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U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

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Contents

iii

Contents ix xi xii

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About the authors Geographic skills How to use this resource

Focus area

Landscapes and landforms

Chapter 1 Dynamic landscapes and landforms

1.1

Geo Spark: How did an Irish giant create the Giant’s Causeway?

1.2

What kinds of landscapes are there and where are they located?

1.3

What kinds of landforms are there and where are they located?

1.4

How does tectonic activity create and shape landscapes and landforms?

1.5

How do weathering, erosion and deposition create and shape landscapes and landforms?

Chapter review

1.6

Chapter 2 Case study: The value and protection of landscapes and landforms: The Blue Mountains

2.1

Geo Spark: What are the “dinosaur trees” of the Blue Mountains?

2.2

What were the geomorphic processes that shaped the Blue Mountains?

2.3

What is the environmental and economic value of the Blue Mountains?

2.4

What is the recreational value of the Blue Mountains?

2.5

What is the cultural value of the Blue Mountains?

2.6

How have the human impacts of mining and urban development modified the Blue Mountains?

2.7

How has the human impact of tourism modified the Blue Mountains?

2.8

How are the Blue Mountains protected on a global scale?

2.9

How are the Blue Mountains protected on a national scale?

2.10 How are the Blue Mountains protected on a local scale?

2.11 How do the Traditional Owners manage and care for the Blue Mountains?

2.12 Chapter review

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Contents

Chapter 3 Geographical skills: Topographic mapping basics

3.1

What makes a great map?

3.2

Area and grid references

3.3

Contour lines and elevation

3.4

Scale and distance

3.5

Fieldwork: Lansdcapes and landforms

3.6

Chapter review: Topographic mapping basics

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Chapter 4 Geomorphic hazards

4.1

Geo Spark: What happened to the doomed city of Pompeii?

4.2

What is the nature of geomorphic hazards?

4.3

Case study: What was the impact of the Türkiye earthquake in 2023?

4.4 Case study: What were the responses and management of the Türkiye earthquake in 2023?

100

4.5

Case study: What was the impact of the Guatemala volcanic eruption in 2018?

104

4.6

Case study: What were the responses and management of the Guatemala volcanic eruption in 2018?

108

4.7

Chapter review

112

Focus area

Liveability of places

116

Chapter 5 Perceptions of liveability

117

5.1

Geo Spark: Why do people live in slums?

118

5.2

What is the power of place?

121

5.3

How do social influences affect the liveability of places?

126

5.4

How does environmental quality affect liveability?

132

5.5

How does economic development affect liveability?

138

5.6

How do political factors affect liveability?

142

5.7

Why is it important to measure liveability?

148

5.8

How should we measure liveability?

153

5.9

Chapter review

157

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Contents

161

6.1

Types of photos

162

6.2

Types of maps

166

6.3

Line and bar graphs

171

6.4

Population profiles

175

6.5

Fieldwork: Liveability of places

180

6.6

Chapter review: Understanding place through photos, maps and charts

183

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Chapter 6 Geographical skills: What demographics tell us about places

Chapter 7 Case study: The influences, the impacts and enhancing liveability: Slovenia

193

7.1

Geo Spark: Why is Slovenia considered a sustainable nation?

194

7.2

How does social connectedness influence liveability?

198

7.3

How does access to services and facilities influence the liveability of places?

204

7.4

How do natural hazards cause physical influences that impact environmental quality and liveability?

209

7.5

How do development and tourism impact environmental quality and liveability?

215

7.6

How can community groups enhance liveability?

220

7.7

How do we plan for greater liveability in places using sustainable strategies?

226

7.8

Chapter review

232

Chapter 8 Enhancing liveability: A comparison of Australian cities

236

8.1

Geo Spark: What is a 15-minute city?

237

8.2

What is the impact of population growth on liveability?

242

8.3

How do cultural enclaves help build a multicultural Australia?

250

8.4

How does accessibility across Australia influence liveability in rural and urban areas?

257

8.5

What is Caring for Country and how do its benefits enhance liveability for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples?

263

8.6

What are the roles and actions of community groups in enhancing liveability?

270

8.7

Chapter review

276

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Contents

Focus area

Water in the world

280

281

9.1

Geo Spark: What are the haves and have nots of water?

282

9.2

Why is water such an important resource?

285

9.3

Unequal waters: Who gets what?

290

9.4

What is the journey of a drop of water?

295

9.5

What is the water cycle?

298

9.6

Rain, rocks and roads: What influences water’s path?

301

9.7

How do humans affect the water cycle?

306

9.8

Water: Priceless or price-less?

310

9.9

What is the value of water for different people?

315

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Chapter 9 Water resources and their value

9.10 Chapter review

320

Chapter 10 Water scarcity and water management

324

10.1

Geo Spark: Mexico City: A megacity on the brink?

325

10.2

Scarce supply: What are the causes of water scarcity?

327

10.3

Case study: How did the city of Kabul in Afghanistan run out of water?

331

10.4

What are the impacts of water scarcity?

335

10.5

Social and economic impacts: How much does data cost Earth?

340

10.6

Environmental impacts: What has changed in Earth’s natural systems?

344

10.7

What are the short-term and long-term solutions to water management?

348

10.8

Case study: What has been Israel’s response to water management?

351

10.9

What do we know about Indigenous management and care for Country?

355

10.10 Chapter review

358

Chapter 11 Geographical skills: Understanding weather and climate

362

11.1

Weather vs. climate

363

11.2

Climate graphs

366

11.3

Reading a synoptic chart

371

11.4

Wind direction and speed, and weather fronts

375

11.5

Fieldwork: Water in the world

379

11.6

Chapter review: Understanding weather and climate

381

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Contents

389

12.1

Geo Spark: What is extreme weather and how does it impact the world?

390

12.2

How does the El Niño Southern Oscillation affect the world?

393

12.3

What are the causes and impacts of drought?

398

12.4

Case study: What are the causes and impacts of the drought in the Horn of Africa?

402

12.5

What are the atmospheric processes that create tropical cyclones, typhoons and hurricanes?

408

12.6

Case study: What were the causes, impacts and management of Hurricane Katrina?

412

12.7

How do floods form and why are their impacts so severe?

418

12.8

Case study: What were the causes, impacts and responses to the Lismore floods?

422

12.9

Chapter review

426

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Chapter 12 Hydrological and atmospheric hazards

vii

Focus area

Interconnections and trade

Chapter 13 How the world has become more interconnected

432

433

13.1

Geo Spark: Unravelling fast fashion: What is the hidden cost of your clothes?

434

13.2

What do the geographical concepts of place, space and interconnection mean?

438

13.3

How has globalisation enhanced connectivity?

443

13.4

How have improvements in networks changed the way people live, travel and connect?

448

13.5

How have technological advancements made our world more interconnected?

