizens of these United States.

Declaration of Sentiments of the Seneca Falls American Women’s Rights Convention, New York, July 1848

Identify the two key rights that women said they did not have, according to the excerpt.

Explain what the Declaration of Sentiments says was the consequence of women not having the vote.

Discuss what may have concerned the women who wrote the Declaration about property rights.

Analyse the significance of the Declaration of Sentiments, referring to its message and its context.

Historical concepts: Perspectives, Significance Historical skills: Analysis and use of sources

Significant groups and individuals in democracy and universal suffrage

reform an improvement to an existing system, to make it more modern or effective

In 1838 in Britain, members of a group called the London Working Men’s Association published the People’s Charter, outlining six key demands for democratic reform. Their charter was inspired by the famous Magna Carta – Latin for Great Charter – of 1215, which had placed restrictions on the British king. The movement that emerged from the new people’s charter was known as Chartism. They gathered millions of signatures on petitions, and organised large protest rallies, to demonstrate how many people supported their ideas.

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5.2 Political rights: Democracy and universal suffrage

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The key demands of the People’s Charter were: 1. All men should have the vote. 2. Voting should take place by secret ballot. 3. There should be no property qualification for becoming a Member of Parliament. 4. Members of Parliament should be paid. 5. Electorates should be of equal size. 6. Parliamentary elections should be held every year, not once every five years. conservatism the idea that traditional values and institutions should be preserved, and change avoided, to keep things stable

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Chartists and other universal suffrage campaigns were opposed by the competing political idea of conservatism. While their proposals for change might seem like common sense civil rights today, in the 1840s many saw them as radical and untested. This was the view of many members of the British Parliament, for instance. They believed that if the voting system was changed to include more people, the nation would fall apart.

Activity 5.2.3 Source analysis ➜

Source 5.2.7 Member of British Parliament Thomas Macauley gave speech in parliament against universal suffrage and the People’s Charter, in 1842 My firm conviction is that, in our country, universal suffrage is incompatible, not with this or that form of government, but with all forms of government, and with everything for the sake of which forms of government exist; that it is incompatible with property, and that it is consequently incompatible with civilisation.

Thomas Macauley, 3 May 1842 (Hansard, Vol. 63)

Identify three things that Thomas Macauley said were threatened by the idea of universal suffrage.

Explain how useful Thomas Macauley’s statement is as evidence of the competing political ideas that universal suffrage campaigns faced.

Identify three things that the cartoon shows could happen in parliament, if working people were allowed to vote for their representatives.

Explain how useful the cartoon is as evidence of the competing political ideas that universal suffrage campaigns faced.

Discuss what the messages of the two sources have in common.

Source 5.2.8 A cartoon of what the British House of Commons would look like if working people were allowed to vote, through universal suffrage. George Cruikshank, 1843 ➜

Historical concepts: Continuity and change, Perspectives Historical skills: Analysis and use of sources, Perspectives and interpretations

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Chapter 5 Key ideas and movements (1750–1918)

In many countries, there were movements to make “universal” suffrage more than “universal male” suffrage. In the United States, for example, the 15th Amendment to the Constitution of 1870 expanded the suffrage by giving black men who had been freed from slavery the right to vote. Members of the National Woman Suffrage Association opposed the change, because it did not also give women the vote. It would take another two generations of petitions, protest rallies and pressure on lawmakers for women to achieve that for themselves. They faced opposition not only from men, but from the women-run National Association Opposed to Woman Suffrage, which argued that most women were happy for their husbands and sons to represent their views at the ballot box. American women finally won the vote in the 19th Amendment in 1919.

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In Australia, women achieved progress before most of the rest of the world. Women’s suffrage was in place in colonial/state parliaments as early as 1894 (South Australia), and federally from 1902. A key individual was Vida Goldstein (1869–1949). Goldstein’s first campaign was as a young woman, helping her mother collect signatures for a suffrage petition. She later became a popular public speaker, campaigning for equal voting rights and equal property rights, and was admired by women and men alike. In 1899, Goldstein became President of the United Council for State Suffrage. When she travelled to the United States to attend an international suffrage meeting in 1902, she was a “woman voter”, and a distinguished guest in a country that had not yet given women that right. She met President Roosevelt and gave evidence to Congress, and later visited Britain to support the “suffragette” movement there. Goldstein supported socialist ideas and was anti-war, and made several unsuccessful attempts to become the first woman elected to parliament. Source 5.2.9 Vida Goldstein speaks about women and politics in 1903 I hold a deep-rooted principle that woman should step out and assume her share of the responsibilities of the office … I know I must have those who believe in woman for home duties and such like against me, but I believe it is the duty of woman to take her share in the work to protect her interests, and that she should take the deepest interest in political matters.

Vida Goldstein, campaign speech, 1903

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Source 5.2.10 Vida Goldstein, having won the vote for Australian women, campaigns in London in 1912 against the British Government’s attacks on suffragettes.

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5.2 Political rights: Democracy and universal suffrage

Source 5.2.11 British suffragettes expressing their independence in a motor car, c. 1910s

Review 5.2

Online quiz

Knowledge and understanding

Thinking and researching

Students can access sample responses and results

Teachers can go online to assign questions, view results, reports and more!

Knowledge and understanding 1.

Identify two examples of how people put popular sovereignty into action in the late eighteenth century.

Explain why the year of 1848 was significant, using at least two examples of events relating to political rights.

Describe how the Sicilian revolution of 1848 contributed to the eventual creation of modern Italy.

Identify two demands that Chartists made in the People’s Charter of 1838 and explain why each was significant.

Describe the role of Vida Goldstein in the campaign for women’s suffrage in Australia and internationally.

Summarise why opponents of universal suffrage, such as MP (Member of Parliament) Thomas Macauley, resisted giving working men the vote.

Thinking and researching 1.

Imagine you are Vida Goldstein in 1900. Write a short speech of four to six sentences aimed at convincing Australian men that women should have the right to vote.

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5.3

Political rights: Egalitarianism

Success criteria

In this lesson, you will learn how egalitarianism developed as a political idea, and how organisations like trade unions, cooperatives and key individuals like Rousseau and Robert Owen worked to promote equality.

❏ I can define egalitarianism and explain how it challenged existing inequalities. ❏ I can identify the role of trade unions and cooperatives in advancing workers’ rights.

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Learning intention

Starter activity

Look at Source 5.3.1. Why do you think so many people came out to protest on behalf of just six farmworkers? What does this tell you about how ordinary people felt about workers’ rights?

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Source 5.3.1 Thousands of people gather in 1834 to protest the deportation of the six “Tolpuddle Martyrs”, who were sent as convicts to New South Wales for their membership of a friendly society.

The emergence and features of egalitarianism

Writing focus 5.3 Appositives

Source 5.3.2 Painting of Olympe de Gouges, who protested against the way the leaders of the French Revolution had left women out: “Woman is born free and remains equal to man in rights” (The Declaration of the Rights of Woman, 1791) ➜

egalitarianism the idea that everyone should have the same rights and opportunities

Under the feudal system, inequality seemed to be a natural state. People born into noble families automatically had more rights and freedoms than those born as peasants. A person’s position in society was fixed at their birth. However, in post-feudal times, thinkers challenged that concept, and developed the idea of egalitarianism, which comes from the French word égalité, meaning “equality”. The American War of Independence would be inspired by the declaration, “We hold these truths to be self-evident; that all men are created equal”. The French Revolution would adopt the motto “liberté, égalité, fraternité”, or “liberty, equality, brotherhood”. Both revolutions, and many other movements for social change, advanced egalitarian ideas.

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5.3 Political rights: Egalitarianism

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Egalitarianism prompted questions. If you believed that all people were created equal and should have the same opportunities, how could some people be enslaved? How could women not have the same rights as men? Why wasn’t everyone allowed to vote in elections? Why did only some people have access to education? Why did some people work in dangerous conditions, and not share in the owners’ profits? Why were some people hungry and homeless in a wealthy society? Movements that were anti-slavery, pro-women’s equality, pro-suffrage and pro-workers’ protections were all considered egalitarian. They shared two common goals: to expand access to education, because more literate people had more opportunities; and to empower the general population, through rights and organisations to represent their interests.

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Reforms to make societies more egalitarian typically took some of the power or wealth that was held by the upper levels of society, and redistributed it to the rest of the population. Some people lost their privileges, and others gained new rights. In places such as Britain and Germany, some reforms were passed by lawmakers who did not share egalitarian beliefs, but decided to accept some of the demands to maintain the peace, and prevent a revolution. However, in Australia, “labour” members of parliament were elected to represent workers and the principles of egalitarianism, and they were able to design reforms directly.

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Activity 5.3.1

Source 5.3.3 A summary of some significant egalitarian laws

When

Where

What

Why (effect)

1833

Britain

Slavery Abolition Act

Abolished slavery in most British colonies, freeing more than 800 000 enslaved Africans, mostly in the Caribbean.

1870

Britain

Education Act

Created free public schools in England and Wales for working-class children aged 5–13.

1870

Britain

Married Women’s Made married women the legal owners of Property Act money they earned, children they bore and property they bought or inherited.

1889

Germany Old-Age Social Insurance Program

Provided an income to elderly or disabled citizens who were no longer able to work, funded by workers’ contributions.

1894

New Zealand

Set a minimum wage that employers must pay their workers, and gave workers the right to join a trade union.

Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act

1896–1911 Australia

Created independent wage boards to set Minimum wage laws in Australian minimum wages, eventually set at a level that was enough to support a family (wife colonies/states and three children).

1902

Commonwealth Franchise Act

Australia

Granted Australian women over the age of 21 the right to vote at a national level, and to stand for election to parliament.

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Chapter 5 Key ideas and movements (1750–1918)

Choose one of the above reforms, and identify why it was considered to be a step towards making its society more egalitarian.

For the reform you have chosen, write about it from two perspectives (one paragraph each): a. Imagine you are a person at the time the reform was passed who will benefit from the reform (e.g. a worker, woman or child). Why do you support the reform? How will things be different now? b. Imagine you are a person at the time the reform was passed who expects to lose out because of it (e.g. a business owner or male politician). Why do you oppose the reform? How will things be different now?

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Significant groups and individuals in egalitarianism Jean-Jacques Rousseau was a French philosopher who thought deeply about why there was inequality in society. In 1754, he wrote A Discourse Upon the Origin and the Foundation of the Inequality Among Mankind, which challenged the idea that it was inevitable that some people would have more than others and live better lives. Rousseau argued that people’s natural state was equality. When societies evolved, there was more competition between people, and eventually “moral or political inequality” developed. Some became “more rich, more honoured, more powerful or even in a position to exact obedience”, while others did not have these privileges. Rousseau’s thinking made many people wonder how they could make society more egalitarian.

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Source 5.3.4 A painting depicting the philosophe JeanJacques Rousseau (1712–1778) in Switzerland after being exiled from France due to his radical ideas.

Robert Owen (1771–1858), the owner of a cotton mill, put egalitarian ideas into action. He believed that cooperation, not competition, should be the basis of society, and used his fortune to try to improve the lives of his workers. Owen bought the mill town of New Lanark in Scotland, and made it world famous – not for the products it made, but as a model community. It was a healthy setting, where Owen provided childcare, medical care, free education, and did not allow children under 10 to work. He called for “villages of cooperation” to be created, where workers could be self-sufficient and self-governing.

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5.3 Political rights: Egalitarianism

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Source 5.3.5 In 1821 (although not published until 1826) Robert Owen argued for cooperation. Union and cooperation in war obviously increase the power of the individual a thousandfold. Is there the shadow of a reason why they should not produce equal effects in peace; why the principle of cooperation should not give to men the same superior powers, and advantages, (and much greater) in the creation, preservation, distribution and enjoyment of wealth?

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Robert Owen, 1826, The Social System – Constitution, Laws, and Regulations of a Community

Source 5.3.6 A painting of New Lanark, Scotland, set up as a model workers’ community by Robert Owen

“Cooperative”, “mutual support” or “friendly” societies emerged from egalitarianism. These pooled the resources of low-paid people, to save them money and look after them in times of need. The Fenwick Weavers’ Society, in Scotland started pooling members’ resources in the 1760s, to buy food items in bulk, and sell them to members at a discounted price. Hundreds of other cooperatives followed this example of workers helping and supporting each other. Friendly societies were worker-owned insurance organisations, which members paid into from their wages, and received support from, in cases of illness, disability or unemployment. A key type of egalitarian organisation was a trade union, through which workers combined their forces to support their interests. Trade unions engaged in collective bargaining, so that they negotiated as a strong group with the employer for better wages or working conditions, rather than as weak individuals. If things were going badly, trade unions could arrange for members to go on strike. Withdrawing labour, and so halting production, was the main power workers had in their unequal relationship with employers.

trade union an organised group of workers in a similar trade, formed to protect and promote their rights and interests strike a form of protest in which workers or communities refuse to work or follow orders to challenge unfair treatment or conditions

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Extension 5.3.1: The Tolpuddle Martyrs

In Britain, many factory owners opposed unions, leading governments to make unions and strikes illegal, in “Combination” acts in 1799 and 1825. However, the union movement continued to grow. In 1833, six men in the village of Tolpuddle formed the Friendly Society of Agricultural Labourers to protest against the reduced wages that landowners were paying their workers. When they were arrested and sentenced to transportation to Australia, there was a huge public outcry.

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Source 5.3.7 Pitmen (miners) march to a union meeting in Durham, England, to organise a strike against coal mine owners in 1844.

Review 5.3 Online quiz

Knowledge and understanding

Thinking and researching

Students can access sample responses and results

Teachers can go online to assign questions, view results, reports and more!

Knowledge and understanding 1.

Define the term “egalitarianism”.

Explain the key political idea that resulted in the creation of trade unions.

Identify two egalitarian laws from the table in Source 5.3.3 and explain why each was historically significant.

Explain how Robert Owen put egalitarian ideas into practice at New Lanark in Scotland.

Describe what a trade union is and outline the methods unions used to improve workers’ conditions.

Outline the events involving the Tolpuddle Martyrs and explain what their case revealed about the egalitarian movement.

Thinking and researching 1.

Robert Owen believed that “people’s characters were formed by their environments”. Using examples from Section 5.3, write a response arguing either for or against this idea.

Historical concepts: Cause and effect, Significance Historical skills: Comprehension, Communication

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5.4 Political rights: Chartism

5.4

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Political rights: Chartism

Success criteria

In this lesson, you will learn how Chartism emerged in Britain as a powerful movement that used petitions and protest to demand political rights and democratic reforms for ordinary working people.

❏ I can outline the key demands of the People’s Charter and explain why Chartism struggled to achieve change through parliament.

SA D I M GI PL T A E L C -O H N AP L Y TE R S

Learning intention

Starter activity

See, think, wonder

Look at Source 5.4.1. 1.

What do you see in this image? What were the Chartists demanding? (I see...)

What does it make you think about why the Chartist movement emerged? (I think...)

What do you wonder about the Chartist movement? (I wonder...)

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Source 5.4.1 A membership card for the National Charter Association, 1843

The emergence and features of Chartism

In early nineteenth-century England, there was an elected parliament, but few laws existed to protect the poorest members of society. Working conditions in the mines, mills and factories of the Industrial Revolution were harsh. Few poor people had the right to vote for who should represent them in parliament. In 1832, the Reform Act was supposed to increase representation. The parliament also passed some laws to improve workers’ conditions, including sending government inspectors to factories and limiting the employment of children. However, the workers argued that the changes were not enough. Many people were still excluded from voting, because to become a voter, you had to be male, and occupy property worth at least £10 per year. Only wealthy people could afford to stand for election, because members of parliament did not receive any pay.

Writing focus 5.4 Developing sentences

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Chartism a social movement of people committed to the People’s Charter, a set of basic political claims, including the right to vote

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populism a political movement that champions the common person, usually by saying that common people were being betrayed by elite, or establishment, politicians

A group of workers decided that the only way to fix the problem was to give working people more say in the laws that governed their lives. In 1838 they launched the People’s Charter, and Chartism became very popular in Britain. Like other movements for universal suffrage, a key feature of Chartism was populism. Chartist leaders knew that they had to convince large numbers of working people that the elites in power were corrupt and ignoring the plight of working-class people. Chartists gave speeches in factories and mills, to convince workers to support the reforms. The movement was active in nearly every town across Britain, and ran its own newspapers and cooperative stores.

revolution a complete change in the way a country is governed, usually to a different political system, and often using violence

The Chartists’ first petition, presenting their demands, had 1.3 million signatures. It seemed impossible for members of parliament to ignore the petition, and the thousands of people who marched in the streets in support. However, in July 1839, fewer than 20 per cent of members of parliament supported it.

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When the petition was ignored, Chartists called for workers to take more extreme measures, including going on strike and marching in the streets across England, Scotland and Wales. The authorities were concerned that Chartists threatened law and order, or wanted a revolution, and many of the movement’s leaders were Source 5.4.2 A depiction of Chartists and sympathisers attacking the arrested. This led to violent town of Newport clashes. In November 1839, several thousand supporters attacked the town of Newport, Wales, to try to free local Chartists from prison. Some of them were armed. Soldiers who were sent to defend the town shot and killed at least 10 Chartists, wounded many others, and arrested 200. Their leaders were found guilty of treason and sentenced to death. The judge said that the Chartists were not merely asking for reform, but aiming “to put down established institutions and introduce in their stead a new order”. The sentences were later changed to transportation for life, to Australia.

In 1842, a new petition supporting the People’s Charter was signed by 3.3 million people. The paper was around 10 km long, weighed 300 kg, and had to be cut into pieces to fit through the doors of parliament! This too was rejected. MP Thomas Macauley said that his reason for opposing the petition was that if “working men” had the right to vote, “knowledge will be borne down by ignorance”; he warned that eventually the workers would decide to ban private property, and the nation would collapse.

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5.4 Political rights: Chartism

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Activity 5.4.1 Source analysis

Explain what you think the creator of this cartoon was trying to communicate.

Explain what this cartoon tells you about the emotion surrounding the People’s Charter.

Discuss how useful this cartoon is as evidence of the significance of the People’s Charter.

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Source 5.4.3 A Chartist worker delivers another giant petition, and a member of parliament says that if it is left in the usual way, it will be properly attended to. London Punch, c. 1848.

Historical concepts: Perspectives, Significance Historical skills: Comprehension, Perspectives and interpretations

When the People’s Charter was rejected for a third time in 1848, it was clear that the Chartists had failed to achieve change through parliament, despite the widespread support. Again, frustrated supporters rallied on the streets. They were met by the police, who had 10 000 officers and soldiers on hand to prevent the rally from reaching parliament. Again, the leaders were arrested. In total, 100 Chartists were sentenced to transportation to prison colonies in Australia.

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Source 5.4.4 Chartist workers rioting at a textiles mill near Manchester, England, in August 1842

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Significant groups and individuals in Chartism Chartists formed groups across Britain, and had admirers in other parts of the world. They had a range of leaders, including a mild-mannered carpenter who taught himself economics, and a fiery Irish member of parliament.

Source 5.4.5 An engraving of English Chartist William Lovett (1800–1877) ➜

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William Lovett was an English woodworker, who began to read about politics and economics in his 20s. He was inspired by the ideas of the socialist Robert Owen, who wanted working people to live healthy and welleducated lives. In 1836, he was a founding member of the London Workingmen’s Association, later known as the Chartists, which set up a library for working people and met at hotels to develop campaigns for political reforms. Lovett’s great achievement was to draft the 1838 People’s Charter, which stated in one document the reforms that Chartists demanded. Lovett was mildmannered, non-violent and highly respected. In 1839, he was arrested for printing pamphlets that accused the police of brutality when they broke up a Chartists meeting, and imprisoned for a year. Later in life, Lovett wrote textbooks for working-class students. Source 5.4.6 William Lovett describes democracy

Democracy, in its just and most extensive sense, means the power of the people mentally, morally, and politically directed, in promoting the happiness of the whole human family, irrespective of their country, creed, or colour.

William Lovett, 1845, Address to the Chartists of the United Kingdom

Feargus O’Connor (1796–1855) was a different kind of Chartist leader. O’Connor was powerfully built, loud and aggressive. He grew up in Ireland, and supported the fight for Irish independence from Britain. In the 1830s, he was elected as a Radical member of the British Parliament, and set up the Northern Star, the Chartist newspaper. O’Connor was very popular among working people for his inspirational public speaking. For organising illegal mass meetings, O’Connor was arrested in 1840, and imprisoned for 18 months. He continued to lead the Chartists and, in 1847, created a company that bought land and built cottages so that working people could live in comfort. O’Connor’s career ended with illness that affected him psychologically, and his last act in parliament was to punch three MPs who criticised his land plan.

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5.4 Political rights: Chartism

Source 5.4.7 A crowd of around 25 000 Chartists gather in London in 1848 to hear Feargus O’Connor speak.

Review 5.4

Online quiz

Knowledge and understanding

Thinking and researching

Students can access sample responses and results

Teachers can go online to assign questions, view results, reports and more!

Knowledge and understanding 1.

Define the term “Chartism”.

Describe what happened when Chartists attacked the town of Newport, Wales, in November 1839.

Identify the three occasions on which the People’s Charter petition was presented to parliament, and explain what happened each time.

Explain how Chartism used “populism” to build public support for democratic reform.

Summarise William Lovett’s contribution to the Chartist movement and explain what kind of leader he was.

Thinking and researching 1.

The Chartists submitted three massive petitions to parliament between 1839 and 1848, all of which were rejected. Explain why parliament rejected them, and evaluate whether the Chartist movement achieved anything despite this failure.

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5.5

Economic fairness: Capitalism Success criteria

In this lesson, you will learn how capitalism developed as an economic system during the Industrial Revolution, and how key thinkers like Adam Smith and the American “robber barons” shaped its principles.

❏ I can define capitalism and explain how it developed during the Industrial Revolution.

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Learning intention

Starter activity

See, think, wonder

Look at Source 5.5.1. 1.

What do you see in this image? (I see...)

What does it make you think about how people viewed powerful capitalists? (I think...)

What do you wonder about capitalism? (I wonder...)

The emergence and features of capitalism

capitalism an economic and political system based on private ownership of the means of production to make a profit

Source 5.5.1 A 1901 cartoon depicting John D Rockefeller, probably the richest-ever American, as a robber baron, wearing a crown made up of his railroad and oil companies. ➜

Writing focus 5.5 Creating topic sentences

Modern capitalism arose out of the ideas of the Enlightenment, and the manufacturing capabilities of the Industrial Revolution. Capitalism encourages individuals to work, build wealth and own property (or “capital”), and then employ others to develop this wealth on their behalf. The idea is that free enterprise, competition and free trade allow economies to grow in creative ways and reward the hard-working or clever individual. In theory, capitalism will provide societies with everything that people need and want, because it is in the interests of businesses to supply what their customers demand. Capitalists accept that when the economy is free to develop, there will be some inequalities between rich and poor, or those who succeed and those who fail.

Trading goods for profit was not a new idea, but the Industrial Revolution gave birth to a new world, where the ability to make products for sale was owned and controlled by those who built and ran factories. The owners competed with each other for customers, and grew their capital by investing in the latest technologies for manufacturing and transport. They could also invest in companies and trading goods belonging to other people, by buying a share of the ownership of them, known as “stock”, at a stock exchange.

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5.5 Economic fairness: Capitalism

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Source 5.5.2 The original seventeenth-century stock exchange building, Amsterdam, the Netherlands, where capitalists could buy and sell products and companies. Capitalist thinkers called for governments to give freedom to factory owners, railway builders and energy companies to unleash their creativity, and build the wealth of the future. Their guiding principle was individualism, to encourage people to make their own decisions. Levels of international trade rose significantly, and families migrated away from the countryside and towards the cities, where factories and ports offered work opportunities. Between 1750 and 1850, the population of England tripled in size, and over half of the people moved into cities to become the new “working class”, and often to live in cheap housing that was provided by factory owners.

individualism the habit or principle of being independent and self-reliant

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The clearest example of modern Source 5.5.3 The world’s first “skyscraper”, the 1885 capitalism on a large scale was the United Home Insurance Building in Chicago, which stood 10 storeys States, which grew so rapidly that by and over 42 m tall. 1890, it was the world’s largest economy. Much of the growth of the United States was created by private capitalists, who invested their money in the oil industry, construction, railways and banking, and made huge profits.

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Significant groups and individuals in capitalism

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The thinking of some Enlightenment philosophers, who wanted to unleash individual liberty and creativity, supported the principles of capitalism. Adam Smith (1723–1790), a Scottish economist and philosopher, admired capitalists’ energy and initiative. He wrote that government interference would hold people back. Smith saw the free market, and its rules of supply and demand, as a natural and balanced system. Smith used the metaphor of market forces being an “invisible hand” that would guide companies to provide the goods and services that people needed for a good life. If, in doing so, owners increased their profits, Smith said that personal wealth was a fair reward.

Activity 5.5.1

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Source analysis

Source 5.5.4 Adam Smith criticises the British Government for interfering with free trade in the American colonies. [For the British government to] prohibit a great people … from making all that they can of every part of their own produce, or from employing their stock and industry in the way that they judge most advantageous to themselves, is a manifest violation of the most sacred rights of mankind.

Smith, A, 1776, An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations, p. 372

Identify which capitalist beliefs are evident in Adam Smith’s statement.

Explain what Adam Smith said the British government was prohibiting.

Identify what Adam Smith said preventing capitalism was “a manifest violation” of, and explain what that shows about capitalist beliefs.

Historical concepts: Significance Historical skills: Comprehension, Perspectives and interpretations

In the late-nineteenth-century United States, a small group of business families became the world’s most successful and significant capitalists. Cornelius Vanderbilt, John D Rockefeller, Andrew Carnegie, JP Morgan and others grew their businesses to unprecedented sizes, by providing the services that Americans wanted. They then turned their businesses into virtual empires, by buying other companies that might compete with them. Relative to the size of the national economy, they were the wealthiest Americans ever. They were admired for their ability to become so rich so quickly, and for creating a time of national prosperity known as the “Gilded Age”.

philanthropy the act of giving away money, especially in large amounts, to good causes

Many of the big American capitalists were praised for giving back to their society through philanthropy to the arts, education and medical research. They were also criticised as “robber barons”, whose greed drove them to kill off competition and create monopolies, which was against the spirit of capitalism. In the first decade of the twentieth century, President Theodore Roosevelt used an “antitrust” law to break up some of the monopolies.

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5.5 Economic fairness: Capitalism

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Source 5.5.5 Grand Central Station in New York City, the main public train station in America’s biggest city, was made possible by the private investment of the Vanderbilt family.

Review 5.5

Online quiz

Knowledge and understanding

Thinking and researching

Students can access sample responses and results

Teachers can go online to assign questions, view results, reports and more!

Knowledge and understanding 1.

Define the term “capitalism”.

“Capitalism was destined to inspire new and challenging ideas.” Discuss the extent to which you agree with this statement.

Explain what Adam Smith meant by describing market forces as an “invisible hand”.

Identify two criticisms that were made of the major American capitalists.

Describe two major impacts of capitalism on the movement of people and goods between 1750 and 1850 in England.

Summarise how the United States became the world’s largest economy by 1890.

Thinking and researching 1.

Adam Smith wrote that market forces work like an “invisible hand”. Using examples of the major American capitalists described in this Lesson, evaluate whether the evidence supports or challenges Smith’s idea.

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Chapter 5 Key ideas and movements (1750–1918)

5.6

Economic fairness: Socialism Success criteria

In this lesson, you will learn how socialism emerged as a direct response to capitalism, and how its different forms – utopian, democratic and revolutionary socialism – were shaped by thinkers like Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels.

❏ I can explain the key features of socialism and compare its different forms: utopian, democratic and revolutionary.

SA D I M GI PL T A E L C -O H N AP L Y TE R S

Learning intention

Starter activity

See, think, wonder

Look at Source 5.6.1. 1.

What do you see in this image? How are Capital and Labour being contrasted? (I see...)

What does it make you think about the relationship between rich and poor? (I think...)

What do you wonder about socialism? (I wonder...)

collectivism the practice or principle of prioritising the interests of a group over each individual in that group socialism a political ideology based on equality: shared contributions to and shared benefits from society and the economy

Writing focus 5.6 Developing sentences

While capitalism inspired individualism, other people were drawn to collectivism. They questioned the fairness of the profit motive and promoted the wellbeing of the community as a whole. Socialism, the leading form of collectivism, emerged as a direct response to capitalism. It developed when thinkers observed the inequality that resulted from capitalism’s beliefs in individual enterprise and free markets, Source 5.6.1 A cartoon from Punch magazine, London, 1843, and concluded that the poor contrasting the lives of Capital and Labour. would never experience a good life, unless the wealth of society was shared more fairly. In their view, major changes were required to stop a small group of rich people, known as capitalists, from leading luxurious lives while the majority of the people, known as Labour, suffered. ➜

utopian relating to or aiming for a perfect society in which everyone works well with each other and is happy

The emergence and features of socialism

Socialists proposed various changes to bring capitalists and labour into balance. Some set up practical experiments, where people lived and worked together, without an owner taking all the profits. They were known as utopian socialists. For the factory owner Robert Owen, for example, socialism meant model cooperative communities, striving for wellbeing rather than profit.

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5.6 Economic fairness: Socialism

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Other socialists developed an ideology to start collectivist reforms through policy and within a democratic system of government. They imagined a planned economy, in which the state controlled the distribution of goods. They were known as democratic socialists.

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From the mid-nineteenth century, a strand of socialism known as revolutionary socialism called for a violent upheaval to effect change. These thinkers, led by Karl Marx, said that history showed that masters always exploited their workers. They said it would never be enough to ask each master to improve capitalism by setting up small cooperatives, or by reforming some laws. They called for workers to mount a revolution to overthrow the master capitalists. The revolution should first set up socialist government, in which a central government allocates resources, and later build towards the perfect society, to be known as communism. Under communism, all private property would be abolished and all the means of production would be owned and controlled by the people equally.

Capitalist stage

employers exploit employees

Socialist society

dictatorship of the proletariat

Revolution

nobles exploit peasants

ry over time

Revolution

masters exploit slaves

Feudal stage

Revolution

Slave society

Revolution

Stages of h isto

Communist society classless utopia

communism a theory or system of social organisation in which all property is owned by the community and each person contributes and receives according to their ability and needs proletariat the lowest class of people in a society, who do not control production and must work in order to live

ion le progress An inevitab

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Source 5.6.2 A summary of Karl Marx’s theory of the stages of history

Karl Marx, and his fellow German philosopher Friedrich Engels, studied the lives of people employed in the textiles industry, in British cities like Manchester. They concluded that those who suffered in mills and factories belonged to a worldwide class of workers that was exploited everywhere under capitalism, known as the proletariat. In 1848, they published The Communist Manifesto. The Manifesto said that the only logical way to liberate the proletariat was for them to fight as a class, and smash the existing system. The rallying cry from the Communist Manifesto was, “Workers of all Lands, Unite!” The phrase was often accompanied on banners and signs by a hammer, representing workers, and a sickle, representing peasants (icons you have seen throughout this chapter). Marx’s followers believed that workers and peasants could unite to win a revolution. Across the world, socialist parties were established, flying the red flag of their movement.

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Source 5.6.3 Karl Marx and Freidrich Engels, The Communist Manifesto, 1848

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The Communists … openly declare that their ends can be attained only by the forcible overthrow of all existing social conditions. Let the ruling classes tremble at a Communistic revolution. The proletarians have nothing to lose but their chains. They have a world to win. Workers of all Lands, Unite!

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Source 5.6.4 French socialists during the revolutions of 1848 flew the red flag – which has been used to represent socialism and communism.

Activity 5.6.1 Source analysis 1.

List the four types of people that are depicted above the workers in the pyramid.

Explain the message of the picture about capitalism.

Compare the picture with the feudal system pyramid. What is similar? What is different?

Analyse the origin of the picture (where it is from). What makes its origins significant? What does that show about socialism?

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Source 5.6.5 A depiction of the capitalist system as a pyramid, published by the Industrial Workers of the World trade union in the US in 1911, based on a 1900 Russian poster. The text reads from top to bottom: “Captialism”, “We rule you”, “We fool you”, “We shoot at you”, “We eat for you”, “We work for all”, “We feed all”, “Pyramid of Capitalist System”.

Historical concepts: Perspectives, Significance Historical skills: Comprehension, Analysis and use of sources

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5.6 Economic fairness: Socialism

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Significant groups and individuals in socialism

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The fundamental idea of socialism, to make the economy fairer, attracted a wide range of individuals. Christian socialists, for example, said that Jesus Christ had taught people to care for the poor and share their property. They saw socialism as a logical extension of their faith. Christian socialists in Britain supported cooperatives and the Chartists. The socialist Anglican priest Charles Kingsley wrote a children’s book, The Water Babies, in 1863, in which a poor chimney-sweep boy drowns. The fairy who saves him, “Doas-you-would-be-done-by”, represents not only the “golden rule” of Christianity, but a core principle of socialism.

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Source 5.6.6 The Paris Commune, May 1871, before the French army massacred the socialists.

In France, generations of thinkers were attracted to socialism. Several, including PierreJoseph Proudhon (1809–1865), argued for the abolition of private property. In 1871, revolutionary socialists won the Paris local government elections and created the “Paris Commune”, which rejected the authority of the national government and tried to implement socialist ideas. This was seen as such a threat to the status quo that within two months, the Commune was attacked by the French Army, which killed thousands of socialists and their supporters.

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The most significant influence on socialism was Karl Marx (1818–1883). Marx was a German philosopher, social scientist and historian, who was exiled from Germany for revolutionary views in his 20s. He moved to Paris where he was met inspirational communists, and then spent most of his life in Britain. He collaborated with fellow German exile Friedrich Engels, studying workers in factories. They said that under capitalism, workers gave their lives in service of factory owners, and got little in return. Marx believed the Industrial Revolution was good at creating abundance, but not equality. He predicted that a workers’ revolution would start in the most industrialised nations and spread around the world.

abolition the act of ending an activity or custom officially, usually by changing the law

Source 5.6.7 Karl Marx in 1875

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Chapter 5 Key ideas and movements (1750–1918)

Marx said that human history and society should be understood in terms of the material realities of people’s lives, not ideas and beliefs. This concept has had an enormous influence on the fields of sociology and history. Marx became a leading figure in the International Working Men’s Association (also known as the First International). While his 1848 The Communist Manifesto was his most widely read book, his 1860s–1880s work Capital: A Critique of Political Economy gave more detailed economic theories. He argued that industrial capitalism had “alienated” human beings from their work, from the products they made, and from each other, and treated them like extensions of the machines they operated. ➜

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Source 5.6.8 Karl Marx writes about the effect of the capitalist system on labourers

… within the capitalist system all methods for raising the social productiveness of labour are brought about at the cost of the individual labourer; all means for the development of production transform themselves into means of domination over, and exploitation of, the producers; they mutilate the labourer into a fragment of a man, degrade him to the level of an appendage of a machine, destroy every remnant of charm in his work and turn it into a hated toil …

Karl Marx, 1867, Capital: A Critique of Political Economy, Vol 1

Activity 5.6.2 Source analysis 1.

Explain what the quotes on Marx’s gravestone mean.

Why do you think these quotes were chosen? What aspect of Marx’s work do they highlight?

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Source 5.6.9 Karl Marx’s grave in Highgate Cemetery, London. It displays two key quotes from Marx’s work. The first is: “Workers of all lands unite”, and the second reads: “The philosophers have only interpreted the world in various ways, the point however is to change it.”

5.6 Economic fairness: Socialism

Bolsheviks the larger and more radical of the two groups formed when the Social Democratic Workers’ Party split in 1903

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The most significant revolutionary socialist group developed in Russia. Russia at the time was less industrialised than the rest of Europe. It was still ruled by a Tsar (king/ emperor), and had only ended feudalism in 1861. In 1898, the Social Democratic Workers’ Party, based on Marxism, was founded in the city of Minsk. In 1903, Vladimir Ilyich Lenin and Alexander Bogdanov led the Bolshevik faction, which split away from the party and became the Russian Communist Party. Lenin wrote and spoke regularly about how to apply Marx’s theories in Russia. After a failed revolution in 1905, Lenin spent years in exile, developing plans. He said there should be direct rule by workers, in groups called “soviets”. Russian communists won the opportunity to put Marxist ideas into effect with a successful revolution in 1917, leading to a socialist state that they called the Soviet Union.

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Source 5.6.10 Vladimir Lenin condemns capitalist democracy

Marx grasped this essence of capitalist democracy splendidly when, in analyzing the experience of the [Paris] Commune, he said that the oppressed are allowed once every few years to decide which particular representatives of the oppressing class shall represent and repress them in parliament!

Vladimir Ilyich Lenin, 1917, The State and Revolution

Review 5.6

Online quiz

Knowledge and understanding

Thinking and researching

Students can access sample responses and results

Teachers can go online to assign questions, view results, reports and more!

Knowledge and understanding 1.

Define the following terms: a. socialism b. abolition.

Explain why Chartism and socialism emerged from the Industrial Revolution.

Explain how socialists criticised capitalism.

Explain how socialists viewed property.

Explain the key difference between utopian socialism, democratic socialism and revolutionary socialism.

Describe the key ideas in The Communist Manifesto published by Marx and Engels in 1848.

Thinking and researching 1.

Imagine you are a French socialist living in Paris in May 1871. Write a diary entry describing the Paris Commune, what you hoped it would achieve and what happened to it.

Historical concepts: Cause and effect, Significance Historical skills: Comprehension, Perspectives and interpretations, Communication

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Chapter 5 Key ideas and movements (1750–1918)

5.7

Economic fairness: The abolition of slavery Success criteria

In this lesson, you will learn how the movement to abolish slavery developed and ultimately succeeded, and the roles played by key individuals such as Wilberforce, Garrison, Douglass, and Toussaint Louverture.

❏ I can summarise how the abolitionist movement developed across different countries. ❏ I can identify key individuals such as Wilberforce, Garrison and Douglass, who led the campaign.

SA D I M GI PL T A E L C -O H N AP L Y TE R S

Learning intention

Starter activity

See, think, wonder

Look at Source 5.7.1. 1.

What do you see in this image? (I see...)

What does it make you think about the treatment of enslaved people and how this affected anti-slavery campaigners? (I think...)

What do you wonder about the abolition movement? (I wonder...)

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Source 5.7.1 A plan for transporting enslaved people below the decks of an eighteenth-century British slave ship, for a two-month trans-Atlantic journey

The emergence and features of the abolition of slavery

slavery the activity of legally owning other people who are forced to work for or obey you

In the eighteenth century, slavery was a common practice. From the sixteenth to the nineteenth centuries, Portuguese, British, French, Dutch and Spanish ships travelled to Africa to purchase people who had been captured from their homes by slave traders. The European ship captains then took them as prisoners on dangerous trans-Atlantic voyages, to sell them to white plantation owners in European colonies in North and South America. Over 12 million people were forcibly taken.

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5.7 Economic fairness: The abolition of slavery

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Conditions onboard trans-Atlantic slave ships were so poor that historians estimate two million people died. Survivors of the journey then spent the rest of their lives doing hard physical work without pay, with just enough housing and food to keep them able to work. If they had children, they were born into slavery and became the “property” of their parents’ owners. Enslaved Africans typically worked on large plantations, growing crops that were in demand in Europe, such as sugar, coffee, tobacco and cotton. Most were taken to Brazil and the islands of the Caribbean. Around 388 000 were taken to what became the United States.

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Source 5.7.2 Slaves cutting sugar cane in the British colony of Antigua, painted in 1827.

The system of slavery was questioned by Enlightenment thinkers. Slavery was the opposite of the democratic rights and freedoms that they discussed. They began movements aiming to achieve the emancipation of enslaved people and abolition of slavery.

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The first step of the anti-slavery movement was to try to abolish the international slave trade. In Britain, the campaign was led by a group of Christian activists, particularly from the minority church dedicated to peace and equality called the Society of Friends (the Quakers). Many anti-slavery activists were women, who were also without equal rights. In 1787, an Abolition Committee began publishing pamphlets about the evils of slavery and holding public meetings. Abolitionists convinced hundreds of thousands of people to sign a petition. In parliament, their spokesman William Wilberforce said that the testimony of people who had witnessed the slave trade showed that it was “dreadful” and “wicked” and must be abolished.

emancipation the process of setting people free from restrictions, or giving them social and political freedom and rights

Source 5.7.3 William Wilberforce gave an anti-slavery speech to the British Parliament in 1789

I mean not to accuse any one, but to take the shame upon myself, in common, indeed, with the whole parliament of Great Britain, for having suffered this horrid trade to be carried on under their authority. We are all guilty … in this wretched business.

William Wilberforce, May 1789

Source 5.7.4 “Am I Not a Man and a Brother?” A 1787 medallion made by the Wedgwood company and worn by supporters of the British anti-slavery campaign ➜

In Britain, King George III personally disapproved of slavery, but had allowed it to expand. British people enjoyed better lifestyles, thanks to the goods grown on slave plantations. Merchants in major ports such as Liverpool claimed that their business depended on the slave trade and that those onboard were treated well. But public opinion moved against the practice. Denmark banned its ships from the trade in 1802. The British Parliament abolished the slave trade in 1807, and George III signed it into law. Any British person caught slave trading could be fined 100 pounds per person they were trafficking.

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Writing focus 5.7 The language of source analysis

Source 5.7.5 The British Parliament abolished the slave trade in 1807 … from and after the First Day of May 1807, the African Slave Trade, and all and all manner of dealing and trading in the Purchase, Sale, Barter, or Transfer of Slaves, or of Persons intended to be sold, transferred, used, or dealt with as Slaves, practiced or carried on, in, at, to or from any Part of the Coast or Countries of Africa, shall be, and the same is hereby utterly abolished, prohibited, and declared to be unlawful …

An Act for the Abolition of the Slave Trade (1807)

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In the same year, US President Thomas Jefferson approved a ban on the importation of enslaved people to America, although illegal smuggling continued. Britain also set up an Africa Squadron, which patrolled the Atlantic Ocean for illegal slave ships. The squadron returned 150 000 captives to Africa.

The next goal of the anti-slavery movement was to emancipate the millions of enslaved people who had already been shipped to plantations or born into slavery. To do this, they would need to abolish slavery altogether. They encountered more opposition than during the campaign to ban the slave trade. Slave owners did not want to lose their “property”. However, the movement gained momentum.

Slavery came to an end in different ways in different places. Enslaved people won their own freedom on the Caribbean island of Saint Domingue (now known as Haiti). A slave revolt forced the French governor to abolish slavery there and free 500 000 people. France abolished slavery in 1794. In 1829, after winning its independence from Spain, Mexico abolished slavery. In 1833, Britain passed the Slavery Abolition Act, which abolished slavery throughout the British Empire and emancipated 800 000 people in the Caribbean. The Netherlands (1863) followed, as did Latin American countries, including Cuba, Puerto Rico and Brazil (1888).

