Contents
iii
Contents ix ix xi
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
About the authors Geographic skills How to use this resource
Focus area
Biomes and sustainable agriculture
0
Chapter 1 Biomes and productivity
3
1.1
Geo Spark: Why is the Amazon rainforest in crisis?
4
1.2
What are biomes?
8
1.3
Where are different biomes located in Australia and across the globe?
12
1.4
How does climate and latitude impact biome productivity?
16
1.5
How do soil and elevation impact biome productivity?
22
1.6
How are biomes valuable for producing fibres and industrial materials?
26
1.7
How are biomes valuable for food production?
32
1.8
What challenges face the banana industry in tropical Queensland?
38
1.9
Chapter review
44
Chapter 2 Geographical skills: Mapping Earth’s biomes
47
2.1
Finding direction (compass and bearings)
48
2.2
Small- and large- scale maps
51
2.3
Aspect of a slope
55
2.4
Local relief
58
2.5
Fieldwork
60
2.6
Chapter review
62
Chapter 3 Case study: Factors influencing food production in Australia and Asia
71
3.1
Geo Spark: Where are the world’s first robotic vertical farms?
72
3.2
How do humans change biomes to produce food?
75
3.3
What environmental factors influence the supply of and demand for food?
83
3.4
What social, economic and technological factors influence the supply of and demand for food?
87
3.5
What are the environmental impacts of food production?
94
3.6
Chapter review
100
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083pre_p00i-xv.indd 3
21/05/26 7:32 PM
Contents
Chapter 4 Towards food security
103
4.1
Geo Spark: What is the Svalbard Global Seed Vault?
104
4.2
What is food security?
107
4.3
How does climate change impact food security?
112
4.4 What economic and technological factors impact food security?
118
4.5
What sustainable practices can improve global food security?
125
4.6
How can Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples’ knowledge and practices inform sustainable food systems?
131
4.7
Chapter review
137
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
iv
Focus area
Changing places
140
Chapter 5 Case study: Movement of people
141
5.1
Geo Spark: Who was the toddler who washed ashore?
142
5.2
What factors push people to migrate internationally?
145
5.3
What factors pull people to migrate internationally?
150
5.4
What are the social consequences of international migration?
155
5.5
What are the economic consequences of international migration?
160
5.6
Chapter review
184
Chapter 6 International migration and Australia
167
6.1
Geo Spark: No more migrants?
168
6.2
Who is migrating to Australia?
171
6.3
Why is Australia a global migration haven?
177
6.4
How is global migration shaping Australia – for better or worse?
182
6.5
How does Australia’s migration compare with China’s?
188
6.6
Chapter review
192
Chapter 7 Geographical skills: What demographics tell us about places
195
7.1
Using photographs in geographical inquiry
196
7.2
Finding the direction of photographer using a map
199
7.3
Using shadows in photographs to estimate time of day
204
7.4
Logarithmic and semilogarithmic graphs
204
7.5
Fieldwork: Changing places
210
7.6
Chapter review: Making sense of change
212
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083pre_p00i-xv.indd 4
21/05/26 7:32 PM
v
Contents
223
8.1
Geo Spark: What makes Las Vegas the “Thirsty City”?
224
8.2
What is urbanisation?
226
8.3
What are the consequences of urbanisation?
234
8.4
How are urban settlements distributed?
240
8.5
Case study: What is the world’s largest sinking city?
246
8.6
What are the challenges facing rural and remote Australian communities?
250
8.7
How sustainable are Australia’s future urban places?
256
8.8
How can mega sporting events be used to manage urban growth?
260
8.9
How will the 2032 Olympic and Paralympic Games help shape a sustainable urban future for Brisbane?
265
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
Chapter 8 Changing settlement patterns and planning for urban sustainability
8.10 Chapter review
270
Focus area
274
Environmental management and change
Chapter 9 Environmental change
275
9.1
Geo Spark: What is the Great Pacific Garbage Patch?
276
9.2
What is an environment and how are they classified?
279
9.3
Why are Earth’s environments important?
284
9.4
What are the main biophysical processes changing Earth’s environments?
289
9.5
Case study: How did bushfires change Kangaroo Island?
294
9.6
Case study: Where did all the forests go?
298
9.7
How has climate change affected environments?
304
9.8
What are the impacts of environmental change?
310
9.9
Chapter review
316
Chapter 10 Geographical skills: Mapping change across environments
319
10.1
Gradient
320
10.2
Creating transects
323
10.3
Cross-sections and vertical exaggeration
326
10.4
Finding local relief and gradient from a cross-section
329
10.5
Fieldwork
333
10.6
Chapter review
335
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083pre_p00i-xv.indd 5
21/05/26 7:32 PM
Contents
Chapter 11 Environmental management
341
11.1
Geo Spark: Coral – back from the dead?
342
11.2
What are the different views on environmental management and how can we assess their sustainability?
347
11.3
Case study: How can we restore penguin habitats on the Summerland Peninsula?
352
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
vi
358
11.4
Case study: How can we use the knowledge of Aboriginal Peoples to manage Kakadu
11.5
Case study: What is being done to monitor and insure the health of the Mesoamerican Reef?
384
11.6
Chapter review
370
Chapter 12 Case study: Australia and the Canary Islands
373
12.1
Geo Spark: Prime real estate or irresponsible zoning?
374
12.2
What are coastal dunes?
379
12.3
How do the atmosphere and hydrosphere interact in coastal dune development?
385
12.4
How do the lithosphere and biosphere interact in coastal dune development?
391
12.5
How are coastal dunes being affected by natural environmental change?
396
12.6
How are coastal dunes being affected by human-induced environmental change?
402
12.7
How can soft-engineering help coastal dunes?
407
12.8
How can hard-engineering help coastal dunes?
412
12.9
Case study: What do you know about the Stockton Bight Sand Dunes?
418
12.10 Case study: What do you know about the Maspalomas Dunes?
424
12.11
430
Chapter review
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083pre_p00i-xv.indd 6
21/05/26 7:32 PM
Contents
Focus area
Human wellbeing
vii
434 435
13.1
Geo Spark: Why is Hong Kong a harbour of disparity?
436
13.2
How do geographers define and measure human wellbeing?
438
13.3
What are the key indicators of human wellbeing and development?
441
13.4
How do human wellbeing and development indicators interconnect and vary at a global scale?
448
13.5
Why do levels of human wellbeing and development differ around the world?
455
13.6
What are the key global challenges for human wellbeing? Part 1: Social and economic
459
13.7
What are the key global challenges for human wellbeing? Part 2: Political and environmental
485
13.8
Who measures and addresses human wellbeing and development around the world?
469
13.9
Chapter review
474
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
Chapter 13 Human wellbeing and development
Chapter 14 Geographical skills: Human wellbeing
477
14.1
Latitude and longitude
478
14.2
Cartograms
483
14.3
Calculating area
488
14.4
Calculating density
492
14.5
Fieldwork
496
14.6
Chapter review: Projections of poverty and prosperity
502
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083pre_p00i-xv.indd 7
21/05/26 7:32 PM
viii
Contents
Chapter 15 Case study: Variations in and improving human wellbeing - Australia
511
Geo Spark: Can Australia “Close the Gap” on its most significant variation in human wellbeing?
512
15.2
How does human wellbeing vary across Australia?
514
15.3
Does it matter where Australians live? Part 1: Environmental and social
521
15.4
Does it matter where Australians live? Part 2: Economic and technological
528
15.5
What is Australia doing to improve human wellbeing?
534
15.6
What role does culture, heritage and community play in enhancing human wellbeing in Australia?
539
15.7
How are Australia’s Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples enhancing human wellbeing?
543
15.8
Chapter review
548
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
15.1
Chapter 16 Case study: Variations in and improving human wellbeing: Denmark and India
551
16.1
Geo Spark: How can we reinvent the toilet?
553
16.2
How and why does wellbeing vary in Denmark and India?
554
16.3
What is being done to improve human wellbeing in India?
562
16.4
How do perspectives on human wellbeing vary between Denmark and India, and what roles do culture, heritage and community play in enhancing it?
567
16.5
Chapter review
570
Glossary Index Acknowledgements Selected answers to skills chapters' activity questions
000 000 000 000
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083pre_p00i-xv.indd 8
21/05/26 7:32 PM
About the authors
ix
About the authors
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
Rex Cooke (Co-lead author) is currently the Head of Geography at St Ignatius College Riverview in Sydney. He is a senior Geography teacher with over 25 years’ experience and has authored and co-authored a number of textbooks for Cambridge, including Australian Curriculum Series and NSW curriculum series, as well as the teacher edition for the NSW series. He has been a marker, judge marker, chief judge, senior marker and is currently the Coordinating Senior Marker for the HSC Geography Examination marking operation for NESA. He is also currently the convenor for the CSSA Trial Examination committee, and he has presented at both AIS and Geography Teachers Association Conferences on a wide range of Geography curriculum and teaching approaches. He was a member of the Technical Advisory Group for NESA which reviewed the new Stage 4 and 5 Geography syllabus and Elective Geography Syllabus. Matt Carroll (Co-lead author) is the Head of HSIE at The Jannali High School in Sydney. With over 15 years’ experience as a senior Geography, elective Geography and junior HSIE teacher across both department and independent schools, Matt brings a wealth of expertise to the field. He has co-authored several textbooks for GTANSW, including the new curriculum-aligned case study texts Powerful Geography 1 and 2. In addition to his teaching roles, Matt coordinates the Independent Trial HSC and Bookminders Australia exams and develops comprehensive assessment packages for Stages 4–6. He has also served as an HSC marker in various capacities, including pilot, judge and senior marker. Matt is a regular presenter at the GTANSW annual conference, and has created professional learning webinars and videos to support teachers and students in Geography curriculum and innovative teaching approaches. Sammy Coburn has over 10 years’ experience teaching in New South Wales public schools, including in remote communities, and now teaches at Newcastle Grammar School. She is passionate about creating inclusive learning environments and supporting student engagement through innovative teaching practices. Sammy is the co-creator of the YouTube channel Geography Explained Online and the Geography Revised Online Workspace. She is a council member of the Geography Teachers Association of NSW/ACT as well as the Brock Rowe recipient for excellence in Geography teaching (2020). Sammy has been recognised in NSW State Parliament for her contributions to public education.
Rex Cooke
Matt Carroll
Sammy Coburn
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083pre_p00i-xv.indd 9
21/05/26 7:32 PM
x
About the authors
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
Alan Cizzio
Alan Cizzio is a senior Geography and Humanities teacher with 15 years’ experience teaching at various high schools in the Hunter Valley. He has been at his current school for a decade. Alan is the co-creator of the Geography Explained Online YouTube channel and has made more than 50 instructional videos about geography skills for the Stages 4, 5, and 6 syllabuses. He is currently on the council of the Geography Teachers Association of NSW & ACT. Alan has been recognised in NSW State Parliament for his services to public education in NSW.
Bianca Mangioni
Emily Hung
Jayden Hankin
Bianca Mangioni is a Geography and Mathematics teacher at a secondary school in the Hunter region. She is committed to developing clear, relevant and practical teaching resources that support teachers in delivering the NSW syllabus with confidence and purpose. Bianca is a councillor on the Geography Teachers Association of NSW & ACT and has recently completed a Master of Education (Learning and Leadership). Her strong commitment to ongoing professional learning and the development of others underpins her approach to teaching and curriculum design.
Emily Hung is a senior Geography and Humanities teacher in New South Wales high schools. She has five years’ secondary Geography teaching experience and has led Geography Elective in her school in North Sydney for the past five years. She is passionate about human geography and engaging students in geographic inquiry. Emily has also been a contributing author in the Geography Teachers Online Australia HSC Program, which is used to support the teaching and pedagogy of emerging and experienced teachers alike across New South Wales.
Jayden Hankin (he/him) is a Geography and Humanities teacher in New South Wales high schools. He has six years’ senior Geography teaching experience, has led the teaching of Geography Elective and various fieldwork programs, including taking his students to the Great Barrier Reef. He is passionate about engaging students in geographic thinking and inquiry, and is driven to instill a sense of wonder and appreciation for the world around us in all the students he teaches. Jayden has also been an HSC Geography marker and a contributing author to the Independent Trial Examinations for Geography Stages 4, 5 and 6 since 2024.
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083pre_p00i-xv.indd 10
21/05/26 7:32 PM
About the authors
Patrick Lai
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
Patrick Lai is the Assistant Faculty Head of Human Society and its Environment in an independent school in the Hills area in New South Wales. He has taught Stage 6 Senior Geography for more than eight years and has been an HSC Geography marker since 2021. Patrick is passionate about seeing students engage positively with Geography and has recently started an Environment Club with some senior students, aiming to promote sustainable initiatives in and around the school community.
xi
Holly Burgmann (she/her) is a Geography teacher with more than 15 years’ experience teaching in New South Wales high schools. She has also worked in a number of New South Wales Environmental Education Centres, where she developed programs and taught fieldwork excursions for K–12 students in Sydney’s natural and urban environments. She is passionate about getting students outside to conduct meaningful fieldwork and engage more deeply with the environments around them.
Nathalie Newton-Walters is an experienced Senior Geography teacher in Far North New South Wales. She has experience leading secondary Geography in NSW, QLD and in the UK, where she began her teaching career. Her passions are in planning, preparing and delivering fieldwork experiences and incorporating primary data and real-world problem-solving and decision-making into learning. She is also an active member of the Geography Teachers Association of NSW & ACT, where she has presented revision lectures for the HSC Examinations and was awarded second place in the Teacher Category in last year’s Young Geographer Award.
Holly Burgmann
Nathalie Newton-Walters
Andrew Finlay is a Deputy Principal at a public high school in Western Sydney. He is a senior HSIE teacher, an experienced HSC marker, and was a member of NESA’s Quality Teaching Council for 6 years. Andrew has a particular focus and passion for developing student writing, working with Cambridge University Press & Assessment as a Literacy Consultant.
Andrew Finlay
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083pre_p00i-xv.indd 11
21/05/26 7:32 PM
xii
Header Header
Geographic skills Each focus area in this resource includes a dedicated geography skills chapter. These fun and engaging chapters feature:
• careful sequencing of geographic skills across Stages 4 and 5 • four new skills lessons per chapter and a chapter review lesson featuring a range
of activities step-by-step lessons employing a range of geographic tools such as maps and graphs explainer videos from Sammy Coburn and Alan Cizzio - the creators of Geography Skills Online – and co-author Bianca Mangioni accessible explanations and a range of activities including video-based demonstrations Selected answers are also available at the end of the resource for students to check that they are on the right track.
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
• • • •
Skills progression perstage
Finding direction (compass and bearings)
BOLTSS
Stage 4
Place and liveability
Area and grid references
Contour lines and elevation
Small and large scale maps Aspect of a slope
Scale and distance
Local relief
Types of photos
Using photos in geographical inquiry
Types of maps
Finding the direction of photos using maps
Changing places
Line and bargraphs
Estimating time of day in photos using shadows
Population profiles
Logarithmic and semilogarithmic graphs
Weather vs. climate
Water in the world
Biomes and sustainable agriculture
Climate graphs
Synoptic charts
Stage 5
Landscapes and landforms
Gradient
Environmental change and management
Creating transects
Cross-sections and vertical exaggeration
Wind direction and fronts
Finding local relief and gradient from a cross-section
Flowline maps
Latitude and longitude
Pie charts
Cartograms
Interconnections
Human wellbeing Composite column graphs
Calculating area
Ternary graphs
Calculating density
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083pre_p00i-xv.indd 12
21/05/26 7:32 PM
Biomes and sustainable agriculture
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
Focus area
CHAPTERS
1. Biomes and productivity 2. Geographical skills: Mapping Earth’s biomes 3. Factors influencing food production in Australia and Asia 4. Towards food security
➜
Image: Agrovoltaics, also called agrisolar, is when the same land is used for both farming and solar panels. This helps make smart use of space and works in harmony with nature.
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c01_p002-046.indd 2
21/05/26 9:12 AM
Chapter
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
1
Biomes and productivity
Lessons
1.1 Geo Spark: Why is the Amazon rainforest in crisis? 1.2 What are biomes?
1.3 Where are different biomes located in Australia and across the globe? 1.4 How does latitude and climate impact biome productivity? 1.5 How do soil and elevation impact biome productivity?
1.6 How are biomes valuable for producing fibres and industrial materials? 1.7 How are biomes valuable for food production?
1.8 What challenges face the banana industry in tropical Queensland? 1.9 Chapter review
➜
Teachers go to the Online Teacher Suite to: • plan, sequence and assign directed tasks for students and classes using Task Manager • view student activity reports • provide feedback to students • download a printable “Writing focus” workbook for this chapter.
Image: Aerial view of a Boreal Forest biome in Quebec, Canada
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c01_p002-046.indd 3
21/05/26 9:12 AM
4
Chapter 1 Biomes and productivity
1.1
Geo Spark: Why is the Amazon rainforest in crisis? Success criteria
In this lesson, you will learn about one of the best known and loved biomes in the world: the Amazon tropical rainforest.
❏ I can explain characteristics and features of the Amazon rainforest. ❏ I can describe some of the challenges that affect the future of the Amazon rainforest.
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
Learning intention
➜
Writing focus 1.1 Question words
➜
Figure 1.1.1 The Amazon rainforest is one of the most biodiverse regions in the world.
Introduction
biodiverse having a large variety of plant and animal life in a place biome a large, naturally formed community of plants and animals found in a place
Figure 1.1.2 A three-toed sloth. Its toes are actually claws, which is an adaptation that helps it to live in trees. ➜
The Amazon rainforest is one of the most biodiverse places on Earth. This biome is home to pink river dolphins, piranhas, anacondas, jaguars, sloths, toucans and the cacao plant (the source of chocolate). One in 10 of the world’s animals lives in the Amazon rainforest, and many Amazonian plant and animal species are still unknown to us.
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c01_p002-046.indd 4
21/05/26 9:12 AM
5
1.1 Geo Spark: Why is the Amazon rainforest in crisis?
adaptation the process of change where an organism becomes better suited to its environment tributary a small river that feeds its water into a bigger river
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
The Amazon rainforest is in the northern region of South America (see Figure 1.1.3) and is classified as a tropical rainforest biome. Biomes are communities of plants and animals that have naturally adapted to a region. The high biodiversity in this biome is due to its warm temperatures, high rainfall and an extraordinary network of 1100 tributaries that transport water through the region. These natural characteristics support life within the rainforest but also benefit us. The Amazon provides food, rainfall, oxygen, materials and medicine.
VENEZUELA
GUYANA
SURINAME
Pacific Ocean
COLUMBIA
FRENCH GUIANA
ECUADOR
PERU
BRAZIL
BOLIVIA
LEGEND
Amazon biome Amazon Basin
PARAGUAY
URAGUAY
ARGENTINA
Atlantic Ocean
CHILE
Falkland Islands
0
1,000 km
➜
Figure 1.1.3 Geographic location of Brazil and the Amazon rainforest biome
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c01_p002-046.indd 5
21/05/26 9:12 AM
6
Chapter 1 Biomes and productivity
deforestation clearing a large area of trees agriculture the process of growing crops and raising animals for human use and as food
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
livestock animals used for work, food or produce
The Amazon rainforest biome is in serious trouble. In August 2024, there were over 65,000 fire hotspots in the Amazon, making it the worst year for fires since 2005. A total of 13.4 million acres of land was burned – an area larger than entire countries, such as Costa Rica or Denmark. Most of the fires were started by humans to clear trees, a process known as deforestation. The cleared land is then used for agriculture, including growing crops and grazing livestock. Deforestation has also reduced the amount of water in the region, drying out the land and increasing the risk of fires. Although fires have occurred before, the humid climate usually prevents them from spreading too far. However, Brazil is now experiencing its worst drought in history, making the situation worse.
➜
Figure 1.1.4 Global Forest Watch map illustrating the number of wildfires across South America in 2024, showing a high concentration in Brazil. The coloured dots indicate high-confidence fire alerts between July and September 2024.
➜
Figure 1.1.5 Aerial view of an area of Amazon rainforest deforested by illegal fires in the municipality of Labrea, Amazonas State, Brazil. Photograph taken on 20 August 2024.
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c01_p002-046.indd 6
21/05/26 9:12 AM
7
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
1.1 Geo Spark: Why is the Amazon rainforest in crisis?
➜
Figure 1.1.6 A soy plantation, running alongside rainforest, in the Amazon. Deforestation could turn much of the Amazon rainforest into a dry, grassy landscape, with serious impacts on biodiversity. How can we use biomes in a way that protects the planet while also providing food for a growing population?
Activity 1.1
Visible thinking routine: See, think, wonder 1.
Name the type of photographs used in this lesson. Describe the benefit of each for a geographer studying biomes and sustainable agriculture.
2.
Referring to Figures 1.1.4–1.1.6, copy and complete the following see, think, wonder table.
3.
With a partner, discuss the challenges facing the Amazon rainforest.
Table 1.1.1 See, think, wonder
See What do you see, observe or notice in this image?
Think Why do you think this environment is in trouble?
Wonder What does the image make you wonder about the Amazon rainforest biome?
Figure 1.1.4 Figure 1.1.5 Figure 1.1.6
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c01_p002-046.indd 7
21/05/26 9:12 AM
8
Chapter 1 Biomes and productivity
1.2
What are biomes?
Success criteria
We’ve looked at an example of a tropical rainforest biome through the story of the Amazon rainforest. In this lesson, you will learn about the world’s biomes, how they can be classified and their productivity.
❏ I can explain what is meant by the term biome using examples.
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
Learning intention
Lesson starter Think, pair, share 1.
Think: Imagine you have been asked to take a photo of your favourite natural environment and bring it to class. Take a few notes: What landscape would you choose? What would be the main features of your photo? How would it feel to be in that place? What might threaten its future?
2.
Pair: Compare your notes with the person next to you. What similarities and differences do you notice?
3.
Share: Prepare to share your answers with the class. Try to explain your partner’s reasons for their choice, then swap.
➜
Figure 1.2.1 Every place on Earth is part of a unique biome, each with its own living and non-living things.
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c01_p002-046.indd 8
21/05/26 9:12 AM
9
1.2 What are biomes?
What is a biome? indigenous (plants or animals) naturally existing in a specific place
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
When you look out your window, are you more likely to see a magpie in a gum tree or a moose or polar bear? Most of the plants and animals near your home are indigenous to your region, meaning they naturally exist in your local environment. A biome is a geographic region identified by the plants and animals that naturally live there. The word bios comes from Greek and means “life”, highlighting that each biome is defined by the unique collection of life it supports. As shown in Figure 1.2.2, biomes vary in the types of plants and animals that grow and live there. Observing the indigenous plant and animal life in a region is a good starting point when identifying a biome. a
b
c
➜
Figure 1.2.2 The Earth’s biomes include (a) temperate forests, (b) taiga (boreal forest) and (c) sea ice biomes, among many others.
What are the different biomes?
As seen in Table 1.2.1, there are two main types of biomes: terrestrial (land) biomes and aquatic biomes. These can be further classified into more specific biomes based on the different plant and animal species found in each region. A biome is often named after a key characteristic of its environment, such as its dominant vegetation. For example, the tundra biome gets its name from the Finnish word tundra, meaning “treeless plain”. Can you guess which type of vegetation dominates the grasslands biome? What do you think might be the main characteristic of the ice biome? Table 1.2.1 The main biome classifications, each of which can be further classified into more specific biomes Terrestrial biomes
Aquatic biomes
Tropical rainforest Temperate forest Desert Tundra Taiga (boreal forest) Grassland Savanna/tropical grassland
Freshwater Marine
The ice biome can be terrestrial in the form of ice sheets and glaciers, or aquatic in the form of sea ice.
savanna flat grasslands with scattered trees and shrubs
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c01_p002-046.indd 9
21/05/26 9:13 AM
10
Chapter 1 Biomes and productivity
Biome productivity
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
➜
Writing focus 1.2 Transitional phrases
Biome productivity refers to the rate at which producers, such as trees, plants and algae, generate biomass through the process of photosynthesis. Some biomes are full of plants and animals, while others have very little life. The amount of living matter, or biomass, in a biome affects how much food, fibre and plant-based materials it can produce. Biomes with the highest biomass have the greatest capacity to produce food for humans.
biome productivity the amount of biomass or living plant material produced through photosynthesis
biomass organic material that comes from plants and animals
Figure 1.2.3 shows the productivity of some of the world's biomes. As you can see, the most productive biomes, such as tropical rainforests, support rapid plant growth, high biodiversity and significant food production. In contrast, the least productive biomes, such as deserts and the tundra, have relatively low biomass.
Climate, latitude, elevation and soils are all important factors that affect the productivity of the world’s biomes. These factors will be explored in lessons 1.4 and 1.5. Terrestrial biomes Tropical rainforest
Tropical seasonal forest Temperate rainforest
Temperate seasonal forest Boreal forest Savanna
Cultivated land
Woodland/shrubland
Temperate grassland
Tundra
Desert scrub
Extreme desert
Aquatic biomes
Swamps and marshes Coral reef
Salt marsh
Upwelling zone
Lakes and streams
Continental shelf Open ocean
0
500
1,000
1,500
2,000
2,500
3,000
Net primary productivity (g C/m²/year)
➜
Figure 1.2.3 A horizontal bar graph showing the net primary productivity of the world's biomes. It is measured in g C/m2/year which refers to the annual carbon (C) flux in grams per square metre. Source: Adapted from AP Environmental website
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c01_p002-046.indd 10
21/05/26 9:13 AM
11
1.2 What are biomes?
Review 1.2 Knowledge and understanding
Online quiz
Thinking and working geographically
Students can access sample responses and results online
Teachers can go online to assign questions, view results, reports and more!
Knowledge and understanding
Define the term “biome” and provide three examples.
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
1. 2.
Use examples to explain how some biomes are named based on their geographic characteristics.
3.
Using Figure 1.2.3, identify the top three terrestrial biomes in terms of productivity and describe why they would be so high in productivity.
Thinking and working geographically
Working with geographical concepts: Environment 1.
Using biomes A–D in Figure 1.2.4, explain the features of, and differences between, the three biomes.
A
B
C
D
environment the concept of environment is about the significance of the environment in human life, and the important interrelationships between humans and the environment
➜
Figure 1.2.4 Identify which biomes are shown in these images.
Geographical inquiry 2.
Choose a biome you would like to visit and write a paragraph explaining why it interests you. Describe what makes this environment special and the activities you would enjoy doing there.
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c01_p002-046.indd 11
21/05/26 9:13 AM
12
Chapter 1 Biomes and productivity
1.3
Where are different biomes located in Australia and across the globe? Success criteria
In this lesson, you will learn about the spatial distribution of biomes. As explored earlier, biomes are identified by their plant and animal species.
❏ I can recall the names and geographical location of a number of different biomes.
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
Learning intention
Lesson starter
Analysing a crop grown in particular biomes in Australia 1.
Have you ever seen a bright yellow landscape like the one in Figure 1.3.1?
2.
What do you think is growing here?
3.
Is it natural or have humans changed the biome?
This is a canola crop, which grows in woodlands and scrub biomes. Western Australia is the country’s main canola-growing state, producing over 50% of the nation’s 4 million tonnes of canola each year. What do you think this crop is used for?
Biomes in Australia
climate the average weather conditions of a place over a long period (usually 30 years)
terrestrial landbased, existing on Earth's surface rather than in water
The Australian continent is over 7.7 million km2 and spans over 30 degrees of latitude, from the tropics in the north to the mid-latitudes in the south (see Figure 1.3.2). As a result, Australia has a diverse range of biomes, each with its own unique climate, vegetation and wildlife. The seven main terrestrial biomes found in Australia are:
Figure 1.3.1 Vibrant yellow flowers transform the landscape during springtime in the Victorian Goldfields. ➜
• deserts • tropical grasslands • woodlands and scrub • temperate forests • temperate grasslands • tropical forests • alpine.
The largest biome in Australia is the desert, which covers about 70% of the continent and extends across five states and territories. These regions are hot and dry, with low vegetation cover and productivity. The smallest biome in Australia is the alpine biome, found in high-elevation areas in parts of Victoria and New South Wales. These areas become Australia’s snowfields during winter. In which of Australia’s unique biomes do you live?
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c01_p002-046.indd 12
21/05/26 9:13 AM
13
1.3 Where are different biomes located in Australia and across the globe?
Darwin
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
at Div iding Ran Gre ge
Tropic of Capricorn AUSTRALIA
LEGEND
Woodlands and scrubs Tropical grasslands Tropical forests Temperate grasslands Temperate forest Deserts Alpine
Perth
Adelaide
Brisbane
Sydney Canberra
Melbourne
0
1,000 km
➜
Figure 1.3.2 Map of Australia’s terrestrial biomes
➜
Figure 1.3.3 A desert landscape at opal mining town White Cliffs, in New South Wales
Hobart
Where are other biomes located?
Writing focus 1.3 Transitional phrases ➜
Biomes are found in different parts of the world depending on the climate. They often form bands that stretch across the Earth from the equator to the poles. Tropical rainforests grow near the equator, where it is hot and rainy all year. Deserts are found near the tropics, where it is hot and dry. Temperate forests and grasslands are located in the middle parts of the Earth, which have warm summers and cool winters. There are also water biomes, such as oceans, rivers and lakes, which cover a large part of the planet. Figure 1.3.4 shows where 10 different biomes are located around the world.
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c01_p002-046.indd 13
21/05/26 9:13 AM
14
Chapter 1 Biomes and productivity
150W
120W
90W
60W
30W
0
30E
60E
90E
120E
150E 75N
60N
60N
45N
45N
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
75N
30N
30N
Tropic of Cancer
LEGEND
15N
Tropical rainforest
Equator
0
Temperate forest Desert
15S
Tropic of Capricorn
Tundra
30S
Taiga
Grassland
45S
0
Savanna / Tropical grassland
10,000 km
60S
Freshwater Marine Ice
60W
30W
0
30E
60E
90E
120E
150E
Figure 1.3.4 The spatial distribution of global biomes
At a global scale, the taiga is the largest land biome, making up about 17% of Earth’s land. This biome is found across the Northern Hemisphere, mainly in Russia, Canada, Scandinavia and Alaska. The taiga has long, cold winters and short, mild summers. The growing season is short, so plants have little time to grow each year. The forest is mostly made up of coniferous trees, such as pine, spruce and fir, and the soil is thin and poor in nutrients. Animals such as moose, bears, wolves and lynx live in the taiga and have thick fur to stay warm, and some hibernate during winter. ➜
coniferous a tree or shrub that bears cones and retains its needle-like leaves year round
➜
taiga a biome characterised by long, cold winters, short, mild summers and coniferous forests
90W
Figure 1.3.5 The taiga forests in Stolby Nature Reserve in Russia
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c01_p002-046.indd 14
21/05/26 9:13 AM
15
1.3 Where are different biomes located in Australia and across the globe?
Latitude, climate and elevation are important factors that affect the spatial distribution of biomes at a global scale. These influences will be explored in Lesson 1.4.
Review 1.3 Knowledge and understanding
Thinking and working geographically
Students can access sample responses and results online
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
Online quiz
Teachers can go online to assign questions, view results, reports and more!
Knowledge and understanding 1.
Recall the name of the largest biome in Australia.
2.
State how much of Australia it covers.
3.
Describe the characteristics of this biome.
4.
Using Figure 1.3.2, list the four main biomes found in New South Wales.
Thinking and working geographically
Working with geographical concepts: Place 1.
Using Figure 1.3.4 answer the following questions
place the concept of place is about the significance of places and what they are like
a. What biomes are located at a latitude of 0°, known as the equator? b. What biomes are located above 60° north of the equator? c. What biome is located above 60° south of the equator? d. What aquatic biomes are shown on this map (as opposed to terrestrial biomes)? e. Besides latitude, suggest a factor that might influence the type of biome found in a location.
Geographical inquiry
➜
2.
Imagine you planned a road trip and were travelling by car from Sydney to Perth. What biomes would you pass through on your journey? Describe how the landscape would change along the way.
Figure 1.3.6 The rugged wilderness of the Kosciuszko National Park, an alpine biome
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c01_p002-046.indd 15
21/05/26 9:13 AM
16
Chapter 1 Biomes and productivity
1.4
How does latitude and climate impact biome productivity? Success criteria
So far, you have learned what biomes are and where they are found around the world. In this lesson, you will explore how latitude and climate affect where different biomes occur and how productive they are.
❏ I can explain how latitude and climate impacts biome productivity.
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
Learning intention
Lesson starter
Using a cartogram
A cartogram is a map in which geographic areas are distorted to represent a specific variable instead of their actual land size. What variable is represented in the cartogram in Figure 1.4.1? Can you identify any specific continents or countries that have been distorted? What do you think is a reason for the abnormally large regions of the map?
LEGEND Gross Primary Productivity (Kg C/m2, 2001–2011) High
Low
➜
Figure 1.4.1 A cartogram showing the Gross Primary Productivity of the world’s biomes. Source: Adapted from Worldmapper website.
Latitude
➜
Writing focus 1.4 Developing sentences
Latitude measures how far a place is from the equator (0°). It is shown by imaginary horizontal lines running north and south of the equator. Latitude affects climate by influencing how much solar energy an area receives. Regions near the equator get direct sunlight year round, making them warmer and more stable in temperature. As you move towards the poles, sunlight hits the Earth at an angle, spreading out over a larger area and reducing heat, which results in colder climates with more extreme seasonal changes (see Figure 1.4.2). This is due to the Earth’s curved shape and its tilted axis, which also causes variation in day length throughout the year.
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c01_p002-046.indd 16
21/05/26 9:13 AM
1.4 How does latitude and climate impact biome productivity?
Low angle of incoming sunlight
17
60 °N 30 °N
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
Sunlight strikes most directly
Tropic of Cancer 0° (Equator)
Tropic of Ca p
ricorn
30 °S
60 °S
Low angle of incoming sunlight
➜
Figure 1.4.2 Latitude affects the amount of sunlight that different regions of the Earth receive.
➜
Latitude plays a major role in shaping biomes and is closely interconnected with climate, as it affects temperature and sunlight levels. The tropics, located between 23.5° north and south of the equator, receive direct sunlight all year round. This makes the tropical rainforest biome consistently warm. Combined with high rainfall, this direct sunlight makes tropical rainforests the most abundant biome (See Figure 1.3.4 in Lesson 1.3). They are home to approximately 50% of all life, even though they cover only 2% of Earth’s surface. In contrast, polar ice Figure 1.4.3 Tropical rainforests are rich and diverse biomes. biomes, found between 65° and 90° latitude, receive far less sunlight. As a result, they are much colder and cannot support an abundance of life.
Climate
Climate refers to the average weather conditions of a place over a long period (usually 30 years). Weather conditions are factors that change daily, such as temperature, wind and precipitation. By calculating the average daily weather conditions over 30 years, we can determine a place’s climate and predict the type of weather expected at different times of the year. Precipitation and temperature strongly influence the type of biome found in a particular location as well as its productivity (see Figure 1.4.7).
precipitation liquid or frozen water that forms in the atmosphere and falls to Earth (e.g. rain, snow)
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c01_p002-046.indd 17
21/05/26 9:13 AM
18
Chapter 1 Biomes and productivity
75N
150W
120W
90W
60W
30W
0
30E
60E
90E
120E
150E
75N 60N
45N
45N
30N
30N
15N
15N
0
0
15S
15S
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
60N
30S
30S
–40
45S
60S
150W
0
90W
0
20
45S
60S
–60–40–20 0 20 40 60 80
5,000 km
120W
–20
60W
30W
0
30E
60E
90E
120E
150E
➜
Figure 1.4.4 A choropleth map showing the global distribution of annual average temperatures
Annual precipitation (cm)
400
Tropical rainforest
300
t res
ate per
fo rain
Tem
200
Temperate seasonal forest
100
Boreal forest
dra
n Tu
0
–10
Woodland/ shrubland / grassland Temperate desert cold
0 10 20 Average annual temperature (°C)
Tropical seasonal forest/ savanna
Subtropical desert
30
➜
Figure 1.4.5 The Whittaker biome model. This is a graph showing how precipitation and temperature relate to the type of biome. For example, woodland biomes have a temperature range of –2°C to 22°C and annual precipitation of between 10 and 120 cm.
If you live in a region with four distinct seasons but without extreme temperatures or rainfall, you may be in a temperate climate. A common biome in this climate is the temperate forest biome. With mild temperatures and over 140 centimetres of annual rainfall, many species of plants and animals thrive, making it a highly productive biome. In fact, temperate climates are so favourable that most people worldwide live in them. On the other hand, if your region receives less than 25 centimetres of rain per year, it is likely a desert biome (see Figure 1.4.6). These dry conditions create a challenging climate for life to adapt to, and they support fewer plants and animals, making deserts much less productive biomes.
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c01_p002-046.indd 18
21/05/26 9:13 AM
1.4 How does latitude and climate impact biome productivity?
19
Tropical rainforests are the most productive biomes, meaning they produce the most biomass. As shown in Figure 1.4.6, tropical rainforests have warm temperatures year round, so photosynthesis is maximised. The high rainfall (typically 2,000–4,000 millimetres annually) means water is never a limiting factor. In these regions, plants grow all year round, and decomposition is rapid due to warmth and humidity, making nutrients quickly available to plants.
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
Manaus, Brazil
5
0
0
be
r
De
ce
m
be
No ve m
to b
Se
Oc
pt em
be
st
gu
Au
Ju
40 35
30
30
25
25
20
20
15
15
10
10
r
be
m
ce
be
r
De
er
No ve m
to b
r
Oc
be
pt em
Se
Au
gu st
ly
Ju
ne
Ju
Ap
Ma
y
ru ar
Fe b
nu ar
Ja
Monthly precipitation (mm)
Ma y
0
ril
0
rc h
5
y
5
Average monthly temperature (°C)
Ma
Fe b
Ap
ar
ru
ar
nu
Ja
Ju
Average monthly temperature (°C)
Cairo, Egypt
35
Average monthly temperature (°C)
50
r
10
er
100
r
15
ly
150
ne
20
Ma y
200
ril
25
rc h
250
y
30
Monthly precipitation (mm)
Monthly precipitation (mm)
35
300
y
Monthly precipitation (mm)
350
Average monthly temperature (°C)
➜
Figure 1.4.6 Climate graphs of a rainforest biome and a desert biome. The blue bars represent total monthly rainfall and the red line represents average monthly temperature.
Clearly, biome productivity is affected by both latitude and climate. The rate at which plants produce biomass through photosynthesis is highest in the warm, low-latitude regions where sunlight and rainfall are abundant. On the other hand, biome productivity decreases in colder, high-latitude areas, where conditions limit plant growth.
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c01_p002-046.indd 19
21/05/26 9:13 AM
20
Chapter 1 Biomes and productivity
Review 1.4 Knowledge and understanding
Online quiz
Thinking and working geographically
Students can access sample responses and results online
Teachers can go online to assign questions, view results, reports and more!
Knowledge and understanding
Using an example, describe the relationship between latitude and climate.
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
1. 2.
Distinguish between the terms climate and weather.
3.
Using the climate graphs in Figure 1.4.6, contrast the precipitation and temperature of the two biomes.
4.
Evaluate how climate impacts biome productivity.
Thinking and working geographically
Working with geographical concepts: Place 1.
Using Figure 1.4.7, write a paragraph that explains the Whittaker biome model.
Geographical inquiry
Using geospatial technologies: ARC GIS Global Biomes
place the concept of place is about the significance of places and what they are like
Geospatial technologies include any software or hardware that interacts with real-world locations. The Global Positioning System (GPS), Google Earth, geographic information systems (GIS) and satellite images are the most commonly used spatial technologies for visualising, manipulating, analysing, displaying and recording spatial data. Spatial technologies are useful in geography because they allow us to map, analyse and understand the world in new ways. They help geographers observe and interpret the Earth’s surface, making it easier to study and solve real-world problems.
➜
Figure 1.4.7 ArcGIS Global Biomes is a useful geospatial technology that is available online.
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c01_p002-046.indd 20
21/05/26 9:13 AM
21
1.4 How does latitude and climate impact biome productivity?
1.
Follow the instructions below to explore an example of a geospatial technology tool. a. Search for “ArcGIS Global Biomes” in a search engine. b. Make sure “Global Biomes” is unticked, then experiment with changing the base maps for the world map. What features does each base map show?
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
c. Add the “Global Biomes” layer to the map. Explore the locations of different biomes within Australia. To view the legend, click on the icon with three lines in the top left of the screen. Alternatively, you can click on a biome to see its name. What spatial patterns can you identify for a particular biome? d. Use the “Area” tool by clicking on “Measure” (the triangle icon in the top left) and then choosing “Area”. You can then measure the area that a particular biome covers.
e. Change the base map to the “Charted Territory Map” and use the Area tool to measure the coverage of a particular biome in another country of your choice. f. Zoom in on an area of interest in Australia. In turn, switch between viewing the “Global Biome”, “Annual Temp” and “Total Annual Precipitation” at that location. What patterns can you see? g. Repeat this process in another part of the world. What patterns do you see?
h. Compare the patterns you observed in the two locations. What does this tell you about the relationship between temperature, precipitation and biomes?
➜
Figure 1.4.7 Precipitation is one of the factors that strongly influence the type of biome found in a particular location.
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c01_p002-046.indd 21
21/05/26 9:13 AM
22
Chapter 1 Biomes and productivity
How do soil and elevation impact biome productivity?
1.5
Success criteria
In the previous lesson you learned that latitude and climate are two factors that impact biomes. In this lesson, you will investigate the influence of elevation and soils.
❏ I can explain how soil and elevation impact biome productivity.
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
Learning intention
Lesson starter
Soil is a feature that affects biome productivity. Figure 1.5.1 shows soils of different colours, labelled A–E. Which colour soil do you think would be the most productive? Why?
A
B
C
D
E
➜
Figure 1.5.1 A variety of soil types and colours are found in different biomes.
humus the organic part of soil that is formed when microorganisms break down plant material plant yield a measure of the amount of a crop or product a plant produces, typically measured per unit of land area organic matter matter that has come from a recently living organism such as a plant or animal
Soil
Healthy soil is vital for plant growth and crop yield. Soil is the top layer of the Earth and consists of minerals, water, air and humus (decayed plant and animal matter). Healthy soil increases productivity and plant yield by providing the right balance of nutrients, minerals, air, water and microbes, helping plants grow strong and resist disease. In fact, one teaspoon of healthy soil contains more microbes than there are humans on Earth! Figure 1.5.2 outlines how soil supports plant health. Soil colour can indicate productivity. Dark brown or black soil is rich in organic matter and generally fertile, while pale, grey or reddish-yellow soils may signal poor fertility, low organic matter or poor drainage. Soil type also impacts productivity. Sandy soil drains quickly and is poor in nutrients, requiring frequent irrigation and fertilisers to support plant growth. Silty soil retains water well and is often fertile, but can be prone to erosion. Clayey soil holds water and nutrients well, but can become waterlogged, restrict root growth, and can also compact easily. The most productive soil is called
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c01_p002-046.indd 22
21/05/26 9:13 AM
1.5 How do soil and elevation impact biome productivity?
23
loam. This soil combines the benefits of sand, clay and silt, which create ideal growing conditions for plants.
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
Temperate grasslands have the most productive soils in the world due to a thick, nutrient-rich topsoil, which is created by the process of decomposition. Because of their quality soil and sufficient soil moisture, temperate grasslands are the most fertile biome for agriculture. The constant cycle of growth and decay of the dominant grass species and consistent temperatures allow for the steady decomposition of organic matter. This replenishes nutrients in the soil.
topsoil the uppermost layer of soil, typically the top 5–20 cm, that is rich in organic matter and nutrients decomposition the process of being broken down into smaller pieces by bacteria and fungi permafrost permanently frozen soil, mostly found in the polar and tundra biomes
How soil supports plant health
• Air pockets give roots space to grow and provide them with oxygen. • Humus acts like a sponge, holding water to keep the soil moist and reducing
➜
Writing focus 1.5 Developing sentences
erosion by improving soil structure. • Microorganisms break down organic matter, detoxify the soil and kill disease-causing organisms. • Nitrogen helps plants convert the Sun’s energy into food. • Phosphorus helps transfer energy from sunlight to plants and encourages plant growth.
➜
Figure 1.5.2 The benefits of healthy soil in improving crop yield
Figure 1.5.3 Top soil is the uppermost layer of soil and the most vital layer for plant growth. ➜
The tundra biome, which is mostly distributed within the Arctic Circle or in areas of high elevation (see Lesson 1.3), supports lowgrowing shrubs and mosses that can endure the permanently frozen soils, known as permafrost. In the coldest of grassland biomes, such as the steppes (large unforested plains) in Siberia, ancient organisms have been found preserved in the frozen soil. In these biomes, the soil is too cold for decomposition to occur. Desert biomes are also some of the least productive biomes due to lack of water and nutrients in the soil, coupled with extreme temperatures.
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c01_p002-046.indd 23
21/05/26 9:13 AM
24
Chapter 1 Biomes and productivity
Elevation Elevation refers to how high land is above or below sea level. As elevation increases, temperatures drop because the atmosphere becomes thinner and holds less heat. On average, the temperature decreases by 6–7°C for every 1,000-metre increase in elevation.
➜
Figure 1.5.5 (a) Elevation map of South America compared with (b) a biome map of the same area. The Andes mountain range is the region of highest elevation, shown in dark brown (map A). It corresponds with the alpine biome shown in light brown (map B). The Andes is indeed primarily a cold, treeless alpine biome.
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
If you walked from the base to the peak of a 4,000-metre mountain, you would pass through several biomes. In the Andes of central Peru, for example, you would start in a tropical rainforest, then move through mossy forests, woodlands and grasslands (steppes) before reaching the cold, treeless alpine biome, which begins where snow starts to form. How much colder would you expect a 4,000-metre-high mountain peak to be compared to sea level? GUYANA Georgetown SURINAME Paramaribo FRENCH GUIANA Cayenne
Caracas VENEZUELA
Bogota COLOMBIA Quito ECUADOR
➜
A
Figure 1.5.4 Hikers make their way through a grasslands biome in Peru, with the Andes’ alpine biome in view. Grasslands are productive biomes, whereas alpine regions are not.
B
PERU
BRAZIL
Lima
La Paz BOLIVIA Sucre
LEGEND
PARAGUAY Asuncion
Pacific Ocean
Santiago
Buenos Aires
CHILE
URUGUAY Montevideo
ARGENTINA
Atlantic Ocean
LEGEND
7,000 m 6,000 4,000 3,000 2,000 1,000 500 200 0 -100 m
1. Tropical/subtropical biomes Flooded grasslands and savannas Grasslands, savannas and shrublands Moist broadleaf forests
Falkland Islands
0
2,000 km
2. Temperate biomes Broadleaf and mixed forests Grasslands, savannas and shrublands
3. Dry biomes Deserts and xeric shrublands Mediterranean forests, woodlands and scrublands
4. Polar/montane biomes Montane grasslands and scrublands Rock and ice Tundra
5. Aquatic biomes Lakes Mangroves
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c01_p002-046.indd 24
21/05/26 9:13 AM
25
1.5 How do soil and elevation impact biome productivity?
We have learned in previous lessons that biomes are determined by climate, which impacts temperature and precipitation levels. Biome productivity decreases with elevation because of the lower temperatures, shorter growing seasons, and less water and nutrients available in high elevation environments. These things limit the ability of plants to grow and produce biomass through photosynthesis. Teachers can go online to assign questions, view results, reports and more!
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
Review 1.5 Knowledge and understanding
Online quiz
Thinking and working geographically
Students can access sample responses and results online
Knowledge and understanding 1.
Identify the most productive (a) soil colour and (b) soil type.
2.
Outline two ways that healthy soil can improve productivity.
3.
How does temperature change as elevation increases?
4.
In relation to soil, explain why temperate biomes have high productivity.
Thinking and working geographically
Working with geographical concepts: Environment 1.
Research a place that has high elevation. Complete a fact file by finding the following: a. location name b. country c. elevation d. biome.
Note: You may like to use Biome Viewer to help you identify which biome your location fits. Find the Biome Viewer at the BioInteractive website (https://cambridge.edu.au/redirect/11823). 2.
environment the concept of environment is about the significance of the environment in human life, and the important interrelationships between humans and the environment
Explain how elevation impacts the productivity of the biome.
Geographical inquiry 3.
Collect soil from different areas around your school grounds. Perform the ribbon test to assess whether the soil is sandy, silty or clayey soil. Follow the following steps:
a. Wet the soil: Take a small amount of soil and add water slowly until it forms a soft, moldable ball. b. Squeeze the ribbon: Gently squeeze a ribbon of soil between your thumb and forefinger. c. Determine the soil type based on the following descriptions:
• Sandy soil: It will feel gritty and won't form a long ribbon. • Silty soil: It may form a soft ribbon but will be very fragile. • Clayey soil: It will feel smooth and can be formed into a long, ribbon-like shape, similar to
plasticine, before breaking. • Loam soil: It will form a short ribbon that is smooth and easy to squeeze, without feeling gritty or excessively sticky. e. Which soil do you think would be the best for growing food? Why?
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c01_p002-046.indd 25
21/05/26 9:13 AM
26
Chapter 1 Biomes and productivity
1.6
How are biomes valuable for producing fibres and industrial materials? Success criteria
Previously, you have learned about biomes and some of the factors that impact their productivity. In this lesson, you will investigate how biomes are valuable for producing fibres and other industrial materials.
❏ I can explain why biomes are valuable. ❏ I can give examples of fibres and industrial materials that come from the world’s biomes.
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
Learning intention
Lesson starter
Activity: Discover the biomes around you
Take a moment to look around and identify the items on and around you right now. Think about your clothes, the furniture you’re using, your school bag, and even the food in your lunch box. All of these everyday items come from natural environments, biomes, somewhere around the world. 1.
Make a list of at least 10 items you see or are using.
2.
For each item, try to identify the natural materials it might be made from (e.g. cotton from plants, leather from animals, wood from trees)
3.
Research or guess which biome/s these materials originally came from (e.g. cotton might come from a tropical grassland biome, or leather from animals in savannas).
Humans need biomes
➜
Biomes are highly valuable to humans because they support the production of fibres and industrial materials. Fibres are thread-like parts that form plant or artificial material and can be made into cloth. Natural fibres include cotton, wool and silk. Industrial materials are the raw materials used in industries to manufacture products, Figure 1.6.1 So many of the items we use every day are made from and are also valuable. Natural materials sourced from a biome. industrial materials include wood, bamboo or rubber. Without the world’s unique biomes, we wouldn’t have access to such useful resources that improve the quality of our lives.
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c01_p002-046.indd 26
21/05/26 9:13 AM
1.6 How are biomes valuable for producing fibres and industrial materials?
27
Cotton ginning the process of separating seeds and debris from cotton fibre using a machine called a cotton gin
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
Much of our clothing and bedding come from cotton. Cotton is a soft, fluffy fibre that grows around the seeds of the Gossypium plant (see Figure 1.6.2) and is the most widely produced natural fibre in the world. When mature, the crop is picked and the cotton fibre (or lint) is separated from the seed in a process called ginning. Cotton fibre is processed into yarn and then fabric, and makes up 31% of the world textile market. It is not just the cotton fibre that’s valuable; there are many uses of the whole plant. The seeds can be crushed for oil or animal feed, the linters produce cotton balls, and the leftover plant material can be mulched or composted to improve the soil.
Figure 1.6.2 Cotton comes from a Gossypium plant. It is the most widely produced natural fibre in the world. ➜
Cotton is grown between the latitudes 45° north and 35° south of the equator. Cotton grows best in subtropical or temperate biomes because these places are warm and sunny for most of the year. Cotton needs a long, hot growing season without frost to grow properly. These areas also usually get enough rain or have soil that holds water well, which helps the cotton plants stay healthy and grow strong. It is cultivated in various regions worldwide, mainly China, India, the United States and Brazil (see Table 1.6.1). Australia is ranked fifth: there are approximately 1250 cotton farms, half are in NSW and half are in Queensland.
Table 1.6.1 Table showing the top producing countries of cotton. China leads the way, producing 27% of global cotton. Source: U.S. Department of Agriculture website Market
Percentage of global production
Total production (2024/2025, 480 lb* bales)
China
27%
32 million
India
20%
24 million
Brazil
14%
17 million
United States
12%
14.41 million
Australia
5%
5.6 million
Pakistan
4%
5 million
Türkiye
3%
3.95 million
Uzbekistan
3%
3 million
Argentina
1%
1.37 million
European Union
1%
1.24 million
*480 lb = 217.72 kg
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c01_p002-046.indd 27
21/05/26 9:13 AM
28
Chapter 1 Biomes and productivity
Timber
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
Timber is another valuable resource obtained from biomes. Timber is the wood prepared for use in building and carpentry. Timber products are used for beams in houses, fences, flooring and much of the furniture we use. As seen in Figure 1.6.3, the main biomes that grow trees for the timber industry are tropical rainforests, temperate forests and taiga (boreal forest). Tropical forests along the equator are hot and humid all year round, which allows trees to grow more continuously and produce a greater amount of wood compared to other climates. Temperate forests are located in the midlatitudes, experience distinct seasons and have trees that grow well in distinct seasons. Taiga biomes are located in a broad belt across the northern hemisphere, between roughly 50° and 60° north latitude, and include parts of Siberia, Scandinavia, Alaska and Canada, and produce large amounts of timber due to their large land size.
plantations large farms that mainly grow one type of crop to sell to other countries rather than for local use
crop rotation an agricultural practice that involves alternating the types of crops grown in a specific field over a series of seasons
It is important to distinguish between logging from natural forests and plantations, which have different sustainability impacts. Unsustainable logging practices and deforestation are major threats and can lead to the loss of complete forests. Responsible forestry and reforestation, on the other hand, aims to protect the environment while still harvesting timber. The responsible forestry industry works in a cycle where trees are planted, grown and then cut down to make wood products. After trees are harvested, new ones are planted to keep the forest growing. The industry focuses on long-term sustainability, often using crop rotation that can take decades for trees to mature. 150°W
120°W
90°W
60°W
30°W
0
30°E
60°E
90°E
120°E
150°E
75°N
75°N
60°N
60°N
45°N
45°N
30°N
30°N
Tropic of Cancer
15°N
15°N
Equator
0
15°S
30°S
0
15°S
Tropic of Capricorn
30°S
LEGEND
Tropical rainforest
45°S
45°S
Temperate forest Taiga
60°S
0
60°S
5,000 km
75°S
75°S 150°W
120°W
90°W
60°W
30°W
0
30°E
60°E
90°E
120°E
150°E
➜
Figure 1.6.3 The locations of three biomes that produce timber: tropical forests, temperate forests and taiga (boreal forest)
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c01_p002-046.indd 28
21/05/26 9:13 AM
29
1.6 How are biomes valuable for producing fibres and industrial materials?
Amazing but true On average, each year, every Australian consumes the equivalent of about 1 cubic metre of harvested log in the form of timber products, including timber for home building, joinery and furniture, and paper products.
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
Rubber
Did you know that rubber used for tyres, hoses, rubber gloves and toys is actually sourced from a tree? The natural latex from the Hevea brasiliensis tree has milky sap that is harvested by tapping the bark. The tree is native to the Amazon region and grows wild in tropical rainforest biomes in countries such as Brazil, Venezuela, Ecuador, Colombia, Peru and Bolivia.
tapping making incisions with a knife in the bark of a rubber tree to harvest the milky latex sap
Tropical rainforest biomes provide the perfect environment for rubber trees due to their consistently high temperatures (between 25º and 35º), ample rainfall, high humidity and available sunlight. Today, the Hevea brasiliensis tree is also widely cultivated on plantations in the tropics and subtropics worldwide, especially in South-East Asia and parts of Africa.
Writing focus 1.6 Appositives ➜
The world’s demand for natural rubber has almost tripled in the last 40 years. This has happened because the population has grown, and more people around the world are using cars. However, as the demand for rubber increases, problems are created, such as illegal logging of forests, loss of land for local people, unfair treatment of workers, and harm to animals and plants when forests are destroyed to make space for rubber-tree farms.
➜
Figure 1.6.4 Found in the tropical rainforest biome, the Hevea brasiliensis tree has milky sap that is collected to make natural rubber. Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c01_p002-046.indd 29
21/05/26 9:13 AM
30
Chapter 1 Biomes and productivity
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
Vietnam China (Yunnan Province)
China (Hainan Island) Thailand South Phillipines (Mindanao)
Côte d'Ivoire
South Mexico
Southern India
South Nigeria Cameroon
Brazil (rainforest areas)
Sri Lanka
Gabon
Principal rubber growing regions
Malaysia
Papua New Guinea
Indonesia (Sumatra/Java)
Brazil (coastal region above São Paulo)
LEGEND
Cambodia
Burma
0
5,000 km
➜
Figure 1.6.5 Natural rubber is grown in regions located in tropical rainforest biomes.
Biomes are essential because they provide valuable natural resources, such as fibres and industrial materials, including cotton, wood and rubber, which are used to make the many products that improve our everyday lives. With growing demand for goods worldwide, can these industries have a sustainable future?
Review 1.6
Knowledge and understanding
Online quiz
Thinking and working geographically
Students can access sample responses and results online
Teachers can go online to assign questions, view results, reports and more!
Knowledge and understanding 1.
Define the term “fibre” and provide examples.
2.
How is the whole of the cotton crop used?
3.
List the top five cotton-producing countries in the world.
4.
Describe how natural rubber is resourced.
Thinking and working geographically
Working with geographical concepts: Sustainability 1.
Research a timber plantation and evaluate its sustainability. Consider its environmental, social and economic impacts.
• Environmental: Does it protect natural resources, reduce pollution and
sustainability: the concept of sustainability is about the capacity of the environment to continue to support our lives and the lives of other living creatures into the future
support biodiversity? • Social: Does it respect human rights, provide fair working conditions and benefit local communities? • Economic: Is it financially stable and able to continue without harming people or the planet? Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c01_p002-046.indd 30
21/05/26 9:13 AM
31
1.6 How are biomes valuable for producing fibres and industrial materials?
Community meeting 2.
Your community is deciding whether to allow logging in the local forest biome. The forest provides timber and jobs, but it’s also home to wildlife and sacred Aboriginal land.
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
a. Choose your role. In groups, take on one of these roles: • Aboriginal Elder • Logging company CEO • Tourism operator • Student activist • Local politician.
b. Prepare your arguments. Work with your group to write three main points that support your role’s opinion. Use geographical terms, such as biome, sustainability, ecosystem, human impact. c. Hold the community meeting. Each group presents their case to the class (one minute each). d. Then, discuss or vote: Should logging be allowed? Under what conditions? e. Reflection: Describe which viewpoint from the debate was hardest to argue or understand and why. Explain which solution you think is most sustainable and why.
➜
Figure 1.6.6 Harvesting pine trees from a pine plantation
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c01_p002-046.indd 31
21/05/26 9:13 AM
32
Chapter 1 Biomes and productivity
1.7
How are biomes valuable for food production? Success criteria
Last lesson we learned how biomes are valuable for producing fibres and other industrial materials. Now we will learn about how biomes are valuable for food production.
❏ I can explain why biomes are valuable. ❏ I can give examples of food that come from the world’s biomes.
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
Learning intention
Lesson starter
My dinner plate biome 1.
Draw your plate: draw a typical dinner or a meal you enjoy on a blank plate.
2.
Label the biomes: for each food item, write down the biome you think it comes from (e.g. tropical rainforest, grassland, temperate forest or desert).
3.
Research: use websites to check if your guesses are correct.
4.
Make corrections: update your plate with the correct biomes based on your research.
Biomes and food production
crop yield the amount of produce that is grown on a piece of land
➜
agriculture the process of growing crops and raising animals for human use and food
Biomes are valuable for food production because they provide the natural conditions and resources that allow plants and animals to grow. Our food comes from vegetable and cereal crops as well as dairy, poultry and meat from animals. Dating back as far as 65,000 years ago, when Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples practised agriculture, humans have worked hard to create a consistent food supply. We Figure 1.7.1 Which biomes are used to produce the food you like to eat? have achieved this by altering biomes and increasing the amount of product that can be grown on a piece of land, known as crop yield. Biomes are highly valuable because they provide the natural resources, fertile soils and diverse ecosystems that make agriculture possible and support the production of food, fibres and other materials essential for human life.
Biomes produce food through the natural resources and conditions they provide, which support the growth of plants and animals. Here’s how:
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c01_p002-046.indd 32
21/05/26 9:13 AM
1.7 How are biomes valuable for food production?
33
Biomes produce environments for crops to grow
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
The most productive biomes are the ones best able to produce food because they have the right climate conditions for plant growth. Humans rely on biomes for survival and wellbeing, as they support the growth of crops for people to eat. Fertile soil, sunlight and rainfall all allow crops, fruits and vegetables to grow. Table 1.7.1 shows us which biomes produce which foods. The temperate grassland biome is the most productive biome for food production. It has deep, nutrient-rich topsoil formed by the constant growth and decay of grasses, which make the soil extremely fertile. The moderate rainfall and mild temperatures provide ideal conditions for growing crops. Farmers in these regions produce large amounts of wheat, corn, barley and soybeans, and graze cattle and sheep. Examples of temperate grasslands include the Prairies in North America, the Pampas in South America the Steppes in Eurasia, and the Wheat Belt in Australia. Table 1.7.1 Table of the main crops produced in certain biomes Biome
Productivity
Main crops
Temperate grasslands
Very high
Wheat, corn, barley, rice, oats, barley
Tropical rainforests
High
Bananas, coffee, cocoa, rubber
Temperate forests
High
Apples, pears, nuts, vegetables
Savannas
Moderate
Millet, sorghum, maize (corn), sugarcane, peanuts
Deserts
Low (only possible with irrigation)
Dates, figs, melons, olives
A
millet a cereal grown in warm countries and regions with poor soils and which is used to make flour sorghum a plant grown in hot and dry areas for its grain which is used as food for humans and animals
B
➜
Figure 1.7.1 (a) Tropical rainforest biomes have suitable conditions for coffee crops such as Arabica, whereas grassland biomes in Africa produce crops such as maize (b).
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c01_p002-046.indd 33
21/05/26 9:13 AM
34
Chapter 1 Biomes and productivity
Biomes produce environments for animals to graze Biomes not only provide us with a variety of foods; they also provide food and shelter for the livestock raised for meat and dairy. Livestock such as cows, sheep and pigs feed on grasses and other plants. These plants provide the energy and nutrients they need to grow, reproduce and produce resources, such as meat, milk and wool, for human use. The main sources of animal feed are grains, such as corn and soybeans, which are also key food crops for humans, and forage materials, like grass and hay, which grazing animals depend on.
livestock animals used for work, food or produce
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
pasture grassed land suitable for grazing animals
➜
Figure 1.7.2 Dairy cows needs food, such as grass or hay, which is produced in grasslands biomes.
In Australia, over half of the country’s total land area is used for agriculture. Figure 1.7.3 shows that a large portion of land is used for animal grazing on native vegetation. The figure also highlights land used for grazing on modified pastures and for cropping. Figure 1.7.4 shows Australia’s main agricultural products. The country produces large numbers of cattle, sheep and poultry. Cropland in Australia is used to grow wheat, barley and canola, while the horticulture industry (fruit and vegetable farming) produces significant amounts of grapes and potatoes.
Area of agricultural uses
Darwin
Grazing native vegetation
Katherine
Kununurra
Cairns
Broome
Townsville
Mackay
Alice Springs
Longreach
Grazing modified pastures
45.18
Cropping including crop/pasture rotation
28.34
0
Bundaberg
Orange
Port Lincoln
0
500 km
50
100 150 200 250 300 Million hectares
Brisbane Lismore LEGEND
Kalgoorlie
Albany
0.50
Horticulture
Gladstone
Carnavon
Perth Bunbury
286.69
Adelaide
Wagga Wagga
Sydney Canberra
Grazing native vegetation
Horticulture*
Grazing modified pastures
Other uses
Cropping
Wheat–sheep
Ballarat Bega Mount Gambier Melbourne Warrnambool Geelong Launceston Hobart
➜
Figure 1.7.3 Map of agricultural land in Australia Note: * Exaggerated to improve visibility. Sources: Wheat-sheep zone – Australian Agricultural and Grazing Industries Survey, 2016, ABARES; Catchment scale land use of Australia – update December 2023, ABARES; ABS Agricultural Commodities, Australia, 2020–21 (cat 7121) Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c01_p002-046.indd 34
21/05/26 9:13 AM
1.7 How are biomes valuable for food production?
Livestock Gross value of production
Crops Gross value of production
Horticulture Gross value of production
Cattle and calves Sheep and lambs Milk (ML)
Barley
Grapes for wine Almonds
Canola
Potatoes
Poultry
Sugar cane
Wheat
Pigs
35
Apples Grapes for other uses
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
Cotton
$b
2
4
6
8
10
12 14
$b
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
$m
200 400
600
800 1,000
➜
Figure 1.7.4 Australia’s agricultural industry produces livestock, crops and horticulture products sourced from productive biomes.
Biomes provide water supply
Biomes are valuable because they often provide essential water sources that support both agriculture and livestock. The freshwater in creeks, rivers and lakes supplies the water needed for crops to grow, ensuring that plants receive enough hydration to produce food. Livestock also depend on these water sources to stay healthy and grow, which in turn supports meat, milk and other animal products. Without these natural water sources, food production would be much more difficult and less sustainable.
Biomes provide ecosystem services
Biomes are valuable as they provide a number of ecosystem services. Pollinators visit flowers for nectar, pollen sticks to their bodies and is carried to other flowers, leading to fertilisation. This process is essential for producing a vast majority of food crops. In fact, without pollinators, such as bees and birds, many crops would have reduced yields or wouldn't produce fruit at all. Predators help reduce pests in food production by naturally controlling the populations of insects and other animals that can damage crops. For example, birds, spiders, ladybugs and some beetles eat insects that feed on plants, preventing them from multiplying and harming crops. This reduces the need for chemical pesticides, which can be expensive and harmful to the environment.
Writing focus 1.7 Appositives ➜
Finally, biomes recycle nutrients, which all help plants and animals grow. Biomes recycle nutrients when plants, animals and their waste decompose, allowing bacteria, fungi and insects to break them down into substances plants can use. These nutrients, such as nitrogen and phosphorus, return to the soil and help plants grow. This cycling of nutrients supports healthy ecosystems and productive biomes.
ecosystem services beneficial things contributed directly and indirectly by nature. They can be categorised into four groups: provisioning, regulating, supporting and cultural.
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c01_p002-046.indd 35
21/05/26 9:13 AM
36
ce ur so re ic
ue
ed
s
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
Sp reli iritual gio us v and alu es
s
wm
ate
r ia
Food
al
va l
in
tic
Ra
he
l and Menta ealth al h physic
st
on ati sm cre uri Re coto de
an
Ae
ls
Chapter 1 Biomes and productivity
Nutrient cycling
M
Ecosystem services
Wa te
ion
rr
ation
Poll in
M ex ode tre ra m tio ee n ve of nt s
Disease and pest regulation
n tio ula reg ion os Er n catio urifi tment er p a Wat aste tre w and
S
regulation
te reg
at
orm
f oil
Air quality Clima
thesis
osyn
Phot
ater sh w
Fre
eg
ulatio
ula
n
tio
n
➜
Figure 1.7.5 Many different ecosystem services are provided by biomes, such as pollination (regulating), pest regulation (regulating) and nutrient cycling (supporting).
Review 1.7
Knowledge and understanding
Online quiz
Thinking and working geographically
Students can access sample responses and results online
Teachers can go online to assign questions, view results, reports and more!
Knowledge and understanding 1.
Which biome is the most productive for food production? Explain why this is the case.
2.
List the main agricultural products produced in Australia.
3.
Apart from providing food for humans, outline three other reasons why biomes are valuable.
4.
Explain why pollinators are so important for food production.
Thinking and working geographically
Working with geographical concepts: Place 1.
Find photographs of the following food crops:
• wheat • sugarcane • peanuts • cocoa • rice.
place: the concept of place is about the significance of places and what they are like
For each photo, describe what the environment is like and research which biome it is. Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c01_p002-046.indd 36
21/05/26 9:13 AM
1.7 How are biomes valuable for food production?
37
Using agricultural data 2.
Copy and complete the table below by answering the following questions.
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
a. Predict how valuable the agricultural products in the table are to the Australian economy by ranking them from most valuable (1) to least valuable (8). b. Using Figure 1.7.4, identify the gross value of production (in millions of dollars) for each of the agricultural products to complete the table. (Note: Read the axis labels carefully as they vary between graphs). c. Compare your predictions in part a with your findings in part b. What surprised you?
Table 1.7.2 Using agricultural data Product
Prediction
Approximate value ($m)
Cattle/calves
Sheep/lambs Milk
Wheat
Canola Cotton
Grapes for wine Apples
➜
Figure 1.7.6 Livestock depend on natural water sources to stay healthy and grow.
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c01_p002-046.indd 37
21/05/26 9:13 AM
38
Chapter 1 Biomes and productivity
1.8
What challenges face the banana industry in tropical Queensland? Success criteria
So far in this chapter, you have learned about the various factors that impact biomes and their productivity. In this lesson, you will investigate a specific type of food production: the banana industry in tropical Queensland.
❏ I can explain how climate, elevation and soils impact the banana industry. ❏ I can explain environmental challenges for banana production in Australia.
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
Learning intention
Lesson starter
The Big Banana in Coffs Harbour isn’t just a quirky landmark – it celebrates one of Australia’s most important tropical crops. But how do bananas grow, and why do they grow in Coffs Harbour? Answer the following questions:
• Why do you think bananas grow best in tropical or subtropical biomes? • How can farmers protect banana crops from pests, diseases and storms? • What might happen if the climate changes in banana-growing areas?
➜
Figure 1.8.1 The Big Banana is a tourist attraction located in Coffs Harbour, NSW. Have you been there?
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c01_p002-046.indd 38
21/05/26 9:13 AM
1.8 What challenges face the banana industry in tropical Queensland?
39
Amazing but true… Australians eat 5 million bananas every day! That’s enough to have a banana road from Melbourne to Sydney!
The banana industry in tropical Queensland
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
Climate impacts
Approximately 94% of Australia’s bananas are grown in Far North Queensland. The main growing areas are the Cassowary Coast (including Tully, Innisfail and Kennedy); the Atherton Tablelands; and Lakeland north of Cairns (Figure 1.8.2). Tully is the biggest banana-growing region in both Queensland and Australia. As you learned in previous chapters, biomes close to the equator receive more direct sunlight and are known for high temperatures and rainfall. Bananas grow best in tropical and subtropical climates because of the warm temperatures, plentiful rain and high humidity (see Figure 1.8.3). Tropical and subtropical regions provide the perfect consistent temperature range to grow bananas, with optimal temperatures between 25°C and 30°C, which helps farmers to produce healthy, high-quality bananas. The ideal rainfall pattern for bananas is approximately 100 millimetres of precipitation per month, distributed evenly throughout the year. Equator
Darwin
Atherton/Lakeland region
Carnavon region
NORTHERN TERRITORY
Innisfail/Tully region
Bundaberg region
QUEENSLAND
Tropic of Capricorn
WESTERN AUSTRALIA
SOUTH AUSTRALIA
Brisbane
Coffs Harbour
Perth
NEW SOUTH WALES
Adelaide
Northern NSW Region
Sydney
LEGEND
Banana farming
0
1,000 km
Melbourne
➜
Figure 1.8.2 The spatial distribution of banana farming. Far North Queensland is the powerhouse of the industry due to its tropical and subtropical climate.
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c01_p002-046.indd 39
21/05/26 9:13 AM
40
Chapter 1 Biomes and productivity
LEGEND
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
Equatorial Tropical Subtropical Desert Grasslands Temperate
0
1,000 km
➜
Figure 1.8.3 Australia experiences a variety of climatic conditions, due to the vast size of the continent.
Elevation and soil impacts
waterlogged saturated with or full of water
Figure 1.8.4 An oblique aerial view of a large banana plantation in Walkamin, Queensland, Australia. The plantation is vast, with rows of banana trees stretching as far as the eye can see. ➜
aeration the process of making holes in compacted soil to allow air, water and nutrients to reach the roots
The elevation at which bananas are grown also affects productivity. Bananas can grow from sea level up to about 1,200 metres. At sea level, the warm and stable climate allows for faster growth. As you learned in Lesson 1.5, temperatures drop by 6–7°C for every 1,000-metre increase in elevation. Banana crop growth will slow down when it is too cold, and growth stops at temperatures below 10°C. If it is too cold, the harvest takes longer, and plants are also more at risk of frost damage.
Banana crops need ample sunlight and well-drained soil with consistent moisture and nutrients. Bananas thrive in regions that are consistently moist but not waterlogged. Bananas rely on deep and loamy soil (a combination of clay, silt and sand) that is rich in organic matter. Soils that have too much clay, are too sandy or have poor drainage will not support banana growth, because these things prevent proper aeration and lead to waterlogged roots.
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c01_p002-046.indd 40
21/05/26 9:13 AM
1.8 What challenges face the banana industry in tropical Queensland?
41
Challenges to banana production in Queensland Environmental challenges
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
Extreme weather conditions, such as severe storms, floods and tropical cyclones, all pose serious challenges to banana production in Queensland. Severe storms and cyclones bring extremely strong winds and high rainfall. Strong winds of over 80 kilometres per hour can shred the banana leaves, snap stems and knock crops over, leading to significant crop loss and reduced harvest. The high rainfall associated with storms and tropical cyclones erodes nutrient-rich soil, causes landslips and can lead to flooding. In February 2025, flooding in Tully, Queensland, caused significant damage to banana crops. Floodwaters submerged some of the banana plants and waterlogged many of the roots. Infrastructure such as the roads, irrigation systems and packing facilities were damaged, disrupting harvest and transport.
Increased temperatures associated with climate change also pose a challenge for the banana industry. Excessive heat can stress banana plants, reduce growth and lower fruit quality. Did you know that when temperatures reach above 38°C, bananas stop growing? Rising temperatures also make the banana plant more vulnerable to diseases and infections.
➜
Figure 1.8.5 The damage to banana crops caused by cyclonic winds
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c01_p002-046.indd 41
21/05/26 9:13 AM
42
Chapter 1 Biomes and productivity
Biological challenges
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
Pests and diseases can spread easily through contaminated soil, water, equipment and planting material, and can affect crop yield. One serious biological challenge for the banana industry is Panama disease (TR4), a soil-borne fungal infection that poses a serious threat to the industry. TR4 enters through the roots and blocks the flow of water and nutrients, causing the leaves to wilt and die, which then prevents the plant from producing fruit. Because the fungus can survive in the soil for many years and there is no known cure, infected areas become unsuitable for growing bananas, sometimes forcing farmers to destroy entire crops to stop the spread.
➜
Writing focus 1.8 Creating topic sentences
Pests also pose significant challenges in tropical Queensland. Banana weevil borers (see Figure 1.8.6) attack the underground base of the plant, while scab moths, spider mites and fruit flies feed on the leaves and fruit, leaving brown or rusty-coloured scars that reduce fruit quality and market value.
Banana farms in Queensland face challenges from storms, floods, pests and diseases, all of which are being made worse by climate change. Rising temperatures and extreme weather events will increase crop damage, reduce yields and make farming bananas even more difficult.
➜
Figure 1.8.6 Banana weevil borers are a threat throughout banana-growing areas in Queensland because they tunnel into the base of banana plants, weakening them and reducing crop growth.
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c01_p002-046.indd 42
21/05/26 9:13 AM
43
1.8 What challenges face the banana industry in tropical Queensland?
Review 1.8 Knowledge and understanding
Online quiz
Thinking and working geographically
Teachers can go online to assign questions, view results, reports and more!
Students can access sample responses and results online
Knowledge and understanding
Where in Queensland is most of Australia’s banana production located, and which place is the largest banana-growing region?
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
1.
2.
Explain why bananas grow best in tropical and subtropical climates. Include the ideal temperature and rainfall conditions.
3.
How does elevation affect banana growth, and why can higher altitudes slow down production?
4.
Describe what type of soil is ideal for banana farming.
5.
Outline three environmental challenges that affect banana production in Queensland.
6.
Name two biological challenges (pests or diseases) for banana farms in tropical Queensland and describe how they damage the plants or fruit.
Thinking and working geographically
Working with geographical concepts: Change 1.
change: the concept of change is about explaining geographical phenomena by investigating how they have developed over time
Research ONE environmental challenge that affects banana production in Queensland and explain how climate change will make this challenge worse over time.
Geographical inquiry 2.
Analyse the climate data of Innisfail, Queensland, shown in the table from the Bureau of Meteorology below then answer the questions that follow.
Table 1.8.1 Maximum temperature against rainfall J
F
M
A
M
Max temp (°C) 30.9 30.7
29.8
28.3
26.4
24.6 24.1 25.1 26.7 28.4 29.8 30.8
Rainfall (mm)
663
451
303
189
512
583
J
J
138
A
115
S
85
O
89
N
156
D
264
a. Which month has the hottest maximum temperatures? b. Which month has the hottest maximum temperatures? c. Which month has the highest rainfall? d. Which month has the lowest rainfall? e. What is the average maximum temperature for Innisfail? f. What is the annual rainfall for Innisfail? g. Evaluate whether this location would be suitable for banana production.
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c01_p002-046.indd 43
21/05/26 9:13 AM
44
Chapter 1 Biomes and productivity
1.9
Chapter review Access the Interactive Textbook for a range of digital tools to help you review this chapter and build confidence.
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
• Auto-marked questions for fast feedback and fun practice • Self-assessment tools to track your progress, review answers (if enabled by the teacher), and flag questions for extra help • Downloadable worksheets for class or homework revision
Summary
Summary notes
Download chapter summary
What have you learned about biomes and productivity?
For this activity, copy the table and fill it out by explaining your understanding. Aim for two points per topic.
Terms
What I have learned
Biomes
Productivity Climate Soil
Latitude
Visible thinking routine
I used to think…now I think
This exercise in visible thinking asks you to track the difference between what you knew about biomes before, and what new understandings you have acquired since reading this chapter. Using the stem sentences here, write a paragraph explaining what you previously knew about the topic. Then write another paragraph explaining what you now understand about the topic. I used to think that biomes were … Now I think that biomes are …
A simple explanation for the impact of climate on the world’s biomes is … A better explanation for the impact of climate on the world’s biomes is … I used to think that biomes were valuable for … Now I think that biomes are valuable for …
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c01_p002-046.indd 44
21/05/26 9:13 AM
1.9 Chapter review
45
Questions Scorcher quiz
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
Access a fast, fun, competitive quiz that puts your understanding to the test.
Quick questions
The following questions offer various ways to demonstrate your understanding of the chapter. 1.
The Amazon rainforest is classified as a _____ biome.
2.
Biome ______ refers to the amount of biomass produced through photosynthesis.
3.
The biome that is mostly made up of coniferous trees is known as the _____ biome.
4.
Soil that is a mixture of land, silt and clay is called ______.
5.
A small river that flows into a larger river is called a ______.
6.
Which country is the world’s largest producer of cotton? A. India B. China C. Brazil D. Australia
7.
Which biome has the highest overall productivity? A. Desert B. Tundra C. Taiga D. Tropical rainforest
8.
Which soil type drains quickly and is low in nutrients? A. Clay B. Loam C. Sandy D. Silty
9.
Recall the three main factors that make tropical rainforests productive.
10.
Identify two terrestrial biomes found in Australia.
11.
Summarise how latitude affects climate.
12.
Outline why loam is the most productive soil type.
13.
Look at Figure 1.9.1 and identify two environmental challenges faced by banana farms in Queensland.
Answering questions in paragraphs
You can use this as a model when writing your own answers to the questions that follow.
Writing focus 1.9 Single paragraph response model ➜
The following activities allow you to practise your writing skills.
Figure 1.9.1 A banana plantation in Tully, Queensland, after a cyclone in 2011 ➜
Writing focus
Question: With reference to specific examples, explain how climate affects biome productivity. (6 marks)
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c01_p002-046.indd 45
21/05/26 9:13 AM
46
Chapter 1 Biomes and productivity
Model answer: Topic sentence: the first sentence of the paragraph; directly answers the question
Explain: clarify, define and describe
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
Evidence: specific, relevant evidence to support arguments
Climate strongly influences biome productivity because temperature and rainfall determine how effectively plants can grow and produce biomass. Warmer temperatures and reliable precipitation increase the rate of photosynthesis, while very cold and dry climates limit plant growth and reduce the amount of biomass a biome can produce. As a result, biomes with warm, wet climates like rainforests are highly productive. On the other hand, cold or dry biomes like tundra and deserts have short growing seasons or limited water, which lowers productivity. A tropical rainforest climate maintains high rainfall, roughly 2,000 to 4,000 millimetres annually, and has warm temperatures all year. This climate pattern explains why tropical rainforests are the most productive terrestrial biomes, supporting abundant plant growth and biodiversity. In contrast, desert biomes receive less than 250 millimetres of rain per year. This limits plant growth and makes deserts some of the least productive biomes on Earth. These examples show that differences in temperature and precipitation directly shape how productive each biome can be.
Evidence: specific, relevant evidence to support arguments Linking sentence: reconnects with language of the question the topic sentence.
Elaborate: additional information, interconnections
Examples: provide credibility and illustrate the argument
Examples: provide credibility and illustrate the argument
Structured-response questions
Marking criteria for each question can be found in the Interactive Textbook. Refer to these criteria when planning and writing your responses.
Question 1
(20 marks)
a. Define, using an example, the term “biome”. b. Describe features of two different biomes in the world. c. Explain how TWO factors affect the productivity of the biomes from part b.
(2 marks) (6 marks) (12 marks)
Question 2
(20 marks)
a. Contrast ONE biome in Australia with another biome found in the world. b. With reference to specific examples, explain how climate affects biome productivity. c. Assess the value of biomes across the world.
(4 marks)
(6 marks) (10 marks)
Extended-response questions Question 1
(20 marks)
Assess the value of biomes for the production of food, fibres and other industrial materials. Question 2
(20 marks)
Climate, latitude, elevation and soils are all geographic features that impact biomes. Explain how TWO of these factors impact biome productivity.
Teachers, access the Online Teaching Suite for digital resources and tools that support review, assessment and reporting, including:
• student and class activity reports • a test generator to create custom assessments • built-in feedback tools • editable downloadable support material • a downloadable and printable “Writing focus” workbook for this chapter. Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c01_p002-046.indd 46
21/05/26 9:13 AM
Chapter
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
2
Geographic skills: Mapping Earth’s biomes
Lessons
2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6
Finding direction (compass and bearings) Small- and large-scale maps Aspect of a slope Local relief Fieldwork Chapter review
➜
Teachers go to the Online Teacher Suite to: • plan, sequence and assign directed tasks for students and classes using Task Manager • view student activity reports • provide feedback to students • download a printable “Writing focus” workbook for this chapter.
Image: Maps help us to find our way around.
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c02_p047-070.indd 47
21/05/26 7:51 PM
48
Chapter 2 Geographic skills: Mapping Earth’s biomes
2.1
Finding direction (compass and bearings) Success criteria
In this lesson, you will learn about the different ways that we can determine the direction between places on a map.
❏ I can find direction between places on a map using a 16-point compass or bearings on a compass.
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
Learning intention
Introduction
FPO
Video 2.1.1 Finding direction
We use maps for a variety of reasons: camping and travel, finding our way around a new place, finding services and facilities, hiking and driving. In nearly all cases, we use the maps to find the direction from one place to another. In what direction do you need to walk to get from one place to the next? You have likely done this on your phone when navigating a town or city, whether you are driving or on foot. To find direction, we can use a compass from four points (north, east, south, west) up to 16 points (shown in Figure 2.1.1). To be more exact we can use bearings and break the compass into 360 degrees. This is used when precise navigation is needed, such as by ships and the military. When working out the direction between places on a map you need to pay close attention to your starting point. To get this right, circle the place you are going from and then draw a straight line to the place you are going to. You can then draw a compass on the circle. See how this is done in Figure 2.1.2, when the same direction question is worded in two different ways.
N
NW
NNW
NNE
NE
WNW
ENE
W
E
WSW
SW
ESE
SSW
SSE
SE
S ➜
Figure 2.1.1 16-point compass
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c02_p047-070.indd 48
21/05/26 7:51 PM
49
2.1 Finding direction (compass and bearings)
Find the direction from the patrolled beach to the marina. Find the direction of the marina from the patrolled beach. Find where you are going “from”
Tanya Town
N
circle where you are going from draw a line to where you are going to
T
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
draw a compass on the circle
Andrew Beach
W
E
S
T
T
N
LEGEND
LEGEND
T
Major road
Retail
Beach
Minor road House
Marina Park
Patrolled beach
Train line
Retail
Train stop Main road Secondary road
Ferris wheel
Hotel Park
Cafe
Beach
➜
➜
Figure 2.1.2 Annotated map showing directions
Jetty
Figure 2.1.3 Map of Andrew Beach
Now you try! 2.1a
Use Figure 2.1.3 to answer Questions 1–6. 1.
Find the direction from the Ferris wheel to the park using a 16-point compass. Watch Video 2.1.2 to see how we worked out this answer.
2.
Find the direction from the jetty to the park.
3.
Find the direction from the cafe nearest the beach to the park.
4.
Find the direction of the retail centre from the train stop furthest from the beach.
5.
Find the direction of the retail centre from the park.
6.
Find the direction of the cafe south of the Ferris wheel to the cafe west of the Ferris wheel.
0° is North
Tanya Town 0
0 14 0
15
30
160
20
170 180 190 20 0 0 350 10
340
2
1 33 0 0 2 32 20 0
13
50 0
4
60
12 0
3
110
70
290
80
280
100
260
90
270 280
80
100
260
70
290
110
250
20
60
3
1 23 0 0
13
0
50 0 1
0
30
24
2
10 350 0 20 180 170 340 160 30 0 200 190 33 15 0 4 0 210 14 0 32 0 0 2
Find the direction from the patrolled beach to the marina in degrees.
250
Place this line on your starting point
Video 2.1.2 How we found the answer to Question 1
0 24 0 0 30 23 10
Bearings are a way of showing direction more precisely using degrees measured clockwise from north. To find bearings accurately, you will need a protractor: a 360º one will be the easiest to use. See the worked example in Figure 2.1.4.
FPO
N LEGEND Major road
Retail
Beach
Minor road House
Marina Park
Patrolled beach
I. Draw a line between the two points. 2. Place protractor on your star ting Point (from) 3. Ensure O° is directly north 4. Read where your line intercepts the protractor = 255°
➜
Figure 2.1.4 How to find bearings using a protractor
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c02_p047-070.indd 49
21/05/26 7:51 PM
50
Chapter 2 Geographic skills: Mapping Earth’s biomes
Andrew Beach
T
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
T
T
LEGEND
T
Train line
Retail
Train stop Main road Secondary road
Ferris wheel
Beach
Jetty
Hotel Park
Cafe
➜
Figure 2.1.5 Map for “Now you try” questions
Now you try! 2.1b
Use Figure 2.1.5 to answer Questions 1–6.
FPO
Video 2.1.3 How we found the answer to Question 1
1.
Find the direction from the Ferris wheel to the park in degrees. Watch Video 2.1.3 to see how we worked out this answer.
2.
Find the direction from the jetty to the park in degrees.
3.
Find the direction from the cafe nearest the beach to the park in degrees.
4.
Find the direction of the retail centre from the train stop furthest from the beach in degrees.
5.
Find the direction of the retail centre from the park in degrees.
6.
Find the direction of the retail centre to the cafe west of the Ferris wheel in degrees.
Activity 2.1.1
For this activity you will need blank paper and a pencil.
• Step 1: Create a sketch map of your school. You may be able to find an existing map
of your school on your school’s website, but if not try to sketch it from memory or from Google Maps. • Step 2: Start by finding which part of your school points north and have this at the top of your page. Think about six significant points that you can add to your map with a symbol such as bubblers or statues. For each symbol add them to your legend at the bottom. • Step 3: Next, for each point find its direction to another point such as from the bubblers to the statue. Clearly record your starting point (from) and end point (to) and the direction using a 16-point compass and then degrees. You might like to choose two points that are visible from each other as a class and then check your accuracy using a compass. Keep this map on hand for an activity in the Lesson 2.2.
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c02_p047-070.indd 50
21/05/26 7:51 PM
51
2.2 Small- and large-scale maps
2.2
Small- and large-scale maps
Success criteria
In this lesson, you will learn the difference between small- and large-scale maps, and how the scale of a map can be found using a map of the same area.
❏ I can compare maps based on their scale. ❏ I can find the scale of an unmarked map.
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
Learning intention
Introduction
When comparing maps, geographers will often start with scale. Smaller-scale maps are great for showing trends, boundaries and ecosystems over a large area. Larger-scale maps, on the other hand, show a smaller area in more detail. The maps are helpful when you want to navigate a town or show the facilities within a suburb. Geographers can also use their knowledge of scale to find the scale of a map when it isn’t given using a map of the same area and some quick calculations.
FPO
Video 2.2.1 Small- versus large-scale maps
Small-scale maps • Show a large area • Show small (less) detail • Large number on the righthand side of the ratio
1:270,000,000
Larger number
➜
Figure 2.2.1 World map (small scale)
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c02_p047-070.indd 51
21/05/26 7:51 PM
Chapter 2 Geographic skills: Mapping Earth’s biomes
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
52
Large-scale maps • Show a smaller area • Show large (more) detail • Smaller number on the right-hand side of the ratio
➜
Figure 2.2.2 Town map (large scale)
smaller number
1:20,000
B
C
A
D
➜
Figure 2.2.3 Four maps of the Sydney to Hobart yacht race
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c02_p047-070.indd 52
21/05/26 7:51 PM
53
2.2 Small- and large-scale maps
Now you try! 2.2a Figure 2.2.3 includes a main map (A) and three inset maps (B,C,D). Use these four sources to answer the following questions. List the maps (A–D) from the smallest scale to largest scale. For C and D, you will need to refer to the linear scale on the map. Watch Video 2.2.2 to see how we worked out this answer.
2.
Which map best shows the different cities and landmarks that are passed along the entire Sydney to Hobart yacht race?
3.
Which map best shows the location of the race in relation to landmasses and neighbouring countries?
4.
Which map best shows the approach route of the yachts coming into Hobart?
5.
If you were to include a fifth map with an even larger scale, what could you use? Why might this be helpful?
FPO
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
1.
Video 2.2.2 How we found the answer to Question 1
Finding the scale of a map
With the knowledge of scale, we can also find the scale of an unmarked map, as long as we have a second map of the same location (even if it has a very different scale). See the worked example in Figure 2.2.4, where source A has a ratio scale and source B does not.
• Step 1: Start by working out if the map with the missing scale has a smaller or larger • •
scale. Does it show more or less detail? Does it cover more or less area? And then decide what this means for the ratio scale. Does it need to be larger or smaller on the right-hand side of the ratio? Step 2: Find a common feature such as the break wall and measure it. Step 3: Multiply or divide the known scale to make it smaller or larger. Source B
Source A
2.5 cm
1 cm
Step 2 Find a common feature and measure
Step 3 1:80,000 Make this smaller by 2.5 80,000 divided 2.5 = 1:32,000
Step 2 Find a common feature and measure
Step 1 No scale! Smaller area + larger detail Larger scale with a smaller number on right-hand side of the ratio
➜
Figure 2.2.4 How to find the scale of a map in three steps
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c02_p047-070.indd 53
21/05/26 7:51 PM
54
Chapter 2 Geographic skills: Mapping Earth’s biomes
Source B
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
Source A
1:10,000 ➜
Figure 2.2.5 Maps for “Now you try” questions
Now you try! 2.2b
Use Figure 2.2.5 for Questions 1–5.
FPO
Video 2.2.3 How we found the answer to Question 5
1.
Is Source B a larger or smaller scale map?
2.
Does this mean its ratio scale will be smaller or larger on the right-hand side?
3.
What common feature do the two maps have?
4.
What is the measurement in centimetres of the feature on Source A and Source B?
5.
What is the ratio scale for source B? Watch Video 2.2.3 to see how we worked out this answer.
Activity 2.2.1
For this activity you will need your map from Lesson 2.1, blank paper, a ruler and a pencil. In Lesson 2.2 (direction activity), you created a sketch map of your school. Take this out and try to recreate it twice: once with a larger scale and once with a smaller scale. Use the following steps:
• Step 1: If you haven’t already, estimate a scale for your map. Think about the length of
one side of your school; maybe it’s 500 metres. Then measure that area on the map; maybe it’s 10 centimetres. Convert this into a ratio scale: 1 centimetre = 50 metres; therefore 1:5,000. If this is tricky, use the scale provided here. • Step 2: Create a map that has a smaller scale, for example, 1:10,000. You may also like to use Google Maps to measure one side of your school as a starting point. Remember, a smaller scale shows a larger area so it should look like you zoomed out on your sketch map. The size of the map itself should be the same. Find a feature you can measure, such as the side of a school block. Start your map with this feature and draw it at half the size. If your school block measured 4 centimetres on the original map, you would draw it as 2 centimetres. Have a go at filling in the rest of the map at this new scale. • Step 3: Create a map that has a larger scale, for example, 1:2,500. Remember, a larger scale shows smaller area so it should look like you zoomed in on your original sketch map. The size of the map itself should be the same. Use the same feature as in step 2. Start your map with this feature and draw it at double the size that it was on your original sketch map. If your school block measured 4 centimetres on the original map, you would draw it as 8 centimetres. Have a go at filling in the rest of the map at this new scale.
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c02_p047-070.indd 54
21/05/26 7:51 PM
55
2.3 Aspect of a slope
2.3
Aspect of a slope
Success criteria
In this lesson, you will learn about how maps show the aspect of a slope using contour lines.
❏ I can find the aspect of a slope in the field using a compass. ❏ I can find the aspect of a slope on a map using contour lines.
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
Learning intention
Introduction
Topographic maps use contour lines to show the altitude and shape of a landscape. These contour lines can also show us the direction of a slope, whether it is at an exact point or the general direction of the side of a hill or mountain. Geographers study the aspect of slopes because the direction a slope faces affects sunlight, temperature and moisture. This information is useful in different settings, such as farming, urban planning and environmental management to decide on land use and reduce risks.
Finding the aspect of a slope in the field
To find the aspect of a slope in the field, you will need a compass. Stand so that you are looking down the slope and your back is against the slope. Read your compass to find which way is downhill and therefore the aspect of the slope.
Now you try! 2.3a
If your school has slopes, choose a few locations as a class and find the aspect of these slopes. You can use the sketch maps from Lesson 2.1 to mark the locations and then use a compass or a compass app on a mobile device to find the aspect of the slope at each point. If your school is too flat, maybe consider doing this task during a fieldwork excursion.
Finding the aspect of a slope on a map
There are several ways that geographers find the aspect of a slope on a map: Imagine you are standing at the point you want to find the aspect for and you sit down with you back against the slope. Which direction would you face? Imagine you are standing at the point you want to find the aspect for and you drop a ball. Which direction would the ball roll? Draw a line perpendicular to the closest contour line and then determine which direction is downhill using the marked contour lines (shown in Figure 2.3.1).
•
FPO
Video 2.3.1 Aspect of a slope
topographic map a detailed, largescale map of part of the Earth’s surface that illustrates the shape of the land and selected natural and human features. contour lines lines on a map that indicate altitude altitude height of a feature above sea level
• •
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c02_p047-070.indd 55
21/05/26 7:51 PM
56
Chapter 2 Geographic skills: Mapping Earth’s biomes
General aspect of AR 2504 1. Find the grid Square
07
20
21
22
Jaysmith Beach Beach Jaysmith 23
24
25
26
27
Aspect of Point A 1. draw a line perpendicular to the contour
06
2. Draw a line through the contourns across the grid square
10
05
3. Find downhill using contour lines Aspect of AR 2504-SE
2. draw an arrow downhill-towards smaller number
30
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
04
03
N Aspect of A = NW
02
01
00
1:10 000
➜
Figure 2.3.2 Annotated map showing the aspect of a slope
Ange Lake
17
16
15
20
1
14
40
60
13
3
12
20
40
11
2
60
10
4
00
01
02
03
04
05
06
07 1:25 000
➜
Figure 2.3.3 Map for “Now you try” questions
Now you try! 2.3b
Use Figure 2.3.3 for Questions 1–6
FPO
Video 2.3.2 How we found the answer to Question 5
1.
Find the aspect of point 1.
2.
Find the aspect of point 2.
3.
Find the aspect of point 3.
4.
Find the aspect of point 4.
5.
Find the general aspect of AR0211. Watch Video 2.3.2 to see how we worked out this answer.
6.
Find the general aspect of AR0412.
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c02_p047-070.indd 56
21/05/26 7:51 PM
2.3 Aspect of a slope
57
Activity 2.3.1 For this activity you will need blank paper and a pencil. Draw a topographic map with the following features: • It has a southern aspect slope in the upper right quadrant and a northern aspect slope in the bottom left quadrant. • It has a river running through the middle of the map at 0 metres. • The highest point of the southern slope is 86 metres. • The highest point of the northern slope is 124 metres. • The map has a vineyard on the slope in the bottom left quadrant to make the most of available sunlight. Now that you have the specifics, make a sketch map and consider what contour interval you will need and what legend you will need. Make sure to include the other parts of BOLTSS.
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
1.
2.
➜
Figure 2.3.4 Hiker studying topographic map
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c02_p047-070.indd 57
21/05/26 7:52 PM
58
Chapter 2 Geographic skills: Mapping Earth’s biomes
2.4
Local relief
Success criteria
In this lesson, you will learn how to find the local relief of a transect on a topographic map.
❏ I can calculate the local relief between two points on a topographic map.
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
Learning intention
Introduction
FPO
Local relief refers to the difference in height between the highest and lowest points in a small area. Just like aspect in Lesson 2.3, local relief can be found by comparing contour lines or spot heights on a topographic map. Local relief helps geographers understand the shape of the land and how water flows across it. This information is important for planning settlements, transport routes and managing natural hazards.
When considering the local relief between two points, we need to find the highest point and the lowest point. You can see this on the cross-section in Figure 2.4.1.
Video 2.4.1 Local relief
Highest point 80 m
Point A 50 m
Point B 50 m
Local relief = highest point – lowest point = 80 – 20 = 60 m
20 m
Lowest point
➜
Figure 2.4.1 Cross-section of a landscape showing local relief
Ken Scott Mountain
Let’s see how this looks on a topographic map.
B
See the worked example in Figure 2.4.2, finding the local relief between point A and point B.
50
30
1. Draw a line between Point A and Point B
20
Highest
2. Find the highest and lowest contour along the line
Lowest 50
3. Calculate highest - lowest 80 - 20 = 60m
A 1:100,000
➜
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, al 2026local • 978-1-009-78808-3 Figure 2.4.2 Annotated mapetshowing relief between point• (03) A and8671 point1400 B
9781009788083c02_p047-070.indd 58
21/05/26 7:53 PM
59
2.4 Local relief
Wendy Valley
Now you try! 2.4 F
Find the local relief between point A and point B.
A
Find the local relief between point A and point C.
G
B
FPO
Find the local relief between point D and point E. Watch Video 2.4.2 to see how we worked out this answer.
4.
Find the local relief between point C and point E.
5.
Find the local relief between point F and point G.
60
200
D
C
Video 2.4.2 How we found the answer to Question 3
1:50 000
➜
3.
100
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
2.
100
1.
E 200
Use Figure 2.4.3 to answer Questions 1–5.
Figure 2.4.3 Map for “Now you try” questions
Activity 2.4.1
For this activity you need a blank piece of paper and a pen.
• Step 1: You are going to create four maps. Start by folding your paper into quarters
and then opening it back up. • Step 2: Imagine each section as a separate map. Each map will have a point A on the left hand-side halfway up the side and a point B on the right-hand side (see example in Figure 2.4.4). • Step 3: Between point A and B there should always be a local relief of 100 metres. How can you make this possible and create four maps that are all different from each other? Think about how you can change the contour interval: where the highest and lowest points are along the map.
Create a class challenge: Who can create the two most different maps that still have the same local relief?
A
Map 1
Map 3
B
Map 2
Map 4
➜
Figure 2.4.4 Example for local relief activity
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c02_p047-070.indd 59
21/05/26 7:53 PM
60
Chapter 2 Geographic skills: Mapping Earth’s biomes
2.5
Fieldwork: Biomes and productivity Success criteria
In this lesson, you will have the opportunity to design a fieldwork investigation to explore a local example of biomes and food security.
❏ I can use primary fieldwork techniques and secondary data to answer a research question.
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
Learning intention
Introduction
Fieldwork lies at the heart of geography studies. It allows you to explore concepts learned in the classroom by applying them in the real world. Fieldwork is an engaging process that involves:
• developing a background understanding about an issue • creating a research question to investigate the issue in the real world • forming a hypothesis (a possible answer to your question) • conducting research • analysing your results to test your hypothesis • evaluating what you have learned, what worked and what didn’t, and considering any further questions that have emerged.
To explore the ideas in this chapter, you may choose to conduct fieldwork at a farm in your local or regional area. The following structure will guide your study.
➜
Figure 2.5.1 Water quality testing is a primary fieldwork technique that helps assess the environmental impacts of farming activities. Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c02_p047-070.indd 60
21/05/26 7:54 PM
61
2.5 Fieldwork: Biomes and productivity
Table 2.5.1 Structuring fieldwork writing Section
Explanation
Title and introduction
Choose a suitable topic and title for your investigation. Include the scope and location of your investigation. Write a brief introduction outlining the main aspects of your investigation.
Examples
• An evaluation of the ways farming affects the natural
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
environment • A comparison of soil health on two different farms • An investigation into new technology and innovation at a chosen farm • An evaluation of the success of regenerative agricultural methods at a chosen farm Research background information • Geographic characteristics of your chosen farm and a about your chosen topic and map of your study area location/s. This will provide context • Regional information such as biome and land cover for your study. Write a research question that • What are the present and future challenges for foodyou will answer using the data producing farms, and how are they being addressed you collect. You may include on your chosen farm? one main question and several • More specific sub-questions could include: sub-questions. • How is species diversity loss being managed at this farm?
Background information
Research question
• What is this farm doing to reduce the impacts of climate change?
Hypothesis
Primary data collection
Secondary data collection
Presenting and analysing your data Discussion, conclusion and evaluation References
A hypothesis is a clear statement that can be tested. Write it before collecting your data. Primary data is data you collect yourself in the field. Consider the types of primary data you will need to collect to answer your research question. Consider the equipment and preparation required. Secondary data is data that other people have collected that you can use as part of your investigation. Undertake research to find suitable sources of information that you can apply to your topic. Summarise your findings using clear, easy-to-read visual formats.
Use your primary and secondary data to answer your research question. Summarise your main findings and evaluate your investigation. Include a bibliography listing any sources used.
• How is climate change impacting this farm? • How is this farm addressing soil degradation?
• Example: Regenerative farming techniques have
improved crop yields and environmental sustainability at Days Walk Farm. • Photos and field sketches • Vegetation identification and abundance using quadrats • Observations of processes such as erosion • Assessment of water quality (e.g. pH, turbidity, temperature, nutrient levels) • Interviews with farmers, local community groups, environmental groups and other relevant organisations • Water quality data collected by Water NSW • Climate data from the Bureau of Meteorology • Websites of local environment groups
• Graphs (pie, line, bar) and maps (choropleth,
thematic, political) • Annotated photos and field sketches • Data summary tables • Whether your hypothesis was supported or disproven • A clear answer to your research question • Strengths and weaknesses of your data collection methods and how they could be improved
AGT Breeding. (2024). Victoria Field Crop Variety Guide 2024, accessed 8 August 2024, https://cdn.agtbreeding. com.au/docs/general/Variety-Booklets/Victoria-FieldCrop-Variety-Guide-2024_web.pdf Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c02_p047-070.indd 61
21/05/26 7:54 PM
62
Chapter 2 Geographic skills: Mapping Earth’s biomes
2.6
Chapter review
Success criteria
In this lesson, you will consolidate your learning across this chapter and apply a range of geographic skills relating to direction, scale and heights.
❏ I can interpret direction, scale and heights to understand a range of maps.
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
Learning intention
Geographical data for activity questions Nicholson River
K
A
H
E
B
FPO
L
F
Video 2.6.1 Introducing the geographical data and skills-based activities in this section
I
C
D
G
J
M
➜
Figure 2.6.1 Map of Nicholson River
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c02_p047-070.indd 62
21/05/26 7:54 PM
2.6 Chapter review
Shark Island Light
Boowambillee /Shark Island
63
Boowambillee
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
Boowambillee /Shark Island
Shark Island Wharf
Shark Island Beach
Bay Double B ay
Shark Island Wharf
1 : 2,000
Shark Island Light
➜
➜
Figure 2.6.2 Map of Shark Island
- Ro se B ay
Figure 2.6.3 Map of Shark Island
Boowambillee
Shark Island Light
Boowambillee /Shark Island
Boowambillee
Boowambillee /Shark Island
Shark Island Wharf
➜
➜
Figure 2.6.4 Map of Shark Island
Figure 2.6.5 Map of Shark Island
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c02_p047-070.indd 63
21/05/26 7:54 PM
Chapter 2 Geographic skills: Mapping Earth’s biomes
Figure 2.6.6 Map of the world
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
64
➜
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c02_p047-070.indd 64
21/05/26 7:54 PM
2.6 Chapter review
8° 0
16°
24° Alta
Tromso
Norwegian Sea
Harstad Narvik
Kiruna r n eälve n Ri
RUSSIA
To
68°
Batsfjord Vadso
Hammerfest
200 km
Bodo
65
ver
Jokkmokk Mo i Rana Mosjoen Um eä lve Storuman n Rive Namsos 64° Steinkjer SWEDEN Umeå Östersund Trondheim L j us Molde nan Ånge Åndalsnes Härnösand River
r
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
Sandnessjoen
NORWAY
Florø
Hudiksvall
Lillehammer Gudvangen Bergen Oslo
Gulf of Bothnia Gävle
Falun
Helsinki
Mälaren Uppsala Aland Karlstad Lake Islands Stockholm Örebro Stavanger Vättern Nyköping Kristiansand Lake Göteborg Mariestad Jönköping Visby North Sea Växjö Baltic 56° Kalmar Sea 60°
FINLAND
Tallinn
ESTONIA
Riga LATVIA
DENMARK
LITHUANIA
Copenhagen
Irish Sea
Anglesey Island
Liverpool
Rhyl
Holyhead
Bangor
Snowdon
Cardigan Bay
Welshpool
LEGEND
n
bria
Cam
a rd
Hay on Wye
Usk
g u Bre Fish con
Bea con Lianelli s Swansea
Carmarthen Bay Gower Swansea Peninsula Bay
Low / Hills / Mountains
iv
Pembroke
Newtown
er
WALES
r Rive
Seve
R Wye
Aberaeron
St. George’s Fishguard Channel St David’s
r eve
r rn Rive
S
Aberystwyth
ENGLAND
iver
Llyn Peninsula
Clwydian Hills Wrexham iver Dee R
Mountains
Caernarfon Bay
nR
➜
Figure 2.6.7 Map of Sweden
Newport
Cardiff
Bristol
Bristol Channel 0
60 km
➜
Figure 2.6.8 Map of Wales
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c02_p047-070.indd 65
21/05/26 7:54 PM
Chapter 2 Geographic skills: Mapping Earth’s biomes
➜
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
66
Figure 2.6.9 Map of London
Check your understanding
Using Figure 2.6.1 (Map of Nicholson River), answer the following questions. 1.
2. 3.
4.
State the direction from C to D. Identify the direction from A to B. Which point lies south-west of point E? State the direction: a. of A from F b. of H from D c. of I from C d. from B to F e. from J to D f. from L to M.
5.
6. 7.
8. 9.
Compared to Figure 2.6.6, is Figure 2.6.1 a large or small scale map? Why? Name two natural features that can be identified clearly because of the map’s scale. Identify the aspect at point G. Which point is located on a north facing slope? State the aspect of the slope at point I.
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c02_p047-070.indd 66
21/05/26 7:54 PM
2.6 Chapter review
67
Using Figures 2.6.2 to 2.6.5 (Maps of Shark Island), answer the following questions. 1. 2. 3. 4.
Which figure shows the largest scale map of Shark Island? Which figure shows the smallest scale map? Identify the map that shows the most detail of Shark Island. Identify the map that shows Shark Island in relation to the surrounding coastline.
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
Using Figures 2.6.6 to 2.6.9 (Maps of the World, Sweden, Wales and London), answer the following questions. 1.
2. 3.
4. 5.
6.