454

13.6

Chapter review

459

Chapter 14 Geographical skills: Quantifying connections

463

14.1

Flowline maps

464

14.2

Pie charts

468

14.3

Composite column graphs

471

14.4

Ternary graphs

474

14.5

Fieldwork: Interconnections

478

14.6

Chapter review: Quantifying connections

480

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Contents

Chapter 15 Case study: How personal, cultural and technological interconnections shape the global flow of coffee

489

15.1

Geo Spark: Why does coffee from around the world taste different?

490

15.2

What makes coffee a globally traded commodity that connects people worldwide?

193

15.3

What are the origins of coffee?

498

15.4

What do the spatial patterns of production and consumption in the coffee industry reveal?

503

15.5

Why do a select few producers and varieties dominate the global coffee industry?

507

15.6

What makes the coffee supply chain unique?

512

15.7

Country and Culture: How are Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples connected to economies on a local, national and global scale?

517

15.8

Why does Australia consume so much coffee but produce so little?

521

15.9

How did the COVID-19 pandemic disrupt the global flow of coffee?

525

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viii

15.10 How is climate change reshaping where coffee can be grown?

529

15.11

535

Chapter review

Chapter 16 Case study: How our coffee consumption impacts people, places and environments

539

16.1

Geo spark: How has large-scale coffee production impacted the environment?

540

16.2

How has coffee production shaped societies and cultures?

545

16.3

Who benefits economically from coffee and who doesn’t?

551

16.4

How has the coffee industry shaped life in Vietnam?

556

16.5

How can the environmental impacts of coffee be reduced?

562

16.6

How can social justice in the coffee industry be improved?

566

16.7

How can the coffee economy be made fairer and more resilient?

573

16.8

Why do different stakeholders disagree about how coffee should be managed?

578

16.9

What does the future hold for coffee in a changing world?

582

16.10 Chapter review

588

Glossary Index Acknowledgements Selected answers to skills chapters' activity questions

592 xxx xxx 601

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About the authors

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Rex Cooke (Co-lead author) is currently the Head of Geography at St Ignatius College Riverview in Sydney. He is a senior Geography teacher with over 25 years’ experience and has authored and co-authored a number of textbooks for Cambridge University Press, including Australian Curriculum Series and NSW Curriculum Series, as well as the teacher edition for the NSW series. He has been a marker, judge marker, chief judge and senior marker, and is currently the Coordinating Senior Marker for the HSC Geography Examination marking operation for NESA. He is also currently the convenor for the CSSA Trial Examination committee, and he has presented at both AIS and Geography Teachers Association annual conference on a wide range of Geography curriculum and teaching approaches. He was a member of the Technical Advisory Group for NESA, which reviewed the new Stage 4 and 5 Geography syllabus and Elective Geography syllabus.

Rex Cooke

Matt Carroll

Sammy Coburn

Matt Carroll (Co-lead author) is the Head of HSIE at The Jannali High School in Sydney. With over 15 years of experience as a senior Geography, elective Geography and junior HSIE teacher across both department and independent schools, Matt brings a wealth of expertise to the ﬁeld. He has co-authored several textbooks for Geography Teachers Association of NSW & ACT, including the new curriculumaligned case study texts Powerful Geography 1 and 2. In addition to his teaching roles, Matt coordinates the Independent Trial HSC and Bookminders Australia exams, and develops comprehensive assessment packages for Stages 4 to 6. He has also served as an HSC marker in various capacities, including pilot, judge and senior marker. Matt is a regular presenter at the Geography Teachers Association annual conference, and has created professional learning webinars and videos to support teachers and students in the Geography curriculum and innovative teaching approaches.

Sammy Coburn has more than 10 years’ experience teaching in public schools in New South Wales, including in remote communities. She is passionate about creating inclusive learning environments and supporting student engagement through innovative teaching practices. Sammy is the co-creator of the YouTube channel Geography Explained Online and the Geography Revised Online Workspace. She is a council member of the Geography Teachers Association of NSW & ACT as well as the Brock Rowe recipient for excellence in Geography teaching (2020). Sammy has been recognised in NSW state parliament for her contributions to public education.

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About the authors

Kathy Cordes is a dedicated Geography educator with more than 16 years’ experience in the classroom. In this space, she aims to inspire students to explore the dynamic relationship between people and the planet. Kathy has travelled extensively around the world to enrich her teaching and has collected ﬁrsthand stories of real-world issues, which she enjoys sharing with her students. She is motivated by a passion for understanding pressing environmental and social issues, and is committed to empowering young learners to think critically about the world around them. Her goal is to build a classroom community where students feel encouraged to make a difference and conﬁdently participate in shaping a better future. Kathy currently works at Danebank Anglican School For Girls, where she coruns the school’s sustainability council and works as a year-level coordinator.

Kathy Cordes

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Alan Cizzio is a senior Geography and Humanities teacher with 15 years of experience teaching at various high schools in the Hunter Valley. He has been at his current school for a decade. Alan is co-creator of the Geography Explained Online YouTube channel and has made more than 50 instructional videos about Geography skills for the Stages 4, 5 and 6 syllabus. He is currently on the council of the Geography Teachers Association of NSW & ACT. Alan has been recognised in NSW state parliament for his services to public education in NSW.

Valentina Raguz is an experienced teacher in Geography and Humanities within New South Wales. She has developed and led elective Geography courses that empower students to think critically about global and local issues. She is passionate about promoting geospatial literacy, having organised courses to facilitate the accessibility of GIS tools and spatial technologies in schools, which support educators and learners in navigating and analysing the world through data and mapping. Driven by the belief that every learner should have access to meaningful and challenging learning experiences, Valentina designs enriching, accessible classroom resources and assessments that encourage inquiry, collaboration and deeper geographical understanding.

Bianca Mangioni is a Geography and Mathematics teacher at a secondary school in the Hunter Region. She is committed to developing clear, relevant and practical teaching resources that support teachers in delivering the NSW syllabus with conﬁdence and purpose. Bianca is a councillor on the Geography Teachers Association of NSW & ACT and has recently completed a Master of Education (Learning and Leadership). Her strong commitment to ongoing professional learning and the development of others underpins her approach to teaching and curriculum design.

Andrew Finlay is a Deputy Principal at a public high school in Western Sydney. He is a senior HSIE teacher, an experienced HSC marker, and was a member of NESA’s Quality Teaching Council for 6 years. Andrew has a particular focus and passion for developing student writing, working with Cambridge University Press & Assessment as a Literacy Consultant.

Alan Cizzio

Valentina Raguz

Bianca Mangioni

Andrew Finlay

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Geographic skills

Geographic skills Each focus area in this resource includes a dedicated geography skills chapter. These fun and engaging chapters feature:

• careful sequencing of geographic skills across Stages 4 and 5 • four new skills lessons per chapter and a chapter review lesson featuring a range

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• •

of activities step-by-step lessons employing a range of geographic tools such as maps and graphs explainer videos from Sammy Coburn and Alan Cizzio - the creators of Geography Skills Online – and co-author Bianca Mangioni accessible explanations and a range of activities including video-based demonstrations Selected answers are also available at the end of the resource for students to check that they are on the right track.