Source 5.7.6 This man, who had been whipped by his slave owner and escaped in 1863, joined the Union army. ➜

In the United States, the future of slavery was decided by war. By 1860, the nation was divided between “free” states that had abolished slavery and “slave” states, mostly in the south, where 3.95 million people were enslaved on plantations growing cotton, tobacco and other crops. Many people in northern states viewed slavery as morally wrong. From 1861, after the slave-owning states tried to leave the United States, to 1865, the American Civil War raged. From January 1863, when US President Abraham Lincoln signed the Emancipation Proclamation, it became clear that the Union was fighting not only to keep the United States together, but to end the practice of slavery. In 1865, the 13th Amendment to the US Constitution abolished slavery.

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5.7 Economic fairness: The abolition of slavery

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Significant groups and individuals in the abolition of slavery

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The French slave colony of Haiti won its freedom with an armed rebellion led by the former slave Toussaint Louverture (1743–1803), who was freed from slavery in his 30s. Toussaint became admired around the world as the leader of the first successful modern slave revolt. He was a studious and serious man, a committed Catholic and vegetarian. When he formed a rebel militia, he adopted the name “Louverture”, meaning “opening”. In less than a decade, he inspired his fellow Africans to fight for their freedom and won independence for his people. However, Napoleon sent a new French force to Haiti in 1802 and arrested Toussaint. He died in a French prison. Toussaint’s achievements were nonetheless made permanent, with the declaration of independence of Haiti in 1804.

Source 5.7.7 Illustration of Toussaint L’Ouverture leading the revolt against French power.

In Britain, the Anti-Slavery Society organised public campaigns and efforts in parliament to bring slavery to a legal end. William Wilberforce (1759–1833), who grew up in a wealthy merchant family and was first elected to the House of Commons in 1780, became its spokesman. Wilberforce based his opposition to slavery on his Christian beliefs, saying that it was a sin for any human being to be treated as poorly as enslaved Africans were. He was a member of parliament for 45 years, and in that time, sponsored many anti-slavery reforms. In 1806, he published a book titled A Letter on the Abolition of the Slave Trade, which helped to achieve the 1807 legislation to abolish the British slave trade. Wilberforce died just one month before Britain’s Slavery Abolition Act was passed to emancipate all enslaved people in British territories.

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Chapter 5 Key ideas and movements (1750–1918)

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Source 5.7.9 A photograph of William Lloyd Garrison, publisher of the American anti-slavery newspaper The Liberator ➜

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Source 5.7.8 William Wilberforce depicted in a painting from 1809, two years after Britain abolished the slave trade

In the United States, anti-slavery movements were strong in the north-east. In Boston, the journalist William Lloyd Garrison (1805–1879) joined the abolitionist movement in his 20s, because he viewed slavery as a sin against God. He established a newspaper called The Liberator, which became the best-known anti-slavery publication, and in 1833 helped to organise the American Anti-Slavery Society. He initially considered the idea of returning people to Africa, but changed his mind, and supported Abraham Lincoln in the Civil War. In 1865, he retired his newspaper and ended his political career, when the US Constitution was changed to ban slavery.

Activity 5.7.1 Source analysis ➜

Source 5.7.10 An extract from the Declaration of Sentiments, which was primarily written by William Lloyd Garrison, and adopted at the formation of the American Anti-Slavery Society.

The right to enjoy liberty is inalienable. … Every man has a right to his own body – to the products of his own labor – to the protection of law – and to the common advantages of society. It is piracy to buy or steal a native African, and subject him to servitude. Surely, the sin is as great to enslave an American as an African.

American Anti-Slavery Society, 1833, Declaration of Sentiments

Explain the purpose of the source. How does Garrison use language to persuade people that slavery should be abolished? Identify some examples of powerful language in the source and explain why they are effective.

Economic fairness: The abolition of slavery

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The American anti-slavery movement was strengthened by courageous African Americans who escaped from slavery. They organised efforts to smuggle people to freedom, such as through the “Underground Railroad”, and spoke to white audiences to convince them to treat black people as their equals.

Source 5.7.11 Frederick Douglass, photographed after escaping slavery and joining the US abolitionist campaign, in 1847 ➜

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Frederick Douglass (1818–1895), who had been enslaved as a house servant, plantation worker and ship builder, escaped as a 20-yearold. He started a public speaking career when William Lloyd Garrison convinced him to give a speech about his experiences at an 1841 antislavery convention. White audiences were amazed by his story, and made him very popular. His 1845 autobiography, Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, an American Slave became a best seller. Douglass used his earnings from a speaking tour of England and Ireland to set up his own abolitionist newspaper, North Star. Douglass was reportedly the most photographed person of the nineteenth century. He advised President Abraham Lincoln during the Civil War and held high-ranking government positions in Washington DC after the war.

Source 5.7.12 In 1849, Frederick Douglass argued that Black Americans were essential to the country’s future.

The white man’s happiness cannot be purchased by the black man’s misery. Virtue cannot prevail among the white people, by its destruction among the black people, who form a part of the whole community. It is evident that the white and black “must fall or flourish together”.

Frederick Douglass, 1849, “The Destiny of Colored Americans”, North Star, 16 November 1849

Review 5.7

Online quiz

Knowledge and understanding

Thinking and researching

Students can access sample responses and results

Teachers can go online to assign questions, view results, reports and more!

Knowledge and understanding 1.

Define the term “emancipation”.

Explain the steps that were taken towards ending slavery.

Analyse the significance of Frederick Douglass in the abolition of slavery.

Outline the scale and conditions of the trans-Atlantic slave trade in the eighteenth century.

Describe the role of William Lloyd Garrison in the American abolition movement.

Explain why the abolition of slavery took different forms in different countries, using two examples.

Thinking and researching 1.

Lesson 5.7 describes three different paths to abolishing slavery: legal campaigns, armed revolt and civil war. Using evidence from the section, evaluate which path was most effective and why.

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Chapter 5 Key ideas and movements (1750–1918)

5.8

The Enlightenment

Success criteria

In this lesson, you will learn how the Enlightenment introduced ideas about reason, rights and government that challenged traditional authority, through thinkers like Rousseau, Montesquieu, Wollstonecraft and Diderot.

❏ I can define the Enlightenment and explain how it challenged traditional ideas about power and government.

SA D I M GI PL T A E L C -O H N AP L Y TE R S

Learning intention

Starter activity

See, think, wonder

Look at Source 5.8.1. 1.

What do you see in this image? (I see...)

What does it make you think about how new ideas were spread? (I think...)

What do you wonder about the Enlightenment? (I wonder...)

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Source 5.8.1 A depiction of philosophes gathering to discuss revolutionary new ideas (Jean Huber, 1772)

Writing focus 5.8 Creating topic sentences

reason the power of the mind to think, understand and form logical judgements

In the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, so many new ideas were developing across Europe that the period was known as the Age of Enlightenment. Great thinkers, known in French-speaking countries as the philosophes, began to take ideas that had been accepted as common sense for generations, and hold them up to the “light of reason”. Enlightenment thinkers including René Descartes, Isaac Newton, Immanuel Kant, Nicolas de Condorcet, Voltaire and Benjamin Franklin celebrated the power of human knowledge and developed new approaches to philosophy, astronomy, physics, mathematics and chemistry. Others tackled big questions about societies: Was feudalism logical and reasonable? Should the Church keep its position of power and authority? Was there a better way to govern a society than through kings and queens?

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5.8 The Enlightenment

absolute ruler a monarch or ruler who has unlimited and unquestionable power

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Two leading philosophes were Jean-Jacques Rousseau and Baron de Montesquieu. The nobleman Montesquieu wrote a book, The Spirit of Laws (1748), which was so radical and so widely read that it inspired revolutions. He argued that any system, such as feudalism, that allowed a monarch to be an “absolute ruler” was inevitably unfair, and oppressed the people. The French and American revolutions were both inspired by this way of thinking. In Rousseau’s famous book, The Social Contract (1762), he said “Man is born free, and yet everywhere he is in chains”. He believed that monarchs and the Church had become corrupt. In his view, the people as a whole, not an individual, should Source 5.8.2 Mary Wollstonecraft (1759–1797) have the sovereign power to make laws. Rousseau inspired many countries to declare that the ultimate source of authority was the people, and no one was above the law.

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Most key figures of the Enlightenment were men, because girls and women were excluded from education systems and public debates. One exception was Mary Wollstonecraft, an English philosopher. She responded to the male-dominated Enlightenment movement with A Vindication of the Rights of Women (1792), in which she argued that it was only logical for all human beings to share the same fundamental rights and freedoms. She was critical of systems that privileged some (the monarchy and aristocracy), neglected the poor and enslaved others. In eighteenth-century France, the city of Paris was the centre of the Enlightenment movement. Thinkers met to discuss new ideas and to experience new trends that had emerged from the exploration of the Americas: coffee, chocolate and tobacco. The philosophe Denis Diderot decided that the new knowledge should be shared more widely. He led a 20-year project to “collect all the knowledge scattered all over the face of the earth”, from scientific discoveries to farming technology and more, into one book, from which anyone who could read could learn. He called it an Encyclopedia or Dictionary of Reason. It is regarded as the first major compilation of available knowledge in modern times.

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Activity 5.8.1 Source analysis

Identify Diderot’s purpose in creating the Encyclopédie.

Explain what the frontispiece from the Encyclopédie shows and how it represents Enlightenment ideas.

Discuss what you use in your life to achieve the same purpose as the Encyclopédie.

Analyse the significance of the Encyclopédie.

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Source 5.8.3 The cover that was added to editions of Denis Diderot’s Encyclopédie, from the 1770s onwards. At the top, radiating light, is a goddess representing Truth. Goddesses representing Reason and Philosophy are removing her veil so that Truth can be seen more clearly. The other figures represent other forms of knowledge that were included in the encyclopedia, including history, sciences and literature.

Historical concepts: Continuity and change, Significance Historical skills: Analysis and use of sources, Perspectives and interpretations

Review 5.8 Online quiz

Knowledge and understanding

Thinking and researching

Students can access sample responses and results

Teachers can go online to assign questions, view results, reports and more!

Knowledge and understanding 1.

Explain what the Enlightenment was.

Define “reason” as the term was used by Enlightenment thinkers in the eighteenth century.

Explain why Montesquieu’s book The Spirit of Laws (1748) was considered radical for its time.

Describe why Mary Wollstonecraft’s contribution to the Enlightenment was particularly notable.

Identify the significance of Denis Diderot’s Encyclopédie and explain what it was designed to achieve.

Summarise how Enlightenment thinkers challenged the idea that absolute rulers were a natural or legitimate form of government.

Thinking and researching 1.

The Enlightenment is often called the “Age of Reason”. Explain what Enlightenment thinkers replaced tradition with, and give two specific examples of how this changed society.

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5.9 The Industrial Revolution

5.9

775

The Industrial Revolution

Success criteria

In this lesson, you will learn how the Industrial Revolution transformed where people lived and how they worked, moving families from the countryside to cities and creating a new industrial working class in Britain.

❏ I can outline the main changes the Industrial Revolution brought to how people lived and worked.

SA D I M GI PL T A E L C -O H N AP L Y TE R S

Learning intention

Starter activity

Look at Source 5.9.1 and 5.9.2. What differences do you notice between these two images of factory workers? What do you think explains the difference between how they were drawn versus photographed?

Writing focus 5.9 Transitional phrases

Source 5.9.3 An iron foundry in Manchester, England, 1814, showing the effects of steam power on a landscape. ➜

The Industrial Revolution began in Britain in the eighteenth century, with the invention of steam power. New coal-fired machines could make products at a scale and speed that few had imagined possible. Rapid technological innovation dramatically changed the environment and society, and helped make the British Empire the largest empire in history.

Source 5.9.2 A realistic photograph of child labourers and the machines they operated six days per week in a textile factory, 1908 (North Carolina, US) ➜

➜

Source 5.9.1 An idealised drawing of women and children using steam-powered looms in a textile factory during the Industrial Revolution, 1835

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1712 Steam engine 1777 Grand Trunk Canal 1804 Steam-powered railway 1764 Spinning jenny 1860 Dynamite

SA D I M GI PL T A E L C -O H N AP L Y TE R S

1779 Steam-powered textile mill

1876 Telephone

1895 Cinematograph

1837 Telegraph

1867 Typewriter

1879 Lightbulb

1899 Aspirin

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Source 5.9.4 Some of the inventions of the Industrial Revolution

The Industrial Revolution transformed where people lived, how they worked and who they worked for. Before 1750, few English people left the village they were born in, and goods such as clothing were made slowly by hand, in the family cottage. New industries, with steam-powered machinery, meant these products could be made quickly and in vast quantities, in giant factories. People left the countryside and migrated with their families to the fast-growing cities, to find work. Steam power enabled boats and trains to transport these products at a speed faster than humans had ever travelled. The faster people and goods travelled, the faster knowledge and ideas were shared.

➜

Source 5.9.5 Working-class housing in The Rocks, Sydney, Factories became very efficient at c. 1901 producing goods, but their working conditions were frequently poor. Owners expected their employees to work for 14 hours a day, paid them low wages and, to begin with, there were no safety laws, so the risk of injuries was high.

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Activity 5.9.1 Consider this scenario

A skilled shirt-maker in a small village in the north-west of England, who learned his trade from his mother and father, produces one good quality shirt in a week, with the help of his wife and children. Like his parents, he has never travelled beyond the village. He sells shirts to neighbours in the village or at the weekly market.

SA D I M GI PL T A E L C -O H N AP L Y TE R S

When steam-powered textile machines become available, the shirt-maker takes out a loan and buys a machine. It runs on steam power, created by burning coal, which emits a lot of smoke across the village. But it creates more shirts much faster, and at less cost than before. He soon makes enough profit to repay his loan and continue building his business. Soon, railways and canals are built near the village, allowing the shirt-maker to sell his products to people in other cities around the country.

Soon, larger machines made from steel can be transported to the shirt-maker’s region. He buys them, and demolishes several farmhouses to make space for a new type of building known as a “factory”. Inside, he places rows of machines and hires a growing team of workers. Before long, the shirt-maker becomes a supervisor with a pleasant office, while women and children from the surrounding area spend long days in the hot windowless factory, operating the machines. He soon comes to view them not as neighbours or friends but as “hands”, nameless extensions of his beautiful machines. This exponentially grows the shirt-maker’s wealth. He is no longer a humble villager, but an employer and business owner. British factories are finally producing cotton at a cost and quality that make it competitive with the famous Indian textiles. He sends his children away from their village to an expensive boarding school, so that they can prepare for a very different life. 1.

Identify the inventions that created opportunities for the shirt-maker.

Using what you know about pre-industrial life (e.g. under feudalism) explain whether the shirt-maker would have this same opportunity prior to the Industrial Revolution.

Explain the advantages and disadvantages that could be predicted of these new inventions.

Analyse how industrialisation may have changed the ideas people had about the world, based on this scenario.

Discuss how this fictional scenario may not be representative of most people’s experiences in the Industrial Revolution.

Historical concepts: Continuity and change, Perspectives, Historical skills: Communication, Perspectives and interpretations

➜ Source 5.9.6 Holloway, Crowe

& Holloway’s clothing factory, Stroud, Gloucestershire, England. Twenty sewing machines were installed, powered by steam through belt and shafting under the workbench. The women controlled the machines with foot levers.

DOC

Extension 5.9.1: Working conditions

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Source 5.9.7 A painting from 1852 by William Wyld. It shows a view of the town of Manchester in England, with numerous smoking chimneys from its many new textile factories

Review 5.9 Online quiz

Knowledge and understanding

Thinking and researching

Students can access sample responses and results

Teachers can go online to assign questions, view results, reports and more!

Knowledge and understanding 1.

List some advantages and disadvantages created by the Industrial Revolution.

Explain what the Industrial Revolution was and where it began.

Describe how the Industrial Revolution changed where and how ordinary people in England lived and worked.

Identify two specific ways in which factory working conditions during the Industrial Revolution were poor.

Explain the relationship between steam power and the spread of ideas and knowledge during the Industrial Revolution.

Outline why the Industrial Revolution is considered a turning point in the history of the modern world.

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Thinking and researching

➜

Source 5.9.8 Manchester, an industrial city in England, in the 1850s: Factories were located in the area shaded orange, workers’ accommodation in the area shaded pink and wealthier people lived in larger estates shaded green.

Carefully examine this map of the English city of Manchester in the 1850s. During this time, the city centre was dominated by factories (located largely in the orange area on the map) that linked to rivers and train lines that exported the goods out of the city to be sold around the world. The pollution created by these factories dirtied the air and the dense residential housing that surrounds the city on the map was usually in poor condition (the pink area). Wealthier people lived further out of the city, where land and gardens were available. The major cities of Sydney, Melbourne and Brisbane are the largest in Australia. They were established in the midst of the Industrial Revolution and, to some extent, were planned to avoid the conditions found in cities like Manchester. Find and study a map of one of these cities that shows the residential, commercial and industrial uses of land. You should look to identify the continuity and change between Manchester and a modern Australian city. You can do this by examining the following: 1.

Where are the factories and industrial areas located? How is this similar and/or different to Manchester? What reasons could you give for this?

Research the most expensive suburbs to buy a house in your city today. What does its location tell you about the change and/or continuity of where the wealthy live today, in comparison to Manchester in the 1850s? What reasons could you give for this?

Why do you think these major cities still exist on or close to major waterways and near transport hubs?

Research images of housing in the inner city of Manchester (or any English city) during the Industrial Revolution. Compare these images with the types of residential buildings commonly found in the inner city of your city today. What has changed? What reasons could you propose for this?

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Chapter 5 Key ideas and movements (1750–1918)

5.10

The American War of Independence

Success criteria

In this lesson, you will learn how American colonists’ frustration with British rule and their embrace of Enlightenment ideas led to the American War of Independence and the creation of a new democratic republic.

❏ I can explain why American colonists fought for independence from Britain. ❏ I can identify how Enlightenment ideas shaped the Declaration of Independence and the US Constitution.

SA D I M GI PL T A E L C -O H N AP L Y TE R S

Learning intention

Starter activity Think, pair, share 1.

Why do you think the American people might have wanted independence from the British?

Pair with a partner and discuss your ideas.

Share a key idea with the class.

colony a country or area under the full or partial political control of another country and occupied by settlers from that other country republic system of government without a king or queen, run by elected representatives of the people plus a president

Writing focus 5.10 Transitional phrases

Between 1775 and 1783, the 13 British colonies in America fought a revolution for their independence. The war was known as the American War of Independence, or the American Revolution. Americans were inspired to take up arms partly by their annoyance with the way the British king was treating them, but also by Enlightenment ideas. American revolutionaries had to find ways to defeat the world’s largest empire on the battlefield, and to design an independent republic, with its own identity, laws and ideals.

Causes of the war

Source 5.10.1 Paul Revere’s engraving of the Boston Massacre of 1770. The engraving depicts the British as organised aggressors, although in fact the scene resembled more of a chaotic riot. ➜

The main source of Americans’ anger was that they were forced to pay taxes and tariffs on imported goods to the British, without any representation in the British Parliament. From the 1760s, “No taxation without representation” became a rallying cry for people who wanted change. Several requests for the colonists to be represented in the British Parliament were rejected. For colonists who embraced Enlightenment thought, such as Benjamin Franklin, Thomas Jefferson and Samuel Adams, the British actions proved that the future of America lay in independence.

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5.10 The American War of Independence

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In the 1760s and 1770s, armed British soldiers patrolled the streets of American cities to maintain law and order. In Boston in March 1770, civilians who were protesting against new taxes fought with British soldiers, and five civilians were killed. After this “Boston Massacre”, anti-British movements gained new followers. There were more violent clashes over the next five years. In December 1773, activists crept onto ships carrying tea from India, which was subject to British tariffs, and threw hundreds of boxes of tea overboard in protest. In response to the “Boston Tea Party”, the British demanded compensation. When their navy imposed a blockade on Boston Harbor, the colonists found themselves on the verge of war.

Source 5.10.2 An artist’s impression of the Boston Tea Party of 1773

The Continental Congress and Declaration of Independence

Americans created a “Continental Congress” to represent the people and a militia, which later became the United States Army. In April 1775, they fought their first small battle with the British. That became known as “the shot heard round the world”, because it marked a turning point in world history. By August 1775, King George III declared that the colonists were in “open and avowed rebellion”, and ordered his troops to suppress and punish them.

DOC

Extension 5.10.1: The Boston Massacre

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Chapter 5 Key ideas and movements (1750–1918)

On 4 July 1776, the Continental Congress adopted the Declaration of Independence. The document justified their fight for independence to multiple audiences, including Britain, Americans and potential foreign allies. It listed 27 complaints against the British king. The declaration announced that the colonies would become the founding states of an independent republic, to be known as the United States of America. The USA would be built on popular sovereignty and Enlightenment principles that the rebels said were self-evident “truths”.

SA D I M GI PL T A E L C -O H N AP L Y TE R S

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➜ Source 5.10.3 Americans tear down a statue of King George

III on 9 July 1776, after a public reading of the Declaration of Independence.

Activity 5.10.1

➜

Source analysis

Source 5.10.4 Extract from the Preamble to the US Declaration of Independence, 4 July 1776

We hold these truths to be self-evident: that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable rights, that among these are Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness … that to secure these rights, governments are instituted among Men, deriving their just powers from the consent of the governed … that whenever any form of government becomes destructive of these ends, it is the right of the people to alter or to abolish it, and to institute new Government …

US Declaration of Independence, 4 July 1776

Define the following terms from the Declaration of Independence:

a. self-evident b. endowed c. unalienable rights d. consent.

Explain what the Declaration of Independence communicated to different audiences.

Explain what the preamble of the Declaration of Independence was attempting to communicate.

Summarise the significance of the Declaration of Independence, by completing the following sentence, using as much detail as you can. In 1776, the Continental Congress … [did what] … because … [why they did it] … which shows [why it matters].

Historical concepts: Cause and effect, Significance Historical skills: Comprehension, Analysis and use of sources, Communication

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5.10 The American War of Independence

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The United States Constitution

SA D I M GI PL T A E L C -O H N AP L Y TE R S

The war would last eight years and cost each side over 25 000 lives. In September 1783, Britain agreed to withdraw its troops and recognise the United States as a new nation. The ideas for which the War of Independence was fought were then turned into the United States Constitution, the world’s first complete written national constitution, which came into effect in 1789. The constitution was not handed to Americans by a ruler such as a king, but written by “We the People of the United States”, hoping to secure “the Blessings of Liberty to ourselves and our Posterity”. Their general George Washington served as the first President of the new nation.

➜

Source 5.10.5 A depiction of General George Washington leading American troops across the frozen Delaware River on Christmas night, 1776 (Emmanuel Gottlieb Leutze, 1851)

Review 5.10

Online quiz

Knowledge and understanding

Thinking and researching

Students can access sample responses and results

Teachers can go online to assign questions, view results, reports and more!

Knowledge and understanding 1.

Explain why the American War of Independence began.

Explain why the American War of Independence is also known as the American Revolution.

Define “popular sovereignty” as it was expressed in the American Declaration of Independence.

Explain why the rallying cry “No taxation without representation” was so central to the American Revolution.

Describe the events known as the “Boston Massacre” and the “Boston Tea Party,” and explain their impact.

Identify what made the United States Constitution of 1789 historically significant.

Thinking and researching 1.

The Declaration of Independence was written to justify the Revolution to multiple audiences. Explain which audience you think was most important to persuade, and why this was strategically crucial for the colonists.

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Chapter 5 Key ideas and movements (1750–1918)

5.11

The French Revolution

Success criteria

In this lesson, you will learn how the injustices of the French class system and Enlightenment ideas triggered the French Revolution, replacing royal power with popular sovereignty and leading to radical and violent consequences.

❏ I can outline the key events and causes of the French Revolution. ❏ I can explain how the French Revolution replaced royal authority with popular sovereignty and what violent consequences followed.

SA D I M GI PL T A E L C -O H N AP L Y TE R S

Learning intention

Starter activity

See, think, wonder

Look at Source 5.11.1. 1.

What do you see in this image? (I see...)

What does it make you think about how ordinary French people saw the upper classes (First and Second Estates)? (I think...)

What do you wonder about how the French Revolution came about? (I wonder...)

➜

Source 5.11.1 A cartoon showing a French peasant carrying the burden of taxes imposed by the First and Second Estates

bourgeoisie the class of professional workers, which included bankers, merchants and business owners, as well as lawyers, doctors, engineers and other skilled professions that offered specialised services

Eighteenth-century France was divided by social classes. The French monarchy was based in the palace of Versailles, one of the grandest buildings in the world. The king allowed wealth, power and privileges to be held by the clergy (known as the First Estate) and the nobility (the Second Estate). The remaining 98 per cent of the population made up the Third Estate, which paid most of the taxes but had no privileges. Some of the Third Estate were lawyers, bankers and manufacturers known as the bourgeoisie. However, the bulk of the Third Estate were poor urban workers in the major cities, and peasants who worked farms belonging to the nobles. Increasingly, members of the Third Estate questioned the fairness of the system.

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5.11 The French Revolution

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As Enlightenment ideas spread, “enlightened” nobles and clergy privately discussed the ideas of writers like Voltaire and Rousseau in “salons”, often large rooms in private houses. In coffee shops, educated bourgeoisie and urban workers discussed similar ideas.

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SA D I M GI PL T A E L C -O H N AP L Y TE R S

Writing focus 5.11 Appositives

Source 5.11.2 A painting of an eighteenth-century “salon” discussing a newly published book by the philosophe Voltaire

The Estates General meeting

➜

In the 1780s, when the French economy faced crises and people ran low on food, King Louis XVI and his wife Marie-Antionette came in for heavy criticism. In 1788, Louis tried to solve the problems by calling for a highly unusual meeting known as the Estates General, which would gather representatives from all three estates to discuss solutions. The king invited people to raise their concerns, and they did: over 4000 pamphlets were published, complaining that the king, the nobles and the clergy were failing to address the poverty and hunger of the ordinary people. One pamphlet was written by a priest known as Abbé Sieyès. He turned his back on his fellow clergy and sided with the Third Estate, whom he said represented the true nation of France. Source 5.11.3 Abbé Sieyès describes the Third Estate

What, then, is the Third Estate? Everything; but an everything shackled and oppressed. What would it be without the privileged order? Everything, but an everything free and flourishing.

Abbé Sieyès, 1789, What is the Third Estate?

At the Estates General meeting in May 1789, the Third Estate delegates were outnumbered by the other two estates, and eventually locked out of the meeting hall. In defiance, they declared themselves to be the one true National Assembly, and swore to work together until they changed the laws and government of France, in line with Enlightened principles.

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Chapter 5 Key ideas and movements (1750–1918)

The fall of the Bastille They began to use the phrase “Liberté, Égalité, Fraternité” (freedom, equality, brotherhood) to rally their supporters. When rumours circulated that Louis intended to have the new National Assembly arrested, on 14 July 1789, a mob marched on the largest symbol of royal power in Paris: the Bastille prison. The commander of the prison was set upon by the crowd and beheaded, starting a pattern of public violence.

SA D I M GI PL T A E L C -O H N AP L Y TE R S

After the fall of the Bastille, the National Assembly began to work as the government of France and to restructure the political system. Inspired by the American Declaration of Independence, they issued the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen. By declaring popular sovereignty, the declaration was a radical step to sideline the king and impose power by the people.

Activity 5.11.1 Source analysis ➜

Source 5.11.4 Some key articles from the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen, decreed by the National Assembly in August 1789

Men are born and remain free and equal in rights. Social distinctions may be founded only upon the general good. The aim of all political association is the preservation of the natural and imprescriptible rights of man. These rights are liberty, property, security, and resistance to oppression. Liberty consists in the freedom to do everything which injures no one else … Law is the expression of the general will. Every citizen has a right to participate personally, or through his representative, in its foundation. It must be the same for all, whether it protects or punishes. …

4. 6.

11.

The free communication of ideas and opinions is one of the most precious of the rights of man. Every citizen may, accordingly, speak, write, and print with freedom …

Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen, 1789.

Identify what principles are upheld by these key articles of the Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen.

Explain how the Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen reflected a radical change for France.

Explain what limitations there were to the Declaration.

Summarise the significance of the Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen, by completing the following sentence, using as much detail as you can. In 1789, the National Assembly … [did what] … because … [why they did it] … which shows [why it matters].

Historical concepts: Cause and effect, Significance Historical skills: Analysis and use of sources, Communication

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Citizens

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The Revolution abolished noble titles and privileges, leaving everyone with the same title, of “citizen”. This indicated that people were no longer “subject” to the king, but members of a community in which everyone had equal rights. At times, the new citizens pushed their leaders to speed up the pace of change. For example, in October 1789, women who worked at the Paris food market armed themselves and marched 20 km to lay siege to the palace of Versailles. The mob forced Louis XVI and Marie-Antionette to accept some of their demands and move to Paris. From that point on, the former absolute ruler was effectively a prisoner of the revolution.

Source 5.11.5 A depiction of the women’s march to Versailles, October 1789

The Reign of Terror

The French Revolution also faced major challenges. Externally, there were attempts by neighbouring kings and exiled nobility to invade France and restore the monarchy to power. Internally, France faced economic crises, and in-fighting between revolutionaries. The revolutionaries were particularly divided over the fate of the king. Eventually, he was declared guilty of treason and a majority, known as the “left wing”, voted to condemn Louis XVI and most of his family to death by a new device called a guillotine. The guillotine was put to regular use during the “Reign of Terror” of 1793–94, a period of excessive violence, when at least 300 000 people who were suspected of working against the Revolution were arrested, and tens of thousands were beheaded.

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Chapter 5 Key ideas and movements (1750–1918)

Source 5.11.6 A painting depicting the execution by guillotine of King Louis XVI, January 1793

Review 5.11 Online quiz

Knowledge and understanding

Thinking and researching

Students can access sample responses and results

Teachers can go online to assign questions, view results, reports and more!

Knowledge and understanding 1.

Identify who made up each of the three Estates in pre-Revolutionary France.

Explain the relationship between the American and French revolutions.

Define “bourgeoisie” and explain their position in French society before the 1789 Revolution.

Explain how France’s three-estate social system caused growing resentment among ordinary people in the 1780s.

Describe the events of 14 July 1789 in Paris and explain their significance to the French Revolution.

Identify how the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen changed the relationship between French citizens and their king.

Thinking and researching 1.

The French Revolution adopted the motto “Liberté, Égalité, Fraternité.” Assess how well the Revolution actually achieved each of these three values. Provide evidence for your assessment.

Historical concepts: Cause and effect, Significance Historical skills: Perspectives and interpretations, Communication

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5.12 The Haitian Revolution

5.12

789

The Haitian Revolution

Success criteria

In this lesson, you will learn how enslaved people in Saint Domingue (Haiti) rose up against French colonial rule, creating the world’s first nation established by formerly enslaved people after winning their freedom.

❏ I can summarise the key events of the Haitian Revolution. ❏ I can explain why the Haitian Revolution was historically significant.

SA D I M GI PL T A E L C -O H N AP L Y TE R S

Learning intention

Starter activity

See, think, wonder

Look at Source 5.12.1. 1.

What do you see in this image? (I see...)

What does it make you think about the history of Haiti? (I think...)

What do you wonder about how the Haitian Revolution came about? (I wonder...)

The revolutions in America and France were based on the principle that people were born with equal rights. However, in America at the time of independence, around 700 000 African American people were enslaved, and slavery was expanding. In France, when revolutionaries took charge, they became responsible for three French colonies in the Caribbean islands, with a similar number of people in slavery there. Would French revolutionaries apply liberté, égalité and fraternité equally to enslaved people?

Source 5.12.1 Actors re-enact the sale of African people to French plantation owners, as they arrive on the Caribbean island of Guadeloupe. ➜

In the Caribbean, French trading companies, like the English, Dutch, Spanish and Danish, were heavily involved in plantations that grew tropical crops for export back to Europe. Saint Domingue (now known as Haiti) was the richest of all the European colonies. The plantation owners made high profits from sugar and coffee, because they used the unpaid labour of families who were enslaved from West Africa to do the hard physical work. The population of Saint Domingue was divided into three categories. There were around 32 000 European “white” people, 500 000 African “slaves” and 24 000 “free coloured” people, many of whom had become slaveowners, but did not have equal rights.

Writing focus 5.12 Developing sentences

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Chapter 5 Key ideas and movements (1750–1918)

Abolition of slavery

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When the French Revolution began to sweep away the old laws, Vincent Ogé, a free coloured man who owned a slave plantation, was visiting Paris. He called for equal rights first to be given to people like him, and then the question of slavery to be dealt with later. Source 5.12.2 Vincent Ogé argues that freedom is for all men

SA D I M GI PL T A E L C -O H N AP L Y TE R S

This freedom, the greatest, the first of goods, is it made for all men? I believe so. Should it be given to all men? I believe so again. But how should it be rendered? What should be the timing and the conditions?

Vincent Ogé, speaking to a revolutionary committee, Paris, 1790

When the National Assembly did not take action, back in Saint Domingue in October 1790, Vincent Ogé led an attempted uprising. He was arrested and brutally executed by white colonists.

➜

Source 5.12.3 Plantations in Saint Domingue burn during the slave revolt of 1791.

In August 1791, plantation workers in the north of Saint Domingue mounted a slave revolt. They killed their masters and burned their plantations. Free coloured people to the west also began a rebellion. White people kept control of the cities, hoping that troops would be sent from France to restore order. They refused to grant any of the demands of the leaders of the slave revolt, even though the rebels only asked for permission to work three days per week for themselves, while continuing to work three days per week for their masters.

By 1792, the government in France was becoming more radical and supportive of moves towards racial equality in the colonies. They sent new officials to Saint Domingue to grant equal rights to free coloured people. White settlers increasingly caused problems for the French overseers, by siding with rival British or Spanish powers. Eventually, between August and October 1793, the French governor decided that he needed the support of the African population and declared that all people who were enslaved in the colony were now free. When a delegation from Saint Domingue reported this to the National Convention on 4 February 1794, the delegates cheered and voted to abolish slavery in all French colonies. In response, most white slaveowners abandoned the island.

Independence from France Back on St Domingue, British and Spanish troops attempted invasions. A former slave called Toussaint L’Ouverture, who had formed a large militia, began to help French troops to defend the island. Digital-only sample chapters • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Clarke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78794-9 • (03) 8671 1400

5.12 The Haitian Revolution

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He became a general in the French army. At the same time, Toussaint was undermining the French, by making secret contacts with Britain and the United States, in the hope of gaining independence for his people. Step by step, Toussaint made Saint Domingue secure from foreign threats and under his personal control. By 1801, Toussaint controlled the whole colony, and named himself “governor-general for life”.

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When Napoleon Bonaparte took over as ruler of France, he attempted to reimpose slavery in French colonies. In mid-1802, Source 5.12.4 Illustration depicting Francois Dominique Toussaint L’Ouverture he had Toussaint arrested. Toussaint died leading the revolt against French power. soon after, in prison in France. However, his former general Jean-Jacques Dessalines continued the fight to repel the French, with a force made up of former slaves and free coloured people. By November 1803, they forced the French to surrender. On 1 January 1804, the victorious Dessalines announced declared the nation independent, giving it its indigenous name of “Haiti”. Haiti was the first country in the world in which formerly enslaved people won their freedom from a colonial power. It would be an inspiration to others who sought freedom.

Activity 5.12.1

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Source analysis

Source 5.12.5 The Commander in Chief to the People of Haiti (declaration of independence), 1 January 1804 Citizens:

It is not enough to have expelled the barbarians who have bloodied our land for two centuries; it is not enough to have restrained those ever-evolving factions that one after another mocked the spectre of liberty that France dangled before you. We must, with one last act of national authority, forever assure the empire of liberty in the country of our birth; we must take any hope of re-enslaving us away from the inhuman government that for so long kept us in the most humiliating torpor [inactivity]. In the end we must live independent or die. Independence or death: let these sacred words unite us and be the signal of battle and of our reunion.

… Let us vow to ourselves, to posterity, to the entire universe, to forever renounce France, and to die rather than live under its domination; to fight until our last breath for the independence of our country.

Translated by Laurent Dubois and John Garrigus, in Slave Revolution in the Caribbean 1789–1804: A Brief History, Macmillan, 2017

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Identify who made this statement and what he had achieved.

Explain what hope the declaration says must be taken away from the French.

Explain what the declaration has in common with the American Revolution.

Explain the significance of the declaration, referring to its language and its message.

Historical concepts: Cause and effect, Significance Historical skills: Analysis and use of sources, Perspectives and interpretations

SA D I M GI PL T A E L C -O H N AP L Y TE R S

Haiti would, however, continue to face difficulties. The first leader, Dessalines, was killed in an attempted revolt in 1806, and his successor Henry Christophe became corrupt. For many years, European powers and US slaveholding states refused to trade with Haiti (France did not recognise its independence until 1825). The people of Haiti remained impoverished, and many were forced to work on plantations. In the twentyfirst century, Haiti remains free, but is one of the poorest countries in the world.

Review 5.12 Online quiz

Knowledge and understanding

Thinking and researching

Students can access sample responses and results

Teachers can go online to assign questions, view results, reports and more!

Knowledge and understanding 1.

Identify the three social groups living in Saint Domingue before the revolution, and describe their respective situations.

Explain how the French Revolution created a contradiction for France regarding slavery in its colonies.

Describe what the enslaved workers in Saint Domingue initially demanded during the 1791 revolt, and how white settlers responded.

Explain how Toussaint L’Ouverture rose to prominence during the Haitian Revolution.

Outline the significance of Haiti’s declaration of independence on 1 January 1804.

Thinking and researching 1.

“Without Enlightenment ideas, the Haitan revolution would never have happened.” Discuss the extent to which you agree with this statement.

Haiti was the first country where formerly enslaved people won freedom from a colonial power. Explain what obstacles Haiti faced after independence, and evaluate whether its revolution was truly successful in the long term.

Historical concepts: Cause and effect, Significance Historical skills: Comprehension, Perspectives and interpretations, Communication

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5.13 The American Civil War

5.13

793

The American Civil War

Success criteria

In this lesson, you will learn how the debate over slavery tore the United States apart in a catastrophic civil war, and how Union victory led to the legal abolition of slavery through the 13th Amendment.

❏ I can identify the causes and consequences of the American Civil. ❏ I can explain how slavery was brought to an end in the United States.

SA D I M GI PL T A E L C -O H N AP L Y TE R S

Learning intention

Starter activity

See, think, wonder

Look at Source 5.13.1. 1.

What do you see in this image? (I see...)

What does it make you think about slavery in the United States? (I think...)

What do you wonder about how the American Civil War came about? (I wonder...)

Slavery in the United States

Eighty-five years after the American colonies declared themselves a new nation, the United States was torn apart by a catastrophic war. The United States had been founded on the principle “that all men are created equal”, and yet most signers of the Declaration of Independence had enslaved African people working on their lands. This suggested that their idea of “all men” really meant all white men. By 1860, views had changed, and there were 19 “free” states that had outlawed slavery. However, there were still 15 slave states – mostly in the south. According to the 1860 census, 3.95 million people lived in slavery, out of a population of 31.4 million.

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The future of slavery became a central Source 5.13.1 Free states (in red), slave states (in blue) and territories and political debate in the 1850s. Harriet new states whose status was yet to be determined (green), in the 1850s Beecher Stowe’s Uncle Tom’s Cabin, about courageous people fleeing from slavery, became the best-selling novel of the century. Many northerners were outraged by the Fugitive Slave Act, which forced officials, even in free states, to catch escaped slaves and return them to their masters.

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Chapter 5 Key ideas and movements (1750–1918)

Writing focus 5.13 Creating topic sentences

Increasingly, the Democratic Party defended states’ rights to set their own laws, while members of the Republican Party saw the abolition of slavery as a moral duty. The difference between the parties became clear in the highly publicised 1858 Senate election campaign in Illinois. ➜

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Source 5.13.2 Statements from the Lincoln–Douglas debates of 1858 “I hold that under the Constitution of the United States, each State of this Union has a right to do as it pleases on the subject of slavery.”

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Stephen Douglas (Democratic Party)

“A house divided against itself, cannot stand. I believe this government cannot endure permanently half slave and half free.”

Abraham Lincoln (Republican Party)

The Union and the Confederacy

secede the formal withdrawal from membership of a federal union, an alliance or a political or religious organisation

Source 5.13.3 A photograph of President Abraham Lincoln visiting a battlefield in 1862. To his right stands Allan Pinkerton, a Chartist from Scotland, who led the Union’s spying operations. ➜

Abraham Lincoln, a Republican, was elected president in 1860. Southerners became convinced that this meant that northerners wanted to impose their views on them. Eleven of the slave states seceded and set up a separate nation, known as the Confederacy. Their alternative president was Jefferson Davis, a fierce defender of states’ rights and of slavery. The Confederate capital of Richmond, Virginia was less than one hundred miles from the US capital, Washington DC. Both sides amassed huge armies, to decide once and for all whether popular sovereignty meant that the people of each state could define rights and freedoms in their own way.

At first, Lincoln believed the north could win a limited war to restore the Union, and decide the future of slavery afterwards. In August 1862, Lincoln told New York Tribune newspaper editor Horace Greeley, “If I could save the Union without freeing any slave I would do it, and if I could save it by freeing all the slaves I would do it; and if I could save it by freeing some and leaving others alone I would also do that.” However, the war raged on. Deadly battles occurred on private farms, in native forests, in busy cities and quiet towns.

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5.13 The American Civil War

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Source 5.13.4 An artist’s impression of the Battle of Chattanooga, November 1863. In three days, casualties included 8000 Confederates (grey uniforms) and 5800 Union soldiers (in blue).

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The more Americans saw each other as enemies, the more each side needed a moral justification for their cause. Jefferson Davis encouraged young white southerners to enlist for the Confederacy, by telling them that northerners were trying to subjugate the south and turn them into slaves of the north. Source 5.13.5 Jefferson Davis encourages young white southerners to enlist

subjugate to bring under control, especially by conquest

“The question for you to decide is, ‘will you be slaves or will you be independent?’ Will you transmit to your children the freedom and equality which your fathers transmitted to you or will you bow down …?”

The Papers of Jefferson Davis, Vol. 8, pp. 565–84. Transcribed from the Memphis Appeal, Jackson Miss., 29 December 1862

Source 5.13.6 A photograph of dead soldiers after the Battle of Gettysburg, July 1863, published as Harvest of Death by the photographer Tim O’Sullivan. ➜

Abolitionists, including William Lloyd Garrison and Frederick Douglass, lobbied Lincoln to give the war a higher purpose by committing the Union to end slavery. In January 1863, Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation, which declared that enslaved people in Confederate-held territory were to be freed, and welcomed freed slaves as soldiers in the Union Army. This act gave his Union soldiers a renewed purpose. After a turning point victory at the Battle of Gettysburg – July 1863, with over 51 000 casualties in three days – Lincoln gave a famous speech in which he looked to a future in which the institution of slavery would be forever banned.

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Activity 5.13.1 Source analysis ➜

Source 5.13.6 Abraham Lincoln gave the Gettysburg Address at the opening ceremony for a war cemetery at Gettysburg, 19 November 1863. It is regarded as one of the finest speeches in history, despite how short it is. Four score and seven years ago our fathers brought forth on this continent, a new nation, conceived in Liberty, and dedicated to the proposition that all men are created equal.

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Now we are engaged in a great civil war, testing whether that nation, or any nation so conceived and so dedicated, can long endure. We are met on a great battle-field of that war. We have come to dedicate a portion of that field, as a final resting place for those who here gave their lives that that nation might live. It is altogether fitting and proper that we should do this.