Which figure shows the largest scale map? Which figure shows the smallest scale map? List the maps from smallest to largest scale. What is the main purpose of the map shown in Figure 2.6.6? What is the main purpose of the map shown in Figure 2.6.7? Which map would be most useful for navigating in a city?
Develop your understanding
Using Figure 2.6.1 (Map of Nicholson River), answer the following questions. 1.
2. 3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8. 9.
10. 11.
Find the bearing from point F to point J. Determine the bearing of point H to point I. Describe the direction of travel if you moved from point G to point E, using a bearing and a compass direction. A hiker walks from point F to point E and then to point H. Describe the overall direction of travel. Explain how the scale of the map helps users to understand the shape of the land. Compare what information would be visible on this map compared to a small-scale map of the entire region or country. Describe a limitation of using a large-scale map compared with a small scale map. Compare the aspects of slopes at point E and point J. Explain how contour lines help identify the aspect of the slope at point F. Identify which point would receive the most sunlight and explain why. Determine the local relief between: a. point D and point G b. point C and point F c. point K and point I d. point M and point L.
Using Figures 2.6.2 to 2.6.5 (Maps of Shark Island), answer the following questions. 1.
2.
3.
4.
Compare the level of detail visible on Shark Island in Figure 2.6.2 and Figure 2.6.4. Identify two features that are visible in the large scale map but not in the small scale map. Explain which map would be most useful for a tourist planning activities on the island. Using the fact that Figure 2.6.1 has a scale of 1:20,000, determine the scale of: a. Figure 2.6.3 b. Figure 2.6.4 c. Figure 2.6.5.
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c02_p047-070.indd 67
21/05/26 7:54 PM
68
Chapter 2 Geographic skills: Mapping Earth’s biomes
Using Figures 2.6.6 to 2.6.9 (Maps of the world, Sweden, Wales and London), answer the following questions. 1. 2. 3.
4.
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
5.
Identify the type of scale used in Figure 2.6.8. Using the scale in Figure 2.6.8, calculate the distance between Cardiff and Swansea. Using the scale in Figure 2.6.9, calculate the distance between Wimbledon Station and London Heathrow Airport. Write the scales of each map (Figures 2.6.6–2.6.9). Explain the differences between them. Identify two features on the largest scale map that cannot be seen in the smallest scale map. Explain the limitations of only using Figure 2.6.7. Explain the limitations of only using Figure 2.6.7 for orienteering. Explain how a linear scale remains accurate when a map is resized.
6.
7.
Extend your understanding
Using Figure 2.6.1 (Map of Nicholson River), answer the following questions. 1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6. 7.
8.
9.
10. 11.
Explain why using a bearing is more precise than using compass directions from point A to point F. Refer explicitly to the figure in your response. Compare the directions of travel from C to D and point F to J. Which route would be easier to follow using a compass only? A rescue helicopter is travelling on a bearing of 110°. Between which two points could it be travelling? Describe how direction and bearings would be essential for safe navigation in this landscape. Use two specific examples from the figure. Explain why a map with the scale of Figure 2.6.1 would be more useful than a smaller scaled map when planning a route for a hike. Refer to specific features. Determine how the scale affects the accuracy of interpreting the steepness of slopes. Justify whether Figure 2.6.1 would be suitable for emergency-response planning. Refer to the assumed scale and level of detail. Explain how the aspect of the slope could influence vegetation growth at point G compared to point B. Explain why the aspect of the slope would be important when choosing a campsite in this landscape. Determine the highest local relief between two points. Describe how local relief influences the overall landscape of the Nicolson River area.
Using Figures 2.6.2 to 2.6.5 (Maps of Shark Island) answer the following questions. 1.
2.
3.
Explain the usefulness of small-scale maps for understanding regional connections, such as transport routes and surrounding suburbs. Assess how scale affects a user’s perception of distance and size when viewing Shark Island. “Large-scale maps show less area but more detail.” Explain this statement using evidence from Figures 2.6.2–2.6.5.
Creative tasks
Task 1: Lost explorer – Biome navigation challenge Draw a map of an unfamiliar biome that has been altered over time by human influences. You are to draw on a number of roads, transportation lines, etc. On your map, identify key points. You are to place a person on your map who is “lost”. By creating a number of instructions using direction and bearings, help the lost person navigate to safety. Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c02_p047-070.indd 68
21/05/26 7:54 PM
2.6 Chapter review
69
Task 2: Slope map Design a hill or mountain diagram inside a biome of your choice. Your diagram must show:
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
• a north arrow • at least two slopes with different aspects • different vegetation on each slope • sun direction shown with arrows.
Skill focus: aspect, direction, environmental variation
Extension: Redraw the same hill showing how vegetation changes if the climate becomes hotter or drier. Task 3: Biome navigation
Create a biome navigation map. Your map must include:
• one biome • a start point • a finish point • at least four checkpoints • a north arrow.
Write directions only (no explanation):
• Use 16-point compass directions • Use bearings (e.g. 045°, 270°)
Swap with another student and see if they end up in the same place. Task 4: Changing the story through scale
Choose one real biome location (e.g. a rainforest or a desert). 1.
Find three maps of the same place at different scales.
2.
On each map, circle evidence of human influence (roads, farms, cities, mines, dams, etc.) Annotate these changes with short labels.
3.
Determine which scaled map shows best the extent of human impact on the biome. Why?
Task 5: Do cartographers lie?
You are a cartographer hired by a fictional government that wants a biome to look less damaged than it really is. 1.
Create a small-scale biome map of a rainforest or desert.
2.
Deliberately choose a scale that hides detail, omit certain human features and generalise boundaries.
3.
On a second page, annotate in a different colour what you left out and how a largerscale map would expose the truth.
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c02_p047-070.indd 69
21/05/26 7:54 PM
70
Chapter 2 Geographic skills: Mapping Earth’s biomes
Task 6: Slope survivor You are stranded in a mountainous environment. Your survival depends on understanding slope steepness, slope aspect and direction. Draw a topographic map of a hill or mountain. Include contour lines showing elevation with at least one steep slope and one gentle slope. Ensure there are at least four slope aspects (north, south, etc.)
2.
Appropriately place the following features on your map: a campsite, a vegetable garden, an animal enclosure and an emergency shelter. Follow these rules:
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
1.
• The campsite must be located on a gentle slope. • The vegetable garden must be on a north-facing slope. • The animal enclosure must be placed on a south-facing slope. • The emergency shelter must be located on the steepest slope. • All features must be accessible without crossing a ridge line. • The campsite must be uphill from the animal enclosure. • The emergency shelter must be downhill from the campsite.
3.
Your teacher will announce ONE event, and you can only move ONE feature. Possible events could be a heatwave, flood, strong wings from a specific direction. Will you survive?
➜
Figure 2.6.10 Consider the elements of your topographic map
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c02_p047-070.indd 70
21/05/26 7:54 PM
Chapter
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
3
Factors influencing food production in Australia and Asia
Lessons
3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4
Geo Spark: Where are the world’s first robotic vertical farms? How do humans change biomes to produce food? What environmental factors influence the supply of and demand for food? What social, economic and technological factors influence the supply of and demand for food? 3.5 What are the environmental impacts of food production? 3.6 Chapter review
➜
Teachers go to the Online Teacher Suite to: • plan, sequence and assign directed tasks for students and classes using Task Manager • view student activity reports • provide feedback to students • download a printable “Writing focus” workbook for this chapter.
Image: Aerial photograph of rice terraces in Bali, Indonesia
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c03_p071-102.indd 71
21/05/26 10:02 AM
72
Chapter 3 Factors influencing food production in Australia and Asia
3.1
Geo Spark: Where are the world’s first robotic vertical farms? Success criteria
In this lesson, you will learn about an innovative approach to food production: the first robotic vertical farms in China.
❏ I can list reasons why vertical farming is used in many Asian cities. ❏ I can describe a variety of features of robotic vertical farms in China.
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
Learning intention
➜
Figure 3.1.1 An interior view of the world’s first 20-storey unmanned vertical vegetable farm in Chengdu, Sichuan Province, China
urbanisation the process of population shift from rural to urban areas, leading to the growth of cities
vertical farm an indoor agricultural method that crops in vertically stacked layers, often in controlled indoor environments such as buildings or warehouses
Introduction
Imagine this: a 20-storey building in the middle of a busy, crowded city where robots, not people, grow crops indoors! No, this isn’t a scene from a science fiction movie; it’s the new trend of growing food in China and other Asian cities. As urbanisation increases in China, experts in “new farming” are exploring ways to provide stable food supplies to people living in cities. China faces challenges including limited farmland and pollution, so farms are now being built indoors. In 2023, China built the world’s first unmanned 20-storey vertical farm in Chengdu, Sichuan Province (see Figure 3.1.2). This high-tech facility uses robots and automation to grow plants indoors, marking a major step forward in modern, smart farming.
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c03_p071-102.indd 72
21/05/26 10:02 AM
73
3.1 Geo Spark: Where are the world’s first robotic vertical farms?
Chengdu CHINA
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
Sichuan
0
1,000 km
➜
Figure 3.1.2 Map showing the geographical location of Chengdu in the Sichuan province of China
Features of vertical farms
Features of the robotic vertical farms in China include:
•
• •
of shelves or trays supported by frames that go up several stories high which saves space. artificial lighting: instead of sunlight, LED lights provide the intensity and colours of light that the crops need to grow. The lighting can be customised for different crop types. For example, leafy greens such as lettuce require moderate intensity, while tomatoes and capsicums need higher intensity. Different light is needed in different phases of plant growth so this can be changed. no soil: instead of soil, hydroponics and aeroponics are used in vertical farms. Plants grow in nutrient-rich water (hydroponics) or are sprayed with a nutrient mist (aeroponics) instead of using soil (see Figure 3.1.3). Automation: robots are used for tasks including seed planting, cultivation, harvesting and packing. No human labour is used in any of the day-to-day operations. Computers and sensors control temperature, humidity and light to create perfect growing conditions year round.
Today in China, more than 250 plant factories use vertical farming. Vertical farming maximises yield in a small land area by making the most of resources and space. In traditional farms, harvesting of a single crop can only be achieved once or twice a year, but vertical farms can harvest crops about 12 times a year! They also use less water, and because they are indoors minimal pesticides are required. However, it costs tens of millions of yuan to build a vertical farm, and they are also expensive to run. The indoor farms use lots of energy, and robots have replaced many traditional farming jobs. Do you think we will ever see robotic vertical farms introduced in our cities in Australia?
Writing focus 3.1 Question words ➜
• multi-tiered rack systems: this means that plants are grown on many levels
LED lights lightemitting diode (LED) is a small electronic part that makes light when electricity passes through it and can be many colours cultivation preparing land, planting seeds and tending to crops so they can grow and be harvested harvesting gathering crops that are ripe and ready to eat or sell yield a measurement of the amount of a crop grown
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c03_p071-102.indd 73
21/05/26 10:02 AM
74
Chapter 3 Factors influencing food production in Australia and Asia
Hydroponics Aeroponics
versus
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
Mist nozzles Nutrient solution
Water pump
• Aeroponics
The process of growing plants in an air or mist environment without using soil or any solid growing medium. Nutrient-rich mist is sprayed directly onto the plant roots to help them grow.
Nutrient solution
Air pump
Air store
Water pump
• Hydroponics
A method of growing plants in nutrient-rich water instead of soil. The water provides all the minerals and nutrients the plants need to grow, often in a controlled indoor environment.
➜
Figure 3.1.3 The difference between aeroponics and hydroponics. Both growing methods are used in robotic vertical farms in China.
➜ Figure 3.1.4 Robotic
arm harvesting lettuce in vertical hydroponic plant
Activity 3.1
Visible thinking routine: Circle of viewpoints
China’s vertical robotic farm technology aims to reduce land use, increase yield and address food security challenges in urban areas. In this activity, you will explore different perspectives on the creation and use of vertical robotic farms. Choose one of following groups:
• traditional farmers • robotics designers • urban residents
• environmental activists • consumers.
From the perspective of your chosen group, answer the following question: Are vertical robotic farms the best idea for the future of food production? In your answer, consider environmental, economic, social and ethical implications.
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c03_p071-102.indd 74
21/05/26 10:02 AM
75
3.2 How do humans change biomes to produce food?
3.2
How do humans change biomes to produce food? Success criteria
In this lesson, you will explore various modern methods of food production used to improve food security and the way these can affect biomes.
❏ I can describe various ways that humans change biomes to produce food.
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
Learning intention
Lesson starter
What did you eat? 1.
Think back to your last meal. What did you eat?
2.
List some of the steps that you think were taken to produce those foods.
3.
Humans alter biomes in many ways to produce the food we eat. What might be the environmental impact of producing these foods?
➜
Figure 3.2.1 Many steps are involved in food production, from growing food on a farm to getting it to the shops for you to buy.
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c03_p071-102.indd 75
21/05/26 10:02 AM
76
Chapter 3 Factors influencing food production in Australia and Asia
Altering biomes
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
Humans have been altering biomes for thousands of years. These changes have provided many benefits, such as food production and access to natural resources. This has allowed civilisations to grow and people to live longer. However, these activities have also caused significant environmental damage, as shown in Figure 3.2.2
Monoculture farming used where just one species of plant is grown over a vast area
Trees and vegetation cleared to make space for crops or livestock
Figure 3.2.2 Some ways humans alter biomes through intensive farming methods ➜
Fertilisers and pesticides are used to improve productivity and quality
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c03_p071-102.indd 76
21/05/26 10:02 AM
77
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
3.2 How do humans change biomes to produce food?
Refrigerated transport methods used to move of goods vast distances using refrigerated transport methods
Live export of animals
Large machinery used to cultivate crops or plough the land
Large-scale irrigation channels used to move fresh water away from its natural path to be stored and used on farms Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c03_p071-102.indd 77
21/05/26 10:02 AM
78
Chapter 3 Factors influencing food production in Australia and Asia
Vegetation clearing
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
➜
Writing focus 3.2 Transitional phrases
Vegetation is often cleared from biomes to grow crops and graze livestock. This destroys animal habitats, disrupts food webs and reduces biodiversity. In Australia, more than 1,900 plant and animal species are threatened or at risk of extinction. Native vegetation in many countries is removed by cutting or burning to make space for crops. When plants are burned, carbon stored in the vegetation and soil is released into the atmosphere, contributing to climate change. Vegetation clearing also affects the health of rivers and coastal ecosystems. Without plant roots to stabilise the soil, soil erosion increases, and more sediment, nutrients and pollutants run-off into coastal waters.
soil erosion the movement of soil particles from one place to another by wind or water
➜
Figure 3.2.3 Forests being cut and burned for palm-oil production in Sumatra
Irrigation
aquifer underground layers of rock that hold and store water
Growing food in some biomes is challenging because there is not enough rainfall to support certain crops. In these cases, water is taken from rivers, lakes or underground aquifers and supplied to farms through irrigation. Large-scale irrigation diverts freshwater from its natural path to be stored and used for farming. Irrigation plays a key role in food production by increasing crop yields in dry regions. The Murray–Darling Basin, for example, uses 70% of Australia’s irrigated water. Even though it receives only 6% of the country’s annual rainfall, it produces 40% of our food and 93% of our cotton (see the irrigation map in Figure 3.2.4).
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c03_p071-102.indd 78
21/05/26 10:02 AM
79
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
3.2 How do humans change biomes to produce food?
Charleville
Roma
Toowoomba
QLD
Cunnamulla
Brisbane
St George
Goondiwindi
SA
Moree
NSW
Bourke
Narrabri
Tamworth
Broken Hill
Dubbo
Ivanhoe
Forbes
Wentworth
Renmark
Adelaide
Murray Bridge
Mildura
Swan Hill
Pinnaroo
Horsham
Bendigo
VIC
Griffith
Orange Cowra
Sydney
Wagga Wagga
Deniliquin Echuca
Canberra
Albury
Shepparton Mooroopna Seymour
Melbourne
LEGEND
Capital city Main town
Main rivers
State border
TAS 0
150
300 km
Irrigation districts Murray–Darling Basin
➜
Figure 3.2.4 The Murray–Darling Basin
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c03_p071-102.indd 79
21/05/26 10:02 AM
80
Chapter 3 Factors influencing food production in Australia and Asia
However, irrigation may not be sustainable in the long term. Overwatering can lead to waterlogging, which deprives plant roots of oxygen and damages crops. Irrigation can also cause salinity problems by raising the water table and bringing salty groundwater closer to the surface. When the water evaporates, salt is left behind in the soil (see Figure 3.2.5). As soil salinity increases, plant growth declines, crop yields drop, and farmland becomes less productive.
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
water table the boundary between water-saturated ground and unsaturated ground
Shortly after clearing and irrigation Evaporation and the seeping of irrigation concentrates saline groundwater at the surface of the soil.
Before clearing The system is balanced and most rainwater is used in the spot where it falls.
Later after clearing and irrigation What would have been protective plant cover is destroyed by the accumulation of salt at the surface of the soil. This leaves the land open to erosion.
➜
Figure 3.2.5 The salinity process
Agricultural chemicals
fertilisers substances spread on soil or applied to plants or crops to provide essential nutrients for growth algal bloom when colonies of algae grow uncontrollably, harming people and wildlife marine dead zone an area of reduced oxygen in the water, causing organisms to die
Pesticides are chemicals used to control pests and diseases in crops. They help protect our food supply but, because they are sprayed across entire fields instead of targeting specific pests, only about five per cent of pesticides are effective. One-third of our food supply requires bees for pollination, but the repeated use of pesticides can kill these pollinators, reducing crop yields in the long term. Overuse of pesticides can also be toxic to humans and animals. For example, monocrotophos, one of the world’s most dangerous pesticides, is still used in some countries like India because it is cheap. Many farms around the world use chemical fertilisers, which are liquid nutrients sprayed on plants to help them grow more. However, plants do not absorb all the nutrients from fertilisers. The leftover nutrients seep into the soil or wash into rivers, eventually reaching the ocean. This can lead to algal blooms on the ocean’s surface, which block sunlight from reaching underwater and stop marine organisms from absorbing oxygen. When the algae die, they sink to the ocean floor and decompose, using up large amounts of oxygen. This leaves very little oxygen for other marine life. On a large scale, this creates marine dead zones, where very few organisms can survive (see Figure 3.2.6).
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c03_p071-102.indd 80
21/05/26 10:02 AM
3.2 How do humans change biomes to produce food?
Heat
Dead algae
Fresh river water
81
Some dead fish float to surface
Algae bloom Saltwater
Freshwater
Oxygen-deprived saltwater
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
Living organisms
Freshwater
Oxygen
Saltwater
DEAD ZONE
➜
Figure 3.2.6 The process that causes marine dead zones can be triggered by fertilisers washing into waterways.
➜
Figure 3.2.7 Boats surrounded by algae in a bay in Qingdao in China’s eastern Shandong province
Review 3.2
Online quiz
Knowledge and understanding
Thinking and working geographically
Students can access sample responses and results online
Teachers can go online to assign questions, view results, reports and more!
Knowledge and understanding 1.
Explain how vegetation removal affects natural and human environments.
2.
Describe how excessive irrigation in agriculture can degrade biomes.
3.
Outline two negative impacts of using pesticides.
4.
Describe how marine dead zones are created.
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c03_p071-102.indd 81
21/05/26 10:03 AM
82
Chapter 3 Factors influencing food production in Australia and Asia
Thinking and working geographically
Working with geographical concepts: Change 1.
change the concept of change is about explaining geographical phenomena by investigating how they have developed over time
From Figure 3.2.2, identify ONE way that humans change biomes using extensive farming techniques, and research the environmental impacts of this practice.
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
a. Describe the change that has occurred as a result of farming (e.g. clearing forests, grazing livestock, irrigation). b. Explain how this farming practice alters the natural environment (consider soil, vegetation, water and biodiversity). c. Create a flow chart that shows the consequences of this change.
Reading a divided bar graph
A divided bar graph is a horizontal bar divided into segments to show proportion. Each segment represents a percentage of the whole. Area
29% land 149 million km2
Earth’s surface
Agricultural land 18% from meat and dairy
19% barren land 28 million km2
71% habitable land 104 million km2
Land surface
Habitable land
71% ocean 361 million km2
50% agriculture 51 million km2
77% livestock 40 million km2
Food caloric supply for global consumption
82% from plant-based food
Food protein supply for global consumption
63% from plantbased food
10% glaciers 15m km2
37% forests 39 million km2
23% crops minus feed 11 million km2
1% freshwater 1.5m km2
11% shrub 12 million km2
1% urban 1.5m km2
37% from meat and dairy
➜
Figure 3.2.8 Divided bar graph showing the surface area of land used for food production Source: Our World in Data website 2.
Use the divided bar graph in Figure 3.2.8 to answer the following questions.
a. Recall how much of the world’s land surface is habitable land. b. Recall what makes up the 29% of the world’s inhabitable land. c. How much of the world’s habitable land is used for agriculture? How much is used for livestock compared to crops? d. Apart from agriculture, what else makes up the world's habitable land, and in what percentage? e. Where do most of the calories and proteins for global consumption come from? f. Discuss what you find fascinating or surprising from this bar graph.
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c03_p071-102.indd 82
21/05/26 10:03 AM
83
3.3 What environmental factors influence the supply of and demand for food?
3.3
What environmental factors influence the supply of and demand for food? Success criteria
In this lesson, you will learn about the environmental factors that affect the supply of and demand for food.
❏ I can describe how land degradation, water scarcity and climate change impact food production.
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
Learning intention
Lesson starter
Connect, extend, challenge 1.
Connect: What does the photo in Figure 3.3.1 remind you of? Does it connect to anything you’ve already learned in this chapter?
2.
Extend: How does this photo expand your thinking about food production? What new ideas does it give you about the constraints on the world’s food production?
3.
Challenge: What challenges or questions does this photo raise for you?
Can we feed the world’s population?
It is the year 2050, and the global population has reached 9.8 billion people. The demand for food has increased, yet the land available for farming has declined. Can we meet the growing demand to feed the world’s population?
➜
Writing focus 3.3 Developing sentences
Land degradation
➜
Land degradation refers to a decline in land quality and productivity, Figure 3.3.1 Land degradation is a serious environmental often caused by human activities constraint on the world’s food production, with more than 40% of and environmental factors. the Earth’s land suffering from degradation. According to the United Nations, over 40% of the Earth’s total land area is degraded, meaning it has lost some or all of its natural productivity due to human impacts. Land degradation has worsened during the twentieth and twenty-first centuries due to farming and livestock production (over-cultivation, overgrazing and land clearing), urbanisation, deforestation and extreme weather events such as droughts. By 2050, up to 90% of the Earth’s land could be degraded, making it a serious threat to biomes and global food security.
over-cultivation growing crops repeatedly on the same land without allowing time for the soil to recover its nutrients overgrazing when too many animals (such as cows, sheep or goats) graze in one area for too long, damaging the land
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c03_p071-102.indd 83
21/05/26 10:03 AM
84
Chapter 3 Factors influencing food production in Australia and Asia
Water scarcity
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
Water scarcity refers to a lack of sufficient water or limited access to safe water supplies. Many food crops rely on irrigation, particularly in dry and semi-dry biomes. In North Africa, countries such as Algeria and Libya are highly vulnerable to drought, limiting their water supply and affecting food production. Similarly, in the Middle East, nations such as Saudi Arabia, Yemen and Iraq experience severe water shortages due to hot temperatures, low rainfall and political conflicts that affect water management. Water scarcity reduces the amount of water available for irrigation, leading to lower crop yields. It also degrades soil quality, making it more prone to erosion and nutrient loss, which further weakens crop growth. Dry conditions can also cause plants to experience stress, making them more vulnerable to pests and diseases. For example, dry root rot is a disease that affects chickpea crops more frequently during drought periods.
LEGEND
2040 water stress projections by country Low Low to medium Medium to high High Extremely high
➜
climate adaptation adjusting how people, places and systems work so they can live with current and expected climate impacts
0
5,000 km
Figure 3.3.2 Water stress projections by country show water scarcity as an environmental constraint.
Climate change
However, the biggest environmental threat to global food production by far is climate change. Rising temperatures, shifting rainfall patterns, extreme weather events and rising sea levels all affect the demand for food because food can be scarcer and therefore more expensive. Figure 3.3.3 shows some of the impacts of climate change on food production in New South Wales according to AdaptNSW, which is a New South Wales Government initiative and website focused on climate adaptation.
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c03_p071-102.indd 84
21/05/26 10:03 AM
3.3 What environmental factors influence the supply of and demand for food?
Less rain in winter and spring
85
Reduces the amount of water to grow crops
Extreme rainfall
Washes away soils
Crop stress animal stress and pests increase
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
Longer droughts and harsher fire weather
Damages crops
Warmer temperatures
Reduced crop yield
➜
Figure 3.3.3 Flow charts showing the impact of climate change on food production in NSW
Changes to the climate can reduce agricultural yields, damage infrastructure, and disrupt transport and supply chains at a global scale. This can lead to food insecurity and rapid fluctuations in prices for consumers, which in turn significantly affect demand for food. Climate change’s impact on food security will be explored in Lesson 4.3.
supply chains the networks of organisations, people, activities and resources involved in creating a product or service from raw materials and delivering it to the final customer
➜
Figure 3.3.4 Sheep on a drought-stricken property in south-eastern Australia. Drought reduces feed and water availability for livestock, leading to poor animal health, higher costs for farmers, and fluctuations in meat and dairy prices.
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c03_p071-102.indd 85
21/05/26 10:03 AM
86
Chapter 3 Factors influencing food production in Australia and Asia
Review 3.3 Knowledge and understanding
Online quiz
Thinking and working geographically
Students can access sample responses and results online
Teachers can go online to assign questions, view results, reports and more!
Knowledge and understanding
What is land degradation?
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
1. 2.
Describe how land degradation has worsened during the twentieth and twenty-first centuries.
3.
Using Figure 3.3.2 and an atlas or online map, list the five countries most at risk of water stress in 2040.
4.
Explain how changes to climate can affect the demand for food.
5.
Using the photo and caption in Figure 3.3.4, create a flow chart (like Figure 3.3.3) to show the impacts of climate change on livestock production.
Thinking and working geographically
Working with geographical concepts: Change 1.
Explore the interactive climate change projections map on the AdaptNSW website (https://cambridge.edu.au/redirect/11824). The interactive map lets you view the projected changes in climate in NSW across different regions. Complete the following visible thinking routine: a. I used to think … b. Now I think …
2.
change the concept of change is about explaining geographical phenomena by investigating how they have developed over time
Watch the Climate Council’s YouTube clip “The Hidden Climate Threat Explained”. Examine how and why livestock production produces methane. Provide statistics from the clip in your response.
Feeding the world in 2050 3.
By 2050, the global population is expected to reach 9.8 billion people. However, environmental challenges such as land degradation, water scarcity and climate change threaten our ability to produce enough food. In this task, you will research one of these challenges and investigate potential solutions to ensure global food security in the future. Select ONE of the following environmental challenges to investigate:
• land degradation • water scarcity • climate change.
Use reliable sources (such as UN Food and Agriculture Organization, World Bank or AdaptNSW) to answer the following:
a. What is the cause of this environmental challenge? b. How does it affect food production and security? c. Which regions or countries are most affected? d. What strategies or technologies are being used to reduce its impact?
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c03_p071-102.indd 86
21/05/26 10:03 AM
87
3.4 What social, economic and technological factors influence the supply of and demand for food?
3.4
What social, economic and technological factors influence the supply of and demand for food? Success criteria
Last lesson we explored the environmental factors that affect food production. Now we will investigate the social, economic and technological factors that influence the supply of and demand for food at a global scale.
❏ I can explain a variety of ways that social, economic and technological factors influence the supply of and demand for food.
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
Learning intention
Lesson starter
From artificial intelligence to drones, mobile money and blockchain, digital innovations are already helping us address poverty, hunger, climate change, conflict and disease.
– Achim Steiner
1.
To what extent do you agree or disagree with this quote?
2.
Provide an example of how technology can or cannot solve environmental problems. Refer to the farming issues you have learned about in previous lessons.
➜
Figure 3.4.1 Solving environmental problems takes innovation, but is that enough?
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c03_p071-102.indd 87
21/05/26 10:03 AM
88
Chapter 3 Factors influencing food production in Australia and Asia
Social factors ➜
Writing focus 3.4 Appositives
Social factors such as poverty and geopolitical conflict can greatly impact food supply by reducing a population’s ability to produce, access and afford food. Countries with higher incomes and peace will be more likely to be able to produce, access and afford food.
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
Poverty
poverty when people or communities lack the financial resources and essentials needed for a minimum standard of living
developing countries countries with a low GDP per capita and a low level of industrialisation
developed countries countries with a high GDP per capita, higher standards of living and greater access to medical care and technology
Poverty and low wages affect food production. Farmers living in poverty often lack access to essential resources such as quality seeds, fertilisers and farming equipment, leading to lower crop yields and poorer-quality produce. Poverty also limits investment in new agricultural technologies, such as advanced irrigation systems, high-tech machinery or sustainable farming methods.
In developing countries, many farmers struggle with high levels of debt and have difficulty accessing markets, leading to food waste, low incomes and ongoing financial hardship. A lack of education can also be a challenge. Farmers with limited training may not be familiar with modern or sustainable farming techniques, making their methods less efficient and less productive. However, in developed countries, which have higher education levels and greater incomes, farmers use the most efficient and productive methods of food production, storage and distribution.
Geopolitical conflict
➜
Geopolitical conflict can seriously affect food production. Conflict and war can destroy crops and livestock, force people from their land, and disrupt trade and supply chains. In the Global Food Report 2025, António Guterres, Secretary-General of the United Nations stated that “from Gaza and Sudan to Yemen and Mali, catastrophic hunger driven by conflict and other factors is hitting record highs, pushing households to the edge of starvation”. Geopolitical conflict makes trade and travel routes unsafe, forces people and livestock to relocate and damages vital farming infrastructure. The conflict in Ukraine caused more than $56.4 billion in environmental damage in 2023, including Figure 3.4.2 A Ukrainian fighter protects a burning wheat field as Russian the contamination of air, troops shell farms to prevent local farmers from harvesting grain. Photo taken water and soil, and has led in 2022 in the Polohy district, Zaporizhzhia, south-eastern Ukraine. Since the war to a significant decrease in started, crops have been destroyed, travel routes have become unsafe and 30% of Ukraine’s land has been contaminated by landmines and unexploded weapons. grain exports.
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c03_p071-102.indd 88
21/05/26 10:03 AM
89
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
3.4 What social, economic and technological factors influence the supply of and demand for food?
Legend Non-cropped Wheat Sunflower Rapeseed Maize Other
Legend Wheat Sunflower Rapeseed Maize Other
93,039 (12%)
216,779 (28%)
0
400 km
235,678 (31%) 167,959 (22%) 52,993 (7%)
➜
Figure 3.4.3 The geographic distribution of four major crops – wheat, maize, sunflower and rapeseed – in Ukraine, the “breadbasket” of Europe. The pie charts show the proportion of each crop in different regions. Due to the war, Ukraine’s grain exports have dropped significantly, raising major food security concerns.
Additionally, social factors such as population growth and urbanisation significantly affect the demand for food by changing the quantity of food needed and the types of food people want. As incomes rise, people want more luxury foods, such as meat and processed goods. People living in urban areas have greater access to these foods through supermarkets and restaurants (rather than relying on farms and local markets for food). By 2050 the global population will reach around 9.8 billion people. The demand for food will increase, but the land available for farming is not sufficient. Can we meet the growing demand to feed the world’s population?
Economic factors
In developing countries, poor infrastructure and a lack of transport can prevent farmers from reaching markets, limiting their ability to sell their produce. Local farmers may also struggle to compete with cheaper imported goods. Additionally, while some economic Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c03_p071-102.indd 89
21/05/26 10:03 AM
90
Chapter 3 Factors influencing food production in Australia and Asia
policies support food production, others (e.g. heavy taxes, tariffs or regulations) can make it harder for small-scale farmers to succeed. In 2024, the parliament of Ghana (in Africa) approved tax exemptions on essential agricultural inputs and machinery in an effort to support local farming communities.
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
Trade helps feed the population, raising food security
trade barrier a law or policy that restricts international trade (e.g. tariffs and quotas)
genetic modification a process that uses laboratory-based technologies to alter the DNA of an organism¸
➜
Free trade agreement an international treaty between two or more economies that reduces or eliminates certain barriers to trade in goods and services, as well as investment
Trade barriers are economic factors that can affect international trade. One common ...but tariffs raise food prices, reducing affordability and reducing food security. type is a tariff, which is a tax placed on imported goods. Tariffs increase the price S of foreign goods, making local products + more competitive. However, trade barriers can reduce the availability of food on global markets, increasing prices and limiting access. Free and open trade allows food to move to where it is needed. Australia has free trade agreements with many countries, including a recent agreement made in 2025 Figure 3.4.4 Tariffs can be an economic constraint called the Australia–UAE Comprehensive because they raise prices, making food less affordable for consumers. Economic Partnership Agreement (CEPA). This agreement aims to increase trade and investment and help diversify Australia’s trade partners, particularly in the Middle East.
Other economic factors that affect food production include income levels, population growth and food prices. Higher incomes can lead to a shift towards more resourceintensive foods, while population growth directly increases the total demand for food. The relative price of food compared to other goods, influenced by production costs and inflation, also shapes how much food consumers buy.
Technological factors
Technological factors, such as biotechnology and automation, affect food production by improving crop resilience, increasing production speed and efficiency, and reducing waste.
Biotechnology
Biotechnology uses biological systems and living organisms to improve crops’ quality and nutritional value. An example is genetic modification to make crops resistant to insect damage, tolerant to herbicides and resistant to plant viruses. Crops such as cotton and maize have been genetically modified to resist certain insects, reducing crop loss and increasing the amount available for sale and consumption.
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c03_p071-102.indd 90
21/05/26 10:03 AM
3.4 What social, economic and technological factors influence the supply of and demand for food?
91
Genetic modification can also be used to increase the nutritional value of crops. For example, cassava and rice are staple foods for millions of people worldwide, but their protein content is low. Genetic modification has improved their nutritional value by altering the amino acid composition of plant proteins. Similarly, genetically modified soybeans have been developed to produce healthier oils, replacing less healthy ones.
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
In Australia, commercial farms have used biotechnology to genetically modify canola, making it herbicide tolerant. This allows herbicides to kill weeds on canola farms without harming the crop, as the modified canola can break down the herbicides. Australia has also successfully used biotechnology to produce insect-resistant and herbicide-tolerant cotton.
➜
Figure 3.4.5 The locations where biotech crops are grown around the world. Biotechnology innovations can help to increase production of crops and can make our food supply more secure.
Automation
Robotics and artificial intelligence (AI) can automate agricultural tasks and greatly improve efficiency. Field robotics and AI can detect and monitor pests and diseases on crops; perform weeding, irrigation and crop monitoring; and assist with harvesting. The FarmDroid FD20 is an example of this technology that is increasingly being used in Australia. It is a solar-powered, driverless robot that weeds and seeds farms using GPS. It can operate 24 hours a day in sunny conditions, covering about 6 hectares daily. Robots and AI offer many benefits, including increased efficiency and productivity, greater precision and consistency, and lower labour costs. However, the disadvantages include the high cost of developing or purchasing the technology and ongoing maintenance.
artificial intelligence the development of computer systems to perform tasks that normally require human intelligence
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c03_p071-102.indd 91
21/05/26 10:03 AM
92
Chapter 3 Factors influencing food production in Australia and Asia
Review 3.4 Knowledge and understanding
Online quiz
Thinking and working geographically
Teachers can go online to assign questions, view results, reports and more!
Students can access sample responses and results online
Knowledge and understanding
Identify two social factors that can affect a country’s food supply. Describe how poverty can limit a farmer’s ability to produce food. Explain how geopolitical conflict can disrupt global food-supply chains. Discuss how economic factors such as tariffs and free trade agreements influence food availability. Identify two examples of technological innovations used in modern agriculture. Explain how biotechnology can improve crop resilience and nutritional value.
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
1. 2. 3.
4. 5.
6.
Thinking and working geographically
Working with geographical concepts: Change Part A – Analysing 1.
change the concept of change is about explaining geographical phenomena by investigating how they have developed over time
Using Figure 3.4.6, identify and list the ways that smart farms are transforming agriculture through precision technologies. In your response, consider:
• how technology changing farms • how each technology is helping farmers monitor crops and animals
➜
Figure 3.4.6 Examples of ways that smart farms are transforming the industry through precision agriculture
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c03_p071-102.indd 92
21/05/26 10:03 AM
93
3.4 What social, economic and technological factors influence the supply of and demand for food?
• how data is collected and used • how automation and robotics improve efficiency • how precision agriculture reduces waste and improves sustainability • four ways that smart farms are changing the industry.
Part B – Inventing a new agricultural technology for the future
Design a new piece of technology that could further improve farming in the future. Your invention should solve a real problem in agriculture (e.g. pests, drought, soil health, greenhouse gas emissions, food waste). Include the following in your design:
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
2.
• name of the invention • description of what it does and how it works • which farming problem it solves • how it improves efficiency, sustainability or productivity • a clearly labelled diagram of your invention.
Global report on food crises 3.
Use the most up-to-date report to complete the following activities. Present your findings to the class.
a. Choose a country. b. Pick one country mentioned in the Global Report on Food Crises (GRFC) (e.g. Sudan, Yemen, Afghanistan, Somalia, Haiti or another listed country). c. Research your country. d. Using the GRFC report, answer these questions in your own words:
• How many people in your chosen country are struggling to get enough food? • What are the main causes of the food crisis? For example: conflict/war drought or floods ● high food prices ● displacement (people forced to leave their homes). • How is the crisis affecting people, especially children? • What actions are being taken to help? (food aid, farming support etc.) ● ●
800,000
$100,000 $90,000
700,000
$80,000
600,000 500,000
$60,000 $50,000
400,000
$40,000
(Units)
($ millions)
$70,000
300,000
$30,000
200,000 $20,000 100,000
$10,000 $
2018
2019
2020
2021
2022
2023
2024
2025
0
➜
Figure 3.4.7 Projected increase in revenue and shipments of agricultural robots worldwide from 2018 to 2025
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c03_p071-102.indd 93
21/05/26 10:03 AM
94
Chapter 3 Factors influencing food production in Australia and Asia
3.5
What are the environmental impacts of food production? Success criteria
In this lesson, you will learn about the environmental impacts of food production.
❏ I can describe how food production can lead to increased greenhouse gas emissions, increased pollution and a loss of biodiversity.
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
Learning intention
Lesson starter
See, think, wonder
Use Figure 3.5.1 to complete the following questions: 1.
See: What do you notice in the infographic?
2.
Think: What do you think is happening or what does this make you think about?
3.
Wonder: What questions does this raise for you?
➜
Figure 3.5.1 The sources and sinks of greenhouse gas emissions in the Australian red meat and livestock industry Source: Futurebeef
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c03_p071-102.indd 94
21/05/26 10:03 AM
3.5 What are the environmental impacts of food production?
95
Impacts of altering biomes Writing focus 3.5 Creating topic sentences
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
➜
Humans have been altering biomes for thousands of years. This has provided us with many benefits, such as food supply and nutrition, as well as jobs and economic growth. However, the activities involved in producing the world’s food come with significant environmental impacts. This lesson will explore just three impacts: greenhouse gases, pollution and loss of biodiversity.
Greenhouse gases
Greenhouse gases exist in our atmosphere and keep our planet warm by trapping some of the heat that is released from Earth in our atmosphere. However, additional greenhouse gases, particularly carbon dioxide and methane, are being released into the atmosphere due to human activities, including agriculture. These additional gases are trapping more heat than we need in our atmosphere, resulting in the enhanced greenhouse effect (as shown in Figure 3.5.2). Human-enhanced greenhouse effect
Natural greenhouse effect
More heat escapes into space
iatio
r rad
CO2 CH
4 N2 O More greenho use gas
iate
rad
More re-emitted heat
Re-
eat
dh
Less re-emitted heat
iate
rad
d he
Re-
at
Sola
n iatio
r rad
Sola
as ouse g Greenh O H N2 CO 2 C 4
n
Less heat escapes into space
➜
Figure 3.5.2 The difference between the natural greenhouse effect and the enhanced greenhouse effect
Across the world, around one-third of total greenhouse gas emissions come from the production of food. In Australia, agriculture accounts for around 18% of total greenhouse gases or climate pollution. This climate pollution is caused by a range of farming activities (see Figure 3.5.3).
climate pollution the release of harmful substances, primarily greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide and methane, into the atmosphere, contributing to global climate change
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c03_p071-102.indd 95
21/05/26 10:03 AM
96
Chapter 3 Factors influencing food production in Australia and Asia
Carbon dioxide is released into our atmosphere from the use of fossil fuels in food production. Fossil fuels, such as oil, coal and gas, are used to power large agricultural machinery; transport and refrigerate food and fibre; and make pesticides. Large amounts of carbon are safely stored in carbon reserves such as forests, wetlands and grasslands. When these biomes are destroyed for the expansion of crops, this carbon is released from the plants and soil into the atmosphere as carbon dioxide. On farms, nitrogen fertilisers are widely used to help crops grow, but they release nitrous oxide, a greenhouse gas 300 times more potent than carbon dioxide. Growing the same crop repeatedly can degrade soil and reduce its ability to store carbon.
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
fertilisers substances spread on soil or applied to plants or crops to provide essential nutrients for growth
Livestock farming, particularly cows and sheep, produces high levels of methane during digestion. In fact, one cow releases 100 kg of methane a year, mostly through burping! Methane is an even more powerful greenhouse gas than carbon dioxide. Manure used on farms can also release methane and nitrous oxide. 45
40 35
30
25
20 15
10
Beef
Beef
grazing
feedlot
Methane
2021
2005
1990
2021
2005
1990
2021
2005
1990
2021
2005
1990
2021
2005
1990
2021
2005
Mt (CO2e)
1990
5
Other
Dairy
Nitrous oxide
Sheep
livestock
Crops
Carbon dioxide
➜
Figure 3.5.3 Australia’s agricultural emissions. “Mt (CO2e)” stands for metric tons of carbon dioxide equivalent. This is a way to measure the impact of different greenhouse gases (e.g. methane, nitrous oxide and carbon dioxide) in terms of the amount of carbon dioxide (CO2) that would cause the same amount of global warming. The higher the amount, the worse it is for our planet.
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c03_p071-102.indd 96
21/05/26 10:03 AM
3.5 What are the environmental impacts of food production?
97
Pollution
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
Water and soil pollution caused by pesticides and fertilisers are also environmental impacts from food production. Artificial pesticides are chemicals used in agriculture to protect our food supply by killing pests and diseases. They can be used to kill insects, rodents, fungi and weeds. More than 1,000 different pesticides are used around the world. However, pesticides pollute the land by degrading the soil quality and spreading chemicals into local waterways through run-off and leaching. Run-off carries pesticides from farms into local dams, creeks and rivers, while leaching draws pollutants into groundwater. Animals can also be poisoned directly or indirectly by pesticides. Pesticides can also eliminate some animals’ essential food sources, causing the animals to relocate, change their diet or starve. Lastly, microbes in the soil are vital for soil health and they can be harmed by the spraying of pesticides. Agricultural fertilisers can have harmful effects on local waterways. These fertilisers often contain nutrients such as nitrogen and phosphorus, which, in excessive amounts, can cause a process known as eutrophication (see Figure 3.5.4). This process leads to the rapid and excessive growth of algae, known as algal blooms. The dense algae prevent sunlight from reaching other aquatic plants, disrupting the ecosystem. When the algae die and decompose, oxygen levels in the water decrease, making it difficult for fish and other aquatic organisms to survive. Similarly, livestock waste, which is also rich in nutrients, can wash into waterways and intensify eutrophication, worsening the environmental impacts.
eutrophication when a body of water receives too many nutrients, especially phosphorus and nitrogen, often leading to excessive algae growth
Eutrophication process
Blocked sunlight
Fertiliser
Run-off
Algae
Fish suffocate
Leaching
➜
Figure 3.5.4 Eutrophication is caused by an excessive nutrient load, such as from agricultural run-off. It is a significant environmental problem.
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c03_p071-102.indd 97
21/05/26 10:03 AM
Chapter 3 Factors influencing food production in Australia and Asia
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
98
➜
Figure 3.5.5 Lake Taihu’s eutrophication is caused by excess nutrients from human activities such as agriculture, leading to frequent and severe algal blooms.
Reduction in biodiversity
➜
Clearing land for crops and grazing destroys natural habitats and reduces biodiversity. This means that the wildlife that depend on the biome lose their shelter and food sources. As a result, animals may be killed directly or indirectly by habitat loss. In the Philippines, deforestation in the rainforest biome has caused widespread wildlife habitat loss. The Philippine tarsier (see Figure 3.5.6) could become extinct within Figure 3.5.6 The Philippine tarsier could become extinct as a the next two decades due to habitat result of habitat loss. destruction. Habitat fragmentation is where continuous habitats are broken into smaller, isolated patches that reduce the movement and breeding of many animal species.
monoculture the agricultural practice of growing a single crop species over a large area, year after year polyculture the practice of growing multiple species of plants in the same space at the same time
Farms with a monoculture lack plant diversity. As a result they do not attract diverse pollinators such as bees, birds and insects. Growing a single crop can also weaken ecosystems and make them more vulnerable to pests and disease. Polyculture, on the other hand, supports biodiversity by creating diverse habitats, encouraging beneficial species interactions, enriching soil life, reducing pests and diseases, and increasing ecosystem resilience.
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c03_p071-102.indd 98
21/05/26 10:03 AM
99
3.5 What are the environmental impacts of food production?
Unless we change the way our food is produced, processed and consumed, greenhouse gases, pollution and biodiversity loss will continue to accelerate, threatening the stability of ecosystems that support human life.
Review 3.5 Knowledge and understanding
Thinking and working geographically
Students can access sample responses and results online
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
Online quiz
Teachers can go online to assign questions, view results, reports and more!
Knowledge and understanding 1.
List three activities in food production that contribute to greenhouse gas emissions.
2.
Describe how methane, a greenhouse gas, is released into the atmosphere through livestock farming.
3.
Explain the impact of fertiliser run-off on waterways.
4.
Distinguish between the terms “monocropping” and “polyculture” and explain the impact of each on biodiversity.
Thinking and working geographically
Working with geographical concepts: Environment 1.
Investigate a specific crop or livestock industry in Australia or Asia (e.g. cattle farming, rice production or palm-oil plantations). For your chosen industry, research and create a poster that displays:
a. the environmental issue/s caused by this activity or industry b. the greenhouse gases, pollutants, or biodiversity impacts of the industry c. any sustainable solutions or innovations being used to reduce these impacts.
environment the concept of environment is about the significance of the environment in human life, and the important interrelationships between humans and the environment
Interpreting flow diagrams
Flow diagrams are useful in geography because they provide a visual representation of processes, movements and relationships, making complex information easier to understand. 2.
Using Figure 3.5.4, describe the processes shown in the diagram by writing a series of steps that explain how eutrophication affects marine ecosystems.
➜
Figure 3.5.7 Drone image of a cattle farm in New South Wales.
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c03_p071-102.indd 99
21/05/26 10:03 AM
100
Chapter 3 Factors influencing food production in Australia and Asia
3.6
Chapter review Access the Interactive Textbook for a range of digital tools to help you review this chapter and build confidence.
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
• Auto-marked questions for fast feedback and fun practice • Self-assessment tools to track your progress, review answers (if enabled by the teacher), and flag questions for extra help • Downloadable worksheets for class or homework revision
Summary
Summary notes
Download chapter summary
What have you learned about factors influencing food production?
For this activity, copy the table and fill it out by explaining your understanding. Aim for two points per topic.
Terms
What I have learned
Food production
Biome modification Food production Climate change Technology
Visible thinking routine See, think, wonder
This exercise in visible thinking asks you to make careful observations and thoughtful interpretations based on an image, graph or stimulus material. Refer to Figure 3.6.1 in your answer.
• See: What do you notice? Simply observe and list what you see.
• Think: What might this mean? What
interpretations can you make based on what you see.
• Wonder: What questions does this
spark? What do you want to explore further?
Figure 3.6.1 Global greenhouse gas emissions from food production. Source: Our World in Data website
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c03_p071-102.indd 100
21/05/26 10:03 AM
3.6 Chapter review
101
Questions Scorcher quiz
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
Access a fast, fun, competitive quiz that puts your understanding to the test.
Quick questions
The following questions offer various ways to demonstrate your understanding of the chapter. 1.
China built its first 20-storey unmanned vertical farm in the city of _____.
2.
Growing plants in nutrient-rich mist without soil is called _______.
3.
When salty groundwater rises toward the surface and leaves salt behind in soil, the process is known as ______.
4.
_____ is when too many animals feed in one area over time, damaging the land.
5.
What is one advantage of vertical farming compared to traditional farming? A. It can harvest crops many times per year. B. It requires no electricity. C. It grows only root vegetables. D. It uses natural rainfall.
6.
Which human activity is a major cause of land degradation? A. Urbanisation B. Polyculture C. Crop rotation D. Rainwater harvesting
7.
What is a tariff? A. A tax on domestic farmers B. A fee paid for irrigation water C. A tax on imported goods D. A penalty for excessive land clearing
8.
Which of these environmental impacts is caused by excess nutrients from fertilisers entering waterways? A. Habitat fragmentation B. Eutrophication C. Desertification D. Soil compaction
9.
Recall one feature of robotic vertical farms used in China.
10.
Identify one environmental impact of vegetation clearing for agriculture.
11.
Summarise how geopolitical conflict can influence food supply.
12.
Referring to Figure 3.6.2, outline why biotechnology is used in modern crop production.
Figure. 3.6.2 A modern vertical city farm
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c03_p071-102.indd 101
21/05/26 10:03 AM
102
Chapter 3 Factors influencing food production in Australia and Asia
Writing focus The following activities allow you to practise your writing skills. ➜
Writing focus 3.6 Single paragraph response model
Answering questions in paragraphs You can use this as a model when writing your own answers to the questions that follow. Question: Explain TWO environmental factors that influence the supply of food.
(6 marks)
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
Model answer:
Topic sentence: the first sentence of the paragraph; directly answers the question Evidence: specific, relevant evidence to support arguments
Evidence: specific, relevant evidence to support arguments Linking sentence: reconnects with language of the question the topic sentence.
Marking criteria for each question can be found in the Interactive Textbook. Refer to these criteria when planning and writing your responses.
Two major environmental factors that influence the supply of food are land degradation and water scarcity. Land degradation reduces the quality of soils needed for crop growth, while water scarcity limits the availability of water for irrigation, reducing yields. As a result, degraded soils cannot support productive farming, and drought-affected regions struggle to grow water-dependent crops. This reduces overall food supply. Over 40% of the Earth’s land is degraded. By 2050, up to 90% could lose productivity due to overcultivation, overgrazing and extreme weather. This means farming on degraded land produces smaller harvests, reducing food availability for growing populations. Countries such as Algeria, Libya, Saudi Arabia and Yemen face severe drought and limited rainfall. These conditions also increase plant stress and diseases such as dry root rot in chickpeas, further lowering crop yields. Together, these environmental challenges show how declining soil health and limited water can significantly reduce the world’s food supply.
Explain: clarify, define and describe
Elaborate: additional information, interconnections
Examples: provide credibility and illustrate the argument
Examples: provide credibility and illustrate the argument
Structured-response questions Question 1
(20 marks)
a. Describe TWO was that humans alter biomes to produce food b. Explain TWO environmental factors that influence the supply of food. c. Discuss the social and technological factors that influence the supply of and demand for food.
(4 marks) (6 marks)
(10 marks)
Extended-response questions Question 1
(20 marks)
Examine the environmental impacts of modern food production, including deforestation, greenhouse gas emissions, soil degradation and water pollution. Question 2
(20 marks)
Explain how human alterations to biomes can affect biodiversity and ecosystem services.
Teachers, access the Online Teaching Suite for digital resources and tools that support review, assessment and reporting, including:
• student and class activity reports • a test generator to create custom assessments • built-in feedback tools • editable downloadable support material • a downloadable and printable “Writing focus” workbook for this chapter. Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400 9781009788083c03_p071-102.indd 102
21/05/26 10:03 AM
Chapter
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
4
Towards food security
Lessons
4.1 Geo Spark: What is the Svalbard Global Seed Vault? 4.2 What is food security?
4.3 How does climate change impact food security?
4.4 What economic and technological factors impact food security? 4.5 What sustainable practices can improve global food security?
4.6 How can Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples’ Knowledge and practices inform sustainable food systems? 4.7 Chapter review
Teachers go to the Online Teacher Suite to: • plan, sequence and assign directed tasks for students and classes using Task Manager • view student activity reports • provide feedback to students • download a printable “Writing focus” workbook for this chapter. ➜
Image: Experiences of food security vary around the world. Some people have reliable access to enough safe and nutritious food, while others struggle.
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c04_p103-139.indd 103
21/05/26 10:30 AM
104
Chapter 4 Towards food security
4.1
Geo Spark: What is the Svalbard Global Seed Vault? Success criteria
In this lesson, you will learn about the role of the Svalbard Global Seed Vault as a secure global seed bank that safeguards future food security.
❏ I can describe features of the Svalbard Global Seed Vault. ❏ I can explain the purpose of the Svalbard Global Seed Vault in improving global food security.
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
Learning intention
➜
Figure 4.1.1 The Global Seed Vault has been built in a mountainside cavern on the island of Svalbard, around 1,000 km from the North Pole, to store the world’s crop seeds.
Introduction
gene bank a facility that preserves genetic material
If you had to protect just one seed from any plant or crop around the world, what would you choose? Would it be your favourite tree, a flowering plant or a food crop? The Svalbard Global Seed Vault in Norway was built in 2008 and is an example of one innovative way that precious crop seeds are kept safe. It is a long-term storage facility to store seeds from gene banks around the world, and acts as a global backup vault, storing duplicates of seeds stored elsewhere. The seed vault protects seeds against natural disasters, wars or other human activities. It is managed by the Norwegian Ministry of Food and Agriculture, the regional gene bank NordGen and the Crop Trust. The seed vault ensures that the world’s crop diversity is maintained and helps to protect our food supply.
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c04_p103-139.indd 104
21/05/26 10:30 AM
105
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
4.1 Geo Spark: What is the Svalbard Global Seed Vault?
➜
Figure 4.1.2 Internal map of the Svalbard Global Seed Vault. Source: Adapted from Time Magazine.
Features of the seed vault
80°N
ARCTIC OCEAN
80°E
60°
Svalbard
E
N .3°
6
66
°N
Arctic Circle
NORWAY
W
E
ATLANTIC OCEAN
0
60
40°
40°
permafrost soil or underwater sediment that continuously remains below 0°C for two years or more
100°E
North Pole
0°W
Writing focus 4.1 Question words ➜
The Svalbard Global Seed Vault is located in a cold, remote location 1,300 kilometres north of the Arctic Circle (see Figure 4.1.3). Svalbard is located in tundra and polar desert biomes, which have extremely cold temperatures and very low precipitation. The location was chosen because seeds need to be stored in a sub-zero environment. The optimum temperature for long-term storage is –18°C. This temperature keeps the seeds viable for long periods of time. The permafrost in this biome is thick and the landscape is rocky, which allows the seeds to remain frozen, even without power. The seeds are wrapped in special foil packages (see Figure 4.1.4), then sealed inside boxes and placed on shelves inside the vault 150 metres deep.
1,000 km 20°W
0°
20°E
➜
Figure 4.1.3 The Svalbard Global Seed Vault is located on a remote Norwegian island, 1,300 km north of the Arctic Circle. Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c04_p103-139.indd 105
21/05/26 10:30 AM
Chapter 4 Towards food security
➜
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
106
Figure 4.1.4 The seeds are stored in foil packages at –18°C.
What are the seeds and how have they been used?
The seed vault stores the seeds of important crops. Sixty-nine per cent of the seeds are grains (such as rice, wheat, barley and corn) and nine per cent are legumes, as well as a variety of fruits, vegetables, herbs and other plants. The seeds come from nearly every country in the world, with recent deposits from countries such as the Philippines, Mexico, India, Morocco and Ethiopia. There are over 1.3 million seed samples, and each sample contains about 500 seeds! The vault can store up to 4.5 million seed samples, which equates to over 2 billion seeds! The seed vault has been opened just once. In 2015, around 130 boxes of seeds from the vault were withdrawn to replenish seed banks in Lebanon and Morocco. Due to the civil war, the seed bank in Aleppo, Syria, could not be used or accessed, so seeds were taken from Svalbard to rebuild the collection in safer locations. Without a doubt, the Svalbard Seed Vault is an important facility for the future of global food security. It ensures we don’t lose the genetic diversity needed to grow food in the future.
Activity 4.1
Compass points
Use the following prompts to guide your thinking.
Compass point
Question to consider
N – Need to Know
What questions do I still have? What information do I need?
E – Exciting
What excites me about this topic or idea?
S – Suggestion
What is my recommendation? What action could be taken?
W – Worrisome
What worries or concerns me about this topic or idea?
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c04_p103-139.indd 106
21/05/26 10:30 AM
107
4.2 What is food security?
4.2
What is food security?
Success criteria
In this lesson, you will explore the concept of food security at a global scale. You will examine the reasons why some regions have more or less access to food and understand some of the challenges in feeding the growing population.
❏ I can explain what is meant by food security. ❏ I can give examples of regions that are more and less food secure.
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
Learning intention
Lesson starter Foodbank
Foodbank is the largest hunger relief charity in Australia. Search for the Foodbank website (https://cambridge.edu.au/redirect/11825) and find the answers to the following questions: 1.
What is Foodbank?
2.
What do they do in Australia? List specific projects or events.
3.
Why do they do what they do? Provide statistics.
4.
How many people do they support?
5.
How do they get the resources to support people in need?
6.
What other stakeholders do they work with?
➜
Figure 4.2.1 Foodbank distributing eight tonnes of fresh produce at a pop-up event in an Australia regional centre
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c04_p103-139.indd 107
21/05/26 10:30 AM
108
Chapter 4 Towards food security
The four factors of food security Availability of sufficient quantities of According to the World 1. Availability appropriate quality food, supplied Food Summit, food through domestic productions or imports security is achieved “when Access to adequate resources for all people at all times Four 2. Accessibility acquiring appropriate food for a have access to sufficient, pillars nutritious diet of safe, nutritious food to food Use of food through adequate diet, maintain a healthy and security clean water, sanitation and healthcare 3. Utilisation active life”. Food security to reach a state of nutritional wellbeing can be measured by four To be food secure, household/individual different factors: having 4. Stability must have access to adequate food at all times enough food available, Figure 4.2.2 The four pillars of food security. being able to access it, Source: Adapted from the Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations. being able to use it safely and nutritiously, and these conditions remaining stable over time (see Figure 4.2.2). Food security is one of the reasons why biomes are so important. The world’s most productive biomes generally have the best capacity to produce food due to warmer temperatures and moderately high rainfall. Access to safe and nutritious food helps people to maintain a healthy and active lifestyle; this is food security. Unfortunately, there are inequalities in food security around the world and, as a result, hundreds of millions of people are undernourished.
undernourished having insufficient energy (calorie) intake from food or other substances, resulting in poor health and wellbeing
➜
Writing focus 4.2 Transitional phrases
➜
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
inequality unequal distribution of resources, resulting in some people having more than others
➜
Figure 4.2.3 The global distribution of global food insecurity Source: Our World in Data website
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c04_p103-139.indd 108
21/05/26 10:30 AM
4.2 What is food security?
When we examine food security on a global scale, as shown in Figure 4.2.3, we find that some countries have a higher risk of food insecurity. Sub-Saharan Africa has the most countries with high levels of food insecurity. Countries such as the Democratic Republic of Congo, Nigeria and Sudan face severe food security issues, with over 20 million people in these nations experiencing acute food insecurity. This is due to factors such as conflict, extreme weather and economic shocks.
acute food insecurity a situation where people do not have enough food to survive or maintain their way of life, no matter the cause, context or length of time
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
Two dominant biomes in Africa are desert and savanna. While deserts are not major food-producing regions, the savanna biome supports many plants and animals used for food and fibre, such as grains, corn, coffee and beans. However, these regions are very poor and have low levels of development, which makes accessing enough nutritious food difficult for many people. Additionally, much of sub-Saharan Africa experiences harsh climates, including extreme heat, droughts and irregular rainfall, which can significantly reduce crop yields. Soil degradation and desertification further limit agricultural productivity in many sub-Saharan African countries.
109
Determining who has access to nutritious food is not simple. Even in food-secure countries such as Australia, some people go hungry. For example, over 122,000 people in Australia are homeless, and food insecurity is increasing due to the rising cost of living. In Australian metropolitan areas, 30% of people experience food stress, while in regional areas, this increases to 37%. On the other hand, in food-insecure countries such as Zambia, some people – such as wealthy families, government officials or expatriates – have no trouble accessing food.
Tropic of Cancer
economic shocks random, unpredictable events that have a major impact on the economy development the standard of living and quality of life of people in a place soil degradation a decline in soil condition due to improper use or poor management desertification the process by which fertile land turns into desert, typically because of drought, deforestation or poor farming practices
Arabian Sea
Equator
Atlantic Ocean
LEGEND Alpine (mountain grasslands) Deserts Mediterranean scrub Savannas Dry broadleaf forests Tropical moist forests
Indian Ocean
Tropic of Capricorn 0
1,000 km
➜
Figure 4.2.4 Map of pages Africa’s• biomes Uncorrected 3rd sample Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c04_p103-139.indd 109
21/05/26 10:30 AM
110
Chapter 4 Towards food security
Population growth, access and conflict
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
The United Nations projects that the world’s population will reach 8.5 billion by 2030, 9.7 billion by 2050 and 10.9 billion by 2100. To accommodate the growing number of mouths to feed, we cannot simply rely on current farming methods. That would require more land, which is under threat by competing land uses, and release more greenhouse emissions, which would accelerate climate change. However, feeding more people is not just about producing more food. We already produce enough food for everyone, yet one in nine people go hungry, and one-third of the world’s population suffers from malnutrition. A major barrier to food security is access to nutritious food. Some reasons that people struggle to access food include:
• lack of resources (such as money or transport) • high food prices • geographical isolation • lack of knowledge about nutrition.
poverty cycle the continuation of poverty, often from one generation to the next, due to the impact of many factors
When people cannot access nutritious food, their health declines, making it harder for them to participate in society and break out of the poverty cycle.
Food insecurity can also result from conflict. During conflicts, people struggle to access food because war and riots displace farmers, destroy agricultural land and disrupt transport routes. In the Russia–Ukraine War, starvation has been used as a war tactic, with Russian government forces blocking humanitarian aid organisations from providing food and medical care.
➜
Figure 4.2.5 Despite the population growth rate slowing down, by 2100 the world’s population is projected to reach over 10 billion people.
Source: Our World in Data website Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c04_p103-139.indd 110
21/05/26 10:30 AM
111
4.2 What is food security?
Review 4.2 Online quiz
Knowledge and understanding
Thinking and working geographically
Students can access sample responses and results online
Teachers can go online to assign questions, view results, reports and more!
Knowledge and understanding
According to the World Food Summit, what three elements are required to achieve food security?
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
1. 2.
Using Figure 4.2.3, describe the global distribution of food insecurity using the PQE format: a. Pattern – give a general overview of the distribution b. Quantification – provide specific evidence to demonstrate the pattern c. Exception – identify some examples that don’t fit the pattern.
3.
Outline a challenge in achieving access to nutritious food.
4.
Explain how conflict can be both a cause and consequence of food insecurity.
Thinking and working geographically
Working with geographical concepts: Change 1.
Search online for the Food and Agriculture Organization for the United Nations. On the website (https://cambridge.edu.au/redirect/11826), locate the choropleth “Hunger map”. Using the cursor below the map, view how global hunger and malnourishment has changed over time. Answer the following questions in your workbook: • See: What do you notice? • Think: What do you think is happening? What ideas or explanations come to mind based on what you observe? • Wonder: What do you wonder about? What questions do you still have? What do you want to explore further?
Reading scatter graphs
change the concept of change is about explaining geographical phenomena by investigating how they have developed over time
gross domestic product (GDP) the total value of goods and services produced by a country in one year calorie supply the daily per capita supply of calories is measured in kilocalories per person per day
Scatter graphs help geographers examine whether there is a relationship between two phenomena. 2.
Use the data in Figure 4.2.6 to answer the following questions.
Figure 4.2.6 The relationship between gross domestic product (GDP) per capita and calorie supply (which can be an indication of food security). You can find this as an interactive map online. ➜
a. What is the GDP and calorie supply of Democratic Republic of Congo? b. What is the GDP and calorie supply of Australia? c. Describe the relationship between GDP per capita and calorie supply. d. Are there any countries that do not fit the pattern described in part c? Suggest a possible reason for this exception.
Source: Our World in Data website
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c04_p103-139.indd 111
21/05/26 10:30 AM
112
Chapter 4 Towards food security
4.3
How does climate change impact food security? Success criteria
In this lesson, you will learn about the ways in which the consequences of climate change influence access to food at a global scale.
❏ I can describe some of the consequences of climate change ❏ I can explain how climate change affects access to food at a global scale
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
Learning intention
Lesson starter
Parts, connections, perspectives
Figure 4.3.1 presents graphic information about climate change. We can analyse the parts of the graph, how they connect to our topic of food security and how different perspectives might shape interpretation. 1.
Parts: What parts of the graph are most important to understand the data? Identify key features such as variables, trends and time periods.
2.
Connections: How do temperature changes relate to food production? Explain the connections between different parts of the graph and what this means for global food production.
3.
Perspectives: How might different people interpret this graph differently? Consider perspectives such as scientists, policy makers and farming communities affected by climate change.
1.5
Global annual temperature increase (relative to 1850–1900 average)
1.48 °C
1.2
°C
0.9
0.6
0.3
0
1970
1980
1990
2000
2010
2020 2023
Year ➜
Figure 4.3.1 Global annual temperature increase
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c04_p103-139.indd 112
21/05/26 10:30 AM
4.3 How does climate change impact food security?
113
Climate change Writing focus 4.3 Transitional phrases
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
➜
Climate change refers to long-term shifts in temperatures and weather patterns mainly caused by burning fossil fuels (such as coal, oil and gas), which release heat-trapping gases. Climate change has major consequences for our planet (see Figure 4.3.2) and affects food security in numerous ways. Rising temperatures will reduce crop yields due to heat stress, while changes in rainfall patterns will cause drought in some areas and flooding in others, affecting soil health, soil erosion and water availability. Warmer temperatures may also allow pests and diseases to spread more widely, destroying crops. Rising sea levels will threaten coastal farmland, leading to a loss of arable land.
soil erosion the movement of soil particles from one place to another by wind or water
Impacts of climate change Rising temperatures Warming oceans Declining crop yields Altered growing seasons Increased pest and disease outbreaks Changing precipitation patterns Melting glaciers Rising sea levels Increased evapotranspiration and water losses Increased extreme weather events Ocean acidification
➜
Figure 4.3.2 Impacts of climate change
Temperature increases
Plants and animals can adapt to small changes in climate, such as shifts in rainfall, soil moisture and temperature. However, each species has limits, and when these are exceeded, quality and yield decline, and diseases spread. For example, during the 2018 European heatwave, crop losses were the worst since World War II. In 2023, wildfires in Greece burned 98% of the country’s olive trees and destroyed valuable agricultural machinery. Animals also suffer from extreme heat. The milk yield of a dairy cow can drop by up to 40% during an extreme heatwave. As Figure 4.3.3 shows, climate change will not affect all regions equally. Some shortterm impacts may even be positive. For instance, a 1°C to 3°C temperature rise may improve some crop yields in temperate regions but will put too much stress on cereal crops in tropical and dry areas. Despite a few benefits, experts agree that the threats to food security from a 1°C to 3°C increase outweigh the advantages. For example, rising bushfire risks will damage crops and livestock. A temperature rise above 3°C is expected to cause widespread negative effects worldwide.
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c04_p103-139.indd 113
21/05/26 10:30 AM
114
Chapter 4 Towards food security
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
Beyond lower yields, food quality will also decline. About 70% of Australia’s wine regions may experience poorer red wine quality caused by earlier ripening. Diseases will also spread. In oceans, heat reduces oxygen levels and increases algal blooms, leading to diseases in aquatic life, such as bass and salmon.
LEGEND Percentage change of agricultural yields +25 +10 +5 0 –5 –15 –25
0
No data
5,000 km
➜
Figure 4.3.3 Projected impact of climate change on agricultural yields
LEGEND Number of days 1
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
110
122
400 km
➜
Figure 4.3.4 The European heatwave in 2023. This choropleth map shows the number of days between June and September 2023 with “very strong heat stress”.
Changed rainfall patterns
Rising temperatures affect the water cycle and lead to more extreme weather. More water evaporates from the land, increasing moisture in the air while making land drier for longer periods. This increases the risk of bushfires and drought. When rain does occur, it is often in the form of severe storms and floods.
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c04_p103-139.indd 114
21/05/26 10:30 AM
4.3 How does climate change impact food security?
115
Irrigated farming areas, such as the rice-growing fields along the Murrumbidgee River in the Murray–Darling Basin, face increased evaporation, reducing available surface water for farms. Rain-fed agricultural areas, such as sub-Saharan Africa, are also at high risk of food insecurity due to declining rainfall.
TANZANIA
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF THE CONGO
ANGOLA
MALAWI
ZAMBIA
ZIMBABWE
MADAGASCAR
MOZAMBIQUE
BOTSWANA
NAMBIA
ESWATINI
Indian Ocean
LESOTHO
Atlantic Ocean
SOUTH AFRICA
LEGEND Root zone soil moisture percentile
0
0
10
20
400 km
>30
➜
Figure 4.3.5 Soil moisture conditions at the root zone, showing water availability for crops in southern Africa in March 2024. The root-zone soil moisture shows the moisture content of the top 100 cm of soil compared to historical conditions. The darker regions show the driest soil areas in 2024. In 2024, an El Niño-driven drought in southern Africa scorched crops and threatened food security for millions. Meanwhile, extreme flooding in northern NSW in 2022 destroyed sugar cane crops, causing losses worth hundreds of millions of dollars. Climate change is shifting precipitation patterns worldwide, affecting food production.
El Niño a climate pattern that causes unusual warming of surface waters in the eastern tropical Pacific Ocean, often resulting in extreme weather events such as floods and droughts
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c04_p103-139.indd 115
21/05/26 10:30 AM
116
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
Chapter 4 Towards food security
0
LEGEND Forecast El Niño impact on crop yields Negative
4,000 km
Positive
➜
Figure 4.3.6 El Niño’s impact on global crop yields in 2023–2024. Too much rain in some places and not enough in others is making it harder to grow food. Without a doubt, climate change is the greatest threat to global food security. These are just some of the ways it worsens food insecurity. The crisis is especially severe in vulnerable regions such as Africa and South-East Asia, where poverty and limited resources already create challenges. Climate change is expected to increase malnutrition by reducing the quality and availability of food while driving up prices.
Review 4.3
Online quiz
Knowledge and understanding
Thinking and working geographically
Students can access sample responses and results online
Teachers can go online to assign questions, view results, reports and more!
Knowledge and understanding 1.
Recall three impacts of climate change.
2.
Copy and complete the following table to outline the impacts of climate change on food security.
Environmental changes
Impacts on food
Temperature increase
Changed rainfall patterns
3.
Outline what caused crops to be scorched in southern Africa in 2024. Define any key geographic terms involved.
4.
Referring to Figures 4.3.4, 4.3.5 and 4.3.6, describe how the impacts of climate change will affect people in vulnerable regions such as Africa and South-East Asia.
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c04_p103-139.indd 116
21/05/26 10:30 AM
117
4.3 How does climate change impact food security?
Thinking and working geographically
Working with geographical concepts: Environment 1.
Choose a food crop and explore the following inquiry question: How is climate change influencing the way this crop is grown now and in the future? Complete the research scaffold:
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
a. Crop overview (Name of crop, what it is used for) b. Crop location (Location of crop, biome, conditions required for growth) c. Two threats of climate change on crop production d. Example of the impact of climate change (provide statistics and data where possible)
environment the concept of environment is about the significance of the environment in human life, and the important interrelationships between humans and the environment
2.
Write one paragraph answering the inquiry question (above). Use examples and evidence from your research to answer this question.
Interpreting choropleth maps
A choropleth map is a thematic map that uses colour or patterns to represent the density or value of a variable within geographical areas. 3.
Explain whether climate change affects food production in all regions equally. Use examples from the choropleth map in Figure 4.3.3 to support your answer.
➜
Figure 4.3.7 A corn crop in Germany destroyed by the heatwave that swept across Europe in 2018
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c04_p103-139.indd 117
21/05/26 10:30 AM
118
Chapter 4 Towards food security
4.4
What economic and technological factors impact food security? Success criteria
In this lesson, you will explore the economic and technological factors impacting food security using two case studies.
❏ I can explain economic and technological factors that influence access to food. ❏ I can recall examples from case studies related to economic and technological impacts on food security.
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
Learning intention
Lesson starter Think, pair, share
Figure 4.4.1 shows Singapore, a small city-state in South-East Asia, and Tuvalu, a tiny island nation in the Pacific Ocean. These countries have very different experiences of food security. 1.
Think: Individually write down one to two strengths or challenges each country faces for growing or accessing food.
2.
Pair: Share your ideas with a partner and note similarities and differences.
3.
Share: Each pair shares one insight with the class.
A
B
➜
Figure 4.4.1 (a) Singapore and (b) Tuvalu: two countries with very different experiences of food security
Food security: Singapore
Singapore is one of the most food-secure nations in Asia. This is fascinating because just one per cent of country is used as farmland. The success of its food security is a result of Singapore’s economic wealth, technological advancements in farming and transportation, and government strategic planning.
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c04_p103-139.indd 118
21/05/26 10:30 AM
4.4 What economic and technological factors impact food security?
119
Economic
Writing focus 4.4 Developing sentences
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
➜
Singapore has a strong and stable economy. In 2025, Singapore’s GDP per capita was US$94,481, which is high and shows the country’s strong economic health, job growth, and high average standard of living. The strong economy means that the government has money to invest in food import systems, food storage and roads, ports and other transport infrastructure. Singapore has strong trade connections, ensuring that consistent food is available from global markets. As a result, Singapore imports 90% of its food reliably, and the majority is imported from more than 170 countries. Singapore’s population works mainly in the financial services, manufacturing, and trade or transportation industries, which provide high incomes. With high incomes, people can afford sufficient and nutritious food, even if it must be imported. Also, agriculture innovation grants from the government have led to technological advancements. Economic influences have helped make Singapore a food secure nation.
Technological
Singapore has very small land area, virtually no arable soils or farmland, so technology has helped ensure there is stable access to food. Singapore has advanced agricultural technologies. The government has prioritised innovation and agricultural technology with the “30 by 30” initiative, a national goal that aims for 30% of food to be produced locally by 2030. This has led to a rise in urban farming, vertical farms, aquaponics, robotics and AI-assisted systems. Singapore has over 30 vertical farms that grow indoors and on rooftops, which they call “sky greens”. These urban farms produce leafy vegetables such as Chinese cabbage, bok choy and lettuce, as well as herbs and fruit (see Figure 4.4.2). They use hydroponics year-round, and the use of aeroponics allows high crop yields from minimal land.
arable suitable for growing crops vertical farms an indoor agricultural method that grows crops in vertically stacked layers, often in controlled indoor environments, such as warehouses or office buildings
Singapore has also invested in high-tech, vertical fish-farming systems called "floating ponds". These are vertically stacked fish farms that provide sustainable food production in limited urban spaces. Apollo Aquaculture Group now produces up to 3,000 tonnes of fish, including grouper, coral trout and shrimp, each year and is six times more efficient than other fish farms (see Figure 4.4.3). Another example is automated shrimp farms, which use multiple large tanks and a robotic gantry system to grow shrimp under optimal conditions, allowing them to reach market size in half the time. More recently, new government targets have been set for local farms to supply 20% of the local consumption of fibre and 30% of the local consumption of protein by 2035. The government aim is to fulfil the country’s nutritional needs locally, so if food imports are ever interrupted the country has access to locally produced food. Singapore’s investment in farming technology has improved its food security.
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c04_p103-139.indd 119
21/05/26 10:30 AM
Chapter 4 Towards food security
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
120
➜
Figure 4.4.2 A shipping container in Singapore on the rooftop of a shopping mall growing eggplants, rosemary, bananas and papaya
➜
Figure 4.4.3 Apollo Aquaculture Group in Singapore has an eight-storey indoor fish farm.
Food insecurity: Tuvalu
Tuvalu is a Pacific Island nation located between Australia and Hawaii that struggles with food insecurity. This has been caused by economic constraints and geographic isolation, as well as limited technology. Tuvalu is also threatened by the environmental changes associated with climate change, such as rising sea levels damaging crops, erosion and flooding. Its limited access to fresh water also restricts agricultural activities. Compared with Singapore, Tuvalu has very poor access to food.
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c04_p103-139.indd 120
21/05/26 10:30 AM
4.4 What economic and technological factors impact food security?
121
Economic
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
Tuvalu has limited economic resources. It is one of the smallest and poorest countries in the world, with low natural resources and poor infrastructure. Tuvalu’s GDP per capita in 2025 was US$6,543, and while this figure is higher than many of the other Pacific Island nations, it is significantly lower than the global average of US$14,160. This shows that Tuvalu has a low median standard of living. The population is small, just 9,500 people, and limited industry has led to a heavy dependence on imports. These are expensive due to Tuvalu’s geographic isolation. In fact, 80% of Tuvalu’s food comes from countries such as Australia, Japan, New Zealand and Fiji. Its dependence on imports makes Tuvalu vulnerable to global price fluctuations and any disruptions to supply chains.
Its main industries are traditional subsistence farming and fishing (particularly tuna), which provide food for households. Because much of the economic activity is nonmonetary, focused on subsistence agriculture (such as coconut and taro) rather than generating surplus for trade, the average income in Tuvalu is low – between US$1.6 and $4.0 per day. As a result, local households often cannot afford a diverse and healthy diet. Many imported foods are high fat and sugar (to reduce spoilage) and have increased obesity among the population.
Technological
Tuvalu, compared with Singapore, has low levels of agricultural technology. Subsistence farming of crops including copra, taro (a large tuber), bananas and sugarcane are done using traditional methods and equipment. There is little or no livestock production, although many families keep small numbers of pigs and chickens for personal consumption. Farmers generally do not have access to irrigation systems, fertilisers or modern tools. Tuvalu’s irrigation systems are poor due to the absence of freshwater resources, such as lakes and rivers. This is being made worse by climate change, which is bringing periods of prolonged drought, such as in 2022. Desalination is not used, as it is expensive to run and maintain, and also requires reliable power sources, which are not always available. Irrigation is also difficult, because much of the groundwater is contaminated by wastewater.
subsistence farming where farmers grow food and raise animals primarily for their own family’s consumption, rather than for sale in the market desalination the process of removing salts and other impurities from water, such as sea water, to create fresh water wicking garden bed a self-watering raised garden bed with a built-in water reservoir at the bottom that supplies moisture to plants or crops
Robotics and automation have also not been embraced, because they would require significant financial investment, technical skill and infrastructure, all of which Tuvalu does not have. However, Tuvalu is starting to explore new sustainable solutions, such as vertical "food cubes" which use a wicking garden bed system to grow food in raised containers. These new methods may lead to improved food security.
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c04_p103-139.indd 121
21/05/26 10:30 AM
Chapter 4 Towards food security
➜
Figure 4.4.4 Pulaka crops killed by salt caused by rising sea levels in Tuvalu
➜
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
122
Figure 4.4.5 The use of food cubes could help Tuvalu to become more food secure.
Tuvalu shows how a lack of economic wealth and limited technological capacity can reduce a country’s ability to produce food, store it, or import it cheaply and reliably.
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c04_p103-139.indd 122
21/05/26 10:30 AM
123
4.4 What economic and technological factors impact food security?
Review 4.4 Online quiz
Knowledge and understanding
Thinking and working geographically
Students can access sample responses and results online
Teachers can go online to assign questions, view results, reports and more!
Knowledge and understanding
Using examples, contrast the economic situation of Singapore and Tuvalu.
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
1. 2.
Describe two innovative farming technologies Singapore uses to grow food in limited space.
3.
Explain how economic factors have a positive impact on Singapore’s food security.
4.
Assess how climate change threatens Tuvalu’s ability to produce fresh food crops.
Thinking and working geographically
Working with geographical concepts: Change
Investigate how climate change affects Tuvalu’s food production and suggest one sustainable solution. Complete the following steps as you complete this investigation:
change the concept of change is about explaining geographical phenomena by investigating how they have developed over time
1.
Research Tuvalu a. Location and geography b. Key crops and food sources c. Climate threats: sea-level rises, saltwater intrusion, storms, rainfall changes
2.
Analyse change a. How will climate change affect crops, fresh water and food security?
3.
Propose a solution a. Suggest one strategy to help Tuvalu grow food sustainably (e.g. wicking beds, salt-tolerant crops, rainwater harvesting). b. Explain how it addresses the impacts.
4.
Reflection
a. Which climate change impact is most serious? b. How does your solution help the community adapt?
Constructing a mini wicking bed to grow food
A wicking bed is helpful in Tuvalu because it stores water in a reservoir and wicks it upward gradually, reducing waste and evaporation. This matters in a small, remote island nation (Pacific Ocean) where fresh water is limited and heat, salt and climate change is a threat to farms. Materials:
• 1 large plastic bottle (1 L or 2 L) • Scissors or craft knife (teacher support recommended) • String or cotton rope (for the wick) • Small rocks/pebbles or bottle lids • Potting mix or soil • Vegetable or herb seedlings or seeds • Water
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c04_p103-139.indd 123
21/05/26 10:30 AM
124
Chapter 4 Towards food security
Instructions: 1. Cut the bottle in half 2. Make the water reservoir
• The bottom half is the water tank • Add 2–3 cm of rocks or pebbles at the base (this stores more water and stops wick from clogging).
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
3. Create the wick system
• Tie a knot at one end of the string. • Feed the other end through the bottle cap hole so the knot is inside the soil side. • The wick should hang long enough to sit into the reservoir water.
4. Invert the top half into the reservoir
• Turn the top half upside down and place it inside the bottom half. • The wick should now touch the water below.
5. Add soil
• Fill the top section with potting mix or soil. • Make sure the wick is surrounded by soil (this pulls water up gradually).
6. Plant!
• Add vegetable or herb seedlings or seeds on top. • Water the soil once from the top to activate the system.
7. Fill reservoir
• Pour water into the bottom section (not too high, just enough so the wick sits in it).
5.
Answer the following reflection questions.
a. Describe how a wicking bed works. b. Explain how this approach could change food security outcomes for families or communities living on remote islands. c. What is one thing you would change to make your wicking bed even more effective or sustainable?
➜
Figure 4.4.6 Illustrated steps to create a wick system a bottle
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c04_p103-139.indd 124
21/05/26 10:30 AM
125
4.5 What sustainable practices can improve global food security?
4.5
What sustainable practices can improve global food security? Success criteria
In this lesson, you will explore three sustainable practices that can improve global food security: conservation agriculture, regenerative agriculture and biodynamic agriculture.
❏ I can recall examples of sustainable farming practices. ❏ I can explain how a sustainable farming practice is beneficial both for the environment and for achieving food security.
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
Learning intention
Lesson starter
Principles of regenerative agriculture
The diagram highlights the key principles of an environmentally sustainable type of farming called regenerative agriculture. This approach to farming focuses on restoring and improving soil health, increasing biodiversity and enhancing ecosystem resilience while producing food sustainably. For each of the six principles, outline one positive outcome of applying this in farming. Minimise soil disturbance
Understand the context of your farm operation
Keep the soil covered
Maximise crop diversity
Integrate livestock
Maintain living root year-round
➜
Figure 4.5.1 Features of regenerative agriculture, an example of a sustainable farming practice
➜
Figure 4.5.2 A regenerative farm will integrate livestock with crops.
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c04_p103-139.indd 125
21/05/26 10:30 AM
126
Chapter 4 Towards food security
Environmentally sustainable farming practices
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
➜
Writing focus 4.5 Appositives
As seen in Lesson 3.5, agriculture and food production have significant impacts on the environment. This means that changing farming practices can help repair environmental damage and address challenges such as climate change and biodiversity loss. In doing so, more food can be produced to meet the growing needs of the population and provide more food security. This lesson explores some of the ways that farmers can use environmentally sustainable practices, including conservation agriculture, regenerative agriculture and biodynamic agriculture to improve global food security.
Conservation agriculture
crop residue natural waste materials from agriculture, such as stalks, stubble, leaves and seed pods
Conservation is the protection, preservation, management or restoration of natural environments and their ecological communities. Conservation agriculture is a farming system that aims to conserve that natural environment while producing quality food products. It follows three key environmentally sustainable principles: minimising soil disturbance (no till), maintaining a permanent soil cover (either crop residues or cover crops) and planting diverse species (see Figure 4.5.3).
cover crop plants grown to cover the soil rather than to be harvested
Minimum soil disturbance (no tillage) – reducing ploughing to protect soil structure and prevent erosion
1
Permanent soil cover – using crop residues or cover crops to protect the soil when no crops are growing, plus adding organic matter, improving soil structure and recycling nutrients
2
Diverse plant species – growing a variety of crops in rotation or associations involving at least three different crops
3
➜
Figure 4.5.3 The three principles of conservation agriculture
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c04_p103-139.indd 126
21/05/26 10:30 AM
4.5 What sustainable practices can improve global food security?
agroforestry a land management system that integrates trees and shrubs with crops or livestock to enhance biodiversity, soil fertility and productivity
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
These techniques have had great success. In Zambia, maize grown outside the tree canopy produced an average of just 1.9 tonnes per hectare, while maize grown under a canopy of Faidherbia albida (African acacia) trees using agroforestry and conservation agriculture methods produced 4.7 tonnes per hectare (see Figure 4.5.4). Conservation agriculture improves biodiversity and supports natural processes that enhance soil quality and water efficiency, leading to higher crop yields. With higher crop yields, more food is produced, which means food prices can be lowered and the food supply chain is supported in the long term.
127
food supply chain the complex network of processes that moves food from farms to consumers, including the farming, processing, packaging, distribution and selling of food
➜
Figure 4.5.4 An African acacia grows with a maize crop, bringing many benefits to the soil. This is a feature of agroforestry, which is sometimes used in conservation agriculture. Bare soil
Soil with cover crops
Cooler soil surface temperatures
Decreased soil erosion and run-off
Increased soil surface temperature
Increased soil erosion and run-off
Decreased soil water infiltration
Decreased soil biological activity
Decreased soil biomass
Increased soil biomass
Improved soil water infiltration Increased soil biological activity
➜
Figure 4.5.5 Soil quality is improved through cover crops, a feature of conservation agriculture.
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c04_p103-139.indd 127
21/05/26 10:30 AM
128
Chapter 4 Towards food security
Regenerative agriculture
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
Regenerative agriculture is an older farming method that is becoming popular again because it improves crop yields while helping to combat climate change, soil degradation and biodiversity loss. Regenerative farming improves food security by increasing reliable crop production, keeping food systems affordable, improving nutrition through healthier soils, and building long-term stability to deal with the problems associated with climate change. Some methods used in regenerative agriculture are listed in Table 4.5.1.
Table 4.5.1 Methods used in regenerative agriculture Method
Description
Crop rotation
• Rotating crops
Green manure
• Crops grown only
Benefits
• Prevents the soil from becoming
between fields
•
to be cut down and returned to the soil Grown during the off-season to improve soil between cash crops or as part of crop rotation Planting a variety of crops together
• • •
Polyculture
•
Native windbreaks
• Planting native trees • around fields •
depleted in a particular nutrient from overuse by a single crop (see Figure 4.5.5) Farmers choose crops that improve soil health Provides land cover, which absorbs carbon, reduces erosion and increases soil moisture Feeds microbes that break down crops into humus
• Increases soil and plant health, makes
•
farms more resistant to disease and pests, and increases natural pest control Reduces evaporation and wind damage Increases biodiversity by creating habitats for predator birds and other animals that control pests Absorbs carbon from the atmosphere to help combat climate change
➜ Figure 4.5.6 This diagram shows a crop rotation cycle. It starts
with pods such as peas and beans to enrich the soil, followed by root vegetables that take little from it. Fruiting plants and then greens come next, as they are heavy feeders. Finally, pods are replanted to restore nutrients, restarting the cycle. Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c04_p103-139.indd 128
21/05/26 10:30 AM
4.5 What sustainable practices can improve global food security?
B
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
A
129
➜
Figure 4.5.7 (a) A pea crop and (b) an oat crop. Growing peas and oats together in one field (polycropping) helps reduce weed spread, and their roots break up the soil, allowing air, moisture and nutrients in. Peas take nitrogen from the air and add it to the soil. Peas and oats can be grown before or after nitrogen-hungry crops such as corn. Crop rotation field advantages
120
112
➜ Figure 4.5.8
101.1
100
92.8
82.9
Bushels/acre
80
67.1
56.1
60
40
39.7
33.7
30.2
35
20
0
Soybeans (Blacklands)
Corn (Blacklands)
Following same crop
Soybeans (Piedmont)
Corn (Piedmont)
Sorghum (Piedmont)
Following different crop
Graph showing the benefits of crop rotation, using data from North Carolina, United States. Crop yield increased for all grain types when crop rotation was used. (A “bushel” is a unit of measurement used mainly in agriculture to measure the volume of dry goods such as grains, fruits and vegetables. In Australia, kilograms and tonnes are more commonly used.)
Biodynamic agriculture
Biodynamic farming is a natural and sustainable way of growing food. It treats the farm as a single living system, where everything it needs (such as compost and animal feed) is produced on-site. Biodynamic farms often grow a mix of crops and raise animals to keep the environment balanced. This method avoids synthetic chemicals and fertilisers, instead using compost to improve soil health. Farmers plan planting and harvesting based on the lunar calendar, believing this benefits soil and plant growth. Biodynamic farming also includes cover cropping, crop rotation, and special herbal and mineral compost mixtures to improve crop health. Biodynamic farming can help achieve food security because it builds healthy soils and maintains biodiversity, improving farm resilience and environmental balance, which supports more reliable food production now and into the future.
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c04_p103-139.indd 129
21/05/26 10:30 AM
130
Chapter 4 Towards food security
Review 4.5 Online quiz
Knowledge and understanding
Thinking and working geographically
Students can access sample responses and results online
Teachers can go online to assign questions, view results, reports and more!
Knowledge and understanding
Why is conservation agriculture a better approach to farming than traditional intensive methods? Give examples.
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
1.
2.
How do polyculture methods and natural windbreaks improve the environment?
3.
Explain how crop rotation works and describe its benefits using Figures 4.5.6 and 4.5.8.
4.
Copy and complete the following table to evaluate the advantages and disadvantages of each of the three sustainable forms of agriculture.
Advantages
Disadvantages
Conservation agriculture
Regenerative agriculture
Biodynamic agriculture
Thinking and working geographically
Working with geographical concepts: Sustainability 1.
Research a farm in Australia or overseas that uses sustainable farming practices. Create a poster that provides images and facts showing the sustainability features. Include the following on your poster: a. Type of farm (what it produces) b. Where it is located (e.g. country, region, biome) c. Sustainable practices used (e.g. cover cropping, crop rotation, water saving, soil regeneration, natural pest control, reduced chemicals) d. Evidence of success showing environmental improvement (e.g. data, statistics, photos, awards, before and after examples, quotes or impact statements).
sustainability the concept of sustainability is about the capacity of the environment to continue to support our lives and the lives of other living creatures into the future
Analysing graphs: Percentage change
Percentage change is useful when analysing and comparing graphs or data over time. Follow these steps to calculate percentage change: 1. Find the difference (increase) between the two numbers you are comparing. Increase = New number – Original number 2. Divide the increase by the original number and multiply by 100. % increase = Increase ÷ Original number × 100
If the result is positive, it is a percentage increase. If negative, it is a percentage decrease. 2.
Using Figure 4.5.8, answer the following questions:
a. What do the blue columns represent? b. What do the pink columns represent? c. Calculate the percentage change in soybean yield (Blacklands) when following the same crop versus following a different crop. d. Calculate the percentage change in corn yield (Piedmont) when following the same crop versus following a different crop. e. What is the overall message of this column graph?
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c04_p103-139.indd 130
21/05/26 10:30 AM
131
4.6 How can Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples’ knowledge and practices inform sustainable food systems?
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
4.6
How can Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples’ knowledge and practices inform sustainable food systems?
Learning intention
Success criteria
In this lesson, you will learn about some features of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples’ Knowledge, systems and practices, and their relevance to modern agricultural practices.
❏ I can outline examples of native foods that Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples sourced from Australian biomes. ❏ I can describe a traditional farming technique used by Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples to source food.
Lesson starter
See, think, wonder
It has often been portrayed that before colonisation, Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples only “hunted and gathered” their food. However, over time, evidence has shown that this is not the case. In fact, Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples used sophisticated farming and agricultural techniques. Figure 4.6.1 provides insight into some of these traditional practices. 1.
See: What type of source is this? What items are the people carrying in the image? What could these be used for?
2.
Think: How old is the image? Interpret the writing at the bottom of the source (as best as you can).
3.
Wonder: What is a yam? Do we eat anything like this today?
➜
Figure 4.6.1 Wathaurong women dig for murrnong, or yam daisy, at Indented Head in Victoria. Drawn by non-Indigenous man John Helder Wedge in 1835.
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c04_p103-139.indd 131
21/05/26 10:30 AM
132
Chapter 4 Towards food security
Ancient agricultural practices
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
➜
Writing focus 4.6 Creating topic sentences
Did you know that Australia has the longest known history of agriculture in the world? In fact, there is evidence that Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples were baking bread 65,000 years ago – 50,000 years before the Egyptians! Australia’s biomes were first altered to grow tubers and cereals, as well as to harvest meat, fruit and vegetables. The farming and storage methods used by Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples allowed the landscape to sustain them for thousands of years. Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples’ knowledge and practices inform sustainable food systems in numerous ways. Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples only took from the environment only what was needed, wasted nothing and gave nature time to regenerate and regrow. Practices such as fire-stick farming (or cultural burning) and rotational harvesting allowed the land to regenerate, ensuring a long-term, sustainable food supply. Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples’ practices respected the seasons and used knowledge of the seasons to harvest and manage food without damaging ecosystems. Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples shared generational knowledge of plants and animals and their farming methods, food preservation and storage. We will investigate the sustainable methods used to source tubers, cereals and meats from Country.
➜
Figure 4.6.2 A yam tuber
Tubers
Some plant species have edible tubers, which are thick-skinned structures made of stems or roots that grow underground. The native murnong (or yam daisy) is a tuber that grows in southern and eastern Australia, including Tasmania. Before colonisation, it was a staple food for many people in these regions and is said to be eight times as nutritious as potatoes. Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c04_p103-139.indd 132
21/05/26 10:30 AM
4.6 How can Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples’ knowledge and practices inform sustainable food systems?
till dig or loosen the soil to prepare it for planting domestication the process of growing and adapting wild plants or animals to suit human needs
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
Tubers such as murnong were so valued by Aboriginal Peoples that they altered biomes to increase their yield and distribution. This was done through methods such as firestick farming and terracing. Fire-stick farming involved selecting areas with the best soil and burning the vegetation to clear space for planting. The ash from the burned vegetation provided valuable nutrients, improving the soil. Specific tools were then used to till the soil. Terracing was used on sloping clay soils, allowing crops to grow on steeper land. These methods returned nutrients to the soil, reduced erosion and helped the soil and plants absorb rainwater.
133
➜
Figure 4.6.3 Prior to colonisation, fire-stick farming was used in some regions to clear land for farming. It involved cool burns that promoted the recycling of nutrients. Fire-stick farming continues in some places today. In this image, George Milpurrurru starts a fire to clean the bush in Arnhem Land, Northern Territory. Milpurrurru was raised on Ganalbingu (Yolngu) land, and was an acclaimed artist known for his bark paintings.
Cereals
In some places, before colonisation, cereals such as panicum (wild millet) and kangaroo grass were vital to the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples’ diet and economy. As Figure 4.6.4 shows, Australia’s grain belt was much larger under the management of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples and covered land that is not used for crops today. In northern Australia, wild rice was grown in crocodile-infested waters. Seed domestication, irrigation, storage and trade ensured a nutritious and reliable cereal supply. Seeds become domesticated when humans get involved in the growing process by selecting seeds to save and replant the following year. Usually, the seeds chosen have desirable traits, such as good size, taste and yield.
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c04_p103-139.indd 133
21/05/26 10:30 AM
Chapter 4 Towards food security
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
134
LEGEND
Aboriginal grain belt
Contemporary grain belt
Where the Aboriginal and contemporary grain belts overlap
Region along the Darling River where European explorer Hamilton Hume noted, in the 1820s, that Aboriginal Peoples gathered grain from wild oats and made an edible paste by grinding it
0
1,000 km
➜
Figure 4.6.4 The Aboriginal grain belt of Australia, compared with the contemporary grain belt
Source: Bruce Pascoe, Dark Emu, 2018, p. 28
Meat
Prior to colonisation, animal (game) farming provided a great supply of protein. Herding and harvesting were common methods used to secure this food source. For example, brush fences were built to channel kangaroos and emus into a limited area, while nets were stretched from one riverbank to another to catch fish as they swam past. These methods were sustainable because once the animals were trapped, people could select which ones to kill, releasing the young and female animals to ensure future populations.
➜
Figure 4.6.5 The Brewarrina fish traps (Baiame’s Ngunnhu) along the Baaka (Darling River) in New South Wales are one of the oldest known human-made structures in the world. The Dreaming story explains how Baiame (creator god and sky father) and his sons threw his net across the river to create the fish traps. The complex system of stone weirs and pools helped the people catch fish and care for Country. In 2005, the fish traps were officially recognised by being added to Australia’s National Heritage List.
Fish were another important source of protein and were farmed using impressive feats of river engineering. The enormous fish traps along the Darling River in Brewarrina, shown in Figure 4.6.5, may be the oldest human-made structures on Earth. These traps worked by herding fish into human-made rock pools that had openings that allowed fish to swim in and out. When fish were needed, people would block the openings to the pools with rocks, trapping the adult fish inside. This method was sustainable, as smaller fish could still get out around the rocks, trapping only the adult fish and only when needed.
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c04_p103-139.indd 134
21/05/26 10:30 AM
4.6 How can Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples’ knowledge and practices inform sustainable food systems?
135
Strategically placed rocks
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
Fish
Strategically placed closed-in rocks
Trapped fish
➜
Figure 4.6.6 A diagram illustrating how the fish traps worked. (a) Initially, the fish could swim back out of the traps. (b) However, when food was required, the traps would be closed off with rocks, trapping the fish
Could a deeper understanding of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples’ farming practices and use of native plants help us expand the distribution and types of food grown in Australia? Could there be more collaboration between Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Traditional Knowledges of sustainable practices and contemporary practices? There is still so much to learn and explore, and the potential benefits to be gained from this knowledge go far beyond feeding ourselves.
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c04_p103-139.indd 135
21/05/26 10:30 AM
136
Chapter 4 Towards food security
Review 4.6 Knowledge and understanding
Online quiz
Thinking, researching and communicating
Students can access sample responses and results online
Teachers can go online to assign questions, view results, reports and more!
Knowledge and understanding
How old is Australia’s history of agriculture?
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
1. 2.
List the agricultural methods used to increase the distribution and yield of murnong.
3.
Choose one agricultural or hunting method (e.g. fire-stick farming, fish traps) and explain how it is a sustainable method of farming.
4.
Using Figure 4.6.4, compare the Aboriginal grain belt with the contemporary grain belt. In your answer, calculate the approximate percentage coverage of each and discuss the differences.
Thinking and working geographically
Working with geographical concepts: Change 1.
Watch the ABC Landline video: “Fighting Fire with Fire: Combining traditional and modern burning techniques” (https://cambridge.edu.au/redirect/11827).
a. What environmental change occurs in soil, plants and animal habitats when cultural burning is used? b. Explain how this might assist in sourcing or producing food.
change the concept of change is about explaining geographical phenomena by investigating how they have developed over time
Black Duck Foods
Black Duck Foods is an Indigenous social enterprise founded by Bruce Pascoe, an Aboriginal author of the best-selling book Dark Emu. Black Duck Foods focuses on growing and harvesting native bush foods using traditional methods. 2.
Research this business and answer the following questions:
a. List some of the products sold by this business. b. Describe examples of how Black Duck Foods is environmentally sustainable and works “with Country, not against Country”. c. Do you think more farms should use Aboriginal methods of farming? Justify your answer.
➜
Figure 4.6.7 Controlled burn near Yeoval, New South Wales
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c04_p103-139.indd 136
21/05/26 10:30 AM
137
4.7 Chapter review
4.7
Chapter review Access the Interactive Textbook for a range of digital tools to help you review this chapter and build confidence.
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
• Auto-marked questions for fast feedback and fun practice • Self-assessment tools to track your progress, review answers (if enabled by the teacher), and flag questions for extra help • Downloadable worksheets for class or homework revision
Summary
Summary notes
What have you learned about food security?
Download chapter summary
For this activity, copy the table and fill it out by explaining your understanding. Aim for two points per topic.
Terms
What I have learned
Food security
Climate change Sustainability Technology
Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Knowledge
Visible thinking routine Circle of viewpoints
The use of AI and technology in farming
This exercise in visible thinking asks you to explore the use of AI and technology in farming from multiple perspectives to better understand its benefits, challenges and impacts. 1.
2.
3.
Choose a viewpoint from the list below. a. Small-scale farmer b. Large commercial farm owner c. AI/technology developer g. Rural community member
d. Environmental scientist e. Consumer f. Government or policy maker
Use the sentence stems below to think from that perspective a. I am thinking about AI and technology in farming from the viewpoint of … b. I think … (describe the topic from your viewpoint) c. A question I have from this viewpoint is … Share and compare viewpoints.
Circle of viewpoints
The viewpoint I have chosen
I think … (Describe the topic from your viewpoint)
A question I have from this viewpoint is …
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c04_p103-139.indd 137
21/05/26 10:30 AM
138
Chapter 4 Towards food security
Questions Scorcher quiz
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
Access a fast, fun, competitive quiz that puts your understanding to the test.
Quick questions
The following questions offer various ways to demonstrate your understanding of the chapter. 1.
The _____ Global Seed Vault acts as a global backup vault for crop seeds.
2.
According to the World Food Summit, ________ is achieved when all people have access to sufficient, safe, nutritious food.
3.
_____has the most countries with high levels of acute food insecurity.
4.
The milk yield of a dairy cow can drop by up to ______ per cent during an extreme heatwave.
5.
The world’s population is projected to reach 9.7 billion by the year: A. 2030. C. 2070. D. 2100. B. 2050.
6.
During the 2018 European heatwave, crop losses were the worst since: A. The 1800s C. World War II D. The early 2000s B. World War I
7.
Recall who manages the Svalbard Global Seed Vault.
8.
Identify one reason people struggle to access nutritious food.
9.
Using Figure 4.8.1, summarise one impact of climate change.
10.
Outline one reason for Singapore’s food security.
11.
Identify one method used by Aboriginal Peoples to increase the distribution and yield of murnong.
➜
Figure 4.8.1 Damaged crops after a wildfire
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c04_p103-139.indd 138
21/05/26 10:30 AM
4.7 Chapter review
139
Writing focus The following activities allow you to practise your writing skills.
You can use this as a model when writing your own answers to the questions that follow. (6 marks)
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
Question: Discuss TWO factors that affect food security.
Writing focus 4.7 Single paragraph response model ➜
Answering questions in paragraphs
Model answer:
Topic sentence: the first sentence of the paragraph; directly answers the question Evidence: specific, relevant evidence to support arguments
Evidence: specific, relevant evidence to support arguments Linking sentence: reconnects with language of the question the topic sentence.
Two major factors that affect food security are climate change and economic access to food. Climate change reduces food security by damaging crops and disrupting growing conditions, while economic barriers limit people’s ability to afford or obtain nutritious food. These factors reduce food availability, increase prices and make it harder for communities to maintain stable and reliable food supplies. Even a 1 to 3°C temperature rise severely reduces crop yields in tropical and dry regions, where many staple foods are grown. For example, the 2018 European heatwave cause the worst crop losses since World War II, showing how extreme heat can directly affect food supply. Meanwhile, in Australia, 30% of metropolitan households and 37% of regional households experience food stress. This indicates that high food prices prevent many people from accessing nutritious food, even in countries where food is available. Overall, both climate impacts and economic inequality work together to reduce people’s ability to access food.
Explain: clarify, define and describe
Elaborate: additional information, interconnections
Examples: provide credibility and illustrate the argument
Examples: provide credibility and illustrate the argument
Structured-response questions Question 1
(20 marks)
a. Define the term ‘food security’. b. Discuss TWO factors that affect food security. c. Explain how climate change affects the future of food security.
(2 marks) (6 marks) (12 marks)
Extended response questions Question 1
(20 marks)
Marking criteria for each question can be found in the Interactive Textbook. Refer to these criteria when planning and writing your responses.
Explain how Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples’ Knowledge and practices can inform sustainable food systems today. Question 2
(20 marks)
Discuss sustainable practices that can improve global food security.
Teachers, access the Online Teaching Suite for digital resources and tools that support review, assessment and reporting, including:
• student and class activity reports • a test generator to create custom assessments • built-in feedback tools • editable downloadable support material and printable “Writing© focus” workbook for this chapter. Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400 • a downloadable 9781009788083c04_p103-139.indd 139
21/05/26 10:30 AM
Changing places
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
Focus area
CHAPTERS
➜
5. Movement of people 6. International migration and Australia 7. Geographical skills: Making sense of change 8. Changing settlement patterns and urban planning for sustainability
Image: Migration in motion as travellers wait in line at an airport
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c05_p140-168.indd 140
21/05/26 10:33 AM
Chapter
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
5
Movement of people
Lessons
5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 5.6
Geo Spark: Who was the toddler who washed ashore? What factors push people to migrate internationally? What factors pull people to migrate internationally? What are the social consequences of international migration? What are the economic consequences of international migration? Chapter review
➜
Teachers go to the Online Teacher Suite to: • plan, sequence and assign directed tasks for students and classes using Task Manager • view student activity reports • provide feedback to students • download a printable “Writing focus” workbook for this chapter.
Image: Refugees on an inflatable boat as they migrate across borders
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c05_p140-168.indd 141
21/05/26 10:33 AM
142
Chapter 5 Movement of people
5.1
Geo Spark: Who was the toddler who washed ashore? Success criteria
In this lesson, you will learn about the realities of migration from a refugee perspective.
❏ I can outline reasons for migration and describe its consequences.
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
Learning intention
A photo that captured the world
➜
refuge a place that is safe or sheltered from pursuit or danger
Figure 5.1.1 Commemoration for the drowning of three-year-old Syrian refugee Alan Kurdi
On 2 September 2015, a photo circulated around the world, capturing the attention of millions of people. The photo was of three-year-old Alan Kurdi, a Syrian boy of Kurdish origin. However, unlike other photos of refugees in dire circumstances, this photo was confronting because the body of young Alan Kurdi was shown lifeless and face down on a beach near Bodrum, Turkey. It was later revealed that Alan, his mother and fiveyear-old brother Ghalib were Syrian refugees fleeing the extremist group Islamic State. In their desperate attempt to seek refuge on the Greek island of Kos, the small family braved the Mediterranean Sea but drowned on the journey.
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c05_p140-168.indd 142
21/05/26 10:33 AM
5.1 Geo Spark: Who was the toddler who washed ashore?
143
Different forms of migration Writing focus 5.1 Question words ➜
migration the movement of people from one place to another
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
The reality of the world today is that people are always moving; however, the reasons for migration and the migration process itself varies tremendously across places. Although the majority of migration is visible and follows a relatively safe process that adheres to legal procedures, other forms of migration (such as refugee migration) can be both hidden and dangerous. This is because refugee migration often occurs away from the public eye and with minimal, if any, adherence to legal procedures.
refugee migration the forced movement of people due to conflict, violence or well-founded fear of persecution
➜
Figure 5.1.2 Migrants disembarking a plane upon arrival
➜
Figure 5.1.3 Inflatable dinghy used to carry migrants
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c05_p140-168.indd 143
21/05/26 10:34 AM
144
Chapter 5 Movement of people
Plight of refugee migrants
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
Each year, millions of people are forced to flee their homes to seek refuge across borders because of conflict, violence or the threat of persecution. These migrants risk their lives to embark on dangerous journeys – from trekking across deserts to crossing rivers and seas in inflatable dinghies – exposing themselves to violence, extortion, trafficking and even death in the hope of a better life. Since 2014, the United Nations International Organization for Migration has recorded more than 72,000 fatalities on migratory routes worldwide, with 2024 being the deadliest year to date. In 2024, the annual death toll exceeded 8,700. Africa, Asia and Europe were the locations of most migration-related deaths and drowning was the main cause. However, actual figures may be considerably higher, because the majority of migrant deaths go unrecorded, especially when death occurs during the journey.