• •

Skills progression perstage

Finding direction (compass and bearings)

BOLTSS

Place and Liveability

Area and Grid References

Contour Lines and elevation

Stage 4

Aspect of a slope Local relief

Types of Photos

Using photos in geographical inquiry

Types of Maps

Finding the direction of photos using maps

Changing places

Line and Bar Graphs

Weather vs. Climate

Interconnections

Small and large scale maps

Scale and Distance

Population profiles

Water in the World

Biomes and sustainable agriculture

Climate Graphs

Synoptic Charts

Estimating time of day in photos using shadows Logarimic and semilogarithmic graphs

Stage 5

Landscapes and Landforms

Gradient

Environmental change and management

Creating transects

Cross-sections and vertical exaggeration

Wind Direction and Fronts

Finding local relief and gradient from a cross-section

Flowline Maps

Latitude and longitude

Pie Charts

Cartograms

Composite Column Graphs Ternary Graphs

Human wellbeing Calculating area Calculating density

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Landscapes and landforms

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Focus area

CHAPTERS

1. Dynamic landscapes and landforms 2. Case study: The value and protection of landscapes and landforms: The Blue Mountains 3. Geographical skills: Topographic mapping basics 4. Geomorphic hazards

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Image: The Isle of Skye, Scotland

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Chapter

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Dynamic landscapes and landforms

Lessons 1.1

Geo Spark: How did an Irish giant create the Giant’s Causeway?

1.2

What kinds of landscapes are there and where are they located?

1.3

What kinds of landforms are there and where are they located?

1.4

How does tectonic activity create and shape landscapes and landforms?

1.5

How do weathering, erosion and deposition create and shape landscapes and landforms?

1.6

Chapter review

➜

Teachers go to the Online Teacher Suite to: • plan, sequence and assign directed tasks for students and classes using Task Manager • view student activity reports • provide feedback to students • download a printable “Writing focus” workbook for this chapter.

Image: Bipenggou National Park in China’s Sichuan Province

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Chapter 1 Dynamic landscapes and landforms

1.1

Geo Spark: How did an Irish giant create the Giant’s Causeway? Success criteria

In this lesson, you will learn to develop knowledge about an interesting landscape in Ireland and how it developed.

❏ I can explain how the Giant’s Causeway was formed.

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Learning intention

➜

Writing focus 1.1 Question words

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Figure 1.1.1 The Giant’s Causeway in Northern Ireland

Introduction

The Giant’s Causeway isn’t only a geological wonder – it is wrapped in ancient Irish mythology. According to legend, the mighty giant Finn McCool built the causeway as a bridge to Scotland to challenge a rival giant. When he realised the Scottish giant was far bigger than he expected, Finn fled home. His clever wife disguised him as a baby, and when the rival giant saw the “giant baby”, he panicked. If the baby was that big, how enormous must its father be? He fled back to Scotland, smashing the causeway behind him, explaining why matching basalt columns appear on the Scottish island of Staffa.

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1.1 Geo Spark: How did an Irish giant create the Giant’s Causeway?

The Giant’s Causeway has thousands of tightly packed, hexagonal stone columns stepping down into the sea. This extraordinary landform lies on the northern coast of Northern Ireland and is made up of more than 40,000 basalt columns.

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It was formed around 60 million years ago during a period of intense volcanic activity. At that time, molten basaltic lava flowed across the landscape in thick sheets. As the lava cooled, it began to contract. Just like mud cracks into polygon shapes as it dries, the cooling lava fractured into long, vertical columns with mostly hexagonal shapes. The slower and more even the cooling, the more regular and symmetrical the shapes became. These cooling fractures extended deep underground, creating the tall, pillar-like columns we see today, some rising up to 12 metres high. Wave erosion and weathering later exposed and sculpted the columns along the coastline.

Figure 1.1.2 The basalt columns that form part of the Giant Causeway’s in Northern Ireland

Activity 1.1

Visible thinking routine: See, think, wonder

Consider the statement on the Giant’s Causeway in Ireland.

The Giant’s Causeway shows us how landscapes hold both scientific histories and cultural stories – two powerful ways humans understand the world. Use Figures 1.1.1 and 1.1.2 to complete the following activity: 1.

See: What patterns or shapes can you identify in the rocks?

Think: Why do you think the rocks cooled in such regular geometric patterns?

Wonder: How might combining science and mythology help people connect more deeply to a place?

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Chapter 1 Dynamic landscapes and landforms

1.2

What kinds of landscapes are there and where are they located? Success criteria

In this lesson, you will learn to develop knowledge of the different types of landscapes around the world and where they are located.

❏ I can clearly describe the different types of landscapes around the world and provide multiple locations of them.

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Learning intention

Starter activity

Around the world in 12 words 1.

Write 12 words that they associate with landscapes around the world.

Circle three and identify where in the world those landscapes can be found.

Answer the question: Why do landscapes vary from place to place?

Share quick ideas before the main lesson.

Landscapes

➜

Writing focus 1.2 Conjunctions

landscape area of land that has particular features, either natural or human-made

arid extremely dry, especially from lack of rainfall

Landscapes refer to the different kinds of outdoor scenes that we see on the Earth’s surface. There are two main types of landscapes: natural and human. Natural landscapes include coastal, mountain and desert landscapes. These are formed by the Earth’s natural processes, such as erosion and movement of the Earth’s crust. You will learn more about natural processes later in this topic.

Human landscapes include farms, parks and cities. Although they might have some natural features, such as trees, these landscapes have mostly been created by humans. Landscapes showcase the remarkable diversity of the Earth’s natural and human-made settings. Exploring landscapes helps us appreciate the wonders of our world.

Types of landscapes Desert landscapes

Deserts are dry, arid regions that receive very little rainfall, usually less than 250 millimetres per year, and often experience extreme temperature changes between day and night. They can be made up of sweeping sand dunes, rocky plateaus, gravel plains or even bare soil with almost no vegetation. The Sahara Desert in northern Africa, the largest hot desert in the world, spans over 9 million square kilometres and stretches across 11 countries. In the Middle East, the Arabian Desert covers much of Saudi Arabia and features enormous dunes, including some that reach over 250 metres high.

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1.2 What kinds of landscapes are there and where are they located?

Not all deserts are sandy. The Gobi Desert in Mongolia and China is mostly rocky and cold, with winter temperatures dropping well below freezing. In South America, the Atacama Desert in Chile is one of the driest places on Earth, where some weather stations have never recorded rainfall. In North America, the Mojave Desert contains Death Valley, the hottest place on Earth.