But, in a larger sense, we cannot dedicate – we cannot consecrate – we cannot hallow – this ground. The brave men, living and dead, who struggled here, have consecrated [blessed] it, far above our poor power to add or detract. The world will little note, nor long remember what we say here, but it can never forget what they did here. It is for us the living, rather, to be dedicated here to the unfinished work which they who fought here have thus far so nobly advanced. It is rather for us to be here dedicated to the great task remaining before us -- that from these honored dead we take increased devotion to that cause for which they gave the last full measure of devotion – that we here highly resolve that these dead shall not have died in vain – that this nation, under God, shall have a new birth of freedom – and that government of the people, by the people, for the people, shall not perish from the earth.

Abraham Lincoln, Gettysburg Address, 1863

Identify what Lincoln is referring to, from “four score and seven years ago” (a score is 20).

Explain what values Lincoln says the “new nation” of the United States was born with.

Explain what “unfinished work” Lincoln says the people who have gathered at the cemetery must complete.

Discuss what the speech shows about the Union’s purpose in the war at the time.

Historical concepts: Significance Historical skills: Comprehension, Analysis and use of sources, Communication

The death and destruction shocked the American people. In total, the Civil War claimed 620 000–700 000 lives; as many deaths as all other wars involving Americans. The devastation increased when Lincoln authorised a “total war” strategy, aimed at destroying the south’s morale. In late 1864, General William Tecumseh Sherman led a scorched-earth campaign, on a 450-km march to the sea. “War is cruelty and you cannot refine it”, Sherman said, as he burned what remained of the south’s infrastructure and traumatised its people.

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5.13 The American Civil War

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Abolition of slavery

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When the Union knew they were within weeks of final victory, Lincoln convinced enough members of the US Congress to vote to change the Constitution to ban slavery altogether. Source 5.13.7 13th Amendment to the US Constitution, passed 31 January 1865

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Neither slavery nor involuntary servitude, except as a punishment for crime whereof the party shall have been duly convicted, shall exist within the United States, or any place subject to their jurisdiction.

US Constitution, amendment from 1865

The effect of the 13th Amendment was that when the war was won and rebel states rejoined the Union, they became free states. African Americans were freed from slavery and, in theory, had equal civil rights. However, a change in law did not guarantee a change in thinking, and people who were freed from slavery continued to experience prejudice for many generations.

Review 5.13

Online quiz

Knowledge and understanding

Thinking and researching

Students can access sample responses and results

Teachers can go online to assign questions, view results, reports and more!

Knowledge and understanding 1.

Define “secede” and identify which states seceded from the United States in 1860–1861 and why.

Identify the different positions on slavery held by Abraham Lincoln and Jefferson Davis, using their own words from this section.

Explain the significance of Lincoln’s Emancipation Proclamation, issued in January 1863.

Describe the scale of destruction caused by the American Civil War, including the key strategy used toward the war’s end.

Summarise what the 13th Amendment to the US Constitution achieved, and identify its limitations.

Thinking and researching 1.

“The American Civil War made it possible for the United States to achieve what it said it would in 1776.” Discuss the extent to which you agree with this statement.

“A change in law did not guarantee a change in thinking”. Using specific evidence from the section, explain what this means and evaluate its significance for what the Civil War actually achieved.

Historical concepts: Cause and effect, Perspectives Historical skills: Comprehension, Perspectives and interpretations, Communication

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5.14

The impact and legacies of ideas and movements globally: Movements for political rights and economic fairness Success criteria

In this lesson, you will learn how movements for political rights and economic fairness left lasting global legacies, including the spread of universal suffrage, the Russian Revolution and the growth of capitalism and socialism worldwide.

❏ I can summarise the global legacies of movements for political rights and economic fairness. ❏ I can compare the outcomes of democratic and revolutionary socialism around the world.

SA D I M GI PL T A E L C -O H N AP L Y TE R S

Learning intention

Starter activity

Look at Source 5.14.2. Which country was the first to grant women the right to vote? What patterns do you notice about when different nations extended voting rights to women? Are you surprised by anything in this table?

Writing focus 5.14 Transitional phrases

Ideas about political rights and economic fairness reshaped the modern world. Movements for political rights, particularly universal suffrage and egalitarianism, set the goals of many political systems. Movements for economic fairness, including capitalism, socialism and the drive to abolish slavery, left legacies in many economies.

The impact and legacies of movements for political rights

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Universal suffrage made the liberal democracies of the modern world possible. The original goal was for all adult males to have the right to vote, not limited to men who owned property. However, typically this excluded men from some minority groups, so it was not truly “universal”. Later movements began to address this. When working men who did not own property began to vote, they were able to elect politicians who supported laws to protect working-class people. The original suffrage movement had also left behind half of the population: Women had to continue to campaign for equal rights, including the vote, into the twentieth century. Source 5.14.1 Women suffragists protest outside the White House, Washington DC, in 1917, demanding the right to vote in American elections.

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5.14 The impact and legacies of ideas and movements globally: Movements for political rights and economic fairness

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Source 5.14.2 Key achievements in voting rights across the world, to 1918 General male suffrage

Female suffrage

Limits

United Kingdom

1832

1918

Property requirements

Iceland

1845

1915

Property requirements

France

1792 (ended 1795); 1848

– (1944)*

Denmark

1849

1915

Property requirements

USA

1850s

– (1920)*

Wealth requirements in some states; racial exclusions

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Nation

Australia

1850s

1902

Racial exclusions

Germany

1871

1918

New Zealand

1879

1893

Māori voters elected separate representatives

Canada

1885

1918

Property requirements and racial exclusions

Norway

1898

1913

Finland

1906

Poland

1918

Soviet Union states 1918

1918

*These countries did not allow the vote for women until after 1918.

Today, most nations have universal suffrage: People are free to vote for their representatives; voting is done in secret; everyone’s vote counts equally; voting is not restricted to the wealthy; and men and women have equal voting rights. However, millions of people live under systems that deny them a genuine vote.

The legacies of universal suffrage movements may also be seen in modern understandings of human rights. In 1948, the United Nations adopted the “Universal” Declaration of Human Rights, which expressed in international law the ideals of many of the movements for political rights since the Enlightenment. These human rights include voting, and protections at work, in the family, education and freedoms of speech, religion and movement. They apply to everyone, regardless of their age, gender or ethnicity. The legacies of egalitarianism, and the related movement of Chartism, may be seen in the laws of many countries. Constitutions of democratic nations typically make it illegal to discriminate against people based on their wealth or class, and protect citizens’ rights to equality before the law, and to join trade unions to represent their interests. Additionally, some experiments were made to set up communities based on strict egalitarian principles, which were so idealistic they were known as “Utopian”. Many of the efforts to create egalitarian settlements were inspired by Robert Owen’s model cotton mill community in New Lanark, Scotland.

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The impact and legacies of movements for economic fairness Movements for economic fairness have been highly influential in modern history. Capitalism led to the development of world trade and the globalisation of production and cultures. Socialist theory has been used by many as a method to analyse the effects of capitalism, and multiple nations have attempted to implement socialist ideas.

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Capitalism gave owners the incentive to grow their companies in innovative ways. Ideally, this would lead to two impacts: more satisfied customers and higher company profits. One legacy of this is the department store – a retail shopping experience, offering multiple goods in different departments under the one roof. The first major department store was Le Bon Marché, which opened in Paris, France, in 1852. Its owner, Aristide Boucicaut, started selling fabric, but then expanded, to sell a wide range of goods at fixed prices, rather than expecting customers to haggle for a bargain. By 1888, the store had grown so much that it occupied an entire city block. The idea of customers being able to buy everything they wanted under the one roof spread worldwide. People appreciated the convenience of the department store, and became so interested in shopping that a satisfying, but often wasteful, consumer culture developed.

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Source 5.14.3 Le Bon Marche (“The Good Market” or “The Good Deal”) in Paris, the world’s first large department store, opened in 1852.

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5.14 The impact and legacies of ideas and movements globally: Movements for political rights and economic fairness

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GDP per capita, 1820 to 1890

GDP per capita adjusted for price changes over time (inﬂation) and price diﬀerences between countries – it is measured in international-$ in 2011 prices. United States

$6,000

$5,000

$4,000

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Argentina

$3,000

Chile

$2,000

Mexico

$1,000

$0 1820

Brazil

1830

1840

1850

1860

Source: Maddison Project Database 2020 (Bolt and van Zanden (2020))

1870

1880

1890

OurWorldInData.org/economic-growth • CC BY

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Source 5.14.4 The growth of the US economy, shown in gross domestic product per capita, compared with neighbouring nations. By 1890, capitalist development had made the United States the world’s richest nation.

Source 5.14.5 Workers attach parts to a motor car as it passes them on the assembly line at a Ford factory in Michigan, US in 1923. ➜

Innovation also drove Henry Ford, in Michigan, United States. Starting small in 1903, Ford took the new petrol-fuelled internal combustion engine, and combined it with his invention of a moving assembly line, to create an enormous factory to mass-produce “automobiles” to sell to American families. Within two decades, Ford was employing over 100 000 workers, each of whom added one component to a car as it moved passed them on the assembly line conveyer belt. A whole Model T Ford could be assembled in just 90 minutes. The motor car became increasingly affordable. Initially, a Ford cost around 18 months’ average salary; by 1920 around four months’ salary.

The motor car transformed modern life, making it possible for people to commute from suburbs to cities, and contributed to human-induced climate change, through exhaust pipe emissions. The legacy of the assembly line is equally widespread. Most modern factories include the concept of workers or robotic machines remaining stationary while the product being assembled moves past them.

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Socialism, which developed as a criticism of the way capitalism treated workers, split into groups. Revolutionary socialists believed that a violent upheaval was needed to bring about a socialist state. This split further into Marxism (communist parties) and anarchism (a looser movement to abolish all institutions). Democratic socialists aimed to introduce socialist principles but work within democratic processes.

SA D I M GI PL T A E L C -O H N AP L Y TE R S

Mid-nineteenth-century socialism

Revolutionary socialism

Marxism

Democratic socialism

Anarchism Anarcho-syndicalism Terrorism Non-violence

MarxismLeninism (communism)

Stalinism

Democratic socialism Democratic trade unions

Democratic socialist parties in:

Austria-Hungary Belgium Denmark France Germany Great Britain Italy Norway

Portugal Romania Russian Empire Serbia Spain Sweden Switzerland

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Source 5.14.6 Mid-nineteenth-century socialism

The most dramatic impact of socialism before the end of World War I was in Russia. The Russian Empire had been the third-largest empire in history, but by 1917, the emperor Tsar Nicholas II was unpopular. Russia had heavy losses in World War I, and the Tsar was not responding to demands for democracy. Two revolutions of 1917 brought the monarchy to an end, and imposed a new system.

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Source 5.14.7 Russian communist revolutionary leader, Vladimir Lenin (1879–1924)

The February Revolution started with riots over food shortages and ended with the Tsar abdicating. A new provisional government began to introduce freedoms for the people, but it was opposed by the radical Bolsheviks, led by Vladimir Lenin. They said that World War I was really a war to benefit capitalists, made possible by the suffering of workers, who were the soldiers. They built widespread support with the promise of “peace, bread and land” for everyone and swept to power in the October Revolution.

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The Bolsheviks took over, banned private property, eliminated noble titles and privileges, and began to withdraw Russia from the world war. They believed that this second Russian revolution was the first step in a worldwide Marxist revolution.

Source 5.14.8 Vladimir Ilyich Lenin, speech explaining why he dissolved the Constituent Assembly, 6 January 1918

SA D I M GI PL T A E L C -O H N AP L Y TE R S

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When the Bolsheviks failed to win a majority in Russia’s first democratic elections, they closed down the Constituent Assembly and seized power. Marx, they said, allowed for “dictatorship by the proletariat” as a step on the road to a pure communist state, and that was their intention.

And by the will of Soviet Power, the Constituent Assembly, which has refused to recognise the power of the people, is dissolved. … The Soviet Revolutionary Republic will triumph no matter what the cost.

Vladimir Ilyich Lenin, speech delivered to the All-Russia Central Executive Committee, 6 January 1918

➜

What followed was a three-year civil war that devastated Russia. The Bolshevik “Red Army” fought anti-communist groups, who united as the “White Army” and were supported in places by British and French troops. There were terrible massacres, and peasants were forced to give up food to feed the Red Army. Ultimately, the Bolsheviks triumphed, and by 1922 the former Russian Empire officially became the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR), or Soviet Union. From the late 1920s, under the dictator Joseph Stalin, the Soviet Union was ruled by a powerful central government, which set targets for production in five-year plans.

Source 5.14.9 A group of Red Army soldiers, early in the Russian Civil War

Compared to the previous socialist experiments, the USSR was enormous. Over 130 million people came under Marxist rule, in 15 republics over 22 million sq km. During the twentieth century, the Russian example inspired communist revolutions in many parts of the world, notably Eastern Europe, China (1949), South-East Asia, Africa and South America.

Source 5.14.10 The 1924 coat of arms of the USSR, with the communist hammer and sickle symbol, and “Workers of all Lands, Unite!” in the languages of its republics ➜

In other countries, political parties based on socialist ideologies contested elections, rather than calling for revolution. In theory, democratic socialism aims for all production to be collectively owned. In practice, most democratic socialists create welfare states and government ownership of utilities, while still allowing the existence of capitalist corporations.

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Chapter 5 Key ideas and movements (1750–1918)

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Source 5.14.11 Alexandria Ocasio-Cortez became the youngest woman elected to the US House of Representatives in 2019 and popularised the ideas of democratic socialism.

Review 5.14 Online quiz

Knowledge and understanding

Thinking and researching

Students can access sample responses and results

Teachers can go online to assign questions, view results, reports and more!

Knowledge and understanding 1.

Identify a national legacy of the universal suffrage movement, and its impact.

Identify an international legacy of the universal suffrage movement, and its impact.

Explain who developed egalitarian model communities, and their impacts.

Explain two legacies of the expansion of capitalism.

Explain what revolutionary socialists achieved in Russia.

Explain the links between Karl Marx’s mid-nineteenth-century ideas and twentieth-century Russia.

Thinking and researching 1.

Capitalism, socialism and universal suffrage each left significant legacies. Which of these three movements do you believe has had the greatest impact on life today? Justify your answer with evidence.

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5.15 Site study: New Lanark

5.15

805

Site study: New Lanark

Success criteria

In this lesson, you will explore the theory and practice of the New Lanark utopian community and relate the site to the Industrial Revolution.

❏ I can explain the origins of New Lanark and the ideas it represented. ❏ I can compare and contrast the conditions of New Lanark with other industrial factories. ❏ I can use a site study to understand broader historical issues.

SA D I M GI PL T A E L C -O H N AP L Y TE R S

Learning intention

Starter activity Think, pair, share 1.

Think about why someone might want to set up a “utopian” community.

Pair with a classmate to discuss your thoughts.

Share with the class.

➜

Source 5.15.1 New Lanark, Scotland, Robert Owen’s utopian community

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Chapter 5 Key ideas and movements (1750–1918)

In 1786, Scottish businessman David Dale partnered with inventor Richard Arkwright to set up the New Lanark cotton mill, southeast of Glasgow. The mill used the water of the River Clyde to power spinning machinery that Arkwright had invented. In the towns and cities of the time, factory workers lived in squalid, crowded rooms, but Dale decided to set up clean, goodquality housing at New Lanark. By 1793, he was housing 1157 workers, of whom 800 were children.

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806

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In 1799, Dale sold New Lanark to a partnership that included his sonin-law, the idealistic socialist and egalitarian Robert Owen. Although working conditions were already above average, Owen brought in more reforms. He believed that Source 5.15.2 A water wheel used for the mill in New Lanark. people’s characters were formed by their environments: competition, ignorance and unhealthy living conditions made workers ignorant and prone to crime; cooperation, kindness and education gave people knowledge and kept communities safe. He decided to test these beliefs with changes that he described as “the most important experiment for the happiness of the human race that has yet been instituted in any part of the world”.

Owen made the workplace healthier and more efficient. By 1820, New Lanark was Scotland’s largest cotton-manufacturing centre, with a population of 2500. He reduced the working day to 10.5 hours, banned children under the age of 10 from working, provided child care to allow mothers to earn an income and set up a school for children aged three to 10. Owen insisted on a varied curriculum: not just reading and writing, but also subjects such as history, geography and nature study. Free public education would not be available in Britain until 1870, so most poor children had no formal schooling at the time. Owen put egalitarian ideas into practice in his village. He set up a village cooperative shop to save people money on essential goods, a community centre and library, and arranged for a village doctor and a form of health insurance. He made paths through the local woods for residents to exercise in fresh air, and allowed families to use small allotments of land to grow fruit and vegetables.

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5.15 Site study: New Lanark

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Source 5.15.3 Dancing was also included in the school curriculum, because Owen wanted the learning environment to be varied and stimulating.

Owen also had some rules. As well as looking after the physical and community welfare of his workers, Owen wanted to maintain a high moral tone. He had high standards of behaviour both in the workplace and the community, and a low tolerance for laziness and drunkenness. There was a policy that “every inhabitant, whether man, woman or child, above the age of ten, capable of working, be actively engaged in some legal and useful employment”. When Owen’s partners complained about the money being spent on welfare programs, Owen bought the other partners’ shares in the company and continued his work. In 1825, Owen left to build a similar utopian settlement in the United States. In 2001, New Lanark received a World Heritage Listing from UNESCO, as an outstanding example of a model industrial settlement.

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Source 5.15.4 New Lanark today

Site study questions 5.15 1.

Use an online mapping system to identify the location of New Lanark.

Explain why New Lanark was built and recall the key people involved.

Visit the official site of New Lanark at https://cambridge.edu.au/redirect/12151. Select an event in the history of the site and summarise why it was significant, by completing the following sentence: In … [when] …, Robert Owen / New Lanark … [did what] … because … [why they did it] … which shows [why it matters].

In 1832, the French philosopher Alexis de Tocqueville visited the many cotton mills of the busy city of Manchester and said that in its factories “civilised man is turned back almost into a savage”. Explain what was different about New Lanark.

Choose one of the programs that Robert Owen put into effect at New Lanark, and explain how it is based on egalitarian ideas.

Compare Owen’s approach to education with the lives of other working-class children of the time.

Explain why New Lanark is a significant historical site.

Historical concepts: Cause and effect, Significance Historical skills: Perspectives and interpretations, Research, Communication

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5.16

The impact of key ideas and movements in Australia: Political rights Success criteria

In this lesson, you will learn how movements for political rights, including the Eureka Stockade and the women’s suffrage campaign, shaped Australia’s development of democratic rights and unique voting innovations.

❏ I can identify key events in Australia’s struggle for democratic rights – including the Eureka Stockade and the Monster Petition. ❏ I can explain how Chartism influenced Australian political movements.

SA D I M GI PL T A E L C -O H N AP L Y TE R S

Learning intention

Starter activity

See, think, wonder

Look at Source 5.16.1 1.

What do you see in the image? (I see...)

What does the image make you think about the fight for rights throughout history? (I think...)

What does it make you wonder about some political rights that are taken for granted in modern Australia? Consider some of the rights you have learned about in this chapter. (I wonder...)

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Source 5.16.1 An 1880s engraving of the Eureka Rebellion, Ballarat (Victoria) goldfields, 1854, in which Chartists and others fought for greater democratic rights in the Australian colonies

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Before Federation, Australian colonies developed systems of laws, courts and parliaments based on Britain’s Westminster model. However, Australian colonies moved more quickly towards political rights, including universal suffrage, than Britain. The first parliamentary elections in New South Wales were held in 1843, but a property qualification meant that only around 20 per cent of adult men could vote. Universal suffrage movements developed over the next decades, as other Australian colonies developed parliaments.

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One reason for Australia’s early adoption of political rights was that some leaders of British reform movements were arrested and transported as convicts to Australia. They Source 5.16.1 An engraving of William Cuffay, a brought to Australia their ideas for reform. Chartist, who was transported as a convict to Australia. William Cuffay, for example, was among the English Chartists who were sentenced to transportation in 1848. He valued freedom, partly because his father had been enslaved on a plantation in a British Caribbean colony. Cuffay lived the rest of his life in Tasmania, where he became involved in Chartist-like campaigns for voting rights, parliamentary reform, the end of convict transportation and changes to laws that had made workers effectively the property of their employers.

The Eureka rebellion

Australia’s most famous protest for democratic rights was also in part a legacy of movements for political rights on the other side of the world. In 1854, at the Eureka Stockade on the goldfields of Ballarat, Victoria, small-scale gold miners protested against the government licence fee that they had to pay.

Writing focus 5.16 Transitional phrases

As their movement grew, they were joined by former Chartists from Britain, republicans from Ireland, formerly enslaved people from the Americas, Jews who had suffered persecution, and revolutionaries across Europe. They convinced the rebels to demand democratic reforms as well. The authorities ended the Eureka rebellion violently, in an armed fight that left at least 22 miners and five soldiers dead. However, this increased public support for their cause, and some of their demands were soon met. In 1855, the licence system was made fairer, and extra seats were added to the Victorian Parliament, to be elected by workers. Peter Lalor, the leader of the rebellion, was elected to one of the new seats.

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Chapter 5 Key ideas and movements (1750–1918)

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Source 5.16.2 Rebel miners swear allegiance to the Southern Cross and “to defend our rights and liberties” on the Ballarat goldfields, December 1854.

Voting innovations

Over the next decade, Australian men won voting rights without property qualifications. This applied to the lower houses of parliaments (e.g. New South Wales in 1858), although in most places this was denied to men of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander origin. Two key Australian voting innovations were: (a) the secret ballot, designed to protect voters from corruption, first introduced in Tasmania, Victoria and South Australia in early 1856; and (b) the “Australian ballot”, meaning voting by placing an “X” or a number beside the name of the chosen candidate, rather than crossing out all but the chosen candidate. Both practices are now standard in modern democracies.

Women’s suffrage

Movements to win the vote for women in Australia were inspired by efforts in other countries, but achieved results sooner. In 1891, the Womanhood Suffrage League of New South Wales began its work. In the same year in the colony of Victoria, campaigners took just six weeks to gather nearly 30 000 signatures for a petition that demanded votes for women. Like British Chartists, they hoped that the number of signatures would pressure the parliament to change the law. It was the largest petition ever tabled in Victoria at the time, earning it the nickname the “Monster Petition”. Campaigners glued sheets of signed paper onto a 260-metre-long spool of fabric, to carry into parliament.

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5.16 The impact of key ideas and movements in Australia: Political rights

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Source 5.16.3 The “Monster Petition”, presented to the Parliament of Victoria in 1891 Government of the People, by the People and for the People should mean all the People, not half … all Adult Persons should have a voice in Making the Laws which they are required to obey.

Women’s Suffrage Petition, 1891

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Australian campaigners faced conservative opposition. Some men argued that female suffrage would endanger family life. They said that women’s place was in the home, the domestic sphere, while the public sphere of law and politics was for men. Member of the Victorian Parliament Mr Henry Wrixon said in 1898, “It would be sad and strange if a woman, having given everything else to a man – having merged her life in his – could not trust him to express her political views.” Mr Murray Smith in 1899 said that some women might deserve the vote, but surely not working-class women, “who have no more knowledge of what a vote is than they have of the Hebrew grammar.” When Australian women won the vote, they created a legacy for women elsewhere in the world. Women first won the vote in South Australia in 1894, in federal elections in 1902 and in all other colonial/state parliaments by 1908 (New South Wales in 1902). However, voting rights in Queensland, Western Australia and federally were subject to racial restrictions, which excluded people of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander origin.

Review 5.16

Online quiz

Knowledge and understanding

Thinking and researching

Students can access sample responses and results

Teachers can go online to assign questions, view results, reports and more!

Knowledge and understanding 1.

Identify two Australian voting innovations that were adopted around the world.

Explain, with an example, how Australian movements for political rights were influenced by Chartism.

Explain where the rebels at the Eureka Stockade were from, and how their origins may have influenced the movement.

Explain why transported Chartist leaders contributed to the development of political rights in Australia.

Describe the Eureka Stockade of 1854 and explain what it achieved for Australian political rights.

Identify Australia’s two key voting innovations and explain why they became internationally significant.

Thinking and researching 1.

The Eureka Stockade brought together people from many different backgrounds and countries. Explain what united them and what this tells us about how political movements grow.

Historical concepts: Continuity and change, Significance Historical skills: Comprehension, Perspectives and interpretations

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5.17

The impact of key ideas and movements in Australia: Economic fairness Success criteria

In this lesson, you will learn how capitalism and socialism shaped Australia’s economic development, including the rise of trade unions, the 1890s strikes and the formation of the Australian Labor Party.

❏ I can outline how capitalism and socialism shaped Australia’s economic development. ❏ I can explain how the 1890s strikes led to the formation of the Australian Labor Party.

SA D I M GI PL T A E L C -O H N AP L Y TE R S

Learning intention

Starter activity Think, pair, share 1.

What do you think are some aspects of economic fairness that are taken for granted in modern Australia? (Consider some of the rights you have learned about in this chapter.)

Pair with a partner and compare your list. Pick the two you think are most important.

Share your ideas with the class.

Capitalism

Both capitalism and socialism left their legacies on modern Australia. The very capitalist idea of the department store, which began in Paris in 1852, was adopted enthusiastically by retailers and their customers. The first Australian department store was David Jones, which a Welsh immigrant opened in Sydney in 1876. Like Le Bon Marché, it began as a textiles shop, but expanded to sell a variety of goods. At first, the store focused on luxury goods, but in time it came to offer clothing and homewares to suit a range of household budgets. Later, a similar Myer Stores was started in Bendigo, Victoria by brothers who had immigrated from Belarus. Capitalism also encouraged Australians to invest in the hope of making wealth from natural resources. In agriculture, wool and wheat became Australia’s major exports, first to Britain and later to international markets. British officers imported “merino” sheep (a Spanish breed) from 1797, and over decades, increased the flocks to millions of animals. Their high-quality wool was in demand, and Australia became the world’s dominant supplier of merino wool.

Mining also grew the Australian economy. Early miners were individuals on goldfields. Later, mining was big business. In the 1880s, German immigrant Charles Rasp found traces of silver on a sheep station near Silverton in western NSW. He set up a partnership with several other men, to explore further under the hill known as Broken Hill. Once they confirmed there was silver to be mined, miners from around the country moved there to work for them. Within six years, 20 000 workers were employed, and a town was being built to house them.

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5.17 The impact of key ideas and movements in Australia: Economic fairness

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Eventually, the site was found to be the largest single deposit of silver, lead and zinc in the world, and the company – which became Broken Hill Proprietary (BHP) – mined $100 billion worth of it. The company added new mines and steel production, and into the twenty-first century, became the world’s largest mining company.

Workers’ rights

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Under capitalism, there could be tension between employers and their workers. As in Britain, Australian colonies had “Master and Servant Acts”, which made it a criminal offence for a worker to be absent from their duties. Workers were imprisoned for missing a shift of work, and if they left without their employer’s permission, they had the same legal status as bushrangers, and could be hunted down.

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Source 5.17.1 The Broken Hill silver mine, where the BHP company began operations, as it was in c. 1908.

Trade unions were developed as an egalitarian response, to protect workers’ rights against profit-driven business owners. The movement for an “eight-hour day” started with stonemasons in Victoria in the 1850s, and some were calling Australia “The Working Man’s Paradise”. In the 1880s, the trade union movement grew, so that around 200 000 workers belonged to a union by 1890. Australian cooperatives were also established to protect workers’ finances in hard times: 90 per cent of Australian men had joined a Friendly Society by the end of the nineteenth century.

Socialism

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In the 1890s, Australia suffered an economic depression, caused partly by the collapse of financial markets in the United States and Europe. When international markets paid less for Australian goods, businesses closed, people lost jobs or faced reduced wages, and many Australians questioned whether they could rely on free-market capitalism. Some went on strike. The strikes affecting shipping, transport and shearing in 1890–1891 were the largest seen to that point in Australia, calling for working conditions to be maintained, even during times of reduced profits. Some strikes turned violent, as police were sent to disperse protesters and protect business owners’ assets. In Queensland, when employers started to hire non-union shearers, unionists fought back, flying the same Southern Cross flag as the Eureka Stockade, and 13 union leaders were imprisoned. Source 5.17.2 The Shearer’s Union explains the reason for striking

The 28 000 men who comprise the Amalgamated Shearers’ Union and the Queensland Shearers’ Union are told that they must throw over the means that won them recognition of their rights and other beneficial and elevating changes, and revert to the position when each unfortunate workman had to accept whatever terms employers liked to dictate, and become powerless atoms of humanity, acting single-handed against the combined power of employers. A more serious or direct attack on unionism cannot be conceived, and no honest well-wisher of his fellowmen would countenance or assist such a movement in any way.

Writing focus 5.17 The language of source analysis

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Some Australians at the time looked to the ideas of socialism as an alternative. In Sydney, the Australian Socialist League was established, and had some its members elected to the colonial parliament. There was also an Australian example of utopian socialism. In 1893, William Lane convinced 238 Australians to leave Sydney and move to a remote part of Paraguay, South America, to build a socialist commune called New Australia. The cooperative experiment faced difficulties and was short-lived, but people were fascinated by the attempt.

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Democratic socialism had a longer-lasting impact. The oldest political party in Australia is the Australian Labor Party (ALP), which emerged from the 1890s strikes. Trade unionists and former members of socialist leagues wanted to organise their power of universal suffrage to elect members of parliament who supported labour, in what they saw as a battle against capital. In New South Wales, the party won 35 out of 141 seats in the first election it contested (1891). At Federation in 1901, separate colonial labour parties merged to become the ALP. They wanted to keep out foreign workers who might receive lower wages (the “White Australia” policy), place the government in charge of major aspects of the economy, and use tariffs to protect local industries.

Activity 5.17.1

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Source analysis

Source 5.17.3 The 1905 policy platform of the Australian Labor Party

OBJECTIVE

a. The cultivation of an Australian sentiment, based upon the maintenance of racial purity, and the development in Australia of an enlightened and self-reliant community, b. The securing of the full results of their industry to all producers by the collective ownership of monopolies, and the extension of the industrial and economic functions of the State and municipality. FIGHTING PLATFORM. 1.

2. 3.

4. 5.

6. 7.

8. 9.

Maintenance of a “white” Australia. Nationalisation of monopolies. Old age pensions. Tariff referendum. Progressive tax on unimproved land values. Restriction of public borrowing. Navigation laws. Citizen defence force. Arbitration Act amendment.

The Age, 13 July 1905

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5.17 The impact of key ideas and movements in Australia: Economic fairness

Identify parts of the ALP platform that may have been inspired by socialist ideas.

Identify ways in which the party platform excluded some workers.

Explain what “securing of the full results of their industry” might have meant for workers, and how the ALP planned to achieve that.

Explain what the platform shows about what the ALP believed in 1905 was the role of the government.

Discuss the perspectives that business owners and capitalists may have had when they heard about the ALP’s plans.

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Historical concepts: Significance, Perspectives, Significance Historical skills: Comprehension, Analysis and use of sources

In 1910, the ALP won the election and became the world’s first national Labor Party majority government. Prime Minister Andrew Fisher summed up his party’s democratic socialism when he said, “We are all Socialists now and the only qualification you hear from anybody is that he is “not an extreme socialist”.” [Fisher, to Labor conference, 1908] Vladimir Lenin, the Russian Marxist who was living in exile, disagreed. He said the ALP were “non-socialist”, because they wanted to work through existing institutions rather than revolution. For decades the ALP would keep its policy to achieve “democratic socialisation” of industry, through government control, but in practice the party modified rather than replaced capitalism. This led to Australia having a strong welfare state, sometimes called a “safety net”.

Review 5.17

Online quiz

Knowledge and understanding

Thinking and researching

Students can access sample responses and results

Teachers can go online to assign questions, view results, reports and more!

Knowledge and understanding 1.

Explain how democratic socialism influenced Australian politics in the 1890s and 1900s.

Outline the origins of the David Jones and Myer department stores, and explain their connection to global capitalism.

Explain how Charles Rasp’s discovery near Broken Hill led to the founding and growth of BHP.

Describe what Master and Servant Acts meant for the rights and freedom of Australian workers.

Outline the causes and outcomes of the major Australian strikes of 1890–1891.

Summarise how the Australian Labor Party (ALP) emerged from the 1890s and what it achieved in its early years.

Thinking and researching 1.

In the 1890s, capitalism was being questioned in Australia. Explain what caused this questioning and assess whether the formation of the ALP was a socialist or a capitalist solution.

Historical concepts: Continuity and change, Significance Historical skills: Comprehension, Communication

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5.18

Impacts on Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples Success criteria

In this lesson, you will learn how the ideas of democracy and equality were denied to Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples, who faced dispossession, discrimination and exclusion from voting, despite their own campaigns for rights.

❏ I can explain how the ideas of democracy and equality were denied to Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples.

SA D I M GI PL T A E L C -O H N AP L Y TE R S

Learning intention

Starter activity

Look at Source 5.18.4. Why did Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples choose Australia Day (26 January) as the day for their “Day of Mourning” protest? What message were they sending to white Australians?

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Writing focus 5.18 Creating topic sentences

Source 5.18.1 The first Day of Mourning protest, held on Australia Day, 1938

When American and French democrats were putting into place new Enlightened political arrangements, fleets of British ships were arriving in Australia. Their orders were to establish a new British colony, at first primarily to house convicts, and later to develop farms, towns and cities across the land, as though it was terra nullius (land belonging to no one). This happened despite the fact that there were over 600 nations of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples, whose ancestors had started inhabiting the continent more than 60 000 years ago. They were dispossessed of land by the invading power, many died from frontier conflict and introduced disease, and others were removed from their lands. The trauma of being treated as less than human would continue into the twentieth century, because Australia’s First Nations people faced legal and social discrimination.

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5.18 Impacts on Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples

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Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples, like other thinkers, wanted sovereignty and freedom. Some fought to try to keep their land, resulting in wars, notably in the 1820s and 1830s involving the palawa (Tasmania), the Wiradjuri (Bathurst), and the Gunditjmara peoples. (Port Phillip). When First Nations Peoples lost wars, or British settlers wanted to occupy their land, they were often forcibly moved far away, onto what were called “Aboriginal reserves” if run by government officials, or “missions” if run by a Christian church. There, Aboriginal residents lived under white supervisors, and under rules that controlled their ability to work, travel and enter into relationships.

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Independence movements on reserves

Some of the people who lived on Aboriginal reserves established movements to try to gain more independence. Often, this involved using similar methods to Chartists and suffrage campaigns: Petitions to parliament to present their demands. In 1863, for example, members of the Woi Wurrung, Wurundjeri and other Kulin nations convinced the Victorian Government to allow them to set up Coranderrk Station, 50 km from Melbourne, and there, for several decades, they ran a successful farming business. In 1881, the respected Wurundjeri elder William Barak and a group of Coranderrk residents presented a petition to the parliament asking for greater self-determination. They wanted white inspectors to be removed, to allow Aboriginal people to make their own decisions: “then we will show the country that the station could self-support itself”. The government granted them more independence.

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In southern NSW, near the junction of the Murray and Source 5.18.2 The Coranderrk community, c. 1902. Their political spokesman William Barak is the Goulburn rivers, Maloga central, standing, bearded figure. Mission opened in 1874 on the traditional lands of the Yorta Yorta People. Some Maloga residents worked as shearers and farm hands in the district, where pastoralists paid skilled Aboriginal workers the same pay as white workers. Like Coranderrk, the residents wanted more independence from white supervisors, and in 1881 they too used the petition method, to ask the government for their own land. This was unsuccessful. In 1887 they sent another petition, to the Governor of NSW. Historians regard the Maloga Petitions as the first claims for First Nations land rights in Australia.

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Source 5.18.2 An excerpt from the Maloga Petition … those among us, who so desire, should be granted sections of land of not less than 100 acres per family in fee simple [freehold ownership] or else at a small nominal rental annually, with the option of purchase at such prices as shall be deemed reasonable for them under the circumstances, always bearing in mind that the Aborigines were the former occupiers of the land. Such a provision would enable them to earn their own livelihood, and thus partially relieve the State from the burden of their maintenance.

Maloga Petition, 1887, Riverine Herald, 20 July 1887, p. 2

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The government agreed to give the petitioners some land, which they called Cummeragunja, the Yorta Yorta word for “our home”. However, the lives of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples continued to be controlled by governments.

“Protection” Acts

In the late nineteenth century and the early years of the twentieth century, every mainland state put in place Aboriginal “Protection” Acts, which appointed “protectors” to make decisions about Aboriginal people’s lives, including where they should live and whether they could work. Protectors also decided whether parents could keep their children, which led to the removal of many Aboriginal children, known as the “Stolen Generations”.

Voting

The early Australian movements for universal suffrage and democracy did not help Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples. Most were excluded from voting until the second half of the twentieth century. When the colonies set up the Federation, only those Aboriginal people who had the right to vote in Victoria, NSW and South Australia could vote in federal elections. Others were excluded. This did not change until 1962. Queensland was the last state to give First Nations Peoples the vote at state elections, in 1965. The original Australian Constitution of 1901 also included two racist provisions: • Section 51 (xxvi) gave the Commonwealth power to make laws with respect to “people of any race, other than the aboriginal race”, which meant that every state continued to use “protection” acts to control Aboriginal people’s lives; and • Section 127 provided that “aboriginal natives shall not be counted” in the census, which meant that areas where Aboriginal people lived were disadvantaged in services and political representation.

These provisions were removed in 1967, when over 90 per cent of Australians voted “yes” in a Referendum “for Aboriginal rights”.

Political rights and economic fairness

Movements for political rights and economic fairness for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples developed momentum in the twentieth century. In the 1930s, William Cooper, who had signed the Maloga Petition, established the Australian Aborigines’ Digital-only sample chapters • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Clarke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78794-9 • (03) 8671 1400

5.18 Impacts on Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples

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League, which continued to use the petition method. In 1933, Cooper secured 1800 Aboriginal signatures on a petition calling for a charter, like the Magna Carta, for his people, and specific seats reserved in parliament for First Nations representatives, which New Zealand’s Maˉori people had since the 1860s. On 26 January 1938, when white Australians celebrated the 150-year anniversary of the arrival of the First Fleet, he helped to organise an Aboriginal counter-protest for citizenship rights, the first “Day of Mourning”. Later campaigns for Aboriginal rights continued to use the methods of suffrage and egalitarian movements, including petitions (e.g. the Yirrkala Bark Petition for land rights for the Yolngu People in 1963) and workers’ strikes (e.g. the Wave Hill Walk-Off in 1966, for land rights for the Gurindji People).

Activity 5.18.1

The legacies of political rights movements for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples

Use the website https://cambridge.edu.au/redirect/12037 to research the history of campaigns for Aboriginal land rights. Make notes based on the following questions. 1.

What were the goals of the campaigns?

Explain connections between land rights campaigns and earlier movements for political rights.

Historical concepts: Significance, Continuity and change Historical skills: Research

Review 5.18

Online quiz

Knowledge and understanding

Thinking and researching

Students can access sample responses and results

Teachers can go online to assign questions, view results, reports and more!

Knowledge and understanding 1.

Explain, using examples, the significance of the method of petition in Australia.

Explain what “terra nullius” meant and how it was used to justify British colonisation of Australia.

Describe two significant petitions submitted by Aboriginal Peoples in the nineteenth century and what they sought.

Identify the two racist provisions in the 1901 Australian Constitution that disadvantaged Aboriginal Peoples.

Explain the significance of the 1967 Referendum for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples.

Summarise how William Cooper and other activists used methods similar to Chartists and suffragists in their campaigns.

Thinking and researching 1.

Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples used similar methods to Chartists and suffragists in their campaigns. Evaluate how effective petitions were as a tool for First Nations Peoples compared to how they worked for Chartists or suffragists.

Historical concepts: Continuity and change, Significance Historical skills: Comprehension, Research

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5.19

Chapter review and historical inquiry Access the Interactive Textbook for a range of digital tools to help you review this chapter and build confidence.

• Auto-marked questions for fast feedback and fun practice • Self-assessment tools to track your progress, review answers (if enabled

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by the teacher), and flag questions for extra help • Downloadable worksheets for class or homework revision

Summary

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Summary notes

Download chapter summary

What have you learned about key ideas and movements? Copy the table and fill out by explaining your understanding. Aim for two points per topic.

Topic

What I have learned

Political rights: Democracy and universal suffrage Political rights: Egalitarianism Political rights: Chartism

Economic fairness: Capitalism Economic fairness: Socialism

Economic fairness: The abolition of slavery Key events of the period

The impact of key ideas and movements in Australia

Visible thinking routine

I used to think … Now I think …

Reflect on your thinking about the making of the modern world, and how your thinking may have changed, by completing the sentences below.

• I used to think that political rights … • Now I think that political rights … • I used to think that economic fairness … • Now I think that economic fairness… • I used to think that modern ideas … • Now I think that modern ideas …

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5.19 Chapter review and historical inquiry

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Questions and activities Scorcher quiz Access a fast and competitive quiz that puts your understanding to the test.

Quick questions The idea that government is created by and subject to the will of the people is known as _____.

A key type of egalitarian organisation was a _____, through which workers combined their forces, negotiating as a group with employers for better wages or conditions.

Adam Smith described market forces as an “ _____” that would guide companies to provide the goods and services that people needed for a good life.

According to Karl Marx, the lowest class of people in society, those who do not control production and must work in order to live, are known as the _____.

The petitions sent by residents of Maloga Mission on behalf of the Yorta Yorta People in the 1880s are regarded by historians as the first claims for First Nations _____ in Australia.

Define “popular sovereignty” and identify one movement that put this idea into action.

Identify two problems with the existing voting system that the Chartists wanted to fix.

Summarise the steps taken to abolish slavery in the British Empire by 1833.

Describe the working conditions in factories during the Industrial Revolution.

10.

Summarise the causes of the major strikes that occurred in Australia in the early 1890s.

SA D I M GI PL T A E L C -O H N AP L Y TE R S

Group work activity

Create an informative advertising campaign that promotes one of the key ideas or movements. You should create two or more posters. Your research should reflect a solid understanding of the origin and impact of this idea or movement (e.g. Who – What – Where – When – Why it matters), selected from the following options: a. Political rights: universal suffrage, egalitarianism or Chartism

b. Economic fairness: capitalism, socialism or the abolition of slavery.

Research activity

In a group, research one of the significant groups or individuals from Section 5.1, selected from the following options: a. Political rights: Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Robert Owen, Vida Goldstein or Feargus O’Connor

b. Economic fairness: John D Rockefeller, Karl Marx, Toussaint L’Ouverture or Frederick Douglass. Locate as many facts as you can to explain what life they lived, why they became involved in a movement and what they achieved. Present your findings to the class.

Creative task

Work in a small group to create a podcast or oral presentation where each group member takes the role of an influential thinker. It will be the role of each individual to prove that their idea was the best and most influential on the course of human history. One group member should take the role of “host” to allow each individual to present their point of view.

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Chapter 5 Key ideas and movements (1750–1918)

Writing focus

DOC

Download single paragraph model

The following activities offer ways to demonstrate your understanding of the chapter and allow you to continue to practise your writing skills.