Activity 5.1
Visible thinking routine: Think, pair, share 1.
Think: Why might learning about the migration of refugees matter to me?
2.
Pair: Why might refugee migration matter to people around me?
3.
Share: Why might refugee migration matter to the world?
➜
Figure 5.1.4 Venezuelan migrants stranded in Mexico City (July 2025) en route to seeking asylum in the United States after that country’s termination of several asylum programs.
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c05_p140-168.indd 144
21/05/26 10:35 AM
145
5.2 What factors push people to migrate internationally?
5.2
What factors push people to migrate internationally? Success criteria
In this lesson, you will learn about the economic, social, environmental and political factors that push people to migrate from their normal place of residence.
❏ I can identify the push factors that influence international migration. ❏ I can explain how push factors influence international migration.
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
Learning intention
Lesson starter
Think about what factors would push people to leave their homes and set up a new life in a foreign country. Use Figure 5.2.1 to get you started.
➜
Figure 5.2.1 Policemen in Russia detain an LGBTQIA activist at a demonstration in Moscow.
Migration: push factors
There are many push factors that contribute to international migration, from economic to social, environmental and political. We now will delve into the push factors that influence international migration.
High unemployment rate
A common push factor driving international migration is when a country has a high unemployment rate. A high unemployment rate occurs when a large portion of the labour force cannot find work. This can occur for a variety of reasons, such as an economic downturn or when the labour supply exceeds demand.
Writing focus 5.2 Transitional phrases ➜
International migration refers to the movement of people from one country to another with the purpose of changing their residence. For some people, the decision to leave their home and migrate to another country does not come easily but, rather, out of necessity. In this manner, they are “pushed” out of their home country and forced to seek refuge elsewhere.
push factors reasons people wish to leave an area unemployment rate the percentage of people in the labour force who are unemployed economic downturn a sustained period of decreased economic activity
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c05_p140-168.indd 145
21/05/26 10:35 AM
146
Chapter 5 Movement of people
informal economy part of the economy that is untaxed and unregulated by the government
A person’s inability to secure and maintain employment affects their ability to earn an income, which consequently affects their quality of life and overall wellbeing. Moreover, in countries where the unemployment rate remains high over a sustained period, this can force workers to seek employment in the informal economy.
➜
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
An informal economy is problematic from both an economic and social standpoint. From a social perspective, jobs in the informal economy are characterised by low wages and unsafe working conditions. Thus, working in the informal economy can be physically dangerous. Additionally, because jobs in the informal economy are not taxed by the government, the lack of tax revenue can inhibit the government’s ability to invest in essential infrastructure and services, limiting economic growth further.
Figure 5.2.2 More than 1 million Filipinos emigrate each year due to limited job opportunities in the Phillipines.
Crime and persecution
persecution the systematic mistreatment of an individual or group based on ethnicity, religion, sexual orientation or religious beliefs
Crime and the threat of persecution are two push factors that drive people to leave their home countries and seek refuge in a safer location.
Crime
In locations where criminal activity is prevalent, residents may decide to leave their homes due to feelings of fear, distrust and a decreased sense of wellbeing. If the criminal justice system and police are ineffective at reducing crime – especially in areas that already have a high crime rate – this can also push people to move their families to a safer location. High crime rates are not only a social issue but also an economic issue. This is because crime has a direct impact on tourism, foreign investment, productivity and property values. Hence, the prevalence of crime and its effects serve as a push factor driving international migration.
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c05_p140-168.indd 146
21/05/26 10:35 AM
5.2 What factors push people to migrate internationally?
147
Case study: South Africa
➜
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
According to the South African Police Service, attempted murder, armed robbery and home robberies have soared over the past 10 years. Violent crime and its impacts have cost South Africa an equivalent of 15% of the nation’s GDP. Moreover, since the 2000s, South Africa’s high crime rate has been identified as a major reason for citizens emigrating from the country.
Figure 5.2.3 Suspected looter outside a vandalised mall on the outskirts of Johannesburg, South Africa
Persecution
The threat of persecution due to religion, political opinion, sexuality, nationality or race is a leading push factor for international migration. When individuals have a well-founded fear for their safety, they may decide that the challenges of emigrating outweigh the dangers of remaining in their homes where their lives are constantly under threat. In most instances, these individuals are known as refugees.
Climate change
In recent years, climate change has become a factor pushing people to leave their homes and seek refuge in another country. With human-induced climate change leading to sea-level rises, vulnerable countries, such as low-lying Pacific Island nations, are at risk. In some situations, not only have residents been displaced but also the survival of the entire country is in jeopardy. With more people being forced to leave their homes due to the effects of climate change, the term “climate refugee” is increasingly being used. However, international law does not currently recognise the status of these individuals.
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c05_p140-168.indd 147
21/05/26 10:35 AM
Chapter 5 Movement of people
Tuvalu is a low-lying Pacific Island nation located between Australia and Hawaii. It consists of nine small coral islands and has a population of approximately 9,500 citizens. Unfortunately, Tuvalu is experiencing rising sea levels, which have caused more frequent and severe flooding. Scientists predict that the current children of Tuvalu could be the last generation to live on the archipelago, because 95% of the land is expected to be underwater during periods of high tide by 2100. With residents being forced to leave, Australia and New Zealand have committed to receiving 280 Tuvaluans each year.
➜
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
148
Figure 5.2.4 Flooding event in Funafuti Atoll, Tuvalu
Political instability
Political instability, such as a change in government or war, can push people to migrate as their home country becomes dangerous. For example, when the Taliban took power in Afghanistan in 2021, following the collapse of the Afghan government and the departure of United States forces, thousands of civilians rushed to Kabul Airport in an attempt to leave the country. Some citizens were so frightened of the new government that, in their desperation to flee, they took to running alongside moving aircraft and attempting to cling onto the planes’ exterior.
➜
Figure 5.2.5 Civilians climb onto a plane at Kabul Airport to flee Afghanistan
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c05_p140-168.indd 148
21/05/26 10:36 AM
149
5.2 What factors push people to migrate internationally?
Review 5.2 Knowledge and understanding
Online quiz
Thinking and working geographically
Students can access sample responses and results online
Teachers can go online to assign questions, view results, reports and more!
Knowledge and understanding
Identify three push factors of international migration.
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
1. 2.
With reference to an example, outline how crime can serve as a push factor driving international migration.
3.
What is meant by the term “climate refugee”?
4.
Explain how political instability acts as a push factor driving international migration.
Thinking and working geographically
Working with geographical concepts: Sustainability 1.
Using the text, explain why environmental sustainability should be viewed as a human rights issue.
sustainability the concept of sustainability is about the capacity of the environment to continue to support our lives and the lives of other living creatures into the future
Processing geographical information 2.
Research the top five countries with the highest emigration rates. Then, fill out the table by researching the push factors driving emigration and the countries to which people are migrating.
Country
3.
Push factors driving emigration
Migration destination
Kiribati is another low-lying island nation threatened by human-induced climate change. Research Kiribati and answer the following questions. a. Where is Kiribati and what is the population of the island nation? b. How is human-induced climate change threatening Kiribati and its residents? c. What actions has the Kiribati government taken to support its population in response to the impacts of climate change?
➜
5.2.6University aerial viewPress of Kiribati Uncorrected 3rd sample pages •Figure Cambridge & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c05_p140-168.indd 149
21/05/26 10:36 AM
150
Chapter 5 Movement of people
5.3
What factors pull people to migrate internationally? Success criteria
In this lesson, you will learn about the economic, social, environmental and political factors that pull people to migrate from their normal place of residence.
❏ I can identify pull factors that influence international migration. ❏ I can explain how pull factors influence international migration.
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
Learning intention
Lesson starter
Think of a place in a new country that you would want to move to – for example, a city or a town. What is it about that place that would entice you to leave your current home and move there? Create a list of the factors that would pull you to that place. Use Figures 5.3.1 and 5.3.2 to help you.
Figure 5.3.2 Switzerland is one of the most politically stable nations in the world. ➜
➜
Figure 5.3.1 Copenhagen in Denmark was recognised as the most liveable city in the world 2025.
Migration: pull factors
➜
Writing focus 5.3 Developing sentences
pull factors reasons people wish to move to an area
Lesson 5.2 explored how economic, social, environmental and political factors can push people to leave their home country. You may have noticed that migration driven by push factors is often involuntary and out of necessity. This lesson will explore the pull factors driving international migration and how desirable elements of the destination country entice people to migrate.
High employment rate When considering locations to migrate to, a factor often prioritised is the employment rate. Places with a high employment rate pull migrants because the employment rate indicates the country has a strong and stable economy with ample job opportunities.
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c05_p140-168.indd 150
21/05/26 10:38 AM
5.3 What factors pull people to migrate internationally?
151
For people who are thinking of leaving their homes due to difficulties securing employment, this is often the most influential pull factor.
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
Migrating for the purpose of employment is known as labour migration. According to the International Labour Organization, employment is one of the key motivations driving international migration. At present, there are approximately 168 million migrant workers globally.
Case study: Singapore – a hotspot for labour migrants
Singapore is a hotspot destination for labour migration: the nation is home to approximately 1.4 million migrant workers, who make up 38% of the country’s labour force. The key countries supplying Singapore’s migrant workforce are the Philippines and Bangladesh.
Peace and education
Peace and education are two social factors that drive international migration, pulling people to new countries. Peace has a direct impact on an individual’s mental and physical health, and education affects their earning potential, which subsequently influences their quality of life.
Peace
For individuals who are pushed out of their country by high crime rates or dangerous living conditions, destinations with high peace ratings and low crime rates are pull factors. This is because peaceful environments provide a sense of security, which has been linked to reduced stress and enhanced physical and mental health. Moreover, as residents are not focused on conflict, there is more opportunity to focus on other pursuits, such as career growth, that enhance quality of life.
LEGEND
1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 No data
0
5,000 km
➜
Figure 5.3.3 Peaceful countries in the world, 2025 Source: Adapted from the Global Peace Index website
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c05_p140-168.indd 151
21/05/26 10:38 AM
152
Chapter 5 Movement of people
Education The presence of accessible, diverse and abundant educational opportunities, such as primary and secondary schools, universities and vocational education institutions, can pull migrants from their home countries.
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
Each year, millions of students around the world leave their hometowns to settle in new countries, with the sole purpose of seeking better educational opportunities. This has resulted in international student numbers significantly increasing over the past two decades. According to data collected by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), there were over 2.2 million international students in 2001. In 2011, this number grew to more than 3.8 million, and by 2021 it had risen to more than 6 million, nearly triple the figure from 20 years earlier (see Figure 5.3.4). International students globally
7
6
Millions
5
4
3
2
1
2021
2020
2019
2018
2017
2016
2015
2014
2013
2012
2011
2010
2009
2008
2007
2006
2005
2004
2003
2002
2001
0
Year
➜
Figure 5.3.4 International students globally, 2001–2021 Source: UNESCO Institute for Statistics website
Climate
The physical environment can serve as a pull factor attracting individuals to move to a place. People have their own climatic preferences; some people prefer a cooler climate, meanwhile others prefer a warmer climate. As such, people will migrate overseas in search of their preferred climate.
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c05_p140-168.indd 152
21/05/26 10:38 AM
153
5.3 What factors pull people to migrate internationally?
Case study: A gloomy Britain In a calendar year, Britain experiences 152 days of rain and 1,500 hours of heat. Australia, on the other hand, experiences an average of 70 days of rain and a minimum of 2,200 hours of heat. Due to its warmer weather and year-round sunshine, Australia has become a popular destination for British migrants looking to escape colder temperatures and limited sunshine. 140 mm
Temperature
18°C
120 mm
15°C
100 mm
12°C
80 mm
9°C
60 mm
6°C
40 mm
3°C
20 mm
0°C
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
Jun
Jul
Aug
Sep
Oct
Nov
Dec
Average minimum surface air temperature (°C)
Average mean surface air temperature (°C)
Average maximum surface air temperature (°C)
Precipitation (mm)
Precipitation
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
21°C
0 mm
➜
Figure 5.3.5 Climate graph for the United Kingdom, 1991–2021 Source: World Bank Group website
Peace and political stability
A politically stable country is characterised by established governance structures and systems, a stable economy, a strong sense of social cohesion and public trust in the governing institutions. A record of peace and political stability can be a pull factor attracting immigrants, particularly those who are leaving a tumultuous political environment.
An example of a country’s political stability attracting immigrants is New Zealand. Since 2015, New Zealand has been ranked by the Global Peace Index as one of the top 10 safest countries in the world. The Global Peace Index is the world’s leading measure of global peacefulness. New Zealand attracts immigrants from around the world, in particular, from India, the Philippines and China. In a survey conducted by the New Zealand Ministry of Business, Innovation and Employment, 15% of migrants identified political stability as the primary reason for their permanent residency application.
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c05_p140-168.indd 153
21/05/26 10:38 AM
154
Chapter 5 Movement of people
Table 5.3.1 Global Peace Index rankings 2020–2025 Source: Vision of Humanity website Top 10 rankings for the Global Peace Index 2020–2025 2021
2022
2023
2024
2025
1. Iceland
1. Iceland
1. Iceland
1. Iceland
1. Iceland
1. Iceland
2. Austria
2. Denmark
2. New Zealand 2. New Zealand 2. Ireland
2. Ireland
3. Slovenia
3. Slovenia
3. Denmark
3. Austria
3. Austria
3. New Zealand
4. New Zealand 4. Ireland
4. Austria
4. Ireland
4. Switzerland
4. Austria
5. Denmark
5. Portugal
5. Czechia
5. Denmark
5. New Zealand 4. Switzerland
5. Portugal
6. Austria
6. Ireland
6. Switzerland
6. Singapore
6. Singapore
7. Singapore
7. Czechia
6. Slovenia
7. Portugal
7. Denmark
7. Portugal
8. Czechia
8. New Zealand 8. Switzerland
8. Slovenia
8. Portugal
8. Denmark
9. Ireland
9. Singapore
9. Portugal
9. Singapore
9. Slovenia
9. Slovenia
10. Finland
10. Switzerland
10. Singapore
10. Canada
10. Canada
10. Finland
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
2020
Review 5.3
Knowledge and understanding
Online quiz
Thinking and working geographically
Students can access sample responses and results online
Teachers can go online to assign questions, view results, reports and more!
Knowledge and understanding 1.
How do pull factors differ from push factors?
2.
Identify a country with a high peace rating from Figure 5.3.3.
3.
Describe the trend in international student migration since 2001.
4.
Explain how climate acts as a pull factor driving international migration.
Thinking and working geographically
Working with geographical concepts: Place 1.
With reference to two factors that have been explored in this lesson, explain how a place’s characteristics can drive international migration by pulling them towards the location. Support your response with real-world examples.
place the concept of place is about the significance of places and what they are like
Acquiring geographical information 2.
Iceland has consistently ranked first on the Global Peace Index since 2020, as shown in Table 5.3.1. Using research, create an infographic poster on migration in Iceland. In your poster, include the following:
• the number of migrants in Iceland • where migrants in Iceland have emigrated from • why migrants are moving to Iceland • factors contributing to Iceland’s high peace ranking.
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c05_p140-168.indd 154
21/05/26 10:38 AM
5.4 What are the social consequences of international migration?
5.4
155
What are the social consequences of international migration? Success criteria
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
Learning intention In this lesson, you will learn about the positive and negative social consequences of international migration.
❏ I can explain the positive social consequences of international migration. ❏ I can explain the negative social consequences of international migration.
Lesson starter
Determine whether the following social consequences of international migration are positive or negative:
• increased cultural diversity, such as the introduction of new foods • overcrowding, such as congested roads • increased pressure on services, such as healthcare and housing • innovation, creativity and skills • loss of a unified cultural identity • social tension or conflict due to cultural misunderstandings.
The arrival of international migrants can have social consequences for destination countries; these consequences vary in nature, with some being positive and others negative. This lesson will explore the challenges and opportunities that come with the global movement of people.
Positive consequences
Migration can have positive consequences on society. Migrants provide benefits to the destination’s existing population, economy and culture, particularly for countries experiencing challenges such as an ageing population or shortages in the labour market.
Demographic rejuvenation refers to the process of counteracting population challenges, such as an ageing population. Several nations currently have ageing populations; however, this trend is expected to worsen in the coming decades. According to the United Nations Population Division, the number of people aged 65 and older is currently estimated at 857 million. By 2030, one in six people globally will be aged 60 years or over, and the number of people aged 80 or older will triple to reach 426 million in 2050.
➜
Demographic rejuvenation
Writing focus 5.4 Appositives
ageing population a demographic shift characterised by a growing proportion of individuals aged 65 and over
Although an ageing population is an indicator of a developed society with strong health outcomes and advanced quality of life, this demographic trend can create problems for society, such as an increased demand for aged-care services, a reduced workforce Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c05_p140-168.indd 155
21/05/26 10:38 AM
156
Chapter 5 Movement of people
and increased need for aged pensions. International migration can help to alleviate the challenges associated with an ageing population by rejuvenating the demographic. The arrival of young migrants can counter the effects of an ageing population because they contribute to the workforce, provide revenue to the government through taxation and stimulate the economy.
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
Amazing but true…
Japan has the world’s fastest ageing population, with almost one-third of its population aged over 65. Because of this, the Japanese government has increased recruitment efforts to attract foreign workers, especially in the healthcare and construction industries, and encourage them to stay.
➜
Figure 5.4.1 Older people in Japan exercising in the grounds of a temple
Cultural diversity
Immigration plays a pivotal role in building cultural diversity worldwide. When immigrants settle in a new country, they bring with them their customs, traditions, languages and food. These elements help to create a more vibrant and enriched environment that promotes tolerance and appreciation. Moreover, when communities are culturally diverse, key industries, such as tourism and hospitality, are strengthened, leading to economic benefits. As tourists typically prefer to visit racially and ethnically tolerant destinations, they will then spend money in local businesses, helping to stimulate the economy. Additionally, when communities hold cultural events, this attracts not only tourists but also residents in neighbouring areas.
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c05_p140-168.indd 156
21/05/26 10:38 AM
157
➜
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
5.4 What are the social consequences of international migration?
Figure 5.4.2 Chinese New Year twilight parade along George Street, Sydney
Case study: Lakemba Nights, Sydney
Each year, the Ramadan night market, Lakemba Nights, is held in Lakemba to celebrate the suburb’s cultural diversity and, in particular, the Muslim community. However, what began as an impromptu gathering in 2012 for the Muslim community has now become an annual event attracting more than 1.6 million people, 70% of whom are non-Muslim. The event generates revenue for 60 local businesses and the local council. Lakemba Nights contributes up to $50 million to the local economy.
➜
Figure 5.4.3 Ramadan night markets in Lakemba, Sydney
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c05_p140-168.indd 157
21/05/26 10:39 AM
158
Chapter 5 Movement of people
Negative consequences Just as migration can have positive social consequences, it can also have negative social consequences. These consequences include the strain on existing resources and social disunity.
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
Strain on resources When immigrants move to places that are already heavily populated, an area’s existing resources, such as healthcare, housing, transport, schools and roads, can come under strain. This is because there is a greater demand placed on services and infrastructure by the increased population. In places where resources are already stretched, the increase in population from migration, if not adequately planned for, can exacerbate the strain further.
Social disunity
When existing residents are not accepting of new cultures and customs, a clash of cultures can occur, with locals viewing migrants as sources of social disunity. Resentment may also grow, fuelling public displays of discrimination, such as protests, violent outbursts and animosity towards migrants, migration policies and multiculturalism.
Case study: Cronulla riots
An example of a culture clash fuelled by international migration was the Cronulla race riots in 2005. The Cronulla race riots were a series of riots in Sydney which saw more than 5,000 people join a physical conflict sparked by pre-existing racial tensions between Anglo-Australians and Middle Eastern Australians in Cronulla, Sydney.
➜
The triggering event for the riots was a fight between three AngloAustralian lifesavers and a group of young men of Middle Eastern descent at North Cronulla Beach. The incident led to a week-long media campaign that labelled the young men and their fight with the lifesavers as being “un-Australian” and against “Australian values”. In the lead up to the riots, an estimated 270,000 text messages were circulated among the AngloAustralian community, with one heavily publicised message calling for a protest to “reclaim the beach”.
Figure 5.4.4 Cronulla race riots, 2005
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c05_p140-168.indd 158
21/05/26 10:40 AM
159
5.4 What are the social consequences of international migration?
Review 5.4 Online quiz
Knowledge and understanding
Thinking and working geographically
Students can access sample responses and results online
Teachers can go online to assign questions, view results, reports and more!
Knowledge and understanding
Outline one positive social consequence of international migration.
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
1. 2.
What does an ageing population suggest about the economic and social development of a country?
3.
Outline one negative social consequence of international migration.
4.
Explain why the introduction of new cultures through international migration might sometimes have negative effects.
Thinking and working geographically
Working with geographical concepts: Change 1.
Outline how Japan’s changing population has affected the country’s migration policies.
change the concept of change is about explaining geographical phenomena by investigating how they have developed over time
Processing geographical information 2.
Using the data from the World Bank or the United Nations Population Division, identify the percentage of the population aged 65+ in the following countries:
• Japan • Italy • Australia • China • Brazil • India • South Korea • Germany.
On a world map, shade each country using a colour scale and create a legend:
• light shade: 0–15% aged 65+ • medium shade: 16–30% aged 65+ • dark shade: 31% or higher aged 65+.
3.
While some countries are using migration to combat the effects of an ageing population, others are critical of this. Research one country that is critical of using migration as a solution to an ageing population and explain the reasons why.
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c05_p140-168.indd 159
21/05/26 10:40 AM
160
Chapter 5 Movement of people
5.5
What are the economic consequences of international migration? Success criteria
In this lesson, you will learn about the positive and negative economic consequences of international migration.
❏ I can explain the positive economic consequences of international migration. ❏ I can explain the negative economic consequences of international migration.
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
Learning intention
Lesson starter
Migrants make huge contributions … they take jobs that local workforces cannot fill … many are innovators and entrepreneurs …
– António Guterres, United Nations Secretary General
What does the quote suggest about the economic consequences of international migration? Write down your own interpretation of this quote.
Economic consequences of international migration
➜
Writing focus 5.5 Creating topic sentences
Just as there are social consequences, international migration also has economic consequences. These consequences can be positive, by bringing in benefits to the local economy, or negative. This lesson will explore the economic consequences of international migration.
Positive consequences
International migration can contribute new knowledge and skills to the economy, bringing innovation and personnel to fill shortages in the labour market. Additionally, as migrants join the workforce, they contribute to the economy through taxes.
Filling labour shortages
In areas where labour shortages exist, the arrival of international migrants can fill gaps in the market. This is particularly the case when there are shortages of workers for essential jobs because they are undesirable due to uncompetitive wages or unappealing working conditions. Without migrants to fill these jobs, a country’s economy could be negatively affected, with major services disrupted over a sustained period of time.
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c05_p140-168.indd 160
21/05/26 10:40 AM
5.5 What are the economic consequences of international migration?
161
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
For example, migrant workers from Indonesia, Bangladesh and Nepal are essential to the Malaysian economy because they work in low-skilled jobs in the manufacturing, construction, agriculture and hospitality industries. These are jobs that local workers avoid. Without migrant workers, the nation would suffer from an imbalance in the labour market.
The public purse
A positive economic consequence of migrants participating in the workforce is increased tax revenue. Like citizens, migrants who find residence and employment in a destination country pay taxes to the government. Taxpayer money helps grow the public purse, which is critical to the development of a nation, as it funds essential public services such as education, social welfare programs and infrastructure improvements. Migrants’ taxes benefit not only the government but also existing citizens, who use the improved services made possible by additions to the public purse.
Technological progress
➜
Figure 5.5.1 Indian workers erect an electrical pylon in Malaysia International migration can also drive technological innovation. There is growing evidence that when migrants contribute their skills to the workforce of a destination country, it drives innovation and technological progress. With the world growing increasingly reliant on technology, this progress is pivotal to transforming industries and enhancing productivity.
Amazing but true…
According to Forbes Magazine, analysis conducted by non-profit organisation National Foundation for American Policy, immigrants or the children of immigrants have founded or co-founded nearly two-thirds of the top artificial intelligence companies in the United States.
➜
Figure 5.5.2 Jensen Huang, CEO of the world’s largest AI company, NVIDIA, migrated to the United States from Taiwan.
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c05_p140-168.indd 161
21/05/26 10:41 AM
162
Chapter 5 Movement of people
Negative consequences Although there are positive economic consequences, international migration can also have negative economic consequences. These economic consequences can affect the destination country and the migrants’ home countries.
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
Brain drain brain drain the emigration of highly educated and trained people from their own country
A negative economic consequence of international migration is the impact on migrants’ home countries. When people leave their homes in search of better opportunities in other countries, they take with them their knowledge, skills and talents, a process known as brain drain. Brain drain is a problem because the exodus of human capital leaves holes that are difficult to fill. As such, this can slow down economic growth and innovation, create gaps in critical industries, such as healthcare, and decrease tax revenue, which affects the home country’s capability to sufficiently fund essential services and improvement projects.
Samoa is an example of a country experiencing brain drain. Skilled Samoans have been moving to Australia and New Zealand for seasonal work because the jobs in Australia pay more than in Samoa, despite the mismatch in skills. The loss in human resources has created challenges for Samoa’s local workforce, as women are having to step into roles that were traditionally male dominated.
➜
Figure 5.5.3 Fruit and vegetable picking are common jobs filled by Samoans under Australia’s Pacific Labour Mobility Scheme. Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c05_p140-168.indd 162
21/05/26 10:41 AM
163
5.5 What are the economic consequences of international migration?
Downward pressure on wages
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
Some people worry that when international migrants fill gaps in the labour market, particularly in low-skilled occupations, wages for local employees will also be lowered. This concern has been voiced by locals in countries where labour migration rates are high. The concern is that, because migrants are more willing to accept lower wages, this will cause employers to pay lower wages to all employees, including local employees.
It is worth noting that research conducted by the OECD has debunked this concern, particularly in Australia where there is clear evidence demonstrating that migration does not negatively affect the wages of Australian-born employees.
Review 5.5
Online quiz
Knowledge and understanding
Thinking and working geographically
Students can access sample responses and results online
Teachers can go online to assign questions, view results, reports and more!
Knowledge and understanding 1.
What are the effects of a labour shortage on society?
2.
How does international migration help alleviate labour shortages? Refer to a real-world example in your response.
3.
Explain one negative economic consequence of international migration. In your response, include a real-world example.
4.
Explain one positive economic consequence of international migration.
Thinking and working geographically
Working with geographical concepts: Interconnection 1.
Countries around the world are interconnected by the effects of international migration. Explain how one country can benefit from international migration while another country can suffer. In your response, refer to brain drain.
interconnection the concept of interconnection emphasises that no object of geographical study can be viewed in isolation
Acquiring geographical information 2
Australia is a migrant country: a significant proportion of the population was born overseas. Using data collected by the Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS) and internet research, answer the following questions.
a. What percentage of Australia’s population was born overseas? b. What are the three most common countries of birth for Australians born overseas? c. How have migrants contributed to the Australian economy? d. Which industries rely heavily on migrant workers? Identify these industries and provide the percentage of migrant labour within each industry.
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c05_p140-168.indd 163
21/05/26 10:41 AM
164
Chapter 5 Movement of people
5.6
Chapter review Access the Interactive Textbook for a range of digital tools to help you review this chapter and build confidence.
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
• Auto-marked questions for fast feedback and fun practice • Self-assessment tools to track your progress, review answers (if enabled by the teacher), and flag questions for extra help • Downloadable worksheets for class or homework revision
Summary
Summary notes
Download chapter summary
What have you learned about the movement of people?
For this activity, copy the table and fill it out by explaining your understanding. Aim for two points per topic.
Terms
What I have learned
Migration
Push factor Pull factor Refugees
Persecution
Visible thinking routine
I used to think … now I think
This visible thinking routine helps you reflect on your thinking about a topic or issue and explore how and why your thinking has changed since reading this chapter.
Using the stem sentences below, write a paragraph explaining what you previously knew about the topic of migration. Then, write another paragraph explaining what you now know about migration after reading this chapter. I used to think that migration was …. Now I think that migration …
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c05_p140-168.indd 164
21/05/26 10:41 AM
5.6 Chapter review
165
Questions Scorcher quiz
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
Access a fast, fun, competitive quiz that puts your understanding to the test.
Quick questions
The following questions offer various ways to demonstrate your understanding of the chapter. 1.
______ describes the movement of people to a new area or country.
2.
Refugee migration is the forced movement of people due to conflict, violence or the well-founded fear of ________.
3.
A high ______ rate occurs when a large proportion of the labour force cannot find work.
4.
The term “_______________” is being used increasingly for people forced to leave their homes due to climate change.
5.
Tuvalu is made up of nine small _____ islands.
6.
When people migrate for employment, this is known as ______ migration.
7.
________ refers to the emigration of highly education and trained people from their own country.
8.
Which of the following is a push factor for international migration?
9.
➜
A. High employment rate B. Increased educational opportunities C. Peaceful environments D. High unemployment rate
Figure 5.6.1 Aerial view of Tuvalu
Migrants help support the demand for aged care health services by:
A. reducing the number of available workers. B. filling the labour market. C. decreasing life expectancy. D. avoiding employment.
10.
Recall one danger migrants may face on their journey.
11.
Identify two economic push factors.
12.
Summarise how peace can act as a pull factor.
13.
Outline one positive and one negative social consequence of international migration.
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c05_p140-168.indd 165
21/05/26 10:42 AM
166
Chapter 5 Movement of people
Writing focus The following activities allow you to practise your writing skills.
Answering questions in paragraphs You can use this as a model when writing your own answers to the questions that follow. Question: Explain how pull factors can motivate individuals to migrate internationally.
(6 marks)
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
➜
Writing focus 5.6 Single paragraph response model
Model answer: Topic sentence: the first sentence of the paragraph; directly answers the question
Evidence: specific, relevant evidence to support your arguments Linking sentence: reconnects with language of the question the topic sentence
Pull factors motivate individuals to migrate internationally because desirable conditions in a destination country attract those seeking a better quality of life. Pull factors work by offering quality-of-life improvements that migrants cannot easily access in their home country, which makes relocation both appealing and voluntary. These conditions can include strong job markets, safe living environments or high-quality education, all of which directly enhance a person’s long-term wellbeing. Singapore, for example, hosts about 1.4 million migrant workers. This is because of Singapore’s high employment rates, which attract migrants seeking reliable job opportunities. Overall, pull factors motivate international migration by offering improved economic, social and political conditions that encourage people to relocate by choice.
Explain: clarify, define and describe
Elaborate: additional information, interconnections
Examples: provide credibility and illustrate the argument
Structured-response questions Question 1
Marking criteria for each question can be found in the Interactive Textbook. Refer to these criteria when planning and writing your responses.
(20 marks)
a. Describe one push factor that drives international migration. (4 marks) b. Explain how pull factors can motivate individuals to migrate internationally. (6 marks) c. Using a relevant case study, discuss the ways in which international migration can benefit destination countries. (10 marks)
Extended-response questions Question 1
(20 marks)
Discuss the consequences of international migration.
Teachers, access the Online Teaching Suite for digital resources and tools that support review, assessment and reporting, including:
• student and class activity reports • a test generator to create custom assessments • built-in feedback tools • editable downloadable support material • a downloadable and printable ‘Writing focus’ workbook for this chapter.
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c05_p140-168.indd 166
21/05/26 10:42 AM
Chapter
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
6
International migration and Australia
Lessons 6.1
Geo Spark: No more migrants?
6.2
Who is migrating to Australia?
6.3
Why is Australia a global migration haven?
6.4 How is global migration shaping Australia – for better or worse? 6.5
How does Australia’s internal migration compare with China’s?
6.6 Chapter review
➜
Teachers go to the Online Teacher Suite to: • plan, sequence and assign directed tasks for students and classes using Task Manager • view student activity reports • provide feedback to students • download a printable “Writing focus” workbook for this chapter.
Image: Lunar New Year Celebration in Sydney’s Chinatown
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c06_p167-194.indd 167
21/05/26 8:53 PM
168
Chapter 6 International migration and Australia
6.1
Geo Spark: No more migrants?
Success criteria
In this lesson, you will learn about the reasons for anti-immigration views in Australia and around the world.
❏ I can outline reasons for anti-immigration views in Australia and around the world.
➜
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
Learning intention
Figure 6.1.1 “March for Australia” protest against immigration in Sydney
Immigration in Australia
➜
Writing focus 6.1 Question words
In October 2020 at a press conference on multiculturalism, former prime minister Scott Morrison called Australia the most successful immigration nation on Earth, attributing much of Australia’s economic and social success to immigration.
Today, the effects of immigration can be seen in each corner of Australian society, from the country’s demography to its diverse foods, festivals, languages and communities. However, despite the benefits that come with the movement of people, immigration remains a contentious topic, prompting debate in Australia and around the world. Just as there are people who see the value in immigration, there are also people who are against it.
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c06_p167-194.indd 168
21/05/26 8:53 PM
6.1 Geo Spark: No more migrants?
169
Australian views on immigration In 2019, the Lowy Institute held a poll on Australian attitudes to immigration. The results from the poll found that 67% of respondents agreed that immigration has a positive impact on the economy. Additionally, 62% agreed that accepting immigrants from different countries makes Australia stronger. The consensus from the poll indicated that Australians were largely positive and accepting of migrants.
Australian immigration survey Too high 52.99 About right
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
34.69
Don't know 7.77
Too low 4.55
➜
However, in a 2025 study conducted by 0 10 20 30 40 50 the Australian National University (ANU) Figure 6.1.2 Results of an immigration survey conducted by the ANU involving 5,000 participants, the view Source: The Guardian website on migration had shifted slightly, with results suggesting that the majority of Australians would like lower levels of migration. Additionally, 50% of respondents believed that current migration levels are too high.
Rallies against immigration
➜
In Australia, negative sentiment surrounding immigration has grown, resulting in large-scale public demonstrations. On 31 August 2025, “March for Australia” was held in cities across the nation, with demonstrators calling for a reduction in “mass immigration”. In Sydney, an estimated 5,000 demonstrators marched through the CBD, and in Adelaide and Brisbane protests attracted a few thousand participants. While some protestors waved the Australian flag with a vigour not seen since the Cronulla riots, others held “Make Australia Great Again” signs and wore shirts saying “defund the government”.
Figure 6.1.3 Protestors participating in the “March for Australia” in Sydney
Around the world, similar sentiments have also been voiced. On 13 September 2025, more than 100,000 anti-immigration protestors took to the streets of central London to march under a “Unite the Kingdom” banner. During the same month in the Netherlands, 1,500 people briefly blocked a highway crossing the city, waving Dutch flags as they protested against immigration. In this protest, 32 people were arrested, 2 police officers were injured and a police car was set on fire. The police had to use tear gas and water cannons to disperse protestors.
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c06_p167-194.indd 169
21/05/26 8:54 PM
Chapter 6 International migration and Australia
➜
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
170
Figure 6.1.4 Protestors participating in the “Unite the Kingdom” rally in London
What is driving anti-immigration sentiment?
Fuelling the anti-immigration sentiment both in Australia and globally are concerns that migrants are responsible for housing crises, rising costs of living and job security for local people. Additionally, with the arrival of more migrants, there are also growing concerns that the culture, morals and values of a society may be under threat. However, these attitudes have been criticised by researchers and economists, who argue that a reduction in numbers of migrants would not alleviate long-term societal challenges. They argue that the housing crisis has been caused by a lack of supply. Moreover, while cutting migration may slightly ease housing costs in the short term, immigrant countries, such as Australia, would be disadvantaged by labour shortages and decreased tax revenue.
Activity 6.1
Visible thinking routine: Brainstorming viewpoints
Brainstorm a list of perspectives surrounding immigration.
Choose one perspective to explore using the following sentence-starters: 1.
I am thinking of immigration from the viewpoint of … the viewpoint you’ve chosen.
2.
I think … describe the topic from your viewpoint. Be an actor – take on the character of your viewpoint.
3.
A question I have from this viewpoint is … ask a question from this viewpoint.
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c06_p167-194.indd 170
21/05/26 8:55 PM
171
6.2 Who is migrating to Australia?
6.2
Who is migrating to Australia?
Success criteria
In this lesson, you will learn about the different groups of people who migrate to Australia and the various factors that have influenced migration to Australia.
❏ I can identify the groups of people who migrate to Australia. ❏ I can explain how factors such as government policies, economic conditions and global events have influenced migration to Australia.
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
Learning intention
Starter activity Which visa?
Match the type of visa to its purpose. Skilled visa
Humanitarian visa Family reunification visa Student visa
• Grants residency to specific family members of a citizen or permanent resident • Grants temporary residency to a student, allowing them to undertake study in the host country
• Grants residency to foreign professionals who possess skills that are in demand in the host country
• Grants residency to people who face serious human rights abuses or persecution in their home country
Migration to Australia
With the growing number of migrants in Australia, there are two important questions to consider: who are these migrants and why are they coming to Australia? This lesson will investigate migration patterns in Australia by exploring the different types of visas that migrants enter Australia on, and how trends in migration are influenced by government policies, economic conditions and global events.
Writing focus 6.2 Transitional phrases ➜
According to the Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS), as of 30 June 2024, 8.6 million Australians had been born overseas. Excluding the period of the COVID-19 pandemic, during which Australia’s borders were closed, the number of international migrants entering Australia has generally increased since 2020.
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c06_p167-194.indd 171
21/05/26 8:55 PM
172
Chapter 6 International migration and Australia
Types of visas in Australia An Australian visa is formal permission allowing non-citizens to enter the country. There are different types of visas for different purposes and they provide temporary or permanent residency. Let’s explore who is entering Australia under skilled, student, humanitarian and family reunification visas.
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
Skilled visas
There are a range of skilled visas permitting workers to live and seek employment in Australia. These visas range from short term to permanent residency and play an important role in the Australian economy by filling gaps in the labour market. For example, Australia depends heavily on skilled migrants to fill chronic labour shortages in the construction, healthcare, education, mining and seasonal agriculture industries. Without skilled migrants in the construction industry, Australia’s housing shortage could be exacerbated due to limited workers to build houses.
➜
Figure 6.2.1 Demonstrators calling for better access to housing
Each financial year, the Australian Government publishes the annual permanent migration plan: the Migration Program. This designates the number of permanent migrant places and the percentages allocated to the different types of visas. For the 2025–2026 Migrant Program, migration has been set at 185,000 places, with skilled visas taking up 71% of the program, equating to 132,200 places.
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c06_p167-194.indd 172
21/05/26 8:55 PM
6.2 Who is migrating to Australia?
173
Student visas
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
Each year, international student migration plays a fundamental role in the Australian economy. For the financial year 2023–2024, the Australian Government’s Department of Education reported that international education was worth $50.1 billion to the nation’s economy, with $30 billion paid as goods and services and $20.6 as tuition fees. International education has become Australia’s fourth largest industry, according to ABS data. As of 2025, Australia had approximately 804,500 international students with China, India and Nepal being the top three source countries (see Figure 6.2.2). China
India
Nepal
Vietnam
Bangladesh
Philippines
Colombia
Indonesia
Pakistan
Sri Lanka
Brazil
Thailand
Malaysia
Republic of Korea (South)
Bhutan
Hong Kong SAR
Taiwan
Japan
Kenya
United States of America
Singapore
Mongolia
Chile
Fiji
United Kingdom
0
20k
40k
60k
80k
100k
120k
140k
160k
180k
200k
Number of students
New students
Continuing students
➜
Figure 6.2.2 Number of international students studying in Australia, 2025 Source: Australian Government Department of Education website
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c06_p167-194.indd 173
21/05/26 8:55 PM
174
Chapter 6 International migration and Australia
Humanitarian visa
➜
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
The humanitarian visa offers resettlement to people who require protection due to circumstances, such as the threat of persecution, violation of human rights or threat to life or freedom. This visa is granted either by a referral from the United Nations High Commission for Refugees (UNHCR) or on the basis of a proposal by an Australian citizen. Each year, the Australian Government allocates a maximum number of humanitarian visas. In 2025, this figure was 20,000 visas.
Figure 6.2.3 A family reunited under a humanitarian visa during the Russia–Ukraine war
Family reunification visa
Australia’s family reunification visa allows Australian citizens and permanent residents to bring family members into the country through the Family Migration Stream. Applicants are selected on the basis of their family relationship with their sponsor in Australia, such as a partner, child, parent, sibling or carer. At present, the Australian Government allocates 52,500 places to family reunification visas under the Migration Program, making up approximately 28% of the visas allocated.
Policy, economic conditions and global events
Policy, economic conditions and global events have shaped Australia’s immigration trends throughout the years. We will now look at these three factors in greater detail.
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c06_p167-194.indd 174
21/05/26 8:56 PM
6.2 Who is migrating to Australia?
175
White Australia Policy Federation the unification of the Australian colonies into a single nation
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
When Australia became a Federation in 1901, a unified policy limiting non-white immigration into Australia was created. This was the White Australia Policy, also known as the Immigration Act 1901. Under this policy, migration into Australia was largely confined to people from Britain and northern Europe. As a result, non-white people, including Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples, made up just two per cent of the overall population until the early 1940s.
Following World War II, Australian immigration minister Arthur Calwell famously stated that Australia must “populate or perish”. He decided to allow immigrants from southern and eastern Europe into Australia and, subsequently, carefully selected temporary migrants from the Middle East and Asia. This was the first step towards Australia becoming a multicultural country.
Migration Act 1958
The end of the White Australia Policy began with the Migration Act 1958. It has helped to shape Australia into the multicultural society it is today. This Act saw the elimination of the dictation test, which was used to discriminate against non-white migrants. Then, in 1966, new laws introduced by the Holt government saw all migrants being subjected to the same rules and restrictions in their visa and citizenship applications. For the first time in Australian immigration history, migrants were chosen for their skills and capacity to contribute to Australian society rather than race or appearance. In 1973, the Whitlam government officially ended the White Australia Policy by removing any remaining discrimination based on race and actively encouraging a multicultural Australia.
Preventing an economic downturn
When there is the risk of unfavourable economic conditions, a government may implement preventative measures, such as changes to their migration policy. The Global Financial Crisis in 2008 devastated the United States economy, triggering a recession with millions of job losses and a high unemployment rate. Although the economic impacts of the event were primarily isolated to the United States and some western European countries, ripples were felt around the world, including in Australia. The Australian Government tightened its immigration policy to protect local jobs and strengthen the nation’s economy. As a result, Australia reduced its skilled migration intake to prioritise employment for citizens and permanent residents.
Global events
Global events can also influence migration trends; the COVID-19 pandemic is a recent example. To prevent the spread of the virus in Australia, the Australian Government implemented nation-wide border closures to non-residents on 20 March 2020. This meant that migrants were no longer able to enter the country, resulting in the largest drop in international migrants recorded in Australian history. The restriction of international migration had profound impacts on the Australian economy, with universities losing between $3 billion and $4.5 billion in revenue from the sudden loss of international students.
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c06_p167-194.indd 175
21/05/26 8:56 PM
176
➜
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
Chapter 6 International migration and Australia
Figure 6.2.4 Sydney International Airport empty following Australia’s border closure announcement
Review 6.2
Online quiz
Knowledge and understanding
Thinking and working geographically
Students can access sample responses and results online
Teachers can go online to assign questions, view results, reports and more!
Knowledge and understanding 1.
Identify TWO visas used by migrants to enter Australia.
2.
Outline the importance of the student visa to Australia’s economy.
3.
How did the White Australia Policy shape Australia’s demography from 1901 to 1958?
4.
Outline the impact of the Migration Act 1958 on Australia’s multicultural identity.
Thinking and working geographically
Working with geographical concepts: Change 1.
Prior to 1958, the majority of Australians viewed immigration in a negative light, especially immigrants who were not from the United Kingdom. a. What event served as a catalyst, triggering shifts in public attitudes on immigration? b. How has this shift in attitude shaped Australian society and economy?
change the concept of change is about explaining geographical phenomena by investigating how they have developed over time
Acquiring geographical information 2.
An important skill in geography is the ability to acquire geographical information and communicate findings in a concise manner. For this activity, you will:
• conduct a survey with 15–20 participants to determine the visa on which they or their parents used to migrate to Australia • present the data through the use of visual tools such as a graph or table • interpret the data and summarise your findings in a paragraph.
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c06_p167-194.indd 176
21/05/26 8:56 PM
6.3 Why is Australia a global migration haven?
6.3
177
Why is Australia a global migration haven? Success criteria
In this lesson, you will learn about the reasons for international migration to Australia.
❏ I can explain why Australia is a popular migration destination.
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
Learning intention
Starter activity 1.
List five attributes that make Australia an ideal place to live.
2.
Choose three attributes from the question above and outline why these attributes make Australia an ideal place to live. Use Figure 6.3.1 to help you.
➜
Figure 6.3.1 Beachgoers enjoying the sunshine at St Kilda Beach, Melbourne
A global migration destination
Writing focus 6.3 Developing sentences
➜
Australia is a popular destination for migrants. In 2024, out of the top 25 destinations for international migrants, Australia ranked ninth (see Figure 6.3.2). This reputation as a destination for migrants is also reflected in Australia’s population: according to the ABS, in 2024, 31.5% of the population had been born overseas. In Chapter 5, the pull factors driving global migration were explored. Now we will explore the pull factors enticing migrants to Australia in particular.
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c06_p167-194.indd 177
21/05/26 8:56 PM
178
Chapter 6 International migration and Australia
International migrant population and migrant share of total population United States Germany Saudi Arabia United Kingdom France Spain Canada United Arab Emirates Australia Russian Federation Türkiye Italy Jordan Ukraine India Pakistan Iran (Islamic Republic of) Malaysia Japan Kuwait Thailand Colombia China, Hong Kong SAR Netherlands Bangladesh
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25
0M
10M
20M
30M
40M
50M 0%
International migrant population
20%
40%
60%
Migrant share of the total population
➜
Figure 6.3.2 Top 25 countries of destination for international migrants, 2024
Source: Migration Policy Institute website
Quality of life
quality of life an individual’s perception of their position in life against qualitative and quantitative factors such as health and happiness
One factor attracting migrants to Australia is quality of life. People living in Australia generally enjoy a high quality of life thanks to a strong economy, high safety ratings, wellfunded healthcare system and high-quality educational institutions. As a result, according to data from ABS and the World Bank, non-Indigenous Australian women live 9.1 years longer than the average global life expectancy for women. Non-Indigenous Australian men live 10.1 years longer than the average global life expectancy for men. However, it must be acknowledged that the life expectancies of non-Indigenous men and women are drastically different from that of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander men and women. A disproportionate gap in health outcomes remains for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples. World Happiness Report
The World Happiness Report is the world’s foremost publication on global wellbeing. Each year, 140 countries are compared with one another against a set of factors measuring happiness. In the 2024 World Happiness Report, Australia ranked 11th for happiness. Since 2020, it has maintained its position as one of the top 15 happiest countries in the world. Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c06_p167-194.indd 178
21/05/26 8:56 PM
6.3 Why is Australia a global migration haven?
179
Rule of law rule of law the principle that all people are equal and before the law; the law applies to everyone and must be obeyed by all
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
A society that upholds the rule of law is an attractive destination for migrants because it is generally stable and equitable, and individual rights and freedoms are protected. Australia’s adherence to the rule of law is one of the reasons it is a popular destination for migrants. The rule of law underpins Australia’s democracy and legal system and has done so since Federation in 1901. Outlined in Clause 5 of the Australian Constitution, all laws made by the Parliament of the Australian Commonwealth are binding on the courts, judges and people of every state and territory. Moreover, Australia’s separation of powers prevents any person or group from having too much power. The power to make and administer laws in Australia is shared by the parliament, executive and judiciary. This protects Australian citizens from abuses of power, such as corruption.
Political stability
Another reason Australia is an attractive destination for immigrants is because it is one of the world’s most politically stable countries. Australia’s political stability can be attributed to its democratic system of government and transparent electoral process. Unlike some other countries, where citizens have a limited say in how a country is governed, Australia is a representative democracy, whereby citizens vote for an elected representative to create laws on their behalf. Federal elections are held every three years to help ensure that elected politicians are held accountable in their role to serve the public.
separation of powers an important principle in Australia’s system of government that divides the power to govern between three branches: the parliament, the executive and judiciary
Case study: Australia ranked low in corruption perceptions
Out of 148 countries, Australia ranked 10th on the Corruption Perceptions Index in 2024. The Corruption Perceptions Index uses data from a variety of sources to assess how corrupt a country’s public sector is perceived to be. Additionally, in the 2024 Lowy Institute Asia Power Index, Australia ranked fifth out of 27 countries in the Asian region on the measure of political stability.
0
5,000 km
LEGEND Highly corrupt 0-9 10-19
20-29 30-39
40-99 50-99 60-69 70-79
Very low level 80-89 90-100 of corruption No data
➜
Figure 6.3.3 Choropleth map showing perceptions of corruption around the world Source: Adapted from Transparency International website
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c06_p167-194.indd 179
21/05/26 8:57 PM
180
Chapter 6 International migration and Australia
Established legal system
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
In addition to political stability, Australia has an established and trustworthy legal system. Laws are made by parliament (statute law) and by judges through the court system (common law). This system was inherited from the United Kingdom. In addition, people accused of a crime are presumed innocent until proven guilty, a principle known as the presumption of innocence. According to the 2024 Drivers of Trust in Public Institutions survey conducted by the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), Australians have high trust in the police (68%) and the courts and judicial system (59%). This exceeds the OECD average, placing Australia in the top 10 of 30 countries surveyed.
Climate
Climate also influences where migrants choose to move. Australia is a popular destination because of its diverse and favourable climates. For example, northern Australia receives direct sunlight all year round, creating a warm and humid climate – optimal for those looking to escape the cold. In temperate areas further south, such as Tasmania and Victoria, residents experience warm, long days in summer and cold, short days in winter. Australia’s climate has made it a popular destination for migrants who are looking for flexibility and choice.
Case study: A growing Tasmania
With global temperatures rising, Australia is set to experience more frequent and severe weather events such as bushfires and flooding. For example, South Australia is now experiencing two more unusually warm April nights compared to the 1970s. Tasmania, known for its wilderness and cool temperatures, has become a climate refuge for those looking to escape the effects of climate change.
➜
Figure 6.3.4 Black Summer bushfires 2019, New South Wales
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c06_p167-194.indd 180
21/05/26 8:57 PM
181
6.3 Why is Australia a global migration haven?
Environment
➜
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
Australia is famous for its diverse and unique environments that are both pleasant to visit and pleasant to live in. These environments range from tropical rainforests to deserts, beaches and mountains. In the case of beaches, Australia is home to over 10,000 pristine beaches, which have become synonymous with the nation’s laid-back culture, as well as places for recreation. In 2025, Lonely Planet named Whitehaven Beach in Queensland as the number one beach in the world.
Figure 6.3.5 Whitehaven Beach, Queensland
Review 6.3
Online quiz
Knowledge and understanding
Thinking and working geographically
Students can access sample responses and results online
Teachers can go online to assign questions, view results, reports and more!
Knowledge and understanding 1.
Identify two factors that make Australia a popular migration destination.
2.
Describe quality of life in Australia. In your response, refer to data provided in the lesson.
3.
Australia upholds the rule of law. Outline why this makes Australia an attractive destination for migrants.
4.
Describe Australia’s climate.
Thinking and working geographically
Working with geographical concepts: Place 1.
With reference to TWO factors covered in this lesson, explain how Australia’s sense of place has contributed to it being an attractive destination for migrants.
place the concept of place is about the significance of places and what they are like
Processing geographical information
Australia ranked 11th in the 2025 World Happiness Report. Using the World Happiness Report (https://cambridge.edu.au/redirect/11829), answer the following questions. 2.
What factors were used to determine the rankings? Were there any factors that were missing or that you found surprising?
3.
Compare Australia with the country that was ranked first.
a. Which country ranked first? b. What differences exist between the two societies that justify their differences in ranking? Use research to help you.
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c06_p167-194.indd 181
21/05/26 8:57 PM
182
Chapter 6 International migration and Australia
6.4
How is global migration shaping Australia – for better or worse? Success criteria
In this lesson, you will learn about the impacts of international migration on Australia.
❏ I can explain the positive and negative impacts of international migration on Australia.
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
Learning intention
Starter activity Family tree
Create a family tree going back as far back as you can. On your family tree, write where your family members emigrated from, when they emigrated and their reasons for emigrating.
Impacts of international migration to Australia
➜
Writing focus 6.4 Appositives
Similar to other countries, migration has both positive and negative impacts on Australian society. However, it is worth noting that many of the negative impacts of migration result from increases in population. Some people believe that Australia cannot sustain further population growth, especially as the population ages and more citizens require healthcare and pension payments. Others argue that migrants play an essential role in the nation’s economy by paying taxes and filling gaps in the labour market. Table 6.4.1 Overview of some impacts of international migration on Australia Positive
Negative
• Many migrants are skilled professionals
• Migrants often settle in major cities,
and willing to work in regional areas.
• Migrants are often willing to take on
necessary jobs, including unskilled work.
• Increased cultural diversity can lead to a more tolerant society.
urbanisation the process of population shift from rural to urban areas, leading to the growth of cities
general practitioner a doctor who provides primary care
contributing to urbanisation which increases the pressure on housing availability, congestion and infrastructure.
• Migrants who become citizens eventually retire and are eligible for pensions, which is an economic cost.
More skilled professionals
An irrefutable benefit that Australia receives from international migration is the increase in the numbers of skilled professionals, especially in high-demand industries and professions, such as healthcare. For the past decade, Australia has experienced a critical shortage of general practitioners (GPs) in all states and territories. However, the impacts of this shortage have been felt hardest in rural and regional areas, where some patients have to wait up to 12 weeks for a consultation.
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c06_p167-194.indd 182
21/05/26 8:57 PM
183
➜
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
6.4 How is global migration shaping Australia – for better or worse?
Figure 6.4.1 In parts of Tasmania, some people wait years to see a respiratory specialist.
International migration has significantly benefited Australia’s healthcare system by alleviating some of the GP shortages in rural areas. During the past decade, Australia has remained in the top 10 of OECD countries with the highest numbers of foreign-trained health professionals. For instance, more than 30% of Australian doctors are trained overseas. Without international migration, there would be major doctor shortages, which would negatively affect Australians’ health outcomes and overall quality of life.
Contribution to the economy
Despite concerns that increased migration comes at an economic cost (e.g. welfare payments to migrants), the benefits of international migration far outweigh the negatives from a fiscal point of view in Australia. When looking at the data on migrants in the labour force and their economic contribution to society, migrants generally have strong labour market participation and a positive fiscal impact. According to ABS data, 81.2% of permanent skilled migrants over the age of 15 are employed, compared with 61.5% of the Australian population (see Figure 6.4.2). Moreover, the share of skilled migrants not participating in the labour force is much lower (51.1%) than the Australian population (35.2%).
fiscal relating to government money such as taxes
Modelling by the federal treasury has shown that permanent migrants contribute $198,000 per person to the fiscal position of federal and state governments over their lifetimes through strong tax contributions, workforce participation and relatively fewer welfare payments. Meanwhile, Australian-born members of the population have a negative effect on the federal and state governments’ fiscal position ($85,000 per person) due to factors such as decreased workforce participation and welfare payments (see Figure 6.4.4).
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c06_p167-194.indd 183
21/05/26 8:58 PM
184
Chapter 6 International migration and Australia
Labour force status of skilled migrants
80
81.2
70 60
61.5
50 40 35.2
30
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
Labour force status, percentage of population over 15 years
90
20
10
3.3
0
15.1
3.8
Unemployed
Not in labour force
Australian population
Permanent skilled migrants
➜
Figure 6.4.2 Labour force status of migrants compared to the Australian population Source: Australian Industry Group website Fiscal impact of skilled migrants
200,000
Lifetime fiscal impact, $ net present value (NPV)
Employed
198,000
150,000
138,000
100,000 50,000
19,000
60,000
0
–50,000
–150,000
–85,000
–104,000
–100,000
State governments
Commonwealth
Australian population
State and Commonwealth
Permanent skilled migrants
➜
Figure 6.4.3 Fiscal impact of skilled migrants compared to the Australian population Source: Australian Industry Group website
A culturally diverse and tolerant society
Australia has become an increasingly multicultural nation. In 1947, 98% of the Australian population were either born in Australia or from an English-speaking country. Today, that figure has drastically declined, with 68.5% of the population being born in Australia.
The growth in diversity has not only increased the numbers of languages spoken in Australia, but also introduced new cultural activities, foods and music. Throughout Australia, different cultural festivals are celebrated to help foster understanding between cultures. Festivals such as the Norton Street Italian Festa in Leichardt, Sydney, bring people together to share food, music and traditions. These festivals thus strengthen communities, build tolerance and give local economies a boost. Each year, 150,000 visitors attend the Festa in Leichardt.
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c06_p167-194.indd 184
21/05/26 8:58 PM
185
➜
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
6.4 How is global migration shaping Australia – for better or worse?
Figure 6.4.4 Norton Street Italian Festa in Leichardt, Sydney
Pressure on resources
Some economists argue that the population growth caused by migration is contributing to the rising cost of housing. However, the impact varies: permanent migrants have more of an impact on the buyers’ market, and temporary migrants have more of an impact on the rental market. In a study conducted by Grattan Institute, it was estimated that a cut to permanent residency visas would lower rents by 2.5% over a decade. Further, analysis shows that areas with high migration growth have seen an aboveaverage growth in rental costs. Areas with very high migration have also seen high rent growth
10,000
Net migration
Melbourne - West
8,000
Sydney Parramatta
6,000
4,000 2,000 0
Change in rents –10
–5
0
5
10
15
20
➜
Figure 6.4.5 Relationship between areas with high migration and rental growth Source: refer to report
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c06_p167-194.indd 185
21/05/26 8:58 PM
186
Chapter 6 International migration and Australia
Cultural enclaves
➜
Figure 6.4.6 Muslims outside a mosque in Lakemba during Eid
➜
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
Migrants to Australia tend to move to urban areas with an existing population from the same culture. This is because they are able to connect with people who share the same language and culture, which helps to foster a sense of security and comfort. It also helps them to adjust to a new country. However, it can result in cultural enclaves, whereby suburbs become known as hubs for specific cultures. For example, in Sydney, New South Wales, Cabramatta is known for its distinct Vietnamese community, Leichardt for its Italian community, Harris Park for its Indian community and Lakemba for its Lebanese community. The emergence of these cultural enclaves has raised concerns among some elements of the existing Australian population that migrants no longer need to integrate into Australian society.
Figure 6.4.7 Shoppers on a street in Cabramatta
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c06_p167-194.indd 186
21/05/26 8:58 PM
187
➜
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
6.4 How is global migration shaping Australia – for better or worse?
Figure 6.4.8 Fans of the Italian football team celebrate in Leichardt
Review 6.4
Online quiz
Knowledge and understanding
Thinking and working geographically
Students can access sample responses and results online
Teachers can go online to assign questions, view results, reports and more!
Knowledge and understanding 1.
How has Australia’s healthcare system benefited from migration?
1.
The economic contribution of migrants is greater than the economic contribution of Australian-born citizens. Evaluate this statement and, in your response, refer to the text and graphs.
1.
Define the term “cultural enclave” and provide an example.
1.
Outline a benefit and a challenge of cultural enclaves.
Thinking and working geographically
Working with geographical concepts: Scale 1.
Explain how migration in Australia has led to impacts at the local, community and national scales. In your response, refer to the text.
Processing geographical information 2.
scale the concept of scale is about the way that geographical phenomena and problems can be examined at different spatial levels
Choose a cultural enclave. It can be one been mentioned in the lesson, or one of your choice.
a. Identify the dominant culture in your enclave. b. Using the ABS Census search tool on the ABS website (https://cambridge.edu.au/ redirect/11830), research what proportion the enclave is of the suburb’s total population. c. Explain how it has grown to become a cultural enclave using research. d. Describe how the dominant culture has shaped your chosen suburb – for example, the shops and religious infrastructure that are present, or festivals that occur.
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c06_p167-194.indd 187
21/05/26 8:58 PM
188
Chapter 6 International migration and Australia
6.5
How does Australia’s internal migration compare with China’s? Success criteria
In this lesson, you will learn how Australia’s internal migration differs from China’s internal migration.
❏ I can describe trends in Australia and China’s internal migration. ❏ I can account for the differences in Australia and China’s internal migration.
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
Learning intention
Starter activity
Migration mind map
Why do people migrate within Australia? Create a mind map and fill it with as many reasons as you can think of.
What is internal migration?
The ABS defines internal migration as the movement of people within a country from one defined area to another. This includes:
rural to urban migration the movement of people from rural areas to urban areas
• rural to urban migration • urban to rural migration • intra-urban migration, where people move to a different part of an urban area • inter-urban migration, where people move to a different urban area • interstate migration, where people move to a different state.
Unlike international migration, internal migration does not change the population of a country. Instead, it changes its spatial distribution or arrangement. Therefore, for every place in a country that is growing due to internal migration, another place is shrinking.
Internal migration in Australia
➜
Writing focus 6.5 Creating topic sentences
According to the ABS, 9.8 million people changed address between the 2016 and 2021 censuses, equating to over 40% of Australia’s total population. Australia’s population is mobile, with one of the highest levels of internal migration in the world: 39% of people change their address every five years, compared with the global average of 21%. However, internal migration has slowed considerably in Australia over the past 40 years, with internal migration declining by 21% between 1991 and 2011. Since 2011, internal migration rates have remained relatively stable. What is causing internal migration to decline in Australia?
• Shifting migration behaviour – people are choosing to stay in current locations due to satisfaction and neighbourhood ties.
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c06_p167-194.indd 188
21/05/26 8:58 PM
6.5 How does Australia’s internal migration compare with China’s?
189
• Changing population – there are fewer young people entering their prime migration
years. Work culture changes – there has been a decline in employment-related moves due to technology allowing remote work, and reduced wage differences.
•
Reasons for internal migration in Australia
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
The most common reasons for migration include family and employment, followed by lifestyle and housing. Employment is the second most common reason for internal migration in Australia. While some people move for new or greater job opportunities, others move because it is a key feature of their job. For instance, in Australia 288,000 people are employed in the mining industry. Many mining jobs are fly-in fly-out (FIFO). This involves employees flying from urban centres, such as Perth and Brisbane, to remote regions where they temporarily work and live on site. Why do people move?
Per cent 100 80 60
30
16
30
29
30
19
14
19
33
Per cent 100
35
40
32
31
0
NSW
37
Vic
37
Qld
80
Area
60
Lifestyle/health
40
Involuntary Work
Education
15
15
12
17
40 20
Housing Family
38
39
SA
WA
40
26
28
Tas
NT
ACT
20 0
➜
Figure 6.5.1 Reasons for interstate migration, by destination Source: Australian Government Centre for Population website
Internal migration in China
Internal migration in China is the most extensive in the world. However, unlike Australia, the reasons for China’s internal migration differ, as do the locations where people are moving from.
What is driving internal migration in China?
In 2023, two-thirds of China’s population lived in urban areas; however, in the 1990s, this figure stood at just over one-quarter. China’s internal migration has largely been driven by its economic development – it has shifted from being an agrarian society to an industrial society. Residents have moved from rural areas to towns and cities, such as Guangdong and Shanghai, in search of job opportunities. Today, rural migrants account for 40% of China’s urban labour force. Most of these labour migrants are temporary, meaning they will eventually return to their hometowns and families.
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c06_p167-194.indd 189
21/05/26 8:58 PM
190
Chapter 6 International migration and Australia
China’s floating population Due to the significant movement of people from rural to urban areas, the government introduced an internal passport system called “hukou” in the 1950s. The hukou is a household registration system that identifies whether citizens are rural or urban, based on where their parents are registered. This means that if a child is born to unregistered migrant workers in Beijing, they will not be registered in Beijing but to the place where their parents came from. The Chinese Government developed this policy with the aim of limiting internal migration and maintaining social order.
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
hukou an official document registering that a Chinese citizen is a legal resident of a particular area
Hukou allows residents to access government assistance, including education, welfare and healthcare, within their registered area. China’s temporary internal migrants, who are not registered in the places where they work, are referred to as the floating population. They are not able to access any government services where they work. Instead they are forced to either pay a large sum of money to access these services or try to transfer their hukou, which is a long and difficult process.
➜
In 2023, China announced plans to remove hukou restrictions in cities with fewer than Figure 6.5.2 Hukou used in China 3 million people, while relaxing restrictions for cities with up to 5 million people. This will allow more rural citizens to migrate to urban areas to continue China’s economic expansion, while removing some of the negative social impacts for rural families.
Case study: The world’s largest annual migration
Each year in China, the world’s largest annual migration takes place in the days leading up to the Chinese New Year. Known as “Chunyun” in Chinese, this migration involves hundreds of millions of people travelling across the country to reunite with their families. For many Chinese people, Chinese New Year is the most important holiday of the year. With many people working away from their hometowns, Chinese New Year serves as one of the rare occasions on which people will undertake the journey home. However, with the huge numbers of travellers each year, Chunyun is a test of China’s vast transportation system. In 2025, transport officials expected 9 billion domestic trips during the 40-day period, with road trips reaching 7.2 billion journeys, rail travel reaching 510 million and air travel exceeding 90 million.
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c06_p167-194.indd 190
21/05/26 8:58 PM
191
6.5 How does Australia’s internal migration compare with China’s?
Review 6.5 Knowledge and understanding
Online quiz
Thinking and working geographically
Students can access sample responses and results online
Teachers can go online to assign questions, view results, reports and more!
Knowledge and understanding
Define the term “internal migration”.
2.
Differentiate international migration from internal migration.
3.
Account for the decline in internal migration in Australia.
4.
Compare trends in internal migration between Australia and China.
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
1.
Thinking and working geographically
Working with geographical concepts: Scale 1.
Describe the scale of Chunyun in China, using data to support your response.
2.
Consider the implications of Chunyun. How does the movement of people at such a scale affect the economy and society?
scale the concept of scale is about the way that geographical phenomena and problems can be examined at different spatial levels
Communicating geographical information
Table 6.5.1 International migrant arrivals in Chinese cities in 2000 and 2010 2000
Rank City
1.
2010
Migrant population (10,000)
Rank
City
Migrant population (10,000)
1
Shenzhen
585
1
Shanghai
1,102
2
Dongguan
492
2
Beijing
892
3
Shanghai
436
3
Shenzhen
828
4
Guangzhou
331
4
Dongguan
639
5
Beijing
260
5
Guangzhou
542
Using Table 6.5.1, answer the following questions:
a. Calculate the differences between the top five destination cities between 2000 and 2010. b. Present the data on a comparative bar graph. c. In 10 years, Shanghai’s migrant population has almost tripled. Conduct research to answer the following questions:
• What are the main sources of employment for internal migrants in Shanghai? • Why is Shanghai a hotspot for internal migrants?
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c06_p167-194.indd 191
21/05/26 8:58 PM
192
Chapter 6 International migration and Australia
6.7
Chapter review Access the Interactive Textbook for a range of digital tools to help you review this chapter and build confidence.
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
• Auto-marked questions for fast feedback and fun practice • Self-assessment tools to track your progress, review answers (if enabled by the teacher), and flag questions for extra help • Downloadable worksheets for class or homework revision
Summary
Summary notes
Download chapter summary
What have you learned about international migration?
For this activity, copy the table and fill it out by explaining your understanding. Aim for two points per topic.
Terms
What I have learned
Migration Visas
Multiculturalism Policy
Urbanisation
Visible thinking routine Think, pair, share
This visible thinking routine encourages you to think about a problem, question or topic and then articulate your thoughts to a partner. The sharing of different perspectives promotes understanding and active reasoning.
Using the question “Who does migration benefit more?”, take a few minutes of thinking time to consider your response and then turn to a nearby student to share your thoughts.
Questions
Scorcher quiz
Access a fast, fun, competitive quiz that puts your understanding to the test.
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c06_p167-194.indd 192
21/05/26 8:59 PM
6.7 Chapter review
193
Quick questions The following questions offer various ways to demonstrate your understanding of the chapter. In 2020, Scott Morrison called Australia the most successful ______ nation on Earth.
2.
A _______ visa allows foreign professionals with skills that are in demand in Australia.
3.
A ______ visa offers resettlement to people who face persecution or threats to their freedom.
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
1.
4.
The Migration Act 1958 began the dismantling of the ______ Australia Policy.
5.
Australia ranked ______th in the 2024 World Happiness Report.
6.
Australia upholds the _____ of law, meaning everyone is equal before the law.
7.
Cabramatta is known for its strong ______ community.
8.
Which of these is a slogan that appeared in the March for Australia demonstrations? a. Protect Our Borders c. Defund the Government
9.
b. Defend the Government d. Australia First
Under the White Australia Policy, migration was largely restricted to people from: a. South America and Africa. c. Asia and the Middle East.
10.
b. Britain and Northern Europe. d. Canada and South Asia.
Which global event caused Australia to close its borders to non-residents in March 2020? a. Global Financial Crisis b. Bird flu outbreak c. COVID-19 pandemic d. Oil price collapse
Recall one reason some Australians want lower levels of migration.
12.
Outline one reason why Australia is considered an attractive destination for migrants.
13.
Identify one positive and one negative impact of international migration on Australia.
14.
Using Figure 6.9.1, summarise the impact of migration on the cost of housing in Australia.
Figure 6.9.1 People rally in Sydney to draw attention to the housing affordability crisis, 2023 ➜
11.
Writing focus
Answering questions in paragraphs
You can use this as a model when writing your own answers to the questions that follow. Question: Explain two reasons why Australia is an appealing destination for migrants.
Writing focus 6.9 Single paragraph response model ➜
The following activities allow you to practise your writing skills.
(6 marks)
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c06_p167-194.indd 193
21/05/26 8:59 PM
194
Chapter 6 International migration and Australia
Model answer: Topic sentence: the first sentence of the paragraph; directly answers the question
Explain: clarify, define and describe Elaborate: additional information, interconnections
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
Explain: clarify, define and describe
Australia is an appealing destination for migrants because it offers a high quality of life, strong political stability and diverse natural environments. Australia’s high quality of life is supported by strong healthcare, education and safety outcomes. These conditions allow migrants to enjoy long-term wellbeing and life expectancy compared with many other countries. Migrants are also drawn to Australia’s stable democratic system, where the rule of law, transparent elections and separation of powers ensures fair treatment and protects individual rights. This creates a secure social and political environment, giving migrants confidence that their freedoms will be safely upheld. Finally, Australia’s varied climates allow migrants to choose a lifestyle that suits their preferences. The country’s diverse natural environments, including rainforests, mountains and more than 10,000 beaches, makes it an appealing place to settle. Australia ranked ninth out of the world’s top 25 destinations for international migrants in 2025. In fact, for the reasons listed above, Australia is consistently listed among the world’s happiest and most peaceful countries. Overall, Australia apeals to migrants because it combines safety, stability and lifestyle advantages that offer strong foundations for a better future.
Explain: clarify, define and describe
Evidence: specific, relevant evidence to support arguments
Linking sentence: reconnects with language of the question the topic sentence
Marking criteria for each question can be found in the Interactive Textbook. Refer to these criteria when planning and writing your responses.
Elaborate: additional information, interconnections Elaborate: additional information, interconnections
Examples: provide credibility and illustrate the argument
Structured-response questions Question 1
(20 marks)
a. Describe two government policies that have influenced Australia’s migration patterns. b. Explain three reasons why Australia is an appealing destination for migrants. c. Assess the impacts of international migration on Australia.
(4 marks) (6 marks) (10 marks)
Question 2
(20 marks)
a. Outline Australia’s current internal migration trends. b. Explain key factors driving internal migration within China. c. Discuss reasons for and against China’s rapid increase in internal migration.
(4 marks) (6 marks) (10 marks)
Extended-response questions Question 1
(20 marks)
To what extent does Australia benefit from international migration?
Teachers, access the Online Teaching Suite for digital resources and tools that support review, assessment and reporting, including:
• student and class activity reports • a test generator to create custom assessments • built-in feedback tools • editable downloadable support material • a downloadable and printable ‘Writing focus’ workbook for this chapter. Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c06_p167-194.indd 194
21/05/26 8:59 PM
Chapter
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
7
Geographical skills: Making sense of change
Lessons
7.1 Using photographs in geographical inquiry
7.2 Finding the direction of photographer using a map
7.3 Using shadows in photographs to estimate time of day 7.4 Logarithmic and semilogarithmic graphs 7.5 Fieldwork
7.6 Chapter review
➜
Teachers go to the Online Teacher Suite to: • plan, sequence and assign directed tasks for students and classes using Task Manager • view student activity reports • provide feedback to students • download a printable “Writing focus” workbook for this chapter.
Image: Stonehenge at sunrise
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c07_p195-222.indd 195
21/05/26 7:59 PM
196
Chapter 7 Geographical skills: Making sense of change
Using photographs in geographical inquiry
Learning intention
Success criteria
In this lesson, you will learn about how and why geographers annotate photos to aid in investigations.
❏ I can do basic annotations of a photograph to use in geographical inquiry.
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
7.1
Introduction
FPO
Video 7.1.1 Annotating photos
Photographs are one of the simplest and strongest forms of geographical evidence because they capture real conditions in a place at a specific moment in time. When you annotate a photograph, you are not just labelling objects, you are interpreting evidence to support or challenge a hypothesis about how and why a place is changing. This process forces you to slow down and observe like a scientist, noticing land uses, building types, vegetation, human activity, and signs of development or decline that might otherwise be overlooked. In the Changing Places focus area, this skill matters because many urban and environmental changes cannot be understood through statistics alone. A wellannotated image helps you communicate what is happening, why it matters and how these visual patterns link to broader ideas about liveability, infrastructure, growth or transformation. By combining observation with explanation, annotation turns an ordinary photograph into a clear, purposeful piece of geographical evidence.
When annotating photographs we can work through a five-step process. This example is for the photograph in Figure 7.1.1:
1. Inquiry: The aim is to determine whether land use in Las Vegas is sustainable based on visible evidence in the photograph. 2. Observation: A bright green golf course with trees and lakes surrounded by barren desert and planned subdivision roads. These annotations can be seen in Figure 7.1.1. 3. Patterns: There is a sharp boundary between irrigated vegetation and the dry, natural desert landscape. 4. Interpretation: The greenery relies on large volumes of imported water not supported by the natural environment. 5. Significance: The photograph indicates that recreational land uses in Las Vegas may be placing unsustainable pressure on scarce water resources.
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c07_p195-222.indd 196
21/05/26 7:59 PM
7.1 Using photographs in geographical inquiry
197
Shadow Creek Golf Club
Barren desert
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
Distinct boundary
Bright green golf course
Lakes
Trees
➜
Figure 7.1.1 Shadow Creek Golf Course, Las Vegas
➜
Figure 7.1.2 Residential and commercial buildings divided from agricultural land by the Sham Chun river, Shenzhen, China
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c07_p195-222.indd 197
21/05/26 7:59 PM
Chapter 7 Geographical skills: Making sense of change
➜
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
198
Figure 7.1.3 Aerial oblique photograph of central Jakarta city
Now you try! 7.1
Use Figure 7.1.2 and Figure 7.1.3 to complete the five-step process of photograph annotation (as shown in Figure 7.1.1). We have completed the first one for you. Watch Video 7.1.2 to see how we worked out this answer.
FPO
Figure 7.1.2
Inquiry
Video 7.1.2 How we found the answers for Figure 7.1.2
Figure 7.1.3
How has rapid urbanisation and migration transformed land use at the Shenzhen–Hong Kong border?
Observation Patterns
Interpretation Significance
Activity 7.1.1
For this activity you will need access to the internet or a digital camera.
• Step 1: Choose a real-world issue affecting either Australia as a whole or your local
community, and find (or take) three photographs that clearly show the issue. Possible issues include coastal erosion, water scarcity, suburban expansion, congestion, loss of green space or environmental damage.
• Step 2: Once you have three images of the same issue, complete the five-step process above and then write a paragraph connecting all three images.
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c07_p195-222.indd 198
21/05/26 8:00 PM
199
7.2 Finding the direction of a photographer using a map
7.2
Finding the direction of a photographer using a map Success criteria
In this lesson, you will learn how to use a photograph and a map to work out the direction and location of the photographer.
❏ I can find the location and direction of a photographer using a photograph and map by following some basic steps.
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
Learning intention
Introduction
Being able to work out which direction a photographer was facing when they took the photograph is a powerful spatial skill, because it forces you to mentally connect a real-world landscape with its mapped representation. When you compare a photograph with a map that shows the same features, you practise recognising landforms, identifying landmarks and matching their relative positions.
FPO
This process develops orientation skills, strengthens map-reading confidence and encourages you to think like geographers, who must constantly visualise terrain from multiple viewpoints. Understanding direction also helps geographers interpret photos more accurately, which is essential when analysing urban change or environmental processes. It is a skill that can build a deeper appreciation of spatial relationships and a more intuitive sense of how places are arranged in the real world.
Video 7.2.1 Direction of a photographer
To find the direction of a photographer using a map we follow five simple steps:
1. Identify the largest, clearest shared features between the map and the photograph. 2. Align them to work out where the photographer must have been standing to have this view (finding a feature that is straight tends to be the most helpful). 3. Use secondary features to confirm the alignment is correct. 4. Draw an arrow from the location of the photographer in the direction they were facing. 5. Draw a compass rose over the position of the photographer to work out direction.
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c07_p195-222.indd 199
21/05/26 8:00 PM
Chapter 7 Geographical skills: Making sense of change
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
200
Main feature: coastline with straight road parallel
Secondary features: headland in foreground, triangular park behind it to the right
W
S
Thus, photographer on Memorial Walk is looking over headland along coastline with road to right. Photographer looking SW
➜
Figure 7.2.1 Memorial Walk, Bar Beach, Newcastle, NSW
On topographic maps we can use contour lines to align topographic features on the photograph and map. The legend can also be used to help identify the location of the photographer.
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c07_p195-222.indd 200
21/05/26 8:01 PM
201
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
7.2 Finding the direction of a photographer using a map
FPO AW07007
Main feature: valley with hill left and mountains right Secondary features: residential area and golf course Photographer facing NNE
N
E
➜
Figure 7.2.2 (a) Golfer at Jacks Point Golf Club, Queenstown, (b) topographic map of the same area
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c07_p195-222.indd 201
21/05/26 8:01 PM
202
Chapter 7 Geographical skills: Making sense of change
Now you try! 7.2
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
FPO
Video 7.2.2 How we found the answer to Question 1
N
➜
Figure 7.2.3 Palm Island, Dubai, with Dubai CBD in background
Use Figure 7.2.3 to answer Questions 1–4. 1.
What two features of the map and photograph can be used as main features for alignment? Watch Video 7.2.2 to see how we worked out this answer.
2.
What could be used as secondary features to check alignment?
3.
What is the location of the photographer?
4.
What is the direction of the photographer?
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c07_p195-222.indd 202
21/05/26 8:01 PM
203
➜
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
7.2 Finding the direction of a photographer using a map
Figure 7.2.4 The pyramids at Giza, Egypt
Activity 7.2.1
For this task, you will need access to the internet
• Step 1: Choose five iconic photographs of well-known places (e.g. the New York
City skyline, the Sydney Opera House, the Eiffel Tower, or any instantly recognisable landmark you can locate on a map). For each photograph, use its title or location name to search for it on Google Maps, then switch to a map or satellite view that shows the key landforms or building shapes visible in the photograph.
• Step 2: Your goal is to identify the main shared feature between the map and the
image, match additional secondary features to confirm the viewpoint, and then mark the approximate position of the photographer.
• Step 3: Once the viewpoint is identified, draw a straight line of sight showing where
the camera is pointing and compare that line with the map’s north arrow to determine the direction the photographer was facing.
• Step 4: Record your findings in a table with the name of the photograph, the map reference, the shared features you used and the final direction you calculated.
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c07_p195-222.indd 203
21/05/26 8:02 PM
204
Chapter 7 Geographical skills: Making sense of change
7.3
Using shadows in photographs to estimate time of day Success criteria
In this lesson, you will learn how to tell the time of day a photograph was taken by analysing its features.
❏ I can confidently predict what time of day a photograph was taken by understanding how the Sun moves across the sky.
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
Learning intention
Introduction
FPO
Interpreting shadows in photographs requires geographers to combine visual evidence with geographic reasoning. The angle, length and orientation of shadows provide valuable clues about the position of the sun, allowing us to estimate the time of day with surprising accuracy. This skill requires careful observation, pattern recognition and inference. Estimating time of day can help us to interpret human activity patterns, traffic flows and land-use functions. To use shadows to interpret time of day you need to understand just three simple rules:
Video 7.3.1 Shadows 1. The sun always rises in the east and sets in the west, so the direction of the shadow will tell us if it is morning or afternoon. A shadow to the west means the sun is to the and the time of day east, which means it is morning. A shadow to the east means the sun is to the west; therefore, it is afternoon. 2. If shadows are long, the sun is low in the sky so it is either early morning or late afternoon. If the shadows are short the sun is high; therefore, it is close to midday. 3. If you are in the southern hemisphere, the sun will be to your north. This means the shadows will be orientated slightly to the south and vice versa. Photographer facing south
S
Direction of shadow
Shadow 3 x length of children and east = late afternoon 5 p.m.
Position of sun
W
E
N
➜
Figure 7.3.1 Children play in the Hunter Valley, NSW. Photographer facing south.
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c07_p195-222.indd 204
21/05/26 8:02 PM
205
Using shadows in photographs to estimate time of day
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
Photographer facing north-east
Shadow very short compared to golfer and SW Time = 11:30 a.m.
➜
Figure 7.3.2 Gerringong Golf Course, NSW. Photographer facing north-east.
Now you try! 7.3
Estimate the time of day for the following images: 1. Photographer facing north-east
2. Photographer facing south-west
FPO
Video 7.3.2 How we found the answer to Question 1B
3. Photographer facing north-west 4. Photographer facing east
➜
1.
Figure 7.3.3 Photos taken at different times during the day Estimate the time of day for:
a. image 1 b. image 2 Watch Video 7.3.2 to see how we worked out this answer. c. image 3 d. image 4. Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c07_p195-222.indd 205
21/05/26 8:03 PM
206
Chapter 7 Geographical skills: Making sense of change
Activity 7.3.1 For this activity you will need access to the internet.
• Step 1: Choose a famous daylight photograph where shadows are strong and clearly
visible. Two ideal examples you could use are the Beatles crossing Abbey Road or the Tiananmen Square “Tank Man” photograph.
• Step 2: Identify the major shadows cast by people, vehicles or structures in the
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
photograph.
• Step 3: Next, use a map to determine the direction the photographer was facing, applying the orientation skills you have learned.
• Step 4: After calculating your estimate, research the actual time the photograph was taken and compare it with your result.
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c07_p195-222.indd 206
21/05/26 8:03 PM
207
7.4 Logarithmic and semilogarithmic graphs
7.4
Logarithmic and semilogarithmic graphs Success criteria
In this lesson, you will learn how to interpret logarithmic and semilogarithmic graphs.
❏ I can understand general trends depicted in logarithmic and semilogarithmic graphs. ❏ I can use logarithmic and semilogarithmic graphs to calculate specific quantities.
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
Learning intention
Introduction
Logarithmic and semilogarithmic graphs are essential tools for displaying data that grows very quickly, especially when changes accelerate over time. In human geography, cities often experience exponential or near-exponential growth as migration, industrialisation and economic development transform small settlements into megacities within a few decades. On a normal linear graph, these rapid increases appear distorted with early values compressed and later values climbing steeply, making trends difficult to interpret. A semilogarithmic graph solves this problem by stretching the lower end of the scale and compressing the upper end, allowing all stages of growth to be visualised clearly. This makes it possible to compare the growth trajectories of different cities or analyse how fast a population doubled during a period of urbanisation.
Video 7.4.1 Logarithmic and semilogarithmic graphs
Calculate Australia’s increase between 2015 and 2020 2015 = 6GW 2020 = 20GW = 14GW (233% increase)
y-axis increases logarithmically, not linearly
Use faint lines for increments
FPO
And very large can be clearly seen top right
➜ Figure 7.4.1 Installed
solar power in selected countries and world Source: Our World in Data This means small increments can be clearly seen bottom left Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c07_p195-222.indd 207
21/05/26 8:03 PM
208
Chapter 7 Geographical skills: Making sense of change
Now you try! 7.4a Use Figure 7.4.1 to answer the following questions: What was the total global installed solar generation capacity in 2024?
2.
How much did Australia increase its solar generation capacity from 2020 to 2024? Watch Video 7.4.2 to see how we worked out this answer.
3.
How much did China increase its solar generation capacity during this time?
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
FPO
1.
In 2024, what percentage of total global installed solar generation capacity was China responsible for?
4.
Video 7.4.2 How we worked out answers to Question 2
Sometimes the logarithmic scale is placed on the x-axis and the linear scale on the y-axis. Sometimes both x-axis and y-axis are logarithmic scales. In either case, the method of reading the graph remains the same. You just have to pay attention to which order or magnitude you are working in. Tokyo versus Kinshasa: Metropolitan population (Semilog plot 1930–2030)
40M 30M 20M 10M
Population (people)
5M 3M 2M
1M
500k 300k 200k 100k 70k 50k 40k 30k 20k 10k
1940
1960
1980 Year
Tokyo (metro)
2000
2020
Kinshasa (metro)
➜
Figure 7.4.2 Population increases in Tokyo and Kinshasa
Now you try! 7.4b
Use Figure 7.4.2 to answer the following questions: 1.
What was the population of each city in 1940?
2.
What is the projected population of each city in 2030?
3.
How much did Kinshasa increase its population by in the 1940s?
4.
How much did the difference in population between the two cities decrease by between 2000 and 2020?
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c07_p195-222.indd 208
21/05/26 8:03 PM
7.4 Logarithmic and semilogarithmic graphs
209
Activity 7.4.1 For this activity, you will need access to the internet and semilogarithmic graphing paper. In this activity, you will investigate a real-world example of rapid growth by creating your own semilogarithmic graph. Your task is to choose a dataset that shows strong exponential growth, collect the data online and then plot it accurately on semilogarithmic graph paper.
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
• Step 1: You should begin by selecting a dataset that is easy to find and is clearly
growing at a fast rate. Good options include the population growth of cities such as Lagos (Nigeria), Dhaka (Bangladesh) or Manila (Philippines), which all have reliable population data available on World Population Review, UN Data or Macrotrends. If you prefer to use a different dataset, you could instead investigate the yearly number of mobile phone subscriptions worldwide, annual global internet users, or any other thing you can think of that dramatically increased over time.
• Step 2: Once you have chosen your dataset, collect at least 10 data points showing change over time, write them into a table and then plot them on semilogarithmic graph paper (logarithmic scale on the y-axis, regular scale on the x-axis).
• Step 3: When you finish your graph, annotate it with labels describing key turning points, periods of rapid growth and any years where the trend slows down or speeds up.
➜
Figure 7.4.3 Workers install photovoltaic solar panels at a construction site of a fishery solar hybrid project in Hai’an City, China, March 2026.
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c07_p195-222.indd 209
21/05/26 8:03 PM
210
Chapter 7 Geographical skills: Making sense of change
7.5
Fieldwork: Changing places
Success criteria
In this lesson, you will have the opportunity to design a fieldwork investigation, in which you will investigate a local example of environmental change and management.
❏ I can conduct fieldwork to investigate environmental change.
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
Learning intention
Fieldwork is an essential part of studying geography. It enables you to investigate many of the concepts studied in the classroom while out in the real world. In this example, it also provides the opportunity to apply your knowledge to answer a research question based on the impacts of environmental change. In this investigation, your aim is to investigate a local example of environmental management and evaluate its effectiveness. The following structure will help to form the basis of your study.
Table 7.5.1 Fieldwork report: tasks to be completed Section
Explanation
Title and introduction
Choose a suitable topic and title for your investigation. It should include the scope and location of your investigation. Write a brief introduction outlining the main aspects of your study including the type of environmental change you will be investigating and a summary of its management
Background information
Research question
Research some background information about your chosen topic and locations. This will provide some context for your study.
Write a research question that you intend to answer using the data that you collect. You may prefer to write one overall research question and multiple sub questions.
Examples
• A comparison of the health of the Cooks • • •
River from its source to the sea An investigation into the success of beach renourishment at Nine Mile Beach An evaluation of the health and biodiversity within the Macquarie Marshes An evaluation of the success of weed eradication in the Kosciuszko National Park
• Geographic characteristics of your • •
chosen locations and a map showing your study area Regional information such as the natural and human history of the area and its land uses How does the health of the Cooks River and its surrounding environment vary from its source in Graf Park in Yagoona to its confluence with Botany Bay at Kyeemagh?
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c07_p195-222.indd 210
21/05/26 8:03 PM
7.5 Fieldwork: Changing places
Explanation
Hypothesis
A hypothesis is a clear and concise statement that can be tested. It should be written prior to collecting your primary data.
Primary data collection
Primary data is data you collect yourself in the field specifically for your investigation. Consider the types of primary data that you will need to collect to answer your research question. Consider the equipment and preparation required.
Examples
• Renourishment at Nine Mile Beach has
restored the area to make it usable by people but has led to additional negative environmental impacts
• Photos and field sketches • Vegetation identification and abundance
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
Section
211
Secondary Secondary data is data data collection that other people have collected that you can use as part of your investigation. Undertake research to find suitable sources of information that you can apply to your topic. Presenting and analysing your data
Summarise your findings in visual formats that are easy to read and understand.
Discussion, conclusion and evaluation
Use your primary and secondary data to answer your research question. Provide a concise summary of your major findings. Evaluate the success of your data collection and your overall investigation.
References
Include a bibliography listing any sources used.
• • • • • • • •
using quadrants Observations of processes such as erosion Assessment of water quality including pH, turbidity, temperature, nutrient levels Waterbird identification and count Interviews with local environmental groups and relevant organisations Water quality data collected by Sydney Water Climate data from the Bureau of Meteorology Information about local vegetation species from council websites Websites of local environment groups and social media campaigns
• Different types of graphs (pie, line, bar) • • • • •
and maps (choropleth, thematic, political) Annotated photos and field sketches Data summary tables The extent to which your hypothesis has been supported or disproven An answer to your research question The positive and negatives of your data collection methods and how they can be improved
Environment NSW 2024, Cooks River, New South Wales State Government, accessed 7 May 2026, https://www.environment.nsw.gov.au/topics/ water/estuaries/estuaries-of-nsw/cooks-river
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c07_p195-222.indd 211
21/05/26 8:03 PM
212
Chapter 7 Geographical skills: Making sense of change
7.6
Chapter review: Making sense of change Success criteria
In this lesson, you will consolidate your learning across this chapter and apply a range of geographic skills relating to a range of photographs and graphs.
❏ I can use a range of photographs to determine time of day and direction of photographer. ❏ I can use graphs to understand trends and calculate quantities.
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
Learning intention
Geographical data for activity questions
FPO
Video 7.6.1 Introducing geographical data and skills-based activities in this chapter
Figure 7.6.2 Dubai city UAE
➜
➜
Figure 7.6.3 Photograph of a person
➜
➜
Figure 7.6.1 Al Rafisha Dam, UAE
Figure 7.6.4 Photograph of a person
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c07_p195-222.indd 212
21/05/26 8:04 PM
213
➜
Figure 7.6.9 Photograph of a pay station
Figure 7.6.8 Photograph of The Station, Newcastle
➜
➜
Figure 7.6.7 Photograph of a tree
Figure 7.6.6 Photograph of a person
➜
Figure 7.6.5 Photograph of a person
➜
➜
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
7.6 Chapter review: Making sense of change
Figure 7.6.10 Photograph of trees
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c07_p195-222.indd 213
21/05/26 8:04 PM
Chapter 7 Geographical skills: Making sense of change
➜
Figure 7.6.11 Photograph of Sydney Harbour
➜
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
214
Figure 7.6.12 Map of Sydney Harbour
➜
Figure 7.6.13 Photograph of the Eiffel Tower
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c07_p195-222.indd 214
21/05/26 8:04 PM
215
➜
Figure 7.6.14 Map of Paris showing the location of the Eiffel Tower
➜
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
7.6 Chapter review: Making sense of change
Figure 7.6.15 Photograph of the London Eye
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c07_p195-222.indd 215
21/05/26 8:05 PM
Chapter 7 Geographical skills: Making sense of change
➜
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
216
Figure 7.6.16 Map of London showing the location of the London Eye
Global social media users (2000–2025)
5,000,000,000 3,000,000,000 2,000,000,000 1,000,000,000
Number of users
500,000,000 300,000,000 200,000,000 100,000,000
50,000,000 30,000,000 20,000,000
10,000,000 5,000,000
3,000,000 2,000,000
1,000,000 2000
2005
2010
2015
2020
2025
Years
➜
Figure 7.6.17 Global social media users
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c07_p195-222.indd 216
21/05/26 8:05 PM
7.6 Chapter review: Making sense of change
217
City populations over time (Semi-log Y), 1930–2030
40M 30M 20M 10M
3M 2M
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
Population (people)
5M
1M
500k
300k 200k 100k 70k 50k 40k 30k 20k 10k
1940
1960
Greater London
1980 Year Greater Mumbai
2000
2020
Greater Dhaka
➜
Figure 7.6.18 City populations over time
Check your understanding
Using Figures 7.6.3 to 7.6.10, answer the following questions. 1.
Identify one figure where a shadow is clearly visible.
2.
In Figure 7.6.6, is the shadow long or short?
3.
Which figure shows the longest shadows?
4.
Which figure likely shows the sun highest in the sky?
5.
In which figure do shadows fall directly in front of the object or the person?
6.
What does the presence of shadows tell us about the position of the Sun?
7.
Identify two natural features visible in Figure 7.6.7.
8.
Which figures show evidence of human land use?
9.
Which figures show vegetation?
Using Figures 7.6.11 to 7.6.16, answer the following questions. 1.
Identify one landmark visible in Figure 7.6.11.
2.
Identify the same landmark in Figure 7.6.12.
3.
What type of source is Figure 7.6.15?
4.
What type of source is Figure 7.6.16?
Using Figure 7.6.17, answer the following questions. 1.
What is shown on the x-axis in Figure 7.6.17?
2.
What is shown on the y-axis in Figure 7.6.17?
3.
Approximately how many global social media users were there in 2000?
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c07_p195-222.indd 217
21/05/26 8:05 PM
218
Chapter 7 Geographical skills: Making sense of change
4.
Approximately how many users were there in 2025?
5.
Describe the overall trend shown in Figure 7.6.17.
6.
Identify one year where growth appears to slow down.
Using Figure 7.6.18, answer the following questions. Name the three cities shown in Figure 7.6.18.
2.
Which city has the largest population in 1930?
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
1.
3.
Which city has the largest population in 2030?
4.
Which city shows the smallest population in 1930?
5.
Identify one city whose population increases steadily over time.
6.
What type of scale is used on the y-axis in Figure 7.6.18?
Develop your understanding
Using Figures 7.6.1 and 7.6.2, answer the following questions. 1.
The photographer in Figure 7.6.1 is facing north. Determine the time of day, given it is located in the UAE.
2.
The photographer in Figure 7.6.2 is facing NNW from the Burj Khalifa (in Dubai). Determine the time of day.
3.
Conduct a geographical inquiry based on the two figures.
• Inquiry: Develop a geographical inquiry question about how climate and environment affects places in the UAE and Dubai.
• Observation: Using the two photographs, describe the visible evidence relevant to your inquiry.
• Patterns: Identify and explain one spatial pattern common to the two images. • Interpretation: Explain what the evidence suggests about the relationship between climate and environment and these places.
• Significance: Determine the significance of your findings to the geographical inquiry.
Using Figures 7.6.3 to 7.6.10, answer the following questions. 1.
Explain how the length of a shadow can be used to estimate the time of day.
2.
Compare the shadows in Figures 7.6.3 and 7.6.6. What does this suggest about the time the photographs were taken?
3.
Which figures were most likely taken: a. at midday b. morning or late afternoon. Explain your reasoning.
4.
Explain why shadows are shorter around midday.
5.
Describe how the direction of shadows could help determine whether it is morning or afternoon.
6.
Identify one limitation of using shadows alone to determine the exact time of day.
7.
Describe one pattern you can observe in the way vegetation is distributed across the images.
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c07_p195-222.indd 218
21/05/26 8:05 PM
7.6 Chapter review: Making sense of change
219
Using Figures 7.6.11 to 7.6.16, answer the following questions. Using Figures 7.6.11 and 7.6.12, identify the likely location of the photographer.
2.
Explain how landmarks help determine the direction the photograph was taken from.
3.
Explain why rivers are useful reference points when identifying a photographer’s direction.
4.
Identify one way humans have modified the natural environment in these locations.
5.
Explain what features shown in these photographs make it clear that they were taken in urban areas.
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
1.
6.
Using Figures 7.6.11 and 7.6.12, determine the direction the photographer was facing when the Sydney Harbour photograph was taken. Justify your answer using evidence from both sources.
7.
Similarly, find the direction the photographer was facing in Figures 7.6.13 and 7.6.15.
Using Figure 7.6.17, answer the following questions. 1.
Describe how the rate of growth in social media users changes between 2000–2010 and 2015–2025.
2.
Identify the decade with the fastest growth and explain how this is visible from the graph.
3.
Explain one reason why growth slows after 2015.
4.
Estimate how many new users were added between 2005 and 2015.
Using Figure 7.6.18, answer the following questions. 1.
Compare the population growth of Greater London and Greater Mumbai between 1930 and 2030.
2.
Identify the period where Greater Dhaka experienced its most rapid growth.
3.
Explain how the semilogarithmic scale helps us to compare cities with very different population sizes.
4.
Estimate the population of Greater Mumbai in 1980.
5.
Describe one limitation of using a semilogarithmic scale for inexperienced readers.
Extend your understanding
Using Figures 7.6.3 to 7.6.10, answer the following questions. 1.
Analyse how shadow length and direction change across the photograph sequence (Figures 7.6.3–7.6.6). What does this suggest about the movement of the Sun?
2.
Figures 7.6.7-7.6.10 were all taken in Newcastle, NSW. Determine the time of day of the photographer if the photographer was facing:
• north in Figure 7.6.7 • south in Figure 7.6.8.
3.
Extension: If the photographs (Figures 7.6.7–7.6.10) were taken within minutes of each other, what direction was the photographer facing for Figures 7.6.9 and 7.6.10?
Using Figures 7.6.11 to 7.6.16, answer the following questions. 1.
Explain how scale and orientation of the map influence the accuracy of determining photographer direction.
2.
Explain how the maps show these landmarks are connected to surrounding infrastructure.
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c07_p195-222.indd 219
21/05/26 8:05 PM
220
Chapter 7 Geographical skills: Making sense of change
a. Evaluate the reliability of using photographs alone to determine direction, compared with using photographs and maps together. b. Discuss how this skill would be useful in real-world geographical fieldwork or investigations. Conduct an inquiry:
3.
4.
• Inquiry: Develop a geographical inquiry question about how iconic landmarks influence land use in cities.
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
• Observation: Using one photograph and its corresponding map, describe the visible evidence relevant to your inquiry.
• Patterns: Identify and explain one spatial pattern common to all three locations. • Interpretation: Explain what the evidence suggests about the relationship between tourism, transport and urban development.
• Significance: Discuss why these landmarks are significant economically, socially or culturally to their cities.
Using Figure 7.6.17, answer the following questions. 1.
Analyse how the growth of social media users reflects broader global technological change.
2.
Explain why the rate of growth slows over time, even though the number of users continues to increase.
3.
Discuss two social or economic factors that may influence the trend shown in Figure 7.6.17.
4.
Evaluate how reliable this graph would be for predicting social media use beyond 2025.
Using Figure 7.6.18, answer the following questions. 1.
Analyse the population growth patterns of Greater Mumbai and Greater Dhaka.
2.
Explain why a semilogarithmic scale is more appropriate than a linear scale for this data.
3.
Discuss how population growth in these cities could affect infrastructure, housing and services.
4.
Evaluate the challenges faced by cities experiencing rapid population growth compared to cities with slower growth.
Creative tasks
Task 1: Shadow chaser
You will investigate how the Sun’s movement affects shadows throughout the day. 1.
Choose a fixed outdoor location at school (teacher approved).
2.
Take a photograph from the same position and angle at least three times during the school day (e.g. once per period).
3.
Ensure each photograph clearly shows the same object casting a shadow and the ground surface where the shadow falls
4.
Using the photographs, mark the position and direction of the shadow in each image and compare how the length and direction of the shadow changes
5.
Use your observations to determine how the Sun’s position in the sky changes over the day and whether the Sun is moving higher or lower at each time
6.
Write a short explanation explaining how the changing shadow positions demonstrate the apparent movement of the Sun across the sky.
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c07_p195-222.indd 220
21/05/26 8:05 PM
7.6 Chapter review: Making sense of change
221
Task 2: The AI truth You will test whether AI-generated images are geographically possible. Choose a famous landmark (e.g. Eiffel Tower, Statue of Liberty, Taj Mahal, Colosseum, Mount Fuji, Christ the Redeemer).
2.
Use an AI image generator to create an image of the landmark that includes surrounding scenery and shows clear foreground and background features.
3.
Locate the landmark on a map.
4.
Determine the direction the photographer would be facing in the image.
5.
Identify at least two visible features in the image (buildings, mountains, water, skyline, etc.).
6.
Using the map, decide whether the image is geographically possible:
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
1.
• Could those features be visible from that position? • Are they in the correct direction and relative location?
7.
Conclude whether the image is geographically accurate, geographically impossible, or partially accurate but misleading.
8.
Justify your decision using map evidence, not appearance.
Task 3: The shadow puzzle
You will create a photograph-based puzzle where multiple clues must be combined to solve one final answer. 1.
Choose one outdoor area (teacher approved).
2.
Take three photographs of the same area:
• Photograph A: shows a shadow that reveals time of day • Photograph B: shows shadows and landmarks that reveal photographer direction • Photograph C: shows features that help identify location or outcome.
3.
Create one clue for each photograph.
4.
Design a final question that can only be solved by combining all three clues. The final answer must be a specific location, a direction or a time window.
5.
Provide a short solution explanation showing how the clues connect.
Task 4: The number jump
Some data changes too fast to be understood on a normal scale. 1.
Choose a dataset that shows rapid or exponential change (e.g. population growth, earthquake magnitude, sound intensity, spread of a virus, technological growth).
2.
Represent the data using:
• a linear scale • either a logarithmic or semi-logarithmic scale.
3.
Compare the two graphs and identify one pattern that is hidden on the linear graph and one pattern that becomes clearer on the logarithmic or semilogarithmic graph
4.
Decide which graph communicates the data more effectively and explain why the scale matters.
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c07_p195-222.indd 221
21/05/26 8:05 PM
222
Chapter 7 Geographical skills: Making sense of change
Task 5: Sight, sound, scale What you see is not always what you hear. Choose a single sound source (e.g. school bell, speaker playing a constant sound, whistle).
2.
Using a sound intensity (decibel) app, record sound levels from at least four different distances from the source.
3.
Take a photograph at each measurement point so the distance from the source is clearly visible.
4.
Record distance from the sound source and sound intensity (dB).
5.
Graph sound intensity against distance using:
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
1.
• a linear scale • a logarithmic or semi-logarithmic scale.
6.
Compare the two graphs and explain which graph better represents how sound changes with distance and why sound intensity is commonly measured using a logarithmic (decibel) scale.
7.
Use your photos to explain how visual distance can be misleading without the correct scale.
Task 6: The truth behind the image
Some places look impressive in photographs, but geography tells a deeper story. 1.
Choose a controversial or debated location where climate or environment plays a major role (e.g. artificial islands or reclaimed coastlines, desert cities, ski resorts in hot climate, developments in fragile environments).
2.
Find two photographs of your chosen place that show clear environmental or human features.
3.
Complete the following geographical investigation:
Inquiry: Develop a geographical inquiry question about how climate or environment influences this place.
Observation: Using the two photographs, describe the visible evidence relevant to your inquiry (e.g. landforms, vegetation, water use, building design). Patterns: Identify and explain one spatial or environmental pattern common to both images.
Interpretation: Explain what the photograph evidence suggests about the relationship between climate or environment and human activity in this place.
Significance: Explain why your findings are geographically significant, including what they suggest about sustainability, risk, or long-term viability.
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c07_p195-222.indd 222
21/05/26 8:05 PM
Chapter
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
8
Changing settlement patterns and urban planning for sustainability
Lessons 8.1
Geo Spark: What makes Las Vegas the “Thirsty City”?
8.2
What is urbanisation?
8.3
What are the consequences of urbanisation?
8.4
How are urban settlements distributed?
8.5
Case study: Why is the world’s largest city sinking?
8.6
What are the challenges facing rural and remote Australian communities?
8.7
How sustainable are Australia’s future urban places?
8.8
How can mega sporting events be used to manage urban growth?
8.9
How will the 2032 Olympic and Paralympic Games help shape a sustainable urban future for Brisbane?
8.10 Chapter review
➜
Teachers go to the Online Teacher Suite to: • plan, sequence and assign directed tasks for students and classes using Task Manager • view student activity reports • provide feedback to students • download a printable “Writing focus” workbook for this chapter.
Image: Queen Elizabeth Olympic Park, London
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c08_p223-273.indd 223
21/05/26 8:09 PM
224
Chapter 8 Changing settlement patterns and urban planning for sustainability
8.1
Geo Spark: What makes Las Vegas the “Thirsty City”? Success criteria
In this lesson, you will learn about the causes and consequences of urbanisation by exploring one of the most iconic examples of urban development on the planet.
❏ I can identify the challenges caused by urbanisation in Las Vegas.
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
Learning intention
Is Las Vegas facing an environmental crisis?
➜
Writing focus 8.1 Question words
Las Vegas is globally recognised as the entertainment and tourism capital of the world. Located in the arid Mojave Desert of southern Nevada, the city stands as a striking example of rapid urban development in a challenging physical environment. The city’s population is approximately 670,000 (as of 2025), while the Las Vegas greater metropolitan area is now home to nearly 3 million residents. Attracted by the lure of cheaper costs of living, lower taxes and newly built homes, in just the next 15 years more than half a million people are expected to call southern Nevada home.
Las Vegas’s transformation from a small desert outpost began in the 1930s, with the construction of the Hoover Dam. This critical infrastructure project attracted new workers, and provided essential water and hydroelectricity generation, supporting future urban development. Following the Great Depression, gambling was legalised in Nevada, aiding the region’s economic recovery and establishing Las Vegas as a global tourist destination. Since then, Las Vegas has experienced continued expansion driven by tourism, entertainment and real estate investment. However, this growth has come with significant challenges.
➜
Figure 8.1.1 Stretching across the desert, the iconic Las Vegas cityscape is characterised by its towering water fountains, hotels, casinos, restaurants and entertainment venues.
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c08_p223-273.indd 224
21/05/26 8:10 PM
8.1 Geo Spark: What makes Las Vegas the “Thirsty City”?
With an annual population growth rate of 1.8%, with over 53,000 new residents added in 2025 alone, Las Vegas is now one of the fastest-growing metropolitan areas in the United States. Today, the city faces the challenge of balancing economic growth with ecologically sustainable development.
225
Las Vegas 1984
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
Las Vegas 2024
Challenges include:
• sustainable water management – heavy
•
➜
and increasing demand on water from Lake Mead makes the city highly vulnerable to drought linked to climate change. urban heat island effect – summer daytime temperatures reach highs of 41°C on average in July. Heated in the day, at night, the city’s heat-absorbing Figure 8.1.2 Satellite images showing the expansion of Las Vegas between 1984 surfaces, such as concrete and asphalt, and 2024 radiate heat, making urban areas 11–14°C hotter than the surrounding desert. sustainable environmental impact – expansion of the urban centre is affecting the surrounding being able to meet fragile desert ecosystem. the needs of the social issues – problems include high levels of poverty and homelessness. present without
• •
Managing this iconic city to ensure it is sustainable will require a balance between economic success, and environmental and social needs.
Activity 6.1
Visible thinking routine: Past, present, future
Using the text above and Figures 8.1.1 and 8.1.2, complete the activity below.