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Figure 1.2.1 The Arabian desert in the United Arab Emirates

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Australia is also dominated by desert landscapes, with the Great Victoria Desert, Great Sandy Desert and Simpson Desert forming part of the country’s vast arid interior. These regions feature red dunes, salt lakes and hardy desert plants such as spinifex. Deserts across the world show how climate and geography shape unique and striking landscapes.

Figure 1.2.2 The Gobi Desert is a cold desert

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Chapter 1 Dynamic landscapes and landforms

Coastal landscapes

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

A coastal landscape is an area along the edge of the sea where powerful natural forces continually shape the land. These landscapes vary greatly around the world because waves, tides and currents interact with the coastline in different ways. In some regions, gentle waves deposit soft sand to form wide, calm beaches, such as those found along the Gold Coast in Australia or the coasts of Florida in the United States. In contrast, places where strong waves and powerful winds strike the shore often develop dramatic rocky cliffs. Famous examples include the towering Cliffs of Moher in Ireland and the rugged coastline of Big Sur in California.

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Coastal landscapes can also include unique features such as arches, stacks and caves formed by long-term erosion. The Twelve Apostles in Victoria, Australia, are iconic limestone stacks created by the relentless action of the Southern Ocean. Mangrove forests, such as those in South-East Asia, represent another type of coastal environment where plant life adapts to salty, shifting waters. Figure 1.2.3 Clearwater Beach in Florida in the USA

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1.2 What kinds of landscapes are there and where are they located?

Figure 1.2.4 The extreme coastal environment of the Cliffs of Moher in Ireland

Mountain landscapes

Mountains are elevated landforms created over millions of years through powerful tectonic forces. When the Earth’s tectonic plates collide, fold or uplift, the land is pushed upwards to form dramatic peaks and ridges. These landscapes can vary greatly in appearance: some mountains are covered in permanent snow and ice, while others have forested slopes or rocky, barren summits. Their height, climate and steepness often shape unique ecosystems found nowhere else on Earth.

landform a feature of a landscape, such as a mountain or valley tectonic plate a section of Earth’s crust that moves relative to other sections

The Himalayas in Asia form the world’s highest mountain landscape. It is home to Mount Everest and stretches across several countries including Nepal, India and China. In Europe, the Alps create a rugged landscape famous for skiing, glaciers and alpine villages. South America’s Andes Mountains, the longest continental mountain range on Earth, contains towering volcanoes and high plateaus that support millions of people. North America’s Rocky Mountains span Canada and the United States, shaping weather patterns and providing important habitats for wildlife. Africa is home to the Atlas Mountains in the north-west and Mount Kilimanjaro in Tanzania, the continent’s tallest peak. Even Australia, although relatively flat, has significant ranges such as the Great Dividing Range, which influences rainfall and supports many of the nation’s forests.

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delta a landform that forms at the mouth of a river, where it meets the sea or a lake

Figure 1.2.5 Part of the Rocky Mountains in Colorado in the USA

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flood plain a flat, wide area of land found on either side of a river, formed by flooding over many years, as the river drops mud, sand and silt onto the land

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Figure 1.2.6 Skiing in the French Alps in Europe

Riverine landscapes

A riverine landscape is formed by the natural movement of rivers, streams and other flowing water systems that carve, shape and enrich the land over time. These landscapes include the river channel itself and also surrounding flood plains, wetlands, riverbanks and deltas. Because rivers regularly deposit nutrient-rich sediments, riverine areas often contain extremely fertile soil, making them ideal for agriculture and human settlement.

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1.2 What kinds of landscapes are there and where are they located?

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Figure 1.2.7 Farming and urban development along the Nile River

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Across the world, many major civilisations and ecosystems have developed along riverine landscapes. The Nile River in Egypt is one of the most famous examples, with its annual flooding historically creating fertile land that supported ancient farming communities for thousands of years. In Asia, the Ganges and Brahmaputra rivers form extensive flood plains that support millions of people and provide essential water for crops such as rice. South America’s Amazon River creates one of the world’s largest and most diverse riverine environments, home to countless species and dense tropical forests. In Europe, the Rhine and Danube rivers have shaped both natural landscapes and major transport routes. Australia’s Murray–Darling Basin is another important riverine system, supporting agriculture across several states.

Figure 1.2.8 Rhine River has shaped the landscape throughout Germany

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Volcanic landscapes

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Volcanic activity has shaped more than 80 per cent of the Earth’s surface, making volcanoes some of the planet’s most powerful land-forming forces. When magma erupts from beneath the Earth’s crust, it can build towering volcanic mountains, create wide plateaus, or spread layers of ash and lava that harden into new plains. Over time, repeated eruptions sculpt entire regions, producing landscapes that are both dramatic and diverse.

Although active volcanoes can be hazardous, they also create some of the world’s most fertile soils. Volcanic ash is rich in minerals, which is why regions such as the slopes of Mount Vesuvius in Italy, Mount Merapi in Indonesia, and the volcanic islands of Japan support thriving agriculture. Many of the world’s most productive farming areas, including parts of Hawaii and the Philippines, owe their fertility to past eruptions.

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Volcanic activity is not limited to well-known hotspots. The Ring of Fire, which encircles the Pacific Ocean, contains about 75 per cent of the world’s active volcanoes, shaping countries such as Chile, New Zealand, Papua New Guinea and the United States. In Iceland, volcanoes continually reshape the landscape, creating new islands and geothermal features. Figure 1.2.9 Mount Merapi in Indonesia is an active volcano

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1.2 What kinds of landscapes are there and where are they located?

Figure 1.2.10 Rotorua in New Zealand is an area of high geothermal activity.

Urban landscapes

Urban landscapes are human-made environments shaped by buildings, roads, transport systems and public spaces that support human activities. They include houses, apartment blocks, office towers, shopping centres, highways, parks and rail networks. These places vary widely across the world. For example, London is a major global city with historic landmarks, dense housing and an extensive underground rail network, while New York City is known for its towering skyline, grid-pattern streets and famous urban spaces like Central Park. Other examples include Singapore, with its futuristic architecture and green rooftop gardens, and Dubai in the United Arab Emirates, famous for its ultramodern skyscrapers such as the Burj Khalifa. These examples show how people design and reshape land to create places for living, working, transport and cultural activity.

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Figure 1.2.11 London is a major urban landscape with a mix of historical and modern features.

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Figure 1.2.12 Singapore is a modern sustainable city.

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1.2 What kinds of landscapes are there and where are they located?

Review 1.2 Online quiz

Knowledge and understanding

Thinking and working geographically

Students can access sample responses and results online

Teachers can go online to assign questions, view results, reports and more!

Knowledge and understanding

Why are deserts a type of landscape? Give examples.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

1. 2.

Explain how there are different types of coastal landscapes. Give examples of each.

Describe an urban landscape that is familiar to you. What types of infrastructure does it include?

Explain how tectonic activity creates mountains landscapes around the world. Support your answer with examples.