Answering questions in paragraphs You can use this as a model when writing your own answers to the questions that follow. Refer to the downloadable file for further guidance.

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Question: Explain how the ideas of the Enlightenment contributed to the beginning of the French Revolution.

Model answer:

Topic sentence: the first sentence of the paragraph; directly answers the question

Elaborate: additional information, connections, historical significance, change and continuity, cause and consequence

Examples: provide credibility and illustrate the argument

The ideas of the Enlightenment directly contributed to the beginning of the French Revolution by giving the French people a framework to challenge the authority of the monarchy and the unfair privileges held by the First and Second Estates. The Enlightenment was a European intellectual movement of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, in which thinkers used reason to question traditional institutions such as feudalism and absolute monarchy, arguing instead that individuals had natural rights and that sovereign power should rest with the people. These ideas gained momentum in France through discussions in private salons and coffee shops, where the bourgeoisie and educated citizens debated the writings of thinkers such as Voltaire and Rousseau, creating a shared language of reform that spread widely before the Revolution began. Jean-Jacques Rousseau’s The Social Contract (1762) declared “Man is born free, and yet everywhere he is in chains”, directly questioning royal authority; similarly, Abbe Sieyes’s 1789 pamphlet What is the Third Estate? argued that ordinary people represented the true nation of France and should hold political power. In practice, when the Third Estate was locked out of the Estates General meeting in 1789, they drew on Enlightenment ideals to declare themselves the National Assembly; this was followed by the storming of the Bastille on 14 July 1789, which became the defining symbol of the people’s rejection of royal tyranny. In this way, the Enlightenment’s emphasis on reason, equality and popular sovereignty provided both the inspiration and the language that French revolutionaries used to justify their challenge to the existing political order and ignite the French Revolution.

Explain: clarify, define and describe

Evidence: specific, relevant evidence to support your arguments

Linking sentence: reconnects to the topic sentence using the language of the question

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5.19 Chapter review and historical inquiry

Extended-response questions Explain how ideas of the Enlightenment emerged in Europe.

Explain how the Enlightenment influenced the American and French revolutions.

Explain at least one of the competing political arguments that campaigners for universal suffrage faced.

Why is Robert Owen often referred to as the “father of socialism”?

Analyse how Karl Marx’s ideas were different from democratic socialists and utopian socialists.

”Significance” means the impact of a group, individual, idea or event. It may be measured by how many people or places were impacted or how long the impacts lasted. Select an event or movement from this chapter and analyse why you believe it has had a significant impact on the modern world.

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Historical inquiry

DOC

Investigating significance

In this historical investigation into the significance of key movements and ideas from 1750 to 1918, you will undertake the following steps: Part 1: Develop historical questions

Download Historical inquiry

• Step 1: Select an aspect of the key ideas and movements topic that interests you. Examples include: ●

●

A significant idea or movement of your choice concerning rights and fairness which originated between 1750–1918

The influence of a key event of your choice (such as the Enlightenment) on new ideas and movements concerning rights and fairness which originated between 1750–1918

The life of a significant individual and their role in developing a key idea or movement of your choice, such as Frederick Douglass and the American anti-slavery movement. A revolution of your choice and its lasting effects.

• Step 2: Brainstorm what you already know. • Step 3: Develop a historical inquiry question. Examples include: ●

●

How significant was the idea or movement of your choice concerning rights and fairness which originated between 1750–1918? How influential was the key event of your choice (such as the Enlightenment) on new ideas and movements concerning rights and fairness which originated between 1750–1918? To what extent did the significant individual of your choice play a crucial role in developing a key idea or movement of your choice? Evaluate the significance of the revolution of your choice.

• Step 4: Explain why the question is important.

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Chapter 5 Key ideas and movements (1750–1918)

Part 2: Locate and analyse evidence Part 3: Communicate historical findings Part 4: Reflect

Teachers, access the Online Teaching Suite for digital resources and tools that support review, assessment and reporting, including:

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Chapter

The Holocaust (1933–1945)

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Key questions

• To what does the term “Holocaust” refer? • Why was antisemitism so powerful in Germany and broader Europe? • How did the Nazis rise to power? • Who were the perpetrators of the Holocaust and why did they participate in it? • Who were the victims of the Holocaust and how did they resist the persecution? • How aware were bystanders of the Holocaust? • What were the connections between the Holocaust and World War II? • How should we understand the legacy of the Holocaust?

Lessons 8.1

Setting the scene

8.2

Jewish civilisation and historical antisemitism

8.3

The rise of Nazism

8.4

Nazi propaganda and anti-Jewish laws, 1933–1939

8.5

Radicalisation from Kristallnacht to ghettoisation, 1938–1940

8.6

The move towards the “Final Solution”

8.7

Labour and death camps

8.8

Resistance to and development of the Holocaust

8.9

Impacts of the Holocaust on Jewish people

8.10 Holocaust centres, memorials and museums 8.11 Site study: Sydney Jewish Museum

8.12 Chapter review and historical inquiry

Teachers access the Online Teaching Suite to: • plan, sequence and assign directed tasks for students and classes using Task Manager • view student activity reports • provide feedback to students • download a printable “Writing focus” workbook for this chapter. • download a sample case study for this chapter.

This chapter contains discussions of sensitive and potentially distressing topics related to the Holocaust, including acts of violence, trauma and human suffering. We encourage readers to approach the material with care and respect, being mindful of the enduring effects such events have on individuals and communities today. Digital-only sample chapters • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Clarke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78794-9 • (03) 8671 1400

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Chapter 8 The Holocaust (1933–1945)

8.1

Setting the scene Success criteria

In this lesson, we will look at some key events relating to the Holocaust.

❏ I can identify the origins and development of the Holocaust. ❏ I can construct a timeline of key events of the Holocaust.

SA D I M GI PL T A E L C -O H N AP L Y TE R S

Learning intention

perpetrator someone who commits a harmful, illegal or immoral act victim someone who suffers harm, injury or death

Aryan a purely fictitious notion of German racial purity, propagated by the Nazi Party, meaning Caucasian people not of Jewish descent. Often characterised as having blond hair and blue eyes bystander someone who is present during an event but does not take part or intervene

The Holocaust was the systematic destruction of European Jewry during World War II. The Hebrew word is sho’ah, meaning a whirlwind of destruction. The perpetrators were the Nazis, who implemented harmful policies for “racial purity” under their leader Adolf Hitler. Approximately six million Jews were murdered. Other victims included people with a disability, male homosexuals and hundreds of thousands of people from nomadic minorities (Roma and Sinti, formerly referred to as “gypsies”). “Aryans” were considered the master race, while others, such as Slavic people, were Untermenschen (“subhumans”). Ultimately, the Nazi anti-Jewish policy was Endlösung der Judenfrage – the “Final Solution” to the “Jewish Question” – which historian Christopher Browning describes as “the systematic attempt to murder every last Jew within the German grasp”. It was genocide. Escape was virtually impossible. Very few non-Jews tried to rescue the victims; most followed Nazi orders or stood by as bystanders. 22 June 1941

9–10 November 1938

2 August 1934

1924

Nazi leaders found guilty of treason for their failed Beer Hall Putsch in 1923 and imprisoned

Hitler combines the offices of Chancellor and Head of State, becoming the Führer

November Pogrom (otherwise known as Kristallnacht, “night of broken glass”): Synagogues and Jewish businesses attacked across Germany and Austria

Operation Barbarossa: Germany invades the USSR

January 1942

Wannsee Conference: Nazi officials discuss the “Final Solution”

1941

September 1919

Adolf Hitler joins the German Workers’ Party; writes his first statement on antisemitism

30 January 1933

Hitler appointed Chancellor of Germany

1935

1 September 1939

Nuremberg Laws imposed, stripping Jewish people of their rights

German invasion of Poland; World War II begins

First wave of mass executions targeting Jewish people, Communists and others

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8.1 Setting the scene

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11 May 1960

8 May 1945

The beginning of the liberation of camps such as Auschwitz, Buchenwald and Dachau

“Unconditional surrender” of Nazi Germany; World War II ends in Europe

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January 1945

Adolf Eichmann, a key official in deportations, captured in Argentina. He is put on trial in Israel, found guilty and hanged in 1962

April–May 1943

Warsaw Ghetto uprising

30 April 1945

20 November 1945

Hitler commits suicide

Nuremberg Trials begin

May–July 1944

Deportation of the Hungarian Jews to Auschwitz

Writing focus 8.1 Question words

March 1942

First gas chambers at Auschwitz-Birkenau begin operation

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Source 8.1.1 Video: Janusz Korczak

Think, pair, share

Scan the QR code and watch the video as a class.

• Think: What do you think the life of Janusz Korczak can teach Holocaust historians?

Source 8.1.2 Korczak and the Ghetto’s Children, by Boris Saktsier, 1978, at Yad Vashem, the Holocaust Remembrance Centre in Jerusalem ➜

• Pair: With a partner, discuss your response. • Share: Share your ideas with the class.

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Chapter 8 The Holocaust (1933–1945)

Jewish civilisation and historical antisemitism

8.2

Success criteria

In this lesson, you will learn about the history of the Jewish population, specifically the persecution the Jews faced in Western Europe throughout the ages.

❏ I can identify at least three historical examples of antisemitism. ❏ I can explain how antisemitism and false myths were spread in Western Europe. ❏ I can define antisemitism.

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Learning intention

Starter activity

Look at Source 8.2.1. What do you notice about where Jewish people lived before the Holocaust? KEY

329 200 766 600 1 644 200 6 760 200

Southern Europe Northern and Western Europe Central Europe Eastern Europe

FINLAND 1800

NORWAY 1500

SWEDEN 6500

ESTONIA 5000

Total 9 500 000

4 5 6 7 Population in millions

LITHUANIA 155 000

1000 km

IRELAND 3600

ATLANTIC OCEAN

GREAT BRITAIN 300 000

BELGIUM 60 000

PORTUGAL 1000

NETHERLANDS 300 000

SPAIN 4000

POLAND 3 000 000

GERMANY 565 000

SWITZERLAND 18 000 ITALY FRANCE 48 000 255 000

LUXEMBOURG 2200

ASIA

EUROPE

CZECHOSLOVAKIA 357 000 AUSTRIA HUNGARY 250 000 445 000 YUGOSLAVIA 78 000

ALBANIA 200

SOVIET UNION 2 525 000

ROMANIA 980 000

BULGARIA 50 000

BLACK SEA TURKEY 56 000

CASPIAN SEA

GREECE 100 000

MEDITERRANEAN SEA

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Source 8.2.1 European Jewish population distribution, c. 1933

Antisemitism is a certain perception of Jews, which may be expressed as hatred towards Jews. The history of the Jewish civilisation, and of antisemitism, began thousands of years before the Holocaust.

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8.2 Jewish civilisation and historical antisemitism

The Jews are an ancient people from areas speaking Semitic languages, particularly the region in which Israel, the disputed Palestinian territories and Jordan are located today. In the first century CE, the region was occupied by the Roman Empire.

Semitic a group of languages (primarily Hebrew, Arabic and Aramaic) exile someone who has been barred from or has escaped from their home country, usually because of political issues

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In 70 CE, the Romans defeated a Jewish revolt and destroyed the city of Jerusalem and the Jews’ (Second) Temple and, as a consequence, the Jewish people residing in the region were forced to leave and live in exile. Many settled across the Mediterranean in southern Europe and North Africa, where Jewish communities of traders and farmers already existed. Others made their way north into the lands that became France, England and Germany. Some Jewish communities were established in India, China and Yemen. This dispersal became known as the Jewish “diaspora”.

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Jewish communities of the diaspora carried their religion and culture with them. Like other minorities, they faced suspicion and persecution because they were different – their language, rituals, food and clothes were all different.

Source 8.2.2 A Jewish menorah (multi-branched candle holder), pictured in a 13th-century illuminated manuscript. For many centuries, Jewish people have lit menorah during important ceremonies.

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Source 8.2.3 The Arch of Titus in Rome, built c. 81 CE by the Emperor Domitian, to celebrate his brother Titus’s victory over the Jewish rebellion in Judaea. The arch depicts Roman soldiers carrying objects taken from Jerusalem.

Their day of rest was Saturday, not Sunday, and kosher dietary rules (known as kashrut) applied. The most important point of difference for Christian Europe was that Jews did not believe that Jesus of Nazareth was the Messiah and the son of God. The Christian Church taught its followers to despise Jews because of the false myth that the Jewish people had killed Jesus. There was also an argument that the Christian Church had superseded or replaced the nation of Israel as God’s chosen people. By this logic, Christians were the people of God, not Jews.

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Chapter 8 The Holocaust (1933–1945)

Jews in the Middle Ages Jewish communities were welcomed by some rulers in the Middle Ages, but were treated with suspicion by many others. False myths about Jews were spread, and laws forced Jews to stand out as a visible minority.

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Passover a festival associated with the delivery of Jews from oppression (the escape from slavery in Egypt)

In the twelfth century, a false myth developed that Jews used the blood of Christian children in their matzah bread at Passover. During the Black Death in the fourteenth century, it was rumoured that Jews were trying to destroy Christendom by poisoning the water supply and spreading the plague. Jewish people were tortured and killed for their part in this “plot”. Such rumours were an excuse for violence in places where Jews were hated for their role as moneylenders and debt collectors (jobs that Christians were forbidden to hold). It should be noted that the involvement of Jews in these roles was the result of being prohibited from engaging in many other professions, joining guilds and owning land. Killing Jewish people in the local village for “poisoning the wells” was a convenient way to avoid repaying a debt.

Christendom the area in which Christianity was the majority/dominant religion ghetto an area in a city in which (Jewish) people were forced to live

Laws in the Muslim world and Christian Europe required Jews to wear identifying clothes or hats; for example, in thirteenth-century England, this identifying feature took the form of a yellow badge. Throughout history, Jews were often forced into residential segregation as another form of mistreatment. For example, in the sixteenth century, Jews in the multicultural city states of Venice and Rome were restricted to a certain area, known as the ghetto; four centuries later the Nazis would force Jews into more than 1000 ghettos across Central and Eastern Europe.

Activity 8.2.1 Source analysis

Source 8.2.5 Jewish adults and children in Łódź Ghetto, Poland, in the early 1940s. They were forced to wear a yellow star on their clothes to identify them as Jewish. ➜

➜

Source 8.2.4 A depiction of a Jewish man from Worms, Germany, in the sixteenth century. A yellow rota (ring) on his cloak identifies him as Jewish.

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8.2 Jewish civilisation and historical antisemitism

According to Source 8.2.4, what symbol was used to identify Jews in sixteenthcentury Germany?

In Source 8.2.4, what is the Jewish man carrying, and how might that support antisemitic stereotypes?

According to Source 8.2.5, what symbol was used to identify Jews in 1940s Nazi-occupied Europe?

How does Source 8.2.5 demonstrate that Nazis used medieval methods to alienate Jewish people?

SA D I M GI PL T A E L C -O H N AP L Y TE R S

Historical concepts: Continuity and change, Perspectives Historical skills: Analysis and use of sources

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Migration to Eastern Europe

Many Western European countries persecuted and expelled Jewish people in the Middle Ages, using the false myths of Jewish people as Christ-killers and child murderers as an excuse for the expulsion. Forced to migrate, most Jews sought refuge in Eastern Europe, in tolerant Slavic states including Poland.

KEY

States that expelled Jews / from where major emigrations of Jews occurred

Resettlement areas

Lithuania 1445 1495

Wales 1290

England 1290

Germany 1100s 1348 1510 1551

France 1182 1306 1321 1394

Spain 1492

Silesia 1159 1494

Austria 1421

Hungary 1349 1360

Papal States 1569 1593

Provence 1430

Portugal 1497l

Poland

Netherlands

Sardinia 1492

Naples 1541

Crimea 1016 1350

Ottoman Empire

Sicily 1492

Tunis 1535

Maghreb

1500 km

Egypt

➜

Source 8.2.6 Expulsion of Jews (1100–1600). During the Middle Ages, hundreds of thousands of Jews in Europe were forced to relocate to a different country. The rulers often seized the assets of the Jews that were expelled to increase their country’s wealth.

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Chapter 8 The Holocaust (1933–1945)

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The long history of antisemitic persecution and expulsions from European countries helps explain why, in the 1940s, the biggest Jewish populations in Europe were in Eastern Europe. In Poland, there were around three million Jews, with another 2.5 million in the Soviet Union (USSR). These were the biggest centres of Jewish life on the eve of the Holocaust. In 1933, Germany itself had just over 500 000 Jews, making up less than one per cent of the population.

➜

Source 8.2.7 Fourteenth-century miniature showing King Philip IV expelling all Jews from France.

Antisemitism

Writing focus 8.2 Transitional phrases

The term “antisemitism” was first used in the nineteenth century. Anti-Jewish actions and ideas had been a feature of European history for centuries. However, in the nineteenth century, antisemitism took on new political and “racial” elements that would prove to be extremely destructive. Anti-Jewish thinking began to regard the Jew as a racial enemy of the nation. A new “science” of race, known as eugenics, emerged. Eugenics was based on the false idea that there are races of people, and some racial groups have superior or more desirable characteristics than others. Antisemitism was also a political opportunity for modern nationalists who looked to unite their nation against a common enemy, or to find someone to blame for their nation’s problems.

Source 8.2.8 The Jewish Quarter in Vienna, Austria, from a German book published c. 1880 ➜

Antisemitism was widespread. In France in the 1890s, a Jewish army captain, Alfred Dreyfus, was wrongfully convicted of selling secrets to Germany. In Austria, one of the most infamous modern antisemites was the mayor of Vienna between 1897 and 1910, Karl Lueger. Vienna had Europe’s thirdlargest Jewish community, and Jews contributed to the city’s business, political and cultural life. However, Lueger spread rumours and made public accusations about the “Jewish Question” to propel his Christian Social Party.

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8.2 Jewish civilisation and historical antisemitism

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Lueger was the mayor when a young Austrian, Adolf Hitler, arrived in the city in 1907. He lived in Vienna for more than five years, during which he faced adversities that ultimately led to his radicalisation. Hitler absorbed the anti-Jewish rhetoric popular in Vienna at the time and later, in 1924, wrote about his time in Vienna in his autobiography Mein Kampf (My Struggle). While in Vienna, Hitler developed a new way of thinking about the Jews: he no longer thought of Jews as different types of Germans, but as “an entirely different people”, who were “foreign”. The anti-Jewish sentiment that Hitler experienced in Vienna might have helped him justify his own antisemitism and enabled the atrocities he would eventually commit.

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Source 8.2.9 Cover from a c. 1934 edition of Mein Kampf. The original publication was two volumes, in 1925 and 1926.

Review 8.2

Online quiz

Knowledge and understanding

Thinking and researching

Students can access sample responses and results

Teachers can go online to assign questions, view results, reports and more!

Knowledge and understanding 1.

Define the term “antisemitism”.

Define the term “Jewish diaspora”.

Identify three false myths that Jews were accused of in Europe to demote the status and take advantage of the Jewish community.

What do you think may have been the effects of forcing Jewish people to wear clothes or badges that identified them?

Explain from where historical antisemitism was commonly derived.

How important do you think it is to understand historical antisemitism in order to explain Nazi antisemitism and the Holocaust?

Thinking and researching

Research one of the following major expulsions of Jews:

• England in 1290 • France in 1306 • Spain in 1492 • Portugal in 1496.

Answer the questions below: 1.

What political, economic, social and religious factors contributed to the expulsion?

Was there a specific event(s) that acted as a trigger for the expulsion?

Who ordered the expulsion, and what motivations did the ruler or government express publicly?

Were any laws or policies passed prior to the expulsion that restricted or controlled Jewish life?

How many Jews were expelled and to where did they primarily relocate?

What happened to Jewish property, homes and debts after the expulsion? Who benefited?

Compare what Jewish life was like before and after the expulsion in the country of origin.

Historical concepts: Cause and effect, Significance Historical skills: Comprehension, Research

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Chapter 8 The Holocaust (1933–1945)

8.3

The rise of Nazism

Success criteria

In this lesson, you will learn about how the Nazi movement grew in Germany with Adolf Hitler as its leader throughout the 1920s and 1930s, examining the major events and strategies that allowed it to gain support and eventually seize power.

❏ I can explain three key factors that contributed to the rise of Nazism. ❏ I can identify three major events that contributed to the rise of Nazism.

SA D I M GI PL T A E L C -O H N AP L Y TE R S

Learning intention

Starter activity

See, think, wonder

Look at Source 8.3.1.

• What do you see in this poster? (I see...) • What do you think about that? Do you think that a poster like that would be able to influence the outcome of an election? How effective do you think posters and other advertisement campaigns are? (I think...)

• What does it make you wonder? Are similar tactics used in modern-day politics? Who might these poster campaigns appeal to and why? (I wonder...)

➜

Source 8.3.1 A Nazi election poster in the streets of Berlin in 1932 that reads “We want work and bread, vote for Hitler”.

tuberculosis an infectious lung disease caused by bacteria

In September 1919, Adolf Hitler joined the German Workers’ Party, Deutsche Arbeiterpartei (DAP). In the same week, he wrote his first antisemitic statement, a letter in which Hitler described Jewish people as a “non-German, foreign race, unwilling and unable to sacrifice its racial characteristics”, living among German citizens and possessing all the political rights of German people, but producing a “racial tuberculosis”. Hitler felt that Jews were an infection, which had to be eliminated.

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8.3 The rise of Nazism

In 1919, Hitler was a man of no political significance. He had returned from World War I injured at the age of 30 to no career, no family and limited prospects. He found work fighting against the radical political movements developing in the newly founded “Weimar” German Republic. (The name “Weimar” came from the name of a city in the state of Thuringia where the in central Germany where a democratic constitution was created in 1919.) In February 1920, the DAP was renamed the National Socialist German Workers Party (Nationalsozialistiche Deutsche Arbeitpartei – NSDAP), “the Nazis”. Hitler made antisemitism a guiding principle of the party. Nazi antisemitism drew on:

reparations compensation paid to the victim of a crime or a defeated nation after a war, usually in the form of money to pay for damages or expenses

SA D I M GI PL T A E L C -O H N AP L Y TE R S

• centuries of anti-Jewish ideas • nineteenth-century racial and nationalist ideas • deep-seated anger at Germany’s humiliation in World War I.

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World War I and Hitler’s leadership of the Nazi Party Weimar Germany was plagued by problems stemming from World War I. There was a strong feeling among the German people that the army had not been defeated, but had been “stabbed in the back” by politicians. According to this false myth, those who had signed the armistice on 11 November 1918 were the “November criminals”. The Nazis said that they had been aided by Jews and Bolsheviks (Russian communists), both of whom were said to be enemies of the Germans.

Source 8.3.3 Scrapped machine guns show the German people complying with the conditions of the Treaty of Versailles. ➜

The Treaty enraged Hitler. In 1920, Hitler helped the party founder, Anton Drexler, write the Nazi party program (see Source 8.3.4). The program clearly demonstrates Hitler’s preoccupation with revenge for the outcome of the war. It also shows Hitler using modern (racial) antisemitism as a driving principle of Nazi political ideology.

Source 8.3.2 An Austrian postcard from 1919 showing a soldier being stabbed in the back. ➜

The victorious Allies punished Germany. The Treaty of Versailles, which Germany was forced to sign under threat of invasion, humiliated the German nation by confiscating territory, dissolving most of their army and navy, and reversing all gains Germany had made against Russia during the war. On top of this, Germany also had to pay reparations to the nations that had fought against it.

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Chapter 8 The Holocaust (1933–1945)

Activity 8.3.1 Source 8.3.4 Excerpt from the program of the NSDAP 1.

We demand the union of all Germans to form a Greater Germany on the basis of the right of self-determination enjoyed by nations.

We demand equality of rights for the German people in its dealings with other nations and abrogation [annulling] of the peace treaties of Versailles …

We demand land and territory (colonies) for the sustenance of our people and for settling our excess population.

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Source analysis

Writing focus 8.3 Appositives

Reich a German word meaning “realm”; the Nazis referred to their reign as the Third Reich, to distinguish it from the First Reich (Holy Roman Empire, from 800–1806 CE) and the Second Reich (German Empire from 1871–1918) degenerate abnormal and immoral

None but members of the nation may be citizens of the state. None but those of German blood, whatever their creed, may be members of the nation. No Jew therefore may be a member of the nation.

[…]

… If it is not possible to sustain the entire population of the state, foreign nationals (non-citizens) are to be expelled from the Reich.

Any further immigration of non-citizens is to be prevented. We demand that all non-Germans, who have immigrated to Germany since 2 August 1914, be forced immediately to leave the Reich.

[…]

The first obligation of every citizen must be to work with his mind or with his body. The activities of the individual may not clash with the interests of the whole, but must proceed within the framework of the community and be for the general good.

Program of the NSDAP, 24 February 1920

According to the program of the NSDAP, identify what a Jew cannot be.

Identify the clause that supports the argument that Hitler and Drexler used ideas from modern (racial) antisemitism.

According to the program, describe what the consequences would be for German Jews if the NSDAP came to power.

Based on the source, describe the perfect German citizen of the Nazi imagination.

What historical events and developments would you use to explain the purpose of this source?

Historical concepts: Continuity and change, Significance Historical skills: Analysis and use of sources, Perspectives and interpretations

On 29 July 1921, Hitler replaced Drexler as leader of the Nazi Party. Hitler was the party’s most popular and active speaker, and antisemitism became his dominant theme. Hitler accused the Jewish people of profiting from the war and then betraying Germany at Versailles. He also accused them of being both greedy capitalists and evil communists. He said Jews were at the centre of developments in German culture that he described as “degenerate” – meaning that they were modern (for example, abstract art), liberal (promoting the rights and freedoms of individuals) and urban.

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8.3 The rise of Nazism

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Nazi ideology The Nazis’ ideal of the “people’s community”, the Volksgemeinschaft, was a racial community. This Völkisch (identity-based nationalist) way of seeing the German people required German blood as well as patriotism and German culture in order to preserve the physical and spiritual health of the “body” of the German nation. The Nazi form of fascism claimed that to be a member of the Volksgemeinschaft was to be Aryan. For the sake of “racial health”, the people’s community could not accept homosexual or disabled people, Roma, or Jews.

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The Nazi Party spread its ideology through propaganda, including its own newspapers, such as the Völkischer Beobachter (the “People’s Observer”). The newspaper initially printed 8000 copies per week. It became a daily paper, with hundreds of thousands of copies, by the 1930s. As early as March 1920, the newspaper called for “ruthless measures” to remove Jews from all public service jobs, to ban Jews from public places, and to place unemployed Jews in “collecting camps” (Völkischer Beobachter, No. 20/34, 10 March 1920).

fascism political philosophy that exalts a dictator and places the good of the nation or the race above the individual propaganda information, especially of a biased or misleading nature, used to promote a political cause or point of view

Source 8.3.5 A model newspaper wagon for Völkischer Beobachter

Antisemitic propaganda harmed people. Eddie Jaku, a Holocaust survivor who later settled in Australia and in 2020 published the best-selling autobiography The Happiest Man on Earth, remembered that before the Nazis, his family viewed themselves as German. “Children from my school came to my house and ate with us. There was no distinction because we were always German first.” Everything changed for Jaku’s family once the Nazis said that Jews could not be German. During World War II, his mother and father were murdered at Auschwitz, where he survived through luck and a series of escapes.

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Activity 8.3.2 Source analysis

Thinking about purpose and audience, how could you use the children’s book as evidence of how Nazis used propaganda?

How could you use the painting by Willrich as evidence of Nazi ideas?

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Source 8.3.6 Illustration from The Poisonous Mushroom children’s book, published by the Nazi newspaper Der Stürmer, 1938. A Jewish man is shown trying to kidnap children. The text reads: “Here, little ones, have some candy! But for that you will both have to come with me …”

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Source 8.3.7 Family by Wolfgang Willrich, 1938–1939

Historical concepts: Cause and effect, Perspectives, Contestability Historical skills: Analysis and use of sources, Perspectives and interpretations

Activity 8.3.3

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Source analysis

Source 8.3.8 Extract from an interview with Frau Ursula Meyer-Semlies, who was a teenager during the rise of Nazism

And I was the wildest champion of National Socialism … I tutored after school, because my mother was a teacher’s widow and we didn’t have much money and there were six of us children. And with my first tutoring money, I bought Hitler’s Mein Kampf. It was about 1932. I wanted to know what was going on and what he thought … If I read it today, I’d read it with completely different eyes. Of course, he had something against the Jews, nicht [no]? But he always only said, “Ja [yes], the Jews have all the money and the stores.” It was said, “The Jews are our misfortune.” It was always said through propaganda, they are such a small minority and have the most important positions. Especially in every city, in every large place, they had all the stores in their hands. …

Hitler said, “Ja, just look. You all put up with that and they are strangers. Those are not really Germans.” … The people were stirred up. And whoever is young, well, not only the young, but also a lot of others, they said, “Well, it is that way.” We actually thought, “Completely right for them not to be the only ones with a say, and if they have all the money.” But that they would be killed, that would never have been the idea.

Owings, A., 1993, Frauen: German Women Recall the Third Reich, Rutgers University Press, p. 55

Identify the characteristics of modern antisemitism that are apparent in the source.

Why did Ursula support Hitler’s antisemitism?

How valuable is this source for a historian as evidence of the rise of Nazism?

Historical concepts: Perspectives, Significance Historical skills: Analysis and use of sources, Perspectives and interpretations

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8.3 The rise of Nazism

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The rise of the Nazi Party

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Hitler’s political career always included antisemitism, but he struggled to attract national attention. In 1924, Hitler was put on trial for leading the Munich Beer Hall Putsch, a failed revolution against the Weimar Government. His speeches during his trial greatly increased his profile, and publicised his rejection of the Treaty of Versailles, and his claims about the threats of Jews and of communists, the latter who had recently won control of Russia through revolution. Hitler was ultimately found guilty of high treason and sentenced to a minimum of five years in prison (of which he only served nine months). In prison he wrote Mein Kampf (“My Struggle”), which earned him a new audience. Still, by the elections of 1928, his NSDAP only won two per cent of the vote.

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Source 8.3.9 Electoral poster for the NSDAP, 1932. In 1929, Hitler had a taste of national politics The text translates as “Marxism is the guardian angel of capitalism. Vote National Socialist”. when he was invited by Alfred Hugenberg, a right-wing nationalist and media magnate, to join a campaign for a referendum to cancel Germany’s reparations obligations under the Treaty of Versailles. The campaign failed to achieve support. However, when the Wall Street Crash of October 1929 triggered the Great Depression, German people’s interest in radical solutions increased. The unemployment rate rose suddenly and German banks began to fail. The Nazis held enormous rallies to build public support to overthrow the existing Weimar political parties. The rallies featured energetic speeches by Hitler. Historian Inga Clendinnen wrote that, “If we want to see Hitler’s magic, we have to watch not Hitler, but the faces of the people listening to him. We see a people transported.” In the national elections of 1930, the NSDAP received over 18 per cent of the vote. By 1932, around six million Germans were unemployed. Election posters (such as Source 8.3.1) claimed Hitler would provide “work and bread”. In the elections of July 1932, the NSDAP received over 37 per cent of the vote, making them the biggest party in German politics. The rise of Nazism was, therefore, a consequence of long-term effects of World War I, false myths about Jews, and Hitler’s personal charisma. But, as historian AJP Taylor said, “Only the Great Depression put the wind into Hitler’s sails.” Voters across Germany turned to radical parties for solutions. The party of the far right, the NSDAP, grew to a membership of 400 000. On the far left of the spectrum, the German Communist Party, the KPD, which promised work and family support to the unemployed, grew by 1932 to a membership of 360 000.

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Chapter 8 The Holocaust (1933–1945)

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Source 8.3.10 Demonstration by unemployed people in Berlin, c. 1930

Results of German federal elections 1919–1938

January 19, 1919

June 6, 1920

May 4, 1924

December 7, 1924

May 20, 1928

2.63%

September 14, 1930

18.25%

July 31, 1932

37.27%

November 6, 1932

33.09%

March 5, 1933

43.91%

November 12, 1933

92.11%

March 29, 1936

98.80%

April 10, 1938

99.01%

Other parties

Bavarian People’s Party (BVP)

Communist Party (KPD) German People’s Party (DVP)

Social Democratic Party (SPD)

Centre Party (Zentrum)

German National People’s Party (DNVP)

National Socialist German Workers’ Party (NSDAP or "Nazi")

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Source 8.3.11 Voting results in German federal elections, 1919–1938. The election on 6 November 1932 was the last fully free election in Germany before World War II.

Establishment figures, such as president of the Weimar Republic Paul von Hindenburg, and Chancellor Franz von Papen, were less concerned by Hitler’s growing popularity than by the communists. They believed Hitler could remove some of their political opponents, and that they would be able to control Hitler. As a result, in 1933 von Hindenburg was persuaded to appoint Hitler to the highest parliamentary office. He swore Hitler in as Chancellor of Germany on 30 January 1933.

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8.3 The rise of Nazism

civil liberties rights and freedoms extended to a citizen that the government is supposed to protect

SA D I M GI PL T A E L C -O H N AP L Y TE R S

Less than a month later, Dutch communist Marinus van der Lubbe allegedly set fire to the Reichstag parliament building. The Nazis seized the opportunity to bring in new laws, based on concerns that the nation was under attack. The Reichstag Fire Decrees restricted civil liberties and particularly attacked the communists. In March 1933, Hitler used his party to intimidate and terrorise opposing parliamentarians from taking their seats in the Reichstag on the day of a crucial vote. This resulted in the majority of the German parliament voting for an “Enabling Act”, giving him the emergency power to enact laws without the involvement of the Reichstag. These powers transformed Hitler’s government into a legal dictatorship. Historian Richard Evans described the Enabling Act as “the legal, or pseudo-legal basis for the permanent removal of civil rights and democratic liberties”. Within months, political opponents were silenced: the KPD was banned, and 100 000 Communists, Social Democrats and union organisers were imprisoned, some in a newly built concentration camp called Dachau.

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Review 8.3

Online quiz

Knowledge and understanding

Thinking and researching

Students can access sample responses and results

Teachers can go online to assign questions, view results, reports and more!

Knowledge and understanding 1.

Identify the name of the political party that Hitler joined in 1919.

Identify three problems faced by Germany between World War I and World War II.

Summarise the evidence presented in this chapter that supports the argument that the rise of Nazism was largely due to the impact of the Great Depression.

Discuss what the Nazi Party program promised.

To what extent was Hitler’s antisemitism the most important feature of the rise of Nazism to March 1933?

Thinking and researching 1.

Investigate a key figure other than Adolf Hitler and write a short profile focusing on their influence and role in the rise of Nazism in 1920s and 1930s Germany. The profile should include the following elements:

• Background: Name, date and place of birth, date of death, and profile picture • Education and experience that shaped their worldview • Political ideology • Role in German politics, including the titles and responsibilities they held • Key decisions or actions they took in the two decades leading up to 1939 • Short-term and long-term impacts of their actions • Relationship with Adolf Hitler over time • A relevant quote that summarises their profile • Any other relevant material to their contribution to the rise in Nazism.

Some key figures include:

• Joseph Goebbels • Heinrich Himmler • Hermann Göring • Ernst Röhm

• Rudolf Hess • Alfred Rosenberg • Anton Drexler • Heinrich Brüning.

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8.4

Nazi propaganda and anti-Jewish laws, 1933–1939 Success criteria

In this lesson, you will learn about how Nazi propaganda influenced everyday life and how laws introduced between 1933 and 1939 systematically removed rights and restricted the freedom of the Jewish population.

❏ I can describe two propaganda techniques used by the Nazis to influence the German and global population. ❏ I can identify two anti-Jewish laws introduced between 1933 and 1939, explaining their effects on the Jewish population.

SA D I M GI PL T A E L C -O H N AP L Y TE R S

Learning intention

Starter activity Think, pair, share

• Think about your own ancestry. Do you know the place of birth, nationality and religion of each of your grandparents? What about that of your great-grandparents?

• Pair up with a nearby student. Discuss with them how connected you feel to the country of birth,

nationality and religion of each of your grandparents. How does it compare with the connection with that of your great-grandparents?

• Prepare to share your discussion with the class.

Star of David a six-pointed star that has become a symbol of Jewish identity

On 28 March 1933, just four days after the Enabling Act gave Hitler sole power as dictator of Germany, the first antisemitic act of his regime began: a nationwide boycott of all Jewish businesses and professionals. On 1 April, a black-and-yellow Star of David was painted on doors and windows of Jewish-owned shops and businesses, alongside antisemitic slogans and signs saying things such as, “The Jews are our Misfortune” and “Don’t buy from Jews”. Most bystanders paid little attention to the boycott, but for Germany’s Jewish population it was the first in a long line of acts and laws that deeply affected their lives.

Source 8.4.1 A Jewish shop in Berlin, with a Star of David painted on the glass, and a sign saying “Germans! Defend yourselves! Don’t buy from Jews!” ➜

Also in April, the Nazis introduced the Law Against Overcrowding in German Schools, which restricted the entry of Jewish students into German schools. By 1938, all Jewish students would be expelled entirely.

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8.4 Nazi propaganda and anti-Jewish laws, 1933–1939

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Jewish workers were sacked from all public service jobs and in May 1933 the Nazis burned books that they deemed unacceptable in public spaces; one thing that made some books degenerate was having a Jewish author. Political and racial “enemies” of the state were constantly harassed by the secret police force, the Gestapo, which often acted on reports of suspicious activity from “block wardens” who were led by a “block leader”, or the Blockleiter. Each Blockleiter was responsible for spreading propaganda and detecting anti-Nazi thinking in a block of 40–60 households.

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Source 8.4.2 Nazi youth collect “un-German” books. President Hindenburg died on 2 August 1934. Upon his death, Hitler abolished the offices of president and chancellor. Hitler had the cabinet pass a law combining the two roles, therefore making him the absolute head of state and head of government of Germany, taking the title of Führer. In 1934 and 1935, it became compulsory for soldiers and civil servants to take an oath not only of loyalty to their country, but of “unconditional obedience” to Adolf Hitler.

Gestapo political police force established under Hermann Göring in 1933; the name comes from the German words for secret state police, “GEheime STAatsPOlizei.”

The Nuremberg Laws, 1935

In 1935, the Nazis redefined a German “citizen” to exclude Jews, in the Nuremberg Laws. The Reich Citizenship Law and the Law for the Protection of German Blood and Honour stated that no Jew could be a citizen of the Third Reich. A Jew was anyone who had three or four Jewish grandparents, even if they did not personally identify as a Jew, and regardless of whether their parents had converted to Christianity. Jews were no longer allowed to marry non-Jewish Germans. Also in 1935, the Military Service Act made “Aryan descent” a requirement for military service. The racial state was becoming more fully realised.

➜ Source 8.4.3 Chart demonstrating the rules of racial categorisation announced in the Nuremberg Laws: People were either of “German blood”, Jewish, or Mischlinge – a “mixed” person who had one or two Jewish grandparents or had married a Jew.

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Writing focus 8.4 Developing sentences

After the Nuremberg Laws, Jewish people in Germany were isolated from non-Jewish colleagues, neighbours and friends. A German woman, Frau Ellen Frey, witnessed this. She spent much of her time in the Bund deutscher Mädel (or BdM, a Nazi youth group for German girls) and when asked whether she had known that Jewish girls were not allowed to join the BdM, she said that everyone knew as there were no Jews around. Nazi laws were excluding Jewish people from day-to-day institutions such as schools, youth groups and places of work. Jews were also forbidden from using public parks, cinemas and hospitals. Non-Jewish bystanders began to get used to this increasing absence. Some celebrated it; some, like Ellen, accepted it without question; and a small handful of people protested – often by leaving the country and going into exile.

Activity 8.4.1

Create a flow chart or infographic that explains the impact of the Nuremberg Laws. Identify the names of the laws, who the laws impacted, as well as why the Nazis implemented the laws.

Historical concepts: Cause and effect Historical skills: Comprehension, Research, Communication

The 1936 Olympics in Germany

In 1936, Germany hosted the summer Olympic Games in Berlin. The decision to give the games to Berlin had been taken in 1931, before the rise of the Nazis. When the Nazis came to power, there were doubts that the Games could go ahead. In April 1933, a New York Times headline read: “1936 Olympics May Be Cancelled Due to Germany’s Campaign Against the Jews”. However, the Nazi regime retained the right to host the Games and exploited the opportunity to promote an image of a strong, united, “Aryan” country. The Games were a lavish propaganda tool and stood among the grandest spectacles of their times. Audiences and all German athletes were required to give the Hitler salute, although most racial propaganda was removed from the Olympic zones. The German Olympic team banned athletes that were defined as Jewish according to the Nuremberg Laws. Notable exclusions included:

• Gretel Bergmann, a champion high jumper. Bergmann had been invited to a special Jewish athletics training camp that had been set up after other countries criticised Germany for banning Jewish athletes, and had equalled the national record by clearing the bar at 1.6 m. This could have won her the gold medal at the Games. However, like other Jewish athletes, she was not included in the German team. Bergmann left Germany and vowed never to return. • Sinti boxer Johann “Rukeli” Trollmann. He had won a championship in 1933 but had been stripped of the title because of his heritage. Trollmann was killed in a concentration camp in 1944.

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8.4 Nazi propaganda and anti-Jewish laws, 1933–1939

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An exception to the ban on athletes with Jewish heritage was a fencer by the name of Helene Mayer, whose father was Jewish. Mayer had won gold for Germany in 1928, but had stayed in the USA after the 1932 Olympics. Controversially, she accepted the Nazi regime’s invitation to return and compete, and won silver. On the podium she gave the Nazi salute, claiming afterwards that she hoped it would help her relatives in Germany. DOC

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Extension 8.4.1 Jesse Owens

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Source 8.4.4 (L) At the Nazi Olympics, the crowd gives the Nazi salute at the Olympia Stadion. (R) High jumper Gretel Bergmann was excluded due to her Jewish background.

New policies in 1937–1938

By 1937, Jews, who were regarded as the racial “enemy”, had taken the place of communists and socialists, who had been the political enemy. A new wave of policies was designed to persecute and pressure Jews into leaving the country. In June 1937, Reinhard Heydrich, a leader of the Schutzstaffel (SS), delivered a secret directive encouraging the arrest of all “defilers of race”. This was a direct attack on relationships between Jewish and non-Jewish people.

Schutzstaffel (SS) a paramilitary organisation founded by Hitler

In April 1938, Jewish people in Germany were required to register their wealth if it was greater than 5000 marks, and in June, 1500 of those with police records – even just traffic violations – were arrested and sent to concentration camps. The Nazi regime was readying itself for war to increase its territory, or Lebensraum (living space), by ridding the country of internal “enemies” and “aliens” before that great struggle began. Many who could afford to leave Germany did so. But others were unable, or reluctant, to leave the places they had called home for generations.

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Through 1938, a series of steps further humiliated and endangered Jews: Source 8.4.5 Table of antisemitic laws and events in 1938

March 1938

Germany unified with Austria, breaking the Treaty of Versailles and extending antisemitic laws to over 190 000 Jews living there.

August 1938

German Jews were forced to add “Sarah” or “Israel” to their names.