Past: What was Las Vegas like in the past? Use data and key terminology to add depth to support your point. Present: What is Las Vegas like today? How has it changed and what challenges does it face?
Future: How can Las Vegas develop sustainably into the future? How can it respond to the challenges while continuing to grow and prosper?
compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs urban heat island when urban areas become significantly warmer than surrounding vegetated areas due to human activity and development ecosystem community of living organisms that interacts with the non-living components in an environment
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c08_p223-273.indd 225
21/05/26 8:10 PM
226
Chapter 8 Changing settlement patterns and urban planning for sustainability
What is urbanisation?
Learning intention
Success criteria
In this lesson, you will learn about the process of urbanisation and explore the reasons for its increase globally.
❏ I can analyse the causes of urbanisation.
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
8.2
Starter activity
Using Figure 8.2.1, answer the following questions. 1.
What is the spatial distribution of the world’s megacities?
2.
Why do people want to live in cities? Suggest 5–10 reasons.
London
Paris
spatial distribution the location and arrangement of particular features, phenomena or activities across the Earth’s surface
Tehran Istanbul Moscow
New Delhi
Chongqing
Beijing Seoul Tokyo Osaka Shanghai Wuhan Shenzhen Guangzhou Manila
New York
Los Angeles
Cairo
Mexico City
Lagos
Lima
LEGEND 47 million 30 million 10 million 47 million 30 million 10 million
Kinshasa Luanda
Rio de Janeiro São Paulo
Megacities in 2024
Buenos Aires
New megacities in 2050
0
Karachi Mumbai Hyderabad Bengaluru Dhaka Bangkok Ho Chi Minh City
Jakata
5,000 km
➜
Figure 8.2.1 The world’s megacities are set for major growth.
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c08_p223-273.indd 226
21/05/26 8:10 PM
227
➜
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
8.2 What is urbanisation?
Figure 8.2.2 Tokyo, Japan, is one of the largest cities in the world.
Defining urbanisation
As countries have industrialised, their economies have shifted to a reliance on secondary industries (which add value to the raw material to make a commercial product) and tertiary employment (providing services such as teachers and healthcare workers). At the same time, populations in rural areas have declined. This increase in the proportion of people living in urban areas compared to rural areas is known as urbanisation. Urban growth, coupled with increased urban density, has led to 58% of the global population now residing in urban areas. This growth trend is set to continue with an estimated 68% of people expected to be living in urban areas by 2050.
Writing focus 8.2 Transitional phrases ➜
In 2007, for the first time in human history there was an equal number of people living in urban areas and rural areas across the globe (see Figure 8.2.3). Before this time, the population living in rural areas was proportionally higher, as economies were based on primary industries (where raw materials are extracted from the Earth, such as farming, fishing and mining). Most people lived in agrarian communities, relying on subsistence farming.
urban describes environments with a high population density that have highly developed infrastructure, such as cities, suburbs and large towns rural describes environments with a low population density with sparse infrastructure, such as farms, open spaces and natural areas
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c08_p223-273.indd 227
21/05/26 8:10 PM
228
Chapter 8 Changing settlement patterns and urban planning for sustainability
agrarian community a community whose economy is based on agriculture (farming)
5 billion Urban population
4 billion Rural population
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
subsistence farming where farmers grow food and raise animals primarily for their own family’s consumption, rather than for sale in the market
Number of people living in urban and rural areas, World
urbanisation the process of population shift from rural to urban areas, leading to the growth of cities
urban growth an increase in the physical size and population of an urban area over time population density the number of people per square kilometre of land
3 billion
2 billion
1 billion
0
1960
1970
1980
1990
2000
2010
Data source: World Bank based on data from the UN Population Division (2026)
2024
OurWorldinData.org/urbanization | CC BY
Note: Because the estimates of city and metropolitan areas are based on national definitions of what constitutes a city or metropolitan area, cross-country comparisons should be made with caution.
Urban and rural population projected to 2050, World, 1920 to 2050
Total urban and rural population, given as estimates to 2023, and UN projections to 2050. Projections are based on the UN World Urbanization Prospects and its median fertility scenario. 10 billion
8 billion
Urban
6 billion
4 billion
2 billion
Rural
0
1920
1940
1960
1980
2000
2020
2040 2050
Data source: United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division (2018); HYDE (2023) OurWorldinData.org/urbanization | CC BY
➜
Figure 8.2.3 The changing ratio of the world’s urban and rural populations
Source: Our World in Data website
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c08_p223-273.indd 228
21/05/26 8:10 PM
8.2 What is urbanisation?
229
The global distribution of urbanisation
➜
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
Although urbanisation is a global trend, the proportion of the population living in urban areas varies greatly between countries. Nearly 92% of Japan’s 126 million people currently lives in cities. In contrast, less than 15% of Burundi’s population lives in urban areas, the lowest level in sub-Saharan Africa (Figure 8.2.4).
Figure 8.2.4 A rural village in the rainforest of Masango, Burundi
Share of the population living in urbanized areas, 2023
No data 0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
Data source: HYDE (2023)
70%
80%
90%
100%
OurWorldinData.org/urbanization | CC BY
➜
Figure 8.2.5 The proportion of a country’s population living in urban areas in 2023
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400 Source: Our World in Data website
9781009788083c08_p223-273.indd 229
21/05/26 8:10 PM
230
Chapter 8 Changing settlement patterns and urban planning for sustainability
The causes of urbanisation As a country industrialises and develops, the number of people living in urban areas tends to increase. Today, countries such as the United Kingdom (UK) (about 85% urban) and Australia (about 87% urban) are mostly urban societies. Historically, the UK and many other developed countries urbanised during the industrial revolution of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, as shown in Figure 8.2.6. During this time, people moved from rural areas and economies based on primary industries (such as farming, which became mechanised) to urban areas with growing secondary industries (manufacturing jobs). Today, these post-industrial, high-income countries have economies dominated by the tertiary and quaternary sectors, which include service, technology and research-based jobs.
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
tertiary sector of the economy that involves offering services to people, such as teaching and healthcare
70
60
Employment share (%)
quaternary sector of the economy that encompasses knowledge-based employment in the information economy, such as research and development (R&D) and software design, requiring advanced skills and technology
50
40 30 20 10 0
Industrial
Pre-industrial 1800 AD
Primary
Post-industrial 2000 AD
Secondary
Tertiary
➜
Figure 8.2.6 The Clarke Fisher Model of economic development
Newly emerging middle-income countries, such as China, have economies similar to the UK’s in the 1900s and rely heavily on secondary manufacturing industries (see Table 8.2.1). In contrast, some developing countries such as Tanzania remain mainly agrarian, with an economic composition similar to that of pre-industrial Britain. Table 8.2.1 Economic sectors of countries at different stages of the Clark Fisher Model Country
Primary sector (%)
Secondary sector (%)
Tertiary sector (%)
Tanzania
65
9
26
China
22
32
46
UK
1
18
81
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c08_p223-273.indd 230
21/05/26 8:10 PM
8.2 What is urbanisation?
231
Why is urbanisation increasing? Rural to urban migration rural to urban migration the movement of people from rural areas to urban areas
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
A major reason why urbanisation is increasing is the level of rural to urban migration. This is the rate at which people are moving from rural areas to urban areas. People choose to move to urban areas because they are seeking higher paid or skilled jobs; access to amenities such as public transport, entertainment and recreational opportunities; better access to services, such as hospitals and higher education institutions; and reliable infrastructure, such as super-fast internet. These attractions are known as pull factors.
push factors reasons people wish to leave an area pull factors reasons people wish to move to an area
➜
Figure 8.2.7 Cartoon showing the push and pull factors for rural to urban migration
On the other hand, people may want to leave a rural area because of its limited employment opportunities or infrequent and unreliable transport links. These areas are often more susceptible to the impacts of natural disasters, such as droughts, and the impacts of poverty and conflict. These reasons are known as push factors.
Natural population growth
Another major cause of urbanisation is natural population growth. Natural population growth is the difference between the number of people who are born and the number of people who die in a population. It does not take migration into account. Living conditions and access to health services are often better in urban areas. This means the crude death rate in urban areas is often lower than in rural areas, while the crude birth rate often remains quite high (see Table 8.2.2). Also, urban areas tend to attract young women who are of childbearing age, and therefore more likely to have children. Combined, these factors mean that the rate of natural population growth is greater in urban regions compared with rural regions within a country.
natural population growth the difference between the number of people who are born and the number of people who die in a population migration the movement of people from one place to another
crude death rate the number of people who die per year in a population per 1,000 people crude birth rate the number of people born per year in a population per 1,000 people childbearing age an age range in which women are able to give birth, usually defined as 16–49 years of age
Table 8.2.2 The difference between India’s crude death rate (CDR) in urban and rural regions over time Source: The Print website
Year
Overall CDR
Urban CDR
Rural CDR
2000
8.5
6.3
9.3
2010
7.2
5.8
7.7
2019
6.0
5.0
6.5
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c08_p223-273.indd 231
21/05/26 8:10 PM
232
Chapter 8 Changing settlement patterns and urban planning for sustainability
Technological advancements
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
Today’s technology and engineering allow cities to be built in even the most inhospitable environments. Dubai is the largest city in the United Arab Emirates and is growing rapidly, increasing from just 500,000 people in 1990 to 3.5 million in 2023. This is especially significant when you consider Dubai’s harsh desert climate, which includes high temperatures, strong winds and lack of rainfall. Figure 8.2.8 shows the extent of Dubai’s development, using satellite images. Since 2000, the city has expanded up to 20 kilometres inland from the coast of the Persian Gulf. Areas of the desert have been filled with buildings and roads, and sand has been taken from the sea floor and used to create artificial islands designed in the shape of palm trees.
A
B
➜
Figure 8.2.8 Satellite imagery showing urban development in Dubai in 1990 (a) and 2023 (b) Then
Now
➜
Figure 8.2.9 Dubai’s rapid development has transformed the landscape. Since the 1990s, Dubai’s population has increased six‑fold to around 4 million today.
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c08_p223-273.indd 232
21/05/26 8:10 PM
233
8.2 What is urbanisation?
Review 8.2 Knowledge and understanding
Online quiz
Thinking and working geographically
Students can access sample responses and results online
Teachers can go online to assign questions, view results, reports and more!
Knowledge and understanding
State the difference between urban growth and urbanisation.
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
1. 2.
Describe the growth of urbanisation shown in Figure 8.2.3, explaining why the year 2007 is important. A helpful way to describe a trend or pattern in geography is to:
• state the overall trend (what is generally happening) • give evidence by using specific numbers, places, or geography terms from the figure • point out any anomalies (anything unusual or unexpected in the data).
3.
Create three sector graphs using the data from Table 8.2.1
4.
Refer to Table 8.2.2 and answer the following questions.
a. Describe the overall trend in India’s crude death rate between 2000 and 2019. b. State whether the crude death rate is higher or lower in India’s urban regions. c. Explain how this difference might be contributing to natural population growth in urban areas and urbanisation.
5.
Discuss whether rural to urban migration, natural population growth or technological advancements are likely to be the greatest cause of urbanisation. Justify your response.
Thinking and working geographically
Working with geographical concepts: Change 1.
Explain how employment structure changes as a country develops. Use Figure 8.2.6 and examples from Table 8.2.1.
2.
Applying your own geographical knowledge, why do you think urbanisation is occurring so rapidly in developing countries? Discuss your reasoning with a partner or in a small group.
Interpreting a choropleth map
Choropleth maps represent data about a phenomenon by shading or colouring areas, such as countries, based on a data value. In Figure 8.2.5, the colours represent the proportion of each country’s population that lives in urban areas. 3.
Use Figure 8.2.5 to answer the following questions.
change the concept of change is about explaining geographical phenomena by investigating how they have developed over time choropleth map a map that shows areas of shading or colouring to represent data values phenomenon
a. Name three countries that have low and high proportions of their population something that living in urban areas. Use an atlas, world map or Google Maps to help name can be observed, measured or the countries. studied (plural: b. Which world regions still have a large proportion of their population living in phenomena) rural areas? A world region is a large group of neighbouring countries. Examples include Latin America, sub-Saharan Africa, South Asia and northern Europe. c. Which world regions have the highest proportion of their population living in urban areas? d. Suggest a reason why some world regions have highly urbanised populations whereas others are still largely rural.
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c08_p223-273.indd 233
21/05/26 8:10 PM
234
Chapter 8 Changing settlement patterns and urban planning for sustainability
8.3
What are the consequences of urbanisation? Success criteria
In this lesson, you will learn about the positive and negative effects of urbanisation.
❏ I can assess the consequences of urbanisation.
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
Learning intention
Starter activity Think, pair, share
As a greater numbers of people move to live in cities, what are some of the potential consequences for residents, the environment and the economy? Think of at least three to five ideas yourself before discussing them in pairs.
➜
Figure 8.3.1 Lagos, Nigeria. The population is growing, despite the birth rate falling, as life expectancy is increasing. Over half the population are aged under 25.
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c08_p223-273.indd 234
21/05/26 8:10 PM
235
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
8.3 What are the consequences of urbanisation?
➜
Figure 8.3.2 By 2050, Nigeria will have double the population it has today. Makoko, the “floating slum”, has been built precariously on stilts over the lagoon. In early 2026, government authorities began demolishing the slum to make way for ambitious new developments, displacing hundreds of residents.
Positive and negative impacts
Table 8.3.1 Some of the positive and negative impacts of urbanisation
Writing focus 8.3 Transitional phrases ➜
The large-scale movement of people from rural areas to urban environments can have positive and negative impacts. Urban growth can encourage new industries and new infrastructure to be built, and this can lead to economic growth. On the other hand, rapid urban growth can add to traffic congestion, destruction of habitats and problems in managing waste (see Table 8.3.1). These negative factors can have social impacts, affecting life for residents, as well as environmental impacts. The impacts can be large or small, depending on factors such as population density, the rate of urbanisation and how the urban environment is designed and managed.
habitat the natural home of a plant or animal and which contains suitable environmental conditions
Positive impacts
Negative impacts
• Travel is more efficient and often uses
• Green space and natural habitats can be lost when an urban
low emission public transport. • Land surrounding cities can be reserved for conservation. • Healthcare facilities are likely to be better in urban areas than in rural areas. • The economy is often more stable in urban areas because it is based on manufacturing and services, which are more profitable and reliable than agriculture. • Employment can be more available, more varied and higher paying in urban areas. • Infrastructure is often cheaper and more efficient when building in regions with denser populations.
area expands. • The water quality of local rivers and creeks can be damaged by run-off from urban developments. • The spread of infectious diseases such as malaria and COVID-19 can increase where there are high population densities. • Access to services, facilities and employment can be lacking for people living on the outskirts of a city. • Traffic congestion, as a consequence of poorly managed infrastructure, and noise and air pollution increase. • Infrastructure development in rapidly growing cities can struggle to keep up with demand. • It can cause overpopulation and very dense construction, leading to strain on food, water, services, and the environment. • It can create water scarcity (Refer to Lesson 8.1). • It can lead to the creation of urban heat islands.
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c08_p223-273.indd 235
21/05/26 8:10 PM
236
Chapter 8 Changing settlement patterns and urban planning for sustainability
Amazing but true… It is believed that the deadly Wang Fuk Court fires in Hong Kong in November 2025 were so catastrophic because of poorly regulated construction – particularly unsafe bamboo scaffolding and foam materials – and the dense high-rise layout of the eight-tower site.
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
conservation the protection, preservation and careful management of natural resources and cultural heritage for current and future generations
green space areas of vegetation such as grass and trees used for recreational purposes
overpopulation when an area exceeds its population carrying capacity, which is the maximum number of people it can sustainably support with available resources
Urbanisation and economic growth
Figure 8.3.3 shows a correlation between the percentage of a country’s population that is urbanised and gross domestic product (GDP) per capita. It shows that countries with a high level of urbanisation also tend to have a stronger economy. For example, urbanisation in China has coincided with industrialisation. Rural areas have supplied Chinese cities with a massive workforce, allowing it to become the largest manufacturing and exporting nation in the world. However, this does not necessarily mean that urbanisation always causes economic growth. For example, urbanisation in Nairobi, Kenya, has been rapid, and planned infrastructure and adequate housing developments have not been able to keep up. This has led to the emergence of slums.
correlation an association or relationship between two phenomena, such as GDP and the rate of urbanisation
200,000
100,000 50,000
GDP per capita, US$
gross domestic product (GDP) per capita the total value of goods and services produced by a country in one year divided by the size of its population
20,000
10,000
industrialisation the shift of a country’s economy from being based mainly on agriculture to being based on manufacturing
slums extremely poor informal settlements where residents do not legally own the land
2,000
1,000
500
200
10%
20%
30% 40% 50% 60% 70% Urban population as a percentage of total
80%
90%
100%
Figure 8.3.3 The relationship between the percentage of a country’s population that lives in urban areas and the size of its economy, measured as GDP per capita. The size of the circles represents the relative size of each country’s population, and the colours refer to world regions. ➜
exporting sending goods to another country for sale
5,000
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c08_p223-273.indd 236
21/05/26 8:10 PM
8.3 What are the consequences of urbanisation?
237
Slums
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
Slums, also known as “informal settlements”, are where large numbers of people live in extreme poverty on land that they do not legally own. They are usually on the outskirts of cities, on marginal, undesirable land such as steep hill sides, areas prone to flooding or near noisy or polluted industrial centres. Residents live in densely packed and unstable housing that is built using scrap materials such as corrugated iron and oil drums, tarpaulin and with mud walls and dirt floors; often each housing as many as eight family members. They lack basic services such as potable water, sanitation, electricity and transport infrastructure (see Figure 8.3.4). They are therefore unsafe and vulnerable to fire and flooding. Kibera in Kenya is one of Africa’s largest slums. It is home to an estimated 250,000 people across 2.5 square kilometres. The average structure is 12 square metres (a similar size to an average Australian bedroom).
potable water water that is clean and safe for drinking mitigate making something less severe, serious or painful
➜
Figure 8.3.4 Slums such as Kibera in Kenya lack stable housing, potable water and sewerage systems.
Mitigating the consequences of urbanisation
Colombia is emerging as a leader in sustainable urban development, showcasing how cities in developing countries can mitigate the consequences of rapid urbanisation. Bogotá and Medellín, two of Colombia’s largest cities, have pioneered innovative green infrastructure projects to combat urban heat islands and reduce air pollution. Bogotá, a winner of the 2025 Earthshot Prize, has reduced air pollution by 24% since
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c08_p223-273.indd 237
21/05/26 8:10 PM
238
Chapter 8 Changing settlement patterns and urban planning for sustainability
➜
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
2018, despite rapid urban growth. The city now supports over 8 million people. This achievement stems from policies including the deployment of one of the world’s largest electric bus fleets, expansion of cycling infrastructure and the creation of Urban Zones for Clean Air (ZUMA) in the city’s most polluted neighbourhoods. The city has also planted 20,000 trees, creating urban gardens, green roofs and urban forests.
Figure 8.3.5 Green cover and the huge electric bus fleet have helped lower temperatures on major highways in Medellín, Colombia.
Medellín has successfully implementation of more than 30 green corridors – extensive connected networks of more than 3 million newly planted trees and individual plants, connecting parks, gardens and street trees. These corridors have reduced local temperatures by 2°C by creating shade and enhanced biodiversity, transforming urban spaces and improving community wellbeing. The initial investment to establish the project cost a total of US$16.3 million and annual maintenance cost US$625,000 in 2022, according to the local government. These initiatives demonstrate how strategic sustainability policies can allow for urban growth, while enhancing environmental health and social wellbeing.
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c08_p223-273.indd 238
21/05/26 8:10 PM
239
8.3 What are the consequences of urbanisation?
Review 8.3 Online quiz
Knowledge and understanding
Thinking and working geographically
Students can access sample responses and results online
Teachers can go online to assign questions, view results, reports and more!
Knowledge and understanding
Classify each of the impacts of urbanisation listed in Table 8.3.1 as either environmental, social or economic.
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
1.
2.
Using Google Street View, identify evidence of the consequences of urbanisation in a rapidly developing country such as Kenya, by viewing informal settlements such as Kibera from street level. Repeat the activity for an urban area in a high-income country such as Australia, and contrast the evidence.
3.
Identify the correlation between urbanisation and a country’s economy, shown in Figure 8.3.3.
4.
“Urbanisation always has positive consequences for local populations.” Discuss the extent to which you agree with this statement and provide examples to support your answer.
Thinking and working geographically
Working with geographical concepts: Environment 1.
Identify two strategies Bogotá has used to reduce air pollution.
2.
Explain how Medellín’s green corridors help to reduce urban heat and benefit the residents’ wellbeing.
Exploring historic satellite imagery using Google Earth Pro
environment the concept of environment is about the significance of the environment in human life, and the important interrelationships between humans and the environment
satellite imagery visual Google Earth Pro lets you explore satellite imagery of any corner of the globe. data of the Earth’s surface Geographers use satellite imagery to investigate the geographic characteristics collected from satellites of places, such as land cover (e.g. forest, bare ground, agriculture, urban) and to in orbit perform analysis of scale, such as measuring distances and areas. The historical imagery function can be used to change the date of the satellite image. This enables you to track changes over time, such as urban development, as shown in Figure 8.2.8. 3.
FPO
Search online for Google Earth Pro (https://cambridge.edu.au/redirect/11831), and then download and install it. Then follow the steps shown below and in Video 8.3.1 to explore changes in an urban environment.
➜
Video 8.3.1 a. Choose a city that has undergone recent expansion – for example, Lagos, Geography skills Las Vegas or City of the Gold Coast, Queensland. accessing and b. Use the historical imagery slider to move back in time as far as possible. analysing historic Depending on how far you are zoomed in, this might be as far back as 1984. satellite imagery c. Record how the characteristics of the place have changed over this period. Refer to specific parts of your chosen city and the specific changes that have happened. d. Select the ruler tool and the polygon tab. Use this tool to trace around the city boundary at two different time periods and calculate how much the city has grown in size during this time. Record your results in a table.
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c08_p223-273.indd 239
21/05/26 8:10 PM
240
Chapter 8 Changing settlement patterns and urban planning for sustainability
8.4
How are urban settlements distributed? Success criteria
In this lesson, you will compare different settlement patterns and consider different ways in which the population in urban areas can be distributed.
❏ I can apply geographical terminology and spatial concepts to explain how and why populations are distributed in urban areas.
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
Learning intention
Starter activity
Artist and describer
In pairs, sit back to back. Person A is to read the following description of London out loud to Person B. As Person A reads, Person B must draw a “messy map” of London according to their description as accurately as possible. Labelling the features you hear may assist.
➜
At the heart of the city is the central business district (CBD), which is the commercial and business centre, where most shops, offices and services are located. The buildings here are mainly high-rise Figure 8.4.1 London’s diverse land use with the CBD shown in the background skyscrapers because the land value is very high. As the oldest part of the city, the CBD often contains important landmarks such as cathedrals. Roads in the CBD are usually congested, and it is where major bus and railway stations are found. Surrounding the CBD is the inner city, also called the zone of transition, which is a mixed area containing some industry, older terraced housing historically occupied by the working class, and is often home to lower-income residents and immigrant communities. This area is now experiencing pockets of redevelopment. Hospitals and universities are often located in this zone. Moving further out are the inner suburbs, where middle-class families live in larger homes with more green space and recreational amenities such as golf courses. Finally, the outermost ring is the commuter zone, also known as the outer suburbs on the rural–urban fringe. Here, housing is more spacious because land values are lower, and residents are willing to commute longer distances into the city for work. This is also where international airports are found.
rural–urban fringe the border between rural and urban environments on the outskirts of a city
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c08_p223-273.indd 240
21/05/26 8:10 PM
8.4 How are urban settlements distributed?
241
Urban settlement patterns conurbation a very large urban region formed when multiple smaller cities grow and join together
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
A settlement is defined simply as a place where people live. Settlements vary in size, from a small group of dwellings in a rural or remote area all the way to megacities (Figure 8.4.2). In some cases, urban growth has created a conurbation, where multiple cities have merged to form one interconnected and continuous urban environment. China contains three large conurbations. One of these is the Yangtze River Delta, which is home to 150 million people and includes the cities of Shanghai, Nanjing, Hangzhou and Ningbo. Urban settlement patterns refer to the ways in which different kinds of urban environments are spatially distributed or arranged. These are summarised in Figure 8.4.3 and Table 8.4.1.
➜
Writing focus 8.4 Developing sentences
➜
Figure 8.4.2 Different types of urban settlements
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c08_p223-273.indd 241
21/05/26 8:10 PM
242
Chapter 8 Changing settlement patterns and urban planning for sustainability
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
Linear
Dispersed
Nucleated
➜
Figure 8.4.3 The layout of different settlement patterns
Table 8.4.1 A description of three common settlement patterns Urban settlement pattern
Description
Example
Dispersed
Urban areas that are evenly Large cities containing several spread out across a region industrial and commercial centres or towns dotted across a rural landscape
Nucleated
Urban areas that spread out in all directions from a central point
Residential suburbs and industrial zones spreading out from a central business district
Linear
Urban areas that are arranged roughly in a straight line
Cities or towns built along features such as a river, coastline, mountain range or major highway
Modelling urban settlement patterns
Cities often follow similar distribution patterns. In geography, models are used to outline patterns that apply to several different areas. The Burgess model (Table 8.4.2) and Hoyt model (Table 8.4.3) are models that show two common patterns of urban settlement found throughout the world. As with all models, there are exceptions: while many cities follow these patterns, there are several that do not.
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c08_p223-273.indd 242
21/05/26 8:10 PM
8.4 How are urban settlements distributed?
243
Table 8.4.2 The Burgess model, also known as the Concentric Zone model was developed by Ernest Burgess in 1925. Burgess model
Zones CBD: this is the commercial and business centre of a city, located in the middle of the urban settlement. Characterised by skyscrapers (Figure 8.4.1)
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
Inner city: historically this zone contained dense housing for the working class, such as terraced housing (Figure 8.4.4). These areas are now highly sought after and are often also the location of high-rise apartment buildings.
Inner suburbs: this zone has less-dense housing on larger blocks of land. Due to the way cities spread outwards, suburbs closer to the CBD are generally older than those further out.
Key Central business district (CBD) Inner city Inner suburbs Outer suburbs
Outer suburbs: this zone is on the outskirts and includes areas on the rural– urban fringe. Land is generally cheaper because of the distance from the CBD.
Table 8.4.3 The Hoyt model, also known as the Sector model, was developed by Homer Hoyt in 1939. Hoyt model
Zones
CBD: this is the commercial and business centre of a city, located in the middle of the urban settlement.
Key CBD Industry Low-class residential Middle-class residential High-class residential
Industry: this zone has factories and major transport links, such as railway lines and major roads to service the various industries. Residential: this zone has different areas of residential, with more affordable homes, lower socio-economic areas or slums located near the undesirable industrial zone or on marginal land, and the more affluent suburbs located in cleaner, quieter zones on larger blocks.
➜
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
Figure 8.4.4 High-density, terraced houses, such as these in Notting Hill, West London, are highly desirable inner-city locations.
9781009788083c08_p223-273.indd 243
21/05/26 8:10 PM
244
Chapter 8 Changing settlement patterns and urban planning for sustainability
Amazing but true…
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
Figure 8.4.4 shows properties that were originally built in the 1850s as stables and housing for the coach staff of the nearby mansions. These are now highly desirable luxury homes, each worth in excess of $8 million.
➜
Figure 8.4.5 (a) City land-use patterns vary in response to topography and the history of their development, as shown in these oblique aerial photographs of Bristol, UK (left), (b) and Chicago, United States (right).
Review 8.4
Knowledge and understanding
Online quiz
Thinking and working geographically
Students can access sample responses and results online
Teachers can go online to assign questions, view results, reports and more!
Knowledge and understanding 1.
Describe the key features of the CBD.
2.
Define the term “conurbation” and identify an example from your local area or own knowledge.
3.
Order the following settlement types from smallest to largest: megacity, metropolis, hamlet, town, village, conurbation, city.
4.
Contrast the inner city and the inner suburbs in terms of land use and population characteristics.
5.
Using the Burgess model, explain why land values decrease as you move from the CBD to the outer suburbs.
megacity a city containing more than 10 million residents
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c08_p223-273.indd 244
21/05/26 8:10 PM
245
8.4 How are urban settlements distributed?
Thinking and working geographically
Working with geographical concepts: Place and space Comparing models of urban design using satellite imagery
space the concept of space is about the significance of location and spatial distribution, and ways people organise and manage the spaces that we live in
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
The distribution of urban settlement patterns can be analysed using satellite imagery (see Figure 8.4.5). Using Google Earth, you can zoom into satellite images or use Google Street View to determine the different land uses in an urban place. Land uses include residential (housing), commercial (businesses and retail), industrial (factories) and green space (natural areas and parkland). Watch the video in Video 8.4.1 to see these skills.
place the concept of place is about the significance of places and what they are like
Using Google Earth, search for a city such as Brisbane or Sydney (smaller cities will make the task easier). Inspect the land use starting from the CBD and moving outwards.
2.
Either draw a rough sketch map showing the major types of land use, or screenshot the satellite image of the city and paste it into a program where you can annotate and shade it to distinguish between the land-use zones.
3.
Use Figure 8.4.3 and Table 8.4.1 to determine whether your chosen city follows a settlement pattern that is dispersed, nucleated or linear.
4.
Justify whether your chosen city fits the Burgess or Hoyt model.
5.
Assess the usefulness of urban models in explaining the spatial pattern of cities.
6.
Suggest some advantages and disadvantages of cities that follow the Burgess model or the Hoyt model. Consider accessibility, traffic congestion, liveability, affordability and sustainability.
FPO
Video 8.4.1 Geography skills Creating a digital map ➜
1.
➜
Figure 8.4.6 Satellite imagery can be used to view urban land uses. This satellite image of Hobart shows a range of land uses, including industrial, commercial, residential and natural forested mountains.
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c08_p223-273.indd 245
21/05/26 8:10 PM
246
Chapter 8 Changing settlement patterns and urban planning for sustainability
8.5
Case study: Why is the world’s largest city sinking? Success criteria
In this lesson, you will learn about the severe consequences of urbanisation using a case study of Jakarta, Indonesia.
❏ I can analyse the viability and sustainability of moving a capital city.
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
Learning intention
Starter activity
Observe, infer, predict
Examine Figure 8.5.1. What do you see? What are the consequences of this? What may this scene look like in the future?
➜
Figure 8.5.1 Flooding has become a common occurrence and a part of daily life for Jakarta’s residents.
Why is Jakarta sinking?
➜
Writing focus 8.5 Developing sentences
Jakarta has been the capital city of Indonesia since 1961, and new research by the United Nations identifies it as the world’s largest urban centre, with a population of almost 42 million. Since the 1960s, the city has experienced rapid population growth. However, infrastructure has not been built quickly enough to keep up with demand. Only half of Jakarta’s residents have access to piped water, and the water that is available is expensive and often of poor quality. Residents have been forced to
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c08_p223-273.indd 246
21/05/26 8:10 PM
8.5 Case study: Why is the world’s largest city sinking?
construct wells to extract groundwater from the natural aquifer located beneath the city. Taking this water has caused the land above it to sink at an alarming rate. This effect is known as land subsidence. Along with water removal causing subsidence, the impermeable surfaces of the dense urban environment stop rainwater soaking through to top up groundwater supplies.
groundwater water located below the Earth’s surface natural aquifer an underground layer of rock and other material containing groundwater
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
Amazing but true…
247
In 2025, Asia was home to 9 of the world’s 10 most populous cities, according to the United Nations. Jakarta, with 42 million residents, was identified as being the city with the largest population. Tokyo had long held the title as the world’s largest city, but its population growth has stagnated.
How significant is the impact?
➜
Jakarta is sinking at an increasing rate. Since the 1970s, the northern coastal region of Jakarta has sunk approximately four metres, and more than half of this has occurred in the past decade (see Figure 8.5.3). Sinking is now happening at a rate of 25 centimetres per year in the north and between 3 and 15 Figure 8.5.2 Thousands of people evacuated Jakarta’s CBD during centimetres across the whole city. a large flood in 2013. As a result, around half of Jakarta is now below sea level. It is projected that 95% of the northern region is likely to be permanently submerged by 2050, leading to the forced displacement of 2 million people. Large floods are already a frequent occurrence. They destroy buildings, roads and infrastructure such as drains, pipes and sewerage systems.
land subsidence the sinking of land as a result of the movement of underground material; it can be gradual or sudden, and can be natural or caused by human activities impermeable surfaces, surfaces that water cannot penetrate such as concrete, asphalt and rooftops submerged completely covered in water forced displacement the involuntary movement of people away from their home region
How is the issue being managed?
Figure 8.5.3 The extent of land subsidence in Jakarta since 1977 ➜
The Indonesian government is using a range of strategies to try to slow Jakarta’s sinking, adapt to its impacts and ensure people can continue to live there in the future. These strategies are summarised in Table 8.5.1, along with an evaluation of how effective they are likely to be.
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c08_p223-273.indd 247
21/05/26 8:10 PM
248
Chapter 8 Changing settlement patterns and urban planning for sustainability
Table 8.5.1 Strategies being used to reduce the impacts of land subsidence in Jakarta Evaluation
Jakarta is building more water infrastructure to increase access to piped water and reduce the need to extract groundwater. This is estimated to cost around US$40 billion.
This approach is likely to slow the sinking if groundwater extraction is slowed. However, it is costly and will take a long time, and meanwhile illegal groundwater extraction continues.
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
Strategy
Sea walls are being built to hold back the Java Sea and protect land from flooding. This includes a proposed 45-kilometre sea wall.
Sea walls only offer a temporary solution and are unlikely to stop the advancement of the sea if sinking continues, especially as sea level rises caused by climate change occur.
People have begun to raise their houses, by building higher internal floors using whatever building materials are available.
This is a temporary solution that reduces the impacts of flooding, but it does not address the source of the problem.
A new capital city called Nusantara is being built in Borneo, 1,300 kilometres from Jakarta. It will be completed by 2045 and will cost an estimated US$33 billion.
The Indonesian government claims that Nusantara will be a green city, but there are concerns that building it will destroy the rainforest and the homes and livelihoods of Indigenous people.
MALAYSIA
MALAYSIA
Kuala Lumpur
Borneo
SINGAPORE
Approximate location of site earmarked for Indonesia’s new capital
Samarinda
Sumatra
Indian Ocean
Balikpapan
Sulawesi
INDONESIA
Jakata
Java
0
600 km
Timor
➜
Figure 8.5.4 The proposed location of Indonesia’s new capital city
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c08_p223-273.indd 248
21/05/26 8:10 PM
8.5 Case study: Why is the world’s largest city sinking?
Review 8.5 Knowledge and understanding
Online quiz
Thinking and working geographically
Students can access sample responses and results online
249
Teachers can go online to assign questions, view results, reports and more!
Knowledge and understanding
Identify the causes of Jakarta’s subsidence. Using Figure 8.5.3, state approximately what percentage of Jakarta has subsided to date. Describe between two and three socio-economic consequences of the subsidence. Construct a Venn diagram. Using two different pen colours, categorise the social, economic and environmental challenges present in Jakarta and the corresponding opportunities present in Nusantara. Imagine Sydney was facing a similar future to Jakarta. Investigate a suitable location to build a new major city. Consider things such as environmental impacts, access, climate and current land use.
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
1. 2.
3.
4.
5.
Thinking and working geographically
Working with geographical concepts: Space Interpreting satellite data
Figure 8.5.3 is a series of maps of Jakarta, showing data from satellite radars that measure the extent of land subsidence. This data can be used to calculate the rate at which Jakarta is sinking and project how far and fast it could sink in the future. Follow these steps to help analyse the data: 1.
Draw a table with nine rows and three columns. Add the years represented in Figure 8.5.3 in the first column.
Year
% coverage (2–3 m)
space the concept of space is about the significance of location and spatial distribution, and ways people organise and manage the spaces that we live in
% coverage (4–5 m)
1977
1997
2.
3.
4.
Estimate the percentage of Jakarta that has sunk 2–3 metres (yellow and orange) for each year. Repeat this process for the percentage that has sunk 4–5 metres (light and dark red). Comment on how the rate of subsidence has changed from 1977 to 2017. State the extent to which Jakarta is expected to have sunk by 2050.
a. Visit the official website for Nusantara (https://cambridge.edu.au/ redirect/11831). b. List the features of this proposed city that support the claim that it will be environmentally sustainable. c. Research the issues that have been raised about the construction of Nusantara. Compare your findings with the features listed in part a. d. Choose one of the strategies summarised in Table 8.5.1. Carry out further research to determine whether it is likely to be successful. Consider how long the strategy will take, how much it will cost and how effective it could be. Write a paragraph summarising your findings. e. Jakarta is not the only large city experiencing land subsidence. Research the situation in Ho Chi Minh City (Vietnam), Chittagong (Bangladesh) or Ahmedabad (India). Compare the opportunities and challenges presented in the city you choose with the situation in Jakarta.
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c08_p223-273.indd 249
21/05/26 8:10 PM
250
Chapter 8 Changing settlement patterns and urban planning for sustainability
8.6
What are the challenges facing rural and remote Australian communities? Success criteria
In this lesson, you will learn about the opportunities and challenges of living in a rural–remote Australian setting.
❏ I can assess the opportunities and challenges of rural–remote Australian living.
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
Learning intention
Starter activity
Study Figure 8.6.1 and outline the key message about population distribution highlighted by this cartogram.
cartogram a map where the geographic size of regions is distorted to represent a specific data variable, such as population or GDP, instead of their actual land area.
Population of Australia at Greater Capital City Statistical Area (GCCSA) level (total 23.4 million) Greater Darwin 140k
Rest of QLD 2.62M
Rest of NT Rest of 89k WA 535k Rest of SA 391k
Greater Perth 2.12M
Rest of NT
Greater Brisbane 2.53M
Rest of QLD
Rest of WA
Rest of SA
Rest of NSW
Rest of NSW 2.83M
Greater Adelaide 1.39M
Greater Sydney 5.23M
Rest of VIC 1.58M
Greater Melbourne 4.9M
Rest of TAS 309k
Australian Capital Territory 454k Greater Hobart 247k
➜
Figure 8.6.1 Pie cartogram of Australia’s population distribution
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c08_p223-273.indd 250
21/05/26 8:10 PM
251
➜
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
8.6 What are the challenges facing rural and remote Australian communities?
Figure 8.6.2 Without a youthful population, keeping rural schools open is not economically viable.
Rural population change
LEGEND 206,533
Darwin TIMOR SEA
Writing focus 8.6 Appositives ➜
Rural population growth across Australia is generally declining, with only about 13.25% of Australians living in rural areas in 2024. While some regional areas experience slow counter-urbanisation growth, due to net migration from urban residents seeking a tree change, many rural towns face shrinking populations, ageing demographics and service challenges. Despite this, some connected regional areas are seeing modest increases, supported by a shift in lifestyle preferences and migration patterns beyond major cities.
tree change a lifestyle move from city to rural areas for a quieter, nature-focused life
–4,533
NORTHERN TERRITORY
QUEENSLAND
WESTERN AUSTRALIA
Brisbane
SOUTH AUSTRALIA
NEW SOUTH WALES
Perth
Sydney GREAT AUSTRALIAN BIGHT 0
1,000 km
Adelaide Melbourne TASMANIA
Hobart
➜
Figure Choropleth map of population growth by local government area • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400 Uncorrected 3rd sample pages8.6.3 • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026
9781009788083c08_p223-273.indd 251
21/05/26 8:10 PM
252
Chapter 8 Changing settlement patterns and urban planning for sustainability
Case study: Rural and remote challenges in far north NSW Age-sex pyramid, 2021 Byron Shire
Regional NSW Males
85 and over
Females
85 and over
80 to 84
80 to 84 75 to 79
70 to 74
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
75 to 79
70 to 74
65 to 69
65 to 69
60 to 64
60 to 64
55 to 59
55 to 59
50 to 54
50 to 54
45 to 49
45 to 49
40 to 44
40 to 44
35 to 39
35 to 39
30 to 34
30 to 34
25 to 29
25 to 29
20 to 24
20 to 24
15 to 19
15 to 19
10 to 14
10 to 14
5 to 9
5 to 9
0 to 4
0 to 4
5%
4%
3%
2%
1%
1%
0%
2%
3%
4%
5%
% of persons
➜
Figure 8.6.4 Population profile of Byron Shire against regional NSW
Source: Adapted from the Informed Decisions Community website
Demographics
In far north NSW, the rural Tweed and Byron Shires face significant demographic and social challenges. The proportion of young people in Tweed is gradually shrinking – only 5.5% of the population is aged 15 to 19, compared with 13.8% aged over 65, reflecting a trend of youth rural to urban migration. Young people are moving to cities seeking higher education and greater job opportunities. Tweed’s population is forecast to rise overall, but with a growing dominance of older age groups: by 2036, retirees will outnumber children nearly 2.4 to 1.
Education
In many rural districts, secondary students travel more than 30 kilometres to the nearest high school, and residents might be over an hour from the major hospital in Tweed Heads or Lismore.
Employment
Agriculture, once a major employer, now supports fewer jobs due to mechanisation and recurring floods and droughts; in Tweed as of 2024, only 1,400 people were working in farming, down from over 2,000 two decades ago.
Transport Poor public transport remains a major barrier, with less than three per cent of households in rural Tweed using buses to commute.
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c08_p223-273.indd 252
21/05/26 8:10 PM
253
8.6 What are the challenges facing rural and remote Australian communities?
Housing “mismatch” In regional Australia, 61% of households have one or two people, but 76% of homes have three or more bedrooms. This has created a shortage of medium-density housing, which is desired by older residents who want to downsize but stay in their communities. With 81% of regional homes being detached houses, many older people cannot move to smaller homes, limiting housing availability for younger people.
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
This combination of youth decline, struggling services, economic restructuring, housing mismatch and transport gaps is reshaping the character of these rural communities. The local economy is shifting to agritourism, ecotourism and the creative arts and hopes to attract youthful refugees to sustain rural communities.
Mingoola: Opportunities and refugee resettlement
Mingoola, a small rural town on the NSW–Queensland border, also faced serious decline due to youth outmigration and the closure of amenities such as schools. Local farms struggled to attract young workers, and many community events faded as families moved away. The population consisted mainly of older residents, and abandoned cottages dotted the landscape – hallmarks of rural decline caused by a shrinking school-age population and falling employment in traditional agriculture.
agritourism tourism that focuses on visiting agricultural areas to learn about and enjoy agricultural activities
Mingoola joined with refugee advocate groups to welcome families from the waraffected Great Lakes region of central Africa, notably Rwanda, Burundi, Congo and Uganda. These new residents, often with large families, came from strong agricultural backgrounds and were seeking a return to rural life after living in crowded, urban environments such as Sydney.
ecotourism responsible travel to natural areas that conserves the environment, supports local communities, and involves education about nature
➜
Figure 8.6.5 African refugees revived the rural NSW town of Mingoola.
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c08_p223-273.indd 253
21/05/26 8:10 PM
254
Chapter 8 Changing settlement patterns and urban planning for sustainability
The African refugees from Burundi valued Mingoola’s spacious rural setting, which enabled them to grow crops, raise animals and reconnect with their traditions of self-reliant village life. Over 80% had prior experience in subsistence or small-scale agriculture, and took on seasonal farm jobs, such as pumpkin harvesting, woolshed work, gardening and property maintenance. Many had fled conflict and trauma in their homeland, but found peace and opportunity in country life.
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
Their arrival revitalised Mingoola – abandoned houses were restored, community events revived, and the primary school re-opened, boosted by enrolments of refugee children. Relationships grew between locals and newcomers, employment rose, and the initiative gained national attention, inspiring over 100 similar settlement proposals. However, by 2019, severe drought had eliminated farm jobs and water security, while family medical needs required specialist services unavailable locally; all families relocated to larger centres such as Brisbane. The school closed. Mingoola is an example of early successes in community-led regional migration; however, inadequate services and climate impacts, remain a barrier for such programs.
Agritourism, ecotourism, creative arts: Broader opportunities Beyond resettlement, remote NSW is increasingly turning to agritourism, ecotourism and the arts, including the following:
• Farms offer “pick your own” experiences, rural stays and food festivals to widen • • •
incomes. Ecotourism initiatives promote conservation of river valleys and bushland, attracting nature lovers for birdwatching, hiking and cultural interpretation. Local artists and musicians host workshops and events showcasing rural heritage and creative skills, an economic boon for small towns. Disused railway lines are being reinvigorated as “rail trails”, such as the Northern Rivers Rail Trail (shown in Figure 8.6.6). These are accessible trails through the landscape that reconnect rural communities and attract tourists.
These opportunities help diversify incomes and foster community resilience in places facing population and economic pressures.
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c08_p223-273.indd 254
21/05/26 8:10 PM
255
➜
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
8.6 What are the challenges facing rural and remote Australian communities?
Figure 8.6.6 Accessible trails reconnect rural communities and encourage sports tourism.
Review 8.6
Online quiz
Knowledge and understanding
Thinking and working geographically
Students can access sample responses and results online
Teachers can go online to assign questions, view results, reports and more!
Knowledge and understanding 1.
Using Figure 8.6.3, describe the spatial distribution of population decline across Australia.
2.
Study Figure 8.6.4. Using the regional NSW data, calculate the percentage of young dependent people (aged 0–19); economically active (people aged 20–64); and elderly (65+).
3.
Explain the socio-economic impacts of the population structure shown in Figure 8.6.4 on rural and remote communities in NSW.
4.
With reference to the Mingoola case study, answer the following questions:
a. Why was this type of rural lifestyle better suited to the refugees than city living? b. What experiences did they have in their home countries that made them better suited to life in rural rather than urban NSW?
5.
Evaluate the impact of changing demographics on rural and remote NSW.
Thinking and working geographically
Working with geographical concepts: Place 1.
Using Google Maps, take a screenshot of a street view in Mingoola and compare this to a street view of the landscape in Rwanda. Compare and contrast the landscapes using a Venn diagram or annotate the screenshots.
2.
Evaluate how agritourism, ecotourism and the creative arts help to diversify incomes and strengthen community resilience in these areas.
place the concept of place is about the significance of places and what they are like
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c08_p223-273.indd 255
21/05/26 8:10 PM
256
Chapter 8 Changing settlement patterns and urban planning for sustainability
8.7
How sustainable are Australia’s future urban places? Success criteria
In this lesson, you will learn about the challenges and management strategies used to create sustainable urban environments in Australia.
❏ I can evaluate the effectiveness of different strategies for sustainable urban planning.
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
Learning intention
Starter activity Ranking priorities
Geographers are often faced with a series of management challenges. When deciding how to allocate resources to solve these problems, they must consider management priorities. This involves ranking challenges from the most significant or urgent to the least, and then justifying the decision.
Using the knowledge of urban management challenges you have gained in this chapter, such as those discussed in Table 8.3.2, use the diamond ranking template shown to rank nine challenges facing urban areas. Compare your rankings with those of a classmate and justify your top and bottom choices. Discuss ways to address your top priorities. Can you think of barriers to addressing these challenges?
Most important
Least important
Challenges in urban management
➜
Writing focus 8.7 Appositives
The Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS) projects that Australia’s population will reach 35.9 million people in 2050. Most of this growth will occur in urban areas. Sydney is expected to reach 9 million, and Melbourne won’t be far behind at 8.5 million. This rapid growth is expected to make existing issues worse and create a whole new set of management challenges in Australia’s capital cities.
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c08_p223-273.indd 256
21/05/26 8:10 PM
257
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
8.7 How sustainable are Australia’s future urban places?
➜
Figure 8.7.1 One Central Park in Sydney’s inner city incorporates vertical gardens and features heliostats that reflect sunlight to illuminate lower levels.
Managing Australia’s urban future
Governments and councils in Australia already use a number of management strategies to keep our urban places sustainable. Some examples from New South Wales and Queensland are listed in Table 8.7.1 along with some potential barriers to their success. Table 8.7.1 Strategies used in New South Wales and Queensland to manage urban sustainability Management strategy
Barriers to success
Settling migrants in rural areas and smaller towns to help balance the population distribution (e.g. Mingoola)
Overcoming difficulties in finding suitable employment, racial and cultural discrimination and social isolation
Designing “30-minute cities” where residents can access work and Ensuring facilities and services are of a high standard and quality across services within 30 minutes of their homes (e.g. Sydney’s Three Cities Plan). Other cities also have multiple purpose-built business neighbourhoods districts, such as London (Canary Wharf) and Paris (La Defense). Increasing the proportion of green space, such as parkland and vertical vegetation (Figure 8.7.1). For example, Central Park in Sydney’s West Parkland City will provide a two-hectare green oasis with more than 550 mature trees and 70,000 native plants, achieving a minimum of 65% tree canopy cover. This complements Sydney’s Green Grid plan, which aims to connect green spaces across the metropolitan area to enhance biodiversity, improve urban cooling and offer accessible recreational spaces for communities.
Managing the competing demands for land, especially the demand for more housing and the rising values of innercity land. In Brisbane, green space is declining as pressure mounts to create accessible infrastructure ahead of the 2032 Olympic Games.
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c08_p223-273.indd 257
21/05/26 8:10 PM
258
Chapter 8 Changing settlement patterns and urban planning for sustainability
Barriers to success
Undertaking large transport infrastructure projects to ease congestion and provide more reliable, sustainable, public transport, such as the Sydney Metro West project, a 24 km underground to connect the CBD, with nine new stations at an estimated cost of $30 billion)
Handling temporary disruptions for commuters, spiralling economic costs and delays in delivering the projects on time and on budget
Cultural heritage assessments to mitigate against potential interference to Country from new developments
Difficulties engaging culturally diverse stakeholders with sensitivity and unresolved native title claims and land disputes
Redeveloping and upcycling old structures, rather than demolishing and rebuilding
Older structures may have lost their structural integrity; they may also not meet today’s safety and energy efficiency standards.
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
Management strategy
Gentrification of brownfield sites such as disused factories, rather Local residents are often displaced once than expanding on the rural–urban fringe’s greenfield sites. the area is redeveloped and gentrified. Removal of contaminated or ageing infrastructure can be prohibitively costly.
gentrification areas improved and remodelled by public and private funding that then attract wealthier people, who enjoy the benefits of being near the city centre
greenfield site an area that has not previously been developed, such as a woodland brownfield site an area that has previously been developed and therefore has infrastructure, such as roads, and services such as water, electricity and sewerage, but requires redevelopment
➜ Figure 8.7.2 Redeveloped in 2021 as Quay
Quarter Tower in Sydney, this is the world’s first “upcycled” skyscraper; it retained 68% of the existing AMP Centre building’s structure. Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c08_p223-273.indd 258
21/05/26 8:10 PM
259
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
8.7 How sustainable are Australia’s future urban places?
➜
Figure 8.7.3 Future expansions to Sydney’s Metro will include connections to the Western Sydney Airport and will link Greater Parramatta to the Sydney CBD by 2032. This will significantly improve connectivity across Greater Sydney, with a total of 46 stations and over 113 kilometres of track planned.
Review 8.7
Online quiz
Knowledge and understanding
Thinking and working geographically
Students can access sample responses and results online
Teachers can go online to assign questions, view results, reports and more!
Knowledge and understanding 1.
List three strategies used in NSW and Queensland to manage urban sustainability.
2.
Summarise the main challenges urban managers face as cities grow in Australia.
3.
Compare the social, economic, environmental and cultural barriers to effective urban management.
4.
Assess which management strategy you think will be most effective in creating sustainable cities. Justify your opinion.
Thinking and working geographically
Working with geographical concepts: Change 1.
Explain how the Sydney Metro expansion might change the spatial pattern of Greater Sydney.
change the concept of change is about explaining geographical phenomena by investigating how they have developed over time
Geographical inquiry 2.
Imagine you are planning a geographical investigation into one aspect of your city’s sustainability. What inquiry questions could you ask, and what primary and secondary research would you use to gather evidence?
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c08_p223-273.indd 259
21/05/26 8:10 PM
260
Chapter 8 Changing settlement patterns and urban planning for sustainability
8.8
How can mega sporting events be used to manage urban growth? Success criteria
In this lesson, you will learn about the varying perspectives on addressing urban deprivation with urban redevelopment.
❏ I can assess the extent to which mega sporting events offer an opportunity to address urban deprivation.
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
Learning intention
Starter activity
Study Figure 8.8.1, which is a row of derelict houses (now demolished) in Toxteth, Liverpool, UK. What evidence of deprivation can you identify or infer from the image? Challenge yourself by drawing a Venn diagram to categorise this evidence into social, economic and environmental factors.
To effectively address these challenges, baseline indicators of deprivation need to be identified and measured. As a class, discuss and suggest indicators that could be used to measure levels of deprivation. For example, you might consider unemployment, life expectancy, crime rates and property values.
➜
Figure 8.8.1 Urban decline is characterised by population loss, economic downturn and deteriorating infrastructure. It can result in high crime rates, increased poverty, abandoned buildings and a breakdown in community cohesion.
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c08_p223-273.indd 260
21/05/26 8:10 PM
8.8 How can mega sporting events be used to manage urban growth?
261
How can urbanisation and urban decline be addressed with urban renewal?
Writing focus 8.8 Transitional phrases
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
➜
South-East Queensland is experiencing rapid population growth – its population is expected to increase from around 3.8 million today to nearly 6 million by 2046, adding over 2 million new residents. This growth creates significant pressure on services, infrastructure and the environment. The high demand for housing and infrastructure drives the need for urban consolidation and presents opportunities to redevelop deprived areas.
➜
Figure 8.8.2 Oblique aerial photograph of Sydney’s Olympic Park, previously a site of heavily polluted industrial wasteland, including abattoirs and liquid waste dumping grounds at Homebush Bay
Amazing but true…
Sydney Olympic Stadium (now Stadium Australia), built for the 2000 Olympics at a cost of A$690 million, is an excellent example of a cash cow development. It is used regularly for sports and concerts; its investment has been returned many times over.
Mega sporting events, such as the Olympic and Commonwealth Games, can fasttrack infrastructure investment, target areas of deprivation and decline, and revitalise urban landscapes.
urban deprivation a standard of living below that of the majority in a particular society, that involves hardships and lack of access to services. Places suffering from urban deprivation have visible differences in housing and economic opportunities cash cow a valuable asset or infrastructure created through investment that continues to provide lasting economic benefits and support a positive legacy
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c08_p223-273.indd 261
21/05/26 8:10 PM
262
Chapter 8 Changing settlement patterns and urban planning for sustainability
Urban redevelopment is the process of regenerating whole areas within a city to create new infrastructure, housing and public spaces. It often involves:
• the demolition of outdated buildings • the construction of new ones, including residential, commercial, and
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
public amenities.
The goal is to:
• enhance the quality of life for residents • stimulate economic growth • address urban challenges such as overcrowding or decay. Stakeholder perspectives
“The Queen Elizabeth Olympic Park in London transformed a forgotten industrial district into a vibrant community with affordable housing, green spaces and millions of visitors annually. It’s a living example of how Games can catalyse long-term urban regeneration.”
Source: Urban Planner, London
“Sydney 2000 not only delivered world-class sporting facilities but revitalised Homebush Bay, turning it from a polluted wasteland into an iconic precinct hosting thousands of jobs and businesses. The new public transport links still benefit residents and commuters today.”
Source: Sydney Olympic Authority
“The Brisbane 2032 Games provide a unique opportunity to fast-track sustainable infrastructure, create thousands of jobs and improve public transport in the Greater Springfield area and beyond. This urban renewal will deliver lasting benefits to the community.”
Source: Queensland Government
“Olympic infrastructure can be a ‘cash cow’ if planned well, generating tourism, investment and improved city branding long after the Games have ended, as seen in Barcelona 1992 and London 2012.”
white elephant a costly facility or infrastructure built for events such as the Olympics that unused or underused afterwards
Source: Tourist bureau
“Montreal 1976 and Athens 2004 left behind costly arenas no one uses, draining public funds and becoming ‘white elephants’ that burden us taxpayers for decades.” Source: Local resident
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c08_p223-273.indd 262
21/05/26 8:10 PM
263
8.8 How can mega sporting events be used to manage urban growth?
“While events promise affordable housing and community benefits, often entry fees for sports facilities are too high for locals.” Source: Local resident
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
“The displacement of residents near Atlanta in 1996 highlights that sport mega-events can fuel gentrification, pushing out low-income families without adequate support or affordable alternatives.”
Source: Local resident
“Environmental costs of mega-events are often understated. Increased pollution, waste and destruction of public parkland can have lasting negative impacts, despite short-term investment. Fifty-eight per cent of Brisbane’s Victoria Park – one of the city’s largest green spaces – is being developed to make way for the new 2032 Olympic stadium.”
Source: Environmental scientist
Amazing but true…
The Montreal Olympic Stadium in Quebec, Canada, was built for the 1976 Games but opened unfinished – it was barely useable for the events. The stadium ultimately cost taxpayers over CA$1.6 billion (about A$3 billion at the time), and it took 30 years – until 2006 – for the debt to be fully paid off.
Review 8.8
Online quiz
Knowledge and understanding
Thinking and working geographically
Students can access sample responses and results online
Teachers can go online to assign questions, view results, reports and more!
Knowledge and understanding 1.
State the main aim of urban redevelopment in the context of mega sporting events.
2.
Using Figure 8.8.3, explain two positive and two negative impacts of hosting mega sporting events on local communities.
3.
Identify how job opportunities created by the Olympic Games can benefit a city’s economy both during and after the event.
4.
Compare and contrast the social, economic and environmental pros and cons of hosting a mega sporting event from the perspectives of the different stakeholders on pages 40 and 41.
5.
To what extent do you believe mega sporting events are effective in addressing urban deprivation? Justify your opinion using examples from the case studies discussed.
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c08_p223-273.indd 263
21/05/26 8:10 PM
264
Chapter 8 Changing settlement patterns and urban planning for sustainability
Thinking and working geographically
Working with geographical concepts: Space 1.
Create a photo story of socio-economic deprivation in Saint Denis, Paris. Use Google Maps Streetview and Google Images (4–5 images) of the streets of Saint Denis that highlight urban deprivation. (e.g. Rue de la République, Pl. Jean Jaurès, 76 Rue Gabriel Péri).
space the concept of space is about the significance of location and spatial distribution, and ways people organise and manage the spaces that we live in
Define the terms “socio-economic deprivation” and “relative poverty”.
3.
Annotate your photos with arrows and captions showing visible markers of deprivation.
4.
Describe the socio-economic deprivation that you can see in your photo story.
5.
Explain how this may affect quality of life for those living there. Support your writing with further research into specific data on indicators of deprivation.
6.
Research what urban redevelopment took place in Paris in preparation for the 2024 Olympics, and what, if any, improvement there has been in the levels of deprivation. Annotate your Venn diagram from the Lesson starter activity in a different colour pen to show the improvements that address the specific challenges you previously identified. Search online for the following websites to help you in your research: International Olympic Committee (Community)(https://cambridge.edu.au/ redirect/11832); CEO Magazine (https://cambridge.edu.au/redirect/11833); World Economic Forum (https://cambridge.edu.au/redirect/11834); France24 (https://cambridge.edu.au/ redirect/11835); Bloomberg (https://cambridge.edu.au/redirect/11836); International Olympic Committee (Sustainability) (https://cambridge.edu.au/redirect/11837).
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
2.
➜
Figure 8.8.3 This photograph, taken in 2024, shows the abandoned Olympic beach volleyball stadium in Athens, Greece. Used sparingly over the last 20 years, the fate of Greece’s 2004 Olympic venues is emblematic of the country’s long-running failure to capitalise on the legacy of a Games that cost 8.5 billion euros (A$13.7 billion), according to the Greek finance ministry. Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c08_p223-273.indd 264
21/05/26 8:10 PM
265
8.8 How will the 2032 Olympic and Paralympic Games help shape a sustainable urban future for Brisbane?
8.9
How will the 2032 Olympic and Paralympic Games help shape a sustainable urban future for Brisbane? Success criteria
In this lesson, you will learn about the strategies being used to create economically, socially and environmentally sustainable Olympic Games in Brisbane 2032.
❏ I can evaluate whether the organisers of the Brisbane 2032 Games have “sustainability at the heart” and are creating a lasting legacy for the city and its communities.
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
Learning intention
Starter activity
Create a mind map with 5–10 points to address this question: “What infrastructure do you need to host an Olympic and Paralympic Games?” Share your ideas with a partner or the whole class.
What infrastructure do you need to host an Olympic and Paralympic Games?
➜
Figure 8.9.1 Mega sporting events, such as the Olympic Games, require a variety of new and existing infrastructure. What infrastructure do you need to host an Olympic and Paralympic Games?
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c08_p223-273.indd 265
21/05/26 8:10 PM
266
Chapter 8 Changing settlement patterns and urban planning for sustainability
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
The most sustainable Games?
➜
Figure 8.9.2 The Queensland Government hopes that the Brisbane Games’ new infrastructure developments will create a sustainable legacy.
Rapid growth in South-East Queensland
➜
Writing focus 8.9 Creating topic sentences
South-East Queensland is Australia’s fastest growing region, placing significant demand on its infrastructure and public services. This rapid urban expansion presents both challenges and opportunities. Hosting a mega sporting event such as the Olympic and Paralympic Games has the potential to act as a catalyst, accelerating sustainable urban development.
Brisbane’s commitment to sustainable Games
Brisbane aims to host the most sustainable Olympic and Paralympic Games in history, underpinned by strong economic, social and environmental legacies. These goals align with Queensland’s broader net-zero emissions target by 2050. The Games are planned not only as a sporting spectacle but also as a transformative event that drives investment in green infrastructure, promotes social inclusion and stimulates regional economic growth.
Community engagement and social inclusion
➜
Figure 8.9.3 Elevate 2042: The Brisbane Olympic Games Legacy strategy, representing a 20-year vision to make the region "better, sooner, together through sport"
Beyond building infrastructure and reducing environmental impacts, Brisbane 2032 prioritises community engagement and social inclusion. The “Games On!” Program is designed to inject significant investment into grassroots sports clubs, promoting long-term health and wellbeing throughout Queensland. Volunteer initiatives will engage thousands of locals, offering opportunities to develop new skills and strengthen social connections. The Games also pledges genuine engagement with Aboriginal and Torres Strait
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c08_p223-273.indd 266
21/05/26 8:10 PM
8.9 How will the 2032 Olympic and Paralympic Games help shape a sustainable urban future for Brisbane?
267
Islander Peoples, recognising their vital cultural contributions. These initiatives aim to ensure the Games generates widespread social and cultural legacies, benefiting future generations.
Victoria Park and sustainability challenges
➜
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
Victoria Park – known to Aboriginal peoples as Barrambin (the windy place) – is Brisbane’s largest innercity green space. It is listed on the Queensland Heritage Register for its cultural significance. Although Elevate 2042 (see Figure 8.9.3) Figure 8.9.4 Brisbane’s Victoria Park, already only one-fifth the size sets ambitious goals for of London’s Hyde Park, is set to be home to the new purpose-built Olympic sustainable urban design and Stadium. Its footprint will take up 20% of the 64-hectare park. ecological regeneration, the net-zero emissions commitment and original Olympic Host Contract requirements have been relaxed. The proposed purpose-built stadium will occupy about 20% of Victoria Park, threatening a significant and culturally important portion of this green space. 1. After the Games, the main Athletes’ Village at Northshore Hamilton in Brisbane will be converted into more than 1,500 permanent dwellings, including social, aged care and affordable homes, while additional athlete accommodation on the Gold and Sunshine Coasts will add over 1,000 extra dwellings for local communities.
2. Queensland’s 3. The Games are infrastructure projected to generate investment for the over 91,600 full-time 2032 Games exceeds equivalent jobs and $7.1 billion, with $3.435 inject $8.1 billion billion committed by the in economic and Australian Government, social benefits into focusing not only on Queensland by 2042. Brisbane but also on legacy projects region-wide.
4. Queensland is targeting a 50% renewable energy supply by 2030, driven by upgrades to public event and transport infrastructure, and all Games buses in South-East Queensland are required to be zero emissions.
5. Improved public transport will feature the $5.4 billion Cross River Rail project, linking Woolloongabba (Gabba Stadium) to the Brisbane CBD, as well as the new Gabba underground terminal, connecting sports venues and suburbs.
6. A new Olympic Games "forest,” with one tree per participating athlete (approx. 16,000), is planned to be planted in SouthEast Queensland, contributing carbon offsets and biodiversity.
➜
Figure 8.9.5 Plans for the Brisbane Games 2032
Source: Committee for Brisbane, Archipelago, QLD Government, QLD Conservation and ABC News website
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c08_p223-273.indd 267
21/05/26 8:10 PM
268
Chapter 8 Changing settlement patterns and urban planning for sustainability
Review 8.9 Knowledge and understanding
Online quiz
Thinking and working geographically
Students can access sample responses and results online
Teachers can go online to assign questions, view results, reports and more!
Knowledge and understanding
Outline two community engagement initiatives as part of the Brisbane 2032 Games plan.
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
1. 2.
Discuss the challenges associated with the stadium to be built at Victoria Park, and explain why it is controversial.
3.
a. Read the statements from Figure 8.9.5 and highlight key points in each. b. Categorise the statements as either social, economic or environmental aspects of the plan. c. Rank the statements in a Diamond 9, from most to least sustainable (discarding a 10th). d. Watch the video "How Brisbane Won the 2032 Olympics” (https://cambridge.edu.au/redirect/ 11838) and add any supporting points (labels) to your Diamond 9. e. Justify your top three positions.
4.
Evaluate how Elevate 2042 fits into the long-term strategy for the Games and the broader regional community.
5.
What social impacts will the Games have?
a. Create a quote from a person who will be affected by the Games. What might they say about the Games coming to their area? b. Read your quote to the class. Your classmates will guess where your person lives and who they are (e.g. approximate age, vocation).
Thinking and working geographically
Working with geographical concepts: Sustainability
sustainability the concept of sustainability is about the capacity of the environment to continue to support our lives and the lives of other living creatures into the future
1.
Evaluate whether the Brisbane 2032 Games are likely to leave a sustainable legacy. Gather up-to-date information as the Games approaches. Sites such as the Games Independent Infrastructure and Coordination Authority (https://cambridge.edu.au/redirect/11839)and Brisbane 2032 (https://cambridge.edu.au/redirect/11840) will be useful.
2.
Identify an area of Brisbane requiring redevelopment and propose a redevelopment strategy for the location, to be incorporated as part of the Olympic Games design. a. Choose one area that you believe could be redeveloped for the 2032 Brisbane Olympics. Access the following websites: ISRAD interactive map (found on the ABS website https://cambridge.edu. au/redirect/11841); the Poverty and Inequality Map (https://cambridge.edu.au/redirect/11842); and Brisbane Community Statistics (from the Brisbane City Council website (https://cambridge. edu.au/redirect/11843)). Use them to explore the demographics, socio-economic disadvantages and available infrastructure in the area. For example: • Moreton Bay Region (North Lakes, Caboolture, Redcliffe) • Logan • Ipswich • Redland Bay. Using a website such as Scribble Maps (https://cambridge.edu.au/redirect/11844), annotate your chosen area with your sustainable legacy design. Add detailed annotations to justify your decisions.
3.
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c08_p223-273.indd 268
21/05/26 8:10 PM
8.9 How will the 2032 Olympic and Paralympic Games help shape a sustainable urban future for Brisbane?
269
Success criteria:
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
• Minimising urban heat islands • Sustainable transport options • Sustainable energy generation • Enhancing green space • New housing • Sports facilities – permanent and/or temporary • Olympic legacy – do some facilities have a dual purpose to enhance their long-term sustainability? (e.g. the aquatic centre will be converted into an aquapark).
4.
Present your project proposal to the class. As each person or group presents, write down one constructive criticism of the project and one highlight. At the end of the presentations, walk about the classroom and give feedback to one another. Then, write down one thing that stood out from the peer feedback as being a highlight of your work and one thing you can improve on.
➜
Figure 8.9.5 Purpose-built facilities used to house athletes and officials for the 2024 Paris Olympics are being converted into 2,800 apartments to provide long-term housing for 6,000 Parisian residents.
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c08_p223-273.indd 269
21/05/26 8:10 PM
270
Chapter 8 Changing settlement patterns and urban planning for sustainability
8.10
Chapter review
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
Access the Interactive Textbook for a range of digital tools to help you review this chapter and build confidence. • Auto-marked questions for fast feedback and fun practice • Self-assessment tools to track your progress, review answers (if enabled by the teacher), and flag questions for extra help • Downloadable worksheets for class or homework revision
Summary
Summary notes
Download chapter summary
What have you learnt about changing settlement patterns and urban planning?
For this activity, copy the table and fill it out by explaining your understanding. Aim for two points per topic.
Terms
What I have learned
Urbanisation
Settlement patterns
Green infrastructure Urban renewal
Land subsidence
Visible thinking routine See, think, wonder
Having studied urbanisation, this visible thinking task asks you to apply your new understanding to complete a see, think, wonder activity using the image below.
See: What do you see in the image? Try to use newly learned geographical terminology and identify at least one environmental aspect, an aspect of transport and the built environment. Think: What do you think is happening to the area in terms of urban renewal? How do you think it will affect the people that live there?
Wonder: How do you think these changes will affect the future of the area? Think about changes to the land use (residential, commercial, industrial) and how sustainable it will be.
➜
What questions do you have about how this renewal could be made sustainable and equitable?
Figure 8.10.1 Battersea Power Station, London, during redevelopment in 2018
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c08_p223-273.indd 270
21/05/26 8:10 PM
8.10 Chapter review
271
Questions Scorcher quiz
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
Access a fast, fun, competitive quiz that puts your understanding to the test.
Quick questions
The following questions offer various ways to demonstrate your understanding of the chapter. 1.
Las Vegas is located in the arid Mojave _____ of southern Nevada.
2.
In 2007, for the first time in history, there was an equal number of people living in _____ areas and rural areas.
3.
A megacity is defined as containing more than _____ million residents.
4.
Slums lack basic services such as _____ water, sanitation, electricity and transport infrastructure.
5.
Which of these factors is responsible for Las Vegas being one of the fastest-growing metropolitan areas in the United States?
6.
A. High average temperatures B. Cheaper costs of living compared to neighbouring states C. Low rainfall D. Mountainous landscape Which country has approximately 92% of its population living in cities? A. United States B. Tanzania C. Japan D. Papua New Guinea
7.
Which city is identified as containing one of Africa’s largest slums? A. Jakarta B. Nairobi C. Cairo D. Cape Town
8.
What is one challenge facing rural NSW communities?
A. Rapid youth population growth B. Growth in tourism sector C. Rising affluence (wealth) D. Declining youth population and ageing demographics
9.
Recall one challenge caused by urbanisation in Las Vegas.
10.
Identify the difference between primary and tertiary industries.
11.
Why do urban areas tend to have higher natural population growth than rural areas?
12.
Identify two features of sustainable cities.
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c08_p223-273.indd 271
21/05/26 8:10 PM
272
Chapter 8 Changing settlement patterns and urban planning for sustainability
Writing focus The following activities allow you to practise your writing skills.
Answering questions in paragraphs You can use this as a model when writing your own answers to the questions that follow Question: Explain how pull factors can motivate people to move to cities.
(6 marks)
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
➜
Writing focus 8.10 Single paragraph response model
Model answer:
Topic sentence: the first sentence of the paragraph; directly answers the question Evidence: specific, relevant evidence to support arguments Linking sentence: reconnects with language of the question the topic sentence
Examples: provide credibility and illustrate the argument
Marking criteria for each question can be found in the Interactive Textbook. Refer to these criteria when planning and writing your responses.
Pull factors, such as educational opportunities and entertainment facilities, can motivate people to move from rural to urban areas. Cities contain centres of higher education. This can attract high school leavers from rural areas seeking to further their education, equipping them with the skills needed to secure high paid professional employment in the future. This is evident in Northern NSW, where young people from Byron and Tweed shires migrate to nearby Gold Coast and Brisbane to attend universities such as Griffith University and the University of Queensland. Along with the attraction of education, young people are also drawn to the city for easy access to entertainment. Urban areas contain proportionally more bars, restaurants, cafes, and they host major entertainment and sporting events. This is attractive to young people from rural areas, who would ordinarily have to travel large distances to urban areas to access such opportunities. This is evident in Sydney, which often hosts international recording artists. Brisbane is set to host the Olympic Games in 2032, the world’s most famous international sporting spectacle.
Explain: clarify, define and describe
Elaborate: additional information, interconnections
Examples: provide credibility and illustrate the argument Explain: clarify, define and describe
Elaborate: additional information, interconnections
Evidence: specific, relevant evidence to support arguments
Structured-response questions Question 1
(20 marks)
a. Describe one push factor that drives urbanisation. b. Explain how pull factors can motivate people to move to cities. c. Analyse the social and environmental effects of rapid urbanisation in Jakarta.
(4 marks) (6 marks) (10 marks)
Question 2
(20 marks)
a. Describe the demographic challenges facing rural areas in Australia. (4 marks) b. Explain how initiatives, such as diversified tourism and refugee resettlement, attempt to address these challenges. (6 marks) c. Discuss the potential long-term impacts of these initiatives on rural communities. (10 marks)
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c08_p223-273.indd 272
21/05/26 8:10 PM
8.10 Chapter review
273
Extended-response questions Question 1
(20 marks)
Discuss the environmental and social consequences of rapid urbanisation in Jakarta. Question 2
(20 marks)
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
Evaluate the extent to which mega sporting events such as the Olympics can successfully manage urban growth and development.
Teachers, access the Online Teaching Suite for digital resources and tools that support review, assessment and reporting, including:
• student and class activity reports • a test generator to create custom assessments • built-in feedback tools • editable downloadable support material • a downloadable and printable ‘Writing focus’ workbook for this chapter.
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c08_p223-273.indd 273
21/05/26 8:10 PM
Environmental change and management
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
Focus area
CHAPTERS
9. Environmental change 10. Geographical skills: Mapping change across environments 11. Environmental management 12. Case study: Australia and the Canary Islands
➜
Image: Isle of Skye, Scotland
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c09_p274-318.indd 274
21/05/26 8:15 PM
Chapter
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
9
Environmental change
Lessons 9.1
Geo Spark: What is the Great Pacific Garbage Patch?
9.2
What is an environment and how are they classified?
9.3
Why are Earth’s environments important?
9.4 What are the main biophysical processes changing Earth’s environments? 9.5
Case study: How did bushfires change Kangaroo Island?
9.6
Case study: Where did all the forests go?
9.7
How has climate change affected environments?
9.8
What are the impacts of environmental change?
9.9
Chapter review
➜
Teachers go to the Online Teacher Suite to: • plan, sequence and assign directed tasks for students and classes using Task Manager • view student activity reports • provide feedback to students • download a printable “Writing focus” workbook for this chapter.
Image: Deforestation in the Amazon Rainforest
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c09_p274-318.indd 275
21/05/26 8:15 PM
276
Chapter 9 Environmental change
9.1
Geo Spark: What is the Great Pacific Garbage Patch? Success criteria
In this lesson, you will learn about how some of Earth’s unique environments are affected by environmental changes and how they can be managed.
❏ I can describe how pollution affects the North Pacific Ocean.
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
Learning intention
Plastic pollutes the oceans
➜
Writing focus 9.1 Question words
You are on a holiday with your family in Hawaii, the 50th state of the United States. You book a tour and board a jet boat that takes you to swim with turtles and snorkel near coral in the warm North Pacific Ocean. In the distance, you see a cloudy patch of water. As the boat gets closer, you see some floating water bottles, some fishing nets and the end of a plastic toothbrush!
debris scattered pieces of rubbish or remains
➜
➜
Figure 9.1.1 Swimming with turtles in the ocean
Figure 9.1.2 Rubbish found on the Great Pacific Garbage Patch
Between Hawaii and California there is an unsightly and gigantic accumulation of plastic debris floating in the North Pacific Ocean. It is known as the Great Pacific Garbage Patch (GPGP) and covers an estimated 1.6 million square kilometres (three times the size of France). The sources of the debris include discarded fishing nets and single-use plastics such as packaging and bottles. The floating rubbish comes from countries in North America, South America and Asia. The patch is growing, with around 2 million tonnes of plastic washed out to
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c09_p274-318.indd 276
21/05/26 8:15 PM
277
9.1 Geo Spark: What is the Great Pacific Garbage Patch?
the ocean each year, which is carried to the patch by wind and ocean currents. The four main currents – North Pacific Current, California Current, North Equatorial Current and Kuroshio Current – move in a clockwise direction, trapping the floating debris into a gyre.
microplastics extremely small pieces of plastic debris in the environment resulting from the disposal and breakdown of consumer products and industrial waste
➜
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
As the plastics are exposed to UV rays and saltwater, they eventually break down into smaller particles known as microplastics, which continue harm the marine environment. Microplastics have been found in 210 fish species consumed by humans. Animals such as stingrays, turtles and birds have been found trapped in old nets.
gyre a spiral or vortex
Figure 9.1.3 Rockfish trapped in unused fishing net
1
3
2
Bioaccumulation
Birds and turtles feed at the surface of the patch
➜
Figure 9.1.4 Impacts of the GPGP
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c09_p274-318.indd 277
21/05/26 8:16 PM
278
Chapter 9 Environmental change
➜
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
There have been many attempts to clear the oceans of plastic. The Ocean Cleanup, shown in Figure 9.1.5, is a non-profit organisation helping to restore the marine environment by removing pollution in the patch and by intercepting plastic in rivers before it enters the ocean. Long U-shaped barriers are used to create artificial coastlines that guide the plastic to where it can be collected, removed and sorted. The Ocean Cleanup aims to clean up 90% of floating plastic pollution by 2040.
Figure 9.1.5 An Ocean Cleanup boat towing floating U-shaped barriers to trap and remove floating plastic from the GPGP
Activity 9.1
Visible thinking routine: Think, pair, share 1.
Think: Think about ONE solution to reduce the impact of pollution on Earth’s oceans.
2.
Pair: Pair up with a partner.
3.
Share: Share your solutions and discuss which one is more effective.
➜
Figure 9.1.6 Microplastics found washed up on a beach
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c09_p274-318.indd 278
21/05/26 8:16 PM
279
9.2 What is an environment and how are they classified?
9.2
What is an environment and how are they classified? Success criteria
In this lesson, you will learn how environments can be classified and some common types of environments found around the world.
❏ I can describe the different types of environments on the planet and classify them.
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
Learning intention
Starter activity 1.
Describe the different features of the environment that you can see in Figure 9.2.1.
2.
Have you ever seen an environment that is similar to this? Consider places you have visited, read about in a book or seen on television.
3.
What connection do you think people might have with this place? How do you think people might use the place or have changed the place?
➜
Figure 9.2.1 An environment in Otago, New Zealand
What is an environment?
What is an ecosystem?
An ecosystem is a community of living organisms that interacts with the non-living components in an environment. Elements of an ecosystem are interconnected through processes such as nutrient cycles and energy transfers. For example, Figure 9.2.2
Writing focus 9.2 Transitional phrases ➜
The term “environment” comes from the French word environ, meaning “that which surrounds”. In geography we define the environment as being all the living and nonliving components within and surrounding a place. In a forest environment, living components range from the tallest tree receiving the most sunlight right down to the tiniest insects breaking down plant matter on the forest floor. Non-living components, such as the shape of a landscape, the amount of sunlight it receives, soil types and moisture levels determine the types of habitat within an environment and therefore the types of organisms that live there.
habitat the natural home of a plant or animal and which contains suitable environmental conditions
ecosystem community of living organisms that interacts with the non-living components in an environment process series of natural steps or human actions that lead to change
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c09_p274-318.indd 279
21/05/26 8:16 PM
280
Chapter 9 Environmental change
respiration when living organisms release carbon dioxide during the production of energy such as when food is consumed
shows the different processes in the carbon cycle. In the carbon cycle, carbon dioxide is released from organisms during respiration and absorbed from the atmosphere into plant material via photosynthesis. Dead and decaying organisms release carbon back to the atmosphere. Organic matter that doesn’t break down turns into fossil fuels, such as coal.
photosynthesis process by which plants convert solar energy and carbon dioxide into glucose and oxygen
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
Atmospheric CO2
Combustion
Combustion fossil fuels
fossil fuels resources such as coal and gas that are formed from the buried and decaying remains of organisms
Assimilation by phytoplankton
topography relief, or shape, of the surface of a landscape
vegetation all the types of plants found in a place; for example, grasses, shrubs and trees water quality condition of water in terms of its chemical, physical and biological properties
population density number of people per square kilometre
Ocean
Coal
Formation of fossil fuel
Organic decompositon (animal waste, dead animals and plants)
Oil
➜
elevation the height of a place above sea level
Animal respiration
Plant respiration Assimilation into soil
geographic characteristics physical and human-made characteristics of a place
climate long-term trends in the weather conditions of a place; for example, average rainfall and temperature
Assimilation by plants and animals
Marine deposits of CaCO3
Figure 9.2.2 The carbon cycle
How are environments classified?
Geographers classify environments based on their combinations of geographic characteristics. In land-based environments, these include climate, elevation, topography, vegetation and soil types. In marine environments, characteristics include water quality and depth.
The location of a place often plays a large role in determining its environment. For example, a forest found near the equator in the tropical climate zone, such as a forest in Indonesia, is likely to have a consistently warm temperature and experience high rainfall. It will therefore be classified as a tropical rainforest. However, a forest located in a wet temperate zone, such as a forest in Tasmania, will be classified as a cool temperate rainforest. The characteristics of human or built environments vary significantly based on their population density and features such as roads, buildings and land uses.
Although environments can be classified based on similar characteristics, they can also vary greatly within these classifications. Figure 9.2.3 shows three distinct examples of coastal environments that vary based on the natural processes that formed them and how much people have modified them.
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c09_p274-318.indd 280
21/05/26 8:16 PM
281
9.2 What is an environment and how are they classified?
B
C
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
A
➜
Figure 9.2.3 Three distinct examples of coastal environments: (a) Apollo Bay, south-western Victoria, (b) Waianapanapa Beach, Maui, Hawaii, (c) Surfer’s Paradise, Gold Coast, South-East Queensland
Common types of environments
This lesson explores many different types of environments, many of which may already be somewhat familiar to you from places you have visited or from the settings of some of your favourite movies or television series. Table 9.2.1 summarises five common types of environments and their characteristics. Urban environments might seem like a strange inclusion; however, human environments are becoming increasingly common as humans continue to modify natural environments to suit their needs. Table 9.2.1 Five types of environments
floodplain the area of flat, low-lying land beside a river which is prone to flooding
Type of Description environment Terrestrial
Freshwater
Terrestrial, or land, environments include different types of forests, from dense tropical rainforest to drier temperate woodlands. They also include deserts, grasslands, mountain ranges and ice environments such as Antarctica. Land environments vary greatly based on climate, soil types, elevation, vegetation and topography.
Freshwater environments include rivers, lakes and wetlands, and the landscapes that surround them. As rivers flow, they erode the landscape, transport sediment and deposit it downstream. These processes create distinctive landforms such as valleys, waterfalls and floodplains. Freshwater bodies contain aquatic plants within the water and riparian vegetation along banks that maintain the health of ecosystems.
Coastal
Coastal environments are the link between the land and sea. They transition from components typically found in inland environments, such as dune vegetation, to components typically found in marine environments, such as coral reefs. Coastal environments are dynamic, meaning they are constantly changing. This is due to the actions of the tides, wind and waves.
Marine
Oceans are the largest environment on Earth, covering 71% of its surface. Marine environments can be divided into two main categories: coastal and open ocean. The coastal zone includes areas as far inland as a high tide can reach and as far out as the edge of the continental shelf. Marine environments vary based on water temperature, salinity, acidity, turbidity, nutrient levels and the degree of dissolved oxygen.
riparian relating to the banks of a river or lake continental shelf part of the edge of a continent that is submerged beneath shallow ocean salinity measure of the amount of salt in water or soil acidity measure of the amount of acid in water, measured using the pH scale turbidity measure of the transparency, or cloudiness, of a liquid, caused by the concentration of suspended particles within it dissolved oxygen amount of oxygen contained in water, used by aquatic organisms for respiration
(continued on next page) Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c09_p274-318.indd 281
21/05/26 8:18 PM
282
Chapter 9 Environmental change
estuaries environments in which the mouth of a freshwater river meets the open sea
Type of Description environment Urban
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
wetland place where stagnant or flowing water covers the soil at various times throughout the year
Urban environments are places that have been highly modified by people and are dominated by manufactured materials. Examples include dense cities, such as Sydney, including its outer suburbs, and regional centres such as Dubbo. The Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS) defines urban environments as places that contain at least 1,000 residents and have a population density of more than 200 people per square kilometre.
Environments do not exist in isolation. In fact, some of the most unique ecosystems are found where these environments meet. For example, estuaries are environments in which the mouth of a freshwater river meets the open sea, providing a habitat containing a mix of riverine and marine characteristics (see Figure 9.2.4). Wetlands are places where stagnant or flowing water covers the soil at various times throughout a year (see Figure 9.2.5). They act like giant sponges, absorbing and filtering excess nutrients and pollutants from freshwater, which supports the health of rivers and creeks. During high rainfall events, rivers flood outwards onto the landscape, depositing rich sediment over floodplains, recharging wetlands and maintaining the health of nearby forests (see Figure 9.2.6).
➜
Figure 9.2.4 The Daintree River flows into the ocean near Cape Tribulation, Queensland, and provides a unique habitat for species such as estuarine crocodiles.
Figure 9.2.6 The Lake Eyre Basin in central Australia, known by the local Arabana people as Kati Thanda, is a dry and salty lakebed covering around one-sixth of Australia’s land area. Roughly every three years, this barren landscape becomes a thriving oasis as floodwaters travel more than 1,000 kilometres down rivers, such as Warburton River, to recharge the basin. ➜
➜
Figure 9.2.5 Loch McNess (Wagardu Lark), a coastal freshwater lake that forms part of a series of wetlands near Perth, Western Australia
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c09_p274-318.indd 282
21/05/26 8:19 PM
283
9.2 What is an environment and how are they classified?
Review 9.2 Online quiz
Knowledge and understanding
Thinking and working geographically
Students can access sample responses and results online
Teachers can go online to assign questions, view results, reports and more!
Knowledge and understanding
Define the term “environment”.
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
1. 2.
Describe the living and non-living components in an ecosystem.
3.
With reference to Figure 9.2.2, explain the carbon cycle.
4.
Explain how geographers classify different environments.
5.
With reference to Table 9.2.1, distinguish between the five different types of environments.
Thinking and working geographically
Working with geographical concepts: Scale 1.
Brainstorm the different types of environments that exist around the world. Identify the different types of different global locations they appear in.
2.
Compare and contrast the three coastal environments in Figure 9.2.3.
3.
With reference to Figure 9.2.2, list three ways that carbon moves into the atmosphere as carbon dioxide.
4.
With reference to Figure 9.2.2, list three ways that carbon moves from the atmosphere into the Earth’s surface.
scale the concept of scale is about the way that geographical phenomena and problems can be examined at different spatial levels
➜
Figure 9.2.7 Sydney is an example of an urban environment.
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c09_p274-318.indd 283
21/05/26 8:19 PM
284
Chapter 9 Environmental change
9.3
Why are Earth’s environments important? Success criteria
In this lesson, you will learn about the main reasons why Earth’s environments are important to animals and humans.
❏ I can explain why Earth’s environments are important and worth preserving.
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
Learning intention
Starter activity 1.
Brainstorm three reasons why environments are important.
2.
Think about ONE environment you have visited in the past that is special to you. Write down what you saw, what you smelled, what you felt and what connection you have to this place.
3.
Explain why this environment is important to you.
Supporting biodiversity
➜
Writing focus 9.3 Transitional phrases
biodiversity the variety of plant and animal life in the world or in a particular habitat vulnerable susceptible to damage or disruption from stressors
Environments are finite and limited, and therefore need to be preserved, maintained and cared for. Different coastal and terrestrial environments – such as rainforests, coral reefs, deserts and tundras – provide unique habitats that support millions of species of life. Biodiversity is essential, because it helps ecosystems stay strong and adaptable to change. Each species, from the smallest insect to the largest whale, plays a role in maintaining balance in an ecosystem. The loss of biodiversity in environments can damage and weaken ecosystems. Weak ecosystems are more vulnerable to diseases and other external factors, such as climate change.
➜
The Great Plains of North America, located across Canada, Mexico and the United States, are vast grasslands that stretch across 700 million acres. The wide open spaces, fertile soil, expansive grasslands and access to river systems provide a rich and diverse habitat for many animal species. It is estimated to be home to more than 2,900 plant species, as well as habitats for 120 mammals, 150 amphibians and reptiles, 100 fish species and more than 1,000 species of insects.
Figure 9.3.1 Bulls Plains Bison found in the Great Plains of North America
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c09_p274-318.indd 284
21/05/26 8:20 PM
9.3 Why are Earth’s environments important?
285
The plains provide abundant grasses, ideal for large grazing animals such as bison (see Figure 9.3.1), pronghorn antelope and elk. The Great Plains are also home to predators such as coyotes, wolves and mountain lions. Smaller mammals, including prairie dogs, rabbits and ground squirrels, create shelters by digging burrows.
conservation the protection, preservation and careful management of natural resources and cultural heritage for current and future generations
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
Birds, including eagles and owls, can be found hunting the open fields, while migratory birds such as meadowlarks, ducks and sandhill cranes rely on the area’s wetlands and grasslands for nesting and feeding. Conservation efforts are essential to protecting the habitats of Great Plains to allow wildlife to thrive, support food webs and maintain breeding grounds for these species.
Providing resources
Environments provide humans with essential resources, including air, water, food and shelter, which are essential for survival. Tautira, located on the south-eastern coast of Tahiti in French Polynesia, is a coastal environment that provides a wide range of natural resources supporting both people and wildlife. With a population of just over 2,500, the coastal waters of Tautira are rich in marine life, with many fish species, shellfish and other seafood varieties that have long been vital food sources for the local community. The lagoons and reef provide opportunities for fishing and support the livelihoods of many locals.
The coastal vegetation around Tautira includes coconut palms, breadfruit trees and taro plants, which are used in local traditional dishes. Breadfruit is a starchy staple food, similar to potatoes, which is eaten often during family meals. The vegetation in Tautira also provides resources for traditional crafts. Pandanus leaves are harvested, dried and then cut and woven into baskets to be sold in markets. Wood from breadfruit trees and portia trees is carved and transformed into bowls, ornaments (see Figure 9.3.2) and decorative panels for homes.
➜
Figure 9.3.2 Hand-sculpted ornament from Tautira
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c09_p274-318.indd 285
21/05/26 8:20 PM
286
Chapter 9 Environmental change
Supporting the economy
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
Unique and beautiful environments attract visitors from around the world. Increasing number of tourists contribute positively to the economy, with the World Travel and Tourism Council estimating that travel and tourism contributed a total of US $10.9 trillion to global GDP in 2024. Countries that maintain their environments can capitalise on tourists and visitors who are willing to spend money to see these places. Banff National Park in Alberta, Canada, is one of Canada’s major tourist attractions. It was established as Canada’s first national park in 1885 and encompasses mountains, glaciers, forests and lakes. Covering an area of 6,641 km², it has showcased how natural environments can drive significant tourism and economic benefits, if managed effectively. Tourists generally visit in the summer months of June to August to hike, sight-see and visit the different lakes. Mountain environments such as Mount Rundle and Mount Cascade attract hikers, climbers and photographers, while the turquoise Lake Louise provides scenic opportunities for canoeing.
economy the state of a country or region in terms of the production and consumption of goods and services and the supply of money. overtourism the phenomenon whereby certain places of interest are visited by excessive numbers of tourists
In the 2023–2024 season, Banff National Park received a record-breaking 4.28 million tourists, which was a 31% increase over the past decade. With such strong visitor numbers, the local economy has benefited, with approximately 61% of residents employed in tourism-related sectors, including accommodation, food services, recreation and retail.
It is estimated that tourism in Banff National Park contributes more than $885 million annually, making it a strong driver of the economy. There have been fears of overtourism in the area. In response, Parks Canada has implemented visitor-use management planning for Lake Louise to ensure sustainable tourism practices and the preservation of cultural and natural resources.
➜
➜
Figure 9.3.3 Moraine Lake in Banff National Park
Figure 9.3.4 Tourists riding bikes in Banff National Park
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c09_p274-318.indd 286
21/05/26 8:21 PM
9.3 Why are Earth’s environments important?
287
Regulating the climate regulate control or maintain the rate or speed of a process so that it operates properly. carbon sink a natural environment’s ability to absorb carbon dioxide from the atmosphere
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
Earth’s environments play a crucial role in regulating the climate. Forests, oceans and wetlands act as natural buffers, absorbing carbon dioxide and reducing greenhouse gases that cause global warming. Forest environments are a carbon sink (see Figure 9.3.5), absorbing approximately 16 billion metric tonnes of CO2 annually, storing around 861 gigatonnes of carbon in biomass and soils. Oceans absorb about 30% of human-caused CO2 emissions (see Figure 9.3.6), while wetlands, covering just 1% of Earth’s surface, store roughly 20% of the planet’s organic carbon. When ecosystems are degraded through deforestation, pollution or urbanisation, their ability to regulate climate diminishes, leading to extreme weather, rising temperatures and increased natural disasters.
biomass the total quantity or weight of organisms in a given area or volume
The role of forests in the global carbon cycle Biodiversity Plant and animal biodiversity play a role in supporting the carbon cycle.
Sunlight
Carbon dioxide
Carbon sequestration Trees take in carbon dioxide (CO₂) during photosynthesis.
CO₂
Carbon dioxide
CO₂
CO₂
Trees release CO₂ during respiration. CO₂
Carbon dioxide
Carbon dioxide
Carbon storage Forests store the carbon of decomposed forest litter in tree trunks, and roots, and soil.
Some carbon from decomposed forest litter is released to the atmosphere.
Forest litter (leaves, branches, deadwood)
➜
Figure 9.3.5 The role of forests in the global carbon cycle
➜ Figure 9.3.6 The ocean absorbs
much of the CO2 emitted from burning fossil fuels Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c09_p274-318.indd 287
21/05/26 8:21 PM
288
Chapter 9 Environmental change
Review 9.3 Knowledge and understanding
Online quiz
Thinking and working geographically
Students can access sample responses and results online
Teachers can go online to assign questions, view results, reports and more!
Knowledge and understanding
Define the term “biodiversity”.
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
1. 2.
Describe how the Great Plains of North America support biodiversity.
3.
With reference to examples, describe the types of resources environments provide.
4.
Explain the four main reasons why Earth’s environments are important.
Thinking and working geographically
Working with geographical concepts: Sustainability 1.
Outline the short-term and long-term implications of using resources from our environments.
2.
Discuss why overtourism must be avoided and why sustainable tourism practices matter.
Mapping skills 3.
Draw a sketch map for Moraine Lake in Banff National Park (see Figure 9.3.3).
4.
Annotate the main features of your sketch map.
sustainability the concept of sustainability is about the capacity of the environment to continue to support our lives and the lives of other living creatures into the future
➜
Figure 9.3.7 Mountain goats grazing in Banff National Park
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c09_p274-318.indd 288
21/05/26 8:22 PM
289
9.4 What are the main biophysical processes changing Earth’s environments?
9.4
What are the main biophysical processes changing Earth’s environments? Success criteria
In this lesson, you will learn how atmospheric, geomorphic, hydrological and biophysical processes all change Earth’s environments.
❏ I can explain the differences between the atmosphere, lithosphere, hydrosphere and biosphere. ❏ I can explain the impact of the four spheres on the environment.
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
Learning intention
Starter activity
With your partner, discuss what a “balanced” environment might look like. Using Figure 9.4.1, answer these questions:
❏ What do I notice about this environment? ❏ How has the environment been affected? ❏ How have humans been affected?
➜
Figure 9.4.1 A child wades through the floods in south-east Bangladesh in 2021
Environments: Hanging in the balance
Earth’s environments are also dynamic, which means that they are constantly changing. Natural disturbances, such as a landslide, volcanic eruption or bushfire, can temporarily disrupt an environment’s balance and lead to significant changes until a system once again reaches a state of equilibrium. Natural changes can occur in different spheres of the environment.
Writing focus 9.4 Developing sentences
➜
Natural environments, when undisturbed, are usually in a state of equilibrium. This means that all the components and processes in an ecosystem are balanced. For example, if a tree dies in a forest, it will decay and add nutrients to the soil. Its death provides space and food so that a new tree can grow in its place.
state of equilibrium a balance between all the components in an ecosystem
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c09_p274-318.indd 289
21/05/26 8:22 PM
290
Chapter 9 Environmental change
Earth’s four spheres As seen in Table 9.4.1, the four spheres are systems that interact with each other and make Earth function as a whole system. Table 9.4.1 Earth’s spheres Description
Atmosphere
The atmosphere is the layer of gases that surrounds Earth and extends about 480 km above the surface. It is made mostly of nitrogen (78%) and oxygen (21%), with small amounts of carbon dioxide, argon and water vapour. The atmosphere is divided into layers – troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere and thermosphere – each with different temperatures and functions.
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
Sphere
climate long-term trends in the weather conditions of a place; for example, average rainfall and temperature
It plays a key role in regulating climate and weather, protecting life from harmful ultraviolet radiation and distributing heat around the planet through wind and air circulation.
Hydrosphere
weather the short-term state of the atmosphere at a specific location at a given point in time
plate tectonics the scientific theory that Earth’s outer shell (lithosphere) is divided into several plates that glide slowly over a molten layer (asthenosphere)
The hydrosphere includes all the water on Earth – in liquid, solid and gaseous forms. This includes oceans, rivers, lakes, glaciers, groundwater and even water vapour in the atmosphere. Around 97% of Earth’s water is found in the oceans, while only about 3% is freshwater, most of which is frozen in ice caps or glaciers.
The hydrosphere interacts with other spheres through processes such as evaporation, precipitation and run-off, which are part of the water cycle (see Figure 9.4.3). It regulates temperature, shapes landforms through erosion, and supports all forms of life.
Lithosphere
The lithosphere is the solid outer shell of the Earth, including the crust and the upper mantle. It contains rocks, minerals, mountains, soil and landforms. It is divided into tectonic plates that move slowly, causing earthquakes, volcanic eruptions and the creation of new landforms through plate tectonics (see Figure 9.4.4).
The lithosphere provides the nutrients and minerals that plants need to grow and is a source of natural resources, such as metals, fossil fuels and building materials. Processes such as weathering, erosion and deposition constantly change the surface of the Earth.
Biosphere
The biosphere includes all living organisms – plants, animals, fungi and microorganisms – that interact with the physical environment.
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c09_p274-318.indd 290
21/05/26 8:22 PM
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
291
➜
Figure 9.4.2 The hydrosphere, lithosphere and atmosphere interact to support the biosphere, which contains all the living things in an environment.
➜
Figure 9.4.3 Simplified water cycle
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c09_p274-318.indd 291
21/05/26 8:23 PM
292
Chapter 9 Environmental change
North American plate
Eurasian plate North American plate
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
Juan de Fuca plate
Caribbean plate
Cocos plate
Arabian plate
Indian plate
African plate
Philippine plate
Pacific plate
Pacific plate
Australian plate
Nazca plate
South American plate
Antarctic plate
Antarctic plate
0
Scotia plate
5,000 km
➜
Figure 9.4.4 Tectonic plate boundaries on Earth
The Eyjafjallajökull volcanic eruption in southern Iceland occurred in 2010. Standing at 1651 metres tall and completely covered in ice, the volcano had erupted several times between 1821 and 1823. Its most recent eruption in 2010 was a significant natural event that had widespread environmental and global impacts, impacting all four spheres in the environment.
volcanic explosivity index (VEI) a logarithmic scale from 0 to 8 that measures the relative size of explosive volcanic eruptions
air quality a measure of the cleanliness and suitability of the air for living beings and the environment
On 20 March 2010, the eruption originated in the lithosphere, where magma rose through cracks in the Earth’s crust and erupted as lava and ash, as seen in Figure 9.4.5. The volcano erupted with a volcanic explosivity index (VEI) of 4, producing lava flows and massive ash clouds that reached up to nine kilometres into the atmosphere. Lava reached heights of up to 185 metres before momentarily stopping. On 14 April 2010, the eruptions resumed. They melted large amounts of glacial ice, resulting in sudden glacial floods that caused extensive damage to rivers, farmland and infrastructure in nearby valleys. The volcanic eruption transformed the physical landscape and environment, forming new craters, depositing volcanic rock and reshaping glaciers and valleys.
The atmosphere was severely affected, with the ash cloud being carried by strong winds that spread across Europe. This resulted in the grounding of thousands of flights, disrupting air travel for several days. In addition, air quality was affected by the fine ash particles, which temporarily altered local weather patterns.
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c09_p274-318.indd 292
21/05/26 8:23 PM
9.4 What are the main biophysical processes changing Earth’s environments?
293
The biosphere was negatively affected as vegetation was buried under ash and livestock grazing areas were contaminated (see Figure 9.4.6). This affected the functioning of livestock and vegetation, which severely affected food supply. In addition, 800 local people in nearby farming communities had to evacuate due to the widespread ash and glacial floods (see Figure 9.4.7).
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
The hydrosphere was affected as volcanic ash mixed with water, and rivers experienced an increase in sediment. This led to a reduction in water quality and ultimately affected aquatic habitats as the river became polluted. As the hot magma melted the ice, the river and stream temperatures rose sharply, reaching above 40°C in some bodies of water near the eruption site. As volcanic ash and gases (sulfur dioxide and hydrogen chloride) dissolved into the water, rivers dropped in acidity, falling from around pH 7 to pH 5–6. Overall, the Eyjafjallajökull volcanic eruption serves as a clear example of how biophysical processes interacted to change environments.
Figure 9.4.7 A home near the Eyjafjallajökull volcanic eruption ➜
Figure 9.4.6 Farmers round up sheep at a farm in Iceland as ash falls around livestock ➜
➜
Figure 9.4.5 The Eyjafjallajökull volcanic erupting, releasing magma and ash into the atmosphere
Review 9.4
Online quiz
Knowledge and understanding
Thinking and working geographically
Students can access sample responses and results online
Teachers can go online to assign questions, view results, reports and more!
Knowledge and understanding 1.
Define the term “state of equilibrium”.
2.
Describe how natural environments can be disrupted.
3.
Distinguish between the four spheres.
4.
Outline the main cause of the Eyjafjallajökull volcanic eruption.
5.
Explain the impact of the Eyjafjallajökull volcanic eruption on the four spheres.
Thinking and working geographically
Working with geographical concepts: Change 1.
Explain how the Eyjafjallajökull volcanic eruption modified the surrounding areas in Iceland.
Engaging with images 2.
With reference to Figure 9.4.2, explain the different biophysical interactions taking place between the atmosphere, hydrosphere, lithosphere and biosphere.
change the concept of change is about explaining geographical phenomena by investigating how they have developed over time
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c09_p274-318.indd 293
21/05/26 8:23 PM
294
Chapter 9 Environmental change
Case study: How did bushfires change Kangaroo Island?
9.5
Success criteria
In this lesson, you will learn how bushfires affected the environments on Kangaroo Island.
❏ I can explain the environmental, economic and social impacts of the bushfires on Kangaroo Island.
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
Learning intention
Starter activity
See, think, wonder 1.
See: Search Kangaroo Island on Google Maps.
2.
Think: Note the environmental features prominent in this location.
3.
Wonder: Consider the kinds of environmental risks a place like Kangaroo Island might face.
Where is Kangaroo Island?
Kangaroo Island is located 13 kilometres south of South Australia, just off the southern coast of the Fleurieu Peninsula. The island is Australia’s third largest island and sits in the Great Australian Bight. South Australians and tourists from around Australia often travel to Kangaroo Island by ferry from Cape Jervis (about a 45-minute trip) or by plane from Adelaide (which takes around 30 minutes).
Investigator Strait
INDIAN OCEAN
Middle R.
Middle R. Dam
C ygn
R. ole
e
Cape Torrens
Cape Borda
Cape Dutton
Western R. Cove
Cape Snug Forbin Cove
De
M
o
White Lagoon
anor R.
R.
Harrie
E ast
re
Smith Bay Emu Bay
Birchmore Lagoon
North
R.
Casuarina I.
t R.
Cape du Couedic
West R .
Maupertuis Bay
W es
R. cky
North
R
Vivone Bay
Lake Ada
Boxing Bay Point Marsden Cape Rouge Kangaroo Head Point Morrison Fleurieu Norma Cove Peninsula Newland Bay Eastern Bay of Shoals Backstairs Cape Cove Passage Jervis Kingscote Snapper Point Nepean Bay Penneshaw Cape Coutts Western Cove Red House Bay Dudley Cape St Albans Peninsula Moncrieff Bay Sapphiretown
White Pt
et R. C ygn
t R.
Ele
Flinders Chase National Park
S orth
Larrikin Lagoon Vennache Point R. eck West akn Bay B Cape Bedout
Cape Cassini
Kob Point
Cape D’Estaing
Salt Lagoon
Black Point False Cape
Murray Lagoon
Lake Kitty
Cape Bouger
Hanson Bay Cape Younghusband Sanderson Bay Weirs Cove
Point Ellen Cape Kersaint
Cape Linois Cape Gantheaume
Salt Lake
Wilson R.
➜
Writing focus 9.5 Appositives
Lashmar Lagoon
Cape Willoughby Windmill Bay Cape Hart
Pennington Bay Point Reynolds Flour Cask Bay D’Estrees Bay Point Tinline
INDIAN OCEAN 0
20 km
➜
Figure 9.5.1 Map of Kangaroo Island Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c09_p274-318.indd 294
21/05/26 8:23 PM
9.5 Case study: How did bushfires change Kangaroo Island?
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
The island is known for its natural landforms, including coastal cliffs, sand dunes, forests and wetlands, which create an ideal habitat for a range of different animals. Because it has a small population, just over 5,000 residents, the area is relatively undisturbed and is home to kangaroos, koalas, echidnas, sea lions and numerous bird species. Around one-third of the island is protected as national park or conservation land, including Flinders Chase National Park, which known for its landmarks, including Remarkable Rocks and Admirals Arch.
295
➜
Figure 9.5.2 Remarkable Rocks in Flinders Chase National Park, Kangaroo Island
Causes of the 2019–2020 bushfires on Kangaroo Island
➜
On 20 December 2019, lightning strikes led to some devastating bushfires on Kangaroo Island. It had been a very hot summer and, when lightning hit dry vegetation, fires were ignited. Fires first started on the north and north-eastern coast, and then in Flinders Chase National Park on 30 December. With a mix of elevated rolling hills and coastal plains, Kangaroo Figure 9.5.3 A property that survived the flames of the bushfires Island became vulnerable to the flames that travelled on Kangaroo Island quickly uphill due to wind direction and slope. Coastal winds from the Southern Ocean in addition to the island’s eucalypt forests and dense scrublands, which are rich in flammable oils, contributed to the fires’ intensity. “The 2019–20 summer bushfires on Kangaroo Island were the largest in the island's recorded history and burned more vegetation than any fire on the island.”
Source: Country Fire Service, South Australia
Environmental impacts of the bushfires
➜
For most of the summer, the bushfires continued to burn, until the bushfire zone was officially declared safe on 6 February 2020. Geographically, the fires transformed much of the landscape, with 211,474 hectares of land burned – almost half of the island. The fires removed vegetation cover, leading to increased soil erosion, ash run-off into coastal waters and changes in local microclimates. It was estimated that 32,000 domestic animals died, along with many more of the island’s wildlife.
Figure 9.5.4 A dead koala in a burned-out forest on Kangaroo Island
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c09_p274-318.indd 295
21/05/26 8:24 PM
296
Chapter 9 Environmental change
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
Post-fire regeneration was supported by natural rainfall patterns and natural seed dispersal, while some areas are still recovering due to nutrient loss and soil degradation. Burned trees with hollowed-out logs became habitats for insects, birds and small mammals seeking shelter and nesting sites. Interestingly, the bushfires resulted in the regeneration of native vegetation, including wildflower species that hadn’t been seen in more than 70 years. It is estimated that 70% of burned farmland is now useable; however, forestry remains limited.
Economic impacts of the bushfires
It is estimated the fires caused damages exceeding $100 million. While Kangaroo Island’s tourism industry was previously worth about $140 million annually, the fires deterred visitors and tourists, resulting in a 40–50% drop in numbers after major attractions and eco-resorts were destroyed. The agricultural sector lost around 60,000 livestock, thousands of kilometres of fencing and large areas of pasture, costing farmers tens of millions of dollars. Over 95% of plantation forests were also burned, affecting long-term timber production.