Explain how rivers create unique landscapes around the world. In your answer refer to flood plains and deltas.

Thinking and working geographically

Working with geographical concepts: Environment 1.

Select three landscapes from lesson 1.2 and explain how they are important environments for human life and how human interact with them

Photograph interpretation 2.

Select one photograph of each landscape and write a detailed description of the features in the photo that demonstrate the landscape.

environment The concept of environment is about the significance of the environment in human life, and the important interrelationships between humans and the environment.

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Figure 1.2.13 Manhatten skyline with Central Park lawn in the foreground

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Chapter 1 Dynamic landscapes and landforms

1.3

What kinds of landforms are there and where are they located? Success criteria

In this lesson, you will learn to explain to the various kinds of landforms that exist around the world and identify where they are located.

❏ I can identify where different landform features are around the world. ❏ I can describe different landform features.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Learning intention

Starter activity

Landform brain sprint 1.

In 60 seconds, write down as many landforms as you can think of (e.g. mountains, valleys, deserts, rivers, glaciers, islands).

Share your ideas while the teacher lists them on the board.

Answer the question: Where in the world do we find some of these landforms? Briefly call out examples in class (e.g. Sahara Desert, Himalayas, Amazon River Basin). This activates prior knowledge and builds curiosity.

Landforms are the individual surface features of the Earth as identified by their shape. These natural shapes found on the Earth’s surface appear in different regions across the world.

Mountains, such as the Himalayas in Asia, are some of the most dramatic landforms. The Himalayas include Mount Everest – at 8,849 metres, it is the highest point on Earth. In South America, the tallest peak is Aconcagua in Argentina, which reaches 6,961 metres. The highest mountain in North America is Denali in Alaska, standing at 6,190 metres. Africa’s tallest peak is Mount Kilimanjaro in Tanzania at 5,895 metres. In Europe, the highest mountain is Mount Elbrus in Russia, which rises to 5,642 metres. Antarctica’s tallest point is Mount Vinson, reaching 4,892 metres. For Australia, the highest peak is Mount Kosciuszko at 2,228 metres.

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Figure 1.3.1 Mount Everest is the highest mountain in the world.

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1.3 What kinds of landforms are there and where are they located?

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Volcanoes are another major landform type, often found along tectonic plate boundaries. Mauna Loa in Hawaii is the largest volcano on Earth by volume. It is located on the Big Island of Hawaii and rises about 9 kilometres from its underwater base to its summit. Nevado Ojos del Salado sits on the border of Chile and Argentina and is the highest active volcano in the world, at 6,893 metres above sea level. Mount Kilimanjaro in Tanzania is another massive volcano, standing 5,895 metres tall and made up of three volcanic cones. The Ring of Fire in the Pacific Ocean contains about 75 per cent of the world’s active volcanoes.

Figure 1.3.2 Mount Kilimanjaro is the highest volcano in Africa.

Case study: Ring of Fire

The Ring of Fire is a vast zone of volcanic and earthquake activity that circles the edge of the Pacific Ocean. It stretches for 40,000 kilometres and contains about 75 per cent of the world’s active volcanoes. Countries such as Japan, Indonesia, New Zealand and the United States sit on this dangerous boundary where tectonic plates meet. A key example is Mount Fuji in Japan, which lies on the collision of the Eurasian and Pacific plates. The Ring of Fire also produces frequent earthquakes, including thousands each year in Japan alone. This region shows how powerful the Earth’s internal forces can be and how they shape landscapes over time.

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Figure 1.3.3 The Ring of Fire around the Pacific Ocean is one of the most volcanic and earthquake active regions of the world.

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Deserts cover around 33 per cent of the Earth’s land, with the Sahara Desert in northern Africa being the largest hot desert, stretching over 9 million square kilometres. Another large desert is the Arabian Desert, which covers around 2.3 million square kilometres in Western Asia, mainly within Saudi Arabia, Oman, the UAE and Yemen. Finally, the Gobi Desert covers about 1.3 million square kilometres in northern China and southern Mongolia.

Figure 1.3.4 The sand dunes of the Erg Chebbi, a desert part of the Western Sahara

Rivers create valleys and flood plains, which are used to drain water from the land, and in most cases allow the water to flow into lakes or the ocean. The largest river basin in the world is the Amazon River Basin in South America, which drains around 7 million square kilometres. The second biggest catchment is the Congo River Basin in Africa, draining roughly 4 million square kilometres across central Africa. The largest catchment in North America is the Mississippi–Missouri River Basin, which spans about 3.2 million square kilometres. The largest river catchment in Asia is the Yangtze River Basin in China, which covers about 1.8 million square kilometres. The largest catchment in Europe is the Volga River Basin in Russia, covering approximately 1.4 million square kilometres. In Australia, the largest river catchment is the Murray– Darling Basin, which drains about 1 million square kilometres.

Case study: Amazon River Basin

The Amazon River Basin, located in South America, is the largest river basin in the world, covering about 7 million square kilometres across countries such as Brazil, Peru and Colombia. It contains the Amazon Rainforest, home to over 10 per cent of the world’s species. The Amazon River is more than 6,400 kilometres long and releases an enormous amount of water, about 209,000 cubic metres per second, into the Atlantic Ocean, more than any other river on Earth. Many Indigenous communities rely on the basin for food, transport and resources.

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1.3 What kinds of landforms are there and where are they located?

Caracas ATLANTIC OCEAN Georgetown Paramaribo

VENEZUELA Bogata

GUYANA

Cayenne SURINAME

Boa Vista

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GUIANA (F)

COLUMBIA

Caracaraí

Macapá

Quito

Tefé

Iquitos

Tabatinga

Breves

iver on R A maz

ECUADOR

Manaus

Santarém

Parintins

Belém

Altamíra

Itaituba

São Félix do Xingu

Cruzeiro do Sul

PERU

BRAZIL

Porto Velho

Alta Floresta

Rio Branco

Lima

Brasilia

BOLIVIA

La Paz

PACIFIC OCEAN

CHILE

1000 km

PARAGUAY

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Figure 1.3.5 The Amazon River basin covers 7 million square kilometres.

Coastal landforms include cliffs, beaches, headlands, bays and reefs. The Great Barrier Reef in Australia is the world’s largest coral reef system, stretching over 2,300 kilometres.

Case study: Great Barrier Reef

Writing focus 1.3 Conjunctions ➜

The Great Barrier Reef, located off the coast of Queensland, Australia, is the largest coral reef system in the world, stretching over 2,300 kilometres and made up of around 3,000 individual reefs. It is one of the most biodiverse places on Earth, home to more than 1,500 species of fish, 400 types of coral, 4,000 species of molluscs, six species of turtles, and 30 species of whales and dolphins. The reef also supports important tourism and fishing industries, and is listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Its size, beauty and extraordinary biodiversity make it one of the planet’s most significant natural environments.