September 1938

Allied nations tried to “appease” Hitler by allowing Germany to annex the Sudetenland of Czechoslovakia, which would ultimately bring several hundred thousand Jews under Nazi control.

October 1938

All German Jews’ passports were stamped with a red “J”. This policy came about after a meeting between Heinrich Rothmund, the Head of the Swiss Police, and Nazi leaders in Berlin.

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By late 1938, Jewish lawyers were no longer allowed to work, Jewish doctors could only treat Jewish patients and Jewish businesses had to be registered. Jewish people were excluded from theatres and cinemas, holiday resorts and parks. The new rules even extended to whether they could own pets.

Review 8.4 Knowledge and understanding

Thinking and researching

Students can access sample responses and results

SA D I M GI PL T A E L C -O H N AP L Y TE R S

Online quiz

Teachers can go online to assign questions, view results, reports and more!

Knowledge and understanding 1.

Identify four different laws created by the Nazis after 1933 that affected the lives of Jews.

Explain what the Nuremberg Laws were.

Explain the significant move Hitler made to consolidate power after the death of President Hindenberg in 1934.

Discuss what the history of the 1936 Olympics demonstrates about the regime and the international community.

Discuss how new policies and events across 1937 and 1938 further endangered Jews under Nazi control.

Thinking and researching

Several Jewish and non-Jewish athletes boycotted the games because of the racism of the Nazi regime. Some national teams also contemplated boycotting, particularly when Hitler first stated that not only Jews but also Black athletes would not be allowed to compete. The threat of boycotts made the Nazi regime change their position and allow Jewish and Black athletes from other nations to compete. 1.

Create a biographical poster about the life of one of the athletes whose lives were greatly affected by the 1936 Berlin Olympics. Choose between Gretel Bergmann, Johann “Rukeli” Trollmann or Jesse Owens and include the following elements in your poster:

• Background: Name, date and place of birth, date of death, and profile picture • How they became involved in their sport of choosing and list their early sporting achievements (prior to 1936)

• How the discriminatory Nazi policies affected their participation in the 1936 Berlin Olympics • What limitations were placed on them that made their sporting career more difficult • Sporting achievements during or after 1936 • Historic moments they were part of, including any moments of resistance or resilience • What happened to their life following the 1936 Berlin Olympics • How they are remembered today.

Historical concepts: Cause and effect, Significance Historical skills: Comprehension, Research

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8.5 Radicalisation from Kristallnacht to ghettoisation, 1938–1940

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Radicalisation from Kristallnacht to ghettoisation, 1938–1940

8.5

Success criteria

In this lesson, you will learn about the organised night of violence against the Jewish population in 1938, named Kristallnacht, and the forced confinement of Jews in small areas called ghettos.

❏ I can describe what Kristallnacht was, including the instructions the local police received, the Aryanisation of businesses and the subsequent escalation of antisemitism. ❏ I can define ghettoisation. ❏ I can explain how ghettos were used to further the Nazis’ goal of eradicating Jewry in Nazi Germany.

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Learning intention

Starter activity

See, think, wonder

Look at Source 8.5.1. 1.

What do you see in this image? (I see...)

What do you think is the significance of this building? (I think...)

What do you wonder about this image? (I wonder...)

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Source 8.5.1 A burning synagogue in the town of Baden-Baden, Munich, during Kristallnacht, 9 November 1938

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November Pogrom (also known as Kristallnacht) On 9–10 November 1938, an outburst of antisemitic violence broke out across Germany, Austria and the Sudetenland. It was supposedly a spontaneous popular reaction to the assassination of a German diplomat in Paris by a young Jewish man. In reality, the violence was part of a plan by the Gestapo and Heydrich (a leader of the SS). The perpetrators of the violence – or pogrom – were Nazi party members, who destroyed Jewish property, Source 8.5.2 Broken glass in Jewish-owned shops including businesses and synagogues, and in Berlin, after Kristallnacht assaulted Jewish people on the street and in their homes. Valuables and artifacts, including holy Torahs, owned by Jews were desecrated and plundered with no consequence. The victims included 91 killed and 30 000 men sent to concentration camps. The event became known as Kristallnacht (“the night of broken glass”) because of the extensive property damage that littered the streets with shards of glass. However, many scholars and museums now use the term “November Pogrom” for the events, feeling that Kristallnacht focuses only on the property damage, and does not acknowledge the human suffering. Police were ordered not to interfere unless it was to prevent attacks on non-Jewish property. The events were highly visible, watched on by large crowds of apparently passive bystanders.

pogrom a Russian term meaning “anti-Jewish riot”, often linked with massacres and expulsions of Jews

synagogue Jewish house of worship

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Writing focus 8.5 Creating topic sentences

Activity 8.5.1 ➜

Source analysis

Source 8.5.3 Orders issued to the police by Gestapo Headquarters

To all state police officers and state police administrative offices. Berlin, 9.11.1938 This teletype message is to be transmitted immediately in the most rapid way. 1.

Actions against the Jews and in particular against their synagogues will occur in a short time in all of Germany. They are not to be hindered. However, it is to be made certain, in agreement with the ordinary police, that plundering and similar law-breaking will be held to a minimum.

Insofar as important archives material is present in the synagogues, it is to be secured by immediate measures.

The seizure of some 20 to 30 thousand Jews in the Reich is to be prepared. Wealthy Jews above all are to be chosen. More detailed directives will appear in the course of this night.

If in the course of this action Jews are found in possession of arms, the sharpest measures are to be employed. …

This teletype is secret.

Heinrich Müller, 9 November 1938, teletype message

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8.5 Radicalisation from Kristallnacht to ghettoisation, 1938–1940

Explain what this communication tells us about the planning of Kristallnacht.

Why do you think the Nazis were anxious to secure “important archives material” and ensure that “wealthy Jews” were chosen for arrest?

Define what you think the “sharpest measures” were.

How useful is this source to a historian studying the Nazi regime’s treatment of Jewish people prior to World War II?

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Historical concepts: Cause and effect, Perspectives Historical skills: Analysis and use of sources, Perspectives and interpretations

In the aftermath of the November Pogrom the Nazi regime, under the direction of Hermann Göring, charged the Jewish people with inciting the violence. They fined the victim Jewish population one billion Reichsmarks (equivalent to over $13 billion AUD in today’s currency) for the damage sustained, and nationalised (Aryanised) all registered Jewish businesses. Jews sent to concentration camps were only to be released if they could demonstrate proof of a plan to emigrate permanently from Germany.

Aryanised confiscation of Jewish property into German hands

Emigration attempts

Emigration would achieve the Nazi goal of eliminating the Jews from Nazi-controlled Europe. However, where could they go? Various ideas arose for a potential Jewish settlement before World War II broke out: Jewish Zionists wished to establish a nation in the British Mandatory Palestine (modern Israel and Jordan); sympathisers proposed safe havens for Jews in various remote locations – even including Tasmania and the Kimberley region of Western Australia; Nazis considered a “Madagascar Plan” to expel millions of Jews to the island off Africa.

Jewish people who tried to emigrate to safety faced many challenges. Any Jewish person fleeing Nazi Germany had a strong case to be considered a genuine refugee. “Safe” countries were inundated with visa applications. In July 1938 representatives from 32 countries met in France at the Evian Conference to discuss the developing refugee crisis of Jews from Germany and Austria. There was general sympathy towards the plight of the Jews; however, strict immigration quotas remained in place. The United States set an annual limit of around 27 000 immigrants from Germany and Austria. Britain placed strict limits on the number of Jews who could settle in the British Mandatory Palestine. Canada and France said that they had already reached saturation point with refugees. Australia still had the “White Australia Policy”, and the Australian delegate claimed, “as we have no real racial problem, we are not desirous of importing one by encouraging any scheme of large-scale foreign migration”.

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The start of World War II KEY

NORWAY Leningrad

Greater Germany and Occupied Territories SWEDEN

Germany Allies or Dependent States

DENMARK

Neutral

NORTH SEA

At war with Germany 0

1000 km

UNITED KINGDOM

Berlin

GREATER GERMANY

Moscow

SOVIET UNION

Bialystok Warsaw GENERAL Rovno GOVERNMENT Lvov SLOVAKIA Budapest Odessa HUNGARY

SA D I M GI PL T A E L C -O H N AP L Y TE R S

London

NETHERLANDS

Riga

BALTIC SEA

ATLANTIC OCEAN

BELGIUM LUXEMBOURG Paris FRANCE SWITZERLAND

Vichy Unoccupied zone

ITALY

YUGOSLAVIA

ROMANIA Bucharest BULGARIA

Rome

PORTUGAL

BLACK SEA

Sofia

SPAIN

TURKEY

GREECE

MOROCCO

ALGERIA

TUNISIA

MEDITERRANEAN SEA

SYRIA

➜

Source 8.5.4 German occupation of Europe, 1940

On 1 September 1939, Germany invaded Poland. A devastating campaign followed with the German strategy of Blitzkrieg (“lightning war”). Blitzkrieg was characterised by surprise, speed and an overwhelming display of military force. The Polish forces, outnumbered and out-gunned, put up a ferocious defence but on 17 September another blow struck – the Soviet Union, having recently signed a pact with the Nazis, invaded Poland from the east. On 27 September, Poland surrendered, and the unlikely combination of communist USSR and fascist Germany divided the country between them.

Ghettoisation in Poland

For the Polish Jewish people this was a disaster. Poland had the biggest Jewish population in Europe in 1939: more than three million. Of those, 61 per cent were in the German-occupied and annexed regions, with 1 269 000 Jews in the Nazi-administered Generalgouvernement (General Government) area. Before the Polish surrender had even taken place, the Nazis were sending instructions for the Jewish people of Poland to be forced into specific areas.

Activity 8.5.2

➜

Source analysis

Source 8.5.5 Regional and district Gestapo headquarters receive orders regarding the Jews. I. The first preliminary measure for achieving the final goal is the concentration of the Jews from the countryside in the larger cities. It must be speedily implemented. Digital-only sample chapters • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Clarke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78794-9 • (03) 8671 1400

8.5 Radicalisation from Kristallnacht to ghettoisation, 1938–1940

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… As a matter of principle, Jewish communities of under 500 are to be dissolved and transferred to the nearest concentration city. […] II. Councils of Jewish Elders 1.

SA D I M GI PL T A E L C -O H N AP L Y TE R S

A Council of Jewish Elders is to be established in every Jewish community, which as far as possible is to be created from the leading persons and rabbis. Up to 24 male Jews […] are to belong to the Council of Elders. […] … The reason to be given for the concentration of the Jews in the cities is that Jews have played a major part in the ambushes and plundering.

… The concentration of the Jews in the cities will probably necessitate, for general considerations of security, regulations banning the Jews from certain parts of the city, forbidding them to leave the ghetto – though always bearing economic considerations in mind, forbidding them to go out after a certain hour in the evening, etc. […] III. […] 5.

It must be ensured that the economic exploitation of the occupied territories does not suffer as a result of these measures. 1.

Above all, consideration must be given to the needs of the Army, e.g. it will hardly be possible to avoid leaving commercial Jews behind here and there […] However, in these cases, the attempt must be made … to aryanise these businesses as soon as possible and to catch up on the emigration of these Jews.

Reinhard Heydrich, Instructions to regional and district Gestapo headquarters, 21 September 1939

Why do you think that the Nazis wanted to move Jewish populations into the cities?

Explain what II.4 tells you about the role of deception in Nazi methods.

Explain what is physically created by these instructions.

Compare this document and persecution of Jews in the Middle Ages. What similarities do you see?

Historical concepts: Continuity and change, Cause and effect Historical skills: Analysis and use of sources, Perspectives and interpretations

Across occupied Poland, thousands of soldiers, transport workers and administrators began to impose Nazi plans upon the Jews. Forced labour was introduced for Jews in the General Government area from 26 October 1939. On 23 November, a decree stated that: “All Jews and Jewesses resident in the General Government and more than ten years old must wear on the right sleeve of their clothes and outer garments a white strip at least 10 cm wide with a star of David upon it”. To add further insult, Jewish families had to obtain the materials for these bands and make them themselves.

• Open ghettos: Jewish people were confined to an area without specific fencing. • Closed ghettos: Fences, walls and gates confined Jewish people to small areas, with minimal food, water and sanitation. • Destruction ghettos: Short-term sealing in of Jews into specific neighbourhoods (e.g. for two weeks) until they were transported to a concentration camp.

Source 8.5.6 Jewish businessman wearing a Star of David badge, 1941 ➜

The concentration of Jewish populations in cities, which Heydrich had instructed in September 1939, was known as “ghettoisation”. The main forms this would take were:

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Within a ghetto, the SS appointed some captives to serve in a Jewish police force, to keep order. They also created Judenräte, or Jewish Councils, which tried to organise basic services, but were forced to implement all Nazi policies. Ultimately, ghettos were “liquidated”, which meant emptied, with Jews being sent to concentration camps. Nazi officials demanded that Jewish Councils provide the Nazis with lists of victims to be deported by train to concentration camps. KEY Ghettos established 1939-May 1941

DENMARK

SWEDEN (Neutral)

Ghettos established June 1941-1943 NORTH SEA Ghettos established 1944

Riga

Liepaja Siauliai

SA D I M GI PL T A E L C -O H N AP L Y TE R S

BALTIC SEA

Dvinsk

Kovno

Mogilev

Minsk

German Ally

Bialystok

GENERAL GOVERNMENT

Liberated/Allies

500 km NETHERLANDS

GREATER GERMANY

Theresienstadt

BELGIUM

Gomel

Lida

Grodno

German-occupied

Wilno

Warsaly

Łódź

Lublin

Czestochowa

Kielce

Kraków

Łachwa

Brest-Litevsk

Kovel

Rovno

Tarnow

PROTECTORATE OF BOHEMIA AND MORAVIA

Pinsk

Lwów

Stry

Chortkov

Mogilev-Podolski SLOVAKIA Kolomyia Kosice Chernovtsv Miskoic Uzhgorod Kishinev HUNGARY Dej Budapest Kherson Cluj Szeged Odessa Kaposvar Tirgu-Mures

FRANCE

SWITZERLAND (Neutral)

ITALY

ROMANIA

CROATIA

BLACK SEA

SERBIA

BULGARIA

Corsica

MEDITERRANEAN SEA Sardinia

OCCUPIED EASTERN TERRITORY

Salonika

Front Line January 1944

GREECE

TURKEY

➜

Source 8.5.7 Major Jewish ghettos, 1939–44

Nazis claimed that ghettos, or “Jewish residential districts”, quarantined Jews to protect non-Jews. Waldemar Schön, Head of Resettlement Division of the Warsaw District, issued instructions on 2 October 1942 that “the German Army and population must at all costs be protected from the immune bacillus-carrier of the plague – the Jew”. One of the first ghettos was in the city of Łódź (pronounced “Woodge”), a textiles city in central Poland, where Jewish residents made up one-third of the population. Nazis used many of the 250 000 Jewish men, women and children as labour in Łódź to manufacture goods. For this reason, it was the last ghetto to be liquidated. More than 40 000 Jews would die in the Łódź ghetto from starvation, malnutrition and disease related to deprivation and poor sanitation.

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8.5 Radicalisation from Kristallnacht to ghettoisation, 1938–1940

The Jews were trapped. The punishment for escape from the ghettos was death, as ordered by Hans Franck, 15 October 1941: “Jews who leave the residential district assigned to them without permission will be punished by death. The same punishment will be meted out to persons who wilfully give refuge to such Jews.”

➜

SA D I M GI PL T A E L C -O H N AP L Y TE R S

The biggest ghetto was in the Polish capital, Warsaw. Developed in October 1940, at its greatest population the ghetto squeezed more than 450 000 people into an area smaller than four square kilometres. Those in the Warsaw ghetto had to survive on 300 calories a day, less than one-fifth the minimum recommended caloric intake for adults, and there was limited heating, poor sanitation and overcrowded housing. By 1941, thousands were dying in the ghetto every month. Over the course of the war, more than 500 000 people died of starvation and disease in the Polish ghettos.

853

Source 8.5.8 Two children in the Warsaw ghetto

➜

Source 8.5.9 Jewish people crossing the bridge that connected two sections of the Łódź Ghetto, February 1941. The bridge separated the captives from non-Jewish Germans and Poles travelling beneath. Digital-only sample chapters • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Clarke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78794-9 • (03) 8671 1400

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Review 8.5 Online quiz

Knowledge and understanding

Thinking and researching

Students can access sample responses and results

Teachers can go online to assign questions, view results, reports and more!

Knowledge and understanding 1. 2. 3.

SA D I M GI PL T A E L C -O H N AP L Y TE R S

Identify where the two biggest ghettos in Poland were. Describe what the Nazi plans for the Jews were prior to mid-1941. Why did the Nazi regime decide to form ghettos in Poland? Why do you think the Nazis created the Judenräte? Describe what you think were the key features of life in the ghettos of Poland. Explain why the Nazis wanted all Jewish people to emigrate. Explain why Kristallnacht was such a significant event, using the terms “perpetrator”, “victim” and “bystander”.

6. 7.

Thinking and researching

Discuss the extent to which you think that people outside of Germany were aware of how isolated the Jewish community had become from the rest of Germany in the 1930s.

After the events of Kristallnacht, there were protests around the world, including in Australia. In Melbourne, the Australian Aborigines’ League met to discuss ways to support German Jews. They empathised with the Jewish people’s suffering, because their people were also experiencing discrimination.

➜

Source 8.5.10 Resolution of the Australian Aborigines League, December 1938

… voicing on behalf of the Aborigines of Australia a strong protest against the cruel persecution of the Jewish people by the Nazi government of Germany, and asking that this persecution be brought to an end. … Like the Jews, our people have suffered much cruelty, exploitation and misunderstanding as a minority at the hands of another race.

Australian Aborigines League, Resolution, December 1938

According to oral tradition, the League’s 78-year-old founder, William Cooper, decided to lead a deputation to deliver a copy of the protest, on foot, to the German Consulate in central Melbourne.

Your task is to write a piece comparing the persecution of the Jewish population in Germany and the experiences of the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples in Australia. Investigate this topic using the research questions:

• What conditions allowed discrimination or persecution to occur? • How did government policies shape the lives of each population? • What rights and freedoms were taken away from people? How did that affect their daily lives? • How were the harmful effects propagated by the country’s unaffected population? • What role did propaganda and media campaigns play in the public attitudes towards the victims? • List a way that the affected people resisted the ongoing discrimination. • Without assuming that their experiences were the same, summarise the key similarities and differences between the two populations.

Historical concepts: Cause and effect, Significance, Contestability Historical skills: Comprehension, Research, Communication

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8.6 The move towards the “Final Solution”

8.6

855

The move towards the “Final Solution”

Success criteria

In this lesson, you will learn about the stages of escalation that led to the Nazi plan known as the “Final Solution”.

❏ I can identify key events and actions taken between 1939 and 1942, particularly on the Eastern Front, that eventually led to the Final Solution. ❏ I can explain what the Nazis meant by the Final Solution.

SA D I M GI PL T A E L C -O H N AP L Y TE R S

Learning intention

Starter activity

Consider the prompt: “Extreme policies emerge through small incremental changes rather than one big decision.” Think, pair, share

• Think about the prompt. Do you agree or disagree with it? Justify your response. • Pair up with a nearby student. Discuss with them what they think and present your own reasoning for or against the prompt.

• Prepare to share your discussion with the class.

War in the East

In June 1941, Germany invaded the Soviet Union, in Operation Barbarossa. This opened up an “Eastern Front” of the war, and put into action Nazi Germany’s goal of conquering the western Soviet Union, so as to repopulate it with Germans.

The invading army regarded the conquered people as racially inferior to Germans, and potential slave labour for the Axis war effort. This placed strain on the Nazi regime as they took more prisoners of war and had to maintain an extremely costly war effort to Germany’s east. Also, there was a huge increase in the number of victims of the Nazi regime. Soviet civilians were deliberately cut off from their food supply and starved. Specialised killing squads, called Einsatzgruppen, followed the invading soldiers. They were sent in to occupied lands with a specific task: to target Jewish people for mass shootings. Operation Barbarossa, therefore, is regarded as a turning point in the escalation of the Holocaust.

As the Nazi regime began to realise how difficult it was to manage ghettos and how impossible it was during wartime to deport Jews outside of Europe, the “solution” to the “Jewish Question” radicalised into a plan of deliberate extermination. This extreme “solution” meant genocide.

Operation Barbarossa code name for the German invasion of the USSR, 22 June 1941

Einsatzgruppen special SS units whose role was to execute conquered citizens, particularly Jews

genocide the intentional act of destroying an entire group of people on the basis of their race, nationality or religion

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DOC

Extension 8.6.1 Operation Barbarossa

Operation Barbarossa was the largest military operation in human history, and while initially successful for the Germans, it stalled in 1942. By that time, German forces had made their way deeply into Soviet territory, and the Nazis had control over the local populations.

Mobile killing units

SA D I M GI PL T A E L C -O H N AP L Y TE R S

The deliberate extermination of the Jewish population was an important part of the Nazi invasion of the Soviet Union from the beginning. Writing focus 8.6 Developing sentences

On 2 July 1941, Reinhard Heydrich issued instructions regarding the operations of the Einsatzgruppen. The order listed who should be executed, which included all Communist Party officials, “Jews in the service of the Party or State”, and other “extremist” elements. Witnesses later clarified that Heydrich had already directed that all Jews found on Soviet territory – which could have included up to five million people – should be exterminated. KEY

FINLAND

Operation Barbarossa, 1941

Areas of fierce fighting

Leningrad

Front line, Dec. 1941

250

500 km

Moscow

BALTIC SEA

Vyazma

EAST PRUSSIA Bialystok

POLAND

Operation Barbarossa launched 22 June, 1941

Orsha

Smolensk

Minsk

Bryansk

Union of Soviet Socialist Republics

Kiev

GERMANY

SLOVAKIA

Uman

Donets Basin

HUNGARY

Rostov

Crimea

ROMANIA

BLACK SEA

➜

Source 8.6.1 German invasion of the USSR, 1941

Mass shootings were barbaric. Heinrich Himmler, commander of the SS, had reportedly nearly fainted during a mass shooting near Minsk in August 1941, because he was unprepared for the level of atrocity. Senior Nazis wanted the “Final Solution” to be more clinical and to have less impact on those carrying it out.

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8.6 The move towards the “Final Solution”

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Activity 8.6.1 Source analysis ➜

Source 8.6.2 Extract from the testimony of a German builder, Hermann Graebe, in Nuremberg, 1945. During the war, Graebe was located in Ukraine in the USSR. About 1500 persons had been killed daily. All of the 5000 Jews who had still been living in Dubno before the pogrom were to be liquidated. ...

SA D I M GI PL T A E L C -O H N AP L Y TE R S

I saw near it great mounds of earth, about 30 meters long and 2 meters high. Several trucks stood in front of the mounds. Armed Ukrainian militia drove the people off the trucks under the supervision of an SS-man. ...

All these people had the regulation yellow patches on the front and back of their clothes, and thus could be recognized as Jews. ...

The people who had got off the trucks – men, women, and children of all ages – had to undress upon the order of an SS-man, who carried a riding or dog whip. ...

I well remember a girl, slim and with black hair, who, as she passed close to me, pointed to herself and said, “23”. I walked around the mound, and found myself confronted by a tremendous grave. People were closely wedged together and lying on top of each other so that only their heads were visible. Nearly all had blood running over their shoulders from their heads. Some of the people shot were still moving. ...

I looked for the man who did the shooting. He was an SS-man, who sat at the edge of the narrow end of the pit, his feet dangling into the pit. He had a tommy gun on his knees and was smoking a cigarette. The people, completely naked, went down some steps which were cut in the clay wall of the pit and clambered over the heads of the people lying there, to the place to which the SS-man directed them. They lay down in front of the dead or injured people; some caressed those who were still alive and spoke to them in a low voice. Then I heard a series of shots. ...

When I walked back, round the mound I noticed another truckload of people which had just arrived. ...

Hermann Graebe, 13 November 1945, written testimony at the Nuremberg Trials; Harvard Law School, Nuremburg Trials Project

How useful is Source 8.6.2 to a historian as evidence of the actions of perpetrators?

How useful is Source 8.6.2 to a historian as evidence of the impacts on victims?

Historical concepts: Perspectives, Significance Historical skills: Analysis and use of sources, Perspectives and interpretations

The Final Solution

In late 1941, it became clear that the Holocaust in occupied eastern Europe was developing in a new and more deadly form. Mobile killing squads were highly effective at committing mass murder in shootings, but the Nazis began to design more industrial and efficient solutions. This led to the first “death camps”, in occupied Poland, which experimented with other methods of mass murder.

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Reinhard Heydrich, a high-ranking SS officer responsible for Reich security, sent invitations to “experts”, asking them to attend a conference at a house in Wannsee, Berlin. They were to meet because, as a member of the German Foreign Office said, “The Jewish Question must be resolved in the course of the war, for only so can it be solved without a worldwide outcry.” The “Final Solution” was to be decided.

Historical debates on the Final Solution

SA D I M GI PL T A E L C -O H N AP L Y TE R S

Because the Holocaust is so difficult to comprehend, it is a highly studied and frequently debated period in history. Some key questions which historians and students ask are:

• • • • • •

Why and when did the “Final Solution” radicalise, into planned mass murder? Who gave the order for the Final Solution? How was it humanly possible for ordinary people to perpetrate mass murder? Why did so few bystanders try to save the victims? How much did the outside world know about the Holocaust while it was happening? Why did the Allies not bomb concentration camps?

One debate between Holocaust historians focuses on why the “Final Solution” radicalised into planned mass murder. Christopher Browning argues that the Nazi decision to solve the “Jewish Question” by the complete destruction of all European Jews was inspired by the “euphoria” of imminent victory that accompanied the first few weeks of Operation Barbarossa in June 1941. As German troops made gains to the East, a thousand-year reign of the Nazis seemed possible, and this inspired a more urgent push for a radical “solution”. On the other hand, Ian Kershaw argues that the decision for the Final Solution was made closer to October 1941, and that the context for that decision was not euphoria, but fear. By late September, it looked likely that the German army was about to become bogged down in an unwinnable winter war on the Eastern Front. According to Kershaw, panic among the Nazi leadership led them to take extreme measures against the Jewish people living under Nazi rule.

➜

Source 8.6.3 A print from Nazi magazine, Signal, showing German infantrymen following a tank towards Moscow in the snow, 1941 Digital-only sample chapters • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Clarke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78794-9 • (03) 8671 1400

8.6 The move towards the “Final Solution”

➜

SA D I M GI PL T A E L C -O H N AP L Y TE R S

Another debate concerns who gave the order for the Final Solution. Was it Hitler’s personal order? One of the problems for historians is that during his reign, Hitler signed very few documents. Another problem is that many documents and other forms of evidence were destroyed as the war reached its closing days in 1945. Therefore, it is unsurprising that there are no documents tying Hitler directly to the decision that committed the Nazis to genocide. Instead, there are second-hand reports about Hitler approving aspects of the development of death camps, insisting that the process needed to speed up, discussing the courage of the men undertaking the task and so on.

859

Source 8.6.4 German soldiers with Russian prisoners, 1941

Arguably, it is more important to analyse what made it possible for highly educated senior Nazis to plan the extermination of a whole people, and how it was that “ordinary” people in Germany and German-occupied countries of Europe chose to participate in mass murder. Historian Daniel Goldhagen concluded that the perpetrators were driven “by a particular type of antisemitism that led them to conclude that the Jews ought to die,” not because they were forced to take part in the murders.

Review 8.6

Online quiz

Knowledge and understanding

Thinking and researching

Students can access sample responses and results

Teachers can go online to assign questions, view results, reports and more!

Knowledge and understanding 1.

Explain how the Holocaust escalated from persecution through laws to murder. Use what you have learned in this chapter in your response.

Discuss where and when the Nazis established ghettos, and why.

Describe how Nazi policies towards Jews changed in 1942.

Explain some of the differing historical interpretations of the Final Solution.

Thinking and researching

For this task: 1.

Start by writing down what you know about the word “euphemism”. Then, look up its definition and compare to your initial idea of it.

Once you have a good idea of what a euphemism is, identify three to five common euphemisms that you have heard of. Write them down and indicate what the euphemism is for.

Now, research how euphemisms were used by Nazis to disguise the atrocities committed during The Holocaust. List five to 10 euphemisms that were used by Nazis and discuss how euphemisms were used to conceal the reality of the genocide that was taking place.

Historical concepts: Cause and effect, Significance Historical skills: Comprehension, Perspectives and interpretations, Research Digital-only sample chapters • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Clarke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78794-9 • (03) 8671 1400

860

Chapter 8 The Holocaust (1933–1945)

8.7

Labour and death camps

Success criteria

In this lesson, you will learn about the establishment and purpose of the labour and death camps and the horrors that took place inside them.

❏ I can explain the intention of the labour and death camps. ❏ I can identify three features of the labour and death camps that helped the Nazi regime achieve their goals.

SA D I M GI PL T A E L C -O H N AP L Y TE R S

Learning intention

Starter activity

See, think, wonder

Look at Source 8.7.1. 1.

What do you see? (I see...)

What does it make you think? (I think...)

What do you wonder? (I wonder...)

➜

Source 8.7.1 Germany, 5 May 1945: Some of the thousands of wedding rings removed from concentration camp victims to salvage the gold. US troops found piles of rings, watches, precious stones, eyeglasses and gold fillings near the Buchenwald concentration camp.

The nature of the Holocaust’s central feature – the deportation of victims to death camps where they were murdered by gas – was determined between October 1941 and March 1942. The system of camps was based on existing labour camps, where Jewish people and prisoners of war were forced to work to support the German war effort, and included death camps (Chelmno, Treblinka, Belzec and Sobibor) and combined workdeath camps (Auschwitz-Birkenau and Majdanek), where inmates would be gassed and cremated in vast numbers. The Wannsee Conference in January 1942 made Nazi genocidal intentions completely clear. Although the meeting did not decide on one specific method for perpetrating genocide, it declared that all the 11 million Jews remaining in Europe would be targeted, first for forced labour, and then for “special treatment”.

Aktion T4 involuntary euthanasia program in Germany, under which people with disabilities were killed, using gas

“Special treatment” was a Nazi euphemism for mass murder. For several months in 1941, poison gas killing technology borrowed from the Aktion T4 program was operating at Chelmno and was being tested in gas chambers at Belzec. By 15 January 1942, 6400 Jewish people and 4400 Roma and Sinti people had been killed in vans that operated as mobile gas chambers at Chelmno. In the same month, Jewish people from Upper East Silesia were gassed in Bunker 1 at Birkenau. Similarly, some victims were killed by engine fumes from exhaust pipes fed into a train carriage.

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8.7 Labour and death camps

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By March 1942, the system was using cattle trains to transport Jewish civilians from the ghettos to the camps. The German Transport Ministry managed a huge operation, for example to transport victims from Galicia and Lublin to Belzec; and from Warsaw to Treblinka. Ana Deleon, from the former Yugoslavia, who also later migrated to Sydney, remembered how terrified she was as a child on board a cattle car, as bystanders spat at the Jews inside and said, “Smelly Jew, you deserve it.”

SA D I M GI PL T A E L C -O H N AP L Y TE R S

The train carriages that were used to deport the prisoners were overfilled and little to no food or water was supplied. There was usually only a bucket to use as a toilet and, if they were lucky, a small, barred window for ventilation. Many people died from malnutrition, dehydration, suffocation and disease on the trains to the concentration camps. Jewish people were deported from German-occupied territories, and the territories of Germany’s allies. The fate of Jewish victims varied according to where they were:

• The collaborative Vichy government of France deported over 70 000 Jews to Poland. • From occupied Belgium, more than 65 000 Jews (two-thirds of the Jewish population) were deported. • German-allied Hungary refused to deport its 800 000 Jews until German troops occupied the country in March 1944. • German-allied Romania, which was never occupied, killed 350 000–400 000 of its 750 000-strong Jewish population, with little help or prompting from the Germans. • German-allied Bulgaria refused to deport any Jews and, as a result, saved the Bulgarian-Jewish population. However, it did deport over 11 000 Jews from Bulgarian-occupied territories (the majority of whom were murdered at Treblinka).

➜

Source 8.7.2 Jewish people being deported from Łódź Ghetto to the camp at Chelmno, occupied Poland, 1942

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Death camps in occupied Poland KEY

Writing focus 8.7 Transitional phrases

Extermination camp

LITHUANIA (1 Sep 1939)

Main city with ghetto Major concentration camp

Wilno Ponary

PROVINZ OSTPREUBEN Stutthof

SA D I M GI PL T A E L C -O H N AP L Y TE R S

REICHSGAU DANZIG-WESTPREUBEN

REICHSKOMMISSARIST OSTLAND (Dec 1941)

Grodno

Soldau

Nowogródek

Bialystok

Potulice

Bydgoszcz

Ciechanów

REICHSGAU WARTHELAND (POLAND)

BEZIRK BIALYSTOK (22 Jul 1941)

Cheimno

Warsaw

Sobibór

Radom

Lublin

Częstochowa

Kielce

Gross-Rosen

PROVINZ OBERSCHIESIEN

Bedzin

Trawniki

Lachwa

Pińsk

Majdanek

Lódź

PROVINZ NIEDERSCHLESIEN

Brześć

Sobibór

Sieradz

Bronna Góra

Kowel

REICHSKOMMISSARIST UKRAINE (1 Sep 1941) Luck

GENERAL GOVERNMENT (POLAND)

Belzec

Polonka

Kraków

Auschwitz-Birkenau

Lwów

Plaszów

Tarnopol

Zaslaw

DISTRICT GALIZIEN (1 Aug 1941)

CZECHOSLOVAKIA (29 Sep 1938)

Stanislawów

HUNGARY

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Source 8.7.3 The Holocaust in occupied Poland with arrows showing to which camps people were sent from different regions

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8.7 Labour and death camps

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Activity 8.7.1 Source analysis ➜

Source 8.7.4 In August 1942, an SS man responsible for delivering Zyklon B poison to camps, Kurt Gerstein, witnessed gassings at a death camp, Belzec, in eastern Poland. He was appalled and tried to inform diplomats and resistance movements. At the end of the war, he recorded what he had seen. He was so disturbed by what he witnessed that not long after he wrote this testimony, Gerstein committed suicide.

SA D I M GI PL T A E L C -O H N AP L Y TE R S

Then the procession started to move. With a lovely young girl at the front, they all walked along the path, all naked, men, women and children, without their artificial limbs. I stood with Hauptmann Wirth up on the ramp between the chambers. Mothers with their babies at the breast came up, hesitated then entered the death chambers. A sturdy SS man stood in the corner and told the wretched people in a clerical tone of voice :’ Nothing at all is going to happen to you! You must take a deep breath in the chambers. That expands the lungs. This inhalation is necessary because of illnesses and infection.’ ... This gave some of these poor people a glimmer of hope that lasted long enough for them to take the few steps into the chambers without resisting. The majority realised - the smell told them what their fate was to be. ... They hesitated, but they went into the gas chamber, pushed on by those behind them, or driven in by the leather whips of the SS. Most of them without saying a word. A Jewess of about 40, with eyes blazing, called down upon the heads of the murderers the blood being split here. Hauptmann Wirth personally gave her five or six lashes in the face with his riding whip. Then she too disappeared into the chamber. Many people were praying. I prayed with them.

Gerstein, K, 1945, Gerstein Report

What does the Gerstein report reveal about some perpetrators?

Historical concepts: Perspectives, Significance Historical skills: Analysis and use of sources, Perspectives and interpretations

Activity 8.7.2

Find a speech online by an Auschwitz survivor, either Elie Wiesel of the United States or Eddie Jaku of Sydney, and reflect on the survivor’s message. 1.

Does the speech help us understand what it felt like to be a victim?

Discuss the implications of the speech for the concept of “bystanders”.

Historical concepts: Perspectives, Significance Historical skills: Analysis and use of sources; Perspectives and interpretations

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Chapter 8 The Holocaust (1933–1945)

Auschwitz-Birkenau

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The concentration-death camp, Auschwitz-Birkenau, has come to constitute a portrait of the horror of the Holocaust. Its infamous gates with the sign reading “Arbeit Macht Frei” (“Work sets you free”) are a repugnant symbol of deception, death and despair. Auschwitz-Birkenau was constructed in 1940 and became the most extensive and ambitious of the Nazi camps. The camp covered nearly 47 sq km by the time it was liberated by the Russian Red Army in January 1945. It had facilities for prisoners forced to work in the nearby chemical plant of IG Farben as well as for those to be exterminated; it had farming areas for experiments in breeding animals and growing crops.

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Source 8.7.5 The gates of the Nazi concentration camp at Auschwitz, Poland. The sign says, “Arbeit Macht Frei” (“Work sets you free”). The commandant in charge of Auschwitz was Rudolf Höss who, before his execution after the war, recorded his memories of the camp, including the order he was given to prepare Auschwitz for the task of extermination.

The victims who survived the journey to Auschwitz, stepped from the train and were immediately separated – men from women, mothers from children, fit from unfit. Those who looked fit were stripped, shaved, tattooed with an identifying number, given striped uniforms and sent to labour. The rest were herded into large chambers to be “showered”, but instead of water, gas was pumped in. Their bodies were cremated.

Cremation is forbidden in Judaism; by burning the bodies of the Holocaust victims, the Nazis sought to desecrate Jewish spirituality and shatter their belief that they would pass on to a better place. The tattooing of prisoners when they arrived at Nazi camps was yet another way to degrade, humiliate and break the faith of the Jewish prisoners. Digital-only sample chapters • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Clarke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78794-9 • (03) 8671 1400

8.7 Labour and death camps

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Source 8.7.6 Lotte Weiss, photographed at Auschwitz. She survived and later became a Sydney Jewish Museum volunteer.

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SA D I M GI PL T A E L C -O H N AP L Y TE R S

Auschwitz was an expanding network of sub-camps and facilities, as the killing system became more efficient, particularly when connected by a railway line with the Birkenau complex, three kilometres from the main camp. By the middle of 1942, the gas chambers could kill 1200 people at a time. Four crematoria were built, but many victims were burned in pits. The gas chambers of Birkenau were used until late 1944. As the Nazis rushed to exterminate the Hungarian Jewish population before the Red Army approached, 9000 men, women and children were gassed and cremated during a single 24-hour period in mid-1944. Over a million people were killed at Auschwitz, approximately 960 000 of whom were Jews.

Source 8.7.7 Hungarian Jews arrive at Auschwitz, June 1944.

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Chapter 8 The Holocaust (1933–1945)

Historian Nikolaus Wachsmann says that the camps “embodied the spirit of Nazism like no other institution of the Third Reich”. Camps like Auschwitz-Birkenau had their own rules and systems, personnel and rituals. The men, women and children who passed through the camps were stripped of their humanity, their dignity and, more often than not, their lives. Those who survived lived with the trauma of their experiences for the remainder of their lives, scarred beyond imagining by what the Italian-Jewish survivor Primo Levi described as “the demolition of man”.

Teachers can go online to assign questions, view results, reports and more!

SA D I M GI PL T A E L C -O H N AP L Y TE R S

Review 8.7 Knowledge and understanding

Online quiz

Thinking and researching

Students can access sample responses and results

Knowledge and understanding 1.

Identify where gas technology was first used in the killing of victims.

Explain how the “Final Solution” to the “Jewish Question” was designed, sealing the fate of millions of people.

Given all the testimonies, Nazi and Jewish, that you have read and watched throughout this section, consider the following questions:

a. Explain what makes these testimonies useful sources for Holocaust historians. b. Explain what kinds of limitations a historian would have to be aware of when dealing with such testimonies. c. Would you approach the testimony of a perpetrator in a different way to the testimony of a victim or survivor? Explain your reasons.

Thinking and researching 1.

Compare the function of a labour or concentration camp with the functions of death or extermination camps by researching examples of each, to fill out the table below.

Labour/concentration camp

Death/extermination camp

Main purpose

Prisoner make-up (per cent Jews vs others)

Key features

Conditions of the prisoners

Outcome for the prisoners (how many survived?)

List two examples of such camps

Historical concepts: Perspectives, Significance Historical skills: Comprehension, Perspectives and interpretations, Research

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8.8 Resistance to and development of the Holocaust

8.8

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Resistance to and development of the Holocaust Success criteria

In this lesson, you will learn about the ways that Jewish and non-Jewish people tried to resist the Holocaust.

❏ I can describe different types of Jewish resistance to the Holocaust. ❏ I can identify three examples of Jewish defiance of the Nazis.

SA D I M GI PL T A E L C -O H N AP L Y TE R S

Learning intention

Starter activity

See, think, wonder

Look at Source 8.8.1. 1.

What do you see? (I see...)

What does it make you think? (I think...)

What do you wonder? (I wonder...)

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Source 8.8.1 German soldiers pointing their weapons at women and children during the suppression of the Warsaw Ghetto Uprising.

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Chapter 8 The Holocaust (1933–1945)

Resistance in the Warsaw ghetto

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Writing focus 8.8 Creating topic sentences

It is extraordinary that hundreds of thousands of victims survived the appalling conditions of a ghetto when, for most people, this was the first step towards death at the hands of the Nazis. There were many acts of bravery and resistance. Children smuggled food through cracks in walls; rabbis held religious services in hidden rooms; choirs and reading groups bolstered morale; Jewish teachers established classes for children to maintain their schooling. In Vilna, a secret library operated to share thousands of books; in Warsaw, Jewish doctors recorded ground-breaking scientific observations of the effects of starvation on victims’ bodies, including their own; witness testimonies of what the Nazis were doing were secretly gathered and buried, to be uncovered after the war. Resistance was also sometimes armed. In the Warsaw Ghetto, as deportations increased, several attempts were made to organise a rebellion, using underground bunkers, sewer networks and smuggled weapons. For a month in April–May 1943, the Jewish Military Union (led by Paweł Frenkiel) and the Jewish Fighting Organisation (led by Mordechai Anielewicz) revolted in the “Warsaw Ghetto Uprising”, a celebrated act of resistance against Nazi control which stifled Nazi efforts to liquidate the ghetto. The uprising claimed the lives of several hundred German soldiers and only ended when the smuggled weapons ran out and the Nazis burned the entire ghetto, dynamiting the Great Synagogue of Warsaw.

Activity 8.8.1

On the USC Shoah Foundation site (https://cambridge.edu.au/redirect/12056) find the testimony of one survivor of the Warsaw ghetto. Use their testimony to answer the following questions: 1.

Describe what life like was like in the Warsaw ghetto.

Explain what happened there during April and May in 1943.

Historical concepts: Perspectives, Significance Historical skills: Analysis and use of sources, Perspectives and interpretations

Prisoner uprisings

The death-camp uprisings at Treblinka and Sobibor, along with the mutiny at Auschwitz, were extraordinary acts of resistance carried out by prisoners who understood that escape was their only chance for survival. At Treblinka in August 1943, prisoners secretly acquired weapons from the camp armoury and set buildings on fire, triggering a mass breakout; although many were killed during the escape or in later manhunts, roughly 70 survivors ultimately lived through the war, and the revolt crippled camp operations. Two months later, in October 1943, prisoners at Sobibor organised an even more coordinated revolt, assassinating several SS officers, cutting communications, and breaking through the perimeter; around 300 prisoners escaped, though many were recaptured, and the Germans soon closed and dismantled the camp to conceal evidence of their crimes.