Emergency aid was received from many organisations including the Red Cross, the Australian Defence Force and BlazeAid. However, what had largest financial impact was the “Kangaroo Island – Unfiltered” marketing campaign (see Figure 9.5.5). The Kangaroo Island Tourism Alliance (KITA) and Fuller Brand Communication collaborated to launch the campaign in 2022, after both bushfires and the COVID-19 pandemic had reduced visitor numbers. The campaign focused on promoting the raw beauty and authentic natural landscapes of the island to lure tourists back and promote spending.
The campaign focused on six pillars – local producers, nature, wildlife, island life, experiences and culture – and showcased the island and its experiences through digital advertisements, social media, influencer postings and videos. The campaign was successful, with almost 4 million views and 180,719 website visits. It is estimated to have led to a 30% increase in tourist numbers during the years following the launch of the campaign.
➜
Figure 9.5.5 Kangaroo Island “Unfiltered” marketing campaign advertisement
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c09_p274-318.indd 296
21/05/26 8:25 PM
9.5 Case study: How did bushfires change Kangaroo Island?
297
Social impacts of the bushfires
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
The bushfires on Kangaroo Island caused widespread social disruption and emotional trauma among its tight-knit community. While two lives were lost as a result of the fire, hundreds of people were displaced as homes, farms and businesses were destroyed. Many residents lost their sense of security and community identity, with many people experiencing psychological stress, grief and anxiety.
➜
Figure 9.5.6 Michael and Roslyn Walsh inspect bushfire damage at Social networks and recovering a strong sense their property west of Parndana on Kangaroo Island. of community were pivotal in rebounding from the social impacts of the fires. Programs such as the Kangaroo Island Recovery and Resilience Project and community bushfire recovery centres helped rebuild wellbeing and community connections by providing housing, food and emotional support.
Review 9.5
Online quiz
Knowledge and understanding
Thinking and working geographically
Students can access sample responses and results online
Teachers can go online to assign questions, view results, reports and more!
Knowledge and understanding 1.
Outline the location of Kangaroo Island.
2.
Explain why Kangaroo Island is an important environment.
3.
Explain the causes of the bushfires on Kangaroo Island in 2019.
4.
Discuss the main environmental impacts caused by the bushfires on Kangaroo Island.
5.
Discuss the main economic impacts caused by the bushfires on Kangaroo Island.
6.
Discuss the main social impacts caused by the bushfires on Kangaroo Island.
Thinking and working geographically
Working with geographical concepts: Interconnection 1.
Research the unique characteristics of Kangaroo Island.
2.
Explain the special significance and meaning of place for residents who lost their homes in the fire.
Geographical inquiry 3.
Research a bushfire that occurred within the last 20 years and create an annotated visual display outlining:
interconnection the concept of interconnection emphasises that no object of geographical study can be viewed in isolation
• the nature of the bushfire • the spatial patterns of the bushfire including a map • the social impacts of the bushfire • the environmental impacts of the bushfire • the economic impacts of the bushfire.
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c09_p274-318.indd 297
21/05/26 8:25 PM
298
Chapter 9 Environmental change
9.6
Case study: Where did all the forests go? Success criteria
In this lesson, you will learn about how deforestation has affected environments in Russia.
❏ I can explain the importance of forest environments and the impacts of deforestation in Russia.
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
Learning intention
Starter activity 1.
Imagine a world without trees. Write down five impacts of a tree-less world.
2.
Suggest three reasons why forest environments are valuable.
Share of land covered by forest, 2020
Forest area includes land with natural or planted groups of trees at least five meters tall, excluding those in agricultural systems.
No data 0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
70%
80%
90%
100%
Data source: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations and historical sources OurWorldinData.org/forests-and-deforestation | CC BY
➜
Figure 9.6.1 Share of land covered by forest, 2020
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c09_p274-318.indd 298
21/05/26 8:25 PM
9.6 Case study: Where did all the forests go?
299
Share of global forest area, 2020
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
Share of global forest area represents the proportion of a country's forest area relative to the total global forest area.
No data 0%
0.1%
0.2%
0.5%
1%
Data source: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (2025)
➜
Figure 9.6.2 Share of global forest area, 2020
➜
Figure 9.6.3 Top five countries for forest area, 2020
2%
5%
10%
OurWorldinData.org/forest-area | CC BY
Why are forests important?
Writing focus 9.6 Appositives ➜
Forests are valuable environments. Of all habitable land, forests account for a little over one-third of habitable land or about one-quarter of total (both habitable and uninhabitable) land area. As seen in Figure 9.6.1, forests are found all over the world, with the highest percentages of forest cover in South America, North America and Asia. Figure 9.6.3 shows the percentage of forest cover by country: Russia has the largest forest area and is home to 20% (one-fifth) of global forest area, while Brazil has 12% of global forest area.
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c09_p274-318.indd 299
21/05/26 8:25 PM
300
Chapter 9 Environmental change
Table 9.6.1 Arguments for forest preservation Supports biodiversity
Forests are home to over 80% of terrestrial species of animals, plants and fungi. Tropical rainforests for example, are extremely dense and are ideal habitats for species including jaguars, toucans, orangutans and countless insects.
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
They provide breeding grounds and protection for species. Birds like bald eagles build their nests in the canopy of temperate forests, while wolves build their dens in boreal forests.
harvest the process of gathering mature crops from a field after they have reached their peak growth
livelihoods a means of securing the necessities of life mitigate making something less severe, serious or painful
erosion the process of eroding or being eroded by wind, water or other natural agents
Provides resources
Timber products – an estimated 4.1 billion cubic metres of industrial wood is harvested annually and used for construction, furniture and paper.
Non-timber products, including fruits and nuts, provide valuable sources of food that are consumed by forest communities as well as exported globally. Approximately 13 million tonnes of natural rubber in the form of resins, gums and latex are produced annually.
It is estimated over 28,000 different plant species are used in traditional medicine worldwide.
Drives economy
Over 1.6 billion people globally rely on forests for part of their income, which contributes to livelihoods.
Forests are places for tourism and outdoor recreation activities, including hiking and trekking, camping, photography and adventure sports like zip-lining.
Regulates the climate
Carbon storage: forests absorb about 16 billion tonnes of CO₂ per year, helping to mitigate climate change.
Oxygen production: through photosynthesis, forests produce a significant portion of the planet’s oxygen.
desertification the process by which fertile land becomes desert, typically as a result of drought, deforestation, or inappropriate agriculture
Water regulation: forests regulate the water cycle, prevent floods and maintain groundwater levels.
Soil protection: tree roots prevent erosion, improve soil fertility and reduce desertification. Forests influence local and global climates by regulating temperature, rainfall and wind patterns.
The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) estimates that 10 million hectares per year of forest is being cleared due to deforestation. Deforestation is the purposeful clearing of forested land. The primary reasons for deforestation are agriculture (commercial crops, cattle ranching, subsistence farming); logging (legal and illegal); and urban expansion.
Deforestation in Russia
Russia is home to 20% of the Earth’s total forest cover. It has the largest forest area on Earth – about 815 million hectares. Roughly 49% of the country’s land area is covered in forest. A majority of the forest is boreal forest (taiga), consisting mostly of coniferous trees such as pine, spruce and fir. Mixed and deciduous forests of birch, oak, maple and aspen trees are found in western Russia, while colder Tundra forests are found near the Arctic Circle. Much of Russia’s forests have been cleared.
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c09_p274-318.indd 300
21/05/26 8:25 PM
301
9.6 Case study: Where did all the forests go?
LEGEND
ARCTIC OCEAN
< 5% 5–20% 20–40% 40–60% 60–80% 80–100%
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
Barents Sea
Moscow
Sea of Okhotsk
0
1,000 km
➜
Figure 9.6.4 Forest cover in Russia
Deforestation and illegal logging
Russia loses more than 1.3 million hectares of forest each year. This is mainly attributed to extensive logging. It is estimated that 30% of all timber harvested is from illegal logging, especially in Siberia and the Far East, where valuable tree species such as oak, ash and Korean pine are often targeted for export. There is high demand for timber exports from Russia, especially to China, where it used for furniture and flooring. In addition, weak law enforcement and corruption make it easy for companies to cut down trees without proper permits.
Industrial expansion
Large-scale industrial projects for oil, gas and mining are also major drivers of forest loss in Russia. These activities clear land for pipelines, access roads and infrastructure, fragmenting forest ecosystems and allowing further exploitation. Pollution from mining operations also degrades soil and water quality, leading to loss of biodiversity and habitat destruction. Rapid urbanisation and agricultural growth have led to forests being cleared near cities and farmlands.
export a product or service sold abroad corruption dishonest or fraudulent conduct by those in power exploitation the action or fact of treating someone unfairly in order to benefit from their work urbanisation the process of population shift from rural to urban areas, leading to the growth of cities
Human-caused fires
About 90% of forest fires in Russia are started by human activities, including land clearing, campfires or discarded cigarettes. In 2021, it was estimated that humancaused wildfires burned more than 18 million hectares of forest. As a result, vast amounts of carbon dioxide were released into the atmosphere and wildlife habitats were destroyed.
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c09_p274-318.indd 301
21/05/26 8:25 PM
302
Chapter 9 Environmental change
Deforestation in Russia has major impacts on the environment. The loss of so many hectares of forest reduces the amount of carbon that can be absorbed from the atmosphere. Wildlife, such as the brown bear, lynx and Siberian tiger have faced increasing habitat loss, pushing them closer to extinction. Mass deforestation has also led to soil erosion, flooding and poorer water quality throughout the country.
➜
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
Despite these impacts, Russia has made attempts to mitigate the impacts of humaninduced environmental destruction. In 2021, the Russian Government signed the COP26 Climate Conference pledge to end deforestation by 2030.
Figure 9.6.5 A harvester works at a felling site of the Segezha Group timber holding company in Vologda, Russia
➜
Figure 9.6.6 Artwork on New Brighton Beach, NSW, raising awareness for the COP26 global climate conference, which was held in Glasgow, Scotland in 2021 Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c09_p274-318.indd 302
21/05/26 8:26 PM
9.6 Case study: Where did all the forests go?
Review 9.6 Knowledge and understanding
Online quiz
Thinking and working geographically
Students can access sample responses and results online
303
Teachers can go online to assign questions, view results, reports and more!
Knowledge and understanding
Describe the spatial patterns of forests.
2.
Explain why forests are important.
3.
Analyse the impact of deforestation in Russia.
4.
Explain the main attempts to minimise the impacts of deforestation in Russia.
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
1.
Thinking and working geographically
Working with geographical concepts: Environment Geographical inquiry 1.
Think about the different stakeholders in forest environments and complete the table below. Add two additional stakeholders.
Stakeholder
Interest in the forest
Impact on the forest
Locals living in forests Businesses
environment the concept of environment is about the significance of the environment in human life, and the important interrelationships between humans and the environment
Tourism operators
2.
Research a group of people who live in forests. Explain the significance of the forest environments for them.
3.
In pairs, suggest an environmental strategy that could be implemented to protect forest environments.
➜
Figure 9.6.7 Aerial view of a eucalyptus forest near Healesville, Victoria
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c09_p274-318.indd 303
21/05/26 8:28 PM
304
Chapter 9 Environmental change
9.7
How has climate change affected environments? Success criteria
In this lesson, you will learn about climate change as a consequence of environmental change and how anthropogenic climate change is affecting environments on a global scale.
❏ I can explain how climate change occurs, how humans contribute to climate change and how climate change affects the environment.
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
Learning intention
Starter activity
Draw a graph of how you think average temperatures have risen or fallen over the past 200 years. Insert key events and years that might have affected temperatures.
What is climate change?
➜
Writing focus 9.7 Developing sentences
greenhouse effect an increase in the amount of carbon dioxide and other gases in the atmosphere that causes a gradual warming of the surface of the Earth
Climate change refers to changes in the pattern of weather, known as climate, over long periods of time. Climate change is a natural process responsible for large-scale climate cycles called glacial and interglacial periods. Glacial periods, commonly referred to as ice ages, occur roughly every 100,000 years.
During these periods, ice sheets expand over much of the world’s land surface. During the last glacial period, which was around 20,000 years ago, the climate was an average of 6°C cooler, around one-quarter of the Earth’s land surface was covered in ice and the sea level was around 125 metres lower than it is today. Since then, the climate has warmed and most of the ice has melted, except in polar regions and places with high elevation. The melting of the ice has caused sea levels to rise to their current levels.
How have humans contributed to climate change?
When solar radiation hits the Earth, some of it is absorbed and some is reflected back into space. However, some atmospheric gases, called greenhouse gases, absorb and reflect this heat back towards the Earth. This is known as the greenhouse effect (see Figure 9.7.1). Without the greenhouse effect, the Earth’s average temperature would be –18°C and most of the land would be covered in ice.
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c09_p274-318.indd 304
21/05/26 8:28 PM
9.7 How has climate change affected environments?
Since the Industrial Revolution, the actions of people have been increasing the concentration of greenhouses gases in the atmosphere, leading to anthropogenic climate change. For example:
305
anthropogenic caused by human activities
• carbon dioxide has been emitted through the burning of fossil fuels such as coal • methane has been emitted during the production and transport of coal, natural gas
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
•
and oil, and emitted by livestock and other agricultural practices nitrous oxide has been emitted from various agricultural and industrial activities.
Environmental changes also contribute to greenhouse gas emissions. For example, deforestation is responsible for up to one-fifth of global emissions. Forests absorb carbon dioxide as vegetation grows. This carbon is stored within the vegetation and is released when vegetation is removed or burned.
The increase in the volume of greenhouse gases in the Earth’s atmosphere is causing the enhanced greenhouse effect, by which more heat is being absorbed by the atmosphere. As a result, the Earth’s average temperature is rising, precipitation patterns are changing, ice sheets and glaciers are melting, sea levels are rising, and ocean waters are becoming more acidic. Natural greenhouse effect
Human enhanced greenhouse effect
Less heat escapes into space
CO2 C
H4 N 2O
More greenho use gas
d he
iate
rad
More re-emitted heat
Re-
eat
dh
iate rad
Re-
Less re-emitted heat
at
iatio
r rad
Sola
n iatio
CO 2
O CH 4 N 2
r rad Sola
as
ouse g
Greenh
n
More heat escapes into space
➜
Figure 9.7.1 The enhanced greenhouse effect means more heat is trapped and re-emitted by greenhouse gases.
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c09_p274-318.indd 305
21/05/26 8:28 PM
306
Chapter 9 Environmental change
Today
420
380 1958
300
For millennia, atmospheric carbon dioxide had never been above this line
1911
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
CO2 (parts per million)
240
260
220
180
800
700
600
500 400 300 200 Thousands of years before today
Ice core data
100
0
Modern instrumental data
➜
Figure 9.7.2 Although the concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere has always naturally fluctuated, its growth in the last 100 years from around 300 ppm to 426 ppm in 2024 is unprecedented.
What is the impact of climate change on environments?
Anthropogenic climate change is expected to have far-reaching impacts on all types of environments. According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), the global average temperature as of 2023 had already risen by 1.1°C since 1880, and there is a 50% chance it will reach 1.5°C of warming by 2040. If global emissions policies are not significantly changed, the climate is projected to reach an average global warming of 3.2°C by the end of this century (see Figure 9.7.3). °C
5
SSP5-8.5
4
SSP3-7.0
3
SSP2-4.5
2
SSP1-2.6 SSP1-1.9
1
0
–1 1950
2000
2015
2050
2100
➜
Figure 9.7.3 Projections for global average surface temperature change by the end of the century compared with the pre-industrial climate from 1850–1990.
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c09_p274-318.indd 306
21/05/26 8:28 PM
307
9.7 How has climate change affected environments?
SSP stands for Shared Socioeconomic Pathways. The projections in Figure 9.7.3 differ by the extent to which greenhouse gas emissions are managed at a global scale. For example, the SSP1-1.9 projection is likely if greenhouse gas emissions are reduced significantly, whereas the SSP5-8.5 projection is more likely if greenhouse gas emissions increase.
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
Increases in global temperatures are already changing rainfall patterns, which is increasing the prevalence of droughts and the frequency and magnitude of bushfires. In the summer of 2019–2020, the Black Summer bushfires burned more than 24 million hectares of Australian bushland, killed 33 people and an estimated 1 billion animals. A study from Australia’s Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO) confirmed that the disastrous fire season was fuelled by conditions created by anthropogenic climate change, and that bushfires of a similar scale are likely to become more common in the future. If warming reaches 1.5°C, around 7% of the Earth’s environments will shift into a new climate zone. Many species will be forced to migrate towards the poles, up mountains or into deeper water as the climate of their original habitat becomes unsuitable. Habitat fragmentation means that some species will not be able to migrate and therefore will be vulnerable to local extinction. Under this warming scenario, 14% of all land-based animal and plant species will face a high risk of extinction, rising to 29% of species if warming reaches 3°C. Anthropogenic climate change is also expected to raise sea levels due to thermal expansion and melting glaciers and ice sheets. Scientists have calculated that the average global sea level has already risen around 25 centimetres since 1880. Projections of how it could rise between 29 and 88 centimetres by 2100 are shown in Figure 9.7.4. This could have disastrous impacts on coastal environments due to increased erosion, flooding and the displacement of millions of people who live in low-lying coastal regions. In marine environments, increased ocean temperatures are causing widespread coral bleaching. Ocean acidification, caused by increases in the concentration of carbon dioxide in ocean waters, is already harming species such as molluscs and plankton (see Figure 9.7.5).
thermal expansion increase in the volume of a material due to an increase in temperature
2
Centimetres
1.5
Low-likelihood, high-impact storyline, including ice-sheet instability processes, under SSP5-8.5
1
SSP5-8.5 SSP3-7.0 SSP2-4.5 SSP1-2.6 SSP1-1.9
0.5
0 1950
2000
2020
2050
2100
➜
Figure 9.7.4 Projections for global mean sea-level rise compared with levels in 1900. These projections differ based on the extent to which greenhouse gas emissions are limited on a global scale. Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c09_p274-318.indd 307
21/05/26 8:28 PM
308
➜
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
Chapter 9 Environmental change
Figure 9.7.5 Bleached coral in the Great Barrier Reef near Cairns, Australia
Review 9.7
Knowledge and understanding
Online quiz
Thinking and working geographically
Teachers can go online to assign questions, view results, reports and more!
Students can access sample responses and results online
Knowledge and understanding 1.
Define the term “anthropogenic”.
2.
Explain how humans have contributed to climate change.
3.
Summarise the projected impacts of climate change, including average global temperature and sealevel changes.
4.
Explain the link between anthropogenic climate change and environmental change.
Thinking and working geographically
Working with geographical concepts: Sustainability 1.
Using Figure 9.7.1, explain the greenhouse effect and the causes and consequences of the enhanced greenhouse effect.
2.
Using Figure 9.7.2, describe the trend in carbon dioxide levels over the last 800,000 years.
sustainability the concept of sustainability is about the capacity of the environment to continue to support our lives and the lives of other living creatures into the future
Writing geographically 3.
Projections of sea-level rises have often been criticised as being inaccurate. However, sea-level rises are going to be uneven on a global scale due to ocean dynamics (wind, currents, heating, evaporation and precipitation) and because the Earth’s gravity field is uneven. In other words, just because sea-level may not have risen much at one particular location does not mean it has not risen elsewhere.
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c09_p274-318.indd 308
21/05/26 8:28 PM
9.7 How has climate change affected environments?
309
In order to gain a clearer understanding of global sea-level rises, NASA have developed a sea-level projection tool (see Figure 9.7.6). Launch the NASA sea level projection tool from the NASA website (https://cambridge.edu.au/redirect/11846).
➜
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
a. Click on locations in three different world regions and record how much sea level is projected to rise by 2100 at these locations. Is there a significant difference in the regions you chose? b. On the toolbar on the left, change “Decades” to 2150 and update the map. Have the projections for your locations changed? Use the map legend and colours to determine the regions of the Earth that are expected to experience the highest and lowest sea-level rises. c. Change “Decades” back to 2100 and change the “Data” to “Warming Level”. Change the “Scenario” to various degrees of warming and record how your data changes for each scenario. d. Using the information gathered, write a paragraph summarising the impact that anthropogenic climate change is expected to have on global sea-level rises over the next century.
Figure 9.7.6 NASA’s sea level projection tool enables users to access global sea-level projection data from the IPCC’s sixth assessment report.
➜
Figure 9.7.5 Popular Sydney beaches like Bondi are vulerable to substantial sea level rise.
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c09_p274-318.indd 309
21/05/26 8:29 PM
310
Chapter 9 Environmental change
9.8
What are the impacts of environmental change? Success criteria
In this lesson, you will learn about the main impacts of environmental change in a range of environments.
❏ I can explain the main impacts of environmental change in environments.
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
Learning intention
Starter activity 1.
Think about an environment you visited when you were younger. Brainstorm three ways that this environment may have been affected by human activity.
2.
Refer to Figure 9.8.1. How might humans have had an impact on Lake Oroville in California?
➜
Figure 9.8.1 Before and after: Lake Oroville in California
The impacts of environmental change
➜
Writing focus 9.8 Creating topic sentences
irrigation the practice of supplying land with water so that crops and plants will grow
Environmental changes lead to a range of positive and negative consequences, which geographers call impacts. Some of these impacts are environmental, affecting both human and natural environments. Others are social, affecting peoples’ lives, or economic, affecting different aspects of the economy.
Although environmental changes often lead to predominantly negative environmental impacts, there are often economic or social benefits that are driving the change. For example, the Aral Sea, located between Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan, was once a large lake covering 68,000 square kilometres and supporting a thriving fishing industry. In the 1960s, the rivers that supplied water to the lake were diverted so that the water could be used for irrigation. Since then, most of the lake has dried up and has become a desert, destroying the local fishing and agricultural industries, and causing one of history’s worst environmental disasters (see Figure 9.8.2).
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c09_p274-318.indd 310
21/05/26 8:30 PM
9.8 What are the impacts of environmental change?
311
Land degradation Land degradation refers to a reduction in the quality of soils in an environment, which reduces the productivity of land for agriculture as well as its ability to support an ecosystem or environment. There are several types of land degradation, including soil erosion, increased salinity, desertification and a decline in soil fertility.
soil erosion the wearing away and removal of the topsoil layer, usually by wind or water
➜
Figure 9.8.2 Abandoned ships in a barren wasteland are all that remain of the Aral Sea’s fishing industry.
➜
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
In some cases, land degradation occurs due to natural processes. For example, highintensity monsoonal rains can erode precious topsoil layers, while dry conditions during a drought can make topsoil vulnerable to wind erosion. However, land degradation is predominantly caused by human activities. Land shortages, poverty and rapid population growth can force communities to cultivate food on less productive land and to try to increase the yield by using unsustainable agricultural practices. Removing forests to increase agricultural land in Ethiopia has led to short-term economic and social benefits for many local people by lifting them out of poverty and increasing their quality of life. However, in the long term it has led to widespread land degradation through soil erosion, which has reduced crop productivity, caused a loss of rural livelihoods and threatened wildlife habitats.
land degradation a reduction in the quality of soil in an environment
salinity the practice of supplying land with water so that crops and plants will grow soil fertility the ability of soil to grow plants, especially in agriculture
water table the upper boundary of the saturated zone of groundwater, where the ground is completely soaked with water
Figure 9.8.3 Deforestation in Ethiopia
Table 9.8.1 Examples of human activities that can lead to land degradation Human activity
Cause of land degradation
Deforestation
The removal of trees makes the soil vulnerable to erosion from wind and water.
Overgrazing
Intensive grazing of livestock does not allow vegetation to recover from trampling, compaction of the soil or the overconsumption of vegetation.
Over-cultivation
Excessive cultivation of land degrades soil quality, reducing its ability to grow crops in the future.
Excessive irrigation
Irrigation can cause the water table to rise, bringing salt to the surface and increasing the salinity of the soil.
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c09_p274-318.indd 311
21/05/26 8:31 PM
312
Chapter 9 Environmental change
Habitat fragmentation
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
Habitat fragmentation is when a large area of continuous habitat is divided into a number of smaller areas. This changes the spatial distribution of the remaining habitat, leaving populations of species isolated and eliminating the interconnection between them. Habitat fragmentation can occur naturally due to events such as large-scale bushfires or lava flows following a volcanic eruption. However, humans are more often responsible for habitat fragmentation through actions such as logging forests for agriculture, urban development, and the construction of roads and railway lines.
The main impact of habitat fragmentation is the reduction in the size of a habitat. This affects larger species that need large areas in which to roam. It also increases competition among species for food and other resources. Figure 9.8.4 demonstrates how some species that adapted to living in an environment, such as the interior of a forest, can find themselves living on what are now the edges of that environment. This new habitat may not have suitable conditions in terms of shade, temperature and wind protection. Habitat fragmentation also leads to a reduction in genetic diversity. Fragmented animal populations have a smaller pool of breeding partners. This can lead to genetic abnormalities, increased vulnerability to disease and even local extinction.
Fragmentation
Interior habitat with interior species Edge habitat with edge species
Interior habitat and interior species decrease Edge habitat and edge species increase
➜
Figure 9.8.4 Habitat fragmentation turns one large environment into multiple, smaller environments.
River regulation
flow regulation controlling a river’s flow, water level and variability to meet the demands of domestic, industrial and agricultural use
All civilisations rely on inland water sources for their survival. As such, inland water sources are among the most modified and degraded environments on Earth. One of the biggest changes to river environments is flow regulation through the construction of dams. By constructing dams, rivers are regulated to ensure they provide a reliable supply of water for agricultural and urban uses. However, as shown in Figure 9.8.5, flow regulation causes a range of negative impacts on river environments by reducing the flow of sediment and movement of fish through the river system. While dams protect cities and agricultural environments from flooding, this in turn stops floodwaters from recharging nearby water-dependent environments such as wetlands.
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c09_p274-318.indd 312
21/05/26 8:31 PM
9.8 What are the impacts of environmental change?
313
Rotting vegetation releases greenhouse gases and reduces water quality. Dam walls blocks fish migration and can prevent successful fish breeding.
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
Transportation of sediment is blocked, which damages downstream habitats.
➜
If dams fail or overflow then the rapid of stored water can severely flood downstream communities.
Dam flow regulation alters the natural flow of rivers and prevents flood cycles.
Figure 9.8.5 Environmental impacts from damming rivers
Pest and weed infestation
Pests and weeds are plants and animals that have been introduced into an environment in which they do not naturally occur. Pest animals such as cane toads, foxes, rabbits and deer have been introduced to Australia since colonisation. Introduced predators such as foxes and feral cats have led to the extinction of many of Australia’s native species, while other introduced species have indirectly affected native species by competing for food and habitat resources. Larger pests such as deer, horses and pigs damage native vegetation and soils through grazing and by compacting the soil. Weeds are broadly defined as plants growing where they are not wanted. Invasive weeds are a serious threat to both natural and rural environments. They typically produce large numbers of seeds to help them to spread over vast areas and outcompete local species for water, sunlight, nutrients and space. As weeds establish over large regions, they reduce the biodiversity and abundance of indigenous species, including the animals that rely on those plants for habitat.
indigenous species particular species of vegetation that occur naturally within an environment
The spread of weeds can cause havoc for farmers by decreasing agricultural outputs and affecting profits. A study by the Cooperative Research Centre for Australian Weed Management estimated that weeds cost Australian farmers around A$1.5 billion each year in weed management and a further A$2.5 billion in lost agricultural production.
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c09_p274-318.indd 313
21/05/26 8:31 PM
314
Chapter 9 Environmental change
Review 9.8 Knowledge and understanding
Online quiz
Thinking and working geographically
Students can access sample responses and results online
Teachers can go online to assign questions, view results, reports and more!
Knowledge and understanding
Using Table 9.8.1, outline the main human activities that can lead to land degradation.
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
1. 2.
Explain the causes of habitat fragmentation and its environmental impacts.
3.
With reference to Figure 9.8.5, discuss why constructing dams to regulate the flow of rivers can have both positive and negative impacts.
4.
With reference to Figure 9.8.6, discuss the potential environmental impacts of tourists hiking through Fiordland National Park in New Zealand.
Thinking and working geographically
Working with geographical concepts: Change 1.
Summarise the ways in which pests and weeds can affect the natural environment. Research TWO examples of pests or weeds and create an annotated visual display including the following information:
• name of pest/weed • year it was introduced • where it was introduced • who introduced it • impact on the environment • strategies to reduce its impact.
change the concept of change is about explaining geographical phenomena by investigating how they have developed over time
Using a geographic information system to collect and analyse data
A geographic information system (GIS) is a form of technology used to gather, manage and analyse spatial information such as the prevalence of pest species. Geographers can organise this data in layers using interactive maps to compare data sets at various scales and over various periods. FeralScan is an example of a tool that uses GIS to record and manage the spread of pest species. Users are able to use the phone app to log sightings of various pest species, which are uploaded to a GIS database. 2.
Visit the Australian Government’s FeralScan website (https://cambridge.edu.au/redirect/11847) and choose a pest species to track. Either use the steps below or follow along via the video tutorial.
a. Click on the map of Australia in the top right corner. Based on this map, in which regions of Australia is this pest the most prevalent? b. Zoom into New South Wales and compare the distribution of your pest species in rural and urban locations. c. Click on “Select Data” on the top right of screen and change the reporting period to explore how the distribution of sightings changed over various years. d. FeralScan relies on local citizens to upload data using a mobile app. Why do you think this is an essential part of managing pests and weeds? What challenges does this create?
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c09_p274-318.indd 314
21/05/26 8:31 PM
315
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
9.8 What are the impacts of environmental change?
➜
Figure 9.8.6 Hiker on the Routeburn Track in Fiordland National Park, New Zealand
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c09_p274-318.indd 315
21/05/26 8:32 PM
316
Chapter 9 Environmental change
9.9
Chapter review Access the Interactive Textbook for a range of digital tools to help you review this chapter and build confidence.
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
• Auto-marked questions for fast feedback and fun practice • Self-assessment tools to track your progress, review answers (if enabled by the teacher), and flag questions for extra help • Downloadable worksheets for class or homework revision
Summary
Summary notes
Download chapter summary
What have you learned about environmental change?
For this activity, copy the table and fill it out by explaining your understanding. Aim for two points per topic.
Terms
What I have learned
Environmental change Biodiversity
Biophysical processes Climate change Deforestation
Visible thinking routine See, think, wonder
This routine encourages you to make careful observations and thoughtful interpretations.
With reference to Figure 9.9.1, complete the following questions. I see…
2.
I think …
3.
I wonder…
Figure 9.9.1 Volunteers plant a young tree as part of the Forestami project on the National Day of Trees in Cusago, Italy. ➜
1.
Questions
Scorcher quiz Access a fast, fun, competitive quiz that puts your understanding to the test. Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c09_p274-318.indd 316
21/05/26 8:32 PM
9.9 Chapter review
317
Quick questions The following questions offer various ways to demonstrate your understanding of the chapter. ______ have been found in 210 fish species consumed by humans.
2.
In geography, the environment is defined as all the _____ and _____ components in and surrounding a place.
Terrestrial environment
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
1.
3.
Forests are home to more than ____ % of terrestrial species of animals, plants and fungi.
4.
The atmosphere is made mostly of nitrogen (78%) and ______ (21%).
5.
The four main currents that trap debris in the Great Pacific Garbage Patch move in which direction? A. Clockwise B. Counter-clockwise
6.
C. Urban D. Terrestrial
Which environment absorbs roughly 30% of human-caused CO2 emissions?
A. Deserts B. Oceans
8.
C. Wetlands D. Grasslands
Coastal environment
What biophysical process caused the Eyjafjallajökull eruption in March 2010?
A. Collapse of glaciers B. Movement of ocean currents C. Rapid vegetation growth D. Magma rising through cracks in the Earth’s crust
9.
Freshwater environment
What kind of environment is dominated by manufactured materials? A. Marine B. Freshwater
7.
C. North to south D. South to north
Marine environment
What is the main cause of deforestation in Russia? A. Tourism B. Illegal logging
C. Coral bleaching D. Urban gardening
Recall one environmental impact of the Great Pacific Garbage Patch.
11.
Identify one impact of land degradation.
12.
Choose one environment from Figure 9.9.2 and summarise its main characteristics.
Urban environment Figure 9.9.2 Types of environments
➜
10.
Writing focus
The following activities offer ways to demonstrate your understanding of the chapter and allow you to continue to practise your writing skills.
Answering questions in paragraphs You can use this as a model when writing your own answers to the questions that follow. Question: Explain why Earth’s environments are important.
(6 marks)
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c09_p274-318.indd 317
21/05/26 8:35 PM
318
Chapter 9 Environmental change
Model answer: Topic sentence: the first sentence of the paragraph; directly answers the question
Explain: clarify, define and describe Elaborate: additional information, connections, historical significance, change and continuity, cause and consequence
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
Explain: Certain environments also absorb large amounts of carbon dioxide, which helps reduce greenhouse gases and stabilises Earth’s climate
Earth’s environments are important because they support biodiversity and help regulate the global climate. Environments provide unique habitats that support millions of species, helping ecosystems stay strong and balanced. When environments lose biodiversity, ecosystems weaken and become more vulnerable to threats such as disease, climate change and habitat loss. Environments provide unique habitats that support millions of species, helping ecosystems stay strong and balanced. These environments include forests, oceans and wetlands, which all act as natural buffers. Forests in particular act as a major carbon sink, absorbing around 16 billion tonnes of CO2 each year and helping to slow global warming. Together, these reasons show that protecting environments is essential to supporting all life on earth.
Examples: provide credibility and illustrate the argument
Evidence: specific, relevant evidence to support arguments Linking sentence: reconnects with language of the question the topic sentence.
Structured-response questions
Marking criteria for each question can be found in the Interactive Textbook. Refer to these criteria when planning and writing your responses.
Question 1
(20 marks)
a. Describe the common types of environments found around the word. Refer to at least TWO different environments. b. Explain why Earth’s environments are important. c. Analyse how environments have been changed around the world. Question 2
(6 marks) (6 marks) (8 marks)
(20 marks)
a. Define the term “enivronment”. b. With reference to the four spheres, explain how environments function. (2 marks) c. With reference to case studies and relevant examples, analyse changes to the Earth’s environments. (10 marks)
Extended-response questions Question 1
(20 marks)
Discuss how Earth’s environments have been altered and changed. Question 2
(20 marks)
“Global Warming isn’t a prediction. It is happening.” – James Hansen
With reference to the quote, evaluate the impact of climate change on Earth’s environments.
Teachers, access the Online Teaching Suite for digital resources and tools that support review, assessment and reporting, including:
• student and class activity reports • a test generator to create custom assessments • built-in feedback tools • editable downloadable support material • a downloadable and printable “Writing focus” workbook for this chapter. Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c09_p274-318.indd 318
21/05/26 8:35 PM
Chapter
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
10
Geographic skills: Mapping change across environments
Lessons 10.1
Gradient
10.2
Creating transects
10.3
Cross-sections and vertical exaggeration
10.4 Finding local relief and gradient from a cross-section 10.5
Fieldwork
10.6 Chapter review
Teachers go to the Online Teacher Suite to:
➜
• plan, sequence and assign directed tasks for students and classes using Task Manager • view student activity reports • provide feedback to students • download a printable “Writing focus” workbook for this chapter. Image: Wellington coastline, New Zealand
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c10_p319-021.indd 319
21/05/26 2:34 PM
320
Chapter 10 Geographic skills: Mapping change across environments
10.1
Gradient
Success criteria
In this lesson, you will learn how to determine the steepness of a slope on a topographic map.
❏ I can read a gradient ratio to understand the steepness of a slope. ❏ I can calculate the gradient of a slope from a topographic map.
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
Learning intention
Introduction
FPO
Video 10.1.1 Gradient
To put it simply, the gradient of a slope tells us how steep it is. In geography we represent this as a ratio with 1 on the left-hand side showing rise (difference in height between two points) and a number on the right-hand side showing run (difference in distance between those same points). A slope with a steep gradient will have a low number on the right-hand side of the ratio such as 1:2, whereas a shallow gradient will have a larger number on the right-hand side of the ratio such as 1:6. The reason for this is shown in Figure 10.1.1. Understanding gradient helps with planning safe walking, cycling or driving routes. Engineers and builders also need to understand gradient to design roads, buildings and drainage systems that work safely with the slope of the land. Agriculturalists also must consider gradient when planting certain crops.
to go up 1
to group 1
1 : 2
across 2
1 : 6
rise run
across 2
rise run
across 6
shallower gradient as it takes longer to go up by the same amount
➜
Figure 10.1.1 Diagram explaining gradient
Gradient on a map can be estimated by looking at how close together contour lines are. Contour lines that are close together show a steep gradient, whereas contour lines that are further apart show a shallower gradient.
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c10_p319-021.indd 320
21/05/26 2:34 PM
10.1 Gradient
Contour lines spread out
B
321
B
40
90 70
30 50
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
20
30
10
10
A
A
120
120
100
100
80
80
60
60
radient
Shallow g
40 20
0
A
Contour lines close together
e
Ste
40
t
dien
ra pg
20
B
0
A
B
➜
Figure 10.1.2 Diagram showing steep and shallow gradient from contour lines
Gradient can also be found more specifically between two points on a map and is expressed as a ratio. To find the gradient of a slope on a map we start by finding four important pieces of information: 1. Height of starting point (A) 2. Height of finishing point (B) 3. Scale converted to metres 4. Distance between the two points in centimetres. From here we use the equation:
rise: run (and then make the rise 1)
We must always keep the rise and run in the same units. As it’s a ratio, any units can be used, but metres are the easiest as height is nearly always given in metres on a topographic map. Figure 10.1.3 shows a worked example of finding the gradient between point A and point B.
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c10_p319-021.indd 321
21/05/26 2:34 PM
322
Chapter 10 Geographic skills: Mapping change across environments
Carswell West Lagoon
274
+
+
Carswell West Lagoon A
200
274
200
B
100
100
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
D
50
50
50
50
100
100
+
+
Boat ramp
1:100,000
1:100,000
➜
➜
Figure 10.1.3 Worked example for gradient
229
229
Boat ramp
200
200
C
Figure 10.1.4 Map for “Now you try” questions
Now you try! 10.1
Use Figure 10.1.4 to answer Questions 1–4. 1.
FPO
Find the gradient between B and C. Watch Video 10.1.2 to see how we worked out this answer. a. Find these four pieces of information
Height of B: Height of C: Scale converted to metres: Distance between B and C in centimetres:
Video 10.1.2 How we found the answer to Question 1
b. Find the rise in metres. c. Find the run in metres.
2.
Find the gradient between C and D.
3.
Find the gradient between A and D.
4.
Find the gradient between B and D.
d. Express as a ratio. e. Divide each side by the rise.
Activity 10.1.1
For this activity you will need ice-cream sticks and a ruler. You will use ice-cream sticks to create slopes with different gradients.
• Step 1: Start by measuring one ice-cream stick – let’s say it’s 11.4 centimetres. We will
reimagine this as 11.4 metres. Use a ruler and elevate one end of the ice-cream stick to 1 centimetre. This is a gradient of 1:11.4.
• Step 2: If you raise the end of the ice-cream stick to 2 centimetres this is now a rise of 2. You will need to recalculate the gradient at this point from 2:11.4, so that is the lefthand side of the ratio.
• Step 3: How can you make the gradient as steep and as shallow as possible without
making the slope vertical or horizontal? Show your working out for the steepest and shallowest you can manage, remembering to record how many centimetres you lowered or raised the ice-cream stick.
If ice-cream sticks are not available, then get creative – any flat object could work!
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c10_p319-021.indd 322
21/05/26 2:34 PM
323
10.2 Creating transects
10.2
Creating transects
Success criteria
In this lesson, you will learn how changes in land use across a specific area can be shown using a transect.
❏ I can interpret a transect to describe how land use is changing across an environment. ❏ I can draw a transect from a map.
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
Learning intention
Introduction
A transect is a visual representation of elevation, land cover change or land use across a specific area. Changes in elevation across a specific area can also be shown using a cross-section. This will be explored in Lesson 10.3 and Lesson 10.4. In this lesson, we will show you how to create a transect from a map to show how human and physical environments change between two points.
FPO
To be effective, transects must have a clear legend, and use shading or symbols to show change. To create a transect, you need a reference map, a piece of paper to draw the transect on and some scrap paper for construction. Figure 10.2.1 shows a simple transect alongside a map. In Figure 10.2.1, a transect has been created from point A to point B, focusing only on how land cover changes across the straight line between A and B. The colours used on the map are converted to symbols and explained in the legend next to the transect.
Figure 10.2.2 shows a worked example for a transect from point A to point B. To draw a transect, follow these four steps: 1. Draw a line to connect point A and point B. 2. Place a scrap piece of paper along this line and make note of changes in land-use. 3. Make a legend to show how you will represent each land use. 4. Copy this onto a transect, ensuring that the bar drawn for your transect is the same length as the line between A and B. See how the scrap piece of paper is moved down to the transect to help accurately mark on the different land-use changes.
Video 10.2.1 Transects
transect a straight line drawn on a map between two points that is used to represent changes in elevation, landforms and other geographical features along the path
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c10_p319-021.indd 323
21/05/26 2:34 PM
324
Chapter 10 Geographic skills: Mapping change across environments
LEGEND Water Beach 40
Grass 30
Scrub
A
B
P Parking
20
10
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
Road
Jetty
Lifeguard
P
1:10,000 LEGEND
Water
Beach
Finished transect
Grass
Scrub
A
B
➜
Figure 10.2.1 Simple map and transect
Mickey Beach
LEGEND LEGEND Dense Water vegetation
Urban Beach area Light vegetation Grass Beach
Water P Parking P Parking
Road road Main Patrolled beach Walking track
P
A
Scrap paper
B
LEGEND
Beach
Finished transect
Light vegetation Water Urban
Dense vegetation Road
Walking track
➜
Figure 10.2.2 Worked example of a transect
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c10_p319-021.indd 324
21/05/26 2:34 PM
325
10.2 Creating transects
Mickey Beach LEGEND LEGEND Dense Water vegetation Urban Beach area Light vegetation Grass Beach
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
Water P Parking P Parking
Road Main road Patrolled beach Walking track
P
A
B
➜
Figure 10.2.3 Map for “Now you try” questions
Now you try! 10.2
Use Figure 10.2.3 for Questions 1–3. 1.
Create a transect between point A and point B on the map in Figure 10.2.3. Watch Video 10.2.2 to see how we worked out this answer.
2.
Create a transect between point A and point C on the map in Figure 10.2.3. This will be slightly longer than your transect in Question 1.
3.
Try to make a transect from the map above that covers the most land-use changes. Remember the transect must be along a straight line.
Activity 10.2.1
FPO
Video 10.2.2 How we found the answer to Question 1
For this activity, you will need paper, a pen, two markers (books or hats), and a tape measure, if available. If you cannot complete this outside, a classroom version is available at the bottom.
• Step 1: Create a simple transect in your school. Find two points and mark each one
with a book or a hat. Try to ensure that you cross different surfaces between the two points such as grass, footpaths, dirt tracks and that they are about 10–20 large steps apart. Mark centimetres across the top of a piece of paper.
• Step 2: With a pen and the paper in hand, take big steps between the two points, treat each step as a centimetre on your transect. Each time you reach a new type of surface, make a mark on your paper and label it with the type of surface.
• Step 3: Take this information back to the classroom and create a transect with a clear legend to show the different land cover changes across that section of your school.
To be more accurate, you could place down a measuring tape if available and mark each metre as a centimetre on your transect. Classroom version
Have your teacher draw a border of a map on the board. Each student should then come up and draw a land use, such as a beach or a point of interest such as a cafe. When the map is complete, try to create a transect across your newly created (and likely chaotic) map.
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c10_p319-021.indd 325
21/05/26 2:34 PM
326
Chapter 10 Geographic skills: Mapping change across environments
10.3
Cross-sections and vertical exaggeration Success criteria
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
Learning intention In this lesson, you will learn how cross-sections are created from topographic maps. You will also learn how vertical exaggeration is calculated and why vertical exaggeration is important when creating cross-sections.
❏ I can interpret and create a cross-section from a topographic map. ❏ I can calculate vertical exaggeration for a cross-section.
Introduction
Much like a transect, a cross-section shows change in elevation between two specific points. While a transect is represented in a bar graph, a cross-section is shown on a line graph, where the x-axis shows the distance between the two points and the y-axis shows the elevation change while moving between the points.
Video 10.3.1 Cross-sections
cross-section a graphical representation constructed as a line graph that depicts a vertical slice through the Earth’s surface and provides a sideways view of the landscape
One distinct feature of cross-sections is that the x- and y-axis have different scales. This allows geographers to exaggerate elevation on the y-axis and clearly show changes in altitude and the shape of the land. The y-axis is often measured in metres, while the x-axis is often measured in kilometres. To address this inconsistency, we calculate the vertical exaggeration. In this lesson, we will show you how to read and create a cross-section, and how to calculate the vertical exaggeration. Figure 10.3.1 shows the parts of a cross-section.
line shows the shape of the land as if you’ve cut through it
140 120
y-axis shows height in metres
FPO
100 80
1 cm on the y-axis = 20 m
60
40 20
scale from the map
0
A
1 : 100,000
B
x-axis | shows distance 1 cm on the cross-section x-axis = 1 km ➜
Figure 10.3.1 Annotated cross-section
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c10_p319-021.indd 326
21/05/26 2:34 PM
10.3 Cross-sections and vertical exaggeration
327
Figure 10.3.2 shows a worked example for a cross-section from point A to point B.
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
1. Draw a line to connect point A and point B. 2. Place a scrap piece of paper along this line and make note of changes in elevation by marking and labelling each contour line. You will notice this is similar to transects up until this point. 3. Now use your paper to draw an x-axis the same length as A–B. Then label the x-axis with the scale from the map. 4. Draw a y-axis with each centimetre the same as the contour interval (it can be more or less depending on the difference in height across the cross-section). 5. Then, using your scrap paper, mark each point at the labelled height and connect them with a line. topographic map
cross-section
50
40
30
A
A 10
B
20
30
30
20
20
B 10
10
30
0
20
10
A 10
20
30
30
1 : 100,000
20
B 10
1 :100,000
➜
Figure 10.3.2 A cross-section created from a map
+
Carswell West Lagoon 274
200
100
50
50
100
229
+
200
Boat ramp
1:100,000
➜
Figure 10.3.3 Topographic map for “Now you try” questions
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c10_p319-021.indd 327
21/05/26 2:34 PM
328
Chapter 10 Geographic skills: Mapping change across environments
Now you try! 10.3a Use Figure 10.3.3 for Questions 1–3. Create a cross-section between the two spot heights. Watch Video 10.3.2 to see how we worked out this answer.
2.
Create a cross-section from the boat ramp (sea-level) to the northern spot height.
3.
Describe how different it would be to walk along each cross-section. Use specific heights as references to describe the two different hikes.
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
FPO
1.
Video 10.3.2 How we found the When creating a cross-section, the scale on the answer to Question 1 y-axis is a much larger scale. In Figure 10.3.2, one
centimetres on the y-axis measures 10 metres, whereas on the x-axis, one centimetre measures 1,000 metres. This means that the vertical axis (y-axis) has been exaggerated to show the shape of the land. A good cross-section will also calculate the vertical exaggeration, telling the viewer how many times that vertical axis has been exaggerated. We do HS that using the equation – – and express it VS
as “times”, as in how many times has it been exaggerated (how much larger is it).
40
30 20 10
0
A 10
20
30 30 1 : 100,000
20
B 10
HS 1 cm on HS = 1,000 m VS 1 cm on VS = 10 m 1,000 10 100 times
Figure 10.3.4 Annotated cross-section showing vertical exaggeration ➜
See the worked example in Figure 10.3.4 for the vertical exaggeration of the earlier cross-section.
50
Now you try! 10.3b 1.
Calculate the vertical exaggeration of Figure 10.3.1.
2.
Calculate the vertical exaggeration of each cross-section you created in the previous “Now you try” questions.
Activity 10.3.1
For this activity you will need blank paper (preferably graphing) and access to the internet. You are going to create imperfect cross-sections! Create three cross-sections of famous landforms or landscapes, such as:
• Cradle Mountain • the Grand Canyon • the Illawarra Escarpment.
Step 1: Start by finding a clear image of the landscape or landform.
• Step 2: Next, estimate the length from one side to the other. You could use Google Earth or other GIS to get a more exact idea. This will become your x-axis. Find the elevation of the landform and any other information (height at the base).
• Step 3: Then draw a cross-section. The main idea here is that it should look like you •
have taken a giant knife and sliced right through the landscape.
Step 4: Calculate the University vertical exaggeration for©each cross-section. Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge Press & Assessment Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c10_p319-021.indd 328
21/05/26 2:34 PM
329
10.4 Finding local relief and gradient from a cross-section
Finding local relief and gradient from a cross-section
10.4
Success criteria
In this lesson, you will learn how cross-sections show the local relief of a landscape and the gradient of a slope.
❏ I can calculate local relief from a cross-section. ❏ I can calculate gradient from a cross-section.
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
Learning intention
Introduction
Last lesson we discovered that cross-sections are a useful tool for showing the change in elevation across a landscape. Much like a topographic map, cross-sections can be used to find the local relief of a landscape or the gradient of a slope. This is because cross-sections tell us both the height of different points on the y-axis and the distance between those points on the x-axis. If you are uncertain of how to find local relief or the gradient of a slope from a topographic map, it might be worth revising these skills using Lesson 2.4 (local relief) and Lesson 10.1 (gradient).
Local relief
To find local relief between two points on a cross-section, we focus on the highest and lowest points between the two points. Finding local relief on a cross-section is easier than on a topographic map because it’s quite simple to find the highest and lowest on a line graph. See a worked example in Figure 10.4.1 for the local relief between point A and point B. 70
FPO
Video 10.4.1 Local relief and gradient from a cross-section
highest point
60 50
40
30
A
B
20
10
lowest point
0
Local relief = highest – lowest = 60 – 10 = 50 m
1 : 100,000
➜
Figure 10.4.1 Annotated cross-section showing local relief
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c10_p319-021.indd 329
21/05/26 2:34 PM
330
Chapter 10 Geographic skills: Mapping change across environments
200
D
A
180 160
B
140 120
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
100 80
C
60
40
E
20
0
1 : 20,000
➜
Figure 10.4.2 Cross-section for “Now you try” questions
Now you try! 10.4a
Use Figure 10.4.2 to answer Questions 1–5.
FPO
Video 10.4.2 How we found the answer to Question 1
1.
Find the local relief between point A and point E. Watch Video 10.4.2 to see how we worked out this answer.
2.
Find the local relief between point B and point C.
3.
Find the local relief between point B and point D.
4.
Which two points would provide the largest local relief?
5.
Which two points would provide the smallest local relief?
Gradient
Gradient can also be found on a cross-section, where rise is found using the y-axis and run is found using the x-axis. See the worked example in Figure 10.4.3 for the gradient between point A and point B. We start by finding the four important pieces of information as outlined in Lesson 10.1.
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c10_p319-021.indd 330
21/05/26 2:34 PM
10.4 Finding local relief and gradient from a cross-section
331
70
B
60 50 40
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
A
30
20 10
distance in cm
0
1 : 100,000
scale
➜
Figure 10.4.3 Annotated cross-section showing gradient
Point A – 30 m
Point B – 60 m
Scale – 1 : 100,000
Distance A→B in cm – 14 cm rise : run
then make the rise 1
60–30 : 1,000 × 14 30 : 14,000 30 30 = 1: 466.67 200
180
D
A
160
140
B
120
100 80
C
60
E
40 20
0 1 : 20,000 ➜
Figure 10.4.4 Cross-section for “Now you try” questions
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c10_p319-021.indd 331
21/05/26 2:34 PM
332
Chapter 10 Geographic skills: Mapping change across environments
Now you try! 10.4b Use Figure 10.4.4 for Questions 1–4. Find the gradient between point A and point E. Watch Video 10.4.3 to see how we worked out this answer.
2.
Find the gradient between point B and point C.
3.
Find the gradient between point B and point D.
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
FPO
1.
4.
Video 10.4.3 How we found the answer to Question 1
Compare your answer to Questions 1,2 and 3. Which one has the steepest slope?
Activity 10.4.1
For this activity, you will need your cross-sections from Lesson 10.3 and blank paper.
Find your cross-sections from the activity in Lesson 10.3. For each cross-section, place a point A on the left-hand side of the line graph and a point B on the right-hand side of the line graph.
• Step 1: For each cross-section calculate the local relief and the gradient. Which crosssection had the largest local relief? What does this suggest about this landscape?
• Step 2: Look across all three cross-sections and find the two points you think would
provide the steepest gradient (small number on the right-hand side of the ratio). Next calculate the gradient.
• Step 3: Compare your gradient with the rest of the class. Who had the steepest gradient? What landscape was this from?
➜
Figure 10.4.5 Compare your findings with your classmates
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c10_p319-021.indd 332
21/05/26 2:34 PM
333
10.5 Fieldwork: Environmental management and change
10.5
Fieldwork: Environmental management and change Success criteria
In this lesson, you will design a fieldwork investigation to evaluate the success of urban management in your local area.
❏ I can identify key challenges facing Australia’s urban environments and explain the strategies used to manage them sustainably. ❏ I can analyse the effectiveness of these strategies and evaluate their impact on communities using examples from my local area.
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
Learning intention
Starter activity Think, pair, share
Think: Create a mind map of as many challenges or changes you have observed or heard about in your local urban area. This could include things such as traffic congestion, housing affordability, loss of green space, pollution, public transport issues or community changes. Pair: Once you have 3–5 ideas of your own, share your thoughts with a partner and choose the three most pressing issues
Share: Share your thoughts in a whole of class discussion and add improved ideas to your own mind map.
Designing fieldwork
Fieldwork is an essential part of studying geography. You can use fieldwork to investigate many of the concepts studied in the classroom while you are out in the real world. You can also use fieldwork to apply your knowledge to answer a research question about issues in your local area. In this investigation, your aim is to determine whether the management of people and infrastructure in your local urban area is successful and sustainable. Use the structure outlined in Table 8.10.1 to develop your study.
➜
Figure 10.5.1 Conducting fieldwork
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c10_p319-021.indd 333
21/05/26 2:34 PM
334
Chapter 10 Geographic skills: Mapping change across environments
Table 10.5.1 Sections of a fieldwork report Section
Explanation
• An investigation of the accessibility, reliability and efficiency of
public transport in western Sydney suburbs • A comparison of the quantity and quality of green space between the eastern and western suburbs of Sydney • The impacts of rapid population growth in Newcastle’s outer suburbs • Changing land use and urban renewal in Parramatta
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
Title and Choose a relevant introduction title and topic for your investigation. It should clearly state the nature and location of your study.
Examples
Background Research background information information about your topic and the NSW location. Provide context for your investigation.
• Describe the main geographical and demographic characteristics of your chosen area, supported by a map. • Include recent population trends and projections for growth or decline in your study area.
• Is the availability and affordability of housing in western Sydney
Research question
Write an overall research question and, if needed, several sub-questions that your investigation will answer.
Hypothesis
State a hypothesis – a clear, testable statement developed before you collect data.
• House prices in Sydney’s west are increasing faster than young
Primary data collection
Category of data you collect yourself in the field to answer your research question. Consider equipment and preparation needs.
• Conduct surveys and interviews with local residents, community
Secondary data collection
Category of data collected by others, used to support your investigation
• Use demographic data (e.g. population, age, median income)
Presenting and analysing your data
Present your findings using clear visuals and interpretation.
• Use graphs (bar, line, pie, scatter) and annotated maps
Discussion, conclusion and evaluation
Use your collected data to answer your research question/s.
• Summarise your findings, evaluating whether or not your
References
List all sources used in your investigation.
• Include all references to books, articles or weblinks you used in a
sustainable as populations rise? • Does public transport quality decline as the distance from Sydney’s CBD increases? • What are the barriers to accessing essential infrastructure and services in northern NSW rural areas?
families can afford. • The density and frequency of public transport services decrease beyond a 15 km radius of the Sydney CBD. • Rural areas in regional NSW have lower access to health and education services compared to urban Sydney.
leaders or business owners. • Collect traffic and public transport usage data. • Assess the quality and size of local public parks, playgrounds or sporting facilities. • Take photographs, prepare field sketches or record environmental observations. from the ABS. • Consult satellite imagery and maps to identify transport networks or green spaces. • Find council plans, government reports or news articles about infrastructure upgrades (e.g. Western Sydney Airport, Sydney Metro extensions). (choropleth, thematic). • Annotate photographs and field sketches with key evidence. • Summarise findings in tables and charts for easy comparison and analysis.
hypothesis is supported. • Discuss the strengths and weaknesses of your investigation methods. • Suggest improvements for future studies or further questions for research. commonly used format such as Harvard referencing.
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c10_p319-021.indd 334
21/05/26 2:34 PM
10.6 Chapter review
10.6
335
Chapter review
Success criteria
In this lesson, you will consolidate learning across this chapter and apply a range of geographic skills relating to a range of maps.
❏ I can use a range of maps and graphs to determine gradient and vertical exaggeration, create transects and cross-sections.
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
Learning intention
Geographical data for activity questions
30
FPO
200 m
A
B
C
29
250
D
m
Video 10.5.1 Introducing the geographical data and skills-based activities in this chapter
28
E
27
200 m
F
26
G
I
25
260
m
H
J
M
300 m
K
L
24
P
23
300 m
N
12
O
13
14
Q
1:25,000
➜
Figure 10.5.1 Map of Cadell Town
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c10_p319-021.indd 335
21/05/26 2:34 PM
336
Chapter 10 Geographic skills: Mapping change across environments
Map of Mayf Town
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
Map of Nathanville
LEGEND
LEGEND
Beach
Vegetation
Shrubs
160
Coast
Trees
➜
➜
Figure 10.5.2 Map of Nathanville
Water
Urban
Industrial
Rural
Landfill
Figure 10.5.3 Map of Mayf Town
Cross-section of Mount PJ
140
120
100 80 60
40 20
0
1 : 25,000
➜
Figure 10.5.4 Cross-section of Mount PJ
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c10_p319-021.indd 336
21/05/26 2:34 PM
10.6 Chapter review
337
Cross-section of the Isle of El
160 140 120
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
100 80 60
40 20
0
1 : 50,000
➜
Figure 10.5.5 Cross-section of the Isle of El
Check your understanding
Using Figure 10.5.1, answer the following questions. 1.
Identify the contour interval used on the map.
2.
Is point F or point B located on a steeper slope?
3.
Identify the elevation at: a. point K b. point L
c. point Q d. point I
e. point C.
4.
In what direction does the land slope between Point M and Point L?
Using Figures 10.5.2 and 10.5.3, answer the following questions. 1.
Identify two different land uses shown on the map of Nathanville.
2.
Which colour represents urban land use in Figure 10.5.3?
3.
State one reason why geographers use transects.
4.
Identify one natural and one human feature shown in Figure 10.5.2 and Figure 10.5.3.
Using Figures 10.5.4 and 10.5.5, answer the following questions. 1.
Identify the highest point on the Mount PJ cross-section.
2.
Identify the lowest point on the Isle of El cross-section.
3.
Which figure shows the greatest change in height between two points?
4.
State the horizontal scale of each cross-section.
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c10_p319-021.indd 337
21/05/26 2:34 PM
338
Chapter 10 Geographic skills: Mapping change across environments
Develop your understanding Using Figure 10.5.1, answer the following questions.
Calculate the gradient between point B and point F.
2.
Calculate the gradient between point I and point M.
3.
Compare the gradient between points A and B with the gradient between points G and H.
4.
Which gradient is steeper between:
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
1.
a. points C and D? b. points K and L?
Rank the following gradients from gentlest to steepest gradient: • points B and F
5.
• points G and H • points K and P.
6.
Calculate the gradient between points E and D, then draw a cross-section between the two points.
7.
Draw a cross-section along Northing 25. Label the highest and lowest points on the cross-section and describe the shape of the land shown in the cross-section.
Using Figures 10.5.2 and 10.5.3, answer the following questions. 1.
Draw a transect from the west to the east across the centre of Nathanville.
2.
Choose three northings to draw a transect along in Mayf Town. Compare the transects. Which show evidence of greater land use?
3.
Explain how transects can be used to assess environmental sustainability.
4.
Evaluate the effectiveness of transects as a geographical tool. Compare them with analysing an entire map.
Using Figures 10.5.4 and 10.5.5, answer the following questions. 1.
Explain how to calculate gradient using a cross-section.
2.
For Mount PJ, calculate the gradient between: a. points A and C b. points E and G c. points H and M.
3.
For the Isle of El, calculate the gradient between: a. points B and F b. points G and I
c. points B and M.
4.
Calculate the local relief of Mount PJ.
5.
Calculate the local relief of the Isle of El.
6.
Calculate the local relief on Mount PJ between: a. points C and H b. points G and I
c. points B and L. 7.
Calculate the local relief of the Isle of El between: a. points C and H b. points G and I c. points B and L.
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c10_p319-021.indd 338
21/05/26 2:34 PM
10.6 Chapter review
339
Extend your understanding Using Figure 10.5.1, answer the following questions.
Explain why gradient is an important factor when planning roads, walking tracks or settlements.
2.
Draw a cross-section between points N and C. On the cross-section, determine the horizontal and vertical scale. Calculate the vertical exaggeration of your cross-section.
3.
Why is vertical exaggeration often used in cross-sections?
4.
“Cross-sections simplify complex landscapes.” Discuss this statement using examples from Figure 10.5.1.
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
1.
Using Figures 10.5.4 and 10.5.5, answer the following questions. 1.
Explain how the different scales in Figure 10.5.4 and Figure 10.5.5 may affect gradient interpretation.
2.
Explain how local relief influences erosion and drainage patterns in Figure 10.5.4 and Figure 10.5.5.
Creative tasks
Task 1: Build a landscape
You are to design a fictional landscape to teach the class about relief and land use. 1.
Create a topographic map of a fictional area. On your map, include contour lines and a scale. You must add at least six different land uses (e.g., farming, forest, beach, industry, residential).
2.
Draw one transect across your map that passes through at least four different land uses.
3.
Along the transect, record the land use and describe how the land use changes.
4.
Using the same line, draw a cross-section to show relief.
5.
Calculate the gradient between two points along the cross-section.
6.
Explain how relief influences the pattern of land use.
Task 2: Reality versus cross-section
You are to investigate whether a cross-section gives a fair impression of a landscape. 1.
Find or create a topographic map of a real place with noticeable relief (e.g. Blue Mountains, Barrington Tops, Royal National Park, Yosemite Valley). You MUST have a scale.
2.
Place two points on the map that lie on either side of the map.
3.
Create a cross-section between the two points.
4.
Calculate the vertical exaggeration used.
5.
Redraw the cross-section with a different vertical exaggeration.
6.
Explain how exaggeration changes perception of steepness.
Task 3: Real transect
You are to investigate how land use changes across a real landscape. You are to choose ONE location (e.g. Blue Mountains, Sydney CBD to the western suburbs, the coast of Cairns to the hinterland). 1.
Use Google Maps or Google Earth to observe the area.
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c10_p319-021.indd 339
21/05/26 2:34 PM
340
Chapter 10 Geographic skills: Mapping change across environments
2.
Draw a simplified map showing major land uses.
3.
Draw one transect from one end of the area to the other.
4.
Create a table that shows the distance along the transect as well as the land use at each section.
Task 4: The landscape autopsy
A mysterious landscape feature has failed (collapse, landslide, flood, erosion). Choose a real or fictional location.
2.
Create a topographic map showing the area before the event.
3.
Draw a cross-section showing relief before the event.
4.
Draw a second cross-section showing the landscape after the event.
5.
Calculate the gradient of the failed slope.
6.
Write a short “autopsy report” explaining what went wrong, how relief and gradient contributed, and whether the disaster was avoidable.
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
1.
Task 5: Side-on map
You are tasked to change the view of a cross-section by changing the direction you draw it. 1.
Choose a landscape with large relief (e.g. mountain range, canyon).
2.
Create the cross-sections (looking north to south, east to west and diagonally).
3.
Rank the cross-sections from steepest to flattest.
4.
Explain how direction changes the way we visualise and understand relief.
Task 6: The relief test 1.
Create three different cross-sections that show a range of different relief types. For example, strong relief (very steep slopes, large elevation change); balanced relief (moderate slopes, mixed elevation); and little relief (gentle slopes, minimal elevation change). You may base these on a real place or create realistic fictional landscapes.
2.
For each cross-section, label height and distance, and calculate the gradient between two points.
3.
Rank the three cross-sections from steepest to flattest using your gradient values.
4.
For each relief type, identify one suitable land use and one level of risk (low, moderate or high).
5.
Write a short explanation explaining how gradient and relief influence land use and risk.
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c10_p319-021.indd 340
21/05/26 2:34 PM
Chapter
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
11
Environmental management
Lessons 11.1
Geo Spark: Coral – back from the dead?
11.2
What are the different views on environmental management and methods to assess sustainability?
11.3
Case study: How can we restore penguin habitats on the Summerland Peninsula?
11.4
Case study: How can we use the knowledge of Aboriginal Peoples to manage Kakadu?
11.5
Case study: Monitoring and ensuring the health of the Mesoamerican Reef
11.6
Chapter review
Teachers go to the Online Teacher Suite to: • plan, sequence and assign directed tasks for students and classes using Task Manager • view student activity reports • provide feedback to students • download a printable “Writing focus” workbook for this chapter. ➜
Image: Para-athlete diver Faisal Jawad during the Musandam International Diving Festival in Oman, an event dedicated to promoting “inclusivity and marine conservation”
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c11_p341-372.indd 341
21/05/26 8:36 PM
342
Chapter 11 Environmental management
11.1
Geo Spark: Coral – back from the dead? Success criteria
In this lesson, you will learn about the different management practices being implemented to restore coral reef ecosystems.
❏ I can describe the different management practices used to restore coral reef ecosystems.
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
Learning intention
What is a coral reef?
➜
Writing focus 11.1 Question words
coral polyps tiny, soft-bodied marine invertebrates characterised by a cylindrical body topped with an oral disc and tentacles. zooxanthellae tiny, plant-like organisms that live in the tissues of many animals, including some corals, anemones and jellyfish, sponges and flatworms
coral bleaching when water is too warm, corals will expel the algae living in their tissues causing the coral to turn completely white
A coral reef is a colourful underwater environment made up of tiny animals called coral polyps that build hard skeletons over time. These reefs are found in warm, shallow oceans and are home to thousands of marine species such as fish, sea turtles and algae. Corals live in partnership with zooxanthellae, which give them energy and bright colours. Corals and zooxanthellae have a symbiotic relationship, which means they rely on each other to survive. Coral reefs are important because they protect coastlines from storms, support tourism and fishing, and help maintain ocean biodiversity. Coral reefs have been under threat from both human and natural impacts. The main impacts affecting coral reefs are:
• climate change. Ocean surface water temperatures have drastically increased by
• •
an average of 0.5°C since 1860. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) has forecast an increase in average air temperatures of 1.5°C by 2030–50. Increased ocean temperatures make the algae leave the corals’ tissues, which turns the corals white and leaves them without their major food source. This is known as coral bleaching. Although corals can survive bleaching, bleached coral (see Figure 11.1.1) is far more vulnerable to other disturbances, such as pollution or severe storms, and far more likely to die as a result. ocean acidification. Due to increasing carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, oceans are becoming more acidic. This has a negative impact on corals, as the acid can weaken coral skeletons, making them much more vulnerable to erosion. pollution. Many coral reefs are located near large settlements of people. Run-off from agriculture, sewage and plastics can introduce harmful chemicals and nutrients into coral reef ecosystems. This can damage the coral and reduce water quality.
As climate change, ocean acidification and pollution occur, the frequency and severity of coral bleaching and threats to coral reef ecosystems will increase.
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c11_p341-372.indd 342
21/05/26 8:36 PM
343
➜
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
11.1 Geo Spark: Coral – back from the dead?
Figure 11.1.1 Coral affected by bleaching and covered in brown algae off the coast of Trat, Thailand
How corals become bleached
Healthy coral
Corals have a layer of tiny algae called zooxanthellae on them, and they need these algae to stay alive.
Stressed coral
If the environment changes too much and stresses the coral, the algae (zooxanthellae) can turn harmful and disappear.
Bleached coral
When the algae disappear, the coral turns white. This makes the coral weak and more likely to starve, get sick, and die.
Dead coral
If the water doesn’t get better, the bleached coral will turn black and won’t be able to recover.
➜
Figure 11.1.2 How corals become bleached
As shown in Figure 11.1.2, the process of coral bleaching events can be extremely harmful as corals slowly progress from being healthy to stressed to bleached. In extreme cases, bleached corals can become completely dead, as they are unable to recover from major environmental stressors. Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c11_p341-372.indd 343
21/05/26 8:36 PM
344
Chapter 11 Environmental management
Major coral bleaching events Table 11.1.1 Timeline of coral bleaching events Location
Year
Impacts to coral
Great Barrier Reef, Australia
1998
• In the Great Barrier Reef, there have been widespread and
significant bleaching events. These occurred in the summers of 1998 and 2002, resulting in 42% (1998) and 54% (2002) of coral reefs being partially bleached.
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
2002 2016
2020
• Higher than average ocean temperatures in 2016 led to a 29% loss in shallow water coral due to bleaching.
• In 2020 a major heatwave caused 25% of the reef’s coral to become severely bleached.
El Niño a warming of the ocean surface, or aboveaverage sea surface temperatures, in the central and eastern tropical Pacific Ocean
2017 Okinawa and Sekisei Lagoon, Japan
• In 2017, due to the El Niño global warming event that had
occurred from 2014–2016, 75% of the coral population was bleached, with a major loss of marine biodiversity and impact to fish habitats.
• As seen in Figure 11.1.3, the coral was severely bleached, turning white and lifeless.
Forida Keys, United States
2023 2024
• Oceans in Florida Keys in the Caribbean faced record ocean heatwaves, with water temperatures exceeding 32°C in some areas.
• This had major impacts on this ecosystem, with mass
bleaching across the region. Scientists predict that these warm waters could mark the beginning of a global coral bleaching event.
Coral: Back from the dead?
If global water temperatures continue to rise, then coral risks irreversible damage and may die. However, if water temperatures return to normal and stabilise, some corals can regain their colour and survive. Coral is a resilient species and has the ability to recover from mild bleaching within a few months. However, as the global climate continues to warm, severe bleaching is likely to lead to mass damage events, which could lead to the permanent loss of corals.
Coral reef systems are incredibly beautiful and important. They need to be maintained and managed. There have been global efforts to ensure that corals rebound from mass bleaching events so that they can continue to thrive. Recovery can take 10–30 years for a damaged reef ecosystem to rebuild naturally, but efforts are being made so that this can occur at faster rates.
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c11_p341-372.indd 344
21/05/26 8:36 PM
345
➜
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
11.1 Geo Spark: Coral – back from the dead?
Figure 11.1.3 Bleaching evident across coral reefs, Nagannu Island, Okinawa, Japan
The Australian Institute of Marine Science (AIMS) is at the forefront of coral research, studying the Great Barrier Reef extensively, researching the effects of coral bleaching, testing water quality and forecasting trends in ocean temperatures. They are collecting long-term data on coral cover, fish numbers and the impacts of bleaching events using a range of new technologies such as underwater drones and sensors.
Scientists at AIMS have been closely studying coral reproduction on the Great Barrier Reef for more than four decades. While billions of eggs and sperm are released during coral spawning, only a small percentage end up fertilising, and an even smaller percentage settle on the reef. This has significant impacts on the health of coral reef ecosystems. AIMS has been trying to overcome these challenges by breeding hard corals in captivity. Over the past five years, scientists at AIMS have successfully bred over 30 species in the National Sea Simulator. Detailed research on coral nutrition and resilience supports the growth of new corals, which are then transplanted into damaged reeds to support reef restoration.
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c11_p341-372.indd 345
21/05/26 8:36 PM
Chapter 11 Environmental management
➜
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
346
Figure 11.1.4 Aquarists breeding corals in the National Sea Simulator
➜
Figure 11.1.5 Australian Institute of Marine Science scientists are trying to breed corals that can withstand higher water temperatures.
Activity 11.1
Visible thinking routine: Think, pair, share 1.
Think: Consider ONE other management strategy that could be implemented to protect coral reefs. Using the internet, research a location where this strategy is being used.
2.
Pair: Discuss your thoughts with a partner.
3.
Share: Share your management strategy with your partner and discuss its effectiveness.
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c11_p341-372.indd 346
21/05/26 8:36 PM
347
11.2 What are the different views on environmental management and how can we assess their sustainability?
11.2
What are the different views on environmental management and how can we assess their sustainability? Success criteria
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
Learning intention
❏ I can distinguish between the three different environmental worldviews. ❏ I can evaluate the effectiveness of management strategies. ❏ I can evaluate the sustainability of management strategies based on the four pillars of sustainability.
In this lesson, you will learn about the three different environmental worldviews. You will also explore common criteria to evaluate the effectiveness of management strategies as well as the four pillars of sustainability, which can be used to evaluate the sustainability of a management strategy.
Starter activity 1.
Think about this question: “Why is it important to manage the environment?” Write down three statements in response.
2.
Share your three points with your partner.
3.
Draw a scale like the one below in your workbook, and place yourself and your partner somewhere along it based on your statements. 1 Strongly disagree
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10 Strongly agree
Three worldviews
The three environmental worldviews
Planetary management
• Human beings are • •
separate and dominant over nature. Nature is available to be exploited and used, especially if it serves human needs. The environment is something that can be managed and controlled.
Stewardship
• Human beings are the • •
caretakers of nature. We should avoid harmful or wasteful practices. Resources are unlikely to run out, but it is still best to avoid wasting them.
Writing focus 11.2 Transitional phrases ➜
Management strategies are used to reduce the negative impacts of environmental change. There are various different views on how environments should be managed. Environmental worldviews can be categorised into three main categories, which can be seen in Figure 11.2.1.
Environmental wisdom
• Human beings are a • •
part of Earth’s natural systems. We are entirely dependent on nature. Resources are finite and should not be wasted.
➜
Figure 11.2.1 A snapshot of the main environmental worldviews
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c11_p341-372.indd 347
21/05/26 8:36 PM
348
Chapter 11 Environmental management
Table 11.2.1 provides an example of each of these environmental worldviews. Table 11.2.1 Examples of the environmental worldviews relating to marine environments Example
Planetary management
Instead of addressing the root causes of sea-level rises, a planetary management approach focuses on constructing hard infrastructure (such as seawalls, breakwaters, artificial beaches) to protect cities. This reflects the idea that humans can engineer their way out of environmental risks.
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
Environmental worldview
Stewardship
Marine Protected Areas (MPA) are areas of the ocean established by law to protect and maintain marine life, habitats and cultural resources. MPAs are an example of stewarding natural environments by trying to avoid harm to them.
Environmental wisdom
Fossil fuels are unsustainable because they pollute ecosystems, warm the planet and rely on finite resources. Switching entirely to renewable energy reflects the belief that human systems should function within the limits of Earth’s energy flows (e.g., sunlight for solar energy, or wind for turbines) rather than exploiting fossil fuels.
Stewardship worldview: Environmental management involving Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples In Australia, the expertise of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples is being used in conjunction with modern methods to manage environments across Australia. Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples have lived sustainably across Australia for tens of thousands of years using traditional burning techniques, fish traps, cropping and hunting practices to survive. These sustainable methodologies are in stark contrast to the changes that have been made to the landscape since European colonisation, and represent a stewardship environmental worldview.
controlled burns (also known as prescribed burns) use of fire for forest management purposes, such as the reduction of fuel load fuel load amount of flammable material in an area
In places such as Arnhem Land in the Northern Territory, rangers use traditional Aboriginal knowledge and techniques along with modern technology to manage controlled burns. These smaller fires are started early in the dry season to reduce fuel load and create firebreaks, establishing a mosaic of burned and unburned areas. The vegetation in this environment has evolved to adapt to fire. Strategic use of fire helps the vegetation to regenerate and increase its biodiversity. It also reduces the likelihood of uncontrolled wildfires later in the dry season, avoiding damage to ecosystems, habitats and expensive infrastructure.
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c11_p341-372.indd 348
21/05/26 8:36 PM
11.2 What are the different views on environmental management and how can we assess their sustainability?
349
Canopy up to 17 m
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
The canopy is not burned during cultural burning. This gives shelter to animals while also preserving seeds and fruits. Caring for the canopy also provides shade and helps the landscape to recover.
In “hot fires”, the flames often reach high into the canopy of the trees and destroy the entire landscape. The soil is often baked, all wildlife, fruits and seeds are often destroyed.
Non-Indigenous fire management practices often burn large areas of land at a higher height than cultural burning. These fires are also considered “hot fires”.
Shrubs
up to 5 m
Cultural burning, or “cool fires”, involves burning grasses, leaf litter, and the lower bark of trees. The fire spreads slowly and is closely watched. Animals have time to flee. They are sometimes channelled and hunted as they flee. Grasses
With cultural burning, seeds, nutrients and roots remain safe and some moisture remains in the soil. This helps the landscape to recover and the native grasses and herbs to regrow. Fallen logs remain largely unburnt. This leaves behind habitat for animals.
➜
Figure 11.2.2 Aboriginal and Torres Strait Island Peoples’ cultural burning practices
Evaluating the effectiveness of environmental management strategies A common task that geographers undertake is measuring and evaluating the effectiveness of a management strategy. Strategies that are not working need to be modified, while strategies that are working should be implemented in other parts of the world.
Figure 11.2.3 A farmer in Western Australia conducts a controlled burn to avoid more serious, uncontrolled fires. Indigenous people have used such practices for generations to manage the land. ➜
Evaluating a strategy involves investigating whether it is successful, or is likely to be successful in the future. A range of criteria are used to judge the effectiveness of a strategy. Common criteria include:
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c11_p341-372.indd 349
21/05/26 8:36 PM
350
Chapter 11 Environmental management
• Is the strategy outcome-driven? Has it met, or is it likely to meet, its specific targets • • •
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
•
or purpose? Is it affordable (economically viable)? Is it fair for all stakeholders? Is it timely? Is it likely to meet its deadlines or achieve its goals within the intended timeframe? Is continuity possible? Can it be sustained into the future?
Before implementing an environmental management strategy, the positives and negatives should be considered carefully.
Evaluating the sustainability of environmental management strategies
Sustainability means meeting the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. As there are limited resources on Earth, sustainability focuses on securing a long-term future for all generations. One way to evaluate sustainability is to understand the four pillars of sustainability. The four pillars of sustainability are summarised below. Table 11.2.2 The four key pillars of sustainability Pillar
Description
Social sustainability
Social sustainability means creating safe, fair and supportive communities. People should be able to meet their basic needs, such as food, water, education and healthcare. Its main purpose is to improve quality of life for everyone.
Economic sustainability
Economic sustainability is about growing the economy without harming the environment or society. It includes using resources wisely and supporting long-term jobs and industries. The aim is to create a strong economy that lasts into the future.
Environmental sustainability
Environmental sustainability is about protecting the natural world so it can keep supporting life. It includes reducing pollution, saving resources and looking after ecosystems. The goal is to make sure the planet stays healthy for future generations.
Cultural sustainability
Cultural sustainability is about maintaining and preserving the cultural heritage, values, traditions, knowledge and identities of societies for future generations. Its focus is on the continuation of cultural practices in a way that fosters community cohesion, respects diversity and adapts to changing conditions without losing the essence of cultural identity.
In the lessons that follow, you will have the opportunity to evaluate the effectiveness and sustainability of several management strategies through a series of Australian and international case studies.
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c11_p341-372.indd 350
21/05/26 8:36 PM
351
11.2 What are the different views on environmental management and how can we assess their sustainability?
Review 11.2 Online quiz
Knowledge and understanding
Thinking and working geographically
Teachers can go online to assign questions, view results, reports and more!
Students can access sample responses and results online
Knowledge and understanding
Explain the three different environmental worldviews.
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
1. 2.
Provide an example of each environmental worldview.
3.
Outline the main criteria used to evaluate the effectiveness of a management strategy.
4.
Define the term “sustainability”
5.
Describe the four main pillars of sustainability.
Thinking and working geographically
Working with geographical concepts: Sustainability 1.
Visit the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) website (https://cambridge.edu.au/redirect/11848) and explain how these goals work towards achieving sustainability.
2.
Explain how one of these SDGs links to one of the four pillars of sustainability.
sustainability the concept of sustainability is about the capacity of the environment to continue to support our lives and the lives of other living creatures into the future
Evaluating management strategies using data
Geographers evaluate management strategies, such as the SDGs, to determine their ongoing success and likelihood of future success. The level of success is often determined based on the extent to which goals have been achieved. 3.
Search for the Sustainable Development rankings website (https://cambridge.edu.au/ redirect/11848). Next, follow the steps below to evaluate the extent to which a country has achieved the SDGs.
a. Select a country and record its SDG index rank. Click on its SDG index score and analyse the graph on the left of the screen. State whether the country is scoring high overall and whether it has shown progress since 2000. b. Count how many goals still have major challenges remaining (red), significant challenges remaining (orange), challenges remaining (yellow) and goal achieved (green). c. Select one of the goals and record which indicators have been achieved or are showing progress, and which are still barriers to the country meeting the goal. d. Repeat these steps with multiple countries to determine which are showing better progress in meeting the SDGs and achieving higher levels of human wellbeing.
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c11_p341-372.indd 351
21/05/26 8:36 PM
352
Chapter 11 Environmental management
11.3
Case study: How can we restore penguin habitats on the Summerland Peninsula? Success criteria
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
Learning intention
❏ I can explain the main impacts of environmental change on Summerland Peninsula. ❏ I can evaluate the effectiveness and sustainability of management strategies in the Summerland Peninsula.
In this lesson, you will explore the environmental change taking place at the Summerland Peninsula. You will also evaluate the effectiveness and sustainability of the Penguin Protection Plan as an environmental management strategy.
Starter activity Think, pair, share
You have an obligation as the custodians of the land or people responsible for the time being to see the long term and not just the immediate past and the immediate future.
– John Cain, former Premier of Victoria
1.
Think: Explain how John Cain’s quote relates to the concept of sustainability.
2.
Pair: With a partner, discuss whether you think it is important to consider the future condition of environments rather than just focusing on short-term impacts.
3.
Share: This lesson is based on efforts to sustain Phillip Island’s penguin population. Suggest why this is a priority for the region. Discuss as a pair, and be prepared to share your answers with the class.
Where is the Summerland Peninsula?
➜
Writing focus 11.3 Developing sentences
Phillip Island is located in Victoria’s Western Port Bay, approximately 80 kilometres south-south-east of Melbourne. About 90% of the island’s 100 square kilometres has been cleared and is currently used for urban and agricultural uses. The remainder of the island consists of woodlands, wetlands and coastal areas. The Summerland Peninsula is located on the western tip of the island near the internationally recognised Penguin Parade (see Figure 11.3.1). Silverleaves
Cowes
Ventnor
Rhyll
Phillip Island
Wimbledon Heights
Sunset Strip
Summerland Peninsula
➜ Figure 11.3.1
Smiths Beach
Newhaven
Surf Beach 0
5 km
Cape Woolamal
San Remo
The Summerland Peninsula is located on the western tip of Phillip Island.
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c11_p341-372.indd 352
21/05/26 8:36 PM
11.3 Case study: How can we restore penguin habitats on the Summerland Peninsula?
353
Environmental change: Summerlands Estate
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
Unlike the rest of Phillip Island, the Summerland Peninsula has little agricultural value and therefore has been left relatively unchanged since the 1920s. This means that it retains natural features that support a healthy penguin colony. All other penguin colonies on the island have been destroyed. As described in the excerpt in Figure 11.3.2, the region’s natural characteristics sparked the interest of property developers, and in 1927 the Summerlands Estate was established. The region was subdivided into 986 residential housing blocks. By 1985, the estate consisted of 183 houses, 1 motel, 1 shop, a nine-hole golf course and a network of roads.
The impacts of environmental change: A decline in penguin numbers During the 1950s, the Department of Fisheries and Wildlife began to realise that the size of the Summerland Peninsula’s Little Penguin population was shrinking rapidly. The local penguin habitat had been reduced in size, degraded by vegetation removal and weed infestation, and fragmented by the construction of roads. Hundreds of penguins were being killed each year by residents’ dogs, wild foxes and road accidents.
➜
With a further 2,000 residents expected to move Figure 11.3.2 Excerpt from a 1927 Phillip Island into the remaining vacant blocks, a 1984 study Holidays Development brochure by Phillip Island Nature Parks projected that the penguin colony would become extinct by 1997 (see Figure 11.3.3). In addition to environmental concerns, the economic sustainability of the region was also at risk. The closure of the Penguin Parade would have been a disaster for Phillip Island’s tourism industry and the local economy. Numbers of penguins at the Parade and projected numbers
800
Annual mean numbers
700
600
500
400 300
200 100
0 1976
1979
1982
1985
1988
1991
1994
1997
2000
➜
Figure 11.3.3 In 1984, Dr Peter Dann from Phillip Island Nature Parks projected that the local penguin colony would be extinct by 1997 if land uses at the time continued. Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c11_p341-372.indd 353
21/05/26 8:36 PM
354
Chapter 11 Environmental management
Managing environmental change: Penguin Protection Plan
➜
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
In 1985, John Cain, Premier of Victoria, announced the establishment of the Penguin Protection Plan. He made the decision after being lobbied by conservation groups and consulting with local residents and the local tourism industry. The conservation strategy was based on a land buyback. The Figure 11.3.4 Houses were removed from the Summerlands Estate and replaced with thousands of Victorian Government bought properties in indigenous plants and penguin boxes. the Summerlands Estate, and then removed houses and other urban infrastructure such as power lines (see Figure 11.3.4). Foxes and weeds were removed, and the penguin habitat was revegetated and turned into a wildlife reserve.
In 2011, the final houses were removed from the estate. All that remains today are a few scattered power poles and some underground cables. Revegetation and rehabilitation of the penguin habitat is ongoing and is now managed as part of the Phillip Island Nature Park.
Evaluating an environmental management strategy: Was the Penguin Protection Plan effective?
In terms of being outcome-driven, the Penguin Protection Plan was an overwhelming success, as it met its goal of increasing the penguin population. The penguin colony’s population grew from 12,000 breeding birds in 1984 to a stable 40,000 in the 2020s. Rangers have counted the number of penguins crossing the beach at the Penguin Parade each night since 1977 (see Figure11.3.5). Variation in their population is based on changes in the number of penguins, the distribution of suitable habitat and the availability of food sources. Average number of penguins crossing Penguin Parade beach each evening
Average number of penguins
1,600
1,400
1,200
1,000
800 600
400
2023
2021
2019
2017
2015
2013
2011
2009
2007
2005
2003
2001
1999
1997
1993
1995
1991
1989
1987
1985
1983
1981
1979
0
1977
200
Year ➜
Figure 11.3.5 Number of penguins crossing the beach at the Penguin Parade from 1977 to 2023
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c11_p341-372.indd 354
21/05/26 8:36 PM
11.3 Case study: How can we restore penguin habitats on the Summerland Peninsula?
355
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
An average of 940 penguins crossed the beach each night during the 2017–2018 season, making it the ninth year in a row that the population had been above the long-term average of 636. Since then, the number of penguins have continued to grow, with 5,219 penguins counted in May 2022, the highest number recorded since 1968.
➜
The Penguin Protection Plan has continued, with more initiatives being implemented Figure 11.3.6 Houses on the Summerland Estate were replaced with to protect penguin species, more than 2,000 penguin nesting boxes. The boxes allow penguins to raise making it a highly effective their chicks in a safe environment away from predators. management strategy. The increase in the size and quality of the penguin habitat, along with the construction of 2,000 penguin boxes (see Figure11.3.6), has meant that the distribution of the population has also increased. Weeds have also been managed over 400 hectares, and 120,000 grasses, shrubs and trees have been planted. This has benefited other species, such as the short-tailed shearwater (a migratory bird). Fox eradication was also completely successful, leading to the reintroduction of the critically endangered eastern barred bandicoot into the area.
Evaluating sustainability: Is the Penguin Protection Plan sustainable? Economic sustainability
Economic sustainability is about growing the economy without harming the environment or society. The growth in the number of penguins in the region has been positive for the local economy. The Penguin Parade is Phillip Island’s primary attraction, contributing the largest share of the A$529 million that Phillip Island Nature Parks contributes to Victoria’s economy each year.
In the 2023–24 season, 709,527 people visited the Penguin Parade, and approximately one-third were international tourists. These tourists spend over A$300 million annually on local accommodation, restaurants and other tourism activities. This in turn supports over 3,000 jobs on the island and contributes nearly 40% of the region’s gross regional product (GRP). The growth in tourist numbers has enabled the replacement of the Penguin Parade Visitor Centre in a new location. This has allowed the rehabilitation of the wetland habitat where the old Visitor Centre was located, as well as the realignment of roads and car parks. This realignment reduces habitat fragmentation.
gross regional product (GRP) a measure of a region’s economic activity based on the total value of goods produced and services provided in one year
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c11_p341-372.indd 355
21/05/26 8:36 PM
Chapter 11 Environmental management
➜
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
356
Figure 11.3.7 Hundreds of thousands of tourists visit Phillip Island’s Penguin Parade each year.
Social sustainability
Despite its successes, not all aspects of this strategy have been successful. The principle of social sustainability aims to create safe, fair and supportive communities. The property buyback was expected to take 15 years and was budgeted at A$1 million per year. It took 25 years due to a lack of funding. During this time, landowners could not develop vacant blocks and homeowners could not make any improvements or modifications to their houses. Many residents described these circumstances as living in a state of limbo. Although properties were initially sold to the government on a voluntary basis, many residents did not want to leave and 42 properties had to be compulsorily acquired, which resulted in a fractured community. Ms Verwey, a local resident, stated that: … we were horrified and deeply shocked and incredibly saddened that all of this was going to come to an end.
– Fiona Pepper, “When Phillip Island penguins won, and landowners lost”, ABC News, 8 April 2018
Despite the short-term negative impacts, the long-term social impacts are expected to be positive for recreation, local jobs and environmental conservation.
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c11_p341-372.indd 356
21/05/26 8:36 PM
11.3 Case study: How can we restore penguin habitats on the Summerland Peninsula?
Review 11.3 Online quiz
Knowledge and understanding
Thinking and working geographically
Students can access sample responses and results online
357
Teachers can go online to assign questions, view results, reports and more!
Knowledge and understanding
Describe the location of the Summerland Peninsula on Phillip Island.
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
1. 2.
Describe the decline of penguin numbers on Phillip Island.
3.
Refer to Figure 11.3.2. What features were advertised to attract people to the Summerland Peninsula in 1927?
4.
Evaluate the Penguin Protection Plan as an environmental management strategy.
5.
Suggest how the views of different groups of people might have caused conflict during the implementation of the Summerland land buyback.
6.
Evaluate the sustainability of the Penguin Protection Plan.
Thinking and working geographically
Working with geographical concepts: Place 1.
Research the significance of the Summerland Peninsula for penguin populations.
2.
Explain the significance of the Summerland Peninsula for residents and homeowners.
place the concept of place is about the significance of places and what they are like
Evaluating a management strategy
Geographers evaluate management strategies, such as the Penguin Protection Plan, to determine their success now and into the future. The level of success is often determined based on the extent to which goals have been achieved. 3.
Undertake research using the prompts below to evaluate the Penguin Protection Plan in terms of its environmental, economic and social sustainability.
a. Determine the health of Phillip Island’s penguin population. Find data, such as the recent numbers of penguins crossing the beach, and information about recent rehabilitation works to improve the penguins’ habitat. b. Determine the amount of money generated from Phillip Island Nature Parks and the Penguin Parade in recent years. Consider the significance of the penguin colony to the local economy. c. Determine the number of visitors to the Penguin Parade in recent years. Consider whether this growth in tourism justifies the social impacts of the compulsory acquisition of properties in the Summerlands Estate. d. Based on the research you have undertaken, discuss the extent to which the Penguin Protection Plan has been successful.
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c11_p341-372.indd 357
21/05/26 8:36 PM
358
Chapter 11 Environmental management
11.4
Case study: How can we use the knowledge of Aboriginal Peoples to manage Kakadu? Success criteria
In this lesson, you will learn about how the knowledge of Aboriginal Peoples is being used to rehabilitate degraded wetlands in Kakadu. You will learn to evaluate the effectiveness and sustainability of traditional fire regimes as a management strategy.
❏ I can explain the main impacts of environmental change to wetlands in Kakadu. ❏ I can evaluate the effectiveness and sustainability of management strategies in the wetlands in Kakadu.
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
Learning intention
Starter activity
Reflecting on land management by Traditional Custodians
This earth, I never damage. I look after. Fire is nothing, just clean up. When you burn, new grass coming up. That means good animal soon, might be goanna, possum, wallaby. Burn him off, new grass coming up, new life all over.
– Bill Neidjie, the last surviving speaker of the Gaagudju language, an Aboriginal language from northern Kakadu after which Kakadu National Park is named
1.
Reflect on the quote from Bill Neidjie.
2.
Consider the role fire plays in the cultures and lifestyles of Aboriginal Peoples.
3.
Compare this with the way bushfires are managed by non-Indigenous Australians.
Kakadu National Park
➜
Writing focus 11.4 Appositives
➜
endemic species that are endemic are only found in a particular place and nowhere else on Earth
Kakadu National Park is located in the Northern Territory, around 150 kilometres south-east of Darwin. It is Australia’s second-largest national park, covering almost 20,000 square kilometres. Kakadu contains a range of environments, including coastal zones, floodplains, wetlands, savannah, woodlands, rainforest and stone country (see Figure 11.4.1). Figure 11.4.2 shows the distribution of these environments in the region. This rich diversity of environments is home to many rare and endemic plants and animals, including oneFigure 11.4.1 The East Alligator River drains from the inland stone quarter of Australia’s fish species country of Kakadu, a flat and rocky region that endures extreme heat, and one-third of its bird species. long dry spells and torrential rain.
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c11_p341-372.indd 358
21/05/26 8:36 PM
11.4 Case study: How can we use the knowledge of Aboriginal Peoples to manage Kakadu?
Gardangarl (Field Island)
132°E Van Diemen Gulf
359
12°S Gularri (Point Farewell)
133°E
Ea s
o at llig tA
Djidbordu Waldark Irrmbal (Barron Island) (West Alligator Head)
rR ive r
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
Kunbarlanja (Gunbalanya)
Ubirr
em Arnh
Old
Jim
Jabiluka Mineral Lease
Aurora Kakadu Resort
Two Mile Hole
Darwin 140 km
tor River h Alliga Sout
r River Alligato West
River man Wild
Four Mile Hole
Bowali Vistor Centre
Nourfa ngie C reek
way
Ranger Project Area
Jabiru
High
Ngurrungurrudjba (Yellow Water)
Burrungkuy Djarradjin (Nouriangie) (Muirella Park)
Cooinda
Jim
Manbiyarra (Border Store)
Ro
ad
Jim
13°S
m
Ji
k ee Cr
ARNHEM LAND
Maguk
Djimdjim (Jim Jim Falls)
Twin Falls
Gunlom
Ma ry Riv er
LEGEND
Yurrmikmik
Park boundary Sealed roads
Unsealed roads
Pine Creek 60km
Riv e
4WD track
r
Kat her ine
Drainage
Floodplain
Lowland woodland and forest Stone country
0
20 km
Rainforest Threatened Sandstone Shrubland Complex
14°S
➜
Figure 11.4.2 Distribution of environments in Kakadu National Park Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c11_p341-372.indd 359
21/05/26 8:36 PM
Chapter 11 Environmental management
Gudjewg Monsoon season
DEC
JAN
MA R
WET
Banggareng Knock em down storm season Yegge Cooler but still humid season
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
MAY
Gunumeleng Pre-monsoon storm season
FEB
APR
In addition to its environmental assets, Kakadu is valued for its cultural history. The Traditional Custodians and Owners of the land are the Bininj in the north and the Mungguy in the south. These two Aboriginal groups have an intimate knowledge of the local environment, its cycles and seasonal changes (see Figure 11.4.3). For the last 65,000 years, Aboriginal Peoples have cared for the land around Kakadu. They have passed down their spiritual connection over generations using art, language, ceremonies, kinship and land-management techniques.
NOV
360
AUG
OCT
SEP
high-intensity bushfire fire that generates very high heat, burning both the ground surface and trees, and eliminating all fauna
JUL
fire regime pattern of fires that occurs in an ecosystem, classified by the frequency, intensity, size and seasonality of fires
JUN
low-intensity bushfire fire that burns mainly grasses and lowlying vegetation rather than trees
Gurrung Hot dry weather season
Wurrgeng Cold weather season
Figure 11.4.3 A detailed understanding of Kakadu’s seasonal climate is essential to its management by Aboriginal Peoples. ➜
Environmental change: A new fire regime
DRY
Prior to European colonisation, Aboriginal Peoples managed Kakadu using fire. Lowintensity bushfires were used to aid hunting, protect food resources, clear campsites, communicate between groups, and as part of spiritual and cultural rituals. Over time, traditional fire regimes became an essential component of the local ecosystem, helping to provide habitat for species that had adapted to these conditions. When European colonists arrived in the region, many Aboriginal people left their land, were removed or died from disease. This meant that traditional fire practices were disrupted. The landscape changed accordingly. During the wet season, monsoonal rains led to rapid plant growth. In the absence of traditional burning during the dry season, this vegetation dried out and accumulated into a large fuel load. This led to more frequent high-intensity bushfires. While low-intensity fires had benefited the environment, these more powerful fires were destructive, altering the balance of the ecosystem and changing the distribution of plants and animals.
Environmental change: Pests and weeds
Since European settlement, the spread of pests and weeds has become an environmental issue in Kakadu. Weed species present include Mimosa, a woody shrub from Central America that forms thickets across floodplains, and Salvinia, an aquatic fern that can choke waterways. Feral animals introduced to the region, both intentionally and accidentally, include cattle, pigs, horses, cats, dogs, rats, cane toads and Asian water buffalo (see Figure 11.4.4). Asian water buffalo were introduced to Kakadu in the 1820s. By the 1960s, their numbers had grown to approximately 20,000 and they were particularly prominent across the Alligator Rivers region (see Figure 11.4.4). These pests eroded riverbanks, muddied water, ate large amounts of grasses and competed with native wildlife for habitat.
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c11_p341-372.indd 360
21/05/26 8:36 PM
11.4 Case study: How can we use the knowledge of Aboriginal Peoples to manage Kakadu?
361
➜
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
During the 1980s and 1990s, most buffalo were removed from Kakadu to prevent further destruction. However, the successful eradication of this pest led to further changes. Each buffalo used to eat an average of 20 kilograms of grass each day. The absence of buffalo meant that the native mudja grass (Hymenachne acutigluma) and introduced para grass (Brachiaria mutica) spread rampantly throughout Kakadu’s wetlands, out-competing other plant species. This prevented water birds from feeding, reduced local biodiversity and increased the bushfire Figure 11.4.4 Buffalo cause considerable damage to Kakadu’s waterways. fuel load. Combined with an absence of traditional fire management, this further increased the vulnerability of Kakadu to high-intensity bushfires.
Managing environmental change: A partnership with the Bininj/Mungguy People in the Kakadu
Since the 1970s, half of Kakadu has been classified as Aboriginal land under the Aboriginal Land Rights Act 1976. The Traditional Custodians of the land, the Bininj/ Mungguy People, lease the land back to the Director of National Parks, which is part of the Australian Government. These two groups manage the park together. This partnership enables Aboriginal knowledge about fire management, as well as knowledge about other aspects of the local environment, to be incorporated into management strategies. The Kakadu National Park Management Plan (2016–2026) outlines current priorities. Its vision is that Kakadu is a place where:
• The cultural and natural values of the park are protected and Bininj/Mungguy culture • • • • •
is respected. Bininj/Mungguy People are involved in all aspects of managing the park. Knowledge about Country and culture is passed onto younger Bininj/Mungguy People, and future generations of the Bininj/Mungguy have the option to live in and look after the park. World-class visitor experiences are provided and tourism is conducted in culturally, environmentally, socially and economically sustainable ways. Disturbed areas are rehabilitated and reintegrated into the park. Bininj/Mungguy People gain sustainable social and economic outcomes from the park.
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c11_p341-372.indd 361
21/05/26 8:36 PM
362
Chapter 11 Environmental management
Evaluating environmental management: Is the partnership with the Bininj/Mungguy People in the Kakadu effective?
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
The partnership with the Bininj/Mungguy People has enabled the sharing of traditional fire management strategies, which led to the implementation of the Burning for Biodiversity project. The project is an example of successfully involving Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples in environmental management. The Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO) and the Bushfire Cooperative Research Centre work with a family of Traditional Custodians and Owners to manage the biodiversity of the floodplains of the South Alligator River.
The management process involves the yearly burning of two types of fires. Lowintensity protective burns occur on the edges of the floodplain in May, which is early in the dry season when the fuel load is still moist. The early protective burns prevent these later, larger fires from spreading into the surrounding woodlands. Higher-intensity burns take place throughout the floodplain at the end of the dry season in October, when water levels are low and fuel loads are high. This burning regime continues until the wet season arrives in December. Burning for Biodiversity has been a successful management strategy, transforming the region back into a diverse wetland habitat where waterbirds thrive. Additional benefits of the program have included the return of food resources for local Aboriginal people, the opportunity to teach younger generations about traditional practices, and for these methods to serve as an example of how traditional environmental management could be applied throughout other parts of Australia. It is hoped that similar prescribed burns can be used elsewhere in Kakadu to restore the delicate balance of its ecosystems.
Evaluating sustainability: Is the partnership with the Bininj/Mungguy People in the Kakadu sustainable? Cultural sustainability
➜
Cultural sustainability is about maintaining and preserving the cultural heritage, values, traditions, knowledge and identities of societies for future generations. As Traditional Custodians of the land, the Bininj/Mungguy People’s knowledge of fire management is valued and passed on to future generations of Bininj/Mungguy. The Bininj/Mungguy People’s collaborative approach Figure 11.4.5 Park rangers and Aboriginal Traditional Owners work together to use cultural burning techniques to manage the to managing Kakadu allows for a local environment. continuation of cultural practices in a way that fosters community cohesion. As the National Park is co-managed, a sense of respect is established, and culture is sustained and valued.
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c11_p341-372.indd 362
21/05/26 8:36 PM
11.4 Case study: How can we use the knowledge of Aboriginal Peoples to manage Kakadu?
Review 11.4 Knowledge and understanding
Online quiz
Thinking and working geographically
Students can access sample responses and results online
363
Teachers can go online to assign questions, view results, reports and more!
Knowledge and understanding
Why is Kakadu considered to be such an important natural environment?
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
1. 2.
What are the names of Kakadu’s Traditional Custodians and Owners? How many years have they lived in and managed Kakadu?
3.
Describe two factors that have led to changes in Kakadu’s landscape.
Thinking and working geographically
Working with geographical concepts: Change 1.
Using buffalo as an example, discuss how the management of a pest or weed can lead to environmental change.
2.
Explain how fire has changed the landscape of Kakadu.
Evaluating a management response 3.
➜
Watch the video from the CSIRO, “ Aboriginal wetland burning in Kakadu (2005)” (https://cambridge.edu. au/redirect/11850), which demonstrates an example of a traditional burn as part of the Burning for Biodiversity project. Then answer the questions that follow. a. What do you think is Figure 11.4.6 Aerial view of the Great Western Highway running meant by the phrase, “You through forest in regional New South Wales. The forest has been look after the Country and burned using Aboriginal knowledge of fire management. the Country will look after you”? b. Describe the characteristics of the landscape that the family in the video are burning. c. Why are wind and rainfall essential for fire management? d. Why are the fringes of the wetland burned early in the dry season? e. What have been the benefits of removing Hymenachne (mudja grass) from the region? f. Why is it essential that Aboriginal Peoples contribute to the management of Kakadu? g. Using the information from the previous questions, evaluate the effectiveness of the Burning for Biodiversity project. Consider:
change the concept of change is about explaining geographical phenomena by investigating how they have developed over time
• environmental sustainability in terms of changes to biodiversity • economic sustainability in terms of positive and negative impacts that it could havwe on the tourism industry • social sustainability in terms of the education of the local community about traditional practices.
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c11_p341-372.indd 363
21/05/26 8:36 PM
364
Chapter 11 Environmental management
11.5
Case study: Monitoring and ensuring the health of the Mesoamerican Reef Success criteria
In this lesson, you will explore the threats to the Mesoamerican Reef. You will evaluate the effectiveness and sustainability of the Coastal Management Trust Scheme as a management strategy.
❏ I can explain the main impacts of environmental change on the Mesoamerican Reef. ❏ I can evaluate the effectiveness and sustainability of management strategies in the Mesoamerican Reef.
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
Learning intention
Starter activity 1.
With a partner discuss this quote: “Good environmental management demands investment today so that we don’t pay a heavier debt tomorrow.”
2.
What does investment in the environment look like?
The Mesoamerican Reef
➜
Writing focus 11.5 Creating topic sentences
The Mesoamerican Reef is a marine system stretching over 1,000 kilometres from the northern tip of Mexico’s Yucatán Peninsula, along the east coasts of Belize and Guatemala, ending at the Bay Islands in the north of Honduras (see Figure 11.5.2). This marine system supports mangrove forests, coastal wetlands, seagrass beds and the world’s second-largest coral reef. The reef provides a habitat for 65 species of coral and 500 species of fish, including whale sharks, and other marine creatures such as turtles and manatees. This makes it one of the most biodiverse ecosystems in North and South America.
➜
Figure 11.5.1 Punta Allen Sian Ka’an Reserve, Yucatán Peninsula, Mexico
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c11_p341-372.indd 364
21/05/26 8:36 PM
365
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
11.5 Case study: Monitoring and ensuring the health of the Mesoamerican Reef
MEXICO
Yucatán Basin
C
an aym
e
Ridg
h
enc n Tr
BELIZE
ma Cay
Gulf of Honduras
GUATEMALA
HONDURAS
0
100 km
LEGEND
Major rivers Coastal lagoons Lakes
Urbanised areas Coral reefs Mangroves
Land elevation (m) 1–500 2,001–2,500 501–1,000 2,501–3,000 1,001–1,500 3,001–3,500 1,501–2,000 3,501–4,000
Bathymetry (m below sea level) 3,001–4,000m 1–10m 4,001–5,000m 11–50m 5,001–6,000m 51–100m 6,001–7,000m 101–200m 7,001–8,000m 201–2,000m 8,001–9,000m 2,001–3,000m
➜
Figure 11.5.2 Location and physical characteristics of the Mesoamerican Reef
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c11_p341-372.indd 365
21/05/26 8:36 PM
366
Chapter 11 Environmental management
Amazing but true…
➜
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
Coral reefs have very high biodiversity. They are home to 25% of all marine species on Earth despite only covering 0.1% of the ocean’s total area.
subsistence fishing fishing done primarily to provide food for the people doing the fishing as opposed to being sold for profit run-off water that flows over the surface of the land rather than being absorbed
macroalgae large marine algae, such as seaweed and seagrass, that typically grow in shallow water
turbidity measure of the transparency, or cloudiness, of a liquid, caused by the concentration of suspended particles within it
Figure 11.5.3 Exotic coral polyps in the Mesoamerican Reef
In addition to its biological importance, the Mesoamerican Reef provides a source of income for 2 million local people who work in commercial fishing and tourism industries. It also provides a vital food source for those who rely on it for subsistence fishing. Tourism is a significant industry in this region, contributing almost a quarter of Belize’s GDP. The reef system also acts as a buffer that absorbs the force of large waves, protecting the shoreline from severe storms, coastal erosion and floods. A healthy coral reef can absorb up to 97% of a wave’s energy. This is particularly vital because the reef’s location in Central America makes both it and the coastline vulnerable to hurricanes.
Environmental change: Local causes
The Mesoamerican Reef faces several threats, which are damaging its environmental assets at an alarming rate. These threats include mining, agriculture, commercial development, tourism and overfishing. Figure 11.5.2 shows the topography of the region, with higher elevations further inland and river systems that flow towards the coast. The shape of this landscape means that inland pollution will eventually drain into river systems and discharge into the reef, including raw sewage and agricultural run-off that contains pesticides and fertilisers. These nutrients and pollutants cause the excessive growth of macroalgae, which compete with corals and can cause them to perish. The clearing of coastal vegetation such as mangrove forests (see Figure 11.5.4), and the subsequent construction and farming that occur in their place, is adding excessive sediment into river systems flowing out to the reef. This is increasing the water’s turbidity, depriving corals of the sunlight they need to grow.