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Chapter 1 Dynamic landscapes and landforms

Figure 1.3.6 The Great Barrier Reef is a unique coastal landform feature and is the largest coral reef in the world.

Review 1.3

Online quiz

Knowledge and understanding

Thinking and working geographically

Students can access sample responses and results online

Teachers can go online to assign questions, view results, reports and more!

Knowledge and understanding 1.

Define what a landform is.

Describe the different features of landforms around the world.

Explain how the Ring of Fire creates a unique landform around the Pacific Ocean.

Explain why there is so much water that comes out of the Amazon River Basin.

Thinking and working geographically

Working with geographical concepts: Interconnection 1.

Investigate the significance of barrier reefs around the world and the role they play as coastal landforms.

Investigate why the Great Barrier Reef is so significant and important to Queensland coastal areas.

Constructing graphs

interconnection The concept of interconnection emphasises that no object of geographical study can be viewed in isolation.

Using the data from the section of text on mountains, construct a column graph to show the various heights of the highest mountains on each continent. What can you conclude from your graph?

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1.4 How does tectonic activity create and shape landscapes and landforms?

1.4

How does tectonic activity create and shape landscapes and landforms? Success criteria

In this lesson, you will learn to explain how a variety of tectonic forces shapes the landforms and landscape of the Earth.

❏ I can explain how a range of tectonic forces shape the Earth and provide examples or where they are occurring.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Learning intention

Starter activity

Three corners: Agree/Disagree/Not sure 1.

Agree, Disagree, Not sure.

When each of the statements below is read out, move to the corner that best matches your response. a. Volcanoes only form at plate boundaries. b. Mountains are created when continents collide. c. Earthquakes always cause visible surface changes.

Be prepared to justify your choices. This opens discussion about tectonic processes.

Tectonic activity

Tectonic activity plays a fundamental role in creating and shaping many of the Earth’s most dramatic landforms and landscapes. The Earth’s crust is divided into several large tectonic plates that float on the semi-molten mantle beneath. As these plates move, they are driven by heat and convection currents within the mantle, which interact in different ways. These interactions create mountains, volcanoes, earthquakes, ocean trenches, rift valleys and entire continental landmasses.

At convergent plate boundaries, where two plates collide, immense pressure forces the crust to crumple and rise. This process created the Himalayas, the world’s highest mountain range, which continues to grow as the Indian Plate pushes into the Eurasian Plate. In other convergent zones where an oceanic plate is forced beneath a continental plate, subduction occurs. Subduction creates deep ocean trenches, such as the Mariana Trench, the deepest point on Earth. It also fuels volcanic activity, forming volcanic arcs like the Andes Mountains in South America. At divergent boundaries, tectonic plates move apart. As the crust stretches and thins, magma rises to fill the gap, forming new crust. This process builds mid-ocean ridges such as the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, a vast underwater mountain range that runs down the centre of the Atlantic Ocean. On land, divergent movement creates rift valleys. The East African Rift Valley is a powerful example, gradually pulling the African continent apart and creating deep valleys, volcanoes and large freshwater lakes like Lake Tanganyika.

convergent plate boundary where two plates collide, and immense pressure forces the crust to crumple and rise subduction the geological process where one tectonic plate slides underneath another at a convergent boundary, sinking into Earth’s mantle divergent boundary where two tectonic plates move away from each other, creating new oceanic crust as magma rises from the mantle to fill the gap

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North American plate

Eurasian plate Juan de fuca plate

North American plate Arabian plate

Indian plate

Pacific plate

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Caribbean plate

Cocos plate

Philippine plate

African plate

Pacific plate

Nazca plate

Australia plate

South American plate

Antarctic plate

Scotia plate

5000 km

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Figure 1.4.1 Tectonic plates

Divergent plate boundary

Convergent plate boundary

Oceanic ridge

Oceanic trench

Crust

Ocean

Mantle

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Figure 1.4.2 The processes of divergent and convergent plate boundaries

Case study: The Himalayas

The Himalayas were formed through convergent plate tectonics, where two tectonic plates collide. Around 50 million years ago, the Indian Plate began pushing northwards into the Eurasian Plate. Because both plates are made of continental crust, neither could sink, so the land crumpled and folded upward, creating the world’s highest mountain range. This collision continues today, causing the Himalayas to rise by about 5 millimetres per year. The region includes Earth’s tallest peak, Mount Everest (8,848 metres), along with thousands of other mountains. Frequent earthquakes also occur as the plates keep compressing, showing that the Himalayas are still growing and changing.

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1.4 How does tectonic activity create and shape landscapes and landforms?

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Writing focus 1.4a Note-making

Figure 1.4.3 The Himalayas are formed through convergent plate tectonics and are the highest mountain range in the world.

Case study: East African Rift Valley

The East African Rift Valley is a classic example of a landform created by divergent plate tectonics. It is formed where the African Plate is slowly splitting into two parts (the Nubian Plate and the Somali Plate). As these plates move apart, the crust thins and cracks, causing large blocks of land to sink and form a long, deep valley. This rifting process has created dramatic landscapes, including steep escarpments, volcanoes like Mount Kilimanjaro, and vast lakes such as Lake Tanganyika, one of the world’s deepest. The rift is widening by 2 to 7 millimetres per year, showing how tectonic forces continue shaping Africa.

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Figure 1.4.4 Part of the East African Rift Valley in Ethiopia

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Chapter 1 Dynamic landscapes and landforms

Volcanic activity

At divergent boundaries, plates pull away from each other, allowing magma to rise through the gap. This process forms mid-ocean ridges like the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, where thousands of underwater volcanoes continuously create new oceanic crust. Iceland, located directly on this ridge, is one of the few places where this volcanic activity reaches the surface, producing frequent eruptions and geothermal landscapes.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

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Writing focus 1.4b Note-making

Volcanic activity around the world is a direct result of tectonic plate movement, which creates the conditions needed for magma to rise to the Earth’s surface. Most volcanoes occur along plate boundaries, where plates either move apart, collide or slide over hotspots in the mantle.

At convergent boundaries, one plate is forced beneath another in a process called subduction. As the descending plate melts, it generates magma that rises to form explosive volcanoes. This process creates major volcanic arcs such as the Andes in South America and the Cascade Range in the United States, home to volcanoes like Mount St Helens. Around 80 per cent of the world’s volcanoes are found along these subduction zones, especially in the Pacific Ring of Fire, the most volcanically active region on Earth.

Volcanic activity also occurs away from plate boundaries at hotspots, where plumes of hot mantle material rise from beneath the crust. The Hawaiian Islands were formed this way, creating a chain of shield volcanoes as the Pacific Plate slowly moved over the hotspot.

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Figure 1.4.5 Mount St Helens was a volcano that erupted in 1980 in north-western United States.

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1.4 How does tectonic activity create and shape landscapes and landforms?