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8.8 Resistance to and development of the Holocaust

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SA D I M GI PL T A E L C -O H N AP L Y TE R S

At Auschwitz-Birkenau, a revolt in October 1944 was led by members of the Sonderkommando who blew up Crematorium IV using gunpowder smuggled into the camp by women working in a munitions factory. Although the revolt was suppressed and its leaders executed, the act stands as one of the most significant examples of armed resistance inside Auschwitz, and it damaged a key killing facility.

Source 8.8.2 Surviving members of the Sobibor revolt pictured in 1944, pictured with their liberating Soviet officer (in military uniform). ➜

Together, these uprisings did not halt the genocide, but they demonstrated remarkable courage and disrupted Nazi operations, leaving a lasting historical testament to resistance in the face of systematic extermination.

The hiding of Jews

During the Holocaust, a small proportion of Jewish people found places of refuge across Europe, and some people sympathetic to Jews performed brave acts to help fight for their survival. These acts ranged in scale but included efforts by coordinated resistance groups as well as concerned friends, family and allies of Jewish people. Strategies to protect Jews included providing Jews with false identification documents so they could continue to live and work as non-Jewish citizens, the smuggling of Jews out of Nazi-occupied countries to safer nations, and the hiding of Jews in physical hiding places such as attics or basements, or the hiding of Jews within institutional settings such as Catholic convents, monasteries, or orphanages.

Sonderkommando Nazi death camp prisoners forced to work in the crematoria of Auschwitz-Birkenau

The most famous example of the hiding of Jewish people during the war is the story of Anne Frank. Anne Frank and her family, who lived in Amsterdam, went into hiding in July 1942, when rising Nazi persecution made it unsafe for Jews in the Netherlands to remain visible. Anne, who had recently turned 13, brought with her the diary she had received for her birthday – an object that quickly became her emotional anchor. The Franks hid in a concealed space behind Anne’s father’s office on Prinsengracht, a place she soon referred to simply as the “Secret Annex”. With the van Pels family and later Fritz Pfeffer joining them, eight people shared this cramped, window-darkened refuge.

Source 8.8.3 Anne Frank (1929–1945) was one of the most famous victims of the Holocaust due to her popular diary, written during her years hiding from the Nazis ➜

Daily life was dominated by silence and fear; during office hours they could not make noise, and they lived in constant awareness that discovery could come at any moment. The tension of confinement often weighed heavily on Anne, who wrote that she felt she had “a bundle of contradictions” inside her and who longed for fresh air and freedom, describing herself as “like a songbird whose wings have been clipped”.

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Chapter 8 The Holocaust (1933–1945)

SA D I M GI PL T A E L C -O H N AP L Y TE R S

Despite the stifling routine, Anne found meaning through reading, studying and especially writing. Her diary became a place where she processed her fears, frustrations and hopes. She recorded the monotony of meals, the arguments among the adults, her changing relationship with her parents, and her developing feelings for Peter van Pels. At the same time, she maintained a determination to find light amid darkness, once declaring, “Where there’s hope, there’s life”. Writing helped her maintain a sense of identity; she dreamed not just of survival but of becoming a journalist and author, convinced that she wanted to “go on living even after my death”. These brief lines reveal how she sought purpose in a world that had forcibly stripped away nearly everything familiar. The Annex remained undetected for more than two years, until 4 August 1944, when Dutch police and German officers raided the hiding place. The group was arrested and eventually deported – first to the Westerbork transit camp, and then to Auschwitz on the final transport to leave the Netherlands. Conditions in the camps were brutal. Anne and her sister Margot were later moved to Bergen-Belsen, where overcrowding, starvation and disease were rampant. In early 1945, both girls died – most likely of typhus – just weeks before the camp’s liberation. Their mother had died earlier in Auschwitz, and their father Otto Frank was the only member of the Secret Annex to survive the war.

After returning to Amsterdam, Otto received Anne’s diary from Miep Gies, one of the trusted helpers who had saved it after the arrest. Reading his daughter’s words, he discovered the depth of her insight and resilience. When her diary was eventually published in 1947, Anne’s voice reached the world. Her brief lines such as “I still believe that people are really good at heart” continue to resonate across generations, not because they erase the horror she endured, but because they affirm her extraordinary courage and humanity.

Review 8.8 Online quiz

Knowledge and understanding

Thinking and researching

Students can access sample responses and results

Teachers can go online to assign questions, view results, reports and more!

Knowledge and understanding 1.

Describe the events of the Warsaw Ghetto uprising. Why was it significant?

Identify three examples of Jewish prisoner uprisings in Nazi death camps.

Describe some of the ways Jewish people were hidden during World War II.

Explain the story of Anne Frank. Why is she a role model to so many people today?

Evaluate the role you think resistance had in the ghettos.

Thinking and researching 1.

Read Anne Frank’s diary, and create a presentation about her life and the events described in her diary.

Historical concepts: Cause and effect, Perspectives, Significance Historical skills: Comprehension, Perspectives and interpretations

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8.9 Impacts of the Holocaust on Jewish people

8.9

871

Impacts of the Holocaust on Jewish people Success criteria

In this lesson, you will learn about some of the short-term and long-term impacts of the Holocaust on Jewish people.

❏ I can describe the key events that took place when Nazi Germany was liberated. ❏ I can explain how the Nazis attempted to achieve the Final Solution in the final year of the war. ❏ I can explain how the Jewish communities in Europe and around the world were affected by the Holocaust. ❏ I can identify two challenges Holocaust survivors faced after the war.

SA D I M GI PL T A E L C -O H N AP L Y TE R S

Learning intention

Starter activity

See, think, wonder

Look at Source 8.9.1. 1.

What do you see? (I see...)

What does it make you think? (I think...)

What do you wonder? (I wonder...)

➜

Source 8.9.1 27 January 1945: A group of child survivors stand behind a barbed wire fence at the Auschwitz-Birkenau concentration camp, in southern Poland, on the day of the camp’s liberation by the Russian Army. This photo was taken by Russian Army photographer Captain Alexander Vorontsov, and includes the sisters Eva and Marta Weiss, who later migrated to Melbourne. Digital-only sample chapters • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Clarke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78794-9 • (03) 8671 1400

872

Chapter 8 The Holocaust (1933–1945)

Liberation

SA D I M GI PL T A E L C -O H N AP L Y TE R S

Liberation from the Nazi killing system only came with the defeat of the German army. By the end of 1943, the Nazis were waging a war on two fronts, against the two biggest industrial nations in the world – the United States and the USSR. On 6 June 1944, 156 000 Allied soldiers landed on the Normandy coast on “D” Day, beginning the liberation of Nazi-occupied France. The largest Soviet counter-offensive, Operation Bagration, began on 22 June 1944, and territory lost to Germany was recovered as the Red Army made their way to Berlin. On 25 April 1945, US and Soviet soldiers met on the River Elbe and divided the remnants of the Third Reich between them. Five days later, Hitler committed suicide in his bunker in Berlin. On 8 May 1945, Germany issued an unconditional surrender. As the Allies moved closer, the SS had been closing hundreds of camps, destroying evidence, and forcing hundreds of thousands of victims to evacuate. When Soviet forces encountered Belzec, Sobibor and Treblinka during the summer of 1944, they found the camps already dismantled. Only Majdanek, which had been hastily abandoned, was largely intact. However, in January 1945, over 700 000 prisoners remained in camps.

Writing focus 8.9 The language of source analysis

Many camp evacuations involved death marches, and starvation and disease were rampant. Those who were transported away from the advancing Allied armies on trains faced dire conditions too. Between January and May 1945, some 300 000 prisoners died: in camps, during death marches and evacuations, in tightly crammed train carriages, in forests, from illness, from exhaustion, or shot by SS officers. In some places, inmates were murdered by locals who were fearful that survivors might seek revenge.

On the afternoon of 27 January 1945, Soviet troops reached the Auschwitz main camp.

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Source 8.9.2 Former prisoners of Buchenwald camp, 16 April 1945, shortly after liberation. They slept three to a wooden bunk. Author Elie Wiesel, who would later win the Nobel Peace Prize, is pictured in the second row of bunks, seventh from the left.

When Allied troops entered the camps, they discovered scenes of unimaginable horror. Even in camps that had been deserted and dismantled, naked corpses lay in piles. Malnourished survivors were described by liberators as “living skeletons”, on the verge of death and too weak to move. By the time Bergen-Belsen was liberated, the camp had been without water for six days, and the stench of rotting human flesh and excrement could be detected five kilometres away. Despite Allied efforts to offer aid and relief, more than 13 000 of the people liberated from Bergen-Belsen died in the days after liberation, as did half the prisoners who had been discovered alive in Auschwitz, because they had lost the ability to digest properly.

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8.9 Impacts of the Holocaust on Jewish people

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Displaced persons

SA D I M GI PL T A E L C -O H N AP L Y TE R S

The end of the war brought new hardships in the challenge to resettle and rebuild. The war displaced over seven million people in the Western zone of occupation alone. To cope with the vast number of displaced persons (DPs) who had no means to return to their homes, and the two million refugees who refused repatriation out of fear, Allies set up DP camps across Austria, Italy and Germany. Conditions in the camps were often poor, and until early 1946, when separate Jewish DP camps were established, Jewish survivors sometimes found themselves housed with Nazi perpetrators and collaborators. Many faced a long and arduous journey. In his book The Truce, Primo Levi famously described having to travel by foot, train and horse cart to Kraków, then to Katowice and, over the course of many months and multiple DP camps, onwards through Ukraine, Belarus, Starve Dorogi, Hungary, Slovakia, Austria and Germany, before finally reaching his home town of Turin in Italy.

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Source 8.9.3 Jewish refugees at the Poppendorf camp in northern Germany, September 1947

Many Holocaust survivors returned to their hometowns to find rubble where their houses had been, or that neighbours had settled in their “abandoned” property. Going home was a risk, as much of the population had been so indoctrinated that even after the war had ended, some Jewish survivors continued to face antisemitic hostility and violence. In July 1946 in Kielce, Poland, 42 Holocaust survivors were murdered and another 40 were wounded by local people on the basis of a false rumour that Jews had kidnapped Christian children.

The “lucky” survivors were able to reside in their pre-war homes for a short while until they were able to emigrate. The prospect of prosperity in the United States and the ancient and spiritual connection to the land in British Mandatory Palestine made these places the most popular destinations for Jewish refugees, but annual immigration quotas left many waiting in DP camps for years. Immigration to the Mandatory Palestine, then under British control, was heavily restricted between 1945 and 1948, so much so that ships with thousands of Jewish Holocaust survivors on board attempting to enter the territory were often captured and brought to detention camps. While many survivors failed to make it in, significant numbers of Jewish refugees managed to enter Mandatory Palestine despite the strict immigration policies. For these survivors, the land represented an ancient, national and personal homeland that promised safety and security for Jews. From 29 November 1947 until 10 March 1949, war broke out as Holocaust survivors and other Zionists fought to establish the modern state of Israel.

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Chapter 8 The Holocaust (1933–1945)

The state of Israel was declared in May 1948 and Holocaust survivors and Jews from around the world were welcomed as citizens of the new state. Many DP camps were then able to close, although the last Jewish DP camp in Germany did not close until 1957.

SA D I M GI PL T A E L C -O H N AP L Y TE R S

More than 31 000 Holocaust survivors rebuilt their shattered lives in Australia. On a per capita basis, no other country outside the state of Israel welcomed more Holocaust survivors. Many survivors tried to recover from their trauma by avoiding ever speaking of their experiences. Some, eventually, felt that it was their moral obligation to share their experiences with the public in order to combat Holocaust denial and to teach younger generations about the dangers of hatred, racism and indifference. They established Holocaust museums in Melbourne in 1984 and in Sydney in 1992. Eddie Jaku, who made his way to Sydney in 1950, vowed never to set foot on German soil again. He lived to be 101 and kept his vow.

Legacies of the Holocaust

shtetl a Jewish town or village in Eastern Europe

After the Holocaust, there was a terrible vacuum in Europe: Where there had once been thriving Jewish communities, little was left. The communities and traditions destroyed by the Holocaust have not been replaced in the towns, shtetls and cities where they had originally developed.

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Source 8.9.4 A world lost forever: 1893 painting by Isaak Asknaziy, showing a Jewish wedding in a Russian shtetl.

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8.9 Impacts of the Holocaust on Jewish people

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The Nazis were defeated before they could achieve their goal of a “Final Solution”. However, the Holocaust altered the fabric of Jewish life and culture forever. In 1939, Jewish people made up nearly 9.5 per cent of the Polish population. Today they make up less than one per cent. The Nazis destroyed nearly 1000 years of Polish Jewish history in the space of a couple of years. The victims of the Holocaust were mostly the Jewish people of Eastern Europe, who spoke Yiddish. Before the Holocaust, over 6.5 million people spoke, read and sang in Yiddish throughout the world, with the majority being in eastern and central Europe. In recent years, their numbers have amounted only to hundreds of thousands. The language was virtually extinct, but has been kept alive in communities in North America and Israel. In Australia, Melbourne has a very rich Yiddish-cultural scene centred around the Kadimah Jewish Cultural Centre & National Library and even a Yiddish-language primary school.

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The international community responded to the Holocaust after the end of World War II with a vow, “Never Again”. International initiatives that may be regarded as legacies of the Holocaust include:

• The establishment of the United Nations in 1945, to maintain international peace and security and promote and encourage respect for human rights and freedoms • Recognising genocide and crimes against humanity in international courts, beginning with the Nuremberg trials of 177 Nazi officers in 1945–1946 • The adoption of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in 1948 • The admission of Israel as a member state of the United Nations in 1949.

Activity 8.9.1

“Nazi propaganda represented an ideology with deep ties to the past, but Nazism and the Holocaust were modern inventions, indebted to the ideas, technologies and circumstances of the modern world.” 1.

Discuss the extent to which you agree with the above statement in an essay. Refer to specific examples from the history of Nazism and the Holocaust.

Historical concepts: Continuity and change, Contestability Historical skills: Perspectives and interpretations, Communication

➜ Source 8.9.5 Jewish

residents of Sydney gather in Bondi in 1987 to play chess at the Hakoah Club, a Jewish social club founded in 1939, which welcomed both Holocaust survivors and Jewish people born in Australia.

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Chapter 8 The Holocaust (1933–1945)

Review 8.9 Knowledge and understanding

Online quiz

Thinking and researching

Students can access sample responses and results

Teachers can go online to assign questions, view results, reports and more!

Knowledge and understanding

Define “displaced persons”.

Identify the two most popular destinations for Jewish refugees.

Describe what the SS in charge of death camps did when they knew the Allies were advancing.

SA D I M GI PL T A E L C -O H N AP L Y TE R S

Thinking and researching 1.

Choose a country like Australia, South Africa or the United States and research what life was like for the Jewish community before the Holocaust, directly after the Holocaust, and today. Consider the research questions:

• What was the size of the Jewish community before the war, after the war, and what is its size today? • How many synagogues were there before the war, after the war, and how many are there today? What do you think that indicates?

• What was the background of the Jewish population before the war, after the war and what is it today? • What challenges did the Jewish population face before the war, after the war, and what challenges does the Jewish population continue to face today?

• What new Jewish organisations or institutions were created after the war and what were their purposes?

• How is the Holocaust remembered or taught? • Summarise the biggest differences between the Jewish community’s experiences before the war, after the war, and today.

• How did Holocaust survivors shape Jewish life? • How did Holocaust survivors shape the country?

Historical concepts: Cause and effect, Perspectives, Significance Historical skills: Comprehension, Perspectives and interpretations, Research

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8.10 Holocaust centres, memorials and museums

8.10

877

Holocaust centres, memorials and museums Success criteria

In this lesson, you will learn about the way the Holocaust and the memory of those who were murdered is preserved, remembered and used to educate the public on human rights and social responsibility.

❏ I can discuss the importance of having Holocaust centres, memorials and museums. ❏ I can describe how three memorials represent Holocaust history.

SA D I M GI PL T A E L C -O H N AP L Y TE R S

Learning intention

Starter activity

Use compass points to analyse what respectful remembrance might look like. When thinking about the creation of a Holocaust museum: 1.

E = Excited

What excites you about this idea? Why do you think it is a good idea? What would the purpose of it be?

W = Worrisome

What do you find worrisome about this idea? What considerations need to be made?

N = Need to know

What else do you need to know or find out about this idea? Who might you have to speak to in order to find out this information? Who are the stakeholders for this idea?

S = Stance

What is your current stance or opinion on the idea? How would you do it and what elements would you include? What are the most important parts of the Holocaust that you would hope people visiting the museum would take away with them?

Holocaust memorials exist on every continent and take many different forms, including educational centres, memorials, monuments, preserved sites and museums. There are small local memorials, such as a sculpture of empty shoes in Budapest, which commemorate specific events and encourage reflection. At the other end of the scale are formal national institutions, such as the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum in Washington DC, US, which has had around 50 million visitors, and Yad Vashem in Jerusalem, Israel. Many museums are linked to Holocaust survivors, their experiences and their views of the world. There has been a concerted effort since the late twentieth century for memorials and museums to reinforce the “Never Again” message of Holocaust survivors, and serve to educate people about the dangers of racism and antisemitism.

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Chapter 8 The Holocaust (1933–1945)

Educational centres: Yad Vashem

SA D I M GI PL T A E L C -O H N AP L Y TE R S

Holocaust education centres focus on documenting the Holocaust, allowing researchers to access their archives, and teaching students and professionals. Established in 1953 by an act of the Knesset (Israel’s parliament), Yad Vashem in Israel serves as the World Holocaust Remembrance Center. Its mission includes commemorating the six million Jews murdered by the German Nazis and their collaborators; preserving the memory of destroyed Jewish communities; honouring ghetto and resistance fighters; and recognising the Righteous Among the Nations, who risked their lives to rescue Jews during the Holocaust. Yad Vashem is responsible for remembrance, documentation, research and education relating to the Holocaust.

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Source 8.10.1 Works of art in the gardens around Yad Vashem, the World Holocaust Remembrance Centre, which was established in Israel in 1953. Yad Vashem covers a 45-acre site, which includes a museum, archives, research and education facilities.

A German railway cattle cart that was used to transport victims to death camps, on a broken track.

A sculpture depicting victims The “valley of communities”, falling over a cliff. which records the names of over 5000 Jewish communities across Europe that were destroyed.

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Source 8.10.2 Visitors reflect at the Hall of Names inside Yad Vashem.

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Memorials: Monuments and sculptures

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Many significant monuments or sculptures around the world are dedicated to victims of the Holocaust. Consider these examples; why do you think each was designed as it was, and what emotional impact do you think each might have?

Source 8.10.5 Names of Czech Holocaust victims written on the interior walls of the Pinkas Synagogue in Josefov, Prague ➜

Source 8.10.4 Memorial to Jews killed by Hungarian fascists, Danube River, Budapest, by sculptor Gyula Pauer. It consists of 60 pairs of iron shoes, with memorial signs in Hungarian, English and Hebrew to the victims, who in 1944–1945 were forced to take off their shoes before being shot and falling into the river. ➜

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Source 8.10.3 Berlin Holocaust Memorial, designed by architect Peter Eisenman. It consists of 2711 plain concrete slabs, arranged in a pattern on a 19 000 sq m site.

Writing focus 8.10 Transitional phrases

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Source 8.10.6 Romani people in traditional clothes attend a remembrance ceremony at the Nomad-caravan memorial of the victims of Holocaust in Kyiv, Ukraine, 2018. Roma Holocaust Memorial Day is held every year on 2 August. Digital-only sample chapters • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Clarke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78794-9 • (03) 8671 1400

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Stolpersteine: Berlin’s everyday memorial to the Holocaust In modern Berlin, a city looking towards a bright future, the pain of the past is still present. Large buildings and statues commemorate the tragic history of the 1930s and 1940s, but if you walk along the city’s cobblestone paths, you might stumble upon some stones that look different. Thousands of cobblestones have been replaced with small brass plaques called Stolpersteine, or “stumbling stones”.

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Each stumbling stone is a 10-cm square block, placed not by a museum or government agency, but by volunteers. The plaque lists a person’s name, their date of birth and a brief description of what happened to them. When you read the stone, it becomes clear that they were victims of terrible crimes – deported, separated from their families, imprisoned, murdered or exiled/forced to flee the Reich. The stones are placed in front of the house where the victim last lived.

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Source 8.10.7 Stolpersteine (“stumbling stones”) memorials

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Source 8.10.8 Stolpersteine for the Loeffler family, who were forcibly removed from their home by the German army and secret police.

Each stone represents a victim of the Holocaust. These people were killed not because of what they did, but because of who they were. Most were Jewish, but others were from persecuted groups, including the Roma and Sinti people, LGBTQIA+ individuals, people with disabilities and political opponents of the Nazi Party. The stones remind us that those who suffered in the Holocaust were ordinary people living in ordinary neighbourhoods. The Stolpersteine are the work of German artist Gunter Demnig, who started the project in 1992. Each plaque is handmade, and tens of thousands have been installed in over 1200 towns across Europe. However, the work is ongoing, as the Holocaust claimed millions of lives. In such a vast tragedy, individual names can easily be forgotten – but these stones help keep their memory alive.

The Stolpersteine in Source 8.10.8 represent the Loeffler family, forcibly removed from their Berlin home by the German army and secret police between 1939 and 1943. Among them was 5-year-old Marion, who was murdered a year later in Auschwitz.

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Source 8.10.9 Video: Europe’s everyday memorial to the Holocaust, the Stolpersteine

As people walk through the city, these stones lie at their feet, ensuring that the memory of these horrific events remains. Every year, residents gather to clean the Stolpersteine, preserving the stories they tell. These stones are not just a memorial but a call to action, urging people to remember and to ensure that such atrocities never happen again.

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Activity 8.10.1 Identify what the Stolpersteine (stumbling stones) are and explain their purpose in modern European cities.

Describe the significance of the Loeffler family’s Stolpersteine and what they represent about the victims of the Holocaust.

Describe what your answer to Question 2 tells you about the nature of the Holocaust.

Based on what you have learned about survivors so far, think about what you are curious to know about their experiences. Write this as a question, then compare it with other students’ questions.

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Historical concepts: Perspectives, Significance Historical skills: Perspectives and interpretations, Communication

Preserved sites

The original locations where crimes were committed or key events took place serve as direct physical evidence of the Holocaust. Examples include AuschwitzBirkenau State Museum in Poland, the largest Nazi death camp, preserved as a memorial and museum. The site contains original barracks, gas chambers, crematoria ruins and personal artifacts of victims.

Source 8.10.10 Flowers laid at the Anne Frank (1929–1945) statue near Anne Frank house to remember Anne Frank’s 90th birthday on 12 June 2019 in Amsterdam, Netherlands ➜

Anne Frank’s house in Amsterdam is a popular Holocaust memorial for modern tourists. A decade after Anne’s diary was published, the Anne Frank Foundation was created to protect the building where she hid for two years during the war from redevelopment and ensure its preservation.

Museums

Many cities with survivor communities host Holocaust museums. The Sydney Jewish Museum, located in Darlinghurst, features exhibitions on the Holocaust as well as the history and contributions of Jewish people in Australia. The museum displays personal belongings of Holocaust survivors and other Jewish Australians and regularly hosts presentations in which survivors share their personal testimonies.

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Source 8.10.11 Members of the public gather at the Sydney Jewish Museum on 15 December 2025 to pay their respects and offer condolences following the antisemitic attack which killed 15 people and injured many more at Bondi Beach the previous day.

Review 8.10

Knowledge and understanding

Online quiz

Thinking and researching

Students can access sample responses and results

Teachers can go online to assign questions, view results, reports and more!

Knowledge and understanding 1.

Describe some of the ways the Holocaust is remembered around the world today.

Explain the purpose of Yad Vashem.

Identify some of the preserved key sites of the Holocaust people can visit today.

Which different groups were Europe’s Stolpersteine (stumbling stone) memorials dedicated to?

Thinking and researching 1.

Write a short essay on the importance of respectful Holocaust remembrance today. The essay should address the following considerations:

• The values or lessons that should be remembered through Holocaust remembrance. • Explain how Holocaust remembrance relates to more recent examples of hatred, prejudice or injustices.

• Discuss how recent forms of antisemitism might influence Holocaust remembrance. • Assess how visiting a Holocaust memorial or museum can change someone’s understanding of history.

• Choose a Holocaust memorial or museum and include a statement on their goals. • For your chosen memorial or museum, pick one element and describe how it preserves peoples’ memories.

• Summarise your insights by writing a short personal reflection on what you have learned about Holocaust memorials and museums.

Historical concepts: Cause and effect, Perspectives, Significance Historical skills: Comprehension, Perspectives and interpretations, Research Digital-only sample chapters • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Clarke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78794-9 • (03) 8671 1400

8.11 Site study: Sydney Jewish Museum

8.11

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Site study: Sydney Jewish Museum

Success criteria

In this lesson, you will learn about the way the Sydney Jewish Museum educates visitors about Judaism and the Holocaust.

❏ I can explain the purpose and philosophy of the museum. ❏ I can analyse the role of artefacts in preserving memory and history.

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Learning intention

The Sydney Jewish Museum was established in Darlinghurst, central Sydney, in 1992, by Holocaust survivors. It is both a memorial and a museum, and is funded by private donations in addition to the contributions of state and federal governments. Galleries cover Jewish life before the Holocaust, the rise of the Nazis, persecution and survivors’ migration to Australia. Artefacts on exhibit are mostly the personal objects that survivors brought with them to Australia. A focus of the museum is “living history”, because Holocaust survivors and their families volunteer as museum guides, to share their testimonies with visitors, including school groups.

If possible, a visit to the Sydney Jewish Museum would complete your study of the Holocaust very well. On the basis of a visit to the museum, a virtual tour on Google Arts and Culture (https://cambridge.edu.au/redirect/12042), or its website (https://cambridge.edu.au/redirect/12043), analyse the museum site with the questions that follow.

Source 8.11.2 Olga Horak (1926–2024), born in Czechoslovakia, Sydney Jewish Museum volunteer, with a concentration camp blanket made from rags and human hair ➜

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Source 8.11.1 Eddie Jaku OAM (1920–2021), born in Germany, Sydney Jewish Museum volunteer, holding a belt, the only personal item remaining from his Holocaust experience.

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Source 8.11.3 Leon Milch (1932–2018), born in Poland, Sydney Jewish Museum volunteer, holding a chanukiah

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Source 8.11.4 George Grojnowski (1927–2021), born in Poland, Sydney Jewish Museum volunteer, holding his Buchenwald jacket

Site study questions 8.11 1.

Identify an artefact or display about Holocaust survivors that interests you. Describe it. Explain why you find it to be of interest, and what the item shows about Holocaust survivors.

Explain what you think is the overall “message” or narrative about the history of the Holocaust that the museum presents.

Discuss how the involvement of survivors and their families affects how visitors learn about the history.

Write a short reflection on how the museum affects you as a visitor.

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8.12 Chapter review and historical inquiry

8.12

Chapter review and historical inquiry Access the Interactive Textbook for a range of digital tools to help you review this chapter and build confidence.

• Auto-marked questions for fast feedback and fun practice • Self-assessment tools to track your progress, review answers (if enabled

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by the teacher), and flag questions for extra help • Downloadable worksheets for class or homework revision

Summary

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Summary notes

What have you learned about the Holocaust? Copy the table and fill out by explaining your understanding. Aim for two points per topic.

Topic

What I have learned

Origins of antisemitism in Europe Rise of Nazism

Nazi propaganda and anti-Jewish laws, 1933–1939 Radicalisation from Kristallnacht to ghettoisation, 1938–1940

The move towards the “Final Solution” Labour and death camps

Resistance to the Holocaust

Impacts of the Holocaust on Jewish people

Holocaust centres, memorials and museums

Visible thinking routine

I used to think … Now I think …

Reflect on your thinking about discrimination, racism and the Holocaust, now that the unit is complete. Using the prompts below, complete the sentences. Share your thoughts with the class.

• I used to think the Nazis … • Now I think the Nazis… • I used to think that Jewish people … • Now I think that Jewish people … • I used to think that the Holocaust … • Now I think that the Holocaust …

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Download chapter summary

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Chapter 8 The Holocaust (1933–1945)

Questions and activities Scorcher quiz Access a fast and competitive quiz that puts your understanding to the test.

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Quick questions 1.

Hatred towards Jewish people is known as

The far-right

The 1935 German laws which created legal discrimination against the Jews were known as the Laws.

On 9–10 November 1938, an outburst of antisemitic violence known as out across Germany, Austria and the Sudetenland.

In 1939, the Nazi regime decided to form in Poland in 1939 to segregate and control what was then the biggest Jewish population in Europe.

Define the term the “Final Solution”.

Explain the purpose of labour and death camps.

Describe some of the resistance efforts by Jewish people.

Explain how Jews were liberated from Nazi labour and death camps.

10.

Explain why Holocaust museums and memorials are important today.

Party rose to power in Germany in the 1930s.

broke

Research activity

Find current information about recent outbreaks of antisemitism, recorded by the AntiDefamation League (ADL): see its international site (https://cambridge.edu.au/redirect/12045) or its tracker of antisemitic incidents (https://cambridge.edu.au/redirect/12046). Summarise:

• Who were the perpetrators of the antisemitic incident? • Who were the victims? • Where did it happen? • How was the incident reported? • How does the incident relate to historical events or the Holocaust? Creative task

Sometimes, when words fail us – because the history we seek to recount seems too terrible to describe – an image is the most powerful tool the historian possesses. With that in mind, your task is to create a composite image (bringing together elements of different images) that you think communicates something of the historical truth of this event. You may choose to just use photographs, but there are other types of images available if you do a little research. For example, the website of the Jewish Museum in Prague has a collection of children’s drawings from the Terezín Ghetto: https://cambridge.edu.au/redirect/12047.

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8.12 Chapter review and historical inquiry

Writing focus

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The following activities offer ways to demonstrate your understanding of the chapter and allow you to continue to practice your writing skills.

Answering questions in paragraphs You can use this as a model when writing your own answers to the questions that follow. Refer to the downloadable file for further guidance.

Download single paragraph model

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Question: Explain how Nazi propaganda influenced the way ordinary Germans viewed Jewish people.

Model answer:

Topic sentence: the first sentence of the paragraph; directly answers the question

Elaborate: additional information, connections, historical significance, change and continuity, cause and consequence

Examples: provide credibility and illustrate the argument

Nazi propaganda shaped how ordinary Germans viewed Jewish people by spreading negative stereotypes. The regime used posters, newspapers and films to repeatedly portray Jewish people as dangerous outsiders who threatened German society. As Germans saw these messages everywhere in daily life, many began to accept antisemitic ideas as normal or justified. In Source 8.3.5 from the children’s book The Poisonous Mushroom, Jewish people are depicted as deceitful figures trying to lure children, using images designed to make them appear frightening and untrustworthy, such as a long dark jacket and obscuring glasses. This source shows how even young German children were taught to view Jewish people as villains, reinforcing fear and hostility from an early age. Therefore, Nazi propaganda played a crucial role in influencing ordinary Germans to see Jewish people as enemies rather than neighbours or citizens.

Explain: clarify, define and describe Evidence: specific, relevant evidence to support your arguments Linking sentence: reconnects to the topic sentence using the language of the question

Extended-response questions 1.

Explain the origins of the Holocaust.

How did Nazi policies affect the lives of Jewish people prior to 1941?

How important is the military history of World War II to an understanding of the development of the Holocaust?

Discuss the legacy the Holocaust has left on the world, and the Jewish population in particular.

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Historical inquiry Investigating significance

Download Historical inquiry

In this historical investigation into the significance of the Holocaust, you will undertake the following steps: Part 1: Develop historical questions

• Step 1: Select an aspect of the Holocaust that interests you. Examples include: The origins of antisemitism

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The role of a Nazi leader of your choice in the development of the Holocaust

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The role of a resistance leader of your choice

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The experience of a Survivor of your choice

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A representation of the Holocaust

• Step 2: Brainstorm what you already know. • Step 3: Develop a historical inquiry question. Examples include: ● ●

●

● ●

What were the historical origins of antisemitism?

How significant a role did the Nazi leader of your choice play in the development of the Holocaust? To what extent was the resistance leader of your choice successful in their fight against the Holocaust? Provide an account of the experience of a survivor of your choice.

How effective is the representation of the Holocaust of your choice in conveying the legacy of the event?

• Step 4: Explain why the question is important. Part 2: Locate and analyse evidence

Part 3: Communicate historical findings Part 4: Reflect

Teachers, access the Online Teaching Suite for digital resources and tools that support review, assessment and reporting, including:

• student and class activity reports • a test generator to create custom assessments • built-in feedback tools • editable downloadable support material • a downloadable and printable “Writing focus” workbook for this chapter. • download a sample case study for this chapter.

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Chapter

The environmental movement (c. 1960–c. 2015)

Key questions

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• How can we explain the emergence of the environmental movement? • What are the significant events and groups that have influenced the environmental • • • •

movement? How has the international community cooperated in the environmental movement? Is the environmental movement successful in achieving its aims? How has the environmental movement grown and changed over time? What is the impact and legacy of human activities on the environment and indigenous peoples?

Lessons

14.1

Setting the scene

14.2

United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) World Heritage Sites 14.3 The Stockholm Conference (1972) 14.4 The 1970s NSW Green Bans movement 14.5 Site study: Cockatoo Island (Wareamah) 14.6 The impact of Australian events on changing attitudes to the environment: The Tasmanian dams and the Jabiluka mine 14.7 The impact of international events on changing attitudes to the environment: Chernobyl 14.8 International cooperation and actions since the 1960s 14.9 The actions of the Australian Government in response to nuclear contamination at Maralinga 14.10 The impact and legacies of human activities on the environment for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples 14.11 The impact and legacies of human activities on the environment for international indigenous peoples 14.12 Chapter review and historical inquiry

Teachers access the Online Teaching Suite to: • plan, sequence and assign directed tasks for students and classes using Task Manager • view student activity reports • provide feedback to students • download a printable “Writing focus” workbook for this chapter. • download a sample case study for this chapter.

Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples should be aware that this chapter contains images and names of people who have, or may have, passed away. Digital-only sample chapters • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Clarke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78794-9 • (03) 8671 1400

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14.1

Setting the scene Success criteria

In this lesson, we will learn about key events that took place during the development of the environmental movement.

❏ I can identify key events that took place during the development of the environmental movement.

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Learning intention

The environmental movement is about people safeguarding the places they find important in the world. While the environmental movement may seem like a modern initiative, people have always fought to protect areas they find important, especially indigenous peoples, for whom the natural environment holds deep cultural and spiritual significance. Since the 1960s, human-induced threats to environmental and cultural heritage have intensified. Legislation to protect natural features has been used for generations, but more recently, governments and international organisations have had mixed success in reducing or limiting the impact of human activities on the environment. The growing complexity of the modern world has meant that while the environmental challenges faced have become more difficult, improvements in communications has led to increased global activism and resources for both local and global initiatives. Unfortunately, despite improved legal protections, and having had little to do with the cause of environmental changes, indigenous peoples remain to this day disproportionately impacted by environmental degradation. 1969

1945

The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) established

1967

Campaign to save Lake Pedder begins in Tasmania

Save the Barrier Reef Campaign begins in Australia Friends of the Earth International founded

1971

Greenpeace founded Start of Green Bans in Sydney Earthwatch established to monitor global disturbance in the environment

1892

The first environmental protection organisation established

1955–1957

British nuclear testing at Maralinga and Emu Field, South Australia and the Montebello Islands off the Western Australian coast

1975

1979

Greenpeace begins antiwhaling protests End of Green Bans in Sydney

The NSW Environment Planning and Assessment Act introduced

1972

1968

UNESCO holds first Biosphere Conference in France

1970

First Earth Day US government creates US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) to combat pollution

Lake Pedder is flooded to create a hydroelectric dam in Tasmania First political party dedicated to environmental protection, United Tasmania Group, formed in Tasmania The World Heritage List created The United Nations Conference on the Human Environment (The Stockholm Conference) held to focus on global environmental issues The Stockholm Declaration produced as part of an environmental action plan from the Stockholm Conference The United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) established

1977

The NSW Heritage Act introduced

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14.1 Setting the scene

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2019–2020 2020 The destruction of Juukan Gorge by mining company Rio Tinto in Western Australia

2019

Australia suffers an extreme bushfire season

2016

The Torres Strait Eight bring a human rights complaint to the United Nations Human Rights Committee (UNHRC) The National Inuit Climate Change Strategy (NICCS) launched in Canada

The New Safe Confinement system designed and installed over the top of the failing concrete sarcophagus at Chernobyl The Paris Agreement (linked to the UNFCCC) aims to limit global warming to below 2°C The Standing Rock Sioux tribe campaign against the construction of the Dakota Access Pipeline (DAPL) in the US state of North Dakota

2017

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The UN Clean Seas campaign launched

2015

United Nations holds Climate Change Conference in Paris, France The United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDG) launched

1997

1980

US Congress passes Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation and Liability Act, which required chemical and petroleum industries to pay a tax to use in cases of accidental releases of hazardous substances

1985

The sinking of Greenpeace’s Rainbow Warrior

Kyoto Protocol (linked to the UNFCCC) adopted as an international treaty with specific targets for reduction in harmful greenhouse gas emissions

2012

United Nations holds Conference on Sustainable Development in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil The Doha Amendment is adopted as a follow up from the Kyoto Protocol

1991

The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) decides to undertake environmental performance reviews of member countries

1987

46 nations sign the Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer

2006

1993

Australia negotiates settlement with Great Britain for decontamination from nuclear tests at Maralinga

European Union Sustainable Development Strategy takes effect

2011

Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster occurs in Japan

2010

The Deepwater Horizon Oil Spill, Gulf of Mexico

2007

1992

1989

1986

Greenpeace launch a campaign in Brazil to highlight the threat to the Yanomami people, whose territory was being invaded by illegal gold miners

Chernobyl nuclear disaster occurs in Ukraine

1983

The Tasmanian Dams Case, officially known as Commonwealth v Tasmania

United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) adopted as an international treaty to “stabilise greenhouse gases” United Nations holds Conference on Environment and Development (Rio de Janeiro, Brazil) – also known as the Rio Earth Summit

United Nations holds Climate Change Conference focusing on climate change and deforestation

1994

The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) comes into force

1998

The Jabiluka Mine controversy, Australia

Think, pair, share

Think how Source 14.1.1 might have an impact on environmental awareness.

Pair with another student in your class and share your thoughts.

Share and discuss your observations as a class.

Source 14.1.1 This photo of children playing in flood waters was taken in the aftermath of a king tide on Saibai Island in the Torres Strait, 2015. The Torres Strait is one of the regions in the world most severely impacted by the effects of climate change. ➜

Writing focus 14.1 Question words

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14.2

United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) World Heritage Sites Success criteria

In this lesson, you will learn about the various issues that impact UNESCO World Heritage Sites and explore the methods used to protect and preserve these environments.

❏ I can describe the issues that impact UNESCO World Heritage Sites. ❏ I can explain why sustainable tourism may be important in protecting the environment.

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Learning intention

Starter activity

See, think, wonder

Look at Source 14.2.1. 1.

What do you see? What features of the site might make it attractive to tourists? What do you notice about the natural environment of the site? (I see...)

How do you think the tourists might be impacting the site? (I think...)

What challenges do you wonder UNESCO might face when protecting a site visited by large numbers of tourists? (I wonder...)

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Source 14.2.1 The site of the Treasury at the City of Petra in Jordan. Petra is a 2000-year-old Nabatean archaeological site with hundreds of tombs and temples carved into the sandstone cliffs. Digital-only sample chapters • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Clarke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78794-9 • (03) 8671 1400

14.2 United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) World Heritage Sites

The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) is a specialised agency of the United Nations. It was established in 1945 to promote peace, education, science, culture and communication through international cooperation. One of UNESCO’s key roles is identifying and protecting sites of cultural or natural value to humanity through the World Heritage List, first created in 1972.

sustainable development development that meets the needs of today, without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs

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UNESCO supports local communities to combat the impact of modern challenges such as climate change, rapid urban growth, mass tourism, sustainable development and natural disasters in order to preserve significant sites.

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The process for a country to have a significant site inscribed on the World Heritage List is detailed and can take many years to achieve, with no guarantee of success. However, once a site is listed, UNESCO can raise global awareness of the significance of the site, encourage sustainable tourism, support funding and research to aid conservation and protection and apply international pressure to prevent destruction or alteration of the site.

Writing focus 14.2 Appositives

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Source 14.2.2 Machu Pichu in Peru, built in the fifteenth century by the Inca. Thousands of tourists visit every day, negatively impacting the local ecosystem and the archaeological structures.

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Source 14.2.3 The Sydney Opera House with the city’s central skyscrapers behind

There are numerous threats that a significant site may face, such as tourism, urban development, environmental degradation and neglect, or conflict. For example, UNESCO supports the Sydney Opera House by restricting inappropriate development around the site. It protects the historic centre of Saint Petersburg by encouraging preservation of the original urban layout in the face of modern development.

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Source 14.2.4 Aerial view of Saint Petersburg’s Palace Square, Russia, featuring the Winter Palace (built 1754–1762), the Alexander Column (1834), the General Staff Building, the Triumphal Arch (1819–1829), and the Neva River Digital-only sample chapters • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Clarke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78794-9 • (03) 8671 1400

14.2 United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) World Heritage Sites

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Similarly, it protects the Agra Fort (India) and Pyramids of Giza (Egypt) from urban sprawl. For sites such as Machu Pichu (Peru) and the City of Petra (Jordan), UNESCO focuses on supporting sustainable tourism and protection against erosion and weathering.

Source 14.2.5 The Agra Fort in Uttar Pradesh, India. Built between 1565–1573 for the Mughal emperor.

UNESCO supports the Willandra Lakes Region (New South Wales) to combat environmental degradation of the sites from weather and support ongoing archaeological research, and the Port Arthur convict site (Tasmania) to educate about and conserve Australia’s colonial history.

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Source 14.2.6 The Willandra Lakes Region in New South Wales features archaeological evidence of human occupation dating back 45 000 to 60 000 years and the fossilised remains of ancient lakes, sand formations and giant marsupials. Digital-only sample chapters • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Clarke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78794-9 • (03) 8671 1400

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Activity 14.2.1

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Source 14.2.7 The Pyramids of Giza and the surrounding area in 1937

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Source analysis

Source 14.2.8 The Pyramids of Giza and the surrounding area in 2018

For each source, answer the following questions (you may want to lay out your answers in a table). 1.

What do you see in each image?

Describe what has changed over time in the images.

Explain what could happen without protecting the pyramids in Egypt.

Using the images, discuss the importance of being proactive in protecting sites of historical significance.

Historical concepts: Continuity and change, Cause and effect Historical skills: Analysis and use of sources, Communication Digital-only sample chapters • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Clarke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78794-9 • (03) 8671 1400

14.2 United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) World Heritage Sites

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As of October 2024, the UNESCO World Heritage List includes 1273 sites across 173 countries that have been recognised for their outstanding cultural, historical or natural significance. Through international cooperation, conservation and education, UNESCO helps safeguard this global heritage, ensuring it can continue to be studied, appreciated and protected in the future.