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c11_p341-372.indd 366
21/05/26 8:36 PM
11.5 Case study: Monitoring and ensuring the health of the Mesoamerican Reef
367
Environmental change: Global causes In addition to local impacts, the Mesoamerican Reef is being threatened by climate change in a number of ways:
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
• Warming ocean temperatures will cause • •
•
Figure 11.5.5 Up to 80% of the corals in the southern region of the Mesoamerican Reef are showing signs of bleaching. ➜
In 2023, a long heatwave between May and August raised temperatures more than 3.5°C above the summer average. This caused bleaching throughout the Mesoamerican Reef, including the death of species that had not previously been affected. The IPCC projects that a global temperature rise of 1.5°C above the preindustrial average could kill or severely degrade up to 80% of coral reefs.
Figure 11.5.4 Roots of mangroves protect the shoreline from storm waves, wind and erosion, and filter out sediment to prevent it flowing into the sea. ➜
•
widespread coral bleaching. Sea-level rises will cause increased coastal erosion and increase turbidity. The coastline will be more vulnerable to more frequent storms and subsequent flooding. Increased rainfall will increase the run-off of pollutants. Increased amounts of carbon dioxide absorbed by the ocean will lead to ocean acidification, which will reduce the ability of corals to grow and recover from damage.
Managing environmental change: Coastal Management Trust scheme
Each year, more than 12 million tourists visit Mexico’s Yucatán Peninsula, generating US$9 billion annually. The region is reliant on the Mesoamerican Reef, both as a major tourist attraction and as a buffer to protect the coastline from hurricanes, which are also the biggest immediate threat facing the future of the reef. In order to ensure the sustainability of the reef and the industries that rely on it, in 2018 the Nature Conservancy partnered with the state government of Quintana Roo in Mexico to establish the Coastal Management Trust scheme. This scheme is an insurance policy. The Trust receives money from the tourism industry and uses it to insure 60 kilometres of the reef against damage from hurricanes.
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c11_p341-372.indd 367
21/05/26 8:36 PM
368
Chapter 11 Environmental management
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
The money pays for the ongoing maintenance of the reef to improve its health and its ability to protect the coastline. Following any large storms and hurricanes, the scheme funds restoration activities such as stabilising uprooted corals, helping the reef to recover so that it can once again protect the coastline. In this way, the Trust helps to ensure the ecological conservation of the reef, while ensuring the survival of the tourism that relies on it. Although the Trust is currently only applied to 60 kilometres of coastline near Cancun, it is hoped that this model will be applied to other regions, and that similar schemes might be developed for other ecosystems.
Evaluating environmental management: Is the Coastal Management Trust scheme effective?
In 2020, Hurricane Delta triggered a payout from the Coastal Management Trust. The $850,000 payout was effectively used by Reef Brigades (a group of first responders trained in reef restoration). They assessed the damage to the reef and made repair plans. They decided the best course of action was to stabilise large- and medium-sized coral colonies. The team collected more than 8,000 coral fragments that had been broken by the hurricane in the first 11 days. They then planted them in the reef to help the reef’s recovery process. This management strategy proved timely, as Reef Brigades was able to respond quickly thanks to the funding.
Evaluating sustainability: Is the Coastal Management Trust scheme sustainable? Environmental sustainability
Environmental sustainability is about protecting the natural world so it can keep supporting life. The Coastal Management Trust scheme is sustainable because it continues to set aside funds to restore the environmental health of the Mesoamerican Reef ecosystem.
Assessing and monitoring the health of an environment is an essential component of environmental management. In addition, The Healthy Reefs Initiative is a collaboration of 48 different non-government organisations throughout Central America that monitor and evaluate the health of the Mesoamerican Reef. Video 11.5.1 shows this data organised in a geographic information system (GIS) that can be used to explore various data layers and compare data from different periods. This is another sustainable initiative that promotes environmental protection of the natural world.
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c11_p341-372.indd 368
21/05/26 8:36 PM
11.5 Case study: Monitoring and ensuring the health of the Mesoamerican Reef
Review 11.5 Online quiz
Knowledge and understanding
Thinking and working geographically
Students can access sample responses and results online
369
Teachers can go online to assign questions, view results, reports and more!
Knowledge and understanding
List three reasons why the Mesoamerican Reef is a significant environment.
2.
Refer to Figure 11.5.2.
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
1.
a. A lot of the coastline contains mangroves. What impact might this have on the health of nearby corals? b. Describe the physical characteristics of the surrounding landscape, including the variation in elevation and the distribution of rivers. d. Why are these features important factors in contributing to the damage to the Mesoamerican Reef?
3.
Summarise the local and global threats to the health of the Mesoamerican Reef.
4.
Describe how the Coastal Management Trust protects the Mesoamerican Reef in Mexico.
5.
Evaluate the sustainability of the Coastal Management Trust in terms of environmental sustainability.
Thinking and working geographically
Working with geographical concepts: Change 1.
Download the latest report card from the Healthy Reefs Initiative website.
a. Which sub-region has the highest Reef Health Index (RHI) score? b. Which country has the highest average RHI score? c. Compare the latest data with the data from previous report cards. Comment on the trends you can see and explain the main changes that you see.
change the concept of change is about explaining geographical phenomena by investigating how they have developed over time
Using a GIS to monitor environmental health
2.
Follow these steps to gain an understanding of the health of the Mesoamerican Reef: a. Visit the Healthy Reefs Initiative website (https://cambridge.edu.au/ redirect/11851) and select “Data Explorer” from the top menu. Click on various sites in the reef to see photos. Compare the characteristics of at least two of the sites. b. Click on the “2006–2016” tab and select the “Reef Health Index–Sites” tab. Using the slider, describe the change in the overall health of the reef between 2006 and 2016. In your answer, refer to specific sites and subregions as evidence. c. Select either the “Coral Disease” or “Coral Bleaching” tab and summarise the extent of the impacts using dot points. d. Access the most recent report card from the Healthy Reefs Initiative website. Describe how the recent assessment of the reef’s condition compares with its health in 2016.
Video 11.5.1 Geography skills Digital skills: Using a GIS – Healthy Reefs Initiative
➜
A GIS is a form of technology used to gather, manage and analyse spatial information such as environmental change. Geographers can organise this data in layers using interactive maps to compare data sets at various scales. A GIS has been used to map, explore and analyse data from the Healthy Reefs Initiative. By manipulating digital maps and data layers, users can view photos of the Mesoamerican Reef, explore the health of various sites over time and analyse the extent of various impacts.
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c11_p341-372.indd 369
21/05/26 8:36 PM
370
Chapter 11 Environmental management
11.6
Chapter review Access the Interactive Textbook for a range of digital tools to help you review this chapter and build confidence.
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
• Auto-marked questions for fast feedback and fun practice • Self-assessment tools to track your progress, review answers (if enabled by the teacher), and flag questions for extra help • Downloadable worksheets for class or homework revision
Summary
Summary notes
Download chapter summary
What have you learned about environmental change?
For this activity, copy the table and fill it out by explaining your understanding. Aim for two points per topic.
Terms
What I have learned
Environmental worldviews
Four pillars of sustainability
Environmental management Restoration
Traditional knowledge
Visible thinking routine Circle of viewpoints
This exercise in visible thinking asks you to see and explore multiple perspectives. It helps you to understand that different people can have different kinds of views and connections to the same thing. Scenario: The Daintree Rainforest in tropical Queensland is the world’s oldest continuously surviving rainforest at over 135–180 million years old. If humanity is not careful, there could be ecosystem collapse leading to rapid decline in species, land clearing and the destruction of natural habitat. 1.
Brainstorm a list of perspectives. For example, tourist or a bird watcher.
2.
Choose one perspective to explore, using these sentence-starters:
• I am thinking of … the topic … from the viewpoint of … the viewpoint you’ve chosen • I think … describe the topic from your viewpoint. Be an actor – take on the character of your viewpoint • A question I have from this viewpoint is … ask a question from this viewpoint
Questions Scorcher quiz Access a fast, fun, competitive quiz that puts your understanding to the test. Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c11_p341-372.indd 370
21/05/26 8:36 PM
11.6 Chapter review
371
Quick questions The following questions offer various ways to demonstrate your understanding of the chapter. A coral reef ecosystem is made up of tiny animals called coral ____ that build hard skeletons over time.
2.
_____ is when the algae leaves the coral’s tissue and the coral turns white.
3.
Controlled burns are used to reduce ____ load and create firebreaks.
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
1.
4.
The Mesoamerican Reef stretches over _____ kilometres from Mexico to Honduras.
5.
Which of the following is identified as a major impact on coral reefs? a. High rainfall b. Deep-sea mining
c. Sand-dune formation d. Ocean acidification
6.
Which environmental worldview states that human beings are the caretakers of nature?
7.
a. Environmental wisdom c. Stewardship b. Planetary management d. Anthropogenic belief What was one major cause of habitat degradation on the Summerland Peninsula?
8.
a. Agricultural expansion b. Removal of wetlands c. Housing development in the Summerlands Estate d. Mining operations Asian water buffalo in Kakadu caused damage by:
9.
a. eroding river banks and muddying water. b. hunting native species. c. increasing soil salinity. d. digging large burrows. The Coastal Management Trust insures the Mesoamerican Reef primarily against:
10.
a. coal disease. b. hurricanes. c. tourism impacts. d. overfishing. Recall one impact of coral bleaching. Identify three environmental worldviews.
12.
What is the main purpose of the Penguin Protection Plan?
13.
Outline one way Aboriginal knowledge is used to manage Kakadu.
14.
Referring to Figure 11.6.1, identify two effects of coral bleaching on marine life.
Figure 11.6.1 A green turtle feeding on sea grass on the Great Barrier Reef ➜
11.
Writing focus
The following activities allow you to practise your writing skills.
You can use this as a model when writing your own answers to the questions that follow. Question: Explain how environmental management by First Nations Peoples demonstrates a stewardship worldview. (7 marks)
Writing focus 11.6 Single paragraph response model ➜
Answering questions in paragraphs
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c11_p341-372.indd 371
21/05/26 8:36 PM
372
Chapter 11 Environmental management
Model answer: Topic sentence: the first sentence of the paragraph; directly answers the question
Explain: clarify, define and describe Elaborate: additional information, connections, historical significance, change and continuity, cause and consequence
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
Evidence: specific, relevant evidence to support arguments
Environmental management by First Nations Peoples demonstrates a stewardship worldview because it is based on caring for Country and maintaining the health of the land for future generations. A stewardship worldview sees humans as caretakers of nature, responsible for managing environments sustainably rather than exploiting them. First Nations Peoples treat land, water, plants and animals as interconnected systems, emphasising balance, long-term wellbeing and the continuation of cultural Knowledge. In Kakadu, First Nations rangers use controlled burning to reduce fuel loads and protect habitats. This traditional fire management strategy maintains the long-term health and balance of Country. Such practices show stewardship because they prioritise long-term environmental care over short-term use, ensuring Country can sustain future generations.
Linking sentence: reconnects with language of the question the topic sentence.
Examples: provide credibility and illustrate the argument
Structured-response questions
Marking criteria for each question can be found in the Interactive Textbook. Refer to these criteria when planning and writing your responses.
Question 1
(20 marks)
a. Outline the three main environmental worldviews. b. Explain how environmental management by Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples demonstrates a stewardship worldview. c. Evaluate the effectiveness of environmental management by Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples using a range of criteria.
(10 marks)
Question 2
(20 marks)
a. Identify the four key pillars of sustainability. b. Explain why sustainability is important to managing environments. c. Analyse the sustainability of TWO management strategies you have studied.
(4 marks) (4 marks) (12 marks)
(3 marks)
(7 marks)
Extended-response questions Question 1
(20 marks)
Evaluate the effectiveness of a range of environmental management strategies used around the world. Question 2
(20 marks)
Analyse the sustainability of a range of environmental management strategies used around the world.
Teachers, access the Online Teaching Suite for digital resources and tools that support review, assessment and reporting, including:
• student and class activity reports • a test generator to create custom assessments • built-in feedback tools • editable downloadable support material • a downloadable and printable “Writing focus” workbook for this chapter. Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c11_p341-372.indd 372
21/05/26 8:36 PM
Chapter
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
12
Case study: Australia and the Canary Islands
Lessons
12.1
Geo Spark: Prime real estate or irresponsible zoning?
12.2
What are coastal dunes?
12.3
How do the atmosphere and hydrosphere interact in coastal dune development?
12.4
How do the lithosphere and biosphere interact in coastal dune development?
12.5
How are coastal dunes being affected by natural environmental change?
12.6
How are coastal dunes being affected by human-induced environmental change?
12.7
How can soft-engineering help coastal dunes?
12.8
How can hard-engineering help coastal dunes?
12.9
Case study: What do you know about the Stockton Bight Sand Dunes?
12.10
Case study: What do you know about the Maspalomas Dunes?
12.11
Chapter review
➜
Teachers go to the Online Teacher Suite to: • plan, sequence and assign directed tasks for students and classes using Task Manager • view student activity reports • provide feedback to students • download a printable “Writing focus” workbook for this chapter.
Image: Coastal dune
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c12_p373-433.indd 373
21/05/26 8:38 PM
374
Chapter 12 Case study: Australia and the Canary Islands
12.1
Geo Spark: Prime real estate or irresponsible zoning? Success criteria
In this lesson, you will learn about the risks associated with coastal development.
❏ I can explain the risks associated with coastal development and coastal properties.
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
Learning intention
Prime real estate?
➜
Writing focus 12.1 Question words
There are very few residential properties that are as expensive as beachfront homes. In Australia, some of the country’s most expensive regions, including Point Piper, Byron Bay and Palm Beach, are situated along the coast. Properties in these regions are highly sought after due to their scenic ocean views, which are scarce in supply yet high in demand. As a result, these properties are widely regarded as prime real estate. However, beachfront homes and coastal towns also present significant challenges and risks that are often underestimated or overlooked until it is too late. These risks raise the question of whether coastal properties are truly prime real estate or the products of irresponsible zoning.
➜
Figure 12.1.1 Byron Bay coastline
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c12_p373-433.indd 374
21/05/26 8:38 PM
375
➜
Figure 12.1.2 Point Piper, Sydney
➜
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
12.1 Geo Spark: Prime real estate or irresponsible zoning?
Figure 12.1.3 Palm Beach, Sydney
Impacts of coastal properties
The issues with coastal properties begin at the development stage. Beachfront houses are often built on sand dunes because they offer uninterrupted beach views without being in contact with water. However, for development to occur, native vegetation must be cleared and dunes flattened. The problem with this is that dune vegetation plays an essential role in stabilising sand and maintaining dune structure. Therefore, when Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c12_p373-433.indd 375
21/05/26 8:38 PM
376
Chapter 12 Case study: Australia and the Canary Islands
➜
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
vegetation is cleared, the dune becomes more susceptible to erosion, which can result in dune collapse. In addition, the buildings interrupt the natural movement of sand and wind, which prevents dunes from shifting and rebuilding naturally.
Figure 12.1.4 Dunes flattened for the development of beachfront houses
Zoning
zoning setting aside areas in a place for particular use; local councils are responsible for zoning east coast low an intense low-pressure system formed off Australia’s east coast, bringing severe weather conditions such as heavy rain, strong winds and flooding
For coastal development to occur, zoning must be approved by local councils. Zoning is setting aside areas in a place for particular use. In the case of residential properties, the area must be approved for residential zoning. Without this approval, homes cannot be built. However, it is important to remember that just because an area is approved for development, that does not mean development should occur.
Risks of coastal properties
Coastal properties are at risk of the dangers associated with climate change and erosion. Government agency Geoscience Australia found that approximately 39,000 buildings across the nation are located within 100 metres of soft erodible shorelines. With climate change increasing storm surges and driving sea-level rises, thousands of properties are at risk of significant damage if not complete loss.
Coastal erosion in Wamberal
In June 2016, the coastal suburb of Wamberal on the Central Coast of New South Wales experienced a significant east coast low combined with king tides that resulted in some of the worst impacts of coastal erosion of any beach in the state. Unsurprisingly, the properties that were built on top of Wamberal’s dune system were the most affected. Not only were the owners of these properties instructed to evacuate during the east
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c12_p373-433.indd 376
21/05/26 8:38 PM
12.1 Geo Spark: Prime real estate or irresponsible zoning?
377
coast low, but they were also warned against returning due to the damages sustained. Over a span of hours, several multi-million-dollar properties were deemed structurally unsafe, as sections of building foundations were exposed and others collapsed.
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
Following the east coast low, the Central Coast Council placed large bags of rocks along the beachfront to stabilise the dune, prevent additional erosion and mitigate further damage to the coastal properties. Despite this, homeowners criticised the council for a lack of preventative efforts, particularly given that Wamberal Beach and the dune system had experienced large-scale coastal erosion before.
However, not all residents sympathised with the owners. Some argued that the damages were a reality of coastal living, particularly when houses are built on top of fragile dune systems. Others believed the council to be at fault for even permitting the area to be built on.
➜
Figure 12.1.5 Homes at risk of collapse in Wamberal following the east coast low
Coastal erosion in Collaroy
The east coast low that hit Wamberal also affected the coastal suburb of Collaroy in Sydney’s Northern Beaches. The event saw the formation of monster waves reaching maximum heights of 14.9 metres offshore and 8.1 metres along the coastline. These waves battered the beach, weakened the dune system and damaged coastal properties. For some residents, the erosion stopped within five metres of their backyards, while for others parts of their properties were swept away, rendering them unliveable. Due to the severity of the impacts, a seawall had to be installed to mitigate further damage to both dune and homes. However, with the cost of the seawall anticipated to reach $25 million, homeowners, local residents and the council were in conflict
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c12_p373-433.indd 377
21/05/26 8:38 PM
378
Chapter 12 Case study: Australia and the Canary Islands
➜
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
about who should fund the seawall. While some local residents argued that it was the responsibility of those who had chosen to live on the dunes, owners argued that it was the responsibility of the local council, because without residential zoning, property development on the dunes would not have been possible.
Figure 12.1.6 Damage to houses in Narrabeen following the east coast low in June 2016
Given the risks and challenges associated with beachfront properties and coastal living, are coastal properties truly an example of prime real estate, or are they the products of irresponsible zoning?
Activity 12.1
Visible thinking routine: I used to think … Now I think …
Think about what you have learned about coastal properties, including how they are built and where they are built. Using what you have read, complete the following sentence stems. a. I used to think … b. Now I think …
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c12_p373-433.indd 378
21/05/26 8:38 PM
379
12.2 What are coastal dunes?
12.2
What are coastal dunes?
Success criteria
In this lesson, you will learn about the nature, spatial distribution and importance of coastal dunes.
❏ I can describe the nature and spatial distribution of coastal dunes. ❏ I can explain the importance of coastal dunes.
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
Learning intention
Starter activity
Why are coastal dunes important? Make a list of the reasons why you think coastal dunes are important using Figures 12.2.1 and 12.2.2 to assist you.
➜
Figure 12.2.1 Sandboarding on coastal dunes
➜
Figure 12.2.2 Turtle nesting on a dune
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c12_p373-433.indd 379
21/05/26 8:38 PM
380
Chapter 12 Case study: Australia and the Canary Islands
The nature of coastal dunes
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
accretion a naturally occurring process whereby sand is deposited onto the beach shore by wave action, dried out from the forces of wind and sunlight, and then blown to the back of the beach
Coastal dunes are large, dynamic accumulations of sand located immediately behind the active beach zone; they are formed through the process of accretion. Accretion is a naturally occurring process whereby sand is deposited onto the beach shore by wave action, dried out from the forces of wind and sunlight, and then blown to the back of the beach where sand accumulates to form dunes. The size and shape of coastal dunes are influenced by wind direction and the shape of the beach itself. For instance, beaches with a shallow slope typically have larger dunes because sand is more easily deposited onshore; however, beaches with a steeper slope have smaller dunes because more sand is washed back out to sea.
Amazing but true…
➜
Writing focus 12.2 Transitional phrases
Approximately 40% of Australia’s extensive coastline is home to active dune systems. Some of the most well-known coastal dune systems in Australia include the Stockton Bight Sand Dunes north of Newcastle, dunes on K’gari (Fraser Island) in Queensland and the dunes on the Eyre Peninsula in South Australia.
➜
Figure 12.2.3 K’gari (Fraser Island) coastal dunes
Importance of coastal dunes
Coastal dunes play a critical role for both the environment and humans. However, they are particularly important in Australia, as 90% the population lives within 100 kilometres of the nation’s coastline. This section will explore the importance of coastal dunes, including the provision of natural protection, prevention of coastal erosion, as a space for recreational activities and habitat for flora and fauna.
Natural protection
Coastal dunes are an important ecosystem as they act as a physical barrier between the sea and inland areas. As a result, they prevent natural hazards, such as storms and cyclones, from wreaking havoc on coastal towns by absorbing the force of waves before they reach land. This also reduces the likelihood of flooding, severe coastal erosion and damage to coastal properties.
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c12_p373-433.indd 380
21/05/26 8:38 PM
12.2 What are coastal dunes?
381
Did you know?
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
The Insurance Council of Australia estimates that the Australian Government will need to spend $30 billion in coastal protection projects over the next 50 years due to increased weather events such as storm surges. This underscores the importance of preserving coastal dunes as a natural source of protection.
➜
Figure 12.2.4 A 2020 east coast low in Collaroy caused damage worth up to $45 million
Coastal erosion
Coastal erosion refers to the loss of land along the shoreline due to the natural removal of sand and sediment by forces such as waves, tides and winds. Although dunes cannot prevent coastal erosion, they play a significant role in reducing its severity. Established dunes that are wider and higher are able to offer more protection to coastal development by dissipating wave energy. In some instances, severe waves can cause the dune face to collapse; however, due to the dynamic nature of coastal dunes, they can be rebuilt through the process of accretion.
Recreation
Coastal dunes are also places for recreational activities, such as four-wheel driving, sandboarding, quad-biking and motor-bike riding. However, these activities can cause problems to dune systems through the compaction of sand, especially when unmanaged.
➜
Figure 12.2.5 The Dakar Rally is an annual off-road competition involving cars, bikes, trucks and quads on harsh terrain, including coastal dunes.
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c12_p373-433.indd 381
21/05/26 8:38 PM
382
Chapter 12 Case study: Australia and the Canary Islands
Habitat
➜
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
Beyond the benefits that dunes provide for humans, dunes provide habitats for specialised plants, animals and microorganisms – some of which are rare and threatened. Common species that call coastal dunes home include native grasses, ground-nesting birds, insects and reptiles. In Queensland, coastal dunes are the nesting sites for six species of marine turtle, including the threatened loggerhead turtle and the vulnerable green turtle. The female turtles nest on the dunes between November and April each year.
Figure 12.2.6 Green turtle nesting on a dune at Heron Island, Queensland
Spatial distribution of coastal dunes
With the exception of Antarctica, coastal dunes are found along the sandy coasts of oceans, seas and large lakes on all continents. However, the most extensive dune ecosystems are located in the world’s temperate and arid tropical zones due to the ideal conditions available in these areas for dune formation. These conditions include relatively low-lying (gentle local relief) beaches, abundant sand supply, consistently strong and prevailing wind action, and constant wave action. In comparison, wet tropical zones are less favourable for coastal dune construction because prevailing winds are generally weaker in strength. As a result, winds in wet tropical zones are less able to transport the large volumes of sand required for dune growth.
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c12_p373-433.indd 382
21/05/26 8:38 PM
12.2 What are coastal dunes?
ATLANTIC OCEAN
383
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
PACIFIC OCEAN
PACIFIC OCEAN
INDIAN OCEAN
LEGEND
Well-developed dune systems
Small sand dunes interspersed with sandy shores, rocky headlands, mangroves or salt marshes
0
5,000 km
➜
Figure 12.2.7 Map of coastal dunes around the world
Features of coastal dunes
Although coastal dunes are dynamic and vary in shape and size, there are common features that make up the ecosystem. These features include the incipient dune, foredune and hind dune. Each has a distinctive vegetation zone with unique flora and fauna species adapted to the conditions experienced in that area. The primary vegetation zone is located closest to the active beach zone and has the least organic content, whereas the tertiary vegetation zone is located most inland and possesses the highest organic content. Hind dunes
Foredune (frontal dune)
Incipient dune
Beach berm
Tertiary vegetation zone
Secondary vegetation zone
Primary vegetation zone Wind
Berm
Swash zone
Nearshore bar
Surf zone
Nearshore zone
Wave
➜
Figure 12.2.8 Cross-section of a coastal dune ecosystem Source: NSW Department of Land and Water Conservation
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c12_p373-433.indd 383
21/05/26 8:38 PM
384
Chapter 12 Case study: Australia and the Canary Islands
Table 12.2.1 Description of coastal dune features and the vegetation present Dune feature
Vegetation present
The first, small mound of sand that is formed above the high tide line as sand accumulates around the pioneer species that are present. Their existence is temporary and dependent on coastal processes.
Pioneering plants are short in height as they spread low across the dune floor. These plants can withstand harsh conditions from waves, wind and salt spray and grow with limited nutrients. Examples include spinifex and pigface.
Foredune
The first permanent dune, which acts as a barrier between the sea and inland areas. It is located directly behind the beach and is formed from sand deposited by wind.
Pioneering plants are hardy and have adapted to tolerate sand and wind. These plants are slightly taller than the plants found on the incipient dune and can grow effectively across the surface of a dune to trap sand. Examples include wheat grass, coastal wattle, goat’s foot and stephania japonica.
Hind dunes
The older, more stable dunes located behind the foredune. Also known as “secondary dunes”, these are a series of sand dunes that are crucial as windbreakers during strong storm events.
As the soil is more fertile here and there is shelter from salty winds, vegetation on the hind dunes is taller and more diverse. Examples include the coastal tea tree, bracken fern and broad-leaved paperbark.
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
Incipient dune
Review 12.2
Knowledge and understanding
Online quiz
Thinking and working geographically
Students can access sample responses and results online
Teachers can go online to assign questions, view results, reports and more!
Knowledge and understanding 1.
Outline the nature of coastal dunes.
2.
Outline the role of accretion in coastal dune development.
3.
Explain one reason why coastal dunes are an important ecosystem for humans.
4.
Describe the vegetation that grows on coastal dunes. In your response, refer to the three vegetation zones.
Thinking and working geographically
Working with geographical concepts: Space 1.
Outline the spatial distribution of coastal dunes.
2.
Justify why the most extensive dunes are found in temperate and arid tropical zones.
Researching coastal dunes 3.
space the concept of space is about the significance of location and spatial distribution, and ways people organise and manage the spaces that we live in
Research a coastal dune of your choice and answer the following questions.
a. What is the name of your chosen coastal dune? b. Where is your chosen coastal dune located? In your response, provide the latitude and longitude coordinates. c. Describe the climatic conditions (temperature and rainfall) that are present. d. Describe how flora or fauna have adapted to live in your chosen coastal dune.
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c12_p373-433.indd 384
21/05/26 8:38 PM
12.3 How do the atmosphere and hydrosphere interact in coastal dune development?
12.3
385
How do the atmosphere and hydrosphere interact in coastal dune development? Success criteria
In this lesson, you will learn about the atmospheric and hydrospheric processes responsible for coastal dune development.
❏ I can identify the atmospheric and hydrospheric processes related to coastal dune development. ❏ I can explain how atmospheric and hydrospheric processes contribute to coastal dune development.
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
Learning intention
Starter activity
Have a close look at Figure 12.3.1 and answer the following questions.
a. What atmospheric (air) elements can you see in the photograph? b. What hydrospheric (water) elements can you see in the photograph? c. How might atmospheric and hydrospheric elements shown in the image interact to form the large hills of sand that are coastal dunes? Write down your ideas in your workbook.
➜
Figure 12.3.1 Coastal dunes on the Norfolk Coast in England
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c12_p373-433.indd 385
21/05/26 8:38 PM
386
Chapter 12 Case study: Australia and the Canary Islands
Atmospheric processes
Wind and aeolian transport
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
➜
Writing focus 12.3 Transitional phrases
Atmospheric processes play an instrumental role in the formation of coastal dunes. This is because atmospheric processes are responsible for the deposition of sand that is required for the construction of dunes. We will explore how the atmospheric processes of aeolian transport and temperature influence dune development.
Wind is the single most important factor in determining the shape and extent of coastal dunes. Without wind, coastal dunes would not exist, as there is no other method of transportation that deposits large volumes of sand as effectively. In coastal areas with frequent and strong wind action, dunes are generally wider and taller due to greater volumes of sand being moved. Conversely, on areas with weak wind action, dunes are generally smaller because less sand is blown from the shore to the back of the beach.
aeolian transport the movement of sand by wind
The movement of sand by wind is known as aeolian transport. Aeolian transport is influenced by various factors, including the size of sand particles, wind velocity, local topography and vegetation cover. There are three ways in which sand is moved through aeolian transport: suspension, saltation and surface creep.
Suspension
Current direction
Saltation
Surface creep
➜
Figure 12.3.2 Aeolian transport
Suspension
Suspension is the process by which tiny particles of dust and sand are carried by the wind. Due to the weight and size of these particles, sand can be carried to much greater heights; however, sand carried by suspension is often transported beyond the dunes. This type of aeolian transport is most commonly seen in dust storms in arid regions, but it does account for a small proportion of sand moved along coastlines.
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c12_p373-433.indd 386
21/05/26 8:38 PM
12.3 How do the atmosphere and hydrosphere interact in coastal dune development?
387
Saltation
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
Saltation is the most common form of aeolian transport. This process occurs when wind strikes the ground, causing turbulence, which enables sand grains to become disturbed and easily displaced. As the grains move along the ground, they strike other grains, causing sand to bounce into the air. When this occurs, sand is picked up by stronger winds and transported across the surface until gravity causes the grains to fall back down. The sand that falls down accumulates to form mounds, which grow into dunes.
Surface creep
Surface creep, also known as “rolling”, refers to larger grains of sand being dislodged by the impact of falling sand grains. These grains roll along the surface of the ground. Surface creep occurs when grains of sand are too large to be moved via saltation. This is often the case for sand grains that have a diameter larger than 0.2 millimetres.
Temperature
Temperature refers to the degree of heating or cooling an area experiences. It is an atmospheric factor that influences the construction of coastal dunes because it determines the rate at which sand dries, the vegetation that grows and ocean currents.
Rate at which sand dries
Sand is heavier when it is wet compared to when it is dry. As a result, wet sand makes aeolian transport more difficult. When the temperature is warmer, sand dries faster, allowing the sand to be lifted by the wind and blown to the back of the active beach zone where dunes are constructed. As such, temperature influences the development of dunes through the rate at which sand dries.
Vegetation
➜
Temperature determines the vegetation that grows and how efficiently it grows. On coastlines with moderate temperatures, plants are more likely to grow and survive because the conditions are comfortable – neither too hot (causing excessive transpiration) or too cold (slowing nutrient uptake). Similarly, when there are extreme weather events, such as droughts or storms, vegetation can be lost, compromising dune development. This is because the plants’ roots prevent sand from being blown away.
Figure 12.3.3 Marram grass is a common flora species found on coastal dunes worldwide.
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c12_p373-433.indd 387
21/05/26 8:38 PM
388
Chapter 12 Case study: Australia and the Canary Islands
Ocean currents
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
Because the atmosphere heats the surface of the Earth unevenly, water closer to the equator is warmer and water closer to the poles is colder. To prevent extreme temperature differences from occurring, thermohaline circulation acts like a global conveyor belt to redistribute cold and warm water. However, this movement creates ocean currents, which can affect the volume of sand that reaches coastlines. For instance, warm currents found near the equator move towards coastlines, bringing more sand onto the shore. When sand dries, grains are blown inland, allowing dunes to form and grow. This is why extensive dune systems are found in arid tropical zones. By comparison, cold currents tend to flow away from coastlines, taking sand with them. The lack of sand results in weaker dune formation and even coastal erosion. ARCTIC OCEAN
Heat released to air
Heat released to air
ATLANTIC OCEAN
PACIFIC OCEAN
Shallow warm current
INDIAN OCEAN
Heat released to air
LEGEND
Cold water Warm water
SOUTHERN OCEAN
Deep current cold and saline
0
5,000 km
➜
Figure 12.3.4 Thermohaline circulation distributing warm and cold water globally
Hydrospheric processes
Similar to the atmosphere, processes in the hydrosphere play a role in coastal dune development. We will now explore how the processes of rainfall and longshore drift influence the formation of coastal dunes.
Rainfall
Rainfall influences the growth of plants; where there is adequate and regular rainfall, a greater vegetation profile is more likely to exist. Conversely, in areas with low or irregular rainfall, plants may not grow as effectively, leading to sparse vegetation. Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c12_p373-433.indd 388
21/05/26 8:38 PM
12.3 How do the atmosphere and hydrosphere interact in coastal dune development?
389
As vegetation helps to prevent sand from being blown away, rainfall plays a considerable role in the overall size and extent of dune systems.
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
Although sand has a porous nature, allowing infiltration to occur on dunes with relative ease, heavy rainfall can produce run-off that erodes sandy surfaces. When the volume of sand leaving dunes exceeds the volume of sand entering dunes, dune development becomes compromised.
Amazing but true…
During periods of heavy rainfall, dune lakes can form. This occurs as surface runoff accumulates in a shallow depression between the crest of dunes, causing sand to saturate and the water table to rise. Although dune lakes eventually disappear when warmer weather dries the depression and the water table retreats, much of the vegetation present in that area will have drowned.
➜
Figure 12.3.5 Dune lake at Point Sinclair, South Australia
Longshore drift
Another type of current that influences coastal dune development is longshore drift. Longshore drift refers to the movement of sand along the beach at an angle: waves push sand along the beach, moving it sideways in a zig-zag pattern. This zig-zag motion transports sediment along the coast that is used to construct dunes. Without longshore drift, sand would not be transported from one area of the coast to another.
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c12_p373-433.indd 389
21/05/26 8:38 PM
390
Chapter 12 Case study: Australia and the Canary Islands
Path of sand particles
Downstream
Upstream Waves approach the beach at an angle
Net movement of sand grains (longshore drift)
➜
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
Longshore current
Figure 12.3.6 Longshore drift transporting sand downstream
Review 12.3
Knowledge and understanding
Online quiz
Thinking and working geographically
Students can access sample responses and results online
Teachers can go online to assign questions, view results, reports and more!
Knowledge and understanding 1.
Identify the three ways in which sand is moved through aeolian transport.
2.
Compare the three processes of aeolian transport.
3.
Describe two ways in which temperature influences coastal dune development.
4.
Explain how dune lakes form.
Thinking and working geographically
Working with geographical concept: Change 1.
As a result of human-induced climate change, the natural environment and its processes are changing. Explain how climate change will affect coastal dune development. In your response, refer to thermohaline circulation.
Research 2.
change the concept of change is about explaining geographical phenomena by investigating how they have developed over time
Research two coastal dunes – one located within the tropics and one closer to the poles. Answer the following questions.
a. State your two coastal dunes and describe their location. In your response, include their coordinates. b. Compare the size and extent of your chosen coastal dune ecosystems. c. Coastal dunes in tropical areas are typically larger. Is this true with your two chosen examples?
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c12_p373-433.indd 390
21/05/26 8:38 PM
391
12.4 How do the lithosphere and biosphere interact in coastal dune development?
12.4
How do the lithosphere and biosphere interact in coastal dune development? Success criteria
In this lesson, you will learn about the lithospheric and biospheric processes that are responsible for, and influence, coastal dune development.
❏ I can identify the lithospheric and biospheric processes related to coastal dune development. ❏ I can explain how lithospheric and biospheric processes contribute to coastal dune development.
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
Learning intention
Starter activity
Look at the vegetation found on coastal dunes in Figure 12.4.1 and the vegetation found in rainforests in Figure 12.4.2. a. Compare the appearance of the vegetation found in both ecosystems. b. List possible reasons for the difference in vegetation profile between the two ecosystems.
➜
➜
Figure 12.4.1 Coastal dune vegetation
Figure 12.4.2 Tropical rainforest vegetation
Lithospheric processes
Weathering and erosion
Writing focus 12.4 Developing sentences ➜
The lithosphere is the solid, outer part of Earth that includes the upper part of the mantle and the crust. The lithosphere and its processes have an influence on coastal dune construction, specifically through weathering, erosion and the presence of surrounding landforms.
Weathering refers to the breaking down or dissolving of rocks on Earth’s surface caused by various agents such as water, ice, salts and acids. Erosion, on the other hand, refers to the transportation of the broken-down materials from one location to another by natural forces, such as wind and water. Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c12_p373-433.indd 391
21/05/26 8:38 PM
392
Chapter 12 Case study: Australia and the Canary Islands
Weathering and erosion are important processes to coastal dune development because they are responsible for the production and transportation of sand. Dune sand typically comes from rivers flowing to the sea and particles of sediment from eroded cliffs. The more sediment that is weathered and eroded, the greater the volume of sand for dune construction. Weathering
Erosion and transport
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
Rocks breaking down
Moving sediments
➜
Figure 12.4.3 The difference between weathering and erosion
Landforms
Landforms, such as headlands, cliffs and flat plains, can influence coastal dune development because they affect the movement of wind. This is because the orientation of a coastline, including the presence of landforms, can shelter or expose dunes to wind and wave action. As dunes depend on aeolian transport for sand, landforms that obstruct or limit the flow of wind reduce the amount of sand being transported from the beach zone to the dunes. On the other hand, landforms that facilitate wind funnelling, such as cliffs, can contribute to the formation of extensive dune systems that are tall and more robust.
Case study: Stockton Bight Sand Dunes
➜
The Stockton Bight Sand Dunes in Port Stephens is an extensive dune system that highlights the influence of landforms on dune development. Located on a wide, flat coastal plain behind the beach, winds carrying sand are able to travel across the beach and inland without interruption. Additionally, the surrounding headlands and the Hunter River help funnel wind along the coast to transport large volumes of sand. As a result, Stockton Bight is home to some of the largest dunes in Australia.
Figure 12.4.4 Stockton Bight Sand Dunes
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c12_p373-433.indd 392
21/05/26 8:38 PM
12.4 How do the lithosphere and biosphere interact in coastal dune development?
393
Biospheric processes The biosphere plays an important role in dune construction and development due to the role of flora and fauna. In this section we will examine the types of flora and fauna present on coastal dunes and their influence on dune development.
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
Flora Vegetation is critical to coastal dunes because the roots of plants hold down sand. Without vegetation, sand would be blown away, limiting the construction of coastal dunes. However, the vegetation found on dunes is specialised and varied, even across the dune system itself; plant species in the primary vegetation zone are distinct from those in the hind dunes. Vegetation closer to the beach must be more resilient because of the salt-laden winds, low soil fertility, strong sunlight and consistent wind action.
Primary vegetation zone
➜
The primary vegetation zone is located on the incipient dune. As this area experiences the brunt of the harsh coastal conditions, including inundation by waves, strong winds, salt spray and sand blast, only specialised plants can colonise this area. These plants are important to dune development as they provide resistance to the removal of sand during storm events. Vegetation here, such as the spinifex, has strong root systems that not only trap sand but also spread rapidly to create a network Figure 12.4.5 Spinifex grass with extensive root systems to anchor sand of creeping roots that supports dune stability. Without the presence of primary vegetation on the incipient dune, the foredune would be at risk of inundation and collapse, as would the hind dunes.
Secondary vegetation zone
The secondary vegetation zone occurs on the foredune and is usually composed of semi-permanent heath-like shrubs and small trees that stabilise the foredune sand mass. Here, the vegetation is more substantial in size and can help deflect wind up and over the dune. As the vegetation is more developed, so too are the roots, which are stronger and deeper to help anchor the sand. This is important as the foredune is the first permanent dune. Vegetation here acts as a strong buffer absorbing wind energy to reduce sand loss.
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c12_p373-433.indd 393
21/05/26 8:38 PM
394
Chapter 12 Case study: Australia and the Canary Islands
Tertiary vegetation zone
➜
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
The tertiary vegetation zone is on the hind dunes. Here, soil has more nutrients due to the greater amount of organic matter. As a result, trees dominate this zone, as they are protected from wind and salt spray. The trees and established shrubs have deep, extensive root systems that create a strong anchor for the entire dune system, preventing the dunes from shifting. Additionally, tertiary vegetation helps to block strong winds from inland areas that blow towards the coast, preventing sand from being blown backwards. This allows the dunes to retain their shape and size.
Figure 12.4.6 Forest in the tertiary vegetation zone at the Duna de Bolonia, Spain
Fauna
Fauna plays an important role in coastal dune development. Although its contributions may not be as visible as vegetation and wind, fauna helps coastal dune development by shaping the sand, dispersing seeds and enriching the soil. Small animals such as skinks, insects and crabs move through the sand to dig and tunnel. In doing so, they loosen and aerate the sand, allowing plants to take root more easily. Additionally, species such as sea birds, bats and marsupials release droppings that are rich in nutrients. This supports vegetation growth because the sand itself is nutrient poor.
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c12_p373-433.indd 394
21/05/26 8:38 PM
395
➜
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
12.4 How do the lithosphere and biosphere interact in coastal dune development?
Figure 12.4.7 Skinks are common species of fauna on coastal dunes.
Review 12.4
Online quiz
Knowledge and understanding
Thinking and working geographically
Students can access sample responses and results online
Teachers can go online to assign questions, view results, reports and more!
Knowledge and understanding 1.
Distinguish between the lithospheric processes of weathering and erosion.
2.
Describe how landforms can influence coastal dune development.
3.
Describe the three vegetation zones found on coastal dunes.
4.
Explain the importance of vegetation to coastal dune development.
Thinking and working geographically
Working with geographical concepts: Environment 1.
Coastal dunes and rainforests are both home to specialised vegetation that have adapted to grow in unique conditions. Describe how the vegetation in the two environments are different.
Researching the Bilbunya Dunes 2.
Research one species of fauna found in the Bilbunya Dunes in Western Australia and answer the following questions.
environment the concept of environment is about the significance of the environment in human life, and the important interrelationships between humans and the environment
a. State your chosen fauna species. b. In which vegetation zone can your species be found in? c. Describe the adaptations that your chosen species has developed to survive in the specialised conditions of the Bilbunya Dunes.
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c12_p373-433.indd 395
21/05/26 8:38 PM
396
Chapter 12 Case study: Australia and the Canary Islands
12.5
How are coastal dunes being affected by natural environmental change? Success criteria
In this lesson, you will learn about how coastal dunes are being affected by natural environmental change.
❏ I can explain how coastal dunes are being affected by natural environmental change.
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
Learning intention
Starter activity
Create a table with two columns – one titled “natural environmental change” and the other titled “humaninduced environmental change”. Read through the causes of environmental change for coastal dunes and place them in the appropriate column. Causes of environmental change for coastal dunes:
• trampling • bushfires • blowouts • four-wheel driving • washover • coastal development • constructive waves • introduced species.
Environmental changes in dunes
➜
Writing focus 12.5 Developing sentences
Environmental change can be naturally occurring, or human induced. When change occurs, this can affect ecosystems both positively and negatively. This lesson will explore how natural causes of environmental change such as blowouts, washovers, bushfires and constructive and destructive waves are affecting dunes.
Blowouts
On coastal dunes with reduced vegetation, strong winds and storms can create blowouts. Blowouts are bowl-like depressions in a dune that cause sand to blow into the secondary and tertiary vegetation zones. When this occurs, vegetation becomes smothered, causing some plants to die. In areas with high and frequent onshore winds, the size of blowouts are bigger as larger volumes of sand are moved through aeolian transport. In areas where winds are weaker and less frequent, the dune may recover its original profile; however, in areas where winds prevail, this can lead to increased coastal erosion as the structure of the dune becomes compromised.
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c12_p373-433.indd 396
21/05/26 8:38 PM
397
➜
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
12.5 How are coastal dunes being affected by natural environmental change?
Figure 12.5.1 Blowout on a coastal dune
Washover
Natural environmental change, such as increased heavy storm events, are affecting coastal dunes by creating washovers. A washover, also known as “overwash” is when storm-induced waves travel over the swash zone and exceed the height of the foredune, causing sand to be transported over the dune. As a consequence, the waves erode sand from the dunes and carry it inland in large layers called “washover fans”. These fans can cover infrastructure, including roads and coastal vegetation, and can smother flora.
Dunes, because they are dynamic, can adjust to this natural stress event. Over time, constructive waves will deposit sand back onto the dunes, while gentle breezes travelling seawards will transport the sand back to the eroded foredune area. However, in instances where erosion is significant, human intervention may be required to restore the dunes.
Ocean
Washover fan
Bay
Slu ice
Throat
wa ys
Back barrier with dune grasses
Dunes
Barrier Island
➜
Figure 12.5.2 Diagram of a washover and a washover fan on coastal dune
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c12_p373-433.indd 397
21/05/26 8:38 PM
398
Chapter 12 Case study: Australia and the Canary Islands
Case study: Tropical Cyclone Alfred
➜
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
In March 2025, Tropical Cyclone Alfred had severe effects on South-East Queensland and New South Wales. The storms from Cyclone Alfred caused washovers and significant erosion that resulted in beaches losing parts of their coastline. For example, Peregian Beach, located south of Noosa, lost 30 metres of coastline. At the Gold Coast, dune erosion cliffs up to three metres in height appeared as 6 million cubic metres of sand were washed away. The severity of the damage amounted to $35 million, with the City of Gold Coast carrying out restoration efforts.
Figure 12.5.3 Damage to Nobby’s Beach on the Gold Coast following Tropical Cyclone Alfred
Bushfires
Although there are cases of bushfires being caused by human negligence, such as improperly discarding cigarettes, bushfires can also occur naturally. Bushfires can be caused by lightning strikes and a high fuel load in the vegetation, particularly in the tertiary and secondary vegetation zones of dunes. When bushfires occur, they can be destructive and even catastrophic. However, bushfires can also positively affect coastal dunes because many species of dune vegetation have adapted to fire. The banksia wattle and coastal wattle are both species of vegetation found on coastal dunes that require fire for propagation (i.e. without fire, their seeds will not open). Additionally, bushfires assist with the nutrient cycle and soil fertility as decaying plants add organic matter to the soil.
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c12_p373-433.indd 398
21/05/26 8:38 PM
399
➜
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
12.5 How are coastal dunes being affected by natural environmental change?
Figure 12.5.4 Smoke coming from a bushfire in the tertiary vegetation zone at the Dune of Pilat, France
Constructive and destructive waves
Constructive and destructive waves are two different wave types that can affect coastlines and, consequently, coastal dunes. When a wave reaches the shore, the water that rushes up the active beach zone is known as the swash, and the water that flows back into the sea is known as the backwash. The energy of the swash and backwash determines if a wave is constructive or destructive.
Constructive waves
Constructive waves help build coastal dunes. Constructive waves are characterised by a stronger swash, which allows for more sediment to be deposited onto the beach, and a gentler backwash as water soaks into the sand or slowly drains away. As a result, more sediment is deposited onto the beach and less is taken away by the water. These waves are more common in summer and occur in calmer weather conditions because less energy is transferred to the water. When the next wave breaks, more material is deposited onto the beach by the swash, supplying dunes with more sand for construction.
Destructive waves
Destructive waves destroy coastal dunes by reducing sediment supply and causing coastal erosion. Compared with constructive waves, destructive waves are usually very high, possess a short wavelength and have a steep front. As destructive waves approach the beach, they gain height and energy. As such, destructive waves have a weak swash but a strong backwash that takes sediment from the beach, resulting in a net loss of beach material for dune construction. Additionally, as the backwash is stronger and more sand is transported back into the water, this can create a steep beach profile. East coast lows bring destructive waves, and are more common during winter in New South Wales.
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c12_p373-433.indd 399
21/05/26 8:38 PM
400
Chapter 12 Case study: Australia and the Canary Islands
(a)
(b) Low wave Tall breaker
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
High wave
Weak backwash
Strong swash
Strong backwash
Weak backwash
➜
Figure 12.5.5 (a) Diagram of constructive wave and (b) destructive wave
Case study: The Twelve Apostles
Destructive waves can produce enough energy to erode exposed coastal features such as headlands. The Twelve Apostles in Victoria comprises seven limestone sea stacks that rise from the ocean along the Great Ocean Road. About 2,000 years ago, the limestone stacks were connected to the mainland. However, the power of destructive waves has eroded the land, leaving sea stacks.
➜
Figure 12.5.6 Twelve Apostles along the Great Ocean Road, Victoria
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c12_p373-433.indd 400
21/05/26 8:38 PM
401
12.5 How are coastal dunes being affected by natural environmental change?
Review 12.5 Online quiz
Knowledge and understanding
Thinking and working geographically
Students can access sample responses and results online
Teachers can go online to assign questions, view results, reports and more!
Knowledge and understanding
Define the term “washover”.
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
1. 2.
Explain how washovers occur and their impacts.
3.
Outline two benefits of bushfires to coastal dunes.
4.
Distinguish between constructive and destructive waves.
Thinking and working geographically
Working with geographical concepts: Change 1.
Explain how the Twelve Apostles have changed over time from 2,000 years ago to the present.
Understanding the nutrient cycle 2
change the concept of change is about explaining geographical phenomena by investigating how they have developed over time
Bushfires play an important role in ecosystem functioning by supporting the nutrient cycle. Research and answer the following questions. a. What is the nutrient cycle? Provide an outline and draw a simple diagram. b. List three examples of nutrients in the nutrient cycle. c. What two nutrients are most important in coastal dunes and why are they important? d. How do bushfires in coastal dunes support the nutrient cycle? e. How does the nutrient cycle in coastal dunes differ from the nutrient cycle in tropical rainforests?
A
B
➜
Figure 12.5.7 The London Bridge, Great Ocean Road, Victoria, before its collapse in 1990 (a) and after (b)
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c12_p373-433.indd 401
21/05/26 8:38 PM
402
Chapter 12 Case study: Australia and the Canary Islands
12.6
How are coastal dunes being affected by human-induced environmental change? Success criteria
In this lesson, you will learn about how coastal dunes are being affected by human-induced environmental change.
❏ I can explain how coastal dunes are being affected by human-induced environmental change.
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
Learning intention
Starter activity
Look at Figure 12.6.1 and answer the following questions.
a. What recreational activity is taking place? b. How might this activity have an impact on coastal dunes? Consider what heavy weight does to sand and vegetation. c. In your opinion, should this recreational activity continue on specialised ecosystems such as coastal dunes? Why, or why not?
➜
Figure 12.6.1 Four-wheel drive cars on coastal dunes
Human-induced environmental change
dam barrier built across a river to stop the flow of water and sediment seawall coastal defence structure built to prevent the erosion of shoreline
groyne perpendicular barrier built out from a beach into the sea
Coastal dunes are relatively resilient ecosystems due to their dynamic nature. In the event of storm surges and destructive waves, dunes can rebuild through the process of accretion. However, human actions are creating environmental change that is pushing coastal dunes beyond the brink of repair. In this lesson, we will look at how humans are altering environmental processes to the detriment of coastal dunes.
Alterations to sediment flow
A human-induced environmental change to coastal dunes is the alteration of sediment flow. With the construction of dams, seawalls and groynes, naturally occurring processes that transport sediment, such as longshore drift, are being affected. Longshore drift refers to the “zig-zag” movement of sediment such as sand along the shore by wave action; the swash pushes sand up the beach at an angle and the backwash pulls it back down at a right angle. Over time, this repeated action transports sand parallel to the coastline.
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c12_p373-433.indd 402
21/05/26 8:38 PM
12.6 How are coastal dunes being affected by human-induced environmental change?
When coastal structures such as groynes are built, they reduce sediment supply by preventing sand from travelling to the active coastal zone. As a result, such long-term net loss of sand impedes the ability of dunes to grow and recover from major storm events where erosion occurs. When dunes are unable to repair themselves, dunes can recede inland, placing coastal properties at risk.
403
Longshore drift
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
Sediment
Wind direction
Coastal development
➜
Beachfront properties are prime real Figure 12.6.2 The process of longshore drift estate, with people spending millions of dollars to overlook the beach. Although these properties provide spectacular views, coastal development is affecting the stability and growing capacity of coastal dunes. For coastal development to occur, land and sediment must be flattened so that structures, such as roads and houses, can be constructed. The problem with this is that dune flattening results in sand compaction and trampled vegetation. Compacted sand has fewer air pockets, which makes plant growth more difficult; meanwhile, trampled vegetation results in less sand being held down. Both impacts result in coastal erosion and threaten dune stability.
➜
Writing focus 12.6 Appositives
Case study: Bondi Beach sand dunes
➜
Today, Bondi is famous for its crystal-clear beach and relaxed coastal vibes. However, Bondi Beach is just a remnant of the sand dunes and lagoons that once dominated the area. In the 19th century, large sand dunes covered the landscape between Bondi Beach and Rose Bay. However, in the early 20th century, the NSW Government employed engineers to remove hundreds of tonnes of sand from the Bondi basin and level the landscape. This intervention enabled Bondi to develop into the area it is today.
Figure 12.6.3 Bondi Beach sand dunes in 1900 Source: Waverley Council Library
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c12_p373-433.indd 403
21/05/26 8:38 PM
Chapter 12 Case study: Australia and the Canary Islands
➜
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
404
Figure 12.6.4 Bondi Beach today
Recreational activities
Recreational activities can impede on the naturally occurring processes that allow coastal dunes to develop and grow. Coastal dune are popular sites for off-road driving; however, the tyres and weight of off-road vehicles can tear and flatten existing dune vegetation. When vegetation is lost, erosion occurs because sand becomes harder to trap. Moreover, tyres can carry traces of invasive vegetation. This can result in native vegetation competing with invasive species for space and resources.
➜
Figure 12.6.5 Off-road vehicle driving through the coastal dunes at Coffin Bay National Park, Western Australia
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c12_p373-433.indd 404
21/05/26 8:38 PM
12.6 How are coastal dunes being affected by human-induced environmental change?
405
Weeds and introduced species Coastal dunes are dominated by highly specialised plant species. However, this also means that dune vegetation is susceptible to changes in the environment, including invasion by weeds. A weed can be exotic or native and can have positive and negative impacts on coastal dunes.
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
An example of a weed having a negative impact on coastal dunes is the bitou bush. The bitou bush is an exotic weed that is native to South Africa but was introduced to Australia in an attempt to stabilise sand dunes after mining. Despite the original intention, the bitou bush is negatively affecting coastal dunes because it forms dense thickets that block light and space needed by native plants. As native plants struggle to compete with the bitou bush, the animals that rely on native plants are also at risk.
weed a plant that is out of place sand hummock a type of dune that is characterised by small, bumpy mounds
A weed that has had a positive impact is marram grass. Marram grass was brought to Australia from Europe in 1993 to stabilise sand hummocks at Port Fairy. Since its introduction, marram grass has been found to be effective in supporting dune development as its fibrous roots grow rapidly and trap sand.
➜
Rabbits are one of the most destructive and invasive fauna species in Australia. Introduced for hunting purposes in 1859 in Geelong, Victoria, rabbits have since spread across the continent causing tremendous damage to many environments, including coastal dunes. In dune ecosystems, rabbits reduce ground cover and expose the sand to erosion as they eat existing vegetation. Moreover, their burrows create erosion channels, which compromise the stability of the dune structure.
Figure 12.6.6 Rabbit on the foredune
Human-induced climate change
Human-induced climate change is threatening the development and resilience of coastal dune ecosystems. This impact is occurring in three ways: first, climate change is increasing sea levels with the melting of glaciers. When sea levels rise, they can inundate coastal dunes, leading to increased washovers and erosion. Second, with oceans absorbing the heat generated from global warming, the increase in water temperature is leading to more frequent major storm events, which can destroy dunes. Finally, climate change is disrupting the Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation (AMOC), which plays a key role in redistributing global heat. The AMOC transports saltwater from the tropics to the poles. When saltwater flows towards the poles and consequently cools in temperature, it becomes denser. This density causes the
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c12_p373-433.indd 405
21/05/26 8:38 PM
406
Chapter 12 Case study: Australia and the Canary Islands
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
cool saltwater to sink deeper into the ocean, driving the AMOC. Eventually, the cold saltwater will flow back to the tropics where it warms up and rises back to the surface of the ocean. However, climate change has caused the Arctic ice to melt, which has increased the amount of freshwater run-off entering the North Atlantic. This is a problem as freshwater is less dense in comparison to saltwater. With more freshwater flowing into the North Atlantic, this reduces the density of the water which slows down the AMOC and weakens ocean currents. Currents are responsible for transporting sediment across vast distances and locations, including coastal dunes. When coastal dunes do not receive a consistent supply of sand, dune formation and development becomes compromised.
Review 12.6
Knowledge and understanding
Online quiz
Thinking and working geographically
Students can access sample responses and results online
Teachers can go online to assign questions, view results, reports and more!
Knowledge and understanding 1.
Outline the process of longshore drift and its importance to coastal dune development.
2.
Explain how coastal development is compromising the stability and development of coastal dunes.
3.
Explain how recreational activities can affect coastal dune development. In your response, refer to an example of a recreational activity.
4.
Explain why weeds are not always negative in coastal dune ecosystems. In your response, refer to an example.
Thinking and working geographically
Working with geographical concepts: Change 1.
A lot of well-known coastal places, such as Bondi and Coogee, were once extensive coastal dune ecosystems. Over time, they have been changed to allow for coastal development. Explain how Bondi has changed from the 19th century into the coastal suburb it is today.
The dunes of Boat Harbour 2.
change the concept of change is about explaining geographical phenomena by investigating how they have developed over time
Coastal dunes are sites for recreational activity, from off-road driving to hiking and sandboarding. However, recreational activities can compromise the stability and development of coastal dunes. As a result, councils are implementing measures to mitigate the impacts of human activities. Research and answer the following questions. a. Where is Boat Harbour Park located? b. What human activities are permitted in Boat Harbour? c. What strategies have been implemented at Boat Harbour to mitigate the impacts of human activities and damage to the dune ecosystem?
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c12_p373-433.indd 406
21/05/26 8:38 PM
407
12.7 How can soft-engineering help coastal dunes?
12.7
How can soft-engineering help coastal dunes? Success criteria
In this lesson, you will learn about how softengineering strategies can be used to help coastal dune stability and development.
❏ I can explain how soft-engineering strategies are used to support coastal dune development.
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
Learning intention
Starter activity
A coastal dune is being damaged by people walking over it.
Consider the following strategies and outline which one you would use to solve the problem and why:
• installing fences around the dune • replanting vegetation on the dune • installing a board walk on the dune • placing protective mats over the dune.
Soft-engineering strategies
Soft engineering refers to the use of natural, sustainable solutions to coastal management. It is different from hard engineering because it works with naturally occurring processes and does not involve building artificial structures.
➜
Writing focus 12.7 Appositives
Dune and sand fencing
Dune and sand fencing are two types of fencing strategies that aim to protect and stabilise coastal dunes.
Dune fencing
Figure 12.7.1 Fence and signage to protect the dune system in Cape Cod National Seashore, Massachusetts, United States ➜
Dune fencing involves the construction of fences around the foredune area. The aim of dune fencing is to protect coastal dunes by stopping people from accessing vegetation zones. It prevents the trampling of dune vegetation by both humans and vehicles. This soft-engineering strategy particularly targets and benefits areas where vegetation is immature and fragile. Additionally, as dune fences are normally constructed from wire and timber poles, aeolian transport is not affected, as wind and sand continue to pass through, bringing sand to the dune system.
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c12_p373-433.indd 407
21/05/26 8:38 PM
408
Chapter 12 Case study: Australia and the Canary Islands
Sand fencing
➜
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
Sand fencing involves the installation of semi-permeable fences made from panels of woven material to disrupt wind flow and stabilise dunes. The woven material allows air to pass through while trapping airborne sand. This slows sand movement by reducing the wind velocity in the immediate vicinity. By reducing wind speed, the fences encourage sand deposition around their location.
Figure 12.7.2 Sand fences used to stabilise dunes
Board paths
With coastal dunes being popular sites for tourists and locals, board paths are sustainable accessways, enabling visitors to cross dunes without damaging the dune structure. Board paths are made from timber slats that are built slightly above the dune, preventing sand compaction and damage to vegetation. They support the ecosystem as vegetation continues to grow and trap sand. Furthermore, due to the flexibility and spacing of the boards, aeolian transport becomes more difficult, preventing sand from being carried off the dunes. This soft-engineering strategy is commonly used on active dune surfaces.
➜
Figure 12.7.3 Board paths providing access across the dune to the beach
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c12_p373-433.indd 408
21/05/26 8:38 PM
12.7 How can soft-engineering help coastal dunes?
409
Mats and netting
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
The use of mats and netting are innovative soft-engineering strategies that have proven effective in controlling coastal erosion by protecting exposed sand surfaces. Made from natural fibres, mats and netting work by placing a protective layer above the surface of the dunes. When properly secured, this helps to keep sand in place, thus reducing the amount of sand carried away by wave action. Moreover, the mats help to retain moisture in the dunes, aiding vegetation growth. A commonly used mat is jute mesh, which is a biodegradable, open-weave mat made from the natural fibres of the jute plant. Jute mats help prevent erosion, stabilise slopes and hold seeds intact. This allows transplanted dune grasses and seedlings to mature.
Revegetation
The most effective long-term method of dune stabilisation is revegetation. In many cases, revegetation is also the most cost-effective, self-maintaining and visually appealing strategy available. Revegetation is the process of restoring plant life to selected areas by replanting vegetation. This strategy helps support dune development as vegetation obstructs saltation and surface creep while also reducing wind velocity to prevent erosion.
However, revegetation is a labour-intensive activity that can also be costly unless carried out by volunteers. Despite this, the long-term benefits of revegetation are significant. A key benefit is the minimal maintenance required in the long term. However, this strategy is most successful when combined with other strategies such as fencing.
➜
Figure 12.7.4 Revegetation occurring with grass planted on dunes
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c12_p373-433.indd 409
21/05/26 8:38 PM
410
Chapter 12 Case study: Australia and the Canary Islands
Table 12.7.1 Soft-engineering strategies and their advantages and disadvantages
Dune fences
Advantages
Disadvantages
• Low cost and easy set-up • Environmentally friendly
• Limited protection against strong
due to resources used
weather events such as storms
• Can require ongoing
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
maintenance, such as repairs to fencing
• Dependent on public cooperation (e.g. visitors not climbing over the fence)
Sand fences
• Cost-effective and easy to construct
• Supports natural
dune-building processes
• Obstructs wildlife movement (e.g. prevents turtles from reaching their nesting sites)
• Dependent on public cooperation • May require maintenance (e.g. holes in the netting)
Board paths
• Protects trampling on
• Can take a while to construct,
• Reduces the compaction
• May reduce the natural
dune vegetation of sand
especially when footpath is long appearance of the landscape
• Reduces blowouts caused • Concentrates foot traffic to by repeated foot traffic
• Improves public access
specific areas, which may increase erosion nearby
between dune and beach
Mats and netting
• Uses biodegradable material
• Only retains the sand that is present; does not help collect sand
• Low cost and easy to install • Useful for stabilising highly • May require regular replacement eroded dunes • Risks posed to wildlife if netting is not secured properly
Revegetation
• Viable in the long term • Aesthetic and durable
• Labour intensive and can be costly
• Needs to be used in conjunction
with another strategy for utmost effectiveness
• Slow process as vegetation requires time to grow
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c12_p373-433.indd 410
21/05/26 8:38 PM
411
12.7 How can soft-engineering help coastal dunes?
Review 12.7 Online quiz
Knowledge and understanding
Thinking and working geographically
Students can access sample responses and results online
Teachers can go online to assign questions, view results, reports and more!
Knowledge and understanding
Define the term “soft-engineering”.
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
1. 2.
Distinguish between dune fencing and sand fencing.
3.
Outline a benefit of board paths as a soft-engineering strategy.
4.
Choose one soft-engineering strategy and outline reasons for and against the strategy.
Thinking and working geographically
Working with geographical concepts: Environment 1.
How do soft-engineering strategies work with the environment to support coastal dunes while also benefiting humans? In your response, refer to at least one strategy explored in the lesson.
Acquiring geographical information 2.
Research a coastal dune ecosystem of your choice. Some examples of coastal dunes include Dune du Pilat (France), K’gari dunes (Australia) and Sleeping Bear Dunes (United States). Answer the following questions:
environment the concept of environment is about the significance of the environment in human life, and the important interrelationships between humans and the environment
a. List any recreational activities that are permitted on the dune ecosystem. b. Are the recreational activities affecting dune stability and development? If so, how? c. Are there are soft-engineering strategies in place to help support dune development? If yes, identify the strategies and provide an overview of their purpose and impact.
➜
Figure 12.7.5 Coastal dune restoration in South Africa
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c12_p373-433.indd 411
21/05/26 8:38 PM
412
Chapter 12 Case study: Australia and the Canary Islands
12.8
How can hard-engineering help coastal dunes? Success criteria
In this lesson, you will learn about how hardengineering strategies are used to help coastal dune stability and development.
❏ I can explain how hard-engineering strategies are used to support coastal dune development.
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
Learning intention
Starter activity
In 2021, a seawall was erected on Collaroy Beach costing $25 million. Looking at the seawall shown in Figure 12.8.1, answer the following questions. a. Describe what you see. b. Why do you think it was built? c. Who might the seawall benefit? d. What might be some advantages and disadvantages of the seawall? e. What other questions do you wonder about in relation to the seawall?
➜
Figure 12.8.1 Seawall on Collaroy Beach
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c12_p373-433.indd 412
21/05/26 8:38 PM
12.8 How can hard-engineering help coastal dunes?
413
Hard-engineering strategies
Writing focus 12.8 Transitional phrases
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
➜
In comparison to soft-engineering strategies, hard-engineering strategies involve building artificial structures that work against naturally occurring processes. Generally speaking, hard-engineering strategies tend to be more expensive, visually unappealing and unsustainable compared with soft-engineering strategies. We will now look at the various hard-engineering strategies used in coastal dune management.
Seawall
A seawall is a large structure made of concrete, masonry or sheet piles that is built parallel to the shore at the transition zone separating water and land areas. The purpose of a seawall is to protect the inland area from storm surges and wave action, which can cause coastal erosion. Unlike soft-engineering strategies, such as fencing, which can be easily moved, seawalls are a permanent structure that is both time consuming to build and costly to fund. However, seawalls are being used around the world because they possess unique advantages that soft-engineering strategies simply cannot provide. The advantages of seawalls include:
• they provide a solid and durable physical barrier that protects dunes and inland • • • •
areas from strong waves and king tides they protect roads, properties and infrastructure built near dunes by stopping waves from reaching them they can withstand high-energy wave action, making them effective in severe weather events they are long-lasting over decades, thus providing ongoing coastal protection when well-engineered they shield dunes from direct wave erosion, allowing vegetation to grow, which improves dune stability in the long run.
➜
Figure 12.8.2 Seawall withstanding high energy waves
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c12_p373-433.indd 413
21/05/26 8:38 PM
414
Chapter 12 Case study: Australia and the Canary Islands
Eroding beach: Biodiversity is high; life in ocean and on sand, and birds A. Before
Waves are deflected: Beach is narrower; biodiversity is reduced for beach animals, including birds Steepening of offshore slope
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
Although their advantages are plentiful, seawalls can also have adverse consequences. The most significant is the exacerbation of coastal erosion. Instead of dissipating wave energy, the hard and flat surface of sea walls reflect wave energy, creating turbulent water that erodes sand at the base of the seawall. Additionally, seawalls can block natural sand movement, such as longshore drift, starving downdrift areas of the sand necessary for dune construction. Between the erosion of sand at the base of the seawall and the restriction of longshore drift, this can cause the beach in front of the seawall to disappear as the width of the active beach zone narrows.
B. After sea wall
Steep offshore slope
C. Several decades (or more) later
➜
Figure 12.8.3 Diagram showing the impact of seawalls
Groynes
Groynes are hard-engineering structures made of wood or concrete that extend from shore to sea. The purpose of a groyne is to trap sediment moved by longshore drift, dissipate wave energy and reduce erosion to help maintain coastal dunes. Although groynes are effective in dissipating wave energy, they prevent longshore drift from carrying sediment along the beach. Therefore, like seawalls, groynes also have advantages and disadvantages. Table 12.8.1 Advantages and disadvantages of groyne use Advantages of groynes
Disadvantages of groynes
• Relatively easy and affordable to construct • Increases erosion in downdrift areas as sediment is cut off to beaches further • Low maintenance once constructed down the coast • Long-term durability in comparison to • Disrupts natural sediment movement such soft-engineering strategies longshore drift • Reduces erosion by trapping sand moving as • Negative visual effect on the landscape off the coastline • More costly than soft-engineering strategies
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c12_p373-433.indd 414
21/05/26 8:38 PM
12.8 How can hard-engineering help coastal dunes?
415
Case study: Groynes of Kirra Beach
➜
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
Groynes have long been a familiar structure on Kirra Beach at the Gold Coast, Queensland. At present, Kirra Beach has two groynes: the “big groyne”, which was constructed in 1972 and located at the northern end of Coolangatta Beach, and the “little groyne”, which was built in 1975 at the northern end of Kirra Beach. Both groynes were built to trap sand and prevent further erosion to the beach and dune system.
Figure 12.8.4 Big groyne and little groyne on Kirra Beach
Gabions
Gabions are wire mesh baskets filled with pebbles or rocks that are placed at the back of sandy beaches. As there are gaps in the basket, gabions are more flexible and porous, allowing for the absorption of storm-wave energy, which assists with dissipating waves and deflecting energy to reduce coastal erosion.
➜
Figure 12.8.5 Gabions as a coastal defence at Thorpeness, Suffolk, England
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c12_p373-433.indd 415
21/05/26 8:38 PM
416
Chapter 12 Case study: Australia and the Canary Islands
Table 12.8.2 The advantages and disadvantages of gabion use Advantages of gabions
Disadvantages of gabions
• Effective at reducing erosion by absorbing • Limited lifespan so may require
maintenance and repair (e.g. the rusting of the wire baskets) • Wave energy can be redirected to nearby areas and increase erosion in downdrift areas • Not suitable for high-energy coastlines as gabions may not be able to withstand strong wave action
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
and breaking high wave energy • Flexible and moveable on different coastal dunes, not permanent • Helps encourage vegetation growth by reducing wave force, which would otherwise impede on flora growth • Cost-effective, as materials used are plentiful and installation requires minimal machinery
Rock armour
Similar to gabions, rock armour – also known as “riprap”, involves the use of large rocks and boulders as a barrier between land and sea. However, unlike gabions, rock armour involves rocks stacked on top of each other, without a mesh basket. Additionally, where gabions are fixed in place, rock armour is not.
➜
Gabions and rock armour appear more natural than seawalls and therefore blend better into the environment, retaining the aesthetic appearance of the coastline. Further, rock armour is a relatively cost-effective approach compared with other hard-engineering strategies, which are not only expensive to build but also to maintain. On the other hand, a disadvantage of using rock armour is the lack of stability; as the rocks are not held in place by mesh baskets or cages, they are susceptible to being moved by strong-energy waves. Figure 12.8.6 Rock armour used to protect shoreline and coastal dunes
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c12_p373-433.indd 416
21/05/26 8:38 PM
417
12.8 How can hard-engineering help coastal dunes?
Review 12.8 Online quiz
Knowledge and understanding
Thinking and working geographically
Students can access sample responses and results online
Teachers can go online to assign questions, view results, reports and more!
Knowledge and understanding
Outline how hard-engineering strategies differ from soft-engineering strategies.
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
1. 2.
Outline an advantage and disadvantage of using seawalls to manage coastal dunes.
3.
Explain how groynes are used in coastal dune management. In your response, refer to an example of groynes being used in the real world.
4.
Distinguish between gabions and rock armour as hard-engineering strategies used in coastal dune management.
Thinking and working geographically
Working with geographical concepts: Change 1.
Explain how seawalls help to protect coastal development but simultaneously change coastal dune structure.
2.
Propose a geographical inquiry question that could be used to investigate Kirra Beach (see Figure 12.8.4).
An inquiry into the Collaroy seawall 3.
change the Concept of change is about explaining geographical phenomena by investigating how they have developed over time
In 2025, a seawall was erected in the coastal suburb of Collaroy, located in Sydney’s northern beaches. This seawall was built following much controversy, with some residents describing the structure as an “abomination”. The purpose of seawalls are to protect coastal development and support dunes from further erosion. So why was there such controversy surrounding the development of the seawall? Research and answer the questions below.
➜
a. Describe the Collaroy seawall: size, height, materials used and general physical appearance. b. Outline the catalyst for the construction of the seawall. c. Account for why some people were opposed to the seawall. d. Account for why some people were in support of the seawall. e. Identify the stakeholders who funded the construction of the seawall. f. In your opinion, do you think that the seawall should have been constructed? Justify your response.
Figure 12.8.7 Aerial view of construction of Collaroy Beach seawall
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c12_p373-433.indd 417
21/05/26 8:38 PM
418
Chapter 12 Case study: Australia and the Canary Islands
Case study: What do you know about the Stockton Bight Sand Dunes?
12.9
Success criteria
In this lesson, you will learn about the environmental problems affecting the Stockton Bight Sand Dunes and the management strategies used to protect the dune system.
❏ I can describe the environmental problems affecting the Stockton Bight Sand Dunes. ❏ I can explain the management strategies used to protect the dune system.
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
Learning intention
Starter activity
The Stockton Bight Sand Dunes is one of the largest coastal dune systems in Australia. a. Predict one natural process that could change the dunes. b. Predict one human activity that could impact the dunes.
Stockon Bight Sand Dunes
➜
Writing focus 12.9 Developing sentences
The Stockton Bight Sand Dunes are located in Port Stephens in the Worimi Conservation Lands, a 4,200-hectare Aboriginal-owned park. It is jointly managed by the Worimi Traditional Owners and New South Wales National Parks. Situated approximately two hours north of Sydney, the Stockton Bight Sand Dunes form the largest moving coastal dunes in the southern hemisphere. The beach itself spans a 32-kilometre stretch of sand from Newcastle all the way to Anna Bay.
Nelson Bay
Stockton Sand
Newcastle
Central Coast
Gosford
SOUTH PACIFIC OCEAN
Hornsby Blacktown Sydney
0
➜
➜
Figure 12.9.1 Map of Stockton Bight Sand Dunes
40 km
Figure 12.9.2 Aerial photograph of Stockton Bight Sand Dunes
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c12_p373-433.indd 418
21/05/26 8:38 PM
12.9 Case study: What do you know about the Stockton Bight Sand Dunes?
History of the Stockton Bight Sand Dunes
419
midden historical pile of waste consisting of shells, bones and plant remains
Characteristics of the Stockton Bight Sand Dunes
➜
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
The Stockton Bight Sand Dunes formed more than 100,000 years ago. The Worimi People were the earliest inhabitants of the Port Stephens region. Evidence of their ongoing presence can be seen in middens. These middens, which are up to 12,000 years old, contain mostly remnants of pipis and whelk shells. The Worimi People used the Stockton Bight to travel between present-day Birubi Point and Stockton.
Figure 12.9.3 Middens found on the Worimi Conservation Lands
Source: Worimi Conservation Lands
As the largest mobile coastal sand mass in Australia, the entire beach, foredune and dune system spans 27 square kilometres. The average dune height ranges from between 15 and 20 metres above sea level, with the largest dune reaching approximately 40 metres. The sand supplying dune construction in the Stockton Bight is made up largely of quartz, while the grain size is medium to medium-coarse sand.
Impacts to the dune system
Coastal dunes naturally change due to constructive waves and the process of accretion. Each year, approximately 146,000 cubic metres of sand moves northwards from Stockton Beach along the Bight – an amount equivalent to approximately 58 Olympic swimming pools filled with sand. As a result, this large volume of sediment has contributed to the formation and substantial size of Stockton’s dune system. However, Stockton Beach has a long history of coastal erosion, which threatens private property, public infrastructure and the overall useability of the beach. The volume of sand lost from Stockton is significant and has worsened over time. As part of the Stockton Coastal Management Program, a sediment transport study found that 112,000 cubic metres of sand is lost from Stockton Beach each year. Such extensive sand loss poses a serious threat to the future survival of the dune system.
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c12_p373-433.indd 419
21/05/26 8:38 PM
Chapter 12 Case study: Australia and the Canary Islands
➜
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
420
Figure 12.9.4 Erosion on Stockton Beach saw sections of the coastline closed.
Newcastle Breakwater
Apart from natural processes removing sand from the dunes at Stockton, the Newcastle Breakwater has also had an impact. A breakwater, also known as a breakwall, is a structure made of rock or concrete that is built offshore to protect the shoreline and land assets from strong waves. Not only does this help to reduce erosion, but it also creates calmer water conditions, which allows for safer naval navigation. The Newcastle Breakwater was built to protect the Newcastle Harbour and the ships entering and exiting the harbour by deflecting wave energy.
➜
Despite its original purpose, the construction of the Newcastle Breakwater has had a negative impact on the stability and development of the Stockton Bight Sand Dunes. The dunes on Stockton Beach receive a natural supply of sand through longshore drift and sediment transport. However, the Newcastle Breakwater is affecting the flow of sediment by interrupting longshore drift. Sand that would once drift northwards, supplying Stockton, is being intercepted by the breakwater and is being lost. In conjunction with increased storm events and east coast lows, the Stockton Bight Sand Dunes have experienced severe erosion during recent decades. This has led to a narrowing of the beach, exposing the Figure 12.9.5 The Newcastle Breakwater foredune to further wave action.
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c12_p373-433.indd 420
21/05/26 8:38 PM
12.9 Case study: What do you know about the Stockton Bight Sand Dunes?
421
Management of the dune system In response to extensive erosion at the Stockton Bight Sand Dunes, two management strategies – beach scraping and beach nourishment, have been implemented. We will now examine these strategies in detail.
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
Beach scraping Beach scraping, also known as sand scraping, is a coastal management strategy that involves mechanically moving sand from the lower beach to the landward side to rebuild or strengthen coastal dunes. Rather than adding new sand from an external source, this strategy repositions existing sand towards the dune to create dune profiles that are taller and stronger. Larger dunes provide a stronger barrier, protecting coastal infrastructure against waves. The City of Newcastle Council undertakes a regular beach scraping program at Stockton Beach to help rebuild the dunes. During the warmer months, when the water is calmer, the council conducts beach scraping on a monthly basis. It is a relatively quick and cost-effective strategy. However, there are limitations to beach scraping. For instance, beach scraping only works when the lower beach has enough sand to move upwards. Additionally, the newly constructed taller dunes can erode following a strong storm, requiring frequent beach scraping.
➜
Figure 12.9.6 Beach scraping on Stockton Beach Source: City of Newcastle
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c12_p373-433.indd 421
21/05/26 8:38 PM
422
Chapter 12 Case study: Australia and the Canary Islands
Beach nourishment
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
The NSW Government and the City of Newcastle have been working together since 2020 to carry out beach nourishment as part of the Stockton Coastal Management Program (CMP). Beach nourishment is the practice of adding large quantities of sand to beaches to combat erosion and increase the beach width. Beaches that are wider are more capable of absorbing wave energy and acting as a buffer between waves and landward areas. Hence, beach nourishment aims to mitigate erosion and prevent destructive waves from affecting areas of coastal development.
The beach nourishment strategy is funded by a $4.7 million Commonwealth grant and a $1.5 million contribution from the City of Newcastle. Although the Stockton CMP was established in 2022, the first stage of beach nourishment did not begin until 2023, with the relocation of 130,000 cubic metres of sand from Newcastle Harbour to Stockton Beach. In the next two to five years, beach nourishment will occur through dredging. Dredging involves the delivery of mass sand nourishment from the bottom of rivers, lakes, harbours and other water bodies. Although beach nourishment can be a viable strategy to manage coastal dune erosion, there are also disadvantages. First, beach nourishment requires the beach to become a construction zone; this can compact sand, trample vegetation and disturb wildlife. Second, new sand that is added to the existing dune system may not be the same grain size or chemical make-up of the natural, pre-existing sand. This can change the habitat that beach fauna and flora rely upon. Lastly, beach nourishment is a costly strategy that requires ongoing maintenance.
➜
Figure 12.9.7 Beach nourishment involves adding large quantities of sand to a beach.
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c12_p373-433.indd 422
21/05/26 8:38 PM
12.9 Case study: What do you know about the Stockton Bight Sand Dunes?
Review 12.9 Online quiz
Knowledge and understanding
Thinking and working geographically
Students can access sample responses and results online
423
Teachers can go online to assign questions, view results, reports and more!
Knowledge and understanding
Outline the nature of the Stockton Bight Sand Dunes.
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
1. 2.
Describe the characteristics of the Stockton Bight Sand Dunes.
3.
Describe the rate of coastal erosion at the Stockton Bight Sand Dunes.
4.
Explain the purpose of the Newcastle Breakwater and its impact on the Stockton Bight Sand Dunes.
Thinking and working geographically
Working with geographical concepts: Environment 1.
The City of Newcastle Council spends considerable money and effort in protecting the Stockton Beach Sand Dunes. Propose three reasons why the Stockton Beach Sand Dunes are important.
2.
Analyse two strategies used to protect the Stockton Beach Sand Dunes.
Beach nourishment in Miami 3.
Between 1976 and 1981, beach nourishment was first introduced in Miami, Florida in the United States. Today, the coastal erosion strategy is still practised. Research the following questions on beach nourishment in Miami.
environment the concept of environment is about the significance of the environment in human life, and the important interrelationships between humans and the environment
a. Why was beach nourishment first introduced in Miami? b. Miami is a coastal holiday destination known for pristine beaches and coastal dunes. How much money does Miami generate from tourism alone? c. Why is beach nourishment still used as a strategy in Miami today? d. Who funds beach nourishment programs in Miami? On average, how much does it cost? e. What are the advantages and disadvantages of beach nourishment?
➜
Figure 12.9.8 Miami Beach, Florida
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c12_p373-433.indd 423
21/05/26 8:38 PM
424
Chapter 12 Case study: Australia and the Canary Islands
12.10
Case study: What do you know about the Maspalomas Dunes? Success criteria
In this lesson, you will learn about the environmental problems affecting the Maspalomas Dunes and the management strategies used to protect the dune system.
❏ I can describe the environmental problems affecting the Maspalomas Dunes. ❏ I can explain the management strategies used to protect the dune system.
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
Learning intention
Starter activity
Consider the following coastal dune management strategies. Place the strategies in order from least expensive to implement to most expensive.
• Erecting “no trampling on vegetation” signs • Rebuilding existing pathways from dune to beach • Building a seawall • Planting vegetation on coastal dunes
Select a strategy from the list above and outline an advantage and disadvantage of your chosen strategy.
Dunas de Maspalomas
➜
Writing focus 12.10 Creating topic sentences
➜
In the south of Gran Canaria, one of Spain’s most populated Canary Islands off the coast of north-western Africa, lies the Maspalomas Dunes – also known as the Dunas de Maspalomas. The Dunas de Maspalomas is a 998-acre coastal nature reserve featuring dunes that extend for almost 6 kilometres while reaching heights of 25 metres. As a result of its historical value and unique ecosystem, the Dunas de Maspalomas has been protected as a nature reserve since 1987. Figure 12.10.1 Dunas de Maspalomas
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c12_p373-433.indd 424
21/05/26 8:38 PM
12.10 Case study: What do you know about the Maspalomas Dunes?
425
History of the dune system
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
The Dunas de Maspalomas were formed during the last Ice Age when sand rose from the ocean floor following the recession of water. As wind and water transported marine sediment from the neighbouring Fataga, Ayagaures and Chamoriscán ravines, as well as sand from the Sahara, mounds of sand began to form. These mounds were later colonised by plants, which then became dunes.
Characteristics of the dune system
Home to diverse flora and fauna, the foredune vegetation is dominated by salt-tolerant shrubs such as the balancón plant which grows into a dense bush, capable of trapping sand effectively. In total, the reserve supports around 50 plant species. Various species of birdlife, including plovers, herons and stilts have nesting sites in the Dunas de Maspalomas, and endemic reptiles, such as the Gran Canaria giant lizard, live among the shifting sand.
➜
➜
Figure 12.10.2 Balancón plant in the Dunas de Maspalomas
endemic an organism that is restricted to a specific location or region
Figure 12.10.3 Gran Canaria giant lizard
Impacts to the dune system
Over the past few decades, Dunas de Maspalomas has suffered degradation and a consistent reduction in sand supply due to urban development and tourism. As a result of these two impacts, the dune system is now losing an estimated 45,000 cubic metres of sand each year. Moreover, there are now concerns that the dunes could disappear within the next 130 years.
Tourism
The Dunas de Maspalomas is the most visited tourist destination on the island. Each year, the Dunas de Maspalomas receives 48% of the total number of tourists visiting Grand Canaria. However, as a consequence of such high numbers of tourists, the dunes have slowly begun to shrink. Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c12_p373-433.indd 425
21/05/26 8:38 PM
426
Chapter 12 Case study: Australia and the Canary Islands
➜
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
Prior to the 1960s and the advent of mass tourism, the dunes functioned in a natural state, supporting native vegetation and migratory bird species. However, increased tourism has led to higher levels of foot traffic, camping and straying from designated pathways as visitors explore the dunes to take photographs. This has resulted in the balancón plant being trampled on. This is significant as the balancón plays a vital role in trapping sand and protecting the dune system from erosion.
Figure 12.10.4 Tourists walking on top of the dunes at Dunas de Maspalomas
Urban development
Urban development in the resort town of Maspalomas is also contributing to the vulnerability of the dune ecosystem. This is because the development of buildings has changed regional wind patterns. In Maspalomas, winds generally flow north-east to south-west; however, the city’s southernmost edge now acts as a shield, diverting wind downwards and blocking gusts. As wind is shielded from the city’s western side, new sediment cannot reach the neighbouring area. Moreover, as the dunes are losing sand faster than natural processes can replenish, dunes in Dunas de Maspalomas are operating in a state of sand deficit.
➜
Figure 12.10.5 Resort town of Maspalomas
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c12_p373-433.indd 426
21/05/26 8:38 PM
12.10 Case study: What do you know about the Maspalomas Dunes?
427
Management of the dune system
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
To address the challenges facing the Dunas de Maspalomas, a range of management strategies have been implemented. These strategies form part of the Masdunas Project – the Master Plan, which a joint initiative between the governing body of the island and the San Bartolomé de Tirajana City Council. The Masdunas Project aims to restore and protect the dune system through implementing the strategies of erecting signage, rehabilitating existing dune tracks, revegetation and issuing fines.
Signage
Signage has been erected throughout the dunes in several languages to educate tourists on how to navigate the dunes without trampling or damaging vegetation. Additionally, the signs show recommended routes through the dunes.
➜
Figure 12.10.6 Multilingual signage in the Dunas de Maspalomas
Rehabilitation of walking tracks
To reduce foot traffic across the dunes, particularly in vulnerable areas where new vegetation is growing or erosion has already occurred, eight kilometres of walking paths and tracks have been rehabilitated. The walking path loops through the dune area and is the only section that can be walked on by humans.
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c12_p373-433.indd 427
21/05/26 8:38 PM
428
Chapter 12 Case study: Australia and the Canary Islands
Revegetation
➜
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
The soft-engineering strategy of revegetation has also been implemented under the Masdunas Project. Over 1,064 specimens of balancón have been planted along with 5,919 bollards and stakes to revegetate parts of the dune that are at most risk of significant erosion. This strategy works in conjunction with signage to prevent unauthorised access to revegetated, vulnerable areas.
Figure 12.10.7 Balancón throughout the Dunas de Maspalomas
Fines
➜
Fines have also been introduced to deter tourist behaviour that negatively affects dunes, such as straying from designated walking paths and violating rules displayed on information boards. Tourists can be fined 150 Euros for such behaviour, and media companies who venture into unauthorised areas to capture photos and videos without obtaining special permits can be fined more than 400 Euros.
Figure 12.10.7 Rangers at the Dunas de Maspalomas Source: Canarian Weekly
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c12_p373-433.indd 428
21/05/26 8:38 PM
12.10 Case study: What do you know about the Maspalomas Dunes?
Review 12.10 Online quiz
Knowledge and understanding
Thinking and working geographically
Students can access sample responses and results online
429
Teachers can go online to assign questions, view results, reports and more!
Knowledge and understanding
Describe the characteristics of the Dunas de Maspalomas.
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
1. 2.
Outline two ways in which humans have had a negative impact on the Dunas de Maspalomas.
3.
Explain the significance of the balancón plant to the Dunas de Maspalomas.
4.
Explain how signage is used as a strategy to manage the Dunas de Maspalomas.
Thinking and working geographically
Working with geographical concepts: Change 1.
Explain how humans have changed the Dunas de Maspalomas through urban development.
2.
Compare the impact of humans on the Dunas de Maspalomas with another ecosystem of your choice. In your response, acknowledge whether the change to your chosen ecosystem has been positive or negative and why.
change the concept of change is about explaining geographical phenomena by investigating how they have developed over time
Geographical inquiry: Are tourists damaging ecosystems or helping them?
An important question to consider when discussing ecosystem management and protection is whether the presence of tourists does more harm than good. 3.
Research the advantages and disadvantages of tourists in relation to ecosystem protection. Then find a case study ecosystem and create an informative yet persuasive poster on whether tourists should be banned or permitted to visit. Your poster must include the following:
• a clear stance on whether tourists should be banned or permitted to access vulnerable ecosystems • one vulnerable ecosystem that illustrates your point • clear reasons to support your argument • at least one piece of qualitative and one piece of quantitative data.
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c12_p373-433.indd 429
21/05/26 8:38 PM
430
Chapter 12 Case study: Australia and the Canary Islands
12.11
Chapter review Access the Interactive Textbook for a range of digital tools to help you review this chapter and build confidence.
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
• Auto-marked questions for fast feedback and fun practice • Self-assessment tools to track your progress, review answers (if enabled by the teacher), and flag questions for extra help • Downloadable worksheets for class or homework revision
Summary
Summary notes
Download chapter summary
What have you learned about Australia and the Canary Islands?
For this activity, copy the table and fill it out by explaining your understanding. Aim for two points per topic.
Terms
What I have learned
Accretion
Longshore drift Blowout
Washover Seawall
Visible thinking routine Looking: ten times two
This exercise in visible thinking requires you to slow down and make careful, detailed observations. Now that you have acquired information about coastal dunes, use Figure 12.11.1 and the instructions below to complete this activity. 1.
Look at the image quietly for at least 30 seconds. Let your eyes wander.
2.
List 10 words or phrases about any aspect of the picture.
3.
Repeat steps 1 and 2: Look at the image again and try to add 10 more words or phrases to your list.
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c12_p373-433.indd 430
21/05/26 8:38 PM
431
➜
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
12.11 Chapter review
Figure 12.11.1 Coastal dune and a solitary house
Questions
Scorcher quiz
Access a fast, fun, competitive quiz that puts your understanding to the test.
Quick questions
The following questions offer various ways to demonstrate your understanding of the chapter. 1.
Coastal dunes are formed through the natural process of ______.
2.
Dunes become more susceptible to ______ when vegetation is cleared for development.
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c12_p373-433.indd 431
21/05/26 8:38 PM
432
Chapter 12 Case study: Australia and the Canary Islands
3.
The movement of sand by wind is known as ______ transport.
4.
A washover occurs when storm waves travel over the _____ and transport sand inland.
5.
_______ is a soft-engineering strategy that involves restoring plant life on dunes.
6.
What is one major risk associated with building homes on coastal dunes?
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
A. Stronger foundations due to sandy soils B. Increased vulnerability to erosion and dune collapse C. Reduced property taxes D. Improved wind protection
7.
Which process is responsible for transporting sand in a zig-zag motion along the coast? A. Thermohaline circulation B. Saltation C. Longshore drift D. Surface creep
8.
Which vegetation zone on a dune contains the tallest and most diverse plant species? A. Primary vegetation zone B. Incipient dune C. Tertiary vegetation zone D. Foredune Which of the following is an example of a soft-engineering strategy for dune management? A. Seawalls B. Groynes C. Rock armour D. Sand fencing
9.
10.
What is the main reason the Dunas de Maspalomas are shrinking over time? A. Reduced sand supply due to tourism and altered wind patterns B. Decreased rainfall C. Stronger summer constructive waves D. Overpopulation of native lizards
11.
Define a coastal dune.
12.
Identify the effect of a blowout on coastal vegetation.
13.
What is the purpose of dune fencing?
14.
What is one negative impact that off-road vehicles have on dunes?
15.
Summarise why coastal dunes are important for human communities.
Writing focus
The following activities offer ways to demonstrate your understanding of the chapter and allow you to continue to practise your writing skills.
➜
Writing focus 12.11 Single paragraph response model
Answering questions in paragraphs
You can use this as a model when writing your own answers to the questions that follow. Question: Explain how processes in the atmosphere, biosphere and lithosphere interact to form coastal dunes.
(6 marks)
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c12_p373-433.indd 432
21/05/26 8:38 PM
12.11 Chapter review
433
Model answer: Coastal dunes form through the interaction of atmospheric, biospheric and lithospheric processes, which work together to suply, transport and stabilise sand along coastlines. Wind from the atmosphere dries and transports sand inland, while the lithosphere supplies this sand through the weathering and erosion of rocks, cliffs and river sediments. As this sand accumulates, vegetation from the biosphere, such as spinifex and other pioneer plants, traps and anchors the grains with extensive root systems, allowing the loose mounds to grow into stable dune structures. At Stockton Bight, strong coastal winds blow quartz sand inland where hardy dune vegetation captures and binds the sand. This helps dunes to reach heights of up to 40 metres. Together, these interacting processes ensure that coastal dunes can form, expand and remain stable over time.
Explain: clarify, define and describe
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
Topic sentence: the first sentence of the paragraph; directly answers the question Evidence: specific, relevant evidence to support your arguments Linking sentence: reconnects with language of the question the topic sentence.
Elaborate: additional information, interconnections
Examples: provide credibility and illustrate the argument
Structured-response questions Question 1
(20 marks)
a. Outline the nature and spatial distribution of coastal dunes. (4 marks) b. Explain how processes in the atmosphere, biosphere and lithosphere interact to form coastal dunes. (6 marks) c. Contrast soft-engineering strategies with hard-engineering strategies. (10 marks) Question 2
(20 marks)
a. Identify the four key pillars of sustainability. b. Explain why sustainability is important to managing environments. c. Analyse the sustainability of TWO management strategies you have studied.
(4 marks) (4 marks) (12 marks)
Marking criteria for each question can be found in the Interactive Textbook. Refer to these criteria when planning and writing your responses.
Extended-response questions Question 1
(20 marks)
Explain how coastal dunes are being affected by human-induced environmental change. Question 2
(20 marks)
Compare the management strategies used in the Stockton Bight Sand Dunes with those used in Dunas de Maspalomas.
Teachers, access the Online Teaching Suite for digital resources and tools that support review, assessment and reporting, including:
• student and class activity reports • a test generator to create custom assessments • built-in feedback tools • editable downloadable support material • a downloadable and printable “Writing focus” workbook for this chapter.
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c12_p373-433.indd 433
21/05/26 8:38 PM
Human wellbeing
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
Focus area
CHAPTERS
➜
13. Human wellbeing and development 14. Geographical skills: Projections of poverty and prosperity 15. Case study: Variations in and improving human wellbeing: Australia 16. Case study: Variations in and improving human wellbeing: Denmark and India
Image: People gathered for International Yoga Day, 2024
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c13_p002-044.indd 434
21/05/26 3:08 PM
Chapter
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
13
Human wellbeing and development
Lessons
13.1
Geo Spark: Why is Hong Kong a harbour of disparity?
13.2
How do geographers define and measure human wellbeing?
13.3
What are the key indicators of human wellbeing and development?
13.4
How do human wellbeing and development indicators interconnect and vary at a global scale?
13.5
Why do levels of human wellbeing and development differ around the world?
13.6
What are the key global challenges for human wellbeing? Part 1: Social and economic
13.7
What are the key global challenges for human wellbeing? Part 2: Political and environmental
13.8
Who measures and addresses human wellbeing and development around the world?
13.9
Chapter review
Teachers go to the Online Teacher Suite to:
➜
• plan, sequence and assign directed tasks for students and classes using Task Manager • view student activity reports • provide feedback to students • download a printable “Writing focus” workbook for this chapter. Image: A familial leisure portrait: shared rest and intergenerational bonding
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c13_p002-044.indd 435
21/05/26 3:08 PM
436
Chapter 13 Human wellbeing and development
13.1
Geo Spark: Why is Hong Kong a harbour of disparity? Success criteria
In this lesson, you will learn about human wellbeing through the case study of living conditions in Hong Kong.
❏ I can describe the variations in living conditions across Hong Kong.
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
Learning intention
The gap between rich and poor
➜
Writing focus 13.1 Question words
At first glance, Hong Kong’s Victoria Harbour depicts an idyllic urban paradise. Tall, modern skyscrapers stretch out along a tranquil coastline surrounded by luscious forests. For the 15% of the population who are millionaires, and its 60 billionaires, it is indeed a place of luxury. However, household incomes in Hong Kong vary enormously. In 2023, the average household income for the area’s richest 10% was nearly 60 times greater than the poorest!
Amazing but true…
In 2019, Hong Kong became the city with the highest concentration of rich people in the world.
Rent in Hong Kong is among the most expensive in the world. Even a one-bedroom apartment in a mid-range suburb is unaffordable for most of Hong Kong’s working class. As a result, many families are forced to live in cramped conditions, with three generations (children, parents and grandparents) under one roof. An estimated 100,000 people live in subdivided apartments that measure less than 4 square metres! As shown in Figure 13.1.2, many of these subdivisions are illegally built and do not meet safety standards. The least fortunate are forced to live in cubicles or cages that are barely large enough to fit a bed (see Figure 13.1.3). Living conditions for poor people are very tough – many elderly women collect and sell cardboard to scrape together a basic living (Figure 13.1.4). Homelessness is on the rise and the waiting list for public housing is up to six years.
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c13_p002-044.indd 436
21/05/26 3:08 PM
437
Figure 13.1.1 View of Hong Kong’s Victoria Harbour
Figure 13.1.2 Life inside one of Hong Kong’s subdivided apartments
Figure 13.1.4 Many elderly people in Hong Kong scavenge cardboard from the streets to sell to recycling plants. ➜
➜
Figure 13.1.3 Thousands of low-income workers live in “cage homes” that are only large enough to fit a sleeping mat.
➜
➜
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
13.1 Geo Spark: Why is Hong Kong a harbour of disparity?
Activity 13.1
Visible thinking routine: Think, pair, share
Visit the Dollar Street website (https://cambridge.edu.au/redirect/11852) and explore the homes of different families around the world. In pairs, ask each other the following questions. 1.
Think: Which of the families you investigated do you think would have the highest level of wellbeing?
2.
Pair: Discuss with a partner the challenges facing families at either end of the income spectrum.
3.
Share: What does this exercise show you about wellbeing across the world?
Reflection
• What did Activity 13.1 show you about wellbeing across the world? • Which of the families you investigated has a lifestyle similar to yours? Justify your answer.
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c13_p002-044.indd 437
21/05/26 3:08 PM
438
Chapter 13 Human wellbeing and development
13.2
How do geographers define and measure human wellbeing? Success criteria
In this lesson, you will learn about what human wellbeing means for different people and the ways in which it can be measured and compared.
❏ I can define human wellbeing. ❏ I can outline a range of human wellbeing indicators or measures.
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
Learning intention
Starter activity
Analysing different living standards in the same place
Compare the characteristics of what you can see in the left and right sections of the aerial photograph in Figure 13.2.1. Using a table, list the differences in living conditions.
2.
Use Google Street View to visit Kyra Sands and access photographs of the region. It might help to turn on the satellite image on the base map so you can choose areas that look similar to the ones shown in Figure 13.2.1. Add observations to your table.
3.
The housing shown on the left of Figure 13.2.1 is an informal settlement, commonly known as a slum. In these regions, residents do not have legal Figure 13.2.1 An aerial photograph of Kyra Sands, an informal ownership of the land and live in densely settlement located in Johannesburg, South Africa packed housing that is built using scrap materials. They lack basic services such as piped water, sanitation and electricity. ➜
1.
a. Why do you think some people in Johannesburg live in large houses while others live in these slums? b. Do you think Australia has slums? Why, or why not?
Defining wellbeing
human wellbeing overall measure of the health and quality of life of a group of people
➜
Writing focus 13.2 Transitional phrases
Human wellbeing can be defined as an overall measure of the health and quality of life of a group of people. This quality of life may be influenced by social factors, such as access to healthcare, education and job opportunities, or environmental factors, such as infrastructure and levels of pollution. Human wellbeing can vary significantly on local, regional and global scales depending on the place or population for which wellbeing is being measured.
In the world’s poorest regions, wellbeing revolves around access to basic needs, such as food, clean water, shelter, clothing and safety. In contrast, wealthier regions will often focus on measures including health, income, education and happiness. In many cases,
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c13_p002-044.indd 438
21/05/26 3:08 PM
13.2 How do geographers define and measure human wellbeing?
439
individuals make decisions about what they consider to be the qualities of a prosperous life and then measure their level of wellbeing based on whether they have the resources available to achieve those qualities in their own lives.
Measuring wellbeing indicators measures used to assess and track changes in progress and performance
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
The common debate over whether or not money can buy you happiness provides an interesting insight into the nature of human wellbeing. Historically, human wellbeing has been measured by economic indicators: how much money countries and individual citizens have. However a more holistic view on human wellbeing challenges us to consider whether money is in fact the best indicator of “wellbeing”.
Many people around the world would view their life as a happy one, irrespective of the amount of money they have. What instead can we use to piece together the puzzle of human wellbeing? Just as there are many pieces to a puzzle, so too there is no single measure of human wellbeing. Instead, comparing the wellbeing of populations involves using a variety of indicators. When combined, these indicators give an overall view of a population’s wellbeing. Examples of indicators include those focused on wealth, such as gross domestic product (GDP), but also extend to other factors including life expectancy and access to health services and education. Some wellbeing indicators, such as infant mortality rate (IMR), are objective and quantitative. This means that they can be measured and quantified, making them easy to compare. Other indicators, such as happiness, are subjective and qualitative, making them more difficult to measure and compare.
➜
While happiness is perhaps one of the most important indicators of wellbeing, it is also one of the most difficult to measure. The United Nations (UN) World Happiness Report ranks countries based on their economic situation, social support, life expectancy, freedom, generosity and perceptions of corruption. In 2025, Finland was ranked the happiest country, largely due to its strong sense of community, while Australia came in at 11th place. In contrast, the least happy countries were Afghanistan, Sierra Leone, Figure 13.2.2 Since 1972, Bhutan has made happiness its most important Lebanon and Malawi – places measure of wellbeing. The government has made efforts to increase the facing political instability, happiness of its population. Measures include encouraging citizens to wear traditional clothing and teaching mindfulness to school students. economic hardship and war.
infant mortality rate (IMR) measure of the number of children per 1,000 children born who die before they reach one year objective result or judgement that is not influenced by the personal feelings or opinions of an individual quantitative based on numerical quantities that can be counted or measured subjective result or judgement based on personal beliefs and feelings gross domestic product (GDP) the total value of goods and services produced by a country in one year qualitative not based on numerical quantities, usually measured using techniques including observations, interviews and surveys mindfulness technique for achieving a calm mental state by focusing awareness on the present moment
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c13_p002-044.indd 439
21/05/26 3:08 PM
440
Chapter 13 Human wellbeing and development
Composite statistics: Human Development Index Given the vast number of factors that contribute to human wellbeing, it can be useful to compare countries using composite statistics, which combine a variety of measures into one value. An example of this is the UN Human Development Index (HDI), which ranks countries by their level of human development. It is calculated based on:
• health – life expectancy at birth • education – expected years of schooling for
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
gross national income (GNI) per capita the amount of income earned by residents of a country divided by the number of people living in that country
•
children and average years of schooling for adults income – measured by gross national income (GNI) per capita.
➜
Countries are scored on HDI with a value out of 1. The countries with the top three HDI values in 2025 were Iceland, Switzerland and Norway, while Australia ranked seventh. The bottom three countries were South Sudan, Figure 13.2.3 Aerial view of Ålesund, Norway Somalia and the Central African Republic. A full list of countries ranked by their HDI can be found on the World Population Review website (https://cambridge.edu.au/redirect/11854).
Review 13.2
Knowledge and understanding
Online quiz
Thinking and working geographically
Students can access sample responses and results online
Teachers can go online to assign questions, view results, reports and more!
Knowledge and understanding
2.
a. Define the term “wellbeing”. b. Explain what wellbeing indicators are and how they are used. c. Explain the difference between an objective and subjective indicator and provide an example of each. What do you think is one of the most important indicators of human wellbeing? Justify your choice.
3.
a. What is a slum?
1.
b. Suggest a way that a country such as South Africa could improve the wellbeing of people currently living in slums.
Thinking and working geographically
Working with geographical concepts: Space 1.
Explain how the geographical concept of space can influence human wellbeing.
Geographical inquiry 2.
Search online for the most recent UN World Happiness Report (https://cambridge.edu.au/redirect/11853). Locate the list of the most and least happy countries in the world. Suggest reasons for the large differences in happiness between countries.
space the concept of space is about the significance of location and spatial distribution, and ways people organise and manage the spaces that we live in
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c13_p002-044.indd 440
21/05/26 3:08 PM
441
13.3 What are the key indicators of human wellbeing and development?
13.3
What are the key indicators of human wellbeing and development? Success criteria
In this lesson, you will learn about the key indicators of human wellbeing: wealth, education, health and disease, and life expectancy.
❏ I can differentiate between the concepts of human wellbeing and development. ❏ I can identify and describe a range of key indicators of human wellbeing.
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
Learning intention
Starter activity
Analysing a cartogram
Figure 13.3.1 is a cartogram, a type of map in which the sizes of countries are manipulated to represent the variable being mapped. In this example, wealthier countries with a higher GDP are larger than poorer countries. 1.
Based on Figure 13.3.1, list the countries and regions that are the wealthiest and poorest.
2.
Which countries or regions have been distorted the most in the cartogram? In other words, which ones are much larger or smaller on the cartogram than on a traditional map?
3.
Brainstorm a list of ways in which increased wealth can improve human wellbeing and why people in poorer countries often have lower levels of wellbeing.
➜
Figure 13.3.1 Cartogram showing the relative sizes of countries based on their wealth, measured as GDP
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c13_p002-044.indd 441
21/05/26 3:08 PM
442
Chapter 13 Human wellbeing and development
Development versus human wellbeing
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
➜
Writing focus 13.3 Transitional phrases
The concepts of “development” and “human wellbeing” are closely connected, but they are not exactly the same. Human wellbeing focuses on the idea of “quality of life”, which can include many different perspectives. Development is more concerned with the social, political and economic changes associated with improving the wellbeing of populations.
development the process in which the economy, society and politics advances to improve human wellbeing developed country country with a high GDP per capita, higher standards of living and greater access to medical care and technology
industrialised country or region that has transformed its economy from one based on agriculture to one dominated by industries such as manufacturing developing country country with a low GDP per capita and a low level of industrialisation
poverty line the official level of income that is needed to achieve a basic living standard with enough money for things such as food, clothing and a place to live absolute wealth wealth compared to a fixed standard (e.g., whether a person is above or below the national poverty line) relative wealth how a person’s wealth compares with the other people in their community
A number of terms have been used throughout history to categorise countries and places based on their levels of development. During the late twentieth century, the common terms used were “First World, “Second World” and “Third World”. “First World” countries were capitalist and aligned with the United States, “Second World” were communist countries, and “Third world” were not aligned with either group.
These terms have now been replaced by economic classifications, where countries with strong economics are known as developed countries, which have greater levels of industrialisation and a stronger economy than poorer countries, known as developing countries. Other classifications now used include “More Economically Developed Countries” (MEDCs) and “Less Economically Developed Countries” (LEDCs). While a higher level of development is not always associated with higher levels of human wellbeing, there is often a correlation between the two.
Key indicators of human wellbeing and development
The overall picture of the human wellbeing and development of a place is based on a number of different measures. These measures, or “indicators”, when collected regularly and accurately, allow for comparison between countries. Some of these key indicators include wealth, education, health and life expectancy.
Wealth
Wealth is one of the most common wellbeing measures, as it provides access to life’s necessities and opportunities, and arguably influences all other wellbeing indicators. Higher wealth in a place is therefore associated with greater access to health services, increased life expectancy and higher levels of education. A common indicator used for the comparison of wealth between countries is GDP per capita. GDP is a measure of a country’s economic output based on the total value of goods produced and services provided in a year. “Per capita” means per person. GDP per capita is therefore a measure of a country’s wealth divided by its total population. Wealth can also be measured by average annual income, as shown in Table 13.3.1.