Case study: Hawaii

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Hawaii was created by a hotspot, which is a fixed area deep underground where very hot magma rises towards the surface. The Pacific Plate slowly moves over this hotspot, and as it does, the magma breaks through the crust and forms volcanoes. Over millions of years, this process built a chain of islands. The Big Island is the youngest because it is still above the hotspot, so volcanoes like Mauna Loa and Kilauea continue to erupt. Older islands, such as Kauai, no longer erupt because they have moved away. This shows how hotspots can create whole groups of volcanic islands.

Figure 1.4.6 Hawaii was formed by a hotspot in the Pacific Ocean.

Review 1.4

Online quiz

Knowledge and understanding

Thinking and working geographically

Students can access sample responses and results online

Teachers can go online to assign questions, view results, reports and more!

Knowledge and understanding 1.

2. 3.

Describe how convergent plate boundaries create landforms. Describe how divergent plate boundaries create landforms. Explain how Himalayas are still growing. Explain the differences that exist in volcanic activity around the world. What landforms are created through this activity? Examine how Hawaii was formed through tectonic activity.

Thinking and working geographically

Working with geographical concepts: Interconnection 1.

interconnection The concept of interconnection emphasises that no object of geographical study can be viewed in isolation.

Using the information on convergent plate boundaries, divergent plate boundaries and volcanic activity, describe how these processes are interconnected when it comes to creating unique landforms and landscapes around the world.

Geographical inquiry 2.

Investigate other areas around the world that have been created by convergent plate boundaries, divergent plate boundaries and volcanic activity, and write down the features of each area. If you have time, you could compare them to the case studies found in the chapter.

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Chapter 1 Dynamic landscapes and landforms

1.5

How do weathering, erosion and deposition create and shape landscapes and landforms? Success criteria

In this lesson, you will learn to develop an understanding of how weathering, erosion and deposition create unique landforms around the world.

❏ I can explain how weathering, erosion and deposition occur and provide examples of where they occur in the world.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Learning intention

Starter activity

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Figure 1.5.1 Limestone rock formations in white sand Sahara Desert, Egypt, at sunset

Use the definitions below to help answer the question: Which process do you think shaped the landform in Figure 1.5.1? Why?

weathering the breaking down of rock and surface materials that have been exposed to the natural processes of weather, chemical reactions, and actions of plants and animals

Weathering

Weathering is the natural process that breaks down rocks into smaller pieces, helping shape many of the landforms and landscapes we see around the world. One of the most important types for shaping landscapes is physical weathering, which breaks rocks apart without changing what they are made of. Over long periods of time, physical weathering helps form mountain slopes, cliffs, valleys and even the soil we depend on.

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1.5 How do weathering, erosion and deposition create and shape landscapes and landforms?

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Freeze–thaw weathering is one of the most powerful forms of physical weathering. Water enters cracks in rocks, then freezes overnight. When water freezes, it expands by about 9 per cent, pushing the cracks wider. When it thaws, water sinks deeper into the rock. Repeating this cycle thousands of times causes the rock to split apart. This process is common in cold mountain regions such as the Alps and the Rocky Mountains, where freeze–thaw action helps create scree slopes – piles of broken rock fragments that gather at the base of cliffs. Another form of physical weathering is thermal expansion, which occurs in hot desert environments. During the day, the sun heats rock surfaces, causing them to expand. At night, temperatures drop sharply, and the rocks contract. Over time, this constant heating and cooling weakens the rock, causing it to crack and flake apart in a process known as exfoliation. This process helps shape rounded rock formations like Uluru in central Australia and those found throughout the Sahara Desert.

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Figure 1.5.2 Thermal expansion causes rock erosion in the Sahara Desert.

Case study: Freeze–thaw weathering in the Alps

Freeze–thaw weathering is a major force shaping specific locations throughout the European Alps. In high-altitude areas such as the Matterhorn (Switzerland) and Mont Blanc Massif (France/Italy), temperatures often rise above freezing during the day and drop well below 0°C at night. Water seeps into cracks in the rock, freezes, expands by about 9 per cent, and slowly forces the cracks wider. Over thousands of freeze–thaw cycles each year, the rock breaks apart. This process actively forms large scree slopes beneath the Matterhorn’s Hörnli Ridge and contributes to frequent small rockfalls in the Chamonix Valley near Mont Blanc. These events shift tonnes of rock downslope and continually reshape these famous alpine landscapes.

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Chapter 1 Dynamic landscapes and landforms

Figure 1.5.3 Freeze–thaw weathering on Mont Blanc Massif in France

Erosion

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Writing focus 1.5 Developing sentences

erosion the process by which soil, rocks and other surface materials are carried away by the actions of water, wind or ice

Erosion is the process where natural forces such as water, wind, ice and gravity remove soil, sand and rock from one place and transport it to another. Over long periods of time, erosion shapes Earth’s landforms and creates distinctive landscapes seen around the world.

Water erosion is one of the most powerful forces. Rivers cut into the land, carving valleys and canyons. For example, the Grand Canyon in the United States was formed over millions of years by the Colorado River eroding layers of rock. Fast-flowing rivers can move huge amounts of sediment; during floods, a river can carry over 100 times more material than during normal flow. Coastlines are also shaped by waves that erode cliffs, beaches and headlands. Along the Twelve Apostles in Victoria, waves erode the limestone at rates of up to 2 centimetres per year, gradually collapsing old stacks and forming new ones. Wind erosion shapes dry, desert regions. Strong winds pick up fine sand and blast it against rock surfaces, slowly wearing them down. This process has created famous landforms such as sand dunes in the Sahara Desert, where winds move up to 1 billion tonnes of sand per year across the landscape.

Ice erosion occurs in cold climates where glaciers move slowly downhill. As they travel, they scrape and erode the land beneath them like giant bulldozers. Glaciers carved out the deep U-shaped valleys seen today in New Zealand’s Southern Alps and Norway’s fjords. Some glaciers can transport thousands of tonnes of rock each day. Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78802-1 • (03) 8671 1400

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1.5 How do weathering, erosion and deposition create and shape landscapes and landforms?

Figure 1.5.4 Briksdal Glacier, in Norway, slowly erodes the valley as the ice sheet moves.

Case study: Water erosion and the Grand Canyon

The Grand Canyon in the United States is one of the world’s most famous examples of water erosion. Over the past five to six million years, the Colorado River has carved a massive canyon that is 446 kilometres long, up to 29 kilometres wide, and more than 1.6 kilometres deep. As the river flowed, it cut through layers of rock, carrying away sediment and deepening the valley. Floods increased the river’s power, allowing it to erode even faster. Today, the canyon’s steep cliffs, rock terraces and winding shape all show the powerful impact of river erosion over time.

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Figure 1.5.5 Water erosion has carved out the Grand Canyon over five to six million years.