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Source 14.2.9 The Port Arthur historic site in Tasmania is the best-preserved former convict settlement in Australia and now operates as an open-air museum.

Review 14.2

Online quiz

Knowledge and understanding

Thinking and researching

Students can access sample responses and results

Teachers can go online to assign questions, view results, reports and more!

Knowledge and understanding 1.

Define the role of UNESCO.

Identify three threats from which UNESCO can help protect World Heritage List sites.

Identify two ways UNESCO can help protect World Heritage List sites.

Evaluate the effectiveness of UNESCO’s approach to protecting cultural heritage sites in the modern world. Consider strengths and potential limitations.

Thinking and researching

Select one site on the UNESCO World Heritage List and research why it was inscribed on the list. For your chosen site, you will need to identify: 1.

Where the site is located

When it was built/created

Details of the site’s cultural or natural significance

When it was inscribed on the World Heritage List

Threats that the site faces; for example, high tourist numbers, environmental damage

How the specific features, cultural or heritage considerations are managed.

Present your findings as a poster or digital presentation. Include maps, images and graphics to add more detail and visual interest.

Historical concepts: Cause and effect, Significance Historical skills: Comprehension, Analysis and use of sources, Research, Communication

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14.3

The Stockholm Conference (1972)

Success criteria

In this lesson, you will learn about how the 1972 Stockholm Conference provided an international platform for addressing global environmental issues.

❏ I can identify two outcomes of the Stockholm Conference. ❏ I can explain how the Stockholm Declaration provided opportunities to address global environmental issues.

SA D I M GI PL T A E L C -O H N AP L Y TE R S

Learning intention

Starter activity

See, think, wonder

Look at Source 14.3.1. 1.

What do you see? What do you notice about the activists? (I see...)

Why do you think the activists are protesting like that? (I think...)

What does it make you wonder? Are there differences in how people protest today? (I wonder...)

Writing focus 14.3 Transitional phrases

In the mid-twentieth century, increasing awareness of problems like air and water pollution, deforestation, nuclear radiation and the loss of ecosystems and biodiversity prompted an international response. In June 1972, representatives from 113 countries gathered in Stockholm, Sweden, at the first major international meeting entirely focused on global environmental issues. The United Nations Conference on the Human Environment reflected a growing interest in conservation issues and established the foundations for global environmental governance.

Source 14.3.1 Naked activists sit in the streets of Stockholm during the United Nations Conference on the Environment in June 1972 to demonstrate against pollution. ➜

It was also the first UN conference which featured civil participation. An unprecedented number of activists and nongovernmental organisations (NGOs) attended events around the conference in an attempt to influence conference delegates. Dialogue about environmental issues was opened up through demonstrations, petitions and environment forums, established for the first time at a UN conference to give a voice to the general public. This set the precedent for most of the larger future UN conferences like at the Earth Summit in 1992 in Rio de Janeiro.

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14.3 The Stockholm Conference (1972)

Source 14.3.2 An environment forum at the National School of Art in Stockholm on 7 June 1972

The conference produced the “Framework for Environmental Action”, an action plan that provided recommendations related to human settlements, resource management, pollution, educational and social aspects of the environment, development and international organisations. Documents created during the conference have influenced international environmental law in the years since.

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Source 14.3.3 A view of the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment in Stockholm, Sweden, June 1972

The Stockholm Declaration, part of the action plan, contained 26 principles, which the conference participants adopted. These principles marked the start of discussions between developed and developing nations on the relationship between economic growth and the pollution of the air, water and oceans, and the wellbeing of Earth’s inhabitants. Digital-only sample chapters • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Clarke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78794-9 • (03) 8671 1400

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Activity 14.3.1

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Source analysis

Source 14.3.4 Extracts from the Stockholm Declaration, 1972 Principle 1 Man has the fundamental right to freedom, equality and adequate conditions of life, in an environment of a quality that permits a life of dignity and well-being, and he bears a solemn responsibility to protect and improve the environment for present and future generations …

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Principle 2

The natural resources of the earth, including the air, water, land, flora and fauna and especially representative samples of natural ecosystems, must be safeguarded for the benefit of present and future generations through careful planning or management, as appropriate. Principle 3

The capacity of the earth to produce vital renewable resources must be maintained and, wherever practicable, restored or improved. Principle 4

Man has a special responsibility to safeguard and wisely manage the heritage of wildlife and its habitat, which are now gravely imperilled by a combination of adverse factors. Nature conservation, including wildlife, must therefore receive importance in planning for economic development. Principle 5

The non-renewable resources of the earth must be employed in such a way as to guard against the danger of their future exhaustion and to ensure that benefits from such employment are shared by all mankind. Principle 6

The discharge of toxic substances … must be halted in order to ensure that serious or irreversible damage is not inflicted upon ecosystems … Principle 7

States shall take all possible steps to prevent pollution of the seas by substances that are liable to create hazards to human health, to harm living resources and marine life, to damage amenities or to interfere with other legitimate uses of the sea. Principle 15

Planning must be applied to human settlements and urbanization with a view to avoiding adverse effects on the environment and obtaining maximum social, economic and environmental benefits for all … Principle 19

Education in environmental matters, for the younger generation as well as adults … is essential in order to broaden the basis for an enlightened opinion and responsible conduct by individuals, enterprises and communities in protecting and improving the environment … Principle 20

Scientific research and development in the context of environmental problems, both national and multinational, must be promoted in all countries, especially the developing countries …

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14.3 The Stockholm Conference (1972)

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Principle 26 Man and his environment must be spared the effects of nuclear weapons and all other means of mass destruction. States must strive to reach prompt agreement, in the relevant international organs, on the elimination and complete destruction of such weapons. Stockholm Declaration, 1972

Define what is meant by “an environment of a quality that permits a life of dignity and well-being” in Principle 1.

Identify three resources mentioned in Principle 2.

According to Principle 6, why must the release of toxic substances be controlled?

Explain how Principle 19 suggests education can help the environment.

Evaluate the relevance of the Stockholm Declaration in today’s context, using examples from the source.

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Historical concepts: Cause and effect, Significance Historical skills: Analysis and use of sources

The Stockholm Conference also led to the creation of the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) in December 1972. The UNEP became the first international agency specifically dedicated to coordinating environmental action. It achieves this through global initiatives to promote sustainability and safeguard the natural environment. For example, the 1987 Montreal Protocol aimed to phase out substances that damage the Earth’s ozone layer (like chlorofluorocarbons or CFCs). The Montreal Protocol is the only treaty to be ratified by all members of the United Nations. It has helped reverse damage to the ozone layer to reduce harmful UV radiation and is widely considered to be one of the most successful environmental agreements in history.

Regardless, the Stockholm Conference is considered a turning point in the environmental movement. It was an important moment in the evolution of humanity’s relationship with the natural world and reinforced the necessity for humanity to safeguard the Earth’s finite resources. For the first time, global leaders acknowledged that environmental degradation was a serious problem that required international cooperation.

Source 14.3.5 Video: A video from the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) about the 1972 Stockholm Conference, 2022 ➜

Not all participants agreed on every issue. For example, there were disagreements about the causes of and solutions to environmental issues. Many developing nations also highlighted their unequal access to funding, scientific capability and resources with which to combat environmental issues. Despite the conference’s clear influence on raising public awareness and promoting public discourse about environmental issues, implementation of its recommendations has been inconsistent, and many environmental challenges persist to this day.

ratify signing a treaty, indicates its agreement but does not create a legal obligation to take action, while ratifying a treaty legally binds the parties to action the treaty

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Oil and mineral resources

Soil and water resources

Renewable resources can be replaced naturally over a short period of time if they are managed sustainably.

Non-renewable resources take millions of years to form and cannot be replaced once they are used.

Some resources can be renewed, but only if they are carefully managed and protected from damage.

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Wind, solar and forest resources

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Source 14.3.6 Access to natural resources supports modern societies, but these require careful management to ensure they remain available into the future. Many environmental debates focus on how Earth’s resources should be managed to balance human needs with long-term sustainability.

Review 14.3 Online quiz

Knowledge and understanding

Thinking and researching

Students can access sample responses and results

Teachers can go online to assign questions, view results, reports and more!

Knowledge and understanding 1.

Outline the purpose and aims of the Stockholm Conference, held in 1972.

Identify two key outcomes of the Stockholm Conference.

Explain the difference between renewable and non-renewable resources.

Explain how the Stockholm Declaration encouraged cooperation between developed and developing nations.

Evaluate the long-term significance and legacy of the Stockholm Conference in shaping international responses to environmental challenges.

Thinking and researching

As a class, create your own Environmental Protection Declaration with five to 10 principles (depending on class size). 1.

As a class, brainstorm the environmental challenges faced by the world today.

In small groups, choose, or be allocated by your teacher, an environmental challenge to consider. Think about how governments, businesses or individuals should respond to the environmental challenge. Using clear, meaningful and global language, create your principle.

Each group should present their principle to the class. As a class, decide on a final list of principles to include in your Environmental Protection Declaration.

Discuss if there are any common values in the principles you have created. How similar are your ideas to the Stockholm Declaration? Which of the principles is the most urgent or important today?

If you could add a principle to the Stockholm Declaration, which would it be, and why?

Historical concepts: Cause and effect, Perspectives, Significance Historical skills: Perspectives and interpretations, Communication

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14.4 The 1970s NSW Green Bans movement

14.4

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The 1970s NSW Green Bans movement

Success criteria

In this lesson, you will learn about how the Green Bans movement in 1970s NSW protected heritage, housing and green spaces.

❏ I can identify four sites in Sydney that were protected by the NSW Builders Labourers Federation (BLF) Green Bans. ❏ I can explain two reasons why the NSW BLF and local communities supported Green Bans in the 1970s.

SA D I M GI PL T A E L C -O H N AP L Y TE R S

Learning intention

Starter activity Think, pair, share 1.

Do you think it is important to have green spaces in your suburb? Would you fight to protect your local park if it were threatened with demolition? What about your favourite building? Would you fight to protect that? Why?

Pair up with someone in your class. Would they protest the destruction of their local park or favourite building? Were their reasons similar to yours?

Share your thoughts in discussion with the rest of the class.

In Australia in the early 1970s a powerful environmental and social movement emerged. The NSW Green Bans were imposed by the New South Wales Builders Labourers Federation (BLF) across Sydney and other parts of Australia between 1971 and 1975. The Green Bans were not government restrictions, but rather a type of strike by workers who opposed development projects that could threaten green spaces and heritage areas. They were responsible for preserving much of Sydney’s now-iconic heritage buildings and areas, such as The Rocks, Sydney Town Hall, the Queen Victoria Building (QVB), Centennial Park and The Domain. The BLF was a trade union established in 1911. In 1970, its membership was around 11 000, made up of unskilled labourers and some skilled labourers employed on building sites. Throughout the 1960s, the BLF had become increasingly concerned about the boom in the development of office blocks. In 1970, the BLF executive were determined to implement the principle of social responsibility in labour, an idea that workers had the right to insist their labour not be used in harmful ways.

Writing focus 14.4 Developing sentences

trade union an organised group of workers in a similar trade, formed to protect and promote their rights and interests

The BLF had capable leaders like Jack Mundey, who was also a member of the Communist Party of Australia. He was passionate about ensuring that traditionally poorer, working-class residential areas were preserved from profit-hungry developers, and he promised that the BLF would use Green Bans to support these areas.

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Source 14.4.1 The interior of the Queen Victoria Building, Sydney

Activity 14.4.1 Source analysis ➜

Source 14.4.2 In a letter to the Sydney Morning Herald in January 1972, Jack Mundey outlines the BLF’s principles

Yes, we want to build. However, we prefer to build urgently-required hospitals, schools, other public utilities, high-quality flats, units and houses, provided they are designed with adequate concern for the environment, than to build ugly unimaginative architecturally-bankrupt blocks of concrete and glass offices … Though we want all our members employed, we will not just become robots directed by developer-builders who value the dollar at the expense of the environment. More and more, we are going to determine which buildings we will build … The environmental interests of three million people are at stake and cannot be left to developers and building employers whose main concern is making profit. Progressive unions, like ours, therefore have a very useful social role to play in the citizens’ interest, and we intend to play it.

Jack Mundey, quoted in Pete Thomas, Taming the Concrete Jungle: The Builders Laborers’ Story, Australian Builders Labourers Federation, Sydney, 1973, pp. 56–7

Identify the types of buildings Jack Mundey states the BLF prefer to build.

Outline the reason he gives for this preference.

Explain what Mundey means by “a very useful social role to play”, and how this relates to sustainable development.

Historical concepts: Cause and effect, Perspectives, Significance Historical skills: Analysis and use of sources, Communication

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14.4 The 1970s NSW Green Bans movement

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The movement’s first action was in 1971 in Hunters Hill on Sydney’s Lower North Shore. The BLF were asked to support a local resident action group called “the Battlers for Kelly’s Bush” to save an area of natural beauty and First Nations cultural heritage from development. The “Battlers” had appealed to local and state government to stop the development without success, and turned to the BLF for help. Both groups worked together to organise a public meeting to measure local support for a Green Ban. The meeting was attended by over 600 people and led to the BLF taking action. As a result of the Green Ban at Kelly’s Bush, the developer was forced to sell the land to the local Council, and in 1983 the NSW Premier announced that Kelly’s Bush would be permanently allocated for public use and could never be developed.

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Source 14.4.3 Protesters campaigning to Save Kelly’s Bush from development, 1971

This success led to other action groups seeking BLF support to halt development and, where there was evidence of widespread public support, they assisted. In 1972, the BLF stepped in to save ancient fig trees in the Royal Botanic Gardens from being destroyed to build an underground carpark for the Sydney Opera House. They also prevented large areas of Centennial Park from being developed into an international sporting complex by the Australian Olympic Committee, and they helped the National Trust to protect heritage buildings across Sydney and NSW.

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Source 14.4.4 Centennial Park in Sydney spans 189 hectares. It is the largest park in the City of Sydney area.

Perhaps the most significant actions taken by the BLF were between 1971 and 1975, when they saved buildings at the site of the first European settlement on Sydney Harbour in 1788. This area, The Rocks, was facing development into office blocks. The BLF were not only concerned by the destruction of historic buildings and beautiful foreshore parks, but also the poor treatment of the area’s working-class inhabitants by the developers. Following the BLF’s Green Ban, the Rocks Resident Action Groups drew up a “people’s plan” for renovation of the area that they deemed suitable. This was eventually accepted by the redevelopment authority in 1974. In the 1990s, the Ministry for Planning agreed that the Green Ban and redevelopment plans for the area had directly contributed to the success of The Rocks, demonstrated by the millions of tourists that visit the area each year.

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Source 14.4.5 The Rocks, Sydney

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The BLF Green Bans encouraged the growth of resident action groups and became the focus of radical activity in Sydney. The union supported environmental protection and heritage conservation, but also social issues concerning the working class, First Nations Peoples, women and prisoners. More than 40 Green Bans were issued by the BLF between 1971 and 1974, mostly in Sydney, to either prevent the destruction of individual buildings or parks, or to disrupt projects involving larger areas.

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Perhaps more significant than the preservation of heritage and protection of natural environments was the impact the BLF’s Green Bans had on the future of town planning, environmental legislation and public attitudes towards redevelopment. Future town planning needed to have a greater sensitivity to environmental and social concerns, a better appreciation of heritage and an understanding of the importance of seeking public approval before commencing works. The BLF Green Bans influenced the NSW State Government’s introduction of the Heritage Act in 1977, and the Environment Planning and Assessment Act in 1979.

Review 14.4

Online quiz

Knowledge and understanding

Thinking and researching

Students can access sample responses and results

Teachers can go online to assign questions, view results, reports and more!

Knowledge and understanding 1.

Identify four sites in Sydney that were protected by the BLF Green Bans.

Describe the role of the BLF in the early 1970s.

Outline the approach that made the BLF different from other trade unions.

Discuss how the Green Bans movement influenced the way that town planning and development were approached in NSW after 1975.

Evaluate the impact of the BLF Green Bans movement.

Thinking and researching 1.

Imagine your house or local park is going to be torn up to build a freeway or office block. Think about the feelings that would be caused by a project like that. Now, research a local site of historical or cultural importance near you. Imagine that this site is going to be demolished for the same reasons.

Write a speech to deliver at the community protest or create a campaign poster either for or against the development of a freeway or office block.

Historical concepts: Perspectives Historical skills: Perspectives and interpretations, Research, Communication

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14.5

Site study: Cockatoo Island (Wareamah) Success criteria

In this lesson, you will learn about how Cockatoo Island (Wareamah), an Australian World Heritage Site, reflects layers of Australia’s history, from First Nations Peoples to the colonial era and all the way up until today.

❏ I can identify the key historical phases of Cockatoo Island and explain their significance.

SA D I M GI PL T A E L C -O H N AP L Y TE R S

Learning intention

Starter activity

One place, many lives

Work in pairs to complete the following tasks:

• Place the images in chronological order. • Discuss the changes you notice in the use of the island.

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Source 14.5.3 A painting of Cockatoo Island’s early buildings, built by convicts, c. 1862 ➜

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Source 14.5.1 USS Portland in drydock at Cockatoo Island Dockyard in late 1942

Source 14.5.2 A campsite on Cockatoo Island, 2014

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14.5 Site study: Cockatoo Island (Wareamah)

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Cockatoo Island in Sydney Harbour is a place of layered cultural and historical significance. Before European settlement, the island was a meeting place for First Nations Peoples. From the 1830s, the island was used as a convict jail, the home of various educational institutions and as a major shipbuilding yard during both World Wars. It was inscribed on the World Heritage List in 2010 as part of Australia’s convict heritage and is today used as a public space for tourism, cultural events and education.

Source 14.5.4 Cockatoo Island (Wareamah) in Sydney Harbour, 2021

From prison to educational uses

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In 1839, Governor George Gipps ordered the conversion of Cockatoo Island into a convict prison to relieve the overcrowding at Norfolk Island. Convicts endured harsh living conditions and were forced to quarry the island’s sandstone to build the island’s infrastructure including their own barracks, workshops, a dry dock and the island’s grain silos, built to store the colony’s surplus wheat. The island had no natural water Source 14.5.5 Convict prison buildings on Cockatoo supply, so the convicts also had to manually Island dig large water tanks into the sandstone. The living conditions were cramped and unsanitary, punishments were brutal and those in charge were often corrupt. The penal establishment at Cockatoo Island was closed in 1869, although some former prison buildings were briefly used to house criminals between 1888 and 1908 to help with overcrowding at Darlinghurst Jail.

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Chapter 14 The environmental movement (c. 1960–c. 2015)

Between 1871 and 1911, the island was used by various educational institutions including a boys’ nautical school and a girls’ industrial school and reformatory. The industrial school was for girls thought to be at risk of committing a crime, such as begging and homelessness, and the reformatory was for those girls 16 years and over who had committed a crime. The girls had to perform domestic duties and their education centred on cleaning, cooking, laundry and needlework. Punishments were harsh, with reports of head shaving, beatings, straight-jackets and solitary confinement being used as disciplinary actions. The experience of the boys in the nautical school on the island was much easier. The boys were generally not criminals and were instead sent to the school to prevent them from turning to crime. They were given a structured education, were rarely punished harshly, enjoyed activities like swimming and music and were given apprenticeships in a trade or a seafaring position.

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Source 14.5.6 Boys sleeping in hammocks on the Sobraon, a ship used as a nautical school that was docked at Cockatoo Island, late 1800s

Maritime and naval history

Cockatoo Island also played a significant part of Australia’s maritime history. Between 1857 and 1992, it was used as a shipbuilding and ship repair facility, with its convict population initially constructing a dry dock, Fitzroy Dock, which is the earliest and oldest surviving convict-built dry dock in Australia. From the 1860s, the dock was exclusively used by the British Navy, and in 1911 the island became the official

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14.5 Site study: Cockatoo Island (Wareamah)

SA D I M GI PL T A E L C -O H N AP L Y TE R S

dockyard of the Australian Navy. It supported the wartime efforts in both World Wars and was the main ship repair facility in the Southwest Pacific during World War II. By the 1970s, shipbuilding on the island had declined, and it was mainly used to refit and maintain submarines. The last ship was constructed at the dockyard in 1984 and shipbuilding and repair work there was officially shut down in 1992.

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First Nations connections

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Sydney’s First Nations Peoples had been using Wareamah (Cockatoo Island) for thousands of years as a meeting place and for fishing. The island was a connection point for the waterways and homelands of the Wallumedegal, Source 14.5.7 Fitzroy Dock on Cockatoo Island in 1887 Wangal, Cammeraygal and Gadigal Peoples. As a result of the reshaping of the island’s landscape by European settlers, the island’s use by First Nations Peoples was disrupted. Some First Nations Peoples were imprisoned on the island during the island’s convict era and suffered from low immunity to diseases and the harsh living and working conditions. In November 2000, a branch of the Aboriginal Tent Ambassy, which had occupied land outside Old Parliament House in Canberra from 1972, established a camp on the island and claimed the land for all Aboriginal people. The group’s claim was ultimately rejected by the NSW Supreme Court and the group left the island peacefully in March 2001.

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Source 14.5.8 Fitzroy Dock on Cockatoo Island in 2008

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Source 14.5.9 Murals left behind by the group of First Nations residents who occupied Cockatoo Island during a land claim in 2020.

Heritage preservation

Cockatoo Island has a rich and varied cultural heritage. Community groups collectively known as the Defenders of Sydney Harbour Foreshores advocated for years to keep former defence sites in Sydney Harbour safe from development and maintain them as public spaces. In 1998, the Australian Government established the Sydney Harbour Federation Trust. It extensively restored the island, which had fallen into disrepair following the closure of the dockyard, and opened it to the public for tourism in 2007. In 2010, it was inscribed on the World Heritage list, recognising its importance as a witness to the forced migration of convicts and involvement in the history of global penal transport. Today, it is a public space blending heritage tourism, cultural events and education.

Site study questions 14.5 1.

Identify the location of Cockatoo Island on a map.

Create a timeline to represent Cockatoo Island’s history.

Use the following website to research a period of the history of Cockatoo Island that you are interested in, such as First Nations use, convicts, educational institutions or the maritime history of the island. https://cambridge.edu.au/redirect/12053

Create a presentation to share with the class about the heritage significance of Cockatoo Island.

Hold a class debate about the following proposition. “Cockatoo Island deserves to be on the World Heritage List”.

Historical concepts: Continuity and change, Perspectives, Significance, Contestability Historical skills: Comprehension, Analysis and use of sources, Perspectives and interpretations, Research, Communication

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14.6 The impact of Australian events on changing attitudes to the environment

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The impact of Australian events on changing attitudes to the environment: The Tasmanian dams and the Jabiluka mine Success criteria

In this lesson, you will learn about how key events in Australia involving environmental protests and policy decisions helped shape attitudes towards our environment.

❏ I can explain how two events in Australian history influenced a shift in attitude towards the environment.

SA D I M GI PL T A E L C -O H N AP L Y TE R S

Learning intention

Starter activity

See, think, wonder

Look at Source 14.6.1. 1.

What do you see? What do you notice about the messages on the banners? (I see...)

What do you think these people are doing? Why might they be participating in this? (I think...)

What does this image make you wonder about happened? What questions do you have? (I wonder...)

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Source 14.6.1 An environmental protest against the Franklin Dam in Tasmania

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In the late twentieth and early twenty-first centuries, several major events influenced changing attitudes towards the environment in Australia. The Tasmanian Dams Case (1983) and the Jabiluka Mine controversy (1998) demonstrated how communities could influence government policy to protect natural and cultural heritage.

The Tasmanian Dams Case, 1983

United Tasmania Group the world’s first political party focused on protecting the environment, formed in Tasmania in 1972

Between 1967 and 1976, there had been a campaign to prevent the flooding of Lake Pedder, in Tasmania. The campaign was unsuccessful, and the lake was flooded in 1972. As a result, the United Tasmania Group was formed. Then in 1976, a number of conservationists, including Dr Bob Brown, who had been a member of the United Tasmania Group, formed the Tasmanian Wilderness Society. They vowed to be more active Source 14.6.2 The Gordon River, Tasmania in their opposition to environmental damage in Tasmania and campaigned against deforestation, mining and road building in wilderness areas, always alert for any plans for future dams. ➜

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Writing focus 14.6 Creating topic sentences

The Tasmanian Dams Case, officially known as Commonwealth v Tasmania (1983), was a pivotal moment in the way Australians viewed environmental protection and the role of government in preserving and conserving natural heritage. It was a significant environmental and constitutional legal battle between the Commonwealth Government of Australia and the State Government of Tasmania, centred around the proposed construction of a hydroelectric dam on the Gordon River in southwest Tasmania.

Source 14.6.3 The “NO DAMS” campaign poster became a feature of the Franklin River campaign ➜

In 1978, a new dam was proposed on the Gordon River, near where it met the Franklin River. This dam would flood the Franklin and destroy a large wilderness area. The Wilderness Society ran a public campaign, “Save the Franklin River”, running marches, protests and lobbying the State and Federal governments. In December 1982, the Franklin River was inscribed on the UNESCO World Heritage List, but the Tasmanian Government continued work on the dam regardless, stating that Federal Government had no right to involve itself in State matters.

Between December 1982 and March 1983, the Wilderness Society led a blockade of the construction site. The blockade drew about 2500 participants, and a total of about 1400 people were arrested and jailed for protesting. These included Bob Brown, and members of the Federal and State parliaments.

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14.6 The impact of Australian events on changing attitudes to the environment

Source 14.6.4 Protestors on the Franklin River, Tasmania

The matter ultimately went to the High Court of Australia in May 1983, after the Tasmanian Government ignored the Federal Government’s new World Heritage Properties Conservation Act (1983). The Act allowed the Australian Government to stop any activities that may damage a World Heritage Site. The High Court ruled in favour of the Federal Government, who had argued that federal law should override state law in the context of upholding the UNESCO Convention for the Protection of the World and Cultural Natural Heritage (1972), an international obligation. The Tasmanian Government had to stop the Franklin Dam project.

High Court of Australia Australia’s highest and most powerful decision-making body for legal matters

The Tasmanian Dams Case influenced how law-making power is divided between State and Federal governments, and the courts. This case led to several new laws to protect Australia’s environmental biodiversity and natural heritage. Given the huge public interest in the case, the High Court also issued a press statement for the first time, detailing the decision in plain terms. Today, a media release is provided after every High Court case. The Tasmanian Dams Case also increased awareness of environmental issues and the need for a greater environmental voice in parliament. By the late 1980s, most states had registered “green” parties who lobbied and campaigned on environmental and social justice issues. The Greens Party (formed in 1992) is now the third-largest political party in Australia and won its highest ever number of votes in the 2025 federal election.

The Jabiluka mine controversy, 1998

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R iv e

E ast A l

Riv

KEY

Jabiluka Mine

Kakadu National Park World Heritage Area

Oenpelli Border Store

Kakadu NP WHA boundary So Kakadu

Jabiru

tor River lliga

12°45’ Darwin

133°15’

A uth

ma Wild

er tor Riv st Allig a We

Field Island Barron Island

t liga

Van Diemen Gulf

Major roads

Ranger Mine

Rivers

12°45’

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Gagadju Lodge

Annaburro M Ri v ary

National

Koongarra

Park

13°50’

2000 km

Pine Creek

132°10’

133°15’

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Source 14.6.5 Jabiluka and Kakadu National Park

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Jabiluka is an area in the Northern Territory where uranium was found in 1971. Kakadu National Park surrounds the area, and access to the area is through the park, but importantly Jabiluka was not originally part of the park. The land itself, both Jabiluka and Kakadu National Park, is part of the Mirarr people’s traditional lands. It had been given back to the Mirrar Source 14.6.6 The Jabiluka escarpment people under the 1976 Aboriginal Land Rights Act, so the Mirrar people needed to give permission for the land to be mined. In 1982, they signed a mining agreement with the Australian Government.

However, this agreement was controversial as the Mirrar people felt they had been pressured to give in to the government request for mining rights. This pressure came in the form of constant “consultation meetings”, and the push for continual “engagement” with the process of establishing the mines in the area.

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Many of the Mirarr people felt exhausted after eight years of meetings, consultations and “discussions”. Ultimately, an offhand comment by Mirarr Traditional Owner, Toby Ganagle, that they were “too tired to fight any more” was taken to mean the permission was given for the Jabiluka mine to go ahead.

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In 1983, a change of government Source 14.6.7 This symbol was developed in 1996 by halted uranium mining and exploration Kathleen McKann for the Jabiluka campaign. It shows a projects, and it looked like the Jabiluka handprint atop the warning symbol for ionising radiation Mining Agreement would become void. However, the election of the Howard Government in 1996 revived support for uranium mining, and planning resumed on the Jabiluka mine.

In response, the Mirrar people created a traditional owners organisation called the Gundjehmi Aboriginal Corporation to manage the campaign. The organisation met with Commonwealth and Territory Government officials and legal advisors, and it researched the history of the Jabiluka mining documents. It discovered that the documents had been signed by elders for a different project with a different mining company. Despite these efforts, they felt they would be unable to change the government’s decision. In October 1997, the Minister for Resources and Energy approved the Jabiluka site and construction commenced in June 1998. This inability to change government direction resulted in a large-scale publicity campaign. First Nations women Yvonne Margarula and Jacqui Katona started the Jabiluka Action Group to stop the mining, calling on activists across Australia in 1998 to help them blockade the roads being used by the mining company to build the mine infrastructure.

Source 14.6.8 Australian and Korean environmentalists demonstrating outside the Australian Embassy in Seoul, Korea, on 20 May 1998 ➜

The anti-Jabiluka mining protests went global with traditional owners and other protestors visiting Europe in an attempt to gain assistance from international conservation organisations. Over the eight months of protests, people came from around Australia and the world. Many of these people were arrested.

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Activity 14.6.1 Create a campaign speech or poster either for or against the mine at Jabiluka. Historical concepts: Perspectives Historical skills: Perspectives and interpretations, Communication

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As a result of lobbying by Margarula and Katona, UNESCO sent a team of investigators to the Northern Territory, which resulted in Kakadu National Park being listed as a World Heritage Site. UNESCO requested the Australian Government halt all mining in the area. Some Australian senators agreed with the report, but the Howard Government moved ahead with the plans, adapting them slightly in an attempt to minimise environmental damage, but still allow mining in the area. The Jabiluka Action Group and other activists tried to get the site put on the World Heritage in Danger list in 1999, but the UNESCO committee decided the threat to living cultural values and environmental concerns was not serious enough. In essence, UNESCO decided Australian sovereignty was important and the threat to water and food supplies of the locals and any potential environmental damage was minimal because of the measures in place around the mine.

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Despite protests from environmentalists, traditional First Nations landowners, scientists and concerned citizens, the re-election of the Howard government in early October 1998 meant mine development would proceed. The main strategy of the Howard Government was to minimise discussion concerning the environmental impacts of Jabiluka and to focus attention on its economic benefits to both Source 14.6.9 The Jabiluka uranium mine First Nations communities and to the country. The Howard Government countered claims by environmentalists that uranium mining in Australia was unsafe by citing its strict adherence to environmental standards. It promised to approve mine projects only if they had been subjected to rigorous and transparent environmental impact assessment and met high environmental standards.

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As a result of the controversy, public attitudes shifted in Australia. There was increased awareness of the risks of uranium mining, the need to respect First Nations custodianship of Country and the importance of protecting World Heritage listed sites from development. The Chernobyl disaster (1986) and the falling price of uranium also reduced interest in expanding Australia’s uranium industry. Sustained pressure led to the owner of the leases at both Jabiluka and the nearby Ranger mine to announce in 2007 that mining at Jabiluka would not proceed without permission and consent of the traditional owners. In 2013, the Federal Government made Jabiluka part of Kakadu National Park, to protect the area from future mining or development. The Jabiluka mine controversy highlighted the intersection between environmental protection and First Nations land rights. It was a reflection of the growing commitment of populations to protect their natural heritage and environment, often challenging their own government to do so. It encouraged the adoption of a more inclusive and ethical approach to environmental issues that considers both ecological sustainability and First Nations sovereignty.

Review 14.6

Online quiz

Knowledge and understanding

Thinking and researching

Students can access sample responses and results

Teachers can go online to assign questions, view results, reports and more!

Knowledge and understanding 1.

Identify the two rivers that would have been impacted by the proposed Franklin Dam in Tasmania.

Identify four of the methods used by protestors in Tasmania.

Discuss how the High Court decision in Commonwealth v Tasmania changed the role of the Federal Government in environmental protection.

Outline the reasons why the 1982 mining contract between the Mirrar people and the Australian Government was controversial.

Identify the two elements of the main strategy of the Howard Government towards the development of the Jabiluka mine site.

Evaluate the impact of the Jabiluka mine controversy on changing attitudes to the environment.

Thinking and researching

Research the Little Desert campaign in Victoria in 1969. 1.

Give a brief overview of the campaign.

What are the similarities between this campaign and the Franklin River Dam and Jabiluka Mine protests?

Are there any differences between the three campaigns?

Evaluate the significance of each campaign. Which had the most impact on changing attitudes towards the environment?

Historical concepts: Continuity and change, Perspectives, Contestability Historical skills: Perspectives and interpretations, Research, Communication

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14.7

The impact of international events on changing attitudes to the environment: Chernobyl Success criteria

In this lesson, you will learn about how the 1986 Chernobyl nuclear disaster transformed international attitudes toward environmental safety and energy production.

❏ I can describe two major social and environmental impacts of the Chernobyl disaster. ❏ I can explain at least two ways Chernobyl changed public attitudes towards nuclear energy and environmental safety.

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Learning intention

Starter activity

Consider the question as a class: “When is a disaster actually over?” 1.

What kinds of disasters come to mind when you consider this question?

What kind of impacts are there to consider after a disaster? Think about environmental, social, political and economic factors that may be involved.

When do you think a disaster is truly over? Justify your response.

Internationally, the Chernobyl disaster (1986) increased global concerns about the risks of nuclear radiation, and the Deepwater Horizon Oil Spill (2010) drew the world’s attention to the dangers of deepwater oil drilling. The sinking of Greenpeace’s Rainbow Warrior (1985) demonstrated the power of media and public opinion in raising awareness of environmental activism and elevated Greenpeace to become a leading voice in the global environment movement.

The Chernobyl disaster, 1986

Writing focus 14.7 Developing sentences

The Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant, located in northern Ukraine near the city of Pripyat, was the site of a nuclear accident. The disaster occurred on the 26 April 1986 at Reactor No. 4, killing two people immediately and 28 people in the following weeks from acute radiation poisoning. It led to the evacuation of large numbers of people from the surrounding area and sent waves of fear around the world about the dangers of nuclear power. The accident occurred when engineers were trying to make the power plant safer by conducting a series of tests. Because the safety systems had been disabled to conduct the tests, mistakes and misinterpreted processes resulted in an uncontrolled nuclear chain reaction, which released a large amount of superheated cooling water. This caused a steam explosion which ruptured the reactor core, which in turn caused an open-air nine-day core reactor fire. The fire released radioactive contamination into the atmosphere.

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14.7 The impact of international events on changing attitudes to the environment: Chernobyl

Source 14.7.1 The Chernobyl nuclear power plant, three days after the explosion

As the fire raged, additional radioactive material was released into the atmosphere, almost doubling the initial amount released. It took over 5000 metric tonnes of sand, lead and clay to smother the fire in the reactor. These materials were dropped from helicopters by 600 military pilots flying through the clouds of radiation to reach the reactor.

Within 36 hours, a 10-km exclusion zone had been established, with 49 000 people evacuated. Within a month, that exclusion zone had been increased to 30 km and another 68 000 people were evacuated. More exclusion zones were established in the following months.

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Source 14.7.2 This photograph from 2006 shows the abandoned worker town of Pripyat.

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In total, 335 000 people were removed from their homes. The exclusion zone will stay in effect until approximately 2065. Some areas on the edges of the exclusion zone have been resettled, but these areas are small, with limited numbers of people living there.

SA D I M GI PL T A E L C -O H N AP L Y TE R S

The world was initially not told of the accident at Chernobyl, with the Government stating only that there had been a small fire at one of the reactors. It was only after 100 000 people had been evacuated that the Government admitted the potential scope of the disaster. The Chernobyl incident had a worldwide impact, with countries around the globe concerned about the possible effect of the radiation on their food and water supplies. Countries offered assistance, food, fresh water and other aid to the Government to help them manage the situation.

Activity 14.7.1 Source analysis

From the video, identify how many villages were evacuated, and how many have been resettled.

Identify where the people who were evacuated are now living.

Explain why the reporter refers to the “official” death toll.

Identify the type of product which is absent from the Bessarabian market. Why do you think this might be the case?

Source 14.7.3 A news report from one year after the explosion. Scan the QR code to watch the video. ➜

Historical concepts: Perspectives, Significance, Contestability Historical skills: Analysis and use of sources, Perspectives and interpretations

The long-term impact of the Chernobyl disaster is still unfolding. It is expected that the radiation from the event will not dissipate to normal levels for another 20 000 years. Particular types of cancer, such as thyroid cancer, dramatically increased amongst the affected population, with over 6000 reported cases by 2005. Plants and animals are still being found with significantly higher amounts of radiation than is acceptable for human consumption. Initially, waterways in the area were also contaminated. Agricultural land needed to be rested, so both farming and forestry in the area were stopped for a period of time.

The socioeconomic impacts of the disaster have been considerable, with billions of dollars spent to contain the fire and radiation, assist with relocation of citizens, provide health care for affected people and pay social benefits to people who can no longer work due to the long-term health effects of the event. Digital-only sample chapters • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Clarke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78794-9 • (03) 8671 1400

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Very shortly after the fire at the reactor was contained, a concrete sarcophagus was built over the building in an attempt to give scientists some time to develop a longterm solution. The concrete tomb was intended to last for only 30 years. In 2013, the sarcophagus started to fail, and part of the roof collapsed, releasing more radioactive material into the atmosphere. A new cover, called the New Safe Confinement system, was designed and installed over top of the concrete sarcophagus in 2016.

SA D I M GI PL T A E L C -O H N AP L Y TE R S

Today, Chernobyl is a symbol of what could go wrong if safety systems are not followed, and there is substantial work being done on monitoring wildlife in and around the exclusion zone, to investigate the impacts of both radiation and the lack of human interaction.

Source 14.7.4 The New Safe Confinement system over the remains of Reactor 4 and the old sarcophagus at Chernobyl ➜

However, Chernobyl is also being used as entertainment with movies, books and television series being set in the days and weeks around the disaster. Tourists are now able to visit the site for short periods of time.

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Source 14.7.5 Tourists are now allowed to visit the exclusion zone

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Activity 14.7.2 As a class, discuss the ethical considerations of using a major disaster as entertainment. Factors to consider might include:

• the ethics of using an event when people died • the educational reach of drama series • the benefits or risks of tourism to sites of disasters • the moral obligation to remember those who died.

SA D I M GI PL T A E L C -O H N AP L Y TE R S

Historical concepts: Perspectives Historical skills: Perspectives and interpretations

Chernobyl significantly shifted public opinion against nuclear power, especially in Europe. It increased pressure on governments to improve environmental monitoring, emergency preparedness and transparency around potential environmental risks. It also highlighted the need for greater international cooperation in the event of such a largescale disaster. It was a major turning point in environmental consciousness, reinforcing the need for safe, sustainable energy alternatives and careful scrutiny of government management of environmental risks.

Review 14.7 Online quiz

Knowledge and understanding

Thinking and researching

Students can access sample responses and results

Teachers can go online to assign questions, view results, reports and more!

Knowledge and understanding 1.

Describe how the Chernobyl nuclear power plant disaster occurred.

Outline the government response to the accident at Chernobyl.

Explain what the Chernobyl sarcophagus is.

Identify five long-term impacts of the Chernobyl disaster on humans and the environment.

Assess the impact of the Chernobyl disaster on changing attitudes to the environment.

Thinking and researching 1.

Split the class into two groups, with one group to research the impact of the Deepwater Horizon Oil Spill (2010) and the other the sinking of Greenpeace’s Rainbow Warrior (1985).

Create a group presentation to share with the other half of the class detailing the event and the impact it had on changing attitudes to the environment.

Identify any similarities between the events in this section. Are there any common themes that emerge?

Discuss or have a class debate about which event in this section you think had the greatest impact on changing attitudes to the environment.

Historical concepts: Continuity and change, Cause and effect, Perspectives Historical skills: Perspectives and interpretations, Research, Communication

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14.8 International cooperation and actions since the 1960s

14.8

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International cooperation and actions since the 1960s Success criteria

In this lesson, you will learn about how countries have worked together since the 1960s to address environmental threats through collaborative global environmental groups and initiatives.

❏ I can describe three actions or agreements that have improved global environmental protection. ❏ I can identify three international environmental groups that were established to combat environmental problems.

SA D I M GI PL T A E L C -O H N AP L Y TE R S

Learning intention

Starter activity Tug of war

Consider a river flowing through three countries: Country A, Country B and Country C. Which country should be responsible for paying to clean and protect the river from pollution?

• For each of the following scenarios, decide which country should pay and think of reasons to justify your answer:

●

What if Country A was producing 90 per cent of the river’s pollution?

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What if Country A was the poorest country and had only 10 per cent the wealth of Countries B and C?

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What if Country B became wealthy in the past by exploiting Country A, leaving A with fewer resources to deal with pollution today?

Since the 1960s, the international community has become increasingly aware of the global nature of environmental threats and the need for coordinated action to address them. By the middle of the 1970s, there was a belief among some sections of society that Earth was heading for an environmental catastrophe. Industrialisation, trade growth, agriculture, urban sprawl and overconsumption of the Earth’s resources had caused issues like pollution, deforestation, loss of biodiversity, climate change and the risk of nuclear radiation.

Source 14.8.1 World Wildlife Fund balloon flies over Manaus, Brazil, to draw attention to Amazonian deforestation, November 2006 ➜

As the push to protect and conserve the environment gained momentum in the twentieth century, international environmental groups began to form, such as the World Wildlife Fund (1961), Friends of the Earth International (1969) and Greenpeace (1971). The formation of specialised agencies like the Environmental Protection Agency (1970), global conferences like the Stockholm Conference (1972) and international treaties like the Montreal Protocol (1987) played a crucial role in shaping early international environmental laws, raising public awareness and guiding sustainable development on a global scale.

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The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), adopted at the 1992 Rio Earth Summit, led to the Kyoto Protocol (1997) and subsequent Paris Agreement (2016), representing continued global cooperation and commitment to combatting environmental problems.