When considering an individual’s wellbeing based on their wealth, it is important to distinguish between absolute and relative wealth. Absolute wealth refers to wealth compared to a fixed standard, such as whether a person is above or below the national poverty line or the national average. Relative wealth relates to how a person’s wealth compares with the people around them, including their family and friends, colleagues and the people living in their suburb or region.
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c13_p002-044.indd 442
21/05/26 3:08 PM
13.3 What are the key indicators of human wellbeing and development?
Another key consideration when investigating wealth in a place is to compare the cost of living with the average income. Table 13.3.1 shows that Switzerland has the third-highest annual income at $95,490; however, it is also ranked the secondmost expensive country in which to live based on the cost of rent and groceries. This illustrates that higher incomes do not always lead to higher living standards.
cost of living amount of money needed to afford basic necessities such as housing, food, clothing and healthcare adult literacy rate (ALR) proportion of adults in a population who can read and write
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
Table 13.3.1 Countries with the highest average incomes in 2022 in United States dollars (US$) Source: World Data website
443
Country
Average annual income ($US)
Monaco
$186,080
Bermuda
$125,210
Switzerland
$95,490
Norway
$94,540
Luxembourg
$89,200
Ireland
$79,730
United States
$76,770
Denmark
$73,520
Qatar
$70,120
Iceland
$68,660
sub-Saharan Africa region of Africa located south of the Sahara Desert
Education
There are a number of indicators that can be used to measure levels of education around the world. The adult literacy rate (ALR) refers to the proportion of adults in a population who can read and write. This is critical to wellbeing, because a person’s ability to read can greatly affect their employability and earning potential. Literacy can also be indicative of a population’s overall level of education.
Back in 1800, the adult literacy rate was just 12% of the total world population. In 2024, it reached 86.3%: 90% for males and 82.7% for females. ALR varies significantly between world regions. For example, in sub-Saharan Africa the average ALR is just 67.7%, while in northern Europe the average ALR is 99.9%. Similarly, rates can also vary domestically. For example, there are lower literacy rates among females in countries that have less educational opportunities. Lower rates are also found among ethnic minorities and low-income earners. Health literacy, defined by the World Health Organization as the “ability of individuals to gain access to, understand and use information in ways that promote and maintain good health”, is a critical measure of wellbeing. Despite ALR being measured at
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c13_p002-044.indd 443
21/05/26 3:08 PM
444
Chapter 13 Human wellbeing and development
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
over 99% in Australia, a national health survey by the Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS) in 2018 revealed that 14% of the population had difficulty navigating the healthcare system. As shown in Figure 13.3.2, this varied considerably across age groups. Low levels of health literacy affect wellbeing because they can lead to higher rates of hospitalisation, less frequent use of health services and overall higher government costs. 18–24 years
25–34 years
Australians
35–44 years
45–54 years 55–64 years
65 years and older
English as a main language spoken at home
Language other than English spoken at home
0
10
Category
20
30
Difficult
40
50 60 Percent
Usually easy
70
80
90
100
Always easy
➜
Figure 13.3.2 Results from Australia’s Health Literacy Survey showing whether people found it difficult or easy to navigate the healthcare system Source: Health Literacy Survey, 2018
Health and disease
Another key area of human wellbeing is the ability of a population to treat and control the spread of diseases, and to provide appropriate healthcare. Although many diseases affect all people irrespective of their living conditions or wealth, poorer regions generally experience a higher occurrence of many preventable and treatable diseases. For example, malaria is a life-threatening disease caused by parasites spread when Anopheles mosquitoes bite people. According to the World Health Organization’s World Malaria Report 2024, malaria was responsible for the deaths of 597,000 people worldwide in 2023 and a leading cause of death among young children. Although climate is a major factor determining the prevalence of malaria, 93% of malaria-related deaths occurred in sub-Saharan African countries (see Figure 13.3.3). This suggests that there is a correlation between the impact of malaria and other factors such as wealth and access to healthcare.
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c13_p002-044.indd 444
21/05/26 3:08 PM
445
13.3 What are the key indicators of human wellbeing and development?
Amazing but true… In 2019, an article in the New York Times described mosquitoes as the “deadliest hunters of human beings on the planet”. An estimated total of 52 billion people have been killed by mosquitoes over the last 200,000 years.
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
Death rate from malaria, 2021 The number of deaths from malaria¹ per 100,000 people.
No data
0
Data source: World Health Organization (2024)
1
3
10
30
50
100
OurWorldinData.org/malaria | CC BY
1. Malaria Malaria is a life-threatening disease caused by parasites that are transmitted by female Anopheles mosquitoes. There are five parasite species that cause malaria in humans. Two of these species – P. falciparum and P. vivax – pose the greatest threat. The first symptoms – fever, headache and chills – usually appear 10 to 15 days after the infective mosquito bite and may be mild and difficult to recognize as malaria. Left untreated, P. falciparum malaria can progress to severe illness and death within 24 hours. � Read more on our page o malaria.
➜
Figure 13.3.3 Global distribution of deaths due to malaria in 2021, measured as the number of deaths per 100,000 individuals
Another health-related wellbeing indicator is access to physicians, which is often measured in terms of the number of physicians per 1,000 people. The global average is 1.5 physicians per 1,000 people, yet this measure can be as high as 5.9 in Cuba or 4.1 in Australia, and as low as 0.04 in Liberia. The leading cause of death globally is cardiovascular diseases, including heart attacks and strokes, with three-quarters of the deaths occurring in low- and middle-income countries due to the lack of healthcare services offering early detection and treatment.
physician a person who is trained and licensed to practise medicine; a medical doctor
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c13_p002-044.indd 445
21/05/26 3:08 PM
446
Chapter 13 Human wellbeing and development
Life expectancy life expectancy the number of years someone is expected to live from birth
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
food security measure of people’s access to enough food to meet their dietary needs
Life expectancy refers to how long a person can expect to live at birth and is calculated based on the average age that members of a particular population are when they die. Life expectancy is a significant indicator of human wellbeing because increases in life expectancy correlate with improvements in other areas of wellbeing. For example, countries with high life expectancy usually have universal access to sanitation, medical facilities, food security and education.
As Figure 13.3.4 shows, average life expectancy across the world has risen significantly over the last century. Despite life expectancy increasing in all world regions, there is a significant disparity between regions such as sub-Saharan Africa and southern Europe. For example, in 2024, the average life expectancy in France was 83.3 years, compared with 56.1 years in Nigeria. Differences can also be observed when comparing the life expectancy of males and females. In Monaco, a country with one of the highest life expectancies globally, males live to an average of 85.29 years, whereas females live to 89.11 years. This variation can be caused by biological differences, but also behavioural factors such as higher smoking rates in males.
Life expectancy
Period life expectancy¹ is the number of years the average person born in a certain year would live if they experienced the same chances of dying at each age as people did that year. 80 years
Oceania Europe Americas Asia World Africa
70 years
60 years
50 years
40 years
30 years
20 years
10 years
0 years
1770
1800
1850
1900
Data source: Riley (2005); Zijdeman et al. (2015); HMD (2024); UN WPP (2024)
1950
2000
2023
OurWorldinData.org/life-expectancy | CC BY
1. Period life expectancy Period life expectancy is a metric that summarizes death rates across all age groups in one particular year. For a given year, it represents the average lifespan for a hypothetical group of people, if they experienced the same age-specific death rates throughout their whole lives as the age-specific death rates seen in that particular year. Learn more in our articles: • Life expectancy – what does this actually mean? • Period versus cohort measures: what’s the difference?
➜
Figure 13.3.4 Life expectancy has increased dramatically in all world regions since 1880.
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c13_p002-044.indd 446
21/05/26 3:08 PM
447
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
13.3 What are the key indicators of human wellbeing and development?
➜
Figure 13.3.5 In 2023, Japan had the third-highest life expectancy in the world at 84.95 years, below Macao at 85.51 years and Hong Kong at 85.83 years. The Japanese Government invests large amounts of money to ensure its elderly population maintain healthy and fulfilling lives.
Review 13.3
Online quiz
Knowledge and understanding
Thinking and working geographically
Students can access sample responses and results online
Teachers can go online to assign questions, view results, reports and more!
Knowledge and understanding 1.
Refer to Table 13.3.1. In which world regions are most of the countries with the highest and lowest annual incomes located?
2.
Suggest an impact that lower literacy rates in females might have in a country such as Niger.
3
Suggest a factor contributing to the variation in the number of physicians per 1,000 people in different countries.
4.
a. Using Figure 13.3.4, describe the change in life expectancy in the different world regions. Have all regions increased by a similar amount? b. Suggest a reason for the overall trend in life expectancy shown in Figure 13.3.4. c. Figure 13.3.4 shows a small decrease in life expectancy in 2020 and 2021. What do you think was responsible for this?
Thinking and working geographically
Working with geographical concepts: Place 1.
Describe a way in which two of the key indicators (wealth, education, health and life expectancy) are linked?
Geographical inquiry 2.
place the concept of place is about the significance of places and what they are like
“Education is the fundamental key to providing improvement in wellbeing.” To what extent do you agree or disagree with this statement?
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c13_p002-044.indd 447
21/05/26 3:08 PM
448
Chapter 13 Human wellbeing and development
13.4
How do human wellbeing and development indicators interconnect and vary at a global scale? Success criteria
In the previous three lessons, you learned about a variety of indicators used to measure human wellbeing. In this lesson, you will explore the ways in which these indicators are interconnected and vary at a global scale.
❏ I can explain the relationships between various indicators of human wellbeing. ❏ I can describe the spatial association of child mortality rate and total fertility rate.
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
Learning intention
Starter activity
Reflecting on overpopulation
A common misunderstanding is that if we save all the poor children, the world will become overpopulated. This may sound logical, but it’s wrong. It’s the other way around. Saving the poor children’s lives is required to end population growth.
– Hans Rosling, physician and co-founder of the Gapminder Foundation
1.
Why do you think some people claim that saving poor children will lead to overpopulation?
2.
Justify whether you agree or disagree with this claim.
3.
Why do you think Hans Rosling claims that saving poor children will end population growth?
Interconnection between wellbeing indicators
➜
Figure 13.4.1 Chad, in central Africa, has a total fertility rate of 6.0 children born per woman.
Many human wellbeing indicators are interconnected, meaning that they are linked and often affect each other. For example, access to adequate sanitation can affect the prevalence of many preventable diseases, while higher levels of education can lead to an increase in wealth. A connection can be made between wealth and birth rates, with some of the poorest countries in the world, such as Chad, having the highest total fertility rates (TFR) and therefore largest families. This may be due to a lack of money to purchase contraception, a lack of access to family planning services, and cultural and religious preferences.
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c13_p002-044.indd 448
21/05/26 3:08 PM
13.4 How do human wellbeing and development indicators interconnect and vary at a global scale?
Figure 13.4.2 shows the relationship between wealth and life expectancy. Countries with a high GDP per capita, above US$32,000, are also likely to have a life expectancy above 70 years. In contrast, countries with the lowest GDP per capita will tend to have a life expectancy of around 60 years. Despite there being a clear connection between these variables, one does not definitively cause the other.
total fertility rate (TFR) total number of children expected to be born to a woman in her lifetime if she lives to the end of her childbearing years variable characteristic, factor or quantity that increases or decreases over time
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
Longevity of life is not guaranteed in places with stronger economies and higher-paying jobs. While these factors can allow for greater access to healthcare and improved liveability, which can contribute to living a longer life, other lifestyle factors still play a significant role in life expectancy. In fact, there are a number of exceptions to this trend. Take, for example, Guyana in South America, where a shortage of healthcare workers, a high prevalence of chronic diseases and a relatively high child mortality rate has led to a life expectancy of only 64.3 years, despite the country having a relatively high GDP per capita of US$34,400.
449
➜
Writing focus 13.4 Developing sentences
➜
Figure 13.4.2 A scatter graph showing the relationship between GDP per capita and life expectancy. The colours on the graph represent different world regions, as shown on the location map Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c13_p002-044.indd 449
21/05/26 3:08 PM
450
Chapter 13 Human wellbeing and development
Variations between wellbeing indicators Geographers use maps to analyse the spatial distribution of phenomena, such as wellbeing indicators, and to analyse how wellbeing varies on a global scale. For example, Figure 13.4.3 illustrates the global spatial distribution of child mortality rates (CMR). The map highlights clear clusters of low CMR across Europe, with far greater rates in sub-Saharan Africa. Comparing these same regions for total fertility rate (TFR), there is clear separation again, with around 20% of the countries in sub-Saharan African having a TFR above four children born per woman compared to less than two in Europe, as shown in Figure 13.4.4.
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
child mortality rate (CMR) the percentage of children who die before reaching the age of five
Regardless of how clear a distribution pattern may seem, the real world is full of exceptions, where a place doesn’t have the same qualities as the other places surrounding it and therefore doesn’t fit the pattern. This is illustrated in Figure 13.4.5, where Saudi Arabia stands out as an exception in the Middle East, with a GDP per capita of US$40,000–50,000, which is much higher than that of the surrounding countries in the region.
Child mortality rate, 2023
Estimated share of newborns who die before age 5.
No data 0%
0.2%
0.5%
1%
2%
5%
Data source: Gapminder (2015); UN Inter-agency Group for Child Mortality Estimation (2025)
10%
20%
OurWorldinData.org/child-mortality | CC BY
➜
Figure 13.4.3 The global distribution of the CMR measured as the percentage of newborns who die before reaching the age of five, 2023
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c13_p002-044.indd 450
21/05/26 3:08 PM
13.4 How do human wellbeing and development indicators interconnect and vary at a global scale?
451
An analysis of the way wellbeing indicators vary across the globe can help to allocate resources, track progress in improving wellbeing and project future changes to wellbeing. These ideas will be explored further in Lesson 13.8. Study the five choropleth maps on the following pages and see if you can spot any clear patterns and exceptions to these patterns.
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
Fertility rate: births per woman, 2023
The total fertility rate¹ summarizes the total number of births a woman would have, if she experienced the birth rates seen in women of each age group in one particular year across her childbearing years.
0 births 2 births 4 births 6 births No data 1 births 3 births 5 births 7 births
Data source: UN, World Population Prospects (2024)
OurWorldinData.org/fertility-rate | CC BY
1. Fertility rate The total fertility rate is a period metric; it summarizes data from one particular year. For a given year, the total fertility rate represents the total number of children born to a hypothetical woman on average, if she (1) lived to the end of her childbearing years, and (2) experienced the same age-specific fertility rates throughout her whole reproductive life as the age-specific fertility rates seen in that particular year. It is different from the average number of children born to women that eventually have across their childbearing years, which is the cohort fertility rate. � Read more in our article Why the total fertility rate doesn’t necessarily tell us the number of births women eventually have and on our page on the Fertility Rate.
➜
Figure 13.4.4 The global distribution of the TFR measured as number of children born per woman, 2023
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c13_p002-044.indd 451
21/05/26 3:08 PM
452
Chapter 13 Human wellbeing and development
GDP per capita, 2024
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
GDP per capita is a country’s gross domestic product¹ divided by its population. This data is adjusted for inflation and for differences in living costs between countries.
No data $0
$1,000
$2,000
$5,000 $10,000 $20,000 $50,000
Data source: Eurostat, OECD, IMF, and World Bank (2025)
OurWorldinData.org/economic-growth | CC BY
Note: This data is expressed in international-$² at 2021 prices.
1. Gross domestic product Gross domestic product (GDP) is a measure of a country's economic performance. It represents the total monetary value of all final goods and services produced within its borders over a specific time period, typically annually or quarterly. GDP includes consumption, government spending, investments, and net exports (exports minus imports). It can be measured in current prices (nominal GDP) or adjusted for inflation to reflect GDP in constant prices (real GDP). GDP is used to gauge the health of an economy, with increases indicating growth and decreases signaling contraction. Policymakers, economists, and analysts use GDP to make informed decisions, track economic trends, and make comparisons between countries.
2. International dollars International dollars are a hypothetical currency that is used to make meaningful comparisons of monetary indicators of living standards. Figures expressed in constant international dollars are adjusted for inflation within countries over time, and for differences in the cost of living between countries. The goal of such adjustments is to provide a unit whose purchasing power is held fixed over time and across countries, such that one international dollar can buy the same quantity and quality of goods and services no matter where or when it is spent. Read more in our article: What are international dollars?
➜
Figure 13.4.5 The global distribution of wealth measured as GDP per capita, 2024
Literacy rate, 2023
Share of adults who can read and write a simple statement about their everyday life.
No data 0%
10%
20%
Data source: UNESCO (1957) and other sources
30%
40%
50%
60%
70%
80%
90%
100%
OurWorldinData.org/literacy | CC BY
Note: Because definitions of literacy and population coverage changed over time, comparisons between historical and modern data should be made with caution.
➜
Figure 13.4.6 The global distribution of ALR measured as the percentage of adults aged 15 and over who can read and write, 2023
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c13_p002-044.indd 452
21/05/26 3:08 PM
13.4 How do human wellbeing and development indicators interconnect and vary at a global scale?
453
Life expectancy, 2023
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
The period life expectancy¹ at birth, in a given year.
No data
40 years 45 years 50 years 55 years 60 years 65 years 70 years 75 years 80 years 85 years
Data source: Human Mortality Database (2024); UN, World Population Prospects (2024)
OurWorldinData.org/life-expectancy | CC BY
1. Period life expectancy Period life expectancy is a metric that summarizes death rates across all age groups in one particular year. For a given year, it represents the average lifespan for a hypothetical group of people, if they experienced the same age-specific death rates throughout their whole lives as the age-specific death rates seen in that particular year. Learn more in our articles: • Life expectancy – what does this actually mean? • Period versus cohort measures: what’s the difference?
➜
Figure 13.4.7 The global distribution of life expectancy at birth, 2023
We can look at the link between variables or phenomena by analysing the degree to which they share a similar distribution – this is known as their spatial association. For example, is there a spatial association between CMR and TFR? Do countries with a high CMR tend to also have a high TFR? Why might these two indicators be interconnected? Do countries with a low GDP per capita also have lower life expectancies? Are there any exceptions?
spatial association the degree to which two or more phenomena share a similar distribution on the Earth’s surface
When describing a spatial association, there are three important things to include: the degree of the association (is it a strong, moderate or weak link); the quantification with examples; and any exceptions. This is known as the DQE method. The DQE method is similar to the PQE method, but rather than looking for a pattern, we are looking at the degree of association between things. In order to have a strong spatial association between two phenomena their distributions must be very similar. For example, if areas that have a high amount of CMR in one map also have a high amount TFR in the other map, then there is a strong spatial association. A moderate spatial association between two phenomena would exist if some regions of the map share a similar distribution while other regions of the map do not. A weak spatial association between two phenomena would exist if the two maps do not appear to have many or any regions that correlate.
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c13_p002-044.indd 453
21/05/26 3:08 PM
454
Chapter 13 Human wellbeing and development
Review 13.4 Knowledge and understanding
Online quiz
Thinking and working geographically
Students can access sample responses and results online
Teachers can go online to assign questions, view results, reports and more!
Knowledge and understanding
Choose one or more of the maps shown in Figures 13.4.5, 13.4.6 and 13.4.7 and describe the global distribution of the wellbeing indicator represented.
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
1.
2.
Explain what the term “spatial association” means and why describing the spatial association between wellbeing indicators is useful for geographers.
Thinking and working geographically
Working with geographical concepts: Interconnection 1.
Use at least one sentence to answer each of the following questions relating to the spatial association between CMR (Figure 13.4.3) and TFR (Figure 13.4.4). Make sure you refer to specific countries and regions and use the legend to refer to specific values.
a. Degree: state whether the spatial association is strong, moderate or weak. “There is a strong/moderate/weak spatial association between … and …”
interconnection the concept of interconnection emphasises that no object of geographical study can be viewed in isolation
• Do countries/regions with a high CMR also have a high TFR? • Do countries/regions with a low CMR also have a high TFR?
b. Quantification: provide specific examples and evidence to demonstrate the degree of spatial association.
• Which regions have both high CMR and high TFR? • Which regions have both low CMR and high TFR? • Use the legend to quantify the examples above.
c. Exception: are there any exceptions to the degree of spatial association you have described?
• Is there a country that has a high CMR but a low TFR?
2.
Repeat this same process to compare the spatial association of another pair of wellbeing indicators in Figures 13.4.3 to 13.4.7.
Geographical inquiry 3.
Refer to Han Rosling’s quote in the lesson starter. Use your knowledge of the spatial association between CMR and TFR to justify why saving poor children’s lives is required to end population growth.
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c13_p002-044.indd 454
21/05/26 3:08 PM
455
13.5 Why do levels of human wellbeing and development differ around the world?
13.5
Why do levels of human wellbeing and development differ around the world? Success criteria
In this lesson, you will learn about some of the reasons for the variations in the distribution of wellbeing across the world.
❏ I can classify factors contributing to variations in human wellbeing. ❏ I can explain the link between economic development and human wellbeing.
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
Learning intention
Starter activity Think, pair, share
Education is a human right with immense power to transform. On its foundation rest the cornerstones of freedom, democracy and sustainable human development.
– Kofi Annan, former Secretary-General of the UN
1.
Think: Explain why you think Kofi Annan thinks education is such an important factor contributing to wellbeing.
2.
Pair: Suggest another factor that contributes to human wellbeing. Compare your factor with a classmate and discuss your ideas to determine which factor is the most significant.
3.
Share: Prepare to share your factors with the class.
No place is the same
Writing focus 13.5 Developing sentences ➜
As you have learned in the two previous lessons, human wellbeing can vary greatly across local, regional and global scales based on location and population. No two places, whether they be towns or cities within a country, or multiple countries themselves, will measure the same across the spectrum of indicators that measure wellbeing or development.
Factors contributing to variations in wellbeing
Geographers recognise that many factors contribute to the variations in human wellbeing between countries. Factors in geography can be classified using the SHEEPT acronym, which stands for Social, Historical, Economic, Environmental, Political and Technological. These classifications are summarised in Table 13.5.1. For example, Saudi Arabia owns 20% of global oil reserves, which is the main reason it has the strongest economy in the Middle East. The presence of oil in Saudi Arabia is an environmental factor, while the resulting strong economy is an economic factor.
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c13_p002-044.indd 455
21/05/26 3:08 PM
456
Chapter 13 Human wellbeing and development
Table 13.5.1 Factors can be classified using the SHEEPT acronym Description
Social
Factors relating to people, including culture, values, religion, population structure, education and ethnicity
Historical
Factors relating to actions or events from the past that might influence the present
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
Classification
Economic
Factors relating to the earning or spending of money
Environmental/Physical
Factors relating to the influence of the characteristics of natural or human environments
Political
Factors relating to governments and the impacts of their decisions
Technological
Factors relating to the development and use of difference types of technology
Political decisions can also play a vital role in determining a country’s wellbeing. Many Central American countries, such as Guatemala and El Salvador, are battling poverty, crime and political instability. In contrast, Costa Rica is politically stable, economically prosperous and the happiest country in this region. It also has the highest ALR at 90% and an IMR of just 6.5 infant deaths per 1,000 live births. This is largely because it has not had an army for 70 years – the money saved on defence has been spent on education and healthcare.
The link between economic development and human wellbeing
➜
As explored in earlier lessons, economic strength, often measured as GDP per capita, is an underlying factor influencing wellbeing, since often wealthy countries also experience higher levels of education, healthcare and living conditions. You will recall from Lesson 13.3 that countries Figure 13.5.2 Main street of a suburb of San Salvador, El can be classified as “developed” Salvador’s capital or “developing”, depending on the strength of their economy and level of industrialisation. The distribution of countries with these classifications is shown in Figure 13.5.2.
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c13_p002-044.indd 456
21/05/26 3:08 PM
457
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
13.5 Why do levels of human wellbeing and development differ around the world?
Developed countries or cities
Developing countries
Least developed countries
Data unavailable
➜
Figure 13.5.2 The location of countries with different levels of economic development
Countries are generally considered to be developed if they have a GDP per capita of above US$12,000, although many developed countries have a GDP per capita closer to US$40,000 or more. Developing countries have a low GDP per capita and a low level of industrialisation. Developing countries typically rank low on indicators such as adult literacy, access to sanitation and life expectancy. They also tend to have high levels of unemployment, widespread poverty, poor living conditions, a less safe environment to live in and rapidly growing populations.
➜
Less economically developed countries (LEDCs), a subcategory of developing countries, experience the lowest levels of social and economic development, often depending on the support of developed countries. On the other hand, “emerging markets” are countries transitioning towards being economically developed; for example, China, has the world’s second-largest economy but also a relatively low GDP per capita due to its enormous population.
Figure 13.5.3 Crowd crossing a street in Shanghai, China
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c13_p002-044.indd 457
21/05/26 3:08 PM
458
Chapter 13 Human wellbeing and development
Review 13.5 Knowledge and understanding
Online quiz
Thinking and working geographically
Students can access sample responses and results online
Teachers can go online to assign questions, view results, reports and more!
Knowledge and understanding
Compare the differences between developed and developing countries.
2.
a. List five developed, developing and less developed countries using the information in Figure 13.5.2. b. Evaluate whether developing and developed countries are distributed according to region. In other words, do all countries in a region have a similar level of development? Provide examples to support your evaluation.
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
1.
Thinking and working geographically
Working with geographical concepts: Space and place 1.
Based on your list from Question 2 under Knowledge and understanding, evaluate whether developing and developed countries are distributed according to region. In other words, do all countries in a region have a similar level of development? Provide examples to support your evaluation.
Classifying factors 2.
For each of following scenarios:
space the concept of space is about the significance of location and spatial distribution, and ways people organise and manage the spaces that we live in
place the concept a. State how the factors described could contribute to a low or high level of of place is about human wellbeing. the significance of b. Use the information in Table 13.5.1 to classify each of the factors as social, historical, places and what economic, environmental, political, or technological. they are like c. Write a brief statement justifying your choice for each example. Note that some factors could have more than one classification. • Australia has a large supply of natural resources such as coal and uranium. • Many people in Niger follow a strain of Islam that encourages followers to have as many children as possible. • An aid organisation has provided free contraception and education to women in a village in Ethiopia. • Afghanistan has been involved in violent conflict for several decades and has a life expectancy of just 62 years. • Luxembourg was ranked the wealthiest country in the world in 2024 with a GDP per capita of US$131,000. • The population density of Manila, Philippines, has reached over 40,000 per square kilometre. • A new malaria vaccine has been developed and the Nigerian government has made it freely available.
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c13_p002-044.indd 458
21/05/26 3:08 PM
459
13.6 What are the key global challenges for human wellbeing? Part 1: Social and economic
13.6
What are the key global challenges for human wellbeing? Part 1: Social and economic Success criteria
In this lesson, you will explore the key social and economic challenges for human wellbeing around the world.
❏ I can identify and describe key global social and economic challenges for human wellbeing. ❏ I can examine the impacts of social and economic challenges on specific countries.
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
Learning intention
Starter activity
Analysing a data source: Where do the world’s millionaires live? 1.
List the three countries with the greatest number of millionaires.
2.
Comment on whether the distribution of the world’s millionaires is even.
3.
Suggest a reason why the United States has so many millionaires compared to the rest of the world.
Country
United States: 41%
Australia Canada France China Germany Italy Korea Japan Rest of world Switzerland United Kingdom United States
China: 8%
➜
Figure 13.6.1 The distribution of the world’s millionaires
Social: Population growth
Economically developed countries usually have better healthcare resources, which lowers the IMR and raises life expectancy. These countries also tend to have a lower TFR. In 2024, the TFR in Australia was 1.6 babies per woman. This means that, on average, women in Australia have one or two children, not that they actually give birth to 1.6 babies! In contrast, the TFR in Niger in 2024 was 6.4, meaning that, on average, women in Nigeria have six or seven children. Because fewer babies are being born in countries such as Australia, the population usually remains stable or is in decline. As these countries’ populations live longer, the median age is high, as is their proportion of the population aged over 65 years.
Writing focus 13.6 Appositives ➜
When combined, wellbeing indicators that influence life expectancy and total fertility rate (TFR), such as access to physicians and infant mortality rate (IMR), can determine whether a population is growing, stable or declining. Each scenario presents different challenges. See Figure 13.6.2 for a global map of population growth rates.
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c13_p002-044.indd 459
21/05/26 3:08 PM
460
Chapter 13 Human wellbeing and development
Population growth rate, 2023
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
Population growth rate¹ takes births, deaths and migration into account. Future projections are based on the UN medium scenario².
-4%
-3%
-2%
-1%
No data
0%
1%
2%
3%
4%
Projected data
Data source: UN, World Population Prospects (2024)
OurWorldinData.org/population-growth | CC BY
1. Population growth rate Population growth rate explains the change in population over a given interval of time. This is often expressed as the annual growth rate. The United Nations calculates this as an exponential growth rate. It calculates it by taking the natural logarithm of the annual change, which is the population in that year compared to the previous year. For example, the change in population from 2017 to 2018. This is expressed as a percentage. Natural population growth rate is the expected change in population from births and deaths only. It does not include changes as a result of migration. 2. United Nations projection scenarios The United Nations' World Population Prospects include a range of projected scenarios for population change. These scenarios rely on different assumptions for fertility, mortality, and migration patterns to project different demographic futures. Read more on population.un.org
��
➜
Figure 13.6.2 Map of population growth rates, 2023
Source: Our World in Data website
family planning services that help women to gain greater control over the number of children they have, and the timing between births
Table 13.6.1 shows the 10 countries with the highest and lowest TFR. Globally, TFR has decreased significantly from 5.0 in the 1960s to 2.3 in 2024 (see Figure 13.6.3). This is likely the result of factors such as advancements in contraception, greater access to family planning, better healthcare and a higher life expectancy. In addition, increased career opportunities for women has led to many delaying the age at which they have children, resulting in fewer children being born overall. Table 13.6.1 The 10 countries with the highest and lowest TFR Source: CIA World Factbook, 2024 Countries with the highest TFR Country
Countries with the lowest TFR
TFR
Country
TFR
Niger
6.64
Spain
1.30
Angola
5.70
Italy
1.26
Congo (DRC)
5.49
Puerto Rico
1.26
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c13_p002-044.indd 460
21/05/26 3:08 PM
13.6 What are the key global challenges for human wellbeing? Part 1: Social and economic
Countries with the highest TFR Country
461
Countries with the lowest TFR
TFR
Country
TFR
5.35
Moldova
1.26
Benin
5.34
Macau
1.24
Chad
5.24
Hong Kong
1.24
Uganda
5.17
Ukraine
1.11
Somalia
5.12
Singapore
1.17
South Sudan
5.09
South Korea
1.12
Burundi
4.90
Taiwan
1.11
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
Mali
Fertility rate: births per woman
The total fertility rate¹ summarizes the total number of births a woman would have, if she experienced the birth rates seen in women of each age group in one particular year across her childbearing years.
8 births
7 births
Niger
6 births
5 births
4 births
3 births
World
2 births
Australia Thailand Japan China
1 births
0 births
1950
1960
1970
Data source: UN, World Population Prospects (2024)
1980
1990
2000
2010
2023
OurWorldinData.org/fertility-rate | CC BY
1. Fertility rate The total fertility rate is a period metric; it summarizes data from one particular year. For a given year, the total fertility rate represents the total number of children born to a hypothetical woman on average, if she (1) lived to the end of her childbearing years, and (2) experienced the same age-specific fertility rates throughout her whole reproductive life as the age-specific fertility rates seen in that particular year. It is different from the average number of children born to women that eventually have across their childbearing years, which is the cohort fertility rate. � Read more in our article Why the total fertility rate doesn’t necessarily tell us the number of births women eventually have and on our page on the Fertility Rate.
➜
Figure 13.6.3 The change in the TFR from 1950 to 2023 for five selected countries, compared with the world average
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c13_p002-044.indd 461
21/05/26 3:08 PM
462
Chapter 13 Human wellbeing and development
ageing population population in which the proportion of people 65 years old or older is growing
Years of age
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
demographic dividend the potential economic growth that can occur when the largest proportion of the population is of working age
Germany, as another example, has a stable population growth rate, experiencing periods of decline and growth in recent decades. The country’s growth rate in 2023 was only 0.8%; however, in 2011 it was 1.9%. Overall, Germany has an ageing population, with a median age of just under 45 years and over 22% of its population aged over 65 (see Figure 13.6.4). The stability of its population growth is due to a relatively large annual intake of immigrants. Many developed countries, such as Germany, will face the challenges associated with ageing populations, such as a shrinking workforce, potential for a delayed retirement age, and increased demand for hospitals and aged-care facilities. Male
Female 0.0% 0.0% 0.1% 0.2% 0.3% 0.6% 1.0% 1.6% 1.6% 2.2% 1.8% 2.1% 2.5% 2.9% 3.1% 3.3% 3.9% 3.9% 4.1% 4.0% 3.3% 3.3% 3.0% 3.0% 3.2% 3.2% 3.4% 3.2% 3.3% 3.0% 3.0% 2.7% 2.6% 2.4% 2.4% 2.2% 2.3% 2.2% 2.5% 2.4% 2.3% 2.2%
100+ 95–99 90–94 85–89 80–84 75–79 70–74 65–69 60–64 55–59 50–54 45–49 40–44 35–39 30–34 25–29 20–24 15–19 10–14 5–9 0–4
10%
8%
6%
4%
2%
0%
2%
4%
6%
8%
10%
Percentage of the population
➜
Figure 13.6.4 Germany’s population pyramid in 2024
In developing countries, particularly the least developed countries, the TFR is usually very high. Although life expectancy is relatively low, the number of births far outweighs deaths, leading to rapid population growth. At 3.66% in 2023, Niger has the thirdhighest annual population growth rate in the world. This is because it has the world’s highest TFR of 6.5 children per woman. If this remains, it will take Niger’s population from 27.2 million in 2023 to 67 million by 2050. Figure 13.6.5 shows that Niger’s population is young, a factor which has the potential to create economic growth by providing a demographic dividend. However, if not correctly managed it could lead to higher rates of youth unemployment, a lack of universal education, political unrest and low food security.
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c13_p002-044.indd 462
21/05/26 3:08 PM
463
13.6 What are the key global challenges for human wellbeing? Part 1: Social and economic
Years of age
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
Male Female 100+ 0.0% 0.0% 95–99 0.0% 0.0% 90–94 0.0% 0.0% 85–89 0.0% 0.0% 80–84 0.1% 0.1% 75–79 0.2% 0.2% 70–74 0.4% 0.4% 65–69 0.6% 0.6% 60–64 0.8% 0.8% 55–59 1.0% 1.0% 50–54 1.2% 1.2% 45–49 1.6% 1.5% 40–44 1.9% 1.8% 35–39 2.3% 2.2% 30–34 2.9% 2.8% 25–29 3.7% 3.5% 20–24 4.7% 4.5% 15–19 5.8% 5.6% 10–14 6.9% 6.6% 5–9 7.8% 7.6% 0–4 9.0% 8.7% 10%
8%
6%
4% 2% 0% 2% 4% Percentage of the population
6%
8%
10%
➜
Figure 13.6.5 Niger’s population pyramid in 2024
Economic inequality
Variations in human wellbeing between and within countries leads to inequality. This is commonly associated with economic inequality, where a proportion of a population has a far greater share of wealth than the rest. According to the 2023 Global Wealth Report, the wealthiest 1.1% of the world’s adults owned nearly half of the world’s wealth, while the poorest half owned less than 1% (see Figure 13.6.6). This gap in wealth is widening at a significant rate, as each year the richest 1% of the population earn nearly twice as much as the rest of the world put together!
inequality a lack of equality in size, degree or circumstances economic inequality differences in wealth within a population
59.4 million (1.1%)
> USD 1 million
USD 208.3 trillion (45.8%)
USD 100,000 to 1 million 642 m (12.0%) USD 178.9 trillion (39.4%)
USD 10,000 to 100,000
1,844 m (34.4%)
USD 61.9 trillion (13.6%)
< USD 10,000
Wealth range
USD 5.3 trillion (1.2%)
2,818 m (52.5%)
Total wealth (% of world)
Number of adults (percentage of world adults) ➜
Figure 13.6.6 The global wealth pyramid in 2022, showing the number of adults in each range of wealth and the proportion of the world’s wealth that they own Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c13_p002-044.indd 463
21/05/26 3:08 PM
464
Chapter 13 Human wellbeing and development
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
A specific indicator that can be used to investigate inequality is the Gini coefficient, a measure of inequality in wealth or income. It measures inequality on a scale of 1 to 0, where a score of 1 represents perfect inequality and a score of 0 represents perfect equality. According to the ABS, Australia’s Gini coefficient in 2022–23 was 0.307, a decrease from the previous year. The ABS also found that, among the 37 OECD countries with available data, Australia had the 16th highest level of income inequality. In comparison, however, the Global Wealth Report 2025 gave countries such as Brazil and Russia a score of 0.82. The result of economic equality is not only a wealth gap. It also has flow on effects to other areas of human wellbeing, including access to education and healthcare, and mental wellbeing.
Review 13.6
Knowledge and understanding
Online quiz
Thinking and working geographically
Students can access sample responses and results online
Teachers can go online to assign questions, view results, reports and more!
Knowledge and understanding 1.
Explain how differences in wellbeing, particularly TFR and life expectancy, can determine whether a country’s population is growing, stable or in decline.
2.
Suggest why having an ageing population might create economic and social challenges for developed countries.
3.
Using Figure 13.6.6, summarise the severity of economic inequality between the world’s adults.
Thinking and working geographically
Working with geographical concepts: Space and change 1.
Visit the Our World in Data website (https://cambridge.edu.au/redirect/11855) to locate the map from Figure 13.6.2 and complete the activities below. The online version of the source includes projected data up until 2100. a. Describe the global spatial patterns of population growth rates in 2023. b. Outline the key changes to the map by the year:
• 2050 • 2100.
Group jigsaw task 2.
Working in groups, research the Gini coefficient scores of other OECD countries. Each group member must choose a different OECD country, then follow the steps below:
space the concept of space is about the significance of location and spatial distribution, and ways people organise and manage the spaces that we live in
change the concept of change is about explaining geographical phenomena by investigating how they have developed over time
a. Identify the Gini coefficient for the selected country. b. Research and summarise the reasons for the Gini coefficient score of the selected country. c. Discuss your findings as a group. Compare similarities and differences of the Gini coefficient scores and reasons for the scores.
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c13_p002-044.indd 464
21/05/26 3:08 PM
465
13.7 What are the key global challenges for human wellbeing? Part 2: Political and environmental
13.7
What are the key global challenges for human wellbeing? Part 2: Political and environmental Success criteria
In this lesson, you will explore the key political and environmental challenges for human wellbeing around the world.
❏ I can identify and describe key global political and environmental challenges for human wellbeing. ❏ I can discuss the impacts of refugee crises and climate change on human wellbeing.
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
Learning intention
Starter activity
See, think, wonder
The images in Figure 13.7.1 depict the contrasting living conditions and lifestyles between Vietnam’s rural (a and b) and urban (c and d) regions. 1.
See: What can you see in each image? Consider both the people and their environment.
2.
Think: What do you think life would be like in these contrasting regions?
3.
Wonder: What do you wonder about the differences in wellbeing in rural and urban Vietnam?
A
B
C
D
➜
Figure 13.7.1 Images representing life in Vietnam’s rural and urban areas: (a) women working in the rice fields in Sa Pa in northwestern Vietnam; (b) the terraced rice fields of Sa Pa; (c) traffic in Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam’s most populous city; (d) the skyline of Hi Chi Minh City Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c13_p002-044.indd 465
21/05/26 3:08 PM
466
Chapter 13 Human wellbeing and development
Migration
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
➜
Writing focus 13.7 Appositives
Variations in wellbeing can lead to the migration of people within or between countries. The movement of people within a country is known as internal migration, whereas movement from one country to another is international migration. Emigrants from places with lower levels of wellbeing often leave their homes either permanently to seek a better life, or temporarily to seek employment or educational opportunities.
internal migration the temporary or permanent movement of people within a country international migration the temporary or permanent movement of people between countries
emigrant person leaving their country of origin remittances money that an international migrant earns and sends back to an individual or family in their home country
national a citizen of a country immigrant person moving to a foreign country
refugee person who has fled their home country and is unable or unwilling to return due to fear of being persecuted asylum seeker person who flees their home country and enters another country to apply for protection as a refugee
intergovernmental organisation an organisation consisting of two or more nations created by treaty
International migrant workers will often send money, in the form of remittances, to their families in their home countries, which can greatly benefit the economy of their country of origin but is detrimental to the economy of the country to which they have migrated. When earnings are sent back to emigrants’ countries, the local economy receives no benefit and is likely to instead see a rise in the unemployment rate of nationals due to emigrants being employed in their place. This has occurred in Saudi Arabia: onethird of its population consists of immigrant workers from places such as India and Bangladesh. This has led to high levels of unemployment for Saudi Arabians. Migration is not always a choice. In many cases, migration may take the form of forced displacement, or may be a necessary decision due to fears that a country or place is unsafe. The UN High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) Global Trends Report stated that, as of the end of 2024, the number of people worldwide who had been forcibly displaced was 123.2 million. This number includes refugees, asylum seekers and internally displaced people.
Each year, people from places such as Mexico, Guatemala and Venezuela flee the inequality, violence and economic hardship they experience in their home countries, seeking better living conditions in the United States. In 2019, Guatemala was considered one of the most dangerous places to live because of its longstanding civil war, while Venezuela was battling a severe economic crisis. According to the UNHCR, many of these people are refugees who are legally seeking asylum. However, in May 2019 alone, 132,887 migrants were stopped by the US Border Patrol after crossing the US–Mexico border seeking asylum. Many of the asylum seekers who cross the US–Mexico border are detained for processing. The vast majority are denied refugee status, meaning that they are not allowed to settle in the United States. From early 2025, with fewer asylum seekers crossing at the border, US Immigrations and Customs Enforcement (ICE) under the Trump administration shifted its focus to the arrest, detainment and deportation of immigrants already living in the United States. In 2025, the UNHCR raised the urgency of addressing the level of internally displaced people in the Sahel region of West and Central Africa, which includes the countries of Burkina Faso, Mali and Niger. Around 4 million people had been displaced across the three countries and neighbouring nations due to the impacts of climate change, poor access to work and essential services, violent extremism and political instability. An increase in the movement of displaced people across international borders places considerable pressure on host nations and their systems to provide support. Often there is a need for greater international assistance from intergovernmental organisations and non-government organisations. The UNHCR required $409.7 million
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c13_p002-044.indd 466
21/05/26 3:08 PM
467
➜
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
13.7 What are the key global challenges for human wellbeing? Part 2: Political and environmental
Figure 13.7.2 Central and South American migrants gathering inside a makeshift detention centre in Texas
in humanitarian aid for the needs of the Sahel region in 2025 alone, yet had raised only one-third of that figure by October 2025. This case highlights the many flow-on impacts of migration to human wellbeing.
Disproportionate impacts of climate change
Climate change is defined as the long-term shifts in global temperatures and patterns of weather, processes that have been driven beyond their natural rate of change by human activities, including the burning of fossil fuels. As mentioned in the Sahel region example, climate change is a factor that is having an increasingly significant impact on human wellbeing. This includes the migration and displacement of people, challenges to food security and access to natural resources, with implications for the wellbeing of communities globally.
While the process of climate change is global, the impacts of rising temperatures, rising sea levels, increases in extreme weather and other effects associated with the process do not affect all equally. Often the countries suffering from the most devastating impacts of climate change are those contributing the least to its causes, and are also generally not in a strong position to enact significant change without global cooperation. Meanwhile, the largest contributors to global emissions and causes of climate change are typically the world’s wealthiest and most developed countries. Wealthier countries have the infrastructure, technology and finances to largely alleviate many of the same impacts that have the potential to devastate less developed countries, particularly small island nations or coastal areas.
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c13_p002-044.indd 467
21/05/26 3:08 PM
468
Chapter 13 Human wellbeing and development
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
In 2025, one of the hottest years on record, people everywhere were feeling the heat! For some it may have presented a wake-up call to the reality of climate change, something many Pacific Island nations already been living with for years, despite their having done very little to cause it. In 2024, NASA analysis showed that irreversible sea-level rises of 15 centimetres would occur for the Pacific Islands (including the nations of Tuvalu, Kiribati and Fiji) over the next 30 years. These rises will occur regardless of any changes to greenhouse gas emissions. Given the situation, Amnesty International called on governments such as New Zealand to support these nations, particularly in providing extended visa options to include “rights-based humanitarian visas”. In 2023, Australia created a new visa pathway with Tuvalu – the Australia–Tuvalu Falepili Union Treaty. It allows citizens of Tuvalu to migrate to Australia to live, work and study.
Review 13.7
Knowledge and understanding
Online quiz
Thinking and working geographically
Students can access sample responses and results online
Teachers can go online to assign questions, view results, reports and more!
Knowledge and understanding 1.
2.
a. Explain why variations in wellbeing can lead to international or internal migration. b. Explain how a refugee is different from a migrant worker. Discuss the impact of climate change on human wellbeing.
Thinking and working geographically
Working with geographical concepts: Place 1.
Research a recent refugee crisis (excluding the US–Mexico Border or Sahel Region that were explored in this lesson) and complete the following tasks: a. Identify the location(s) involved. b. Outline the causes of the refugee crisis. c. Discuss the global impacts of the refugee crisis.
place the concept of place is about the significance of places and what they are like
Geographical inquiry 2.
“Inequality is both a cause and a consequence of variations in human wellbeing.” Evaluate this statement with reference to some of the examples explored in this lesson.
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c13_p002-044.indd 468
21/05/26 3:08 PM
469
13.8 Who measures and addresses human wellbeing and development around the world?
13.8
Who measures and addresses human wellbeing and development around the world? Success criteria
In this lesson, you will learn about how nations and organisations approach monitoring and improving human wellbeing on a global level through initiatives such as the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development.
❏ I can describe the Sustainable Development Goals and their role in measuring progress in human wellbeing globally. ❏ I can explain how intergovernmental organisations and non-government organisations measure, promote and address human wellbeing globally.
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
Learning intention
Starter activity
See, think, wonder
➜
Figure 13.8.1 The UN 17 Sustainable Development Goals
The Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), listed in Figure 13.8.1, are a set of 17 goals seeking to assist all countries in achieving a higher level of human wellbeing. Answer the following three questions, ensuring that you justify your choices. 1.
See: State the three goals that you think should be the highest priority.
2.
Think: State the goal that you think is the least significant.
3.
Wonder: Suggest a goal that you think should be added to this list.
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c13_p002-044.indd 469
21/05/26 3:08 PM
470
Chapter 13 Human wellbeing and development
The UN: From the Millennium Development Goals to the Sustainable Development Goals The UN, as the world’s most prominent intergovernmental organisation, plays a crucial role in the measurement, monitoring and addressing of human wellbeing and development indicators and issues globally. Various UN agencies play a part in this process, ranging from the global forums held by the General Assembly to the creation and monitoring of international goals, including the SDGs. The World Health Organization (WHO), UN Population Fund and the UN International Children’s Emergency Fund (UNICEF) are examples of specialised agencies through which the UN measures and addresses wellbeing and development.
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
➜
Writing focus 13.8 Creating topic sentences
In 2000, the UN set out to achieve a set of eight critical international goals for wellbeing and development – the Millenium Development Goals (MDGs) – with a target date of 2015. While there was a significant degree of success in the MDGs – extreme poverty was halved, child and maternal mortality were reduced, and access to education was increased – there was still more to be done. Adopted in 2015, the Agenda for Sustainable Development involves all 193 developing and developed member countries of the UN working together to achieve a list of 17 SDGs by 2030. The goals seek to reduce poverty and improve wellbeing across areas such as education, sanitation, equality and peace. The SDGs also aim to tackle climate change and sustainably manage marine and terrestrial environments. All 17 goals are listed in Figure 13.8.1. Sustainability, defined by the UN as “development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs”, is a fundamental part of the 2030 Agenda. The SDGs cover all three elements of sustainability – economic, social and environmental – which the UN acknowledges as being crucial to maintaining the wellbeing of individuals and entire populations. The SDGs not only outlined a path forward for the world but also gave countries a list of 169 targets across the 17 goals, with a set of indicators for success for each target. The goals are non-binding, meaning that governments are not legally forced to meet them. However, countries are expected to establish their own national policies to achieve each goal, and are involved in reviewing their progress at a local, regional and national scale.
Data demonstrating the progress made for each of the SDGs can be accessed using the SDG-Tracker. Figure 13.8.2 shows data from this tracker relating to the first goal, No Poverty, revealing continuing challenges for sub-Saharan Africa, but progress in alleviating poverty across the developed world. The progress in individual countries can also be accessed. Figure 13.8.3 shows that although Chad has managed to achieve a reduction in greenhouse gas emissions, it is struggling in many critical areas such as poverty, health, gender equality, and access to clean water and sanitation.
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c13_p002-044.indd 470
21/05/26 3:08 PM
471
➜
Figure 13.8.2 Progress in achieving the first SDG, no poverty, as of 2024
➜
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
13.8 Who measures and addresses human wellbeing and development around the world?
Figure 13.8.3 Chad’s progress in meeting the SDGs, as shown in the Sustainable Development Report Dashboard, 2024
Funding presents the largest barrier to the success for many SDGs, with a number of reports suggesting that achieving all 17 goals would require anywhere from US$3–7 trillion each year for the entire 15-year period. This is unrealistic. Studies have shown that it would require US$200 billion just to solve the issue of access to clean water and sanitation. Without major changes to the funding of SDGs by UN member countries, it is likely that many countries will fail to meet their targets. Unfortunately, according to the UN Sustainable Development Report for 2025, only 35% of targets are on track or making significant gains, with 18% going backwards.
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c13_p002-044.indd 471
21/05/26 3:08 PM
472
Chapter 13 Human wellbeing and development
Progress assessment for the 17 goals based on assessed targets, by goal (percentage) Goal 1 Goal 2 Goal 3 Goal 4 Goal 5 Goal 6
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
Goal 7
Goal 8 Goal 9
Goal 10
Goal 11
Goal 12
Goal 13
Goal 14 Goal 15
Goal 16
Goal 17
0
10
20
30
40
50
On track or target met
Moderate progress
Stagnation
Regression
60
70
80
90
100
Marginal progress
➜
Figure 13.8.4 Progress on the SDGs as of the UN’s SDG Report 2025
Promoting and addressing human wellbeing
The UN, including its specialised agencies such as the WHO and the World Bank, promotes awareness of human wellbeing issues, enact international agreements and provide direct support to places experiencing specific wellbeing and development issues. Working in parallel are non-government organisations (NGOs), such as Oxfam, Doctors Without Borders and Amnesty International. NGOs also raise awareness and charitable funds, and supply direct and indirect support to places of concern.
Doctors Without Borders, also known as Médecins Sans Frontiéres (MSF), focuses on providing medical assistance to places affected by natural disasters, epidemics or conflict. MSF was heavily involved in supporting the government of the Democratic Republic of the Congo deal with an intensifying outbreak of cholera during 2025. MSF treated more than 35,000 patients and vaccinated 22,000 people between January and October 2025, highlighting the country’s limited access to healthcare. The organisation called for support from the country’s authorities and humanitarian organisations to contain the spread of the disease.
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c13_p002-044.indd 472
21/05/26 3:08 PM
473
13.8 Who measures and addresses human wellbeing and development around the world?
Review 13.8 Online quiz
Knowledge and understanding
Thinking and working geographically
Students can access sample responses and results online
Teachers can go online to assign questions, view results, reports and more!
Knowledge and understanding
The SDGs are not legally binding.
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
1.
a. What does legally binding mean? b. Do you think it would be more effective to make the SDGs legally binding? c. Why do you think the SDGs are not legally binding?
2.
Use Figure 13.8.4 to answer the following questions.
a. Which goal had experienced the most success by 2025? Justify your answer. b. Which goal had experienced the least success by 2025? Justify your answer.
Thinking and working geographically
Working with geographical concepts: Space and place 1.
Search online for the SDG Interactive Map (https://cambridge.edu.au/ redirect/11856).
a. Choose a goal and describe the distribution of its success. Which countries or regions have achieved the goal and which still have major challenges remaining? b. Choose an indicator from the menu on the left. What does this indicator mean? Is its distribution similar to the overall goal? c. Click through multiple goals. Overall, which regions appear to have the highest and lowest levels of success in meeting the goals? d. Suggest reasons for your answer to part c by considering the link between various goals and the factors that might determine success.
space the concept of space is about the significance of location and spatial distribution, and ways people organise and manage the spaces that we live in place the concept of place is about the significance of places and what they are like
Geographical inquiry 2.
Investigate the recent actions of an NGO (excluding the MSF in the Democratic Republic of the Congo explored in this lesson) in addressing challenges in human wellbeing and development. Suggested NGOs include Amnesty International, Oxfam, Save the Children, BRAC or MSF. a. Find a recent article or report that highlights the action of the NGO. Summarise the key points made in the article. b. Evaluate the effectiveness of the response.
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c13_p002-044.indd 473
21/05/26 3:08 PM
474
Chapter 13 Human wellbeing and development
13.9
Chapter review Access the Interactive Textbook for a range of digital tools to help you review this chapter and build confidence.
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
• Auto-marked questions for fast feedback and fun practice • Self-assessment tools to track your progress, review answers (if enabled by the teacher), and flag questions for extra help • Downloadable worksheets for class or homework revision
Summary
Summary notes
Download chapter summary
What have you learned about human wellbeing and development?
For this activity, copy the table and fill it out by explaining your understanding. Aim for two points per topic.
Terms
What I have learned
Human wellbeing
Quantitative indicator Qualitative indicator Spatial distribution Global challenges
Visible thinking routine
I used to think…now I think
This exercise in visible thinking asks you to track the difference between what you knew about human wellbeing and development before, and what new understandings you have acquired since reading this chapter. Using the stem sentences here, write a paragraph explaining what you previously knew about the topic. Then write another paragraph explaining what you now understand about the topic. I used to think that human wellbeing was ... Now I think that human wellbeing is ...
I used to think that levels of development vary because ... Now I think that levels of development vary because ...
A simple explanation of how wellbeing indicators interconnect with each other is ... A better explanation of how wellbeing indicators interconnect with each other is ...
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c13_p002-044.indd 474
21/05/26 3:08 PM
13.9 Chapter review
475
Questions Scorcher quiz
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
Access a fast, fun, competitive quiz that puts your understanding to the test.
Quick questions
The following questions offer various ways to demonstrate your understanding of the chapter. 1.
Indicators that can be counted or measured are known as ______ data.
2.
A country’s economic output is commonly measured using _______.
3.
The percentage of children who die before the age of five is known as the _______.
4.
Which of the following is a subjective indicator of wellbeing? A. Child mortality rate B. Happiness
C. Wealth D. Religion
5.
Which region has the lowest adult literacy rates globally?
6.
A. United States C. India B. Sub-Saharan Africa D. Cambodia A high total fertility rate (TFR) is commonly associated with (select all correct answers): A. limited access to contraception B. high literacy rates
7.
C. lower incomes D. high incomes.
Which of the following is NOT one of the SHEEPT classification categories? A. Social B. Historical
8.
C. Economic D. Personal
Which organisation is responsible for managing global refugee protection? A. United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) B. World Health Organization C. Amnesty International D. UN International Children’s Emergency Fund What does GDP per capita measure?
10.
Identify one reason why life expectancy is generally higher in developed countries.
11.
What is the purpose of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)?
12.
Using Figure 13.9.1, recall the importance of humanitarian visas.
Figure 13.9.1 United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, Barham Salih ➜
9.
Writing focus The following activities offer ways to demonstrate your understanding of the chapter and allow you to continue to practise your writing skills.
9781009788083c13_p002-044.indd 475
➜
Writing focus 13.9 Single paragraph model Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 response 1400
21/05/26 3:08 PM
476
Chapter 13 Human wellbeing and development
Answering questions in paragraphs You can use this as a model when writing your own answers to the questions that follow. Question: Discuss the role of the United Nations in promoting and addressing human wellbeing. (6 marks) Model answer: The United Nations helps promote human wellbeing by setting global goals and supporting countries to improve people’s lives. It created the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) and Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), which guide countries to reduce poverty, improve health and education, and protect the environment. These goals have helped make real progress, such as reducing extreme poverty and lowering child and maternal deaths. However, SDGs are not legally binding and many countries struggle to meet them. Only 35% of SDG targets are on track and 18% are going backwards, mostly due to limited funding and slow national action. UN agencies like WHO and UNICEF help by improving healthcare and child wellbeing, but their success depends on how much support and money different countries can provide. So, the UN plays an important role in improving wellbeing worldwide, but its impact is limited when countries do not commit enough money or effort to reach the goals.
Explain: clarify, define and describe
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
Topic sentence: the first sentence of the paragraph; directly answers the question
Evidence: specific, relevant evidence to support arguments
Linking sentence: reconnects with language of the question the topic sentence.
Elaborate: additional information, connections, historical significance, change and continuity, cause and consequence
Examples: provide credibility and illustrate the argument
Structured-response questions
Marking criteria for each question can be found in the Interactive Textbook. Refer to these criteria when planning and writing your responses.
Question 1
(20 marks)
a. Describe how geographers measure human wellbeing. b. Outline how one wellbeing indicator varies on a global level. c. Discuss the reasons for the variation of the wellbeing indicator identified in part b on a global level.
(12 marks)
Question 2
(20 marks)
a. Outline a key global challenge for human wellbeing. b. Discuss the role of the United Nations in promoting and addressing human wellbeing. c. Analyse the impact of climate change on human wellbeing.
(4 marks) (6 marks)
(4 marks)
(6 marks) (10 marks)
Extended-response question
Assess the effectiveness of the Sustainable Development Goals in enhancing human wellbeing globally.
Teachers, access the Online Teaching Suite for digital resources and tools that support review, assessment and reporting, including:
• student and class activity reports • a test generator to create custom assessments • built-in feedback tools • editable downloadable support material • a downloadable and printable “Writing focus” workbook for this chapter. Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c13_p002-044.indd 476
21/05/26 3:08 PM
Chapter
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
14
Geographical skills: Projections of poverty and prosperity
Lessons
14.1 14.2 14.3 14.4 14.5 14.6
Latitude and longitude Cartograms Calculating area Calculating density Fieldwork Chapter review
➜
Teachers go to the Online Teacher Suite to: • plan, sequence and assign directed tasks for students and classes using Task Manager • view student activity reports • provide feedback to students • download a printable “Writing focus” workbook for this chapter.
Image Crowded residential buildings, Hong Kong
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c14_p477-510.indd 477
21/05/26 8:42 PM
478
Chapter 14 Geographical skills: Projections of poverty and prosperity
14.1
Latitude and longitude
Success criteria
In this lesson, you will learn how to locate places on a map using latitude and longitude.
❏ I can locate places on maps at a variety of scales using latitude and longitude.
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
Learning intention
Introduction
Latitude and longitude form a global system used to describe the exact location of places on Earth. They are an absolute referencing system. This means that a location identified using latitude and longitude can be found anywhere in the world, regardless of the map being used. This is unlike grid and area references, which only work within the boundaries of a particular map.
FPO
Video 14.1.1 Latitude and longitude
Latitude lines run horizontally from east to west, are parallel to each other, and measure distance north or south of the equator. Longitude lines run vertically from north to south, meet at the poles and measure distance east or west of the prime meridian. Both latitude and longitude are measured in degrees, with each degree being divided into 60 minutes. On smaller-scale maps, such as world or country maps, places like cities can be located using whole degrees of latitude and longitude. When working with larger-scale maps, including topographic maps, places are located using degrees and minutes. Essentially, latitude tells you how many degrees of the Earth’s circumference you are north or south of the equator. Longitude tells you how many degrees of the Earth’s circumference you are east or west of the prime meridian. The equator and prime meridian divide the Earth into four quadrants.
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c14_p477-510.indd 478
21/05/26 8:42 PM
14.1 Latitude and longitude
North-east quadrant • Latitude is always north • Longitude is always east • Numbers increase to the north and east
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
North-west quadrant • Latitude is always north • Longitude is always west • Numbers increase to the north and west
479
South-east quadrant • Latitude is always south • Longitude is always east • Numbers increase to the south and east
Figure 14.1.1 Equator and prime meridian
➜
South-west quadrant • Latitude is always south • Longitude is always west • Numbers increase to the south and west
We use these lines to easily locate places. We always start with latitude: How far is this place south or north of the equator? We always label this as degrees north or south. Next, we find the longitude: How far is this place east or west of the prime meridian? We always label this as degrees east or west. See a worked example in Figure 14.1.2 for Calgary. ←W →E
NW quadrant
51oN
Latitude first
↑N
↓S
Calgary – 51oN, 114oW
➜ Figure 14.1.2
World map: Miller projection Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c14_p477-510.indd 479
21/05/26 8:42 PM
480
Chapter 14 Geographical skills: Projections of poverty and prosperity
Now you try! 14.1a Use Figure 14.1.2 to answer Questions 1–6. Watch Video 14.1.2 to see how we worked out this answer. 1.
In which quadrant would you find Australia?.
2.
What are the coordinates of Mumbai?
3.
What are the coordinates of Buenos Aires?
4.
What are the coordinates of Jakarta?
5.
What city is the furthest south?
6.
What city is the furthest east?
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
FPO
Video 14.1.2 How we found the answer to Question 1
When using a larger scale (see Lesson 2.2) we can’t just round to the closest degree, as it would not be accurate. Instead, we break each degree into 60 minutes. Therefore, halfway between a degree would be 30 minutes. We still always write the coordinates in the same order (latitude first) and with the same labels, but we first include the degrees and minutes. See the worked example in Figure 14.1.3 for Bareilly. 79o30’E
77°E
78°E
79°E
80°E
81°E
82°E
83°E
84°E
30°N
30°N
29°N
29°N
28 20’N o
28°N
28°N
27°N
27°N
26°N
26°N
25°N
25°N
24°N
24°N 77°E
78°E
79°E
➜
Figure 14.1.3 Political map of Uttar Pradesh
80°E
81°E
82°E
83°E
84°E
Bareilly – 28o20’N, 79o30’E
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c14_p477-510.indd 480
21/05/26 8:42 PM
481
14.1 Latitude and longitude
Now you try! 14.1b Use Figure 14.1.2 to find the coordinates, including degrees and minutes, for the following cities: Watch Video 14.1.3 to see how we worked out this answer. FPO
Which city is the furthest: a. North? b. East?
c. South? d. West?
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
1.
2.
Find the coordinates including degrees and minutes for the following cities: a. Chitrakoot c. Gonda b. Agra d. Varanasi
Video 14.1.3 How we found the answer to Question 1a
Activity 14.1.1
For this activity, you will need a pen and a world map with lines of latitude and longitude clearly indicated.
• Step 1: You will use the tables below to investigate whether there is a relationship
between latitude and economic wellbeing. First, plot each city on a world map using the latitude and longitude provided, using blue dots for the high GDP per capita cities and red dots for the low GDP per capita cities. Add a clear legend to explain what each colour represents.
• Step 2: Once you have plotted all cities, examine the map and describe any patterns
you notice, focusing on latitude (nearer or further from the equator) and hemispheres (northern and southern).
• Step 3: Finally, write a short conclusion explaining whether there appears to be a correlation between latitude and economic wellbeing.
Table 14.1.1 GDP per capita in the 15 highest-ranked cities
Source: Metropolitan Policy Program, Brookings
City rank City
GDP per capita (USD) Latitude
Longitude
1
Zurich
82,410
47°N
9°E
2
Oslo
82,040
60°N
11°E
3
San Jose
77,440
37°N
122°W
4
Hartford
76,510
42°N
73°W
5
Geneva
74,580
46°N
6°E
6
Paris
70,760
49°N
2°E
7
Boston
70,390
42°N
71°W
8
Bridgeport
68,570
41°N
73°W
9
Washington DC
68,530
39°N
77°W
10
Seattle
67,830
48°N
122°W
11
Macau
67,780
22°N
114°E
12
San Francisco
66,790
38°N
122°W
13
Perth
65,500
32°S
116°E
14
Calgary
64,540
51°N
114°W
15
New York
64,460
41°N
74°W
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c14_p477-510.indd 481
21/05/26 8:42 PM
482
Chapter 14 Geographical skills: Projections of poverty and prosperity
Table 14.1.2 GDP per capita in the 15 lowest-ranked cities Source: Metropolitan Policy Program, Brookings City
GDP per capita (USD)
Latitude
Longitude
286
Wenzhou
5,630
28°N
121°E
287
Chongqing
5,590
29°N
106°E
288
Casablanca
5,400
34°N
8°W
289
Jakarta
5,020
6°S
107°E
290
Nanning
4,860
23°N
108°E
291
Shantou
4,150
23°N
117°E
292
Delhi
3,580
29°N
77°E
293
Ho Chi Minh City
3,300
11°N
107°E
294
Cairo
2,980
30°N
31°E
295
Alexandria
2,680
31°N
30°E
296
Mumbai
1,990
19°N
73°E
297
Chennai
1,870
13°N
80°E
298
Hyderabad
1,430
17°N
78°E
299
Bangalore
1,420
13°N
77°E
300
Kolkata
1,110
23°N
88°E
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
City rank
➜
Figure 14.1.4 Zurich is ranked number one in GDP per capita
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c14_p477-510.indd 482
21/05/26 8:42 PM
483
14.2 Cartograms
14.2
Cartograms
Success criteria
In this lesson, you will learn to read and interpret different types of cartograms.
❏ I can understand information conveyed by a variety of cartograms. ❏ I can use cartograms to calculate specific values.
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
Learning intention
Introduction
Cartograms are a type of thematic map where the size of places is distorted to represent a particular data value rather than their actual land area. Instead of showing countries or regions at their true physical size, cartograms resize them according to variables such as population, income, health outcomes or access to resources. This means that places with higher values appear larger, while places with lower values appear smaller, sometimes becoming almost unrecognisable in shape. Cartograms are especially useful because they make patterns in data easier to see at a glance. This makes them helpful for distinguishing inequalities, such as differences in access to water. Cartograms can help geographers think critically about how data, scale and representation influence the way we understand the world. Cartograms distort land area based on a single variable In this case it is population
➜
Figure 14.2.1 World population cartogram Source: Our World in Data
FPO
Video 14.2.1 Cartograms
Countries with large populations appear larger
Countries with smaller populations appear smaller
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c14_p477-510.indd 483
21/05/26 8:43 PM
484
Chapter 14 Geographical skills: Projections of poverty and prosperity
Cartogram shows the same data by enlarging areas of high population
Choropleth uses colour to show population LGA populations (2016)
LEGEND
Cartogram of 2016 state populations
Cartogram of 2016 LGA populations
0.0–0.1 0.2–0.4
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
0.5–1.0 1.1–2.4
2.5–4.9
5.0–13.3
13.4–61.7
61.8–426.8
low
hig
426.9–2043.3
h
2043.4–7887.4
➜
and shrinking areas of low population
Figure 14.2.2 Australian population density by state and local government area cartogram
Source: Adapted from news.com.au
Now you try! 14.2a
Use Figure 14.2.1 to answer Questions 1 to 3.
FPO
1.
What are the three most populated countries on Earth?
2.
Of these three, which is the most proportional to its actual size?
3.
Australia and the United States are very similar in physical size. Explain why this cartogram has shrunk Australia so much but the United States has stayed mostly the same. Watch Video 14.2.2 to see how we worked out this answer.
Video 14.2.2 How we found the answers to Question 3
➜
Figure 14.2.3 Busy walkway in Circular Quay, Sydney.
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c14_p477-510.indd 484
21/05/26 8:43 PM
485
➜
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
14.2 Cartograms
Figure 14.2.3 World Happiness Report choropleth versus cartogram
Figure 14.2.4 shows data in the same way, but countries are displayed as circles based on the variable of pollution rather than being shown by their political borders. Colours are used to show different regions.
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c14_p477-510.indd 485
21/05/26 8:44 PM
486
Chapter 14 Geographical skills: Projections of poverty and prosperity
An atlas of pollution: the world in carbon dioxide emissions Latest data published by the US Energy Information Administration provides a unique picture of economic growth – and decline. China has sped ahead of the US, as shown by this map, which resizes each country according to CO2 emissions. And, for the first time, world emissions have gone down
Key
1 China 7,711 %
Emissions ranking and country
Change in emissions, 2008 to 2009
28 Kazakhstan 185
Regional emissions in 2009
Europe 4,310m Down 6.9%
9.8%
tonnes of CO2 in 2009
7 Canada 541
68 Norway 39.6
10 UK 520
103
59 Finland 52.2
25 Netherlands 249
8 South Korea 528
on 2008
44 North Korea 79.5
35 Uzbekistan 115 9.4%
1.2%
108
5 Japan 1,098 9.7%
7.4%
87
52 Belarus 60.6
0.2%
121
99
22 Ukraine 255
72 Azerbaijan 36.2
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
UK had been ranked 8th for emissions in 2008
tonnes of CO2 in 2009
120 118
62 Denmark 49.6
7.8%
67 Ireland 40.3
212
60 Sweden 50.6
54 Turkmenistan 56.8
4 Russia 1,572
85
136 175
5,425 million tonnes
on 2008
184
9.6%
2 US
Eurasia 2,358m Down 9.2%
Million tonnes of CO2 emitted in 2009
34 Belgium 137
6 Germany 766
11.2%
7.0%
101
18 France 397
US emissions are down for the second year in succession – after almost uninterrupted year on year increases since these records began in 1980. The decline has matched the country’s economic woes which have seen it only just emerge from recession. Since 2000 the country’s CO2 emissions have fallen by 7.5%
40 Czech Rep 95.3 3.8%
49 Austria 69.2
8.4%
86
17 Italy 408
55 Portugal 56.5
73 Slovakia 35.8
58 Serbia 52.3
84
109
154
179
139
13.3%
124
66 Bulgaria 44.5
Only three years earlier, in 2006, China was in second place, and until recently had been very close to US emissions. But from 2008 to 2009, rapid growth has matched the country’s 9-10% growth in GDP. Since 2000 the country’s CO2 emissions have risen by 170.6%
24 Turkey 253 7.3%
38 Greece 100 5.3%
North America 6,411m Down 6.9%
7,711 million tonnes
Biggest % drop in emissions
111
61 43 Romania Hungary 80.5 50.0
81
9.3%
130
1 China
28.2%
3.7%
7.0%
65 Switz. 45.8
7.4%
19 Spain 330
21 Poland 286
174
74 Puerto Rico 33.3
83
95
1.9%
tonnes of CO2 in 2009
129
Central & South America 1,220m Down 0.7%
88
149
tonnes of CO2 in 2009
on 2008
96
169
113
30 Venezuela 162 1.4%
36 Algeria 114
71 Morocco 36.5
210
146
188 201 195
105
119
94
211
171
98
208
194 181
187
on 2008
192
160
190
64 Trinidad & Tobago 47.8
Africa 1,122m Down 3.1%
177
163
115
158
151 168
162
91
104
141 134 206
on 2008
125 126
107 196 116
78 Angola 24.0
on 2008
3.5%
199
45 Nigeria 77.7
tonnes of CO2 in 2009
27 Egypt 192
57 Libya 55.0
6.2%
117
Middle East 1,714m Up 3.3%
80 Tunisia 22.9
143
186 185 164 180
tonnes of CO2 in 2009
157
48 Colombia 70.1
176 112
216
148
0.3%
135 191
9 Iran 527
6.7%
138
3.7%
82
11 Saudi Arabia 470
200
132
110
51 Chile 65.7
29 Argentina 167
World 30,398m Down 0.3%
3.2%
193
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22
China US India Russia Japan Germany Canada South Korea Iran UK Saudi Arabia South Africa Mexico Brazil Australia Indonesia Italy France Spain Taiwan Poland Ukraine
7,711 5,425 1,602 1,572 1,098 766 541 528 527 520 470 450 444 420 418 413 408 397 330 291 286 255
13.3 -7.0 8.7 -7.4 -9.7 -7.0 -9.6 1.2 3.2 -7.8 3.2 -6.7 -1.9 -0.3 -1.8 2.4 -9.3 -7.4 -8.4 -3.7 -3.0 -28.2
Rank/ Country change on 2008
23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44
Thailand Turkey Netherlands United Arab Emirates Egypt Kazakhstan Argentina Venezuela Singapore Malaysia Pakistan Belgium Uzbekistan Algeria Iraq Greece Vietnam Czech Republic Hong Kong Kuwait Romania North Korea
215
202
India overtook Russia in 2009
123
31 Singapore 161
16 Indonesia 413
0.1%
197
50 Qatar 66.5
92
182 203
153
170
217
Asia & Oceania
13,264m Up 7.5%
26 United Arab Emirates 193
204
209
207
140
2.4%
183
172
tonnes of CO2 in 2009
15 Australia 418
on 2008
1.8%
69 New Zealand 39.1
1.2%
tonnes of CO2 in 2009
Detailed data Full list of each country’s CO2 emissions and movement in the world emissions league table Million Percent tonnes change 2009 08—09
79 Yemen 22.9 63 Oman 49.0
214
156
0.2%
3.2%
90
106
32 Malaysia 148
75 Bahrain 31.1
137
198
167
133
0.1%
8.7%
42 Kuwait 84.9
47 Israel 70.5
127
142
46 Philippines 72.4
4.9%
23 Thailand 253
3 India 1,602
41 Hong Kong 86.0
39 Vietnam 98.8
166
93
56 Bangladesh 55.1
37 Iraq 104
53 Syria 56.9
161
12 South Africa 450
147
3.2%
89
159
14 Brazil 420
0.4%
155 173
97
152 189 178 114 165 145 144 100
131 128
205
77 Ecuador 28.7
70 Peru 38.2
Rank/ Country change on 2008
3.7%
33 Pakistan 140
76 213 Cuba 30.4 150
13 Mexico 444
20 Taiwan 291
102
122
Million Percent tonnes change 2009 08—09
253 253 249 193 192 185 167 162 161 148 140 137 115 114 104 100 98.8 95.3 86.0 84.9 80.5 79.5
-0.1 -7.3 -0.2 -1.2 3.5 9.8 -3.2 -1.4 -0.1 -0.2 0.4 -11.2 -9.4 6.2 3.7 -5.3 -4.9 -3.8 10.3 6.3 -16.6 14.3
Rank/ Country change on 2008
45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66
Nigeria Philippines Israel Colombia Austria Qatar Chile Belarus Syria Turkmenistan Portugal Bangladesh Libya Serbia Finland Sweden Hungary Denmark Oman Trinidad and Tobago Switzerland Bulgaria
Million Percent tonnes change 2009 08—09
77.7 72.4 70.5 70.1 69.2 66.5 65.7 60.6 56.9 56.8 56.5 55.1 55.0 52.3 52.2 50.6 50.0 49.6 49.0 47.8 45.8 44.5
-22.4 -2.9 4.8 7.9 -2.5 4.8 -3.8 -9.5 6.1 -1.2 1.5 9.4 -3.9 -3.2 -4.9 -7.7 -10.7 -8.6 9.9 -4.1 1.0 -11.9
Rank/ Country change on 2008
67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88
Ireland Norway New Zealand Peru Morocco Azerbaijan Slovakia Puerto Rico Bahrain Cuba Ecuador Angola Yemen Tunisia Croatia Jordan Dominican Republic Bosnia and Herzegovina Estonia Slovenia Lithuania Panama
on 2008
Million Percent tonnes change 2009 08—09
40.3 39.6 39.1 38.2 36.5 36.2 35.8 33.3 31.1 30.4 28.7 24.0 22.9 22.9 21.5 20.0 19.9 18.3 17.5 17.4 15.8 15.5
-11.2 -0.3 -1.1 4.0 -2.2 -8.9 -4.5 -3.2 1.6 4.7 1.7 1.8 13.5 5.7 -4.7 2.4 2.1 -15.9 -11.8 0.5 -12.8 1.7
Rank/ Country change on 2008
89 Lebanon 90 Bolivia 91 Sudan 92 Sri Lanka 93 Burma 94 US Virgin Islands 95 Jamaica 96 Netherlands Antilles 97 Kenya 98 Guatemala 99 Armenia 100 Zimbabwe 101 Luxembourg 102 Cyprus 103 Latvia 104 Ghana 105 Honduras 106 Brunei 107 Cameroon 108 Mongolia 109 Macedonia 110 Uruguay
Million Percent tonnes change 2009 08—09
14.8 13.9 13.0 12.8 12.5 12.5 12.1 11.6 11.5 11.3 11.2 10.6 10.6 9.4 8.5 8.1 7.9 7.6 7.5 7.4 7.3 7.2
3.6 -2.7 7.0 1.7 -9.5 -3.5 -4.6 -4.1 2.4 -1.4 1.5 18.6 -11.2 -3.5 8.1 9.6 -2.4 -27.1 -1.9 -3.8 -20.1 -10.2
Rank/ Country change on 2008
111 Moldova 112 Ethiopia 113 Costa Rica 114 Tanzania 115 IvoryCoast 116 Congo 117 Senegal 118 Tajikistan 119 El Salvador 120 Kyrgyzstan 121 Georgia 122 Bahamas 123 Papua New Guinea 124 Albania 125 Equatorial Guinea 126 Gabon 127 Mauritius 128 Botswana 129 Nicaragua 130 Gibraltar 131 Namibia 132 Paraguay
Million Percent tonnes change 2009 08—09
7.1 6.9 6.8 6.7 6.6 6.3 6.2 6.1 5.9 5.7 5.3 5.2 4.8 4.6 4.6 4.6 4.6 4.5 4.5 4.4 4.1 4.0
-4.1 7.1 -4.4 7.1 2.2 3.8 1.8 -10.4 0.0 -0.4 -4.9 3.1 6.7 3.8 -2.1 -3.2 -1.0 7.7 -2.9 -3.8 3.7 3.7
Rank/ Country change on 2008
133 Cambodia 134 Benin 135 Nepal 136 Iceland 137 Palestine 138 Madagascar 139 Malta 140 New Caledonia 141 Togo 142 Reunion 143 Mauritania 144 Zambia 145 Congo, Dem Rep 146 Martinique 147 Macau 148 Mozambique 149 Guadeloupe 150 Haiti 151 Suriname 152 Uganda 153 Fiji 154 Montenegro
Million Percent tonnes change 2009 08—09
3.9 3.5 3.4 3.4 3.2 3.1 3.1 3.0 2.8 2.8 2.7 2.7 2.7 2.6 2.4 2.3 2.2 2.1 2.0 1.9 1.9 1.9
-6.1 4.3 3.8 -7.4 4.3 13.4 -2.5 0.0 5.6 0.0 5.3 18.8 -2.6 6.3 1.3 4.6 -5.1 2.9 4.0 -3.0 -6.2 4.3
Rank/ Country change on 2008
155 Djibouti 156 Guam 157 Guyana 158 Burkina Faso 159 Seychelles 160 Barbados 161 Swaziland 162 Niger 163 Guinea 164 Sierra Leone 165 Malawi 166 Laos 167 Wake Island 168 French Guiana 169 Aruba 170 French Polynesia 171 Belize 172 Maldives 173 Somalia 174 Afghanistan 175 Faroe Islands 176 Eritrea
Million Percent tonnes change 2009 08—09
1.8 1.7 1.5 1.4 1.4 1.4 1.4 1.3 1.3 1.3 1.3 1.2 1.2 1.1 1.1 1.1 0.94 0.92 0.90 0.83 0.80 0.77
3.4 -3.5 0.0 2.1 6.1 -4.0 17.0 3.5 -1.2 5.9 4.6 1.1 -4.3 6.1 4.2 7.7 -5.4 3.4 3.4 -2.9 6.4 6.4
Rank/ Country change on 2008
177 Mali 178 Rwanda 179 Bermuda 180 Liberia 181 Antigua and Barbuda 182 American Samoa 183 East Timor 184 Greenland 185 Guinea-Bissau 186 Gambia 187 Cayman Islands 188 Saint Lucia 189 Burundi 190 Cape Verde 191 Bhutan 192 Western Sahara 193 Antarctica 194 Saint Kitts and Nevis 195 Grenada 196 Central African Republic 197 Solomon Islands 198 US Pacific Islands
Million Percent tonnes change 2009 08—09
0.74 0.74 0.71 0.69 0.69 0.67 0.63 0.61 0.46 0.44 0.43 0.41 0.37 0.34 0.33 0.32 0.31 0.30 0.30 0.29 0.29 0.29
6.4 0.0 4.2 2.2 4.4 2.2 8.7 -4.8 0.0 15.4 -11.8 0.0 4.0 4.5 -11.1 0.0 17.6 11.1 4.8 -13.0 25.0 0.0
Rank/ Country change on 2008
199 Chad 200 Lesotho 201 Saint Vincent/Grenadines 202 Nauru 203 Tonga 204 Cook Islands 205 Comoros 206 Sao Tome and Principe 207 Vanuatu 208 British Virgin Islands 209 Samoa 210 Montserrat 211 Dominica 212 Saint Pierre and Miquelon 213 Turks and Caicos Islands 214 Falkland Islands 215 Kiribati 216 Saint Helena 217 Niue
Million Percent tonnes change 2009 08—09
0.29 0.27 0.27 0.20 0.15 0.15 0.15 0.15 0.15 0.15 0.15 0.15 0.14 0.11 0.08 0.05 0.04 0.01 0.01
11.1 5.9 17.6 9.1 -23.1 66.7 25.0 11.1 25.0 25.0 -16.7 58.7 11.1 16.7 0.0 0.0 0.0 11.2 2.9
Table shows total carbon dioxide emissions from the consumption of energy
GRAPHIC: MARK McCORMICK, PAUL SCRUTON.
SOURCE: EIA
➜
Figure 14.2.4 Dorling cartogram of global carbon dioxide emissions
Now you try! 14.2b
Use Figure 14.2.3 to answer Questions 1 and 2.
Watch Video 14.2.3 to see how we worked out this answer. 1.
Name two countries that contribute a lot of dark green to the choropleth but very little dark green to the cartogram. What is this difference telling you?
2.
How does your sense of global happiness change looking at the cartogram compared to the choropleth?
FPO
Video 14.2.3 How we found the answer to Question 1
Use Figure 14.2.4 to answer Questions 3 and 4. 3.
Who are the two biggest contributors to carbon dioxide emissions and what percentage of the global total do they contribute?
4.
Which region of the world contributes far less to the global total than their population size would suggest it might?
5.
The circle for Australia and the United Kingdom are similar in size. What does this suggest about Australia’s contribution to carbon dioxide emissions per person?
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c14_p477-510.indd 486
21/05/26 8:44 PM
14.2 Cartograms
487
Activity 14.2.1 For this activity, you will need access to the internet. In this task, you will use the website go-cart.io to create a cartogram that compares countries based on a wellbeing indicator of your choice. A cartogram distorts the size or shape of countries according to a dataset, which helps reveal global patterns that may not be obvious on a normal world map.
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
• Step 1: First, choose a wellbeing dataset that interests you. Suitable examples include
the United Nations Human Development Index (HDI), the World Happiness Report, access to clean drinking water, life expectancy, poverty rates or GDP per capita. These datasets can be found on reliable websites, such as the UNDP Human Development Reports, World Bank Open Data, Our World in Data or the World Happiness Report website.
• Step 2: Once you have chosen your dataset, visit go-cart.io and select the option to build a new cartogram.
• Step 3: Upload or paste in your dataset (usually as a simple spreadsheet with country
names and one numeric column). The website will automatically distort the world map according to your values or allow you to colour each country based on the numbers you entered.
• Step 4: When you are finished, save or screenshot your cartogram and write a short explanation of what patterns you notice and what the map helps you understand about global wellbeing.
➜
Figure 14.2.5 Compare countries based on a wellbeing indicator of your choice!
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c14_p477-510.indd 487
21/05/26 8:44 PM
488
Chapter 14 Geographical skills: Projections of poverty and prosperity
14.3
Calculating area
Success criteria
In this lesson, you will learn how to calculate the area of a feature on a topographic map.
❏ I can calculate the area of features of different shapes and sizes on a topographic map.
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
Learning intention
Introduction
FPO
Calculating the area of features on a topographic map is one of the most widely used topographic mapping skills in geography. Whether the feature is a national park, a lake or even a built-up suburb, being able to work out its size helps us understand how land is used. Urban planners calculate the area of land available for new housing developments, environmental scientists measure the size of wetlands to monitor habitat loss and rural fire services estimate the area of hazard-reduction burns when planning Jardine National Park
77
Video 14.3.1 Area
40
76
80
60
75
✗
Full squares ✓ 11 Partial squares × 7 × 0.5 = 3.5 Total = 14.5 km2
74
✓
✗
✓
✗
✓
✗
✓
✓
✗
✓
✓
✓
✓
✓
✓
73 72
71
70
69
✗
1 cm
1 cm
✗
68
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
One grid square = 1 km2
LEGEND
Forest
Bower river
Bunder Lagoon
Sealed road
National park
Building
Scale 1 : 100,000 1 cm = 1 km
➜
Figure 14.3.1 Jardine National Park
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c14_p477-510.indd 488
21/05/26 8:44 PM
14.3 Calculating area
489
for the upcoming fire season. To find the area of a feature, we first have to revise our understanding of scale. To do this see Lesson 2.2.
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
To work out the area of the national park shown in Figure 14.3.1, we start by determining the size of each grid square in kilometres squared using the ratio scale. We then count the squares that are completely taken up by the national park with a tick (1) and the grid squares partially taken up by national park with a cross and treat each one as half a grid square (0.5). This will work out across the whole space, with some squares being more than half national park and some being less. This will provide an effective estimate. See the worked example in Figure 14.3.1.
In the worked example in Figure 14.3.2, each grid square does not equal 1 km2. Therefore, we must work out the size of the grid square and multiply this by the final count of ticks and crosses. See the worked example for the area of the coastal rainforest. Blanshard’s Beach
Total ✓ 4 Partial × 8 × 0.5 – 4 = 8 × 16 = 128 km2 2 cm
16
60
✗
✓
✗
✓
30
15
✗
90
✓
✗
✓
14
✓
✗
13
4x4 = 16 km2
✗
✗
2 cm = 4 km
12
2 cm = 4 km
11
59
60
61
62
63
64
LEGEND
Coastal rainforest
Temperate rainforest
Coastal dune system
Highway
Ocean
Migratory bird nest site
Scale 1 : 200,000
1 cm = 2 km
➜
Figure 14.3.2 Blanshard’s Beach
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c14_p477-510.indd 489
21/05/26 8:44 PM
490
Chapter 14 Geographical skills: Projections of poverty and prosperity
Wheatleyborough 31
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
30
29
28
27
26
12
13
14
15
16
17
1 : 10,000
LEGEND
Residential area
Shopping centre
Sports fields
Public park
Off-leash dog park
Skate park
Road
Tennis courts
Scale 1 : 10,000
➜
Figure 14.3.3 Wheatleyborough
Now you try! 14.3
Use Figure 14.3.1 to answer Questions 1 and 2.
Watch Video 14.3.2 to see how we worked out this answer.
FPO
1.
What is the area of the lagoon?
2.
What is the area of the forest between the river and the sealed road?
Use Figure 14.3.2 to answer Questions 3 and 4.
Video 14.3.2 How we found the answer to Question 1
3.
What is the area of the ocean?
4.
What is the area of the coastal dune system?
Use Figure 14.3.3 to answer Questions 5–7. 5.
What is the area of the off-leash dog park?
6.
What is the area of the tennis courts?
7.
What is the area of the skate park?
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c14_p477-510.indd 490
21/05/26 8:44 PM
14.3 Calculating area
491
Activity 14.3.1 For this activity, you will need a computer with internet access and a ruler. You will use Google Maps to estimate the real-world area of a familiar place by measuring it directly on your screen, then checking your estimate using Google’s built-in measurement tool.
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
• Step 1: Begin by opening Google Maps in satellite view and zoom in until the scale
bar (bottom right) shows a clear and easy-to-use value, such as 100 metres or 200 metres. Hold a ruler gently against your screen and measure the length and width of a feature you know well, such as your school oval, a swimming pool, a shopping centre or a nearby park.
• Step 2: Using the scale bar, convert your on-screen measurements into real distances (for example, if 1 centimetre on your screen represents 100 metres, then a feature measuring 3 centimetres wide on your screen is 300 metres wide).
• Step 3: Apply the “measure the sides” method to estimate the total area using length
× width, or break the feature into two or three simple rectangles if its shape is irregular. Record your estimated answer in hectares or square kilometres.
• Step 4: Finally, right-click on the map and choose “Measure distance”, then click
around the boundary of your feature to trace its outline. When you close the shape, Google Maps will automatically calculate the exact area for you.
➜
Figure 14.3.4 Using Google Maps
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c14_p477-510.indd 491
21/05/26 8:44 PM
492
Chapter 14 Geographical skills: Projections of poverty and prosperity
14.4
Calculating density
Success criteria
In this lesson, you will learn how to find the density of a feature on a topographic map
❏ I can calculate the density of a feature in a given area reference on a topographic map
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
Learning intention
Introduction
FPO
Density tells us the number or concentration of a particular feature within a given area on a map, usually measured in buildings per square kilometre. This means using the scale, the grid, and the map legend to calculate not just how big a place is (the area), but also how intensively it is being used. Geographers and planners use building density for many real-world purposes. Urban planners compare housing density in different suburbs to decide where public transport upgrades Jardine National Park
Video 14.4.1 Density
77
40
76
80
60
75
74
73 72
71
70
1 cm
1 km2
69
1 cm
68
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
6 buildings per km2
49
50
51
52
LEGEND
Forest Sealed road Scale 1 : 100,000
1 cm = 1 km
Bower river
Bunder Lagoon
National park
Building
➜
Figure 14.4.1 Jardine National Park building density
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c14_p477-510.indd 492
21/05/26 8:44 PM
14.4 Calculating density
493
are needed. Councils and utility companies use density to plan the capacity of water, sewer, electricity, and internet networks. Even social geographers can use building density to compare different patterns of settlement, such as compact inner-city neighbourhoods versus low-density rural towns.
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
To find the density of a feature within a grid square we start by working out the area of each grid square as we did in Lesson 14.3. We then count the number of that feature (e.g., the number of houses). Density is always written as the number of that feature per km2. See the worked example below for the number of buildings in AR5069. In Lesson 14.3, we worked out that in the map in Figure 14.4.2 each grid square was equal to 16 km2. This adds an additional step to how we work out the density. See the worked example below for the density of nesting sites in AR6215. Blanshard’s Beach
16
60
✓
30
15
90
14
13
4 km
16 km2
12
4 km
11
59
60
LEGEND
61
62
2 nest sites per 16 km2 2 ÷ 16 = 0.125 per km2
63
Coastal rainforest
Temperate rainforest
Coastal dune system
Highway
Ocean
Migratory bird nest site
64
Scale 1 : 200,000
➜
Figure 14.4.2 Blanshard’s Beach migratory bird nesting-site density
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c14_p477-510.indd 493
21/05/26 8:44 PM
494
Chapter 14 Geographical skills: Projections of poverty and prosperity
Wheatleyborough 31
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
30
29
28
27
26
12
13
14
15
16
17
LEGEND
Residential area
Shopping centre
Sports fields
Public park
Off-leash dog park
Skate park
Road
Tennis courts
Apartment building
Commercial building
Detached dwellings
Warehouse
Town hall
Power station
Scale 1 : 10,000
➜
Figure 14.4.3 Wheatleyborough
Now you try! 14.4
Use Figure 14.4.1 to answer Questions 1 and 2. 1.
a. AR4970 b. AR4473.
FPO
2.
Video 14.4.2 How we found the answer to Question 2
Calculate the building density for:
If the scale of this map was 1: 50,000 rather than 1: 100,000, what would the building density then be for AR4473? Watch Video 14.4.2 to see how we worked out this answer.
Use Figure 14.4.2 to answer Questions 3 and 4. 3.
Calculate the nesting site density for AR6112.
4.
Use the skills you learned in this lesson and Lesson 14.3 to compare the nesting site densities in the temperate forest compared to the coastal rainforest.
Use Figure 14.4.3 to answer Question 5. 5.
Calculate the building density for AR1326.
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c14_p477-510.indd 494
21/05/26 8:44 PM
14.4 Calculating density
495
Activity 14.4.1 For this activity, you will need a computer with access to the internet. In this activity, you will estimate the building density of your own suburb by outlining its area and then taking a small number of sample counts.
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
Step 1: Begin by opening Google Maps and searching for your suburb. Zoom out until you can see the entire suburb boundary, then right click and choose “Measure distance”, clicking around the outer edge of your suburb to trace its shape. When you close the shape, Google Maps will automatically display the total area of your suburb in square metres and square kilometres. Step 2: Zoom in to street level until individual buildings or lots can clearly be seen. Choose two or three small sample areas from different parts of your suburb – one higher-density area, one lower-density area, and one average or typical area.
Step 3: Count the number of buildings in each sampled section, and calculate the density for each sample by dividing the number of buildings by the area of that sample. Step 4: Finally, average your sample densities to estimate a realistic building density for the whole suburb, then apply this average density to the suburb’s total area.
➜
Figure 14.4.4 Finding your suburb on Google Maps
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c14_p477-510.indd 495
21/05/26 8:44 PM
496
Chapter 14 Geographical skills: Projections of poverty and prosperity
14.5
Fieldwork: Human wellbeing
Success criteria
In this lesson, you will explore how wellbeing can vary at a local scale in cities and regions.
❏ I can describe how human wellbeing varies on a local scale. ❏ I can compare human wellbeing data between individual suburbs.
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
Learning intention
Starter activity
Accounting for schooling with a growing population
LEGEND
≤ -30 -30 to -25 -25 to -20 -20 to -15 -15 to -10 -10 to -5 -5 to 0 ≥0
0
10 km
➜
Figure 14.5.1 Forecast permanent primary classroom deficit at 2031 for the Sydney metropolitan area Source: Adapted from the NSW Department of Education website
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c14_p477-510.indd 496
21/05/26 8:44 PM
497
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
14.5 Fieldwork: Human wellbeing
LEGEND
≤ -75
-75 to -60
-60 to -45 -45 to -30 -30 to -15 -15 to 0 ≥0
➜
0
10 km
Figure 14.5.2 Forecast permanent secondary classroom deficit at 2031 for the Sydney metropolitan area Source: Adapted from the NSW Department of Education website
Figures 14.5.1 and 14.5.2 show the predicted infrastructure gap for schooling based on the projected student population growth by 2031. The NSW Department of Education has estimated that 7,200 additional classrooms will be needed across both primary and secondary schools (3,682 for primary and 3,518 for secondary). As of 2017, the Department had more than 41,000 permanent classrooms and learning spaces across 2,211 schools. These numbers only include government schools and account for learning spaces such as libraries. 1.
Identify the areas where the highest classroom deficit is expected across the Sydney metropolitan area for: a. primary schools b. secondary schools.
2.
Describe the overall schooling capacity of the Sydney metropolitan area.
3.
Discuss why a limited number of schools, or excessively large schools, could lead to a reduction in wellbeing in a local area.
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c14_p477-510.indd 497
21/05/26 8:44 PM
498
Chapter 14 Geographical skills: Projections of poverty and prosperity
Contrasts in wellbeing at a local scale
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
Human wellbeing varies between countries and within countries, but it also varies at a local scale. In geography, “local scale” refers to a specific place or small region. This could be a village, town or city, or a suburb within a city. Comparing human wellbeing at a local scale involves making comparisons between places and analysing the variation in places. Wellbeing varies greatly in London, England. In the Westminster region, for example, the average life expectancy in Lancefield Street, Queens Park, is 83.72 years. In comparison, the life expectancy of Grosvenor Crescent, Belgravia, is more than 94 years (see Figure 14.5.3). Across London, the gap between the places with the highest and lowest life expectancy is 20 years – similar in scale to the divide between economically developed and developing countries.
A
B
➜
In 2025, Sydney was ranked sixth in the Economist Intelligence Unit’s Global Liveability Index. The index ranks cities across five key areas, including stability, Figure 14.5.3 Google Street View images of (a) Lancefield Street, Queens Park healthcare, culture and and (b) Grosvenor Crescent, Belgravia, in London environment, education and infrastructure. However, in Sydney there are varying levels of wellbeing based on environmental factors, such as climate, access to green space, employment levels and the availability of services. Newer suburbs in Sydney’s growth regions often struggle with a shortage of schools and public transport, leading to longer commute times and traffic congestion.
green space area of vegetation reserved for recreational or aesthetic purposes in an urban environment
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c14_p477-510.indd 498
21/05/26 8:45 PM
14.5 Fieldwork: Human wellbeing
499
Measuring wellbeing at a local scale demographic relating to the structure or characteristics of a population census official count or survey of a country’s population, usually occurring at regular intervals
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
In many countries, data relating to demographic, economic, social and health factors is collected on a regular basis using a census. In Australia, this data is collected and updated every five years by the ABS. The data is collected based on the location of every person in Australia on the night of the census. Examples of the data collected include the size of families, the method of travel to work, household incomes and the prevalence of long-term health conditions. Geographers analyse this data to determine demographic and wellbeing trends, which informs decisions about the allocation of funding or construction of new infrastructure such as hospitals and train lines.
Comparing individual suburbs
Demographic and wellbeing data can be organised by location to directly compare different places. Melbourne-based company Informed Decisions (generally known as .id) provides local area profiles containing various types of demographic and socio-economic data across Australia. Informed Decisions’ data is used to inform local and state government decisions in areas such as education, residential development, retail, healthcare and the provision of utilities such as water and power. Table 14.5.1 and Figures 14.5.4 and 14.5.5 show a comparison between two local government areas (LGAs), the Woollahra Municipal Council and the City of CanterburyBankstown, using census data accessed via the location profiles on the Informed Decisions website.
local government area (LGA) an area managed by a local council
Table 14.5.1 Demographic and wellbeing data for Woollahra Municipal Council and the City of Canterbury-Bankstown, 2021 Source: Informed Decisions community website Woollahra Municipal City of CanterburyCouncil Bankstown
Population
55,175
385,242
Population density (persons per km2)
4,500
3,494
Median age
41
36
Couples with children
24.0%
37.3%
Median weekly household income
$3,203
$1,601
University qualification
55.2%
23.6%
Unemployment rate
3.3%
7.2%
Public transport to work
4.3%
6.1%
People with a long-term health conditions
26.2
25.2
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c14_p477-510.indd 499
21/05/26 8:45 PM
500
Chapter 14 Geographical skills: Projections of poverty and prosperity
Age-sex pyramid, 2021 Woollahra Municipality 85 and over 80 to 84 75 to 79 70 to 74 65 to 69 60 to 64 55 to 59 50 to 54 45 to 49 40 to 44 35 to 39 30 to 34 25 to 29 20 to 24 15 to 19 10 to 14 5 to 9 0 to 4
Greater Sydney 85 and over 80 to 84 75 to 79 70 to 74 65 to 69 60 to 64 55 to 59 50 to 54 45 to 49 40 to 44 35 to 39 30 to 34 25 to 29 20 to 24 15 to 19 10 to 14 5 to 9 0 to 4
Females
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
Males
5%
4%
3%
2%
1%
0%
1%
2%
3%
4%
5%
➜
Figure 14.5.4 2021 population pyramid for Woollahra Municipality Council, located in Sydney’s eastern suburbs, 5 km from the Sydney CBD Source: Adapted from the Informed Decisions community website Age-sex pyramid, 2021
City of Canterbury-Bankstown
85 and over 80 to 84 75 to 79 70 to 74 65 to 69 60 to 64 55 to 59 50 to 54 45 to 49 40 to 44 35 to 39 30 to 34 25 to 29 20 to 24 15 to 19 10 to 14 5 to 9 0 to 4
Greater Sydney
Males
5%
4%
3%
85 and over 80 to 84 75 to 79 70 to 74 65 to 69 60 to 64 55 to 59 50 to 54 45 to 49 40 to 44 35 to 39 30 to 34 25 to 29 20 to 24 15 to 19 10 to 14 5 to 9 0 to 4
Females
2%
1%
0%
1%
2%
3%
4%
5%
➜
Figure 14.5.5 2021 population pyramid for the City of Canterbury-Bankstown, located in Sydney’s south-west, between 8 and 23 km from the Sydney CBD Source: Adapted from the Informed Decisions community website
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c14_p477-510.indd 500
21/05/26 8:45 PM
501
14.5 Fieldwork: Human wellbeing
Review 14.5 Online quiz
Knowledge and understanding
Thinking and working geographically
Students can access sample responses and results online
Teachers can go online to assign questions, view results, reports and more!
Knowledge and understanding
a. Use Google Street View to visit Lancefield Street, Queens Park, and Grosvenor Crescent, Belgravia. Compare the geographic characteristics of these places, such as the types of buildings, the types of cars driven and the presence of green space. b. Choose two streets in different parts of an Australian city or town and compare them in the same way. Discuss which is likely to have a higher level of wellbeing. a. Explain what a census is and how its data is used. b. Access a sample Australian census household form from the ABS website (https://cambridge.edu.au/redirect/11864). Choose three questions and explain why the data might be useful.
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
1.
2.
Thinking and working geographically
Working with geographical concepts: Place 1.
place the concept of place is about the significance of places and what they are like
a. Justify which three types of data in Table 14.5.1 reveal the most about wellbeing in different LGAs. b. Compare the population pyramids for Woollahra Municipal Council and the City of CanterburyBankstown. What clues do they provide about the level of wellbeing in these areas? c. Overall, justify whether people in Woollahra Municipal Council and the City of CanterburyBankstown are likely to have a high level of wellbeing.
Collecting and summarising data 2.
The data in Table 14.5.1 was gathered using information in the area profiles from the Informed Decisions website. Similar data can be found in the census summaries on the website of the ABS. Nine data measures were chosen out of a much larger list. Visit either the Informed Decisions website (https://cambridge.edu.au/redirect/11865) and the ABS website (https://cambridge.edu.au/redirect/11866) and follow the steps below to complete a comparison of wellbeing at a local scale.
a. Choose the locations for your comparison. You may wish to compare your local area to another nearby place, or somewhere in another region of Sydney or New South Wales. b. Draw a table similar to Table 14.5.1 and enter the data you gather for your two chosen locations. Consider adding some rows to your table and choosing some additional categories to add to your summaries. c. Locate population pyramids for your two locations from the Informed Decisions website. d. Compare the data you have gathered. • Which data indicator showed the greatest variation? • How many of the indicators show higher levels of wellbeing at one location compared with the other? • Is there a significant difference in the age and sex distributions of your locations as shown in their population pyramids? e. Summarise your findings by justifying which location has a high level of human wellbeing.
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c14_p477-510.indd 501
21/05/26 8:45 PM
502
Chapter 14 Geographical skills: Projections of poverty and prosperity
14.6
Chapter review: Projections of poverty and prosperity Success criteria
In this lesson, you will consolidate your learning across this chapter and apply a range of geographic skills relating to a range of graphs and maps.
❏ I can use a range of maps to find latitude and longitude, features expressed through cartograms, area and density.
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
Learning intention
Geographical data for activity questions
FPO
Video 14.6.1 Introducing the geographical data and skills-based activities in this chapter
➜
Figure 14.6.1 Map of the world
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c14_p477-510.indd 502
21/05/26 8:45 PM
14.6 Chapter review: Projections of poverty and prosperity
70°E
50°N
80°E
90°E
100°E
110°E
120°E
130°E
140°E
503
50°N
RUSSIAN FEDERATION Hulun Buir Qiqihar
KAZAKHSTAN
Harbin Ulanhot Changchun Jilin Xilinhot Fuxin Shenyang SEA OF Anshan NORTH Jining JAPAN KOREA Hohhot Beijing Dalian SOUTH KOREA Yantai Qingdao Tongshan Xi’an Nanjing Shanghai Hangzhou
Karamay Altay MONGOLIA
Yining
40°N KYRGYZSTAN
Korla
40°N
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
TAJIKISTAN Kashi Aksu
Ürümqi Turpan
CHINA
PAKISTAN
Hotan
Xining
Lanzhou
30°N
Chengdu
Lhasa
NEPAL
BHUTAN
INDIA
Guiyang
BANGLADESH
Liuzhou
Kunming
20°N
0
Haikou SOUTH CHINA SEA
LAOS
500 km
VIETNAM
THAILAND
TAIWAN
Guangzhou Hong Kong Macau
Nanning
MYANMAR
BAY OF BENGAL
Nanchang Gullin
JAPAN
30°N
PACIFIC OCEAN
20°N
LEGEND
International boundary River Country Capital City Waterbody
PHILIPPINES
➜
Figure 14.6.2 Map of China
Map of the World’s Manufacturing Output
Manufacturing Output 2018 ($) $500B $100B $10B
Share in National Output (%) More than 10% 5%–10% 1%–5% 0.5%–1% 0.1%–0.5%
Netherlands $102B
EUROPE 22%
Switzerland $129B Ireland $124B
Poland $98B Austria $77B
Thailand $136B
Turkey $147B
Malaysia $77B
Sweden $74B
Philippines $63B
Czech Rep. $57B
Romania $48B Denmark $46B Finland $42B
Puerto Rico $48B Peru $29B Guatemala $14B
S. Korea $459B
Bangladesh $48B
Norway $26B
Greece Slovakia $21B $21B
Ukraine Israel $44B $15B Vietnam $39B
AFRICA Africa 2% S.$43B
LATIN AMERICA 5%
India $412B
Iran $57B
Hungary $29B Portugal $29B
Argentina $66B
ASIA 52%
Indonesia $207B
Singapore $73B
Belgium $67B
NORTH AMERICA 18%
Saudi Arabia $100B
Chile $32B Colombia $37B Venezuela $31B
Ecuador $15B
UAE $37B Pakistan $34B Sri Lanka Nigeria Kazakhstan $14B $14B $20B Turkmenistan Qatar Myanmar $19B $18B $16B Egypt $14B Australia $86B Morocco OCEANIA $19B New Zealand $22B
Japan $1T
1%
➜
Figure 14.6.3 Map of the world’s manufacturing output
Source: Howmuch.net
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c14_p477-510.indd 503
21/05/26 8:45 PM
Chapter 14 Geographical skills: Projections of poverty and prosperity
➜
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
504
Figure 14.6.4 Total spending on healthcare
Source: Mark Newman, University of Michigan
➜
Figure 14.6.5 Greenhouse gas emissions
Source: Mark Newman, University of Michigan
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c14_p477-510.indd 504
21/05/26 8:45 PM
14.6 Chapter review: Projections of poverty and prosperity
Map of Cari Archipelago
Map of Cumberlandshire
Island 2
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
Island 1
505
Island 3
1:25,000
1:50,000
➜
➜
Figure 14.6.6 Map of Cari archipelago
Figure 14.6.7 Map of Cumberlandshire
Check your understanding
Using Figure 14.6.1, answer the following questions. 1.
2. 3.
4. 5.
Identify the latitude of the equator. Identify the longitude of the prime meridian. Identify two countries that lie on the prime meridian. Which country is found at approximately 0°N, 20°E? Which country lies at 15°N, 75°W?
Using Figure 14.6.2, answer the following questions. 1.
2. 3.
4. 5.
State the approximate latitude and longitude of Beijing. Identify the coordinates of Shanghai. Compare the latitude of Beijing and Hong Kong. Identify which Chinese city is located closest to 30°N. State the approximate latitude and longitude of Altay.
Using Figures 14.6.3 to 14.6.5, answer the following questions. 1.
2. 3.
4. 5.
6. 7.
What type of map is shown in Figures 14.6.3–14.6.5? What variable is represented in Figure 14.6.3? What variable is represented in Figure 14.6.4? What variable is represented in Figure 14.6.5? Using Figure 14.6.3, which country has the largest manufacturing output in 2018? What was the output? In Figure 14.6.4, which country dominates the healthcare spending? Identify one country that has a similar size representation in Figure 14.6.4 and Figure 14.6.5.
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c14_p477-510.indd 505
21/05/26 8:45 PM
506
Chapter 14 Geographical skills: Projections of poverty and prosperity
Using Figure 14.6.6, answer the following questions. 1. 2. 3.
What is the scale of the map? How many grid squares make up the entire map? Which island appears to have the largest area?
Using Figure 14.6.7, answer the following questions. 1.
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
2.
Identify two area references with a high concentration of houses. Which feature appears to attract the highest density of houses? How many houses are found in AR1133? State the scale of the map. Why are grid squares useful when calculating density?
3.
4. 5.
Develop your understanding
Using Figure 14.6.1, answer the following questions. 1.
2.
Identify three countries that lie in both the northern and southern hemispheres. Name the country located at the following: a. 10°S, 55°W b. 35°N, 140°E c. 52°N, 5°E.
3.
A location is given at 20°S, 47°E.
a. Identify the country. b. State whether this country is closer to the equator or the Tropic of Capricorn.
4. 5.
Between which two lines of latitude does Australia lie? Between which two lines of longitude does Brazil lie?
Using Figure 14.6.2, answer the following questions. 1.
2. 3. 4
Which is further south, Korla or Hohhot? Determine the difference in longitude between Kashi and Aksu. Name two cities that are closest to the Tropic of Cancer. Explain why coordinates become more precise when minutes and seconds are included.
Using Figures 14.6.3 to 14.6.5, answer the following questions. 1.
2. 3.
4. 5.
6.
7.
Compare how China appears in Figure 14.6.3 and Figure 14.6.5. Which continent appears relatively small in Figure 14.6.5? Compare the appearance of the United States across the three figures. Using the figures, explain why cartograms are often used to show global inequalities. Analyse what Figure 14.6.3 reveals about the global distribution of manufacturing power. Analyse the relationship between manufacturing output and greenhouse gas emissions using the cartograms. Using specific country examples, determine why some countries contribute significantly to emissions but not equally to healthcare spending.
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c14_p477-510.indd 506
21/05/26 8:45 PM
14.6 Chapter review: Projections of poverty and prosperity
507
Using Figure 14.6.6, answer the following questions. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.
Calculate the area of one full grid square. Estimate the area of Island 1. Estimate the area of Island 2. Estimate the area of Island 3. Explain why your area values are estimates rather than exact figures.
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
Using Figure 14.6.7, answer the following questions. 1.
2. 3.
4.
Calculate the density of AR1131. Compare the densities of two different area references. Describe the pattern of settlement density across Cumberlandshire. Identify one area reference that could be described as low density.
Extend your understanding
Using Figures 14.6.3 to 14.6.5, answer the following questions. 1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
According to Figure 14.6.3, Asia accounts for 52% of global manufacturing output. If China produces $4 trillion, estimate the total global manufacturing output. Africa contributes 2% of global manufacturing output. Using the estimated global total from Figure 14.6.3, calculate Africa’s manufacturing output in dollars. Using Figure 14.6.3, if global manufacturing output increases by 10%, how much manufacturing output would Asia produce after the increase? Using evidence from the three maps, explain ways cartograms could be confusing or misleading. Compare the effectiveness of cartograms and other types of maps for showing global patterns. Assess whether cartograms are more useful for comparison or precise measurement.
Using Figure 14.6.6, answer the following questions. 1.
2. 3.
Explain two sources of error when estimating area using grid squares. Discuss how the shape of an island affects the accuracy of area calculations. Explain how using a smaller grid size would change the accuracy of the results.
Using Figure 14.6.7, answer the following questions. 1.
2. 3.
Explain why density decreases as distance from the main settlement area increases. Compare the density north and south of Northing 34. Explain how density information could be useful for: a. transport planning b. infrastructure development c. emergency services.
4. 5.
Calculate the average housing density for the entire mapped area. Research the density of two places (a major city and a rural farming area). Compare the density in Cumberlandshire to these two places. What type of area is Cumberlandshire?
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c14_p477-510.indd 507
21/05/26 8:45 PM
508
Chapter 14 Geographical skills: Projections of poverty and prosperity
Creative tasks Task 1: The lost world atlas You are in a group of cartographers tasked with mapping a newly discovered world. You must create an atlas that has multiple maps to introduce your new world. You must create at least four maps, each with an explanation. Two maps must be drawn at a different scale with latitude and longitude added, at least six named locations and at least three distinct climate zones. Two maps must be cartograms. These will be used to demonstrate key features of your world. This could include population density, liveability, etc. For each map, write a short explanation of what the map shows, including elements such as climate, settlement patterns, etc.
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
1.
2.
3.
Task 2: Neighbourhood truth test
You must test whether maps actually reflect reality. 1.
2.
3.
Choose two locations in your neighbourhood or school (e.g., a pool, oval, shopping centre). For each location, find the location on two maps with a different scale – one with the location large and then smaller. For each location, using the scale or by drawing grid squares, estimate the area of each location. Using the area measuring tool on Google Earth or a site of your choosing, determine which scale best approximated the area of your location.
Extension: Estimate the daily population use of your location and calculate the density of each location. Are the areas with higher density more important? Why, or why not?
Task 3: Latitude swap experiment
Choose two real places at different latitudes. 1.
2. 3.
4.
Swap their latitude positions (keep everything else the same). Predict how this change would affect the population density, land use and liveability. Redraw one map or diagram showing the change. Explain whether people would still live there. Why, or why not?
Task 4: Density school mission
You are undercover geographers investigating how people move through and use space at your school. 1.
2.
Walk around the school (teacher approved) and identify three locations: one highdensity area, one medium-density area and one low-density area. For each location, estimate the area and the number of people using the space at the same moment. Use this information to calculate population density. Create two maps of the same section of the school. The first map must audit current conditions by showing all three locations using symbols, shading and a clear density scale.
The second map must show a redesign that reduces overcrowding in at least one high-density area and increases use of a low-density area. Any changes must be realistic and may include altered movement routes, entry points, seating or how spaces are used.
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c14_p477-510.indd 508
21/05/26 8:45 PM
14.6 Chapter review: Projections of poverty and prosperity
3.
509
Write a short explanation (5–7 sentences) explaining:
• why certain areas become overcrowded • how your redesign redistributes people more evenly • and whether your solution would still work at different times of the day. Task 5: Escape the coordinated room
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
Design a paper-based escape room that can only be solved using strong geographical knowledge. Your escape room must include at least five coordinate-based clues that require players to correctly interpret:
• the difference between latitude and longitude • hemisphere location • distance and direction using coordinates.
Clues may be written as riddles, coded messages, short scenarios or map fragments, but each one must lead logically to the next. At least one clue must require players to eliminate incorrect locations using geographic reasoning, not guessing. The final solution to your escape room must be a specific location, either real or fictional, which can be justified using latitude and longitude.
Once complete, swap escape rooms with another group and attempt to solve theirs. After testing, evaluate whether any failures occurred due to unclear or misleading clues, or incorrect use of geographical concepts.
Be prepared to explain how your escape room could be improved to make the geography clearer without making it easier. Task 6: The world according to ONE
Create a cartogram of the world that shows how the world would look from the perspective of one specific person. You may choose to represent a teenager, a climate activist, a billionaire, a refugee, a delivery driver or another realistic role approved by your teacher.
• On your cartogram, countries must grow or shrink based on how relevant they are to that
person’s life rather than their physical land area. Relevance might be based on factors such as media exposure, movement or travel, money and economic opportunity, safety, or access to resources and support. The distortions you make do not need to be statistically precise, but they must be logical and defensible.
• Your cartogram should clearly show distorted country sizes, include labels for multiple countries, and have a title that makes the chosen perspective clear.
• After completing the map, write a short explanation explaining why certain regions dominate this person’s world, why other regions almost disappear, and how this cartogram communicates a different message from a traditional world map.
• Be prepared to explain how the cartogram would change if it were created from the perspective of a different person.
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c14_p477-510.indd 509
21/05/26 8:45 PM
510
Chapter 14 Geographical skills: Projections of poverty and prosperity
Task 7: Coordinate mystery Select one location anywhere in the world (not Australia). Record its exact latitude and longitude, but do not reveal the name of the place at any stage. Create five carefully sequenced clues that gradually narrow the possible locations. Each clue must require geographic reasoning rather than simple recognition. Your clues should use a mix of:
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
• hemisphere location • distance from the equator or a major latitude line • climate zone or environmental conditions linked to latitude • nearby physical features (mountains, oceans, deserts, rivers) • human features or patterns (population density, land use, cultural or economic activity).
At least two clues must eliminate multiple plausible locations, not just describe the place. Clues should become more specific as the sequence progresses.
Give your clues to another group one at a time. After each clue, the group must justify which locations they can rule out and why. They may not guess until they can support their answer using latitude, longitude and geographical features. The first group to correctly identify the location with a valid geographical justification wins. Be prepared to explain:
• which clue was most powerful and why • whether the location could still be confused with another place • how your clues could be improved to increase geographic precision without making the answer obvious.
➜
Figure 14.6.8 Challenge your classmates!
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c14_p477-510.indd 510
21/05/26 8:45 PM
Chapter
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
15
Case study: Variations in and improving human wellbeing: Australia
Lesson
15.1 Geo Spark: Can Australia “Close the Gap” on its most significant variation in human wellbeing? 15.2 How does human wellbeing vary across Australia?
15.3 Does it matter where Australians live? Part 1: Environmental and social
15.4 Does it matter where Australians live? Part 2: Economic and technological 15.5 What is Australia doing to improve human wellbeing?
15.6 What role does culture, heritage and community play in enhancing human wellbeing in Australia? 15.7 How are Australia’s Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples enhancing human wellbeing? 15.8 Chapter review
➜
Teachers go to the Online Teacher Suite to: • plan, sequence and assign directed tasks for students and classes using Task Manager • view student activity reports • provide feedback to students • download a printable “Writing focus” workbook for this chapter.
Image: to come
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c15_p511-550.indd 511
21/05/26 8:48 PM
512
Chapter 15 Case study: Variations in and improving human wellbeing: Australia
15.1
Geo Spark: Can Australia “Close the Gap” on its most significant variation in human wellbeing? Success criteria
In this lesson, you will learn about Australia’s Closing the Gap national agreement, which seeks to improve the wellbeing of Australia’s Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples.
❏ I can describe the purpose of the Closing the Gap strategy.
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
Learning intention
Closing the Gap targets
➜
Writing focus 15.1 Question words
One of Australia’s most significant social issues is the wellbeing gap between Australia’s Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples and non-Indigenous Australians. A vast inequality exists in areas such as wealth, education and health. In 2005, to improve the wellbeing of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples and reduce this inequality, the Australian Government established a strategy called Closing the Gap. This national approach involved setting 19 targets to reduce disadvantage in the areas of health, life expectancy, education and employment by 2031, while strengthening culture and increasing participation in decision making. Below are some of the 19 targets that make up the National Agreement on Closing the Gap.
• Close the Gap in life expectancy within a generation, by 2031. • By 2031, increase the proportion of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander babies with • • •
detention the act of officially detaining someone
•
• • •
a healthy birthweight to 91%. By 2031, increase the proportion of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people (age 20–24) attaining Year 12 or equivalent qualification to 96%. By 2031, increase the proportion of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander youth (15–24 years) who are in employment, education or training to 67%. By 2031, increase the proportion of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people living in appropriately sized (not overcrowded) housing to 88%. By 2031, reduce the rate of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander young people (10–17 years) in detention by at least 30%. By 2031, reduce the rate of all forms of family violence and abuse against Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander women and children by at least 50%, as progress towards zero. By 2031, there is a sustained increase in number and strength of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander languages being spoken. By 2030, a 15% increase in Australia’s landmass subject to Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people’s legal rights or interests.
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c15_p511-550.indd 512
21/05/26 8:48 PM
15.1 Geo Spark: Can Australia “Close the Gap” on its most significant variation in human wellbeing?
513
Closing the Gap progress report
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
A 2024 report revealed that five of the 19 Closing the Gap targets are on track, which was an improvement compared to previous years. The proportion of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander babies born at a healthy weight has improved and is expected to meet the targeted 91% by 2031. This is encouraging considering this indicator determines the likelihood of health later in life, including a reduction in the prevalence of diabetes and heart disease. The target to provide a 15% increase in the land mass subject to Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people’s legal rights is also on track to be met and exceeded. Unfortunately, the target to reduce adult imprisonment is not on track and is showing signs of worsening.
Activity 15.1 1.
Search for a full list of the 19 targets at the Closing the Gap website.
a. Classify each of the targets based on whether they are addressing economic, social or cultural wellbeing issues. Economic relates to finances and employment, social relates to people and cultural relates to languages, tradition and spirituality. b. Choose three of your classifications and justify your choices. c. Do you think that the gap between Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples and non-Indigenous Australians is affected by the geographical concepts of “Place” and “Environment”. Justify your answer. In a country like Australia it is shocking that there are still communities who don’t have a clean and reliable source of drinking water. Many of these communities are remote, First Nations communities.
– The Hon. Tanya Plibersek MP, Minister for the Environment and Water of Australia
2.
What is Plibersek referring to by “a country like Australia”?
3.
Why do you think some Aboriginal communities still do not have access to a clean and reliable water source?
4.
What do you wonder about other levels of human wellbeing in these communities?
➜
Figure 15.1.1 Tanya Plibersek, pictured in 2024
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c15_p511-550.indd 513
21/05/26 8:48 PM
514
Chapter 15 Case study: Variations in and improving human wellbeing: Australia
15.2
How does human wellbeing vary across Australia? Success criteria
In this lesson, you will explore the wellbeing of Australia’s Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples as well as rural and urban populations across Australia.
❏ I can identify key areas of variation in human wellbeing across Australia. ❏ I can compare data to examine variations in the wellbeing of various groups across Australia.
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
Learning intention
Starter activity
Discussing efforts towards Reconciliation
Reconciliation will not work if it puts a higher value on symbolic gestures rather than the practical needs of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islanders in areas like health, housing, education and employment.
– Warren Mundine AO, Australian Aboriginal leader
1.
What do you think Warren Mundine means when he refers to symbolic gestures rather than practical needs?
2.
Do you predict that there is a significant difference in the wellbeing of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples and non-Indigenous Australians in the areas of health, housing, education and employment?
Variations in wellbeing across Australia
➜
Writing focus 15.2 Transitional phrases
➜
There are a number of factors that cause variations in human wellbeing across Australia. As addressed in this chapter’s Geo Spark in Lesson 15.1, a significant variation in wellbeing exists between Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples and non-Indigenous Australians, a gap that is even wider when comparing the 15% of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Australians living in remote communities (see Figure 15.2.1). Variations in human Figure 15.2.1 Remote Aboriginal community in Pia Wadjarri, wellbeing more generally across Western Australia Australia can be observed through demographics, education, employment and health, with a key influencing factor being “remoteness” and the difference between urban and rural populations.
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c15_p511-550.indd 514
21/05/26 8:48 PM
515
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
15.2 How does human wellbeing vary across Australia?
LEGEND Very remote Remote
Outer regional Inner regional Major cities
0
1,000 km
Discrete Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander communities
➜
Figure 15.2.1 Location of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander communities in Australia
Variations in human wellbeing for Australia’s Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples Demographics
The gap between the wellbeing of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander and non-Indigenous Australians is clearly visible when comparing demographics. The life expectancy for Australians is 81.2 years for males and 85.3 years for females. This is considerably higher than for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples, which is 71.9 years for males and 75.6 years for females – the gap being 9.3 and 9.7 years respectively.
It is further visible when comparing age structures. Figure 15.2.2 shows the age structure of Australia’s Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander population compared with its non-Indigenous population. Non-Indigenous Australians have a population pyramid similar to most other developed countries, with a narrow base indicating a low total fertility rate (TFR) and rectangular body and broad top, indicating a high life expectancy. The pyramid for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples is similar to those of developing countries with a broad base and a triangular top that tapers inwards, indicating a high TFR and low life expectancy.
total fertility rate (TFR) total number of children expected to be born to a woman in her lifetime if she lives to the end of her childbearing years
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c15_p511-550.indd 515
21/05/26 8:48 PM
516
Chapter 15 Case study: Variations in and improving human wellbeing: Australia
Age group (years) Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples
100+ 90–94 90–94 85–89 80–84 75–79 70–74 65–69 60–64 55–59 50–54 45–49 40–44 35–39 30–34 25–29 20–24 15–19 10–14 5–9 0–4
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
Non-Indigenous people
12 11 10
9
8
7 6 5 % Males
4
3
2
1
0
0
1
2
3
4
5 6 7 % Females
8
9
10
11
12
➜
Figure 15.2.2 Population pyramids comparing Australia’s Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander and non-Indigenous populations
Years
Aust
Females
10
+
+
5
+
+
0
+
Years
+
Aust
Females
10
+
5
+
+
0
+
2005–07
2010–12
2015–17
2020–22
2025–27
2030–32
➜
Figure 15.2.3 The gap in the life expectancy between Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander and non-Indigenous males and females (actual) compared with the trajectory that is needed to close the gap by 2031
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c15_p511-550.indd 516
21/05/26 8:48 PM
15.2 How does human wellbeing vary across Australia?
517
Education
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
As of 2021, census data showed that only 68% of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people aged between 20 and 24 years had completed Year 12. Despite improving from 32% in 2006, this is still considerably lower than the 91% completion rate of non-Indigenous Australians. Although Year 12 completion rates were high in major cities at 76%, they were far lower in remote and very remote areas at 53 and 42%. 100%
+
+
80%
+
Aust
60%
40%
20%
0%
2001
2006
2011
2016
2021
2026
2031
Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people, Actual
Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people, Linear regression estimates Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people, Target
+ Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people, Trajectory Non-Indigenous people, Actual
➜
Figure 15.2.4 The gap in the proportion of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people and non-Indigenous Australians who have attained a Year 12 or equivalent qualification
Employment
At the time of the 2021 census, 7.4% of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people aged between 15 and 64 were unemployed, far higher than non-Indigenous Australians at 3.9%. Furthermore, Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people are underrepresented in the workforce, with low rates of employment, influencing median household income (see Figure 15.2.5). Median household income for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander families in 2021 was A$825 per week, far below A$1141 for non-Indigenous Australians and even lower in remote communities, in which households earned an average of A$459 per week.
unemployed an individual who is without a job and who wants to and is available for work
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c15_p511-550.indd 517
21/05/26 8:48 PM
518
Chapter 15 Case study: Variations in and improving human wellbeing: Australia
100
60
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
Percentage
80
40
20
0
15–24
25–34
35–44
Indigenous Australians
45–54
55–64
Total (15–64)
Non-Indigenous Australians
➜
Figure 15.2.5 Employment rate for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people compared with non-Indigenous Australians by age group, 2021
Variations in human wellbeing for Australia’s urban and rural populations
Based on data collected by the Australian Institute of Health and Welfare (AIHW) in 2021, Australians living in rural and remote areas will live shorter lives, experience higher levels of disease and have poorer access to healthcare services than their counterparts living in urban areas. This variation is likely caused by a combination of factors. Lifestyles differ between rural and urban areas, and likewise there are levels of disadvantage when comparing access to healthcare services, education and employment. According to the Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS), as of 2023 approximately 7 million people – just over one in four Australians or 28% of our population – live in rural and remote areas.
➜
When considering the variations in socio-economic factors such as employment and education, statistics demonstrate significant gaps between urban and rural populations. ABS data from 2023 showed that people aged between 20 and 64 living in rural and remote areas were less likely to have completed Year 12 or a non-school qualification than those in major cities. This was also the case for the completion of a bachelor’s degree or above. While roughly three in four people living in major cities will have completed Year 12, only three in five will have achieved this same educational attainment in rural and remote
Figure 15.2.6 The rural township of Narrabri, NSW
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c15_p511-550.indd 518
21/05/26 8:48 PM
15.2 How does human wellbeing vary across Australia?
519
communities. Similarly, 41% of Australians in major cities will have completed a bachelor’s degree or above, compared with 27% in inner-regional, 22% in outer-regional and 20% in remote and very remote areas. Likewise, Australians aged 15 and over in metropolitan areas have higher rates of employment.
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
100
Percentage
75
50
25
0
Major cities
Inner regional
Outer regional
Remote
Remoteness area
Year 12 or equivalent
Bachelor’s degree or higher
➜
Figure 15.2.7 People with a bachelor’s degree or higher and Year 12 or equivalent qualification aged 20–64, by remoteness area from 2014–2023 Source: Adapted from the AIHW website
Australians in rural and remote areas are more likely to die at a younger age, have higher mortality rates, higher rates of hospitalisations and injury, and poorer access to primary healthcare services than the urban population. AIHW data from 2021 found that mortality rates increased with remoteness: compared with major cities the mortality rate was 1.1 times higher for inner or outer regional areas, 1.2 times higher for remote areas and 1.5 times higher for very remote areas. Further, life expectancy at birth is also lower for those in rural and remote areas. The Australian Institute reported that, as of 2024, life expectancy differed by 2.3 years on average between inner metropolitan electorate areas and rural electorates. However, this variation is about more than just proximity to healthcare services; rather it is heavily influenced by levels of wealth. This is demonstrated by South Australia’s relatively wealthy rural electorate of Mayo, with an average life expectancy of 84.5, compared to the poorer outer-metropolitan electorate of Spence, with a life expectancy of 80.5. It is four years less, despite being located closer to the metropolitan area.
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c15_p511-550.indd 519
21/05/26 8:48 PM
520
Chapter 15 Case study: Variations in and improving human wellbeing: Australia
Review 15.2 Knowledge and understanding
Online quiz
Thinking and working geographically
Students can access sample responses and results online
Teachers can go online to assign questions, view results, reports and more!
Knowledge and understanding
Life expectancy data from the 2020–2022 period between Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander and non-Indigenous males and females was seen as alarming compared with the previous years. Explain why using data from Figure 15.2.3.
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
1.
2.
Compare the population pyramids for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples and non-Indigenous Australians using Figure 15.2.2. Refer to specific age cohorts as well as the overall shape of the pyramids. Explain why this data is relevant in understanding the difference in wellbeing between these two groups.
Thinking and working geographically
Working with geographical concepts: Space and place 1.
Find a map online of Australia’s total population distribution and compare it to the distribution of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander communities using Figure 15.2.1. Suggest a reason for any similarities and differences. Geographical inquiry
2.
Research more recent life expectancy data from the Closing the Gap website (https://cambridge.edu.au/redirect/11857) and outline whether this alarming trend has continued.
space the concept of space is about the significance of location and spatial distribution, and ways people organise and manage the spaces that we live in place the concept of place is about the significance of places and what they are like
➜
Figure 15.2.1 The city of Sydney viewed from Glebe
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c15_p511-550.indd 520
21/05/26 8:49 PM
15.3 Does it matter where Australians live? Part 1: Environmental and social
521
Does it matter where Australians live? Part 1: Environmental and social
15.3
Success criteria
In this lesson, you will explore the spatial variations in human wellbeing across Australia, focusing on how environmental and social factors vary and influence wellbeing outcomes.
❏ I can explain how environmental and social factors influence the wellbeing of Australians across different locations. ❏ I can compare my own experiences of social wellbeing, such as lifestyle, with those of others.
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
Learning intention
Starter activity
Climate graph comparison
Climate graphs show the monthly average temperatures and precipitation for a particular place over a year. The line graph, typically illustrated in red, depicts the average temperature for each month, while the column graph, usually in blue, shows rainfall. Complete the activities to compare the two climate graphs for Sydney (Figure 15.3.1) and Darwin (Figure 15.3.2). °C 30
Altitude 27m
Climate: Cfa
°C: 18.0
mm: 1057
mm
25
125
20
100
15
75
10
50
5
25
0
01
02
03
04
05
06
07
08
09
10
11
12
0
➜
Figure 15.3.1 Climate graph for Sydney Source: Adapted from the Climate Data website
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c15_p511-550.indd 521
21/05/26 8:49 PM
522
Chapter 15 Case study: Variations in and improving human wellbeing: Australia
1.
Compare the two climate graphs. Identify any similarities and differences, based on the data presented, between the two locations.
2.
Describe the climate of each location.
3.
Explain the impact that climate may have on human wellbeing in each location. °C
Altitude 21m
Climate: A
°C: 27.4
mm: 1873
455
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
35
mm
30
390
25
325
20
260
15
195
10
130
5
65
➜
0
01
02
03
04
05
06
07
08
09
10
11
12
0
Figure 15.3.2 Climate graph for Darwin
Source: Adapted from the Climate Data website
Location, location, location
➜
Writing focus 15.3 Transitional phrases
As explored in Lesson 15.2, there is a significant disparity in human wellbeing data when comparing Australia’s rural and urban areas, and between Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples and non-Indigenous Australians. Location can play a significant role in wellbeing and development across Australia with a number of environmental, economic, social and technological factors contributing to gaps and variations.
Environmental factors
Given the diverse array of environments across the Australian continent, location can play a significant role in influencing human wellbeing. Climate conditions vary greatly – from the hot, tropical regions in the north of the country to the mild, temperate zones in the coastal middle and down to colder regions in the south. These conditions influence the lifestyles and liveability of places. Likewise, proximity
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c15_p511-550.indd 522
21/05/26 8:49 PM
15.3 Does it matter where Australians live? Part 1: Environmental and social
to the coast, which is also generally associated with a proximity to metropolitan areas, can be a significant factor influencing wellbeing. Despite rural and remote areas falling behind their urban counterparts on measures of demographics, health and economics, for aspects of wellbeing related to environmental factors they may have more positive outcomes.
air pollution harmful substances in the air, often consisting of waste from vehicles or industry noise pollution noise, such as that from traffic, that upsets people where they live or work and is considered to be unhealthy for them
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
Air pollution levels in metropolitan areas are generally worse than in rural and remote regions, and the same could be said about noise pollution. The variation in air pollution is illustrated by the levels of nitrogen oxide (NO2) and PM2.5 across the Sydney metropolitan area and surrounding regions (see Figure 15.3.3). Both NO2 and PM2.5 are air pollutants typically generated by emissions from motor vehicles and industrial processes. Both pollutants can have harmful effects on humans, with NO2 associated with respiratory health issues, as well as contributing to smog and acid rain. PM2.5 contributes to respiratory and cardiovascular problems, not only through inhalation into the lungs but also because it can enter the bloodstream.
523
0
Cessnock
Newcastle
69
56
acid rain rain that contains large amounts of harmful chemicals as a result of burning substances such as coal and oil
71
29
70
Gosford
Lithgow
Sydney
LEGEND NO2 (μg/m3) 0–2 2–4
275
39
192
70
35
4–6 6–8
34 39
10–12.5
0
20 km
12.5–15 15–67.3
65
54
14
39
9
368
422
16 24
93
31
241
8–10
Wollongong
151
smog a mixture of smoke, gases, and chemicals, especially in cities, that makes the atmosphere difficult to breathe and harmful for health
56
72
0
0
10 km
4
0
Cessnock
Newcastle
69
56
71
29
70
Gosford
Lithgow
Sydney
LEGEND PM 2-5 (μg/m3) 0–2 2–3
275
192
34 39
6–7
➜
0
20 km
39
65
9
368
422
16 24
93
31
56
72
0 0
54
39
14
241
5–6
7–8 8–12.4
70
35
3–4 4–5
Wollongong
151
10 km
4
Figure 15.3.3 Map of Sydney and surrounding areas with estimated annual average concentrations of NO2 and PM2.5 Source: Journal of Climate Change and Health
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c15_p511-550.indd 523
21/05/26 8:49 PM
524
Chapter 15 Case study: Variations in and improving human wellbeing: Australia
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
heatwave a period of time such as a few weeks when the weather is much hotter than usual
The impacts of climate change are predicted to worsen in the coming decades, and where Australians live may likely influence the level of impact felt. Australia’s first National Climate Risk Assessment, released in September 2025, identified several 5 human wellbeing-related changes that are likely to occur without significant mitigation of human-induced climate change. This included a rise in heatwaves, particularly in the northern parts of Australia, and an associated increase in heat related deaths, up to a 423% increase for Darwin and a 444% increase for Sydney. Climate hazards are likely to have severe impacts, mentally and physically, on our vulnerable communities, including Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples, infants and elderly, and those with pre-existing health conditions.
➜
Climate change impacts in Australia
Figure 2. Climate change impacts in Australia: projections for the year 2100 under different emissions scenarios based on Figure 15.3.4 Predicted impacts of climate change associated with the level of mitigation required to address the issue information from Garnaut 2008 and IPCC 2014.
Warming temperatures across major cities in Australia will likely cause an exacerbation Adaptation will continue to be an important Australia urban heat island is one of the most vulnerable developed consideration by all levels of government, and countries in the world to the impacts of climate of the already existing “heat island effect” leading to further wellbeing impacts forfor when urban business, industry, and the community. Adaptation change. Climate change is expected to increase the areas become Australians living in metropolitan areas. Urban heat islands are caused by the planning is underway in many instances, but there frequency and intensity of extreme weather events, significantly replacement of natural land cover with human-made and is a long way toheat-absorbing go in determiningmaterials what actions warmer while than rising sea levels pose a significant risk to coastal such as Australia buildings and roads. This leads toand increases in how daytime temperatures, are required, when and they should surrounding communitiessurfaces, and infrastructure. faces implemented. vegetated areas significant environmental and economic impacts illustrated by the temperature gradient inbeFigure 15.3.5. Importantly, the scale of the due to human challenge means that costs will be high, and we need across a number of sectors, including water security, activity agriculture, and to consider how adaptation can be funded, as a coastal communities, and infrastructure. development large share of adaptation measures will need to be Decisions made today about infrastructure, health, financed by private capital. water management, agriculture and biodiversity will have lasting consequences for future generations.
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c15_p511-550.indd 524
21/05/26 8:49 PM
Late afternoon temperature °C
15.3 Does it matter where Australians live? Part 1: Environmental and social
525
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
URBAN HEAT ISLAND
➜
Rural
Suburban Commercial residential
City
Urban Park residential
Suburban residential
Rural farmland
Figure 15.3.5 Variations in the late afternoon temperature resulting from the urban heat island effect
Low-res
➜
Figure 15.3.6 Map showing average annual days over 35°C, existing urban areas’ tree canopy and walking trips as a percentage of all trips across Sydney
Social factors
As addressed in Lesson 15.2, there are significant variations when comparing demographics across locations in Australia, particularly between rural and urban places. Rural and remote areas are likely to experience lower life expectancy and higher mortality rates than urban places. Urban and metropolitan areas have greater access to educational opportunities and to healthcare services and infrastructure. Australians living in remote locations often face barriers when it comes to accessing and using healthcare due to the need to travel greater distances between their place of residence and medical facilities; limited local infrastructure due to low population density and demands; higher costs for the delivery of rural and remote healthcare; and challenges with an undersupply of health-related professionals.
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c15_p511-550.indd 525
21/05/26 8:49 PM
526
Chapter 15 Case study: Variations in and improving human wellbeing: Australia
Several other social factors can be different across locations including culture, lifestyle and community relationships. Culture, encompassing the values, traditions and beliefs of a society, shapes how people interact with one another and with their environment. Culture can take the form of language, social customs, religion and food, and it varies greatly across Australia.
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
As a country, our diverse, multicultural population has created a society with a variety of foods, festivals and traditions. Not only is Australia home to Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander cultures – the world’s oldest continuous cultures; there are also, according to census data from 2011, more than 300 different ancestries represented in non-Indigenous Australians. Urban areas, particularly major cities, have become hubs for this diversity of culture, shaped by global influences. Comparatively, regional areas are often defined by more traditional values, a strong sense of community, close connection to the land and environment, and rich Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander heritage. Similarly, lifestyles can vary significantly across the different regions and cities of Australia. Urban lifestyles are fast-paced and often focused around work, whereas life in regional areas tends to operate at a slower pace. Coastal lifestyles, centred on beachgoing, swimming and surfing, are common for a large proportion of Australia’s population given the concentration of settlements in coastal areas. Other lifestyle variations can be observed across food and cafe culture, and even in the world of sport. Community connectedness, through the quality of social connections, with family, peer groups and within neighbourhoods, can also vary across Australia. In 2021, a poll conducted by the University of Sydney’s Sydney Policy Lab on civic engagement identified that the most active citizens (those who are addressing public concerns and contributing to a community’s wellbeing) were younger people from culturally diverse families. According to their study, one of the strongest indicators of being an engaged citizen is the ability to form new relationships with people outside of a person’s existing family and friend network. How connected do people feel to their community?
32%
Not that connected
50% Fairly connected
7% Not connected at all
12% Very connected
➜
Figure 15.3.6 Community connectedness findings from the University of Sydney’s Sydney Policy Lab Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c15_p511-550.indd 526
21/05/26 8:49 PM
527
15.3 Does it matter where Australians live? Part 1: Environmental and social
Review 15.3 Knowledge and understanding
Online quiz
Thinking and working geographically
Teachers can go online to assign questions, view results, reports and more!
Students can access sample responses and results online
Knowledge and understanding
Using Figure 15.3.3, describe the spatial pattern of air pollution across Sydney.
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
1. 2.
Explain how the urban heat island effect could have a negative impact on human wellbeing.
3.
Consider your local neighbourhood/area:
a. Describe the lifestyle of your local neighbourhood/area. b. Compare with a classmate who lives in a different neighbourhood/area. Is the lifestyle the same or does it differ? Explain.
Thinking and working geographically
Working with geographical concepts: Place and environment 1.
Visit the Clearinghouse for Sport website (https://cambridge.edu.au/redirect/11858). a. Outline how climate influences participation in sport. b. Identify a specific location in Australia where participation in sport is greatly affected by climate. c. Discuss the resulting impact on human wellbeing.
Civic engagement 2.
Create a survey or poll on the whiteboard to determine the level of civic engagement for the class. Your survey or poll should determine the number of students who have engaged in:
• volunteering • community clean ups • membership with a club, association or community group (i.e. sporting team) • learning about community issues • reading or viewing local news/media.
3.
place the concept of place is about the significance of places and what they are like environment the concept of environment is about the significance of the environment in human life, and the important interrelationships between humans and the environment
Rate the class’s overall level of civic engagement.
➜
Figure 15.3.7 Community volunteers clean up plastic pollution from lake.
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c15_p511-550.indd 527
21/05/26 8:49 PM
528
Chapter 15 Case study: Variations in and improving human wellbeing: Australia
15.4
Does it matter where Australians live? Part 2: Economic and technological Success criteria
In this lesson, you will extend your exploration of spatial variations in human wellbeing across Australia, focusing on how economic and technological factors vary and influence wellbeing outcomes.
❏ I can explain how environmental and social factors influence the wellbeing of Australians across different locations. ❏ I can gather sources, information and data that demonstrate human wellbeing phenomena.
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
Learning intention
Starter activity
Does the internet enhance wellbeing?
Internet access has expanded rapidly across the globe in the last few decades, allowing more people to connect, learn and work across countries and continents. The speed and reliability of the internet is critical. 1.
Using Figure 15.4.1, describe the global spatial distribution of internet access.
2.
Using Figure 15.4.2: a. Outline the trend in 4G network accessibility between 2015 and 2023. b. Identify which region experienced the greatest change. Discuss how internet access can influence human wellbeing.
3.
Share of the population using the Internet, 2023 Share of the population who used the Internet¹ in the last three months.
No data 0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
70%
80%
90%
100%
Data source: World Telecommunication/ICT Indicators Database - International Telecommunication Union (ITU), via World Bank (2026) OurWorldinData.org/internet | CC BY
➜
1. Internet user The International Telecommunication Union defines an Internet user as anyone who has accessed the Internet from any location in the last three months. This can be from any type of device, including a computer, mobile phone, personal digital assistant, games machine, digital TV, and other technological devices.
Figure 15.4.1 Share of the population using the internet, 2023 Source: Our World in Data website
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c15_p511-550.indd 528
21/05/26 8:49 PM
529
➜
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
15.4 Does it matter where Australians live? Part 2: Economic and technological
Figure 15.4.2 Share of population across world regions that are in the range of a 4G network, 2015–2023
Economic factors
However, there are outliers, with some rural and remote areas sitting in the most advantaged quintile, as seen in the northern regions of Western Australia or far-western regions of New South Wales; these are likely driven by mining economies. Karratha, a regional hub in WA’s Pilbara region, is a great example of this, with an economy driven by large-scale mining of iron, oil and gas. Rio Tinto, one of the world’s largest metals and mining companies, is among one of the several mining companies operating in
Writing focus 15.4 Developing sentences ➜
Socio-economic status (SES) is a measure of a person’s social and economic standing, reflective of an individual’s access to resources and opportunities. SES is based on factors such as income, occupation and education levels. Typically, higher paying jobs are concentrated in Australia’s metropolitan areas, leading to a general pattern of higher SES in urban areas as shown by Figure 15.4.3.
socio-economic status (SES) the differences between groups of people caused mainly by their financial situation quintile when a population (or data set) has been divided into five equally sized groups
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c15_p511-550.indd 529
21/05/26 8:49 PM
530
Chapter 15 Case study: Variations in and improving human wellbeing: Australia
the region. Data from the Australian Tax Office showed that the average income for the 2021–22 financial year was $102,257 in Karratha, well above Western Australia’s average of $71,163.
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
Darwin
Brisbane
Perth
Sydney
LEGEND
Adelaide
Canberra
1 (most disadvantaged) 2
Melbourne
3
4
5 (most advantaged)
0
1,000 km
➜
Hobart
Figure 15.4.3 Index of relative socio-economic advantage and disadvantage across Australia’s local government areas
Source: ABS
While SES tends to be higher in metropolitan areas, such as Sydney, the concentration of unemployed people living in urban areas is above the nation’s average, with two-thirds of unemployed people living in Australia’s capital cities. Additionally, while SES is higher on average in metropolitan areas, significant spatial variations still occur within cities. Sydney, for example, has a clear delineation of higher incomes and lower incomes, divided by what is often referred to as the “latte line”. This can be seen in Figure 15.4.4 and separates the affluent north-eastern suburbs from the less affluent south-west. Research conducted by the University of Sydney’s School of Architecture, Design and Planning, and published in 2024, found that socio-economic lines such as
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c15_p511-550.indd 530
21/05/26 8:49 PM
531
15.4 Does it matter where Australians live? Part 2: Economic and technological
the “latte line” are becoming increasingly entrenched in capital cities across Australia. Economic inequality is being driven in Sydney by a history of greater access to education, jobs and rising property-based wealth in the suburbs north of the invisible boundary compared with those suburbs south of it.
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
Rouse Hill
Hornsby
Dee Why
Blacktown
Parramatta
Mosman
Sydney CBD
Liverpool
Lat te L
Campbelltown
ine
Sutherland
LEGEND
➜
Least advantaged
Most advantaged
0
10 km
Figure 15.4.4 The socio-economic line dividing Sydney, often referred to as the “latte line” Source: Adapted from The Sydney Morning Herald website
Technological factors
While technology in general is becoming far easier to access for all Australians, there are still considerable differences among urban, rural and remote areas. These variations are generally associated with a disparity in infrastructure. Urban areas typically have faster, more reliable internet and mobile networks, and greater access to new technologies. In contrast, rural and remote areas experience issues with the reliability and speed of internet and mobile networks, and additionally pay higher costs for access. These variations create what is often referred to as a digital divide, and have flow on effects for other areas of human wellbeing, including education and healthcare.
digital divide the problem of some members of society not having the opportunity or knowledge to use digital technologies, such as computers and the internet, that others have
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c15_p511-550.indd 531
21/05/26 8:49 PM
532
Chapter 15 Case study: Variations in and improving human wellbeing: Australia
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
Geographical challenges, including terrain and the distance between locations, can severely limit the development of infrastructure in rural and remote regions. In recent years, however, there has been an increase in connectivity to networks, with large companies such as Optus and Telstra expanding the rural coverage of their 5G networks.
➜
The Australian Digital Inclusion Index, a collaboration between Telstra, the ARC Figure 15.4.5 5G network tower on an Australian sugar Centre of Excellence for Automated cane farm Decision-Making and Society at RMIT, and the Centre for Social Impact Swinburne University of Technology, has focused on measuring Australia’s digital divide. It focuses on digital inclusion – the idea that everyone should be able to access, afford, connect with, participate in and benefit from the digital world.
➜
The 2025 study highlighted improvements in digital inclusion nationally, with access and “digital ability” improving since 2023. However, it also found significant levels of affordability stress for households, an under-provision of speed and data resulting from cost pressures, and that around 20% of Australians are excluded from the digital world. Critically, there is a gap of 5.9 points between cities and regional areas and a gap of 10.5 points between Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples and other Australians, with 40.9% of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people considered to be digitally excluded.
Figure 15.4.6 Australian engineer planning construction project in rural landscape using a laptop and phone
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c15_p511-550.indd 532
21/05/26 8:49 PM
533
15.4 Does it matter where Australians live? Part 2: Economic and technological
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
Digitally excluded Australians are greatly affected when it comes to the social, economic and education-based benefits created by online connectivity, further influencing their quality of life. In 2024, the CSIRO published new research on what will likely come to define the future of digital inclusivity – artificial intelligence (AI). Decades of research now clearly outlines who is most at risk in Australia. The most likely to find themselves excluded from the digital world are the elderly, people on lower incomes, Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples and those in remote areas. The research identified that AI has the potential to exacerbate the digital divide rather than bridge gaps in digital exclusion. However, AI also has the potential to improve human wellbeing by targeting issues related to inclusivity. Examples include computer tracking of tennis balls to make tennis matches audible to low-vision or blind spectators, or the potential for AI-powered chatbots to provide medical services.
Review 15.4
Online quiz
Knowledge and understanding
Thinking and working geographically
Students can access sample responses and results online
Teachers can go online to assign questions, view results, reports and more!
Knowledge and understanding 1.
Using Figure 15.4.3, describe the spatial pattern of SES across Australia.
2.
Define the term “digital divide”.
3.
Explain how digital exclusion affects human wellbeing.
Thinking and working geographically
Working with geographical concepts: Interconnection 1.
Conduct research to gather three pieces of evidence supporting the “latte line” (socio-economic divide) in Sydney. Evidence may take the form of a visual source, statistics or data representation. For each:
interconnection the concept of interconnection emphasises that no object of geographical study can be viewed in isolation
a. Summarise the key observation/finding. b. Explain how it demonstrates evidence of the “latte line”.
Extended response 2.
“Artificial Intelligence will come to define the future of the global state of human wellbeing, for good or for bad.” To what extent do you agree with this statement?
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c15_p511-550.indd 533
21/05/26 8:49 PM
534
Chapter 15 Case study: Variations in and improving human wellbeing: Australia
15.5
What is Australia doing to improve human wellbeing? Success criteria
In this lesson, you will learn about how well Australia is meeting the Sustainable Development Goals and the strategies that have been implemented to improve human wellbeing across the nation.
❏ I can identify strategies that have been implemented to improve human wellbeing in Australia. ❏ I can assess Australia’s progress in addressing the Sustainable Development Goals.
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
Learning intention
Lesson starter
How much money are we spending on our health?
Health expenditure, which includes both public and private funds spent on providing healthcare to individuals, can play a large role in influencing human wellbeing globally. Use Figure 15.5.1 to complete the following activities: 1.
Describe the trend in total health spending per person between 2000 and 2022 for: a. the world b. Australia.
Total health spending per person
The sum of public and private annual health expenditure per person. This data is adjusted for differences in living costs between countries, but it is not adjusted for inflation. $14,000
United States
$12,000
$10,000
$8,000
Denmark Australia Canada
$6,000
New Zealand South Korea
$4,000
$2,000
$0
World India
2000
2005
2010
Data source: Global Health Expenditure Database, WHO, via World Bank (2026)
2015
2020 2022
OurWorldinData.org/financing-healthcare | CC BY
Note: This data is expressed in current international-$¹.
Complete a see, think, 1. International dollars International dollars are a hypothetical currency that is used to make meaningful comparisons of monetary indicators of living wonder based on the standards. Figures expressed in constant international dollars are adjusted for inflation within countries over time, and for differences in the cost of living between countries. graph: The goal of such adjustments is to provide a unit whose purchasing power is held fixed over time and across countries, such that one international dollar can buy the same quantity and quality of goods and services no matter where or when it is spent. a. See: What is one Read more in our article: What are international dollars? positive trend or data Figure 15.5.1 Total health spending per person from 2000–2022 point you see in the data presented? Source: Our World in Data b. Think: Which trend or data point do you think is most concerning? c. Wonder: What does the data in this graph make you wonder?
3.
Explain how health expenditure connects with human wellbeing.
➜
2.
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c15_p511-550.indd 534
21/05/26 8:49 PM
15.5 What is Australia doing to improve human wellbeing?
535
Australia’s Sustainable Development Goals progress
Writing focus 15.5 Developing sentences
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
➜
As of 2025, the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) were over two-thirds of the way through to their end date of 2030. The UN encourages member states to complete voluntary national reviews – regular and inclusive reviews of progress aimed at facilitating shared experiences and accelerating implementation. However, Australia has only completed one review, in 2018. More recent data can be found through the Sustainable Development Report, which tracks global progress to complement the official SDG indicators. As of 2025:
• Australia’s SDG Index Rank is 36/167 with an SDG Index Score of 77.88. • No SDG has been fully achieved, but 51.3% of targets are achieved or on track to be achieved. Challenges remain for six goals, significant challenges remain for six goals, and major challenges remain for five goals. 17.9% of targets have made limited progress and 30.8% are worsening.
• •
The dashboard of SDG progress can be seen in Figure 15.5.2.
Significant challenges remain
Trends: On track or maintaining SDG achievement Trend information unavailable
Moderately improving
➜
Dashboards: SDG achieved Challenges remain Major challenges remain Information unavailable
Stagnating
Decreasing
Figure 15.5.2 Australia’s 2025 SDG progress dashboard based on the Sustainable Development Report Source: Sustainable Development Report website
An additional independent review was conducted by the Monash Sustainable Development Institute. Findings in their Transforming Australia: SDG Progress Report 2024 support those of the Sustainable Development Report website. None of the 17 SDGs were completely on track and, in assessing 80 indicators with the most recent data available, around 30% of indicators were on track to be met by 2030, with 34% going backwards.
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c15_p511-550.indd 535
21/05/26 8:49 PM
536
Chapter 15 Case study: Variations in and improving human wellbeing: Australia
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
Despite these worrying signs, Australia had progressed well in some key areas. It is on track and performing comparatively stronger than other OECD countries on gender equity, clean energy, employment and safety as well, as making significant progress in several other key goals. Despite progress in these key areas, the wellbeing of many Australians is still at risk due to growing disparities, lagging innovation and critical environmental challenges. Findings from the 2024 report across many of the SDGs are included in Table 15.5.1. Table 15.5.1 Key data points based on the Monash Sustainable Development Institute’s Transforming Australia: SDG Progress Report 2024 Source: Monash Sustainable Development Institute website SDG
poverty line the official level of income that is needed to achieve a basic living standard with enough money for things such as food, clothing and a place to live food insecurity when a person, family or place is not always able to produce or obtain enough food to feed the group or population
Key data findings
1
- More than 3 million Australians were living below the poverty line, slightly above the OECD average.
2
- Similar numbers to those living below the poverty line also faced food insecurity.
3
+ Average life expectancy was 83.2 years, above the 80.6 years OECD average.
4
+ 48.7% of Australians had a tertiary education, above the OECD average of 40%. - Gaps in education widened significantly between high and low socio-economic groups.
5
+ Reducing the gender gap by 21% for superannuation, 12% for wages, and with 38.4% of parliamentary seats being held by women, Australia was sitting above the OECD average of 32.8%.
6
+ Per capita water consumption was below OECD average.
7
+ Share of renewable electricity was at 35, below the OECD average of 50% but quadruple the share since 2010.
8
+ Net debt of the government was less than half the average of advanced economies. + Disposable income per capita exceeded countries such as Japan, Canada, Sweden and the United Kingdom. + Unemployment was sitting at 3.7% and underemployment at 6.4%. - Real wages were reduced due to high inflation.
9
- Investment in innovation and economic diversification had fallen significantly compared with peer countries. - Australia had gone through a 40% decline below the OECD average in research, development and knowledge-based capital.
10
- Wealth inequality was continuing to worsen, well above rates seen in similar countries.
11
+ Levels of air pollution experienced in Australia’s cities were well below world standards.
13
+ Greenhouse gas emissions were declining continually. - There were worsening natural disaster impacts.
15
- There were continued declines in threatened species.
16
+ Feelings of safety and levels of trust in Australia were high compared to similar countries, with low homicide rates.
Note: Positive progress points are indicated by a “ + ” and negative points (stagnation or regression) are indicated by a “- ” Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c15_p511-550.indd 536
21/05/26 8:49 PM
15.5 What is Australia doing to improve human wellbeing?
intergenerational involving different generations
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
The report recommended that SDG-aligned targets should be integrated into the Measuring What Matters framework (which will be explored later in this lesson) to ensure accountability. Additional recommendations from the report included the following: the authentic integration of collective knowledge and intergenerational stewardship of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples in leadership and policy-making; supporting self-determination for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples; establishing a Commissioner for Future Generations; advocating for and representing long-term interests to achieve intergenerational fairness; and creating a nationally agreed upon definition of poverty and an official way of monitoring poverty rates.
537
On the 22 September 2024, the UN held the Summit of the Future, with world leaders renewing their commitment to achieve the SDGs under the Pact for the Future. Emerging from this summit were 56 actionable commitments that the Australian Government must plan to address with appropriate strategies.
What strategies has Australia implemented to address wellbeing?
In 2023, the Measuring What Matters framework was established by the Australian Government to track progress towards “a more healthy, secure, sustainable, cohesive and prosperous Australia”. The framework consists of 50 key indicators across the five wellbeing themes which are expanded upon below:
• Healthy: focuses on physical and mental health, timely access to services and • • • •
health literacy Secure: focuses on people living peaceful, safe and financially secured lives with access to housing Sustainable: focuses on the sustainable use of resources, both natural and financial, as well as protecting, repairing and building resilience for the environment Cohesive: focuses on supporting connections with family, friends and communities, valuing the diversity of culture and promoting a sense of belonging Prosperous: focuses on having a strong, dynamic economy that invests in people’s skills, education and opportunities for employment in secure jobs.
According to the framework’s dashboard in 2025, under the “healthy” theme, adults experiencing high levels of psychological distress, the prevalence of chronic conditions, and access to health and support services were all increasing. There is a huge range of indicators being tracked by the dashboard, from percentage of protected areas, abundance of Australia’s threatened species and climate resilience among other data points in the “sustainable” theme, to digital preparedness, job satisfaction and skills development in the “prosperous” theme.
Additionally, the Australian Government Department of Health created the National Preventative Health Strategy 2021–2030, which is aimed at improving health and wellbeing outcomes for all Australians with a systems-based approach for prevention, addressing overall health, reducing health inequities and decreasing the overall burden of disease. Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c15_p511-550.indd 537
21/05/26 8:49 PM
538
Chapter 15 Case study: Variations in and improving human wellbeing: Australia
Strategies being used to support preventative health include early detection programs, free immunisations, mental health and suicide-prevention policies as well as initiatives for chronic conditions, obesity, substance use (including drugs, alcohol and smoking).
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
As of 2025, Australia had taken several critical steps towards improving the nation’s overall human wellbeing. However, there is a clear need for further strategies and improvements to not only meet our international obligations under the Agenda for Sustainable Development 2030, but also to ensure a healthy and prosperous future for the nation.
Review 15.5
Knowledge and understanding
Online quiz
Thinking and working geographically
Students can access sample responses and results online
Teachers can go online to assign questions, view results, reports and more!
Knowledge and understanding 1.
Consider Australia’s SDG progress dashboard in Figure 15.5.2. Which goal is most concerning and why?
2.
Explain how creating a nationally agreed on definition of poverty and an official way of monitoring poverty rates would enhance wellbeing.
3.
Assess Australia’s progress in meeting the SDGs.
Thinking and working geographically
Working with geographical concepts: Place 1.
Visit the Country Profiles page on the Sustainable Development Report website (https://cambridge.edu.au/redirect/11859) and choose another country to view their progress dashboard.
place the concept of place is about the significance of places and what they are like
a. Outline the selected country’s progress towards achieving the SDGs. b. How does the selected country compare with Australia?
Geographical inquiry 2.
Visit the Measuring What Matters dashboard on the ABS website (https://cambridge.edu.au/ redirect/11860). Select one of the themes on the dashboard and complete a PMI (Plus, Minus, Interesting) table by collating data across all of the theme’s indicators, categorised as either positive (Plus), negative (Minus) or interesting. See the table format below:
Plus
Minus
Interesting
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c15_p511-550.indd 538
21/05/26 8:49 PM
539
15.6 What role does culture, heritage and community play in enhancing human wellbeing in Australia?
15.6
What role does culture, heritage and community play in enhancing human wellbeing in Australia? Success criteria
In this lesson, you will learn about the importance of culture, heritage and community to the improvement of wellbeing for Australians.
❏ I can outline the importance of social support, resilience and fostering participation. ❏ I can explain how a sense of identity and belonging enhances human wellbeing.
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
Learning intention
Starter activity
➜
The importance of communities
Figure 15.6.1 Sporting teams represent important communities for many Australians.
Community refers to people living in a particular area or who are considered a unit because of their shared interests, social grouping or nationality. Communities can form around neighbourhoods, sporting teams, schools, recreational activities and places of worship. A person’s sense of community can greatly influence their wellbeing. 1.
List all the communities that you are a part of (e.g. sporting teams).
2.
Choose one of the communities identified and explain how being a part of that community contributes to your wellbeing.
community the people living in one particular area or people who are considered as a unit because of their common interests, social group or nationality culture the way of life, customs, beliefs, attitudes, behaviours and opinions of a particular group of people at a particular time
heritage a person’s racial, ethnic, religious or cultural background
Enhancing wellbeing through identity and belonging
Writing focus 15.6 Appositives ➜
Culture, heritage and community are integral components to the wellbeing of people across the world, strengthening their sense of identity and belonging, and fostering social support. Given Australia’s context, with our cultural diversity and Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples, these elements are incredibly influential to our overall wellbeing
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c15_p511-550.indd 539
21/05/26 8:49 PM
540
Chapter 15 Case study: Variations in and improving human wellbeing: Australia
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
as a country. For Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples, deep connections to family, community, Country and spirituality are foundational to social and emotional wellbeing. Likewise, for Australians from culturally diverse backgrounds, connecting with and maintaining heritage, language and traditions can provide a strong sense of self and connection, positively influencing mental health. For all Australians, irrespective of heritage and background, the arts, festivals and other cultural events bring people together to celebrate connection and what makes their communities unique. Australia’s sense of community and belonging has suffered in recent years. While many people still feel a positive connection to their neighbourhoods and communities, there has been a decline in overall scores for indicators connected with belonging. This is particularly the case for younger Australians and those facing economic disadvantage or hardship, often due to cost of living and economic inequality. Recent statistics indicate that there have been significant drops in feeling a sense of belonging for many people since 2020.
upward mobility the process of a person improving their socioeconomic status over the course of their life
The Australian Institute of Health and Welfare (AIHW) highlights the importance of indicators based on social cohesion and social connection to understand the sense of community and belonging in Australia. Social cohesion is a multi-dimensional concept, built on the notions of trust, solidarity and connectedness at the community and society-wide scales. A society with strong social cohesion is more likely to experience greater economic growth, be more resilient to external shocks and healthier overall. According to the OECD, cohesive societies enhance the wellbeing of all people, fight against marginalisation and exclusion, promote trust and belonging, and give the opportunity of upward mobility to all.
The interrelated concept of social connection is concerned with the quality of time, quantity of time and support that people spend and feel with others. Indicators related to both concepts are included in wellbeing frameworks, including the Measuring What Matters framework explored in our previous lesson, and the OECD Wellbeing Framework. Based on ABS data, in 2024, “sense of belonging” through the Social Cohesion Index, was scored at 77, the lowest it has been since the index first began in 2007. The 2024 score was only a small drop from 2023, which was 78, but a significant drop from 2020 when the score was 88, as shown in Figure 15.6.2. 90 88
Index
86
84 82
80
78
➜
76
2018
2019
2020 Overall social cohesion
2021 2022 Sense of belonging
2023
2024
Figure 15.6.2 Australia’s overall social cohesion and sense of belonging scores, 2018–2024 Source: AIHW website
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c15_p511-550.indd 540
21/05/26 8:49 PM
15.6 What role does culture, heritage and community play in enhancing human wellbeing in Australia?
541
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
Based on data gathered by the AIHW, in 2024 around four in five adults agreed that people in their local area would be willing to help their neighbours. They also felt a sense of belonging in their neighbourhood. However, one in two reported often or sometimes feeling isolated from others, and two in five often felt left out. While these statistics don’t sound overwhelmingly positive, the numbers have remained relatively stable since 2018, which is a good sign for the strength of Australia’s social cohesion. Other findings from 2021–22 point to the positive engagement of individuals in community and cultural experiences despite the COVID-19 pandemic, with 32% of Australians over 15 years of age participating in activities such as visual arts, music, dance and craft, and 64% of adults attending a cultural venue or event.
Social support, resilience and fostering participation
There are many ways we can enhance wellbeing through culture, heritage and community to provide Australians with greater support and build greater resilience and active participation in society. Shared experiences, through participation in cultural activities, the sharing of traditions, and connecting with family, friends and members of our communities, is key to building a strong societal support system. As explored earlier in the lesson, a sense of belonging, through social cohesion and connections provides a buffer against stress and reduces feelings of isolation.
Strategies and actions to enhance the sense of community and belonging in Australia can range from the local to national scales. Promoting inclusion through education and in workplaces can foster wellbeing on a wider scale. Likewise, employment and economic opportunities through programs that support cultural heritage and upward mobility create jobs that simultaneously drive economic development and strengthen cultural practices. An example of this is the increasing use of Indigenous Rangers and Indigenous Protected Areas across Australia. The National Indigenous Australians Agency (NIAA) through the Culture and Capability Programme of the Indigenous Advancement Strategy, provides funding to support the enhancement and maintenance of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples’ cultural expression and conservation. Funded projects are aimed at increasing the participation of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples across Australia in social and economic life. At a local level, supporting community-led initiatives, particularly for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples, empowers self-determination and can lead to improvements in social, economic and health outcomes. Relationships Australia, a group of community-based, not-for-profit organisations, launched the “Neighbours Every Day” campaign, aimed at improving social connection and belonging within neighbourhoods and wider communities. The “Neighbour Day 2025” took place on 25 March and encouraged individuals to take action, whether it be in a small or large way, from a simple message of support to a friend to a picnic in the park, to connect and promote inclusion. Local activities and projects, such as the creation of community gardens, can foster a sense of shared purpose, connection and pride, demonstrating that even small-scale actions can greatly help to improve wellbeing.
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c15_p511-550.indd 541
21/05/26 8:49 PM
542
Chapter 15 Case study: Variations in and improving human wellbeing: Australia
Review 15.6 Knowledge and understanding
Online quiz
Thinking and working geographically
Students can access sample responses and results online
Teachers can go online to assign questions, view results, reports and more!
Knowledge and understanding
Use Figure 15.6.2 to complete the following: a. Describe trends in social cohesion and sense of belonging in Australia between 2018 and 2024. b. What are the likely reasons for these trends? Explain how social cohesion and a sense of belonging in a community enhance the wellbeing of individuals.
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
1.
2.
Thinking and working geographically
Working with geographical concepts: Place 1.
Research a local example that demonstrates how culture, heritage or community enhances human wellbeing. This could include an event, group or place. Complete the following tasks:
place the concept of place is about the significance of places and what they are like
a. Outline the example. b. Describe how it enhances human wellbeing. c. Propose a way that your local area could further address human wellbeing through culture, heritage or community.
Geographical inquiry 2.
Visit the Australian Government NIAA website (https://cambridge.edu.au/redirect/11861). Complete the table by locating and summarising relevant information for each action related to culture and empowering communities:
Action
Summary
How it influences human wellbeing
NAIDOC Heritage
Indigenous broadcasting
Empowered communities Indigenous capability
Reconciliation Australia
Indigenous interpreters
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c15_p511-550.indd 542
21/05/26 8:49 PM
543
15.7 How are Australia’s Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples enhancing human wellbeing?
15.7
How are Australia’s Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples enhancing human wellbeing? Success criteria
In this lesson, you will explore how Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples are enhancing wellbeing across Australia, with a focus on Aboriginal Community Controlled Organisations and an investigation into the remote town of Marlinja.
❏ I can describe the purpose of Aboriginal Community Controlled Organisations. ❏ I can explain how Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples are enhancing wellbeing across Australia.
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
Learning intention
Starter activity
The important role of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander health professionals
Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander health professionals play a critical role in providing healthcare services across Australia by improving clinical services and communicating with Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander clients and communities. 1.
2.
3.
18
34
24
12
36
1
24
1
National
5
Figure 15.7.1 Map showing the number of ACCHS in each state and territory ➜
Using Figure 15.7.1, describe the spatial distribution of Aboriginal Community Controlled Health Services (ACCHS) across Australia. Use Table 15.7.1 to answer the following: a. Which state/territory had the highest number of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander persons in 2021? b. Which state/territory had experienced the greatest change in the number of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander persons between 2011 and 2021? Compare the number of ACCHS and the population of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander persons for states and territories: a. Does the number of ACCHS match the population numbers for states and territories? b. Are there any exceptions and why might they differ from the expected trend?
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c15_p511-550.indd 543
21/05/26 8:49 PM
544
Chapter 15 Case study: Variations in and improving human wellbeing: Australia
Table 15.7.1 Census counts by state/territory, Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander persons, 2011–2021 Source: ABS 2016 population (no.)
2021 population (no.)
New South Wales
172,625
216,176
278,043
Victoria
37,992
47,788
65,646
Queensland
155,826
186,482
237,303
South Australia
30,432
34,184
42,562
Western Australia
69,664
75,978
88,693
Tasmania
19,625
23,572
30,186
Northern Territory,
56,779
58,248
61,115
Australian Capital Territory
5,184
6,508
8,949
Australia
548,368
649,171
812,728
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
2011 population (no.)
Aboriginal Community Controlled Organisations
➜
Writing focus 15.7 Creating topic sentences
Aboriginal Community Controlled Organisation (ACCO) an organisation that is controlled and operated by Aboriginal and/or Torres Strait Islander Peoples to deliver services, including land and resource management that builds the strength and empowerment of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander communities
Aboriginal Community Controlled Organisations (ACCOs) are organisations that are formed, governed and run by local Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander communities. ACCOs provide Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander communities with a greater voice in decision making and therefore enable self-determination. They are aimed at meeting the specific needs of communities through the delivery of holistic, culturally appropriate services across health, social services and education sectors.
Aboriginal Community Controlled Health Organisations (ACCHOs) are a specific form of ACCO that focus on providing care for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples, addressing physical health but also extending to social, emotional and cultural wellbeing for communities across Australia. As ACCHOs are communityrun, they are able to ensure that the unique healthcare needs of each individual and community is met with tailored approaches. As identified by the National Aboriginal Community Controlled Health Organisation (NACCHO), for many Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people, health is not only influenced by community relationships, but also deeply connected to land, sea, culture and language. Connections will vary between each individual and community. ACCHOs therefore ensure that healthcare services are responsive to local culture and reflect the local understanding of what “health” means.
self-determination the right to shape one’s own life, including choice in governance, participation in decisions and control over one’s future Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c15_p511-550.indd 544
21/05/26 8:49 PM
15.7 How are Australia’s Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples enhancing human wellbeing?
545
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
ACCOs also provide social services for communities, ranging from housing to family and child support, aged care, disability services and various cultural services. Services are also available for education, such as the provision of culturally safe learning environments for children. ACCOs play a crucial role in addressing the life expectancy gap between Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples and non-Indigenous Australians. Their effectiveness ultimately lies in their deep understanding of local cultures and through their integrated approach to care; they offer both healthcare and social services, reducing the need for individuals to navigate different systems.
Case study: Marlinja, Northern Territory
Many remote communities in the Northern Territory are experiencing extreme levels of energy insecurity, with flow-on effects to other wellbeing-related outcomes, such as cost of living pressures and access to services. This energy insecurity is often linked to high household power costs and lengthy outages, leading to regular electricity disconnections for residents.
Marlinja is one of these communities. Situated on the traditional lands of the Mudburra and Jingili Peoples, roughly halfway between Darwin and Alice Springs, the community is only home to around 60 residents. According to WWF, Aboriginal communities in the Northern Territory, such as Marlinja, experience the highest rates of energy insecurity of any population globally.
energy in security the inability of a place to produce or obtain enough energy (electricity, fuel, etc.) for the needs of the people who live there
In 2019, a partnership between the Marlinja community and Original Power led to the Marlinja Microgrid project. The first phase of this project saw the installation of a solar array for the community centre. Residents were directly involved in the planning, training for and installation of the array. Phase two involved a community-wide transition to solar power, reducing reliance on the diesel power station located 25 kilometres north, in Elliot.
➜
Figure 15.7.2 The Marlinja Microgrid
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c15_p511-550.indd 545
21/05/26 8:49 PM
546
Chapter 15 Case study: Variations in and improving human wellbeing: Australia
➜
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
From the time of its installation in June 2024, the Marlinja Microgrid has provided significant improvements to the community, with enough electricity for daytime and night-time energy needs. The creation of the solar farm and battery has allowed the Marlinja community to become almost entirely self-sufficient and has reduced power costs for residents by 70%. The residents of Marlinja, alongside their project partners Original Power, hope to negotiate with the Northern Territory Government to allow the community to sell the energy produced back to the grid. The project represents the first grid-connected Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander community – owned renewable energy project in Australia, setting an example for other remote communities to design renewable energy solutions and improve wellbeing.
Figure 15.7.3 Original Power worked with the Marlinja community to build the solar farm.
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c15_p511-550.indd 546
21/05/26 8:49 PM
547
15.7 How are Australia’s Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples enhancing human wellbeing?
Review 15.7 Online quiz
Knowledge and understanding
Thinking and working geographically
Students can access sample responses and results online
Teachers can go online to assign questions, view results, reports and more!
Knowledge and understanding
Identify two specific services provided by ACCOs that benefit human wellbeing.
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
1. 2.
Explain how ACCOs enhance human wellbeing.
3.
Discuss the impacts of renewable energy production on the wellbeing of the Marlinja community.
Thinking and working geographically
Working with geographical concepts: Space 1.
space the concept of space is about the significance of location and spatial distribution, and ways people organise and manage the spaces that we live in
Visit the NACCHO website (https://cambridge.edu.au/redirect/11862) and explore the NACCHO locations map. Answer the following questions: a. How many members are in the NACCHO network? b. Describe the spatial distribution of NACCHO locations across: • Australia as a whole • New South Wales.
Geographical inquiry 2.
Read the article “Here’s how to create jobs for First Nations Australians in the clean energy transition” from The Conversation website (https://cambridge.edu.au/redirect/11863). a. Outline the opportunities identified in the article for “renewable energy zones”. b. Which of the recommendations in the “12-point plan” do you think is most important? Justify your answer.
➜
Low-res
Figure 15.7.4 Solar farm installation.
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c15_p511-550.indd 547
21/05/26 8:49 PM
548
Chapter 15 Case study: Variations in and improving human wellbeing: Australia
15.8
Chapter review Access the Interactive Textbook for a range of digital tools to help you review this chapter and build confidence.
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
• Auto-marked questions for fast feedback and fun practice • Self-assessment tools to track your progress, review answers (if enabled by the teacher), and flag questions for extra help • Downloadable worksheets for class or homework revision
Summary
Summary notes
Download chapter summary
What have you learned about human wellbeing in Australia?
For this activity, copy the table and fill it out by explaining your understanding. Aim for two points per topic.
Terms
What I have learned
Wellbeing variation Closing the Gap Remoteness Community
Self-determination
Visible thinking routine Circle of viewpoints
This exercise in visible thinking asks you to explore human wellbeing from different perspectives, building your understanding of how people in different contexts will have different connections to, and viewpoints on, the topic or issue. Consider the following question regarding human wellbeing: “Does it matter where Australians live?” 1.
Begin by brainstorming any perspectives that relate to the question.
2.
Choose one of the identified perspectives and answer the following questions: a. I am thinking about if it matters where Australians live from the viewpoint of … b. I think … (consider the question from the identified perspective – put yourself into that person’s shoes – describe what they would think) c. A question I have from this viewpoint is … (consider what the person in your identified perspective would want to ask)
Questions
Scorcher quiz Access a fast, fun, competitive quiz that puts your understanding to the test. Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c15_p511-550.indd 548
21/05/26 8:49 PM
549
15.8 Chapter review
Quick questions
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
The following questions offer various ways to demonstrate your understanding of the chapter. 1. The national policy designed to reduce inequality between Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples and non-Indigenous Australians is called ________. 2. People living in rural and remote areas generally have _____ life expectancy than those in major cities. 3. The disparity in access to internet and digital technology between different groups is known as the ________. 4. The Measuring What Matters framework organises its wellbeing indicators into ________ key themes. 5.
Which is one of the Closing the Gap targets? A. Closing the life expectancy gap within a generation B. Changing the date of Australia Day from January 26 C. Introducing hiring quotas for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples D. Changing the current Australian flag
6.
Which of the following factors contributes to lower wellbeing in remote Australia? (Select all that apply): A. Reduced access to healthcare B. Reduced access to essential services C. Reduced infrastructure D. Reduced water availability What is the main purpose of an Aboriginal Community-Controlled Organisation (ACCO)? A. To be an industry-driven organisation that delivers financial advice to Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander businesses B. To be a community-run organisation that delivers culturally appropriate services C. To offer confidential mental health support to Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples in crisis D. To educate non-Indigenous Australians about culturally appropriate language and practices
7.
8.
9.
10. 11.
12. 13.
Which part of Sydney is generally associated with higher socioeconomic status due to the “latte line”? A. Western suburbs B. Northern suburbs C. Eastern suburbs D. North-eastern suburbs Which of the following is a major consequence of digital exclusion? (Select all that apply): A. Higher likelihood of facing social ridicule B. Higher likelihood of developing a physical injury C. Reduced opportunities for social connection D. Reduced opportunities for education and employment
➜
What is socio-economic status (SES?) Identify one environmental factor that influences wellbeing in Australia. What is the digital divide? Referring to Figure 15.9.1, recall two ways Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander communities, such as Marlinja, are improving wellbeing.
Figure 15.8.1 Solar panels at Uluru, 2024
Writing focus
Writing focus 15.8 Single paragraph response model ➜
The following activities offer ways to demonstrate your understanding of the chapter and allow you to continue to practise your writing skills.
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c15_p511-550.indd 549
21/05/26 8:49 PM
550
Chapter 15 Case study: Variations in and improving human wellbeing: Australia
Answering questions in paragraphs You can use this as a model when writing your own answers to the questions that follow. Question: Explain how one wellbeing indicator varies between two groups in Australia. (6 marks) Model answer: Explain: clarify, define and describe
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
Topic sentence: the first sentence of the paragraph; directly answers the question
One wellbeing indicator that varies significantly between two groups in Australia is life expectancy, which shows a clear gap between Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples and non-Indigenous Australians. Life expectancy measures how long people are expected to live. It is closely linked to health, access to services, and living conditions. On average, non-Indigenous people in Australia live longer than Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples, which reflects long-term inequalities such as healthcare access, education, employment and housing. Life expectancy for non-Indigenous Australians is 85.3 years for females and 81.2 years for males, compared with 75.6 years for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander females and 71.9 years for males. This gap is even wider in. remote communities, where access to healthcare and services is limited and where environmental and social disadvantages are more severe. Therefore, life expectancy varies greatly between Indigenous and non-Indigenous Australians, which demonstrates how social, environmental and economic inequality causes variance in wellbeing indicators.
Evidence: specific, relevant evidence to support arguments Linking sentence: reconnects with language of the question the topic sentence.
Marking criteria for each question can be found in the Interactive Textbook. Refer to these criteria when planning and writing your responses.
Elaborate: additional information, connections, historical significance, change and continuity, cause and consequence
Examples: provide credibility and illustrate the argument
Structured-response questions Question 1
(20 marks)
a) Define the term “digital divide”.
(2 marks)
b) Describe how access to services like healthcare, education and employment can vary between urban and remote areas in Australia. (6 marks) b) Explain how environmental and social factors influence human wellbeing across different locations in Australia. (12 marks) Question 2
(20 marks)
a) Outline the main goals of the Closing the Gap strategy in Australia.
(4 marks)
b) Explain how Aboriginal Community Controlled Organisations (ACCOs) improve human wellbeing for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples. (6 marks)
c) Discuss the extent to which location (where people live) affects human wellbeing in Australia. (10 marks)
Extended-response questions Question 1
(20 marks)
Analyse the key human wellbeing challenges facing Australia. Question 2
(20 marks)
Assess how effectively Australia is addressing human wellbeing.
Overmatter
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c15_p511-550.indd 550
21/05/26 8:49 PM
Overmatter Text from page 40 Teachers, access the Online Teaching Suite for digital resources and tools that support review, assessment and reporting, including:
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
• student and class activity reports • a test generator to create custom assessments • built-in feedback tools • editable downloadable support material • a downloadable and printable “Writing focus” workbook for this chapter.
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c15_p511-550.indd 551
21/05/26 8:49 PM
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
Chapter
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
16
Case study: Variations in and improving human wellbeing: Denmark and India
Lessons 16.1
Geo Spark: How can we reinvent the toilet?
16.2
How and why does wellbeing vary in Denmark and India?
16.3
What is being done to improve human wellbeing in India?
16.4 How do perspectives on human wellbeing vary between Denmark and India, and what roles do culture, heritage and community play in enhancing it? 16.5
Chapter review
➜
Teachers go to the Online Teacher Suite to: • plan, sequence and assign directed tasks for students and classes using Task Manager • view student activity reports • provide feedback to students • download a printable “Writing focus” workbook for this chapter.
Image: Mumbai, India
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c16_p551-573.indd 551
21/05/26 8:50 PM
552
Chapter 16 Case study: Variations in and improving human wellbeing: Denmark and India
16.1
Geo Spark: How can we reinvent the toilet? Success criteria
In this lesson, you will learn about the efforts of the Gates Foundation to improve health outcomes on a global scale.
❏ I can identify the role of non-government and not-for-profit organisations. ❏ I can explain how not-for-profit organisations benefit human wellbeing.
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
Learning intention
Reinventing the toilet
➜
Writing focus 16.1 Question words
philanthropist a person who donates their personal time and money to help others informal settlements densely packed housing made of scrap materials in locations where residents do not have legal ownership of the land; also known as slums
In 2000, Bill Gates, philanthropist and billionaire founder of Microsoft, established the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation, now known as the Gates Foundation. This non-government organisation aims to improve healthcare and reduce poverty in some of the poorest regions of the world. Examples of their achievements have included the reduction in the spread and impact of infectious diseases such as HIV/AIDS and malaria, improving educational attendance in poorer regions, reducing poverty and inequality, and expanding healthcare services to poorer communities around the world.
A recent focus of the Gates Foundation has been on improving sanitation in developing countries in sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia. The aim is to improve the safety of sanitation facilities and reduce preventable deaths from diseases such as cholera, diarrhoea and dysentery. The rapid growth of cities and informal settlements in these regions has created a need for innovative sanitation solutions, since traditional sewerage systems are not financially viable. Since 2011, over US$200 million has been spent on the Reinvent the Toilet Challenge. The aim was to develop a toilet that could remove germs from human waste while recovering useful resources such as energy, clean water and nutrients. It also had to be able to operate “off the grid” without a connection to a water supply, sewerage system or an electricity grid, and remain affordable. Several toilets have been designed to meet these criteria, using localised chemical treatment rather than expensive sewerage infrastructure. The next step is reducing the cost and producing these toilets at a large enough scale to enable widespread access to safe and sustainable sanitation services in the world’s poorest regions.
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c16_p551-573.indd 552
21/05/26 8:50 PM
553
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
16.1 Geo Spark: How can we reinvent the toilet?
Figure 16.1.2 This self-contained toilet was developed as a solution to sanitation in densely populated urban areas in developing countries. ➜
➜
Figure 16.1.1 Bill Gates meets with Yi Wang, China’s former Foreign Minister, during the Reinvented Toilet Expo, November 2018
The Gates Foundation is just one example of many organisations aiming to improve human wellbeing on local, national and global scales. These include government organisations such as the Australian Government’s Department of Social Services, which manages national policies that aim to create an equitable society in areas such as rent assistance, homelessness and the National Disability Insurance Scheme (NDIS). The Gates Foundation is an example of a non-government organisation (NGO). These not-for-profit organisations work independently of governments and are funded by grants, memberships, private donations, and the sale of goods and services. Other examples include Oxfam and the Australian Red Cross.
not-for-profit organisation an organisation that does not operate for the profit or personal gain of its members
Activity 16.1
Visible thinking routine: See, think wonder 1.
See: Write down your initial reaction to the work of the Gates Foundation in designing toilets such as the one shown in Figure 16.1.2.
2.
Think: What do you think about the likely success of this initiative across informal settlements in developing countries?
3.
Wonder: What do you wonder about the implementation of this program? Consider the barriers that the organisation is likely to face.
Reflection 1.
Using research, identify and outline the role of one NGO operating in your local area/region.
2.
Undertake research to determine what has currently been achieved by the Gates Foundation and what will likely to be achieved in the near future.
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c16_p551-573.indd 553
21/05/26 8:50 PM
554
Chapter 16 Case study: Variations in and improving human wellbeing: Denmark and India
16.2
How and why does wellbeing vary in Denmark and India? Success criteria
In this lesson, you will explore the state of human wellbeing in Denmark and India.
❏ I can describe the human wellbeing characteristics of Denmark and India. ❏ I can make comparisons between the human wellbeing of Denmark and India.
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
Learning intention
Starter activity
Wellbeing preconceptions
Use Figure 16.2.1 and Figure 16.2.2 to answer the following:
1.
a. How would you describe the level of overall wellbeing in Denmark based on what you see in the images? b. Identify the reasons for your description.
How do you think the overall wellbeing of India compares with Denmark’s? Outline the key similarities and differences based on your preconceived ideas or prior knowledge.
2.
➜
➜
Figure 16.2.1 Cityscape in Copenhagen, Denmark
Figure 16.2.2 Central Copenhagen, Denmark
Wellbeing in Denmark
➜
Writing focus 16.2 Transitional phrases
The Kingdom of Denmark, located in northern Europe, is the southernmost of the Nordic countries (see Figure 16.2.3). South of Norway and south-west of Sweden, Denmark shares a land border with Germany to the south. It is situated between the North Sea and Baltic Sea, with an archipelago of over 400 islands, intersected by the Jutland Peninsula. As of 2023, Denmark’s population was 5,948,136. The country’s population pyramid is shown in Figure 16.2.4. World Health Organization (WHO) projections place the population at 6,124,838 – a 3% increase – by 2050.
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c16_p551-573.indd 554
21/05/26 8:50 PM
16.2 How and why does wellbeing vary in Denmark and India?
555
archipelago a group of small islands or an area of sea in which there are many small islands
NORWAY SWEDEN
NORTH SEA
peninsula a long piece of land that sticks out from a larger area of land into a sea or lake
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
BALTIC SEA DENMARK
Copenhagen
projection a calculation or guess about the future based on available information
UNITED KINGDOM
GERMANY
POLAND
BELGIUM
CZECHIA
FRANCE
0
1,000 km
➜
Figure 16.2.3 Map showing the location of the Kingdom of Denmark in the broader region of Europe Male
100+
95–99
0.0% 0.1%
90–94
0.2%
0.4%
85–89
0.6%
0.9%
80–84
1.3%
1.6%
75–79
2.3%
2.6%
70–74
2.4%
2.6%
65–69
2.7%
2.8%
60–64
Years of age
Female
0.0% 0.0%
3.0%
3.1%
55–59
3.5%
3.5%
50–54
3.3%
3.3%
45–49
3.2%
3.2%
40–44
2.9%
2.9%
35–39
3.0%
2.9%
30–34
3.4%
3.3%
25–29
3.5%
3.4%
20–24
3.2%
3.1%
15–19
3.0%
2.9%
10–14
2.8%
2.7%
5–9
2.7%
2.5%
0–4
2.7%
2.5%
10%
8%
6%
4%
2% 0% 2% Percentage of the population
4%
6%
8%
10%
➜
Figure 16.2.4 Population pyramid of Denmark for 2023 Source: Adapted from PopulationPyramid.net
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c16_p551-573.indd 555
21/05/26 8:50 PM
556
Chapter 16 Case study: Variations in and improving human wellbeing: Denmark and India
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
Denmark ranks highly across many wellbeing categories, particularly happiness and quality of life. This is influenced by the country’s support systems, healthcare, lifestyle and sense of community. Denmark provides its population with a strong social welfare system and safety net, ranging from social benefits that reduce financial stress to free healthcare and education, including tuition-free universities. Danish people typically have a strong sense of community, built around trust in institutions and common responsibility. It is a financially equitable society, with a small gap between wealthier and poorer citizens. civic engagement a means of getting involved in community and society through actions and attitudes that help improve social and political life, making society healthier and stronger
Denmark consistently ranks highly on social connection, civic engagement and gender equality. Economically, Denmark has a high GDP per capita; it was measured at US$71,851 by the World Bank in 2024. Comparatively, Australia was measured at US$64,407 for the same year. Additionally, work–life balance and employee wellbeing are prioritised nationwide, and Danes are typically have healthy lifestyles. Strong public health programs contribute to improved outcomes, and safety infrastructure provides further support through the encouragement of walking and cycling in cities such as Copenhagen.
➜
Figure 16.2.5 Cyclists and pedestrians in the Christianshavn neighbourhood of Copenhagen, Denmark
Wellbeing in India
India, located in South Asia, is the most populous country in the world. South of the Himalayan mountain range, India shares a border with Pakistan to the north-west, China, Bhutan and Nepal to the north, and Myanmar and Bangladesh to the east (see Figure 16.2.6). The country is bordered by the Indian Ocean, Arabian Sea and Bay of Bengal. As of 2023, India’s population was 1,438,069,596. The country’s population pyramid is shown in Figure 16.2.7. The WHO projections place the population at 1,679,589,259 – a 17% increase – by 2050.
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c16_p551-573.indd 556
21/05/26 8:50 PM
16.2 How and why does wellbeing vary in Denmark and India?
CHINA
TAJIKISTAN AFGHANISTAN
IRAN
557
BHUTAN NEPAL
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
New Delhi INDIA
MYANMAR
BANGLADESH
ARABIAN SEA
BAY OF BENGAL
SRI LANKA
INDIAN OCEAN
0
➜
Figure 16.2.6 Map showing the location of India in the broader region of South Asia
Male
100+
Years of age
2,000 km
Female
0.0% 0.0%
95–99
0.0% 0.0%
90–94
0.0%
85–89
0.1% 0.2%
80–84
0.3%
0.3%
75–79
0.5%
0.6%
70–74
0.9%
65–69
1.4%
1.0%
1.4%
60–64
1.6%
1.8%
55–59
2.2%
2.1%
50–54
2.6%
45–49
2.5%
3.0%
2.9%
3.5%
40–44
3.3%
35–39
4.0%
3.7%
30–34
4.3%
3.9%
25–29
4.5%
4.1%
20–24
4.7%
4.3%
15–19
4.7%
4.2%
10–14
4.6%
4.2%
5–9
4.3%
4.0%
0–4
4.1%
3.8%
10%
8%
6%
4%
2% 0% 2% Percentage of the population
4%
6%
8%
10%
➜
Figure 16.2.7 Population pyramid of India for 2023 Source: Adapted from PopulationPyramid.net
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c16_p551-573.indd 557
21/05/26 8:50 PM
558
Chapter 16 Case study: Variations in and improving human wellbeing: Denmark and India
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
The general state of wellbeing in India is complex, with the country facing significant challenges in health, education and income, coupled with having the world’s largest population, which is continuing to grow. Mental health issues are prevalent and a number of health services are underfunded. However, India has the fastest growing economy in the world and, consequently, extreme poverty has significantly reduced. Per capita income has tripled since 2000. Despite these areas of economic progress, large disparities still exist in education and income. While literacy rates are improving across the country, considerable gaps remain between particular states and between genders. GDP per capita, according to the World Bank in 2024, was only US$2,696. Additionally, a significant amount of wealth is concentrated in the top 1% of the population.
Comparing the data
There are a number of reliable sources by which comparisons can be made between countries for a multitude of wellbeing indicators. UN agencies, such as the WHO, or other organisations, such as the World Bank, are reliable sources of data that can be used to compare nations. Our World in Data, a project led by the non-profit organisation Global Change Data Lab, and built upon the work of researchers from all across the globe, makes knowledge and data accessible to all. The project’s mission is to empower change and make progress on the world’s most critical challenges. Comparisons using Our World in Data can be seen in Figures 16.2.8–16.2.11.
Population, 1950 to 2023
World
8 billion
7 billion
6 billion
5 billion
4 billion
3 billion
2 billion
India
1 billion
0
1950
1960
1970
1980
1990
Data source: UN, World Population Prospects (2024)
2000
2010
2023
Denmark
OurWorldinData.org/population-growth | CC BY
Note: Values as of 1 July of the indicated year.
➜
Figure 16.2.8 Population 1950–2023 for World, Denmark and India Source: Our World in Data website
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c16_p551-573.indd 558
21/05/26 8:50 PM
16.2 How and why does wellbeing vary in Denmark and India?
559
Life expectancy Period life expectancy¹ is the number of years the average person born in a certain year would live if they experienced the same chances of dying at each age as people did that year. Denmark
80 years
World India
70 years
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
60 years
50 years
40 years
30 years
20 years
10 years
0 years
1950
1960
1970
1980
1990
2000
Data source: Riley (2005); Zijdeman et al. (2015); HMD (2025); UN WPP (2024)
2010
2023
OurWorldinData.org/life-expectancy | CC BY
1. Period life expectancy Period life expectancy is a metric that summarizes death rates across all age groups in one particular year. For a given year, it represents the average lifespan for a hypothetical group of people, if they experienced the same age-specific death rates throughout their whole lives as the age-specific death rates seen in that particular year. Learn more in our articles: • Life expectancy – what does this actually mean? • Period versus cohort measures: what’s the difference?
➜
Figure 16.2.9 Life expectancy 1950–2023 for World, Denmark and India
Source: Our World in Data website
Medical doctors per 1,000 people 5
Denmark
4
3
2
World
1
India
0
1990
1995
2000
2005
2010
Data source: Global Health Workforce Statistics, WHO, via World Bank (2026)
2015
2020
OurWorldinData.org/financing-healthcare | CC BY
Note: Medical doctors include generalist physicians and specialist medical practitioners.
➜
Figure 16.2.10 Medical doctors per 1,000 people 1950–2020 for World, Denmark and India Source: Our World in Data website
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c16_p551-573.indd 559
21/05/26 8:50 PM
560
Chapter 16 Case study: Variations in and improving human wellbeing: Denmark and India
Average years of schooling Average years of formal education for individuals aged 15-64. 12 years
Denmark
10 years
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
World 8 years
India
6 years
4 years
2 years
0 years
1950
1960
1970
1980
1990
Data source: Barro and Lee (2015); Lee and Lee (2016)
2000
2010
2020
OurWorldinData.org/global-education | CC BY
Note: Formal education is primary¹/ISCED 1 or higher. This does not include years spent repeating grades. Data for the years before 2015 are estimates, while data from 2015 onwards are projections.
1. Primary education Primary education marks the start of formal schooling, typically for children aged 5 to 7. It focuses on teaching basic literacy and numeracy, while also laying the groundwork in essential subjects such as science and social studies, and supporting personal and social development.
➜
Figure 16.2.11 Average years of schooling 1950–2020 for Denmark and India
Source: Our World in Data website
Review 16.2
Knowledge and understanding
Online quiz
Thinking and working geographically
Students can access sample responses and results online
Teachers can go online to assign questions, view results, reports and more!
Knowledge and understanding 1.
Using Figure 16.2.4 and Figure 16.2.7, outline the key differences between the populations of India and Denmark.
2.
Use Figures 16.2.8–16.2.11 to create a PMI (Plus, Minus, Interesting) based on the data presented. Follow the instructions below: a. Identify a positive trend in the data. b. Identify a negative trend in the data. c. Identify an interesting point or trend in the data.
3.
Reflect on your wellbeing preconceptions from this lesson’s starter activity. Consider your initial comparisons of overall wellbeing in Denmark and India. After learning more about both countries in this lesson, outline any changes you would make to your comparison.
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c16_p551-573.indd 560
21/05/26 8:50 PM
16.2 How and why does wellbeing vary in Denmark and India?
561
Thinking and working geographically Working with geographical concepts: Space 1.
Look at the maps of Denmark and India in Figure 16.2.3 and Figure 16.2.6. Explain how the concept of space would influence overall wellbeing in both countries.
Geographical inquiry: Making your own comparison
Go to the Our World in Data website (https://cambridge.edu.au/redirect/ 11867) and complete the following activities:
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
2.
space the concept of space is about the significance of location and spatial distribution, and ways people organise and manage the spaces that we live in
a. Locate a source relating to any factor of human wellbeing to compare Denmark and India. b. Annotate the source with observations based on the data shown. c. Contrast the data shown for Denmark and India.
➜
Figure 16.2.12 Rajpath in New Delhi, India
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c16_p551-573.indd 561
21/05/26 8:51 PM
562
Chapter 16 Case study: Variations in and improving human wellbeing: Denmark and India
16.3
What is being done to improve human wellbeing in India? Success criteria
In this lesson, you will learn about the ways in which India is working towards improving its literacy rate on a national scale.
❏ I can explain the variations and strategies for improving the adult literacy rate in India. ❏ I can project human wellbeing data based on graphing.
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
Learning intention
Starter activity
See, think, wonder
Figure 16.3.1 is a photo of a class in India that is likely very different from your own. 1.
See: What do you see in the image? What are the similarities and differences between this school and your own?
2.
Think: What do you think a school day would be like for these students?
3.
Wonder: What do you wonder about other aspects of wellbeing in rural India?
➜
Figure 16.3.1 A small rural school in Rajasthan, northern India
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c16_p551-573.indd 562
21/05/26 8:51 PM
16.3 What is being done to improve human wellbeing in India?
563
What is India’s adult literacy rate? Writing focus 16.3 Developing sentences
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
➜
According to UNESCO, around 765 million people in the world cannot read or write. Around 300 million of these people live in India. Although this sounds like an alarming statistic, India has made significant progress in improving its adult literacy rate (ALR) from just 18% in 1951 to 74% in 2011, and 78% in 2023 (see Table 16.3.1). Despite this steady increase, more than one-fifth of India’s 1.4 billion people still lack literacy skills, while an additional one-quarter have only very basic literacy skills. As a result, India is struggling to grow its economy, and support and stabilise its booming population. Table 16.3.1 Changes in India’s literacy rate for people aged over seven years, from 1921 to 2021, based on data from the Indian Government Census Year
Male %
Female %
Combined %
1921
16.20
1.80
7.20
1931
15.60
2.90
9.50
1941
24.90
7.30
16.1
1951
27.16
8.86
18.33
1961
40.40
15.35
28.30
1971
45.96
21.97
34.45
1981
56.38
29.76
43.57
1991
64.13
39.29
52.21
2001
75.26
53.67
64.83
2011
82.14
65.46
74.04
2021
84.70
70.30
77.70
UNESCO the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, an agency seeking to build peace through international cooperation in education, science and culture
How is India’s adult literacy rate distributed?
In 2009, the Indian Parliament passed the Right to Education Act, which mandates that all children aged between the ages of 6 and 14 have access to free and compulsory education, irrespective of their socio-economic background. Although this has led to an overall increase in the number of children attending school, its success has not been universal (see Table 16.3.2). In Kerala, on India’s south-western coast, the literacy rate is above 99%, similar to most developed countries. In contrast, the literacy rate is below 80% in Bihar in the north and close to 70% in Andhra Pradesh on the southeastern coast.
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c16_p551-573.indd 563
21/05/26 8:51 PM
564
Chapter 16 Case study: Variations in and improving human wellbeing: Denmark and India
Table 16.3.2 The Indian states with the highest and lowest adult literacy rates Highest ALR
Lowest ALR
ALR
State
ALR
Kerala
99.31
Andhra Pradesh
70.66
Ladakh
96.74
Rajasthan (see Figure 15.4.1)
72.98
Mizoram
95.78
Arunachal Pradesh
74.52
Lakshadweep
95.28
Telangana
75.76
Uttarakhand
93.32
Bihar
78.32
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
State
In India’s urban regions, the ALR has improved significantly. The average is currently 87.8%, above the global average of 87.01%. However, rural areas are lagging behind, with just a 73.5% ALR. In remote areas, government schools lack adequate infrastructure, including classrooms, learning materials and toilets, and many cannot attract qualified teachers. There is also an uneven distribution of expenditure on education, with rich states spending up to six times more on education per student than poorer states. Many underprivileged families from poorer regions are not able to prioritise education, which perpetuates the poverty cycle.
Similar inequality exists based on gender. While the average male literacy rate across India is 84.7%, the rate is far lower for females, at 70.3%. Forty per cent of girls drop out of school before reaching secondary school, often due to a need to contribute to domestic duties.
Amazing but true…
A study of 188 schools in central and northern India showed that 89% of Indian schools had no toilets, and that there was an average of 42 students for every teacher.
Bollywood nickname for India’s film industry, based in Mumbai (formerly Bombay), “Bombay” + “Hollywood” = “Bollywood”
same language subtitles television or movie subtitles that are in the same language as the audio
How is India improving its adult literacy rate?
Non-government organisations have implemented several innovative strategies to try to improve literacy rates in India. Planet Read is an organisation that seeks to raise awareness of this issue and educate millions of people using Bollywood movies. Same language subtitles are used when broadcasting weekly Bollywood movies. As part of this program, the lyrics to songs are highlighted in a style similar to karaoke so that viewers are able to follow along with the singing. This is an extremely effective strategy, considering an estimated 780 million Indians watch an average of more than three hours of television every day! Studies have shown that 90% of Indian viewers using same language subtitles have improved their literacy skills by viewing these programs. Furthermore, this approach is simple to implement, very affordable and can reach hundreds of millions of people, even in remote communities.
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c16_p551-573.indd 564
21/05/26 8:51 PM
565
➜
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
16.3 What is being done to improve human wellbeing in India?
Figure 16.3.2 Millions of Indians watch Bollywood movies with same language subtitles to help improve their literacy.
Another initiative seeking to improve India’s literacy is Beti Bachao, Beti Padhao, translated as Save Daughters, Educate Daughters. Launched in 2015, this government campaign seeks to address gender-based discrimination by promoting the education of girls. In addition to improving the literacy of India’s females, it is hoped that this program will reduce sexism in India and reduce the alarming trend of female foeticide, by which families preference male offspring. This is a particular problem in states such as Bihar where sex-selective abortions have led to a gender imbalance.
foeticide sex-selective abortion in which parents choose to terminate a pregnancy based on the gender of a foetus
Overall, the initiative has failed to achieve its goals, with progress seen in just 53 of the 161 regions involved in the scheme. The main criticism of the initiative has been the way in which funding was distributed, with spending largely focused on publicity rather than measures seeking tangible improvements in the health and education of females. Despite varied success in India’s approaches, the overall ALR in India is on the rise. It is predicted that India will achieve universal primary education by 2050. If India can continue to strive for gender equality and invest in improving education in rural areas, it is likely that it will achieve universal literacy by 2060.
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c16_p551-573.indd 565
21/05/26 8:51 PM
566
Chapter 16 Case study: Variations in and improving human wellbeing: Denmark and India
Review 16.3 Knowledge and understanding
Online quiz
Thinking and working geographically
Teachers can go online to assign questions, view results, reports and more!
Students can access sample responses and results online
Knowledge and understanding
Explain and quantify the inequality between males and females in terms of ALR in India.
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
1. 2.
Explain why India’s ALR is higher in urban areas than rural areas.
3.
Compare the effectiveness of Planet Read and Beti Bachao, Beti Padhao. Which of these strategies has had the most success in raising India’s literacy rate? Why do you think it has been more successful?
Thinking and working geographically
Working with geographical concepts: Space, place, environment and interconnection Plotting data to create a line graph 1.
Use the data from Table 16.3.1 and follow the steps below to graph the change in India’s combined adult literacy rate from 1921 to 2021. This will be easier to complete using graph paper.
a. Write an appropriate title for your graph. b. Draw a set of axes. Your x-axis should be labelled as “Year” and your y-axis should be labelled as “Combined adult literacy rate in India” with an appropriate description of units. c. Determine an appropriate scale for your graph and mark appropriate increments. The data for years is already in 10-year increments. You will need to determine an appropriate increment for adult literacy rate. Ensure this is consistent. For example, consider increments of 5, 10 or 20%. d. Plot each data point as accurately as possible. Use a ruler to determine where each data point fits within each increment. e. Rule a straight line between each of your dots to show the trend of the graph. f. Repeat this process to graph the change in India’s male and female ALR. If you plot this on the same set of axes, ensure you use different colours and include a legend to differentiate between the datasets.
space the concept of space is about the significance of location and spatial distribution, and ways people organise and manage the spaces that we live in place the concept of place is about the significance of places and what they are like
environment the concept of environment is about the significance of the environment in human life, and the important interrelationships between humans and the environment interconnection the concept of interconnection emphasises that no object of geographical study can be viewed in isolation
Geographical inquiry 2.
Use the line graph you created in Question 1 to project India’s ALR for the next three decades. Justify whether it is likely that India will achieve universal adult literacy by 2060.
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c16_p551-573.indd 566
21/05/26 8:51 PM
567
16.4 How do perspectives on human wellbeing vary between Denmark and India?
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
16.4
How do perspectives on human wellbeing vary between Denmark and India, and what roles do culture, heritage and community play in enhancing it?
Learning intention
Success criteria
In this lesson, you will compare the contexts and indicators of wellbeing between Denmark and India, and consider the importance of culture, heritage and community for enhancing wellbeing.
❏ I can account for the differing perspectives on human wellbeing across Denmark and India. ❏ I can explain the impacts of culture, heritage and community on the human wellbeing of people living in Denmark and India.
Starter activity Recall
Create a Venn diagram to compare the wellbeing of Denmark and India. See Figure 16.4.1 for an example of what your Venn diagram should look like. 1.
Identify the key wellbeing characteristics for each country.
2.
Compare the similarities and differences between the two countries in the middle section of the Venn diagram.
➜
Figure 16.4.1 Example Venn diagram
Differing situations and perspectives
Writing focus 16.4 Creating topic sentences ➜
As explored in Lesson 16.2, Denmark and India vary greatly in context, and therefore their priorities, needs and the strategies implemented to address human wellbeing differ considerably. In 2023, Denmark’s population (5,948,136) represented only 0.41% of India’s population (1,438,069,596). It should be noted that India does have a much larger land area – 3.287 million km2, which is approximately 76 times the size of Denmark’s 42,920 km2.
However, this does not diminish the significance of the difference in population size, and the impacts on human wellbeing outcomes and strategies. The predicted rate of growth in population for both countries also differs greatly, with Denmark being likely to experience only a 3% increase by 2050, compared with a 17% increase for India. There are a number of other key variations between both countries, as shown in Table 16.4.1.
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c16_p551-573.indd 567
21/05/26 8:51 PM
568
Chapter 16 Case study: Variations in and improving human wellbeing: Denmark and India
Table 16.4.1 Key contextual comparisons between Denmark and India, based on data from the WHO and the World Bank Denmark
India
Population
5,948,136 (2023)
1,438,069,596 (2023)
Land area
42,920 km
3.287 million km2
GDP per capita
US$71,851 (2024)
US$2,696 (2024)
Total GDP
US$429.46 billion (2024)
US$3.91 trillion (2024)
Life expectancy
81.2 (2021)
67.3 (2021)
Health expenditure (% of GDP) 10.82 (2021)
3.28 (2021)
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
2
subsidisation the act by a government, organisation or other group of paying part of the cost of something culture the way of life, customs, beliefs, attitudes, behaviours and opinions of a particular group of people at a particular time heritage a person’s racial, ethnic, religious, or cultural background
community the people living in one particular area or people who are considered to be a unit because of their common interests, social group or nationality
hygge a Danish word for a quality of cosiness that comes from doing simple things such as lighting candles, baking or spending time at home with your family
In Denmark, there is less pressure on systems and thus less urgency to address wellbeing compared with India. With Denmark typically ranking highly across health, education and the economy, the focus is more about maintaining and enhancing highly specific wellbeing goals. In contrast, India must address issues such as high rates of poverty, lower life expectancy and greater income disparity. Denmark’s continued subsidisation and funding for free healthcare and university education are a product of relatively high taxes, which the population is capable of paying given the strong per capita income. Likewise, an ongoing focus on access to opportunities and a social safety net assist in driving equality and reducing stress. Preventative health measures address youth wellbeing, with strategies such as school health examinations. Meanwhile, India’s huge and growing population places systems under immense pressure, and more direct and far-reaching strategies are required to enhance wellbeing.
The role of culture, heritage and community
Culture, heritage and community have a strong influence on human wellbeing, because they are often connected to an individual’s sense of belonging and identity, and can also provide key forms of social support. When people engage with their heritage and cultural practices, particularly through community-based activities, they encounter opportunities for social connection, enhancing their physical and mental wellbeing.
In Denmark, the concept of hygge exemplifies how important culture, heritage and community are to human wellbeing. Hygge is a Danish and Norwegian term for cosiness and a comfortable environment. It has become part of Denmark’s national identity and aligns with its core values, such as cohesion and community. It also represents the intentional practice of creating connection and social trust through shared experiences. While an obvious example is a simple pleasure, such as a blanket or warm meal, it is also strongly associated with togetherness. It therefore helps with improving mood, and reducing stress and anxiety. Beyond hygge, there is a noticeable cultural trend in Denmark of high levels of collective trust, to the point where Danes are even comfortable leaving their babies in strollers outside a cafe while they have coffee. Such high levels of trust also have a positive impact on happiness levels.
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c16_p551-573.indd 568
21/05/26 8:51 PM
569
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
16.4 How do perspectives on human wellbeing vary between Denmark and India?
Figure 16.4.3 A group of women doing yoga exercises in a park in India ➜
➜
Figure 16.4.2 A row of prams parked outside in Copenhagen, Denmark
Similarly, in India, the concepts of culture, heritage and community link strongly with the nation’s holistic approach to wellbeing. Social connections are fostered through festivals such as Diwali (the festival of lights) and Holi (the festival of colours), enhancing wellbeing by preserving traditions and building cultural pride. A strong emphasis on family and community gatherings contributes to strengthened bonds and a sense of belonging, while also providing a support network for individuals. Traditional wellness practices such as yoga, meditation and herbal medicine, along with traditional games and sports, contribute to physical and mental health by reducing stress and anxiety.
Review 16.4
Online quiz
Knowledge and understanding
Thinking and working geographically
yoga a set of physical and mental exercises, originally from India, intended to give control over the body and mind
Teachers can go online to assign questions, view results, reports and more!
Students can access sample responses and results online
Knowledge and understanding 1.
Explain the impact of the rate of population growth on human wellbeing.
2.
Explain how the concept of “trust” influences the high levels of wellbeing in Denmark.
3.
Wellness practices, sports and games contribute to the physical and mental health of communities in India. Is this similar to Australia? Support your answer with evidence.
Thinking and working geographically
Working with geographical concepts: Sustainability 1.
With reference to the examples provided for both Denmark and India, discuss how culture, heritage and community contribute to social sustainability.
Hygge versus ikigai 2.
Conduct research into the concept of “ikigai” in Okinawa, Japan, to answer the following:
sustainability the concept of sustainability is about the capacity of the environment to continue to support our lives and the lives of other living creatures into the future
a. Describe the concept of ikigai. b. Outline the impacts of ikigai on the wellbeing of the residents of Okinawa.
3.
Compare the concepts of hygge and ikigai and their impacts on human wellbeing.
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c16_p551-573.indd 569
21/05/26 8:51 PM
570
Chapter 16 Case study: Variations in and improving human wellbeing: Denmark and India
16.5
Chapter review Access the Interactive Textbook for a range of digital tools to help you review this chapter and build confidence.
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
• Auto-marked questions for fast feedback and fun practice • Self-assessment tools to track your progress, review answers (if enabled by the teacher), and flag questions for extra help • Downloadable worksheets for class or homework revision
Summary
Summary notes
Download chapter summary
What have you learned about human wellbeing in Denmark and India?
For this activity, copy the table and fill it out by explaining your understanding. Aim for two points per topic.
Terms
What I have learned
Human wellbeing Sanitation Literacy
Inequality Culture
Visible thinking routine
I used to think … now I think …
This exercise in visible thinking asks you to track the difference between what you knew about human wellbeing in Denmark and India before, and what new understandings you have acquired since reading this chapter.
Using the stem sentences here, write a paragraph explaining what you previously knew about the topic. Then write another paragraph explaining what you now understand about the topic. I used to think that wellbeing in Denmark was ... Now I think that wellbeing in Denmark is ... I used to think that wellbeing in India was ... Now I think that wellbeing in India is ...
A simple explanation for the differences in wellbeing between Denmark and India is … A better explanation for the differences in standards between Denmark and India is ...
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c16_p551-573.indd 570
21/05/26 8:51 PM
16.5 Chapter review
571
Questions Scorcher quiz
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
Access a fast, fun, competitive quiz that puts your understanding to the test.
Quick questions
The following questions offer various ways to demonstrate your understanding of the chapter. 1.
The Gates Foundation’s sanitation initiative is known as the ________ Challenge.
2.
A non-government, not-for-profit organisation that operates independently of government is called an _________.
3.
Denmark has a _____ life expectancy, while India’s life expectancy is ______.
4.
The Danish cultural concept of cosiness and social togetherness is known as _____.
5.
What problem does the Gates Foundation sanitation initiative aim to solve? A. Safe sanitation without sewer infrastructure B. Greater access to toilets in rural communities C. Free distribution of sanitary products for people with periods D. Free distribution of cleaning products to impoverished communities
6.
Which of the following statements best describes Denmark’s wellbeing characteristics? A. High pollution levels and low public safety B. Minimal access to education and healthcare C. Rapid population increase D. Strong social welfare, high trust, high life expectancy
7.
Why is India’s literacy rate lower in rural areas?
A. Rural families prefer not to teach reading. B. Students are required to work part-time from age six. C. There is imited access to qualified teachers and school infrastructure. D. Rural schools only operate one day a week.
8.
9.
10.
Which cultural practice in India contributes to both physical and mental wellbeing? A. Shopping B. Prayer C. Yoga D. Hiking Which of these countries currently has the highest GDP per capita? A. Denmark B. Afghanistan C. Sweden D. Japan Why does wellbeing vary significantly between Denmark and India?
Referring to Figure 16.5.1, identify two strategies used to improve literacy rates in India.
12.
Identify two strategies that ensure wellbeing in Denmark.
Figure 16.5.1 Moviegoers in Mumbai queue up to watch Bollywood movie Pathaan, January 2023. ➜
11.
Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
9781009788083c16_p551-573.indd 571
21/05/26 8:51 PM
572
Chapter 16 Case study: Variations in and improving human wellbeing: Denmark and India
Writing focus The following activities offer ways to demonstrate your understanding of the chapter and allow you to continue to practise your writing skills.
Answering questions in paragraphs You can use this as a model when writing your own answers to the questions that follow.
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES
Question: Explain one reason why wellbeing differs so greatly between Denmark and India.
(6 marks)
Model answer: Topic sentence: the first sentence of the paragraph; directly answers the question
Evidence: specific, relevant evidence to support arguments Linking sentence: reconnects with language of the question the topic sentence.
One major reason why wellbeing differs between Denmark and India is that Denmark has far greater economic resources per person than India. When a country has more wealth, it can allocate resources to services that improve peoples’ lives, like hospitals, schools and social support. When a country has less wealth, its government has fewer resources to provide these services. Denmark’s GDP per capita is US$71,851, while India’s is only US$2,696, meaning Denmark can invest far more in wellbeing. Denmark’s high spending supports free healthcare and education, while India still struggles with lower life expectancy and literacy rates. Therefore, the difference in wealth per person between Denmark and India is a key reason why Denmark’s overall wellbeing is much higher than India’s.
Explain: clarify, define and describe
Elaborate: additional information, connections, historical significance, change and continuity, cause and consequence
Examples: provide credibility and illustrate the argument
Structured-response questions
Marking criteria for each question can be found in the Interactive Textbook. Refer to these criteria when planning and writing your responses.
Question 1
(20 marks)
a) Define the term “non-government organisation (NGO)”.
(2 marks)
b) Describe the key characteristics of human wellbeing in Denmark.
(6 marks)
c) Explain why human wellbeing varies between Denmark and India.
(12 marks)
Question 2
(20 marks)
a) Outline TWO strategies used to improve human wellbeing in India.
(4 marks)
b) Explain how ONE strategy has helped improve human wellbeing in India.
(6 marks)
c) Discuss the role of culture, heritage and community in enhancing wellbeing in Denmark and India.
(10 marks)
Extended-response question
Compare the role of culture, heritage and community in enhancing wellbeing in Denmark and India. (20 marks)
Teachers, access the Online Teaching Suite for digital resources and tools that support review, assessment and reporting, including:
• student and class activity reports • a test generator to create custom assessments • built-in feedback tools • editable downloadable support material Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400 • a downloadable and printable “Writing focus” workbook for this chapter. 9781009788083c16_p551-573.indd 572
21/05/26 8:51 PM
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400
U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78808-3 • (03) 8671 1400