The Formation of Earth Day, 1970

SA D I M GI PL T A E L C -O H N AP L Y TE R S

Writing focus 14.8 Transitional phrases

Earth Day is celebrated on 22 April to show support for environmental protection. It was first observed in 1970 and now takes place in the majority of countries around the world (193 out of 195 countries). It grew out of a desire to share responsibility for the environment amongst all members of the society.

preservationism promotes the preservation of wildlife and natural areas. It is similar to conservationism and environmentalism, but the focus is on keeping an area as untouched by humans as possible

Source 14.8.2 Front page of New York’s Daily News Earth Hour is a designated hour each year covering the first Earth Day in 1970 when people are encouraged to turn off all electricity for the hour to signify a commitment to the health of the planet. Earth Hour originated in Australia and has since spread to 172 countries around the world. ➜

conservationism seeks to protect natural resources by managing their effective use to allow for the replenishment of the resource. Originally aimed at forest areas only, it has since been expanded to include all biomes and environments

John McConnell was the main proponent for the Earth Day celebrations. He suggested a global holiday to be held at the equinox to allow everyone an opportunity to recognise the need to preserve Earth’s resources. Earth Day is celebrated in many ways around the world, such as walking to work, recycling, tree plantings, riverbank clean-ups, garden plantings and local events and fairs. Each society celebrates in a way that is meaningful to them.

Activity 14.8.1

Create an activity which could be done at school to celebrate Earth Day. To what extent would the ideas promoted be similar and/or different to those promoted at the first Earth Day in 1970?

Historical concepts: Continuity and change Historical skills: Research, Communication

The current environment movement encourages people to put the improvement and protection of the environment at the heart of decision making, to ensure resources are available for the coming generations. There is, however, a continuing debate between conservationism and preservationism.

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The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, 1992

SA D I M GI PL T A E L C -O H N AP L Y TE R S

The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) is a worldwide organisation focused on implementing international agreements on climate change. It is responsible for organising conferences and meetings, and tries to keep all interested parties informed and working together to achieve climate action. As a United Nations Secretariat, the UNFCCC has a large number of employees from around the world and provides technical expertise, analysis and review of climate change information, research and studies. According to NASA, climate change is the “long-term change in the average weather patterns that have come to define Earth’s local, regional and global climates.” Global warming is the “longterm heating of Earth’s climate system observed since the pre-industrial period (1850– 1900) caused by human activities.”

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Source 14.8.3 Aerial view of the Australian bushfires in 2019–2020 Climate change can include naturally occurring warming processes, while global warming excludes natural processes and focuses only on human contributions.

Regardless of their causes, global warming and climate change can affect the Earth by changing ocean patterns and sea temperatures. These can, in turn, affect patterns of rainfall, the size of storms such as cyclones, and sea levels (due to melting polar ice). They can also affect the frequency and severity of extreme weather events, such as heatwaves and bushfires. During the horrific Australian bushfires of 2019 and 2020, it was widely acknowledged that climate change had contributed to the conditions that made the fires so large and intense.

Activity 14.8.2

Create a Venn diagram showing the differences and similarities between global warming and climate change. If you need further information, research using the following sites:

• https://cambridge.edu.au/redirect/12054 • https://cambridge.edu.au/redirect/12055

Historical concepts: Cause and effect Historical skills: Comprehension, Communication

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The Kyoto Protocol (1997) The UNFCCC coordinates and sponsors a range of communication campaigns, competitions and educational resource production, and gives a platform for additional reputable information to be found about climate change. It also organises the annual Conference of the Parties (COP) where nearly every county on Earth meet to discuss progress and negotiate new agreements.

SA D I M GI PL T A E L C -O H N AP L Y TE R S

The UNFCCC also administers the Kyoto Protocol, and the subsequent treaties which have developed from it. The Kyoto Protocol (1997) was the first legally binding international treaty under the UNFCCC. It outlined individual country targets for those countries that signed the protocol to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. The aim of the treaty was to stabilise and then reduce greenhouse gas emissions in an attempt to control or mitigate the human impact on the climate system. It came into effect in 2005, meaning signatory countries had eight years to develop plans, processes and yearly targets to help them achieve the necessary reductions.

Countries which were classified as developing economies were not required to attempt to reduce or control their emissions, but some did anyway. Part of the reasoning behind exempting developing countries was because they had little input into the problem of pollution and production of carbon dioxide (CO2) during the nineteenth and twentieth centuries.

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Source 14.8.4 Greenpeace activists dressed as polar bears take part in a demonstration supporting the Kyoto Protocol in Sydney, September 2007.

Industrial countries who have signed the Kyoto Protocol have pledged to reduce carbon emissions each year, compared to their 1990 emission levels. Some countries were able to meet these targets by 2012, but some were not. The United States and China actually increased their emissions during the same period.

Countries could use a range of methods to reduce greenhouse gas emissions such as:

• planting trees and protecting forests to absorb carbon dioxide from the atmosphere • investing in cleaner technologies and infrastructure in developing countries to help reduce emissions • participating in emissions trading schemes, which allow countries that reduce emissions below their targets to sell credits to countries that are exceeding theirs.

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The Doha Amendment The first cycle of the Kyoto Agreement finished in 2012, which led to the Doha Amendment being negotiated and adopted. This agreement was in place until 31 December 2020. The main addition in the Doha Amendment is the inclusion of additional targets, and the ability for countries who had met their reduction commitments to offset any incidental rises in emissions.

The Paris Agreement

SA D I M GI PL T A E L C -O H N AP L Y TE R S

The Paris Agreement of 2016 set out a system of “Nationally Determined Contributions”, which means that every country was to set its own goals for emission reductions from 2020. As an example, Australia pledged that by 2030, emissions would be 26–28 per cent below 2018 levels. The Agreement sets provisions for a “global stocktake” every five years from 2023, to check progress. It came into force on 4 November 2016, once it had been ratified by 55 countries. Even though many countries are still negotiating their commitment to the Paris Agreement, it remains a key symbol of international unity on climate action.

Activity 14.8.3 Source analysis

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Source 14.8.5 A UN infographic outlining the latest data from COP29, 2024

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Source 14.8.6 An infographic detailing the increase in global temperatures between 2013 and 2024

Analyse what Source 14.8.5 suggests about international cooperation in addressing temperature rise.

Assess the usefulness and reliability of these sources to a historian studying the international communities’ actions towards environmental issues and threats.

Explain how these sources might suggest that the Paris Agreement (2016) may not have been effective at reducing emissions.

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Biodiversity and sustainable development

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Another key area of cooperation has been the protection of biodiversity and the promotion of sustainable development. Examples include the Convention of Biological Diversity (CBD), which was signed at the 1922 Rio Earth Summit and aims to conserve species, ecosystems and genetic resources. The MARPOL Convention (1973/78), which was one of the first treaties to address marine pollution from ships, sets international standards for dumping waste and oil at sea. The UN Clean Seas campaign launched in 2017 to reduce plastic pollution in the ocean and the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDG), launched in 2015, include targets directly related to the environment and climate action.

Source 14.8.7 The United Nations Sustainable Development Goals, launched in 2015

Review 14.8

Online quiz

Knowledge and understanding

Thinking and researching

Students can access sample responses and results

Teachers can go online to assign questions, view results, reports and more!

Knowledge and understanding 1.

Outline the differences between preservationism and conservationism.

Describe the role of the UNFCCC in relation to climate change.

Explain what methods are available to countries to reduce emissions.

To what extent has the international communities’ cooperation and actions towards environmental issues and threats since the 1960s been effective? Use evidence to support your response.

Thinking and researching 1.

Research the establishment of the Environmental Protection Authority (EPA) in 1970 and evaluate its impact and legacy on the environment movement.

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14.9

The actions of the Australian Government in response to nuclear contamination at Maralinga Success criteria

In this lesson, you will learn about the Australian Government’s response to the radioactive contamination caused by British nuclear tests at Maralinga.

❏ I can describe the events that took place between 1955 and 1957 in Maralinga. ❏ I can identify and explain three actions the Australian Government took in response to the nuclear contamination at Maralinga.

SA D I M GI PL T A E L C -O H N AP L Y TE R S

Learning intention

Starter activity

From what we have learned about the radioactive contamination surrounding Chernobyl, choose which of the following issues would be the most important to address after a nuclear disaster:

• Human health: Ongoing medical issues faced by people who encountered harmful radioactive matter. • Wildlife: Higher rates of deformity and a declining population of the surrounding wildlife. • Nature and environment: Soil and water contamination limiting vegetation growth and harmful

radioactive particles in plant matter. • Financial reparations: Compensation to families who have been displaced or who have suffered the loss of family members as a result of the nuclear disaster. 1.

Justify your choice.

Now, imagine that you have $10 000 to spend on damages following a nuclear disaster. How would you allocate the money between the four issues?

Maralinga is a remote area in South Australia which was home to the Maralinga Tjarutja people. Between 1955 and 1957, the Australian Government allowed the British Government to use 3000 sq km of the area to test atomic bombs. The British also tested nuclear weapons at Emu Field, also in South Australia, and the Montebello Islands off the Western Australian coast. These tests resulted in a massive contamination issue, which the Australian Government said it was unaware of until 1984.

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Source 14.9.1 Montebello Islands, WA

The British carried out seven nuclear weapons tests at Maralinga, with nuclear materials being released into the environment with each test.

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Darwin

Writing focus 14.9 Transitional phrases NORTHERN TERRITORY

Montebello Islands Maralinga area Site of secret British nuclear tests

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QUEENSLAND

Emu Field

WESTERN AUSTRALIA

Brisbane

SOUTH AUSTRALIA

NEW SOUTH WALES

Perth

Canberra

Adelaide

Sydney

VICTORIA

1000 km

Melbourne

AUSTRALIAN CAPITAL TERRITORY

TASMANIA

Hobart

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Source 14.9.2 The British nuclear test sites at Maralinga, Emu Field and the Montebello Islands

Some of the nuclear tests conducted at Maralinga were as powerful as, or even more powerful than, the atomic bombs used against Hiroshima and Nagasaki during World War II. The environmental impacts of the testing at the three sites were major, with mushroom clouds rising over 14 km into the air and radioactive fallout detected as far away as Townsville.

Over the period of testing, the British Government also conducted approximately 200 minor trials of nuclear weapons and performance testing of weapons components. These tests resulted in 22 kg of plutonium-239 being spread around the site. Because plutonium-239 has a half-life of approximately 24 000 years, radioactive contamination can remain in the environment for thousands of years, creating long-term environmental and health risks.

half-life the time it will take for the material to lose half of its radioactivity

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Source 14.9.3 An atomic test in 1956

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Even 24 000 years in the future from 1963, the amount of plutonium in the environment will be able to cause cancers if a person were to inhale, ingest or absorb any of the material into their body.

SA D I M GI PL T A E L C -O H N AP L Y TE R S

Australian military personnel assisted in all the testing conducted by the British at Maralinga. The RAAF would fly through mushroom clouds to collect samples, but they did not always have the correct safety equipment or radiation monitoring. Sometimes they did not even know what they were collecting. Servicemen were required to decontaminate planes and other equipment without adequate protective equipment or personal decontamination afterwards. Airforce mechanic Ric Johnstone (pictured) spent 10 months at Maralinga in 1956, during which time he frequently went into the blast area, and also decontaminated vehicles. In February 1957, after suffering frequent attacks of vomiting, he was diagnosed with radiation sickness.

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Source 14.9.4 Ric Johnstone and his dog Chloe in an RAAF truck at Maralinga

The Maralinga Tjarutja people were largely ignored during the nuclear testing program. Although warnings were issued to leave the area, these were delivered by a single person, who needed to travel large distances to deliver them. Many residents were also unable to read the English warning signs placed around the site.

Dangers faced by the Maralinga Tjarutja people included radiation fallout, social, emotional and physical hardships, and limited access to food, water and Country. They also suffered forced relocation and the disruption of traditional migration routes and connection to traditional lifestyle. Those caught in the area during and after the testing were exposed to large doses of radiation through the puyu or black mist. The puyu caused eye and vision problems, skin rashes, digestive problems, fever, blindness and a range of cancers. Entire families died early deaths from exposure to the radiation fallout.

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Activity 14.9.1 “Advancement in weapons technology needs to be tested somewhere, why not an empty desert area?” 1.

Discuss this statement.

SA D I M GI PL T A E L C -O H N AP L Y TE R S

Historical concepts: Perspectives, Significance Historical skills: Perspectives and interpretation, Communication

The British left Maralinga in 1963, leaving the site highly contaminated. In 1967, the British Government “decontaminated” the site. They buried contaminated debris and equipment, placed concrete caps on top of the pits and ploughed the soil. This just spread the contamination further. The Australian Government accepted an unreliable British scientific report which stated that these actions were enough to clean up the area and render the plutonium minimally dangerous. It was not until the Australian Government began to conduct tests in 1984, prior to transferring the land back to the traditional owners, that it was discovered that the land was still contaminated on a large scale.

Activity 14.9.2 Source analysis

From the news report, explain what happened at Taranaki.

Identify one lie or omission in the information originally provided by the British Government.

Explain what “Maralinga” means in the language of the traditional owners.

This news report was for UK television. How would you describe the tone of the report? Do you think it would have been different if it had been for an Australian audience?

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Source 14.9.5 British news report from 30 May 1984

Historical concepts: Perspectives, Significance Historical skills: Analysis and use of sources, Perspectives and interpretations

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Community concern about the contamination at Maralinga prompted the Australian Government to establish the Royal Commission into British Nuclear Tests in Australia. This body held hearings about the events, studied science reports from the time along with more recent reports, and decided the British Government was responsible for the complete, full decontamination of the site. The commission also declared compensation payments should be made, due to the fact that the safety and welfare of the First Nations Peoples was not appropriately considered by either the British or Australian Governments.

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Source 14.9.6 Councillors and elders of the First Nations community displaced by the Maralinga tests stand outside the southern barrier to Maralinga, 1984.

After years of negotiation, in 1993 Britain agreed to pay £20 million (around $42 to $45 million in the exchange rate at the time) towards the estimated $101 million cost of decontaminating Maralinga. The traditional owners of the land received a compensation payment of $13.5 million for the contamination of the land, but nothing for the radiation effects on the people. By the end of 2000, the majority of the land around Maralinga had been decontaminated to a high enough standard that allowed unrestricted access to the area. In 2009, the land was formally returned to the traditional owners. It was not until 2017 that the Australian Government agreed to improve health care for military veterans and First Nations people who were suffering ill health linked to the testing.

Today, visitors to Maralinga can tour the former atomic test site and learn about the experiences of scientists, military personnel and First Nations people affected by the testing. There are ongoing efforts to record and preserve these histories.

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14.9 The actions of the Australian Government in response to nuclear contamination at Maralinga

Source 14.9.7 Maralinga atomic site

Review 14.9

Online quiz

Knowledge and understanding

Thinking and researching

Students can access sample responses and results

Teachers can go online to assign questions, view results, reports and more!

Knowledge and understanding 1.

Identify how many nuclear tests occurred at Maralinga.

Identify some of the dangers faced by the Maralinga Tjarutja people.

Explain why Maralinga was selected as an atomic bomb test range.

Explain why military personnel were at risk during the testing at Maralinga.

Summarise the outcome of the Royal Commission into British Nuclear Tests in Australia.

Thinking and researching 1.

Research one other atomic testing location, such as Nevada in the United States or French Polynesia. Explain the difference between the treatments of indigenous residents of those areas. How did the treatment vary from the treatment of the traditional owners at Maralinga?

Choose one environmental issue, such as climate change or deforestation, and analyse the Australian Government’s policies and actions in relation to this issue since the 1960s. Present your findings to the class in a method of your choice.

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14.10

The impact and legacies of human activities on the environment for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples Success criteria

In this lesson, you will learn about how human activities, such as mining, land clearing, industrial development and pollution have impacted the environment for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples.

❏ I can describe two ways human activities have impacted the environment for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples.

SA D I M GI PL T A E L C -O H N AP L Y TE R S

Learning intention

Starter activity Compass points

Imagine a coastal area where a particular community of First Nations Peoples is living. This area is rich in flora and fauna, and the community has a strong cultural history here. Recently, a large company has built a marina nearby, filled with docks, shops and restaurants. Use the following compass points to discuss the newly built marina: 1.

E = Excited: Why might you be excited about the new marina?

W = Worrisome: Why might you be worried? What are some possible downsides of the new marina?

N = Need to know: What else might you need to know or find out about the marina’s impact on the area? What additional information would help you to evaluate this?

S = Stance and suggestion: What is your current stance on the marina? If you were part of the construction company, what might you have suggested they include in the marina to safeguard the environment?

For over 60 000 years, First Nations Peoples in Australia have maintained a deep spiritual and cultural connection to Country. Their knowledge systems have shaped Australian landscapes and sustained human habitation through practices based on respect, balance and care for the natural environment. Since European colonisation, human activities like mining, land clearances, industrial development and humaninduced climate change have threatened that natural environment and impacted negatively on the cultural rights and practices of First Nations Peoples.

The destruction of Juukan Gorge in the Pilbara and the impact of climate change on the Torres Strait islands are clear demonstrations of the scale of the environmental damage that has led to the loss of sacred places and cultural heritage. First Nations Peoples continue to lead campaigns for justice, land rights and environmental protection, and demonstrate how essential their knowledge of Country is to Australia’s shared future. These campaigns highlight the urgent need to consult First Nations Peoples in environmental decisions.

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The destruction of the Juukan Gorge, 2020 Juukan Gorge is situated in the Pilbara region of Western Australia and is a significant and sacred site to First Nations Peoples. In May 2020, the 46 000-year-old site was destroyed by mining company Rio Tinto.

Writing focus 14.10 Creating topic sentences

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Rio Tinto had gained approval in 2013 under outdated heritage laws to expand its iron ore mining operations at Juukan Gorge. The Traditional Owners of the land, the Puutu Kunti Kurrama and Pinikura (PKKP) peoples, were linked to the land by ancient DNA evidence from a hair belt found in the rock shelters at the gorge. Despite the new archaeological evidence discovered in 2014 confirming the site’s cultural value, expansion of the mine proceeded in 2020, destroying the rock shelters and attracting national and international condemnation.

Activity 14.10.1 Source analysis

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Source 14.10.1 NITV news report, 2021, about the destruction of Juukan Gorge and the parliamentary inquiry then in progress. Scan the QR code to watch the video.

Describe what happened at Juukan Gorge.

Describe what the parliamentary inquiry was doing.

WA Federal Senator Patrick Dodson and PKKP woman Sandra Hayes, both talk about Rio Tinto’s actions. a. Why does Sandra Hayes say she will never trust Rio Tinto again? b. How does Patrick Dodson describe Rio Tinto’s initial responses after the event? Identify the four recommendations made by the Parliamentary Report that investigated the damage.

4. 5.

The final report was released in October 2021, after this video was made, and can be read online at: https://www.aph.gov.au/Parliamentary_Business/Committees/Joint/Former_ Committees/Northern_Australia_46P/CavesatJuukanGorge/Report. a. Identify the legislation that the final report recommends amending. b. Describe at least two other recommendations from the final report. Assess the importance of laws and regulations in protecting cultural and environmental heritage in Australia.

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The destruction of Juukan Gorge highlighted the serious flaws in Australia’s cultural heritage laws. While Rio Tinto had technically operated under legal permissions, the incident revealed how outdated laws could be used to prioritise development and profit over First Nations land rights and cultural heritage. The Federal parliamentary enquiry found the destruction was avoidable and recommended urgent reform of the heritage laws, at State and national levels. However, some First Nations groups argue this does not go far enough to protect communities, particularly where culturally significant sites remain vulnerable to development.

SA D I M GI PL T A E L C -O H N AP L Y TE R S

The destruction of Juukan Gorge became a turning point in public discussions about cultural heritage protection, Indigenous consultation and the environmental impacts of mining.

The impact of climate change on Ailan Kastom (Island Custom) in the Torres Strait

The Torres Strait is located between the far north coast of Queensland and Papua New Guinea. Climate change is putting huge pressure on island cultures globally, and the Torres Strait is no different. Rising sea levels, storm surges and coastal erosion are putting whole communities at risk. This could lead to the potential loss of Ailan Kastom, or the traditional culture, knowledge and customs of the Torres Strait Islander Peoples. The Torres Strait Islands are made up of about 270 islands, of which fewer than 30 are inhabited. Around 4000 people live there, with 90 per cent identifying as Indigenous. The islands are part of Queensland territory and residents are Australian citizens. In the Torres Strait, sea levels have risen about six cm per decade between 1993 and 2019. For communities on low-lying islands like Saibai, Boigu and Masig, climate change has already impacted housing, freshwater supplies, sacred sites and cemeteries. Crops have been damaged by salt water, and changing weather patterns have disrupted seasonal hunting and fishing cycles, reducing food security for those communities.

PAPUA NEW GUINEA

Boigu

Saibai

Erub

Masig

Mer

Torres Strait

Badu

Thursday Island

Cape York

100 km

AUSTRALIA

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Source 14.10.2 The Torres Strait Islands are part of Australia located between Queensland and Papua New Guinea Digital-only sample chapters • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Clarke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78794-9 • (03) 8671 1400

14.10 The impact and legacies of human activities on the environment for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples

climate refugees people who are forced to leave their homes and communities due to the effects of climate change

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However, these issues are more than environmental. As the land becomes increasingly uninhabitable, people may be forced to relocate, becoming climate refugees. There is deep concern in the Torres Strait that this could result in a loss of Ailan Kastom. Ancestral knowledge, identity and cultural community, language, dance, maritime practices, spiritual beliefs and connection to Country and sea are all at risk.

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Source 14.10.3 Aerial view of Boigu Island, Torres Strait, showing how vulnerable the residents are to rising sea levels.

In 2019, a group of Torres Strait Islander people, known as the Torres Strait Eight, brought a human rights complaint to the United Nations Human Rights Committee (UNHRC), arguing that the Australian Government had failed to act on climate change, violating their rights as First Nations Peoples. In 2022, the UNHRC ruled in their favour, stating that the Australian Government had failed to adequately protect Torres Strait Islander Peoples against the adverse effects of climate change. The case highlighted the climate change is not just a scientific or political issue, but it is also a justice issue, especially for Indigenous communities who contribute the least to the problem but bear the worst of its consequences. Following the decision, governments continued to invest in coastal protection and climate adaptation measures in the Torres Strait. However, debate continues about whether these actions are sufficient to protect communities, culture and Country from the long-term impacts of climate change.

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Activity 14.10.2 1.

Hold a class debate on the following statement: “Governments should do more to protect Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples from the environmental impacts of human activities”.

Historical concepts: Perspectives, Significance Historical skills: Perspectives and interpretations, Communication

SA D I M GI PL T A E L C -O H N AP L Y TE R S

Review 14.10 Online quiz

Knowledge and understanding

Thinking and researching

Students can access sample responses and results

Teachers can go online to assign questions, view results, reports and more!

Knowledge and understanding 1.

Identify two impacts of the destruction of Juukan Gorge.

Define Ailan Kastom and outline how it is impacted by climate change.

Explain how the destruction of Juukan Gorge reflects broader issues with heritage laws in Australia.

Explain how climate change affects Torres Strait Islander Peoples.

Explain why it is important to consult First Nations groups in decisions that impact Country.

Assess the impact and legacies of human activities on the environment for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples.

Thinking and researching

Research the environmental impact of water use and water scarcity in the Murray–Darling Basin. Answer the following questions: 1.

Briefly explain what the Murray–Darling Basin is and outline its importance.

Describe the environmental issues caused by extracting and diverting the water from the rivers.

Identify one example of environmental damage and summarise how it has impacted First Nations Peoples.

Compare traditional Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples’ environmental management techniques in the area to modern management methods. Evaluate which you think is the most effective and why.

Historical concepts: Continuity and change, Cause and effect, Perspectives, Significance Historical skills: Analysis and use of sources, Perspectives and interpretations, Research

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14.11 The impact and legacies of human activities on the environment for international indigenous peoples

14.11

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The impact and legacies of human activities on the environment for international indigenous peoples Success criteria

In this lesson, you will learn about how indigenous peoples around the world are impacted by environmental damage from deforestation, climate change, pollution and resource extraction.

❏ I can identify and explain how human activities are affecting the lives of international indigenous peoples.

SA D I M GI PL T A E L C -O H N AP L Y TE R S

Learning intention

Starter activity

See, think, wonder

Look at Source 14.11.1. 1.

What do you see? What do you notice about the changing landscape? (I see...)

What do you think about that? How do you think the human activities might be impacting the site? (I think...)

What does it make you wonder about why this is happening? (I wonder...)

For thousands of years, indigenous peoples across the world have lived sustainably on their lands, with deep connections to the natural environment. Ecosystems do not just provide the resources necessary for survival, but are also deeply linked to cultural identity and spirituality.

Writing focus 14.11 The language of source analysis

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Source 14.11.1 Satellite image showing the extent of deforestation in north-western Brazil between 1984 and 2022

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Since the onset of colonialism and industrialisation, these communities have faced significant hardships and disruption to their traditional way of life. Human activities such as deforestation, mining, dam construction, pollution, rising sea levels and climate change have caused environmental degradation with cultural, spiritual and economic consequences for international indigenous peoples.

Amazon rainforest deforestation

SA D I M GI PL T A E L C -O H N AP L Y TE R S

The Amazon rainforest covers 60 per cent of northwestern Brazil and extends into Columbia, Peru, and some small areas in other South American countries. Around 2.2 million indigenous people live in the Amazon, speaking about 300 different languages.

Since the 1970s, the Brazilian Government has promoted large-scale development in the Amazon rainforest, largely indifferent towards the impact on indigenous communities. Increased global population and demand for food, especially meat, has driven the clearing of rainforest for economic reasons, often at the expense of Indigenous communities and the environment. Roads like the Trans-Amazonian Highway opened the rainforest to cattle ranching and crop farming, and from 2001 to 2021, Brazil lost over 42 million hectares of forest to agriculture, mining and logging. As a result, indigenous communities have experienced displacement, cultural loss and increased violence from those clearing and working on the land.

In 2023, Brazil’s new government promised to crack down on illegal mining and strengthen protections for indigenous lands. As well as launching targeted campaigns to remove illegal mining from indigenous land, they also created the position of Minister of Indigenous Peoples to represent indigenous peoples in the government for the first time in the country’s history.

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Source 14.11.2 A street mural in Sao Paulo by Brazilian artist Mundano, made with forest fire ashes and mud from floods to highlight extreme weather events wreaking havoc across the country. It depicts deforestation and severe drought in the Amazon rainforest, and features Indigenous activist Alessandra Korap wearing a crown of flowers and holding a sign: “Stop the destruction, #keepyourpromise”.

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International organisations like Greenpeace have also been working with indigenous communities in Brazil for over 30 years to raise awareness and campaign for land rights and environmental protections. In 1989, they launched a campaign to highlight the threat to the Yanomami people, whose territory was being invaded by illegal gold miners. The campaign helped pressurise the Brazilian Government into determining the land as Yanomami territory in 1992, but the community have struggled ever since to combat the negative impacts of continued illegal mining on their land including disease, loss of food and access to resources, and violence. The Yanomami are the focus of the most recent campaign by the government, specifically targeted to remove the threat for good. Greenpeace have supported many more campaigns to assist local indigenous groups in Brazil, including the use of satellite and aerial surveillance to help expose illegal logging and deforestation on Munduruku and Karipuna lands.

Activity 14.11.1 Source analysis

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Source 14.11.3 A Sky News report from 2025 about the Brazilian rainforest. Watch the video here: https://cambridge.edu.au/redirect/12176.

Identify what the Brazilian government recently launched to protect tropical forests.

Identify the issues the video highlights that are the main causes of loss of rainforest.

Describe what the Kayapo people are doing to protect their ancestral territory.

Identify the reasons the reporter gives for the Kayapo’s success in protecting the rainforest.

Outline why other parts of Kayapo territory are still being destroyed.

Explain why Kayapo leaders will be attending the COP30 Climate Summit, but the US President is not.

Outline what the new government fund might be able to help to change.

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Inuit peoples and climate change

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For the Inuit peoples of the Arctic, climate change poses a profound threat. Traditional Inuit lands stretch through Canada, Alaska, Greenland and parts of Russia. The Arctic is warming at nearly four times the global average, which has led to melting permafrost, shrinking sea ice and unstable weather patterns. Melting ice impacts hunting, fishing and travel routes, and threatens species like polar bears and seals, which are central to Inuit culture and subsistence hunting. The Inuit are disproportionally impacted by the climate crisis and remain at great risk of losing their traditional knowledge systems and cultural heritage as their lifestyle is put increasingly under threat by the impact of climate change.

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Source 14.11.4 The extent of Arctic warming between the 1960s and the 2010s, showing Europe and the Arctic’s surface temperatures have risen more than other countries 1 °C

0.5 °C

1991–2020 average

–0.5 °C

World

–1 °C

Arctic temperatures in the 2010s were 2.8°C higher than in the 1940s.

Europe

–1.5 °C

Arctic

–2 °C

1940s

1950s

1960s

1970s

1980s

1990s

2000s

2010s

Data source: Contains modified Copernicus Climate Change Service information (2025)

Traditional hunting practices rely on stable ice and predictable seasons to safely hunt marine animals like walrus and seal. Rising temperatures and melting permafrost have caused coastal erosion and flooding, made travel more dangerous and reduced access to traditional food sources, forcing whole communities to adapt their lifestyle or consider relocation.

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In 2005, Inuit leader Sheila Watt-Cloutier submitted a petition to the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights (IACHR), arguing that the United States’ failure to act on climate change was a violation of Inuit human rights. While the IACHR declined to process the petition, on the grounds that there was insufficient information to prove any violation of human rights, the petition marked an important moment. By linking environmental issues with human rights, it brought global attention to the challenges faced by Indigenous Arctic communities and was used as an example globally to other groups suffering similar issues.

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Source 14.11.5 Rising sea levels threaten the town of Kivalina, Alaska, United States. Climate change raises the temperature of the Arctic Ocean, which melts the sea ice and causes water levels to rise. In 2019, the Canadian Government funded the National Inuit Climate Change Strategy (NICCS), a climate action initiative founded and run by Inuit people. This represented a clear recognition of the value that Indigenous consultation can bring to addressing environmental issues and empowering Indigenous contribution to environmental policy decision-making.

The Standing Rock Sioux and the Dakota Access Pipeline

In 2016, the Standing Rock Sioux tribe led a campaign against the construction of the Dakota Access Pipeline (DAPL) through their land in the US state of North Dakota. The original route of the pipeline, intended to carry crude oil, was changed without Tribal consultation or consent to pass through land near the Standing Rock Reservation. The protests sparked national and international conversations about the unjust treatment of Indigenous peoples in the United States and the potential dangers of fossil fuel infrastructure.

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ri sou Mis

KEY Dakota Access Pipeline

Rive r

rejected alternative Dakota Access Pipeline

NORTH DAKOTA

preferred alternative Unceded Sioux territory

Mandan

under 1851 Treaty of

New Salem

Ft. Laramie

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r ve

Bismarck

Standing Rock Indian

Almont

Little Heart

Reservation

River

ke O

Protest site

Riv

20 km

ll ba on nn

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Source 14.11.6 Map showing the Dakota Access Pipeline. The dotted line shows the original route and the solid line shows the final route of the pipeline running through Sioux lands. The Standing Rock Sioux raised two major concerns with the pipeline project:

• The pipeline would disturb recently discovered burial places and sacred sites just north of the reservation. • The tribe highlighted that any oil spill or leak could contaminate their main drinking water supply as the new pipeline route runs directly under the Missouri River. The 2007 United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples (UNDRIP) recognises Indigenous Peoples’ right to free, prior and informed consent before developments can occur on their lands. Despite this, in July 2016 the tribe and a nonprofit group Earthjustice sued the US Army Corps of Engineers for violating environmental protection acts and for approving the pipeline without adequate Tribal consultation.

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After months of protests at the site, some of which turned violent, the US Army Corps agreed to hold the final section of pipeline while alternatives were considered. However, after President Trump was elected to office in early 2017, he overruled this decision and initiated the final construction phase of the pipeline, which became fully operational in June 2017. The protests attracted widespread media coverage and celebrity support. They also drew attention to broader political and cultural tensions in the United States, which has a difficult and complicated history of divisive racial issues.

Source 14.11.7 Protesters at the Standing Rock Camp in North Dakota, February 2017

Despite ongoing protests and legal actions, the controversial pipeline remains operational today. There have been repeated attempts to ensure that environmental reviews have been properly carried out and protections are adequate, but there are still significant concerns in the community about the potential environmental impact of the pipeline.

In early 2025, Greenpeace were ordered by a jury in North Dakota to pay the developer of the DAPL more than USD$660 million in damages relating to the actions of activists trained by Greenpeace during the 2016 protests. While they intend to appeal the decision, Greenpeace has described the lawsuit as an alarming attempt by corporations to silence environmental protests and activism.

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Greenpeace continue to actively promote international indigenous rights and environmental protections, helping to raise awareness of these issues. Other organisations like the United Nations Permanent Forum on Indigenous Issues (UNPFII), the United Nations Environment Program (UNEP) and the International Work Group for Indigenous Affairs (IWGI) continue to advocate for the inclusion of indigenous voices in global environmental governance.

SA D I M GI PL T A E L C -O H N AP L Y TE R S

The experiences of Indigenous peoples in the Amazon, the Arctic and at Standing Rock demonstrate how environmental issues can have significant cultural, social and economic consequences. They also highlight the importance of including Indigenous voices in decisions about land, resources and environmental protection.

Review 14.11 Online quiz

Knowledge and understanding

Thinking and researching

Students can access sample responses and results

Teachers can go online to assign questions, view results, reports and more!

Knowledge and understanding 1.

Identify at least four human activities outlined in this lesson that have caused environmental degradation.

Identify the two main concerns the Standing Rock Sioux raised about the Dakota Access Pipeline construction.

Outline how climate change is impacting Inuit communities in the Arctic.

Discuss the Brazilian Government’s changing attitude to development and indigenous rights in the Amazon rainforest since the 1970s.

Assess the impact of the campaign against the Dakota Access Pipeline.

Evaluate the impact of human activities on international indigenous groups.

Thinking and researching 1.

Research the impact and legacy of climate change on island communities in the Pacific, such as Tonga and Vanuatu.

As a class, discuss the impact of climate change on the Pacific Islands and the Torres Strait Islands. Are there any common themes that emerge?

To what extent do you believe that international indigenous communities’ human rights have been violated by more developed nations when it comes to environmental concerns?

Historical concepts: Continuity and change, Cause and effect, Perspectives, Significance Historical skills: Perspectives and interpretations, Research, Communication

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14.12 Chapter review and historical inquiry

14.12

Chapter review and historical inquiry Access the Interactive Textbook for a range of digital tools to help you review this chapter and build confidence.

• Auto-marked questions for fast feedback and fun practice • Self-assessment tools to track your progress, review answers (if enabled by

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the teacher), and flag questions for extra help • Downloadable worksheets for class or homework revision

Summary

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Summary notes

What have you learned about the environmental movement? Copy the table and fill out by explaining your understanding. Aim for two points per topic.

Topic

Download chapter summary

What I have learned

The early environmental movement (1960s) Global organisations and agreements behind the movement

Landmark environmental activism cases in Australia International events that shaped global attitudes

The impact of human activity on Indigenous communities – Australia and global

International cooperation on climate change and sustainability efforts

Visible thinking routine

I used to think … Now I think …

Look back at the key questions at the beginning of the chapter. Select one question, then copy and fill in the following table.

I used to think

Now I think

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Chapter 14 The environmental movement (c. 1960–c. 2015)

Questions and activities Scorcher quiz Access a fast and competitive quiz that puts your understanding to the test.

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Quick questions 1.

The 1972 United Nations Conference on the Human Environment was held in the city of ________.

The NSW Builders Labourers Federation introduced the first ________ in 1971 to protect heritage and green spaces.

The 1983 High Court decision stopping the Franklin Dam project is officially known as Commonwealth v ________.

The nuclear tests at ________ in South Australia resulted in long-term radioactive contamination affecting First Nations communities.

The ________ Agreement of 2016 aims to limit global warming to well below two degrees Celsius.

Define the term “environmental movement”.

Identify one major outcome of the Stockholm Conference.

Describe how the Green Bans movement influenced development in Sydney.

Explain why the destruction of Juukan Gorge became a significant environmental and cultural issue.

10.

Explain how the Chernobyl disaster changed public attitudes towards environmental safety.

Group work activity

In small groups, investigate an environmental campaign during the twentieth century from the perspective of one of the participants (e.g. government, protestors, local land holders or business). Each person is to create a presentation explaining their perspective and present their findings to the class.

Research activity

Select one significant environmental issue or event from the twentieth century and create a presentation outlining the factors which affected that issue.

Creative task

Create a diary of a person your age who has recently become a climate refugee from an island in the Torres Strait. Write at least five entries over a period of time showing how they are adapting to life following relocation to a major city in Australia.

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14.12 Chapter review and historical inquiry

Writing focus

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The following activities offer ways to demonstrate your understanding of the chapter and allow you to continue to practice your writing skills.

Answering questions in paragraphs You can use this as a model when writing your own answers to the questions that follow. Refer to the downloadable file for further guidance.

Download single paragraph model

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Question: Analyse the impact of international communities’ cooperation and actions toward environmental issues and threats since the 1960s.

Model answer:

Topic sentence: the first sentence of the paragraph; directly answers the question

Elaborate: additional information, connections, historical significance, change and continuity, cause and consequence

Examples: provide credibility and illustrate the argument

International cooperation since the 1960s has had a significant but uneven impact on addressing global environment issues. Collective actions such as treaties, global conferences and UN-led initiatives have helped slow some environmental damage and increase global awareness. These agreements have reduced pollutants, established monitoring systems and encouraged states to treat environmental protection as a shared responsibility. However, despite these efforts, new and escalating threats such as global warming, extreme weather and biodiversity loss have intensified. Industrialisation, rising emissions and weak enforcement mechanisms mean that environmental risks have outpaced the effectiveness of international responses Source 14.8.1 shows a World Wildlife Fund balloon, drawing attention to deforestation in the Amazon in 2006. This call to action highlighted the continued largescale forest loss in Brazil since the 1970s, despite major treaties like the UNFCCC and the Paris Agreement limiting land clearing and ecosystem destruction. Overall, while international cooperation has improved environmental governance, persistent and emerging threats require far stronger global action.

Explain: clarify, define and describe

Evidence: specific, relevant evidence to support your arguments

Linking sentence: reconnects to the topic sentence using the language of the question

Extended-response questions 1.

Summarise how the environment movement has grown and changed over time to reflect the concerns of indigenous communities and environmental heritage.

Analyse the impact of international communities’ cooperation and actions towards environmental issues and threats since the 1960s.

Assess the significance of key events and groups in shaping the environmental movement.

Evaluate the success of the environmental movement in achieving its aims.

“Environmental protection cannot be separated from indigenous rights.” To what extent do you agree with this statement?

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Chapter 14 The environmental movement (c. 1960–c. 2015)

Historical inquiry

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Investigating significance Download Historical inquiry

In this historical investigation into the significance of the environmental movement, you will undertake the following steps: Part 1: Develop historical questions

• Step 1: Select an aspect of the environmental movement that interests you. Examples include: ●

The impact of an international event of your choice (such as the Stockholm Conference of 1972 or Chernobyl disaster) in changing attitudes towards the environment

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●

A UNESCO World Heritage Site of your choice

●

The impact of a local event of your choice (such as the Green Bans movement in NSW in the 1970s) in changing attitudes towards the environment The actions and effectiveness of an international environmental group of your choice (such as the World Wildlife Fund or Greenpeace)

The actions and effectiveness of a particular protest movement of your choice (such as the fight against the Dakota Access Pipeline)

• Step 2: Brainstorm what you already know. • Step 3: Develop a historical inquiry question. Examples include: ● ●

●

What is the global significance of the UNESCO World Heritage Site of your choice? What was the significance of the international event of your choice in changing attitudes towards the environment?

What was the significance of the local event of your choice in changing attitudes towards the environment?

How significant has the international environmental group of your choice been in achieving their goals? How significant has the environmental protest movement of your choice been in achieving their goals?

• Step 4: Explain why the question is important. Part 2: Locate and analyse evidence

Part 3: Communicate historical findings Part 4: Reflect

Teachers, access the Online Teaching Suite for digital resources and tools that support review, assessment and reporting, including:

• student and class activity reports • a test generator to create custom assessments • built-in feedback tools • editable downloadable support material • a downloadable and printable “Writing focus” workbook for this chapter. • download a sample case study for this chapter.

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Acknowledgements

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Acknowledgements

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Acknowledgements

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Ernest Untermann (Chicago: Charles H. Kerr and Co., 1909), 5.6.8; Lenin Internet Archive (marxists.org) 1993, 1999, 5.6.10; From ‘Debate on Mr. Wilberforce’s Resolutions respecting the Slave Trade’ in William Cobbett, The Parliamentary History of England. From the Norman Conquest in 1066 to the year 1803, 36 vols (London: T. Curson Hansard, 1806–1820), 28 (1789–91), cols 42–68., 5.7.3; An Act for the Abortion of the Slave Trade (1807), 5.7.5; Selections from the Writings of W. L. Garrison, 5.7.10; Frederick Douglass, The Destiny of Colored Americans, 1849., 5.7.12; National Archives, 5.10.4; “Sieyès, “What Is the Third Estate?” (1789),” Liberty, equality, fraternity: exploring the French Revolution, 5.11.3; Yale Law School, Lillian Goldman Law Library, 5.11.4; Vincent Oge, quoted in L. Hunt, The French Revolution and Human Rights: A Brief Documentary History, Boston: Bedford, 1996, p. 103, 5.12.2; Translated by Laurent Dubois and John Garrigus, in Slave Revolution in the Caribbean 1789–1804: A Brief History, Macmillan, 2017. Reproduced with permission of the Licensor through PLSclear, 5.12.5; Lincoln Presidential Foundation, 5.13.2; The Papers of Jefferson Davis, Vol.8, pp.565–84. Transcribed from the Memphis Appeal, Jackson Miss., 29 December 1862, 5.13.5; Abraham Lincoln, Gettysburg Address, 1863, 5.13.6; National Archives, 5.13.7; Lenin’s Collected Works, Progress Publishers, Moscow, Volume 26, 1972, pp. 437–441. Translated: Yuri Sdobnikov and George Hanna, Edited by George Hanna., 5.14.8; Parliament of Victoria, 5.16.3; “Manifesto of the Shearers’ Union”, published in Queensland newspapers, 1891, 5.17.2; The Age, 13 July 1905, 5.17.3; Program of the NSDAP, 24 February 1920, 8.3.4; Owings, A., 1993, Frauen: German Women Recall the Third Reich, Rutgers University Press, p.55. Licenced via Copyright Clearance Centre, 8.3.8; AJP Taylor, p.839; Heinrich Müller, 9 November 1938, teletype message to regional Gestapo offices, 8.5.3; Program of the NSDAP, 24 February 1920, 8.3.4; Reinhard Heydrich, Instructions to regional and district Gestapo headquarters, 21 September 1939, 8.5.5; Australian Aborigines League, Resolution, December 1938, 8.5.10 Harvard Law School Nuremberg Trials Project. “Affidavits concerning the killing of Jews in the Ukraine in 1942 by the security police and SD, including a detailed account of mass shootings at Dubno and the liquidation of the Rowno ghetto”, Hermann F. Graebe. 1945., 8.6.2; Gerstein, K., 1945, Gerstein Report reproduced by permission of the Holocaust Historical Society, 8.7.4; United Nations, 14.3.4; Jack Mundey. Letter to Sydney Morning Herald, 1972, 14.4.2; NASA, p.929.

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