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Chapter 1 Dynamic landscapes and landforms

Deposition Deposition is the process where sediment such as sand, silt and gravel is dropped or “laid down” by moving water, wind or ice. When the energy of the transporting agent decreases, it can no longer carry its load, so the material settles and begins to build new landforms. Over time, these deposits shape entire landscapes and create features that can stretch for many kilometres.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

deposition the process by which eroded materials are laid down in a new location

One of the most common depositional landforms is a river delta. Deltas form where rivers slow down as they enter a lake or ocean, causing sediment to settle. The Nile Delta in Egypt, for example, covers over 22,000 square kilometres and supports millions of people with its rich, fertile soils. Similarly, the Mississippi River Delta in the United States grows by around 200 million tonnes of sediment each year, although parts are currently shrinking due to human activity.

Beaches are another major depositional landform, created when waves drop sand and pebbles along coastlines. Australia’s Gold Coast features more than 50 kilometres of depositional beaches, shaped by waves and longshore drift transporting sand northwards along the coast.

Wind deposition also creates landforms such as sand dunes. In the Simpson Desert in Australia, dunes can reach up to 40 metres high and stretch for hundreds of kilometres, formed by sand blown and deposited by strong desert winds.

Glaciers can also deposit material as they melt, leaving behind moraine piles of rock and sediment. In New Zealand’s Southern Alps, terminal moraines mark the past extent of glaciers and create ridges several kilometres long.

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Figure 1.5.6 Deposition features such as longshore drift create the beaches on the Gold Coast.

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1.5 How do weathering, erosion and deposition create and shape landscapes and landforms?

Case study: Deposition and the formation of the Nile Delta

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U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

The Nile Delta in northern Egypt is one of the world’s largest and most fertile depositional landforms, created by thousands of years of sediment deposition from the River Nile. As the river slows before entering the Mediterranean Sea, it drops huge amounts of silt – historically, up to 120 million tonnes each year. This deposited material gradually built a broad, triangular delta covering about 22,000 square kilometres. The rich alluvial soils support intensive agriculture, supporting a region that is home to more than 40 million people. The delta’s formation shows how river deposition can create productive landscapes essential for human settlement and farming.

Figure 1.5.7 The Nile Delta, where the Nile River meets the Mediterranean Sea

Review 1.5

Online quiz

Knowledge and understanding

Thinking and working geographically

Students can access sample responses and results online

Teachers can go online to assign questions, view results, reports and more!

Knowledge and understanding 1.

2. 3.

4. 5.

Describe how weathering creates landforms. How does freeze–thaw weather the Alps in Europe? Explain different ways that erosion occurs and creates unique landforms. Explain how the Grand Canyon got so deep. Examine how deposition creates different landforms in different parts of the world.

Thinking and working geographically

Working with geographical concepts: Change 1.

Examine which process creates the most changes within landscapes around the world: weathering, erosion or deposition. Refer to a range of examples to support your answer.

Photograph interpretation 2.

Using Figures 1.5.3 and 1.5.4, explain the size of the landforms shown in photos and how they compare to humans.

change The concept of change is about explaining geographical phenomena by investigating how they have developed over time.

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Chapter 1 Dynamic landscapes and landforms

1.6

Chapter review Access the Interactive Textbook for a range of digital tools to help you review this chapter and build confidence.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

• Auto-marked questions for fast feedback and fun practice • Self-assessment tools to track your progress, review answers (if enabled by the teacher), and flag questions for extra help • Downloadable worksheets for class or homework revision

Summary

Summary notes

Download chapter summary

What have you learned about dynamic landscapes and landforms?

For this activity, copy the table and fill it out by explaining your understanding. Aim for two points per topic.

Terms

What I have learnt

Weathering Erosion

Deposition

Tectonic plates Landforms

Visible thinking routine

I used to think … now I think

This exercise asks you to track the difference between what you knew about landforms and landscapes before, and what new understandings you have acquired since reading this chapter. Using the stem sentences here, write a paragraph explaining what you previously knew about the topic. Then write another paragraph explaining what you now understand about the topic. I used to think that landscapes were … Now I think that landscapes are … I used to think that landforms … Now I think that landforms …

A simple explanation for how weathering, erosion and deposition have shaped landforms is … A better explanation for how weathering, erosion and deposition have shaped landforms is …

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1.6 Chapter review

Questions Scorcher quiz

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Access a fast, fun, competitive quiz that puts your understanding to the test.

Quick questions

The following activities offer various ways to demonstrate your understanding of the chapter. 1.

A _________ is an area of land that has particular features, either natural or human-made.

A _________ is an individual surface feature on Earth identified by its shape.

Mountains are formed over millions of years through the collision of Earth’s _________ plates.

A _________ is a landform that forms at the mouth of a river, where it meets the sea or a lake.

The Grand Canyon in the US was formed by five to six million years of water _________.

A desert is an example of a landscape/landform.

Mount Everest is an example of a landscape/landform.

An urban area is an example of a landscape/landform.

The Great Barrier Reef is an example of a landscape/landform.

10.

Which term means the process where soil, rocks and other surface materials are carried away by the actions of water, wind or ice? A. weathering B. erosion C. deposition

11.

Which term means the breaking down of rock and surface materials that have been exposed to nature? A. weathering B. erosion C. deposition

12.

Which term means the process where eroded materials are laid down in a new location? A. weathering B. erosion C. deposition

How was the Giant’s Causeway formed in Ireland?

14.

Which type of landscape is found in the centre of Australia?

15.

Which geographic process introduced in this chapter explains the formation of beaches?

Figure 1.6.1 Basalt stone columns at the Ginat’s Causeway in Northern Ireland ➜

13.

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Chapter 1 Dynamic landscapes and landforms

Writing focus The following activities allow you to practice your writing skills.

Answering questions in paragraphs You can use this as a model when writing your own answers to the questions that follow. Question: Explain how riverine landscapes are formed and the processes involved. (6 marks)

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

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Writing focus 1.6 Single paragraph response model

Model answer: Topic sentence: the first sentence of the paragraph; directly answers the question

Evidence: specific, relevant evidence to support your arguments Examples: provide credibility and illustrate the argument

Marking criteria for each question can be found in the Interactive Textbook. Refer to these criteria when planning and writing your responses.

Riverine landscapes are formed by the movement of rivers, which shapes the land through erosion, transportation and deposition. Flowing water erodes rock and soil, carries this material downstream and then deposits it in slower-moving sections. This gradually forms features such as channels, valleys, floodplains and deltas. These processes make riverine landscapes highly fertile and dynamic, as repeated flooding and sediment deposition supports ecosystems and human settlements. Across the world, many major civilisations and ecosystems have developed along riverine landscapes. For example, the Nile, Ganges-Brahmaputra and Amazon River systems have all been shaped by erosion and deposition to create fertile flood plains which support large populations. In summary, riverine landscapes form through the continuous interaction of erosion, transportation and deposition, which together reshape their environments over time.

Explain: clarify, define and describe

Elaborate: additional information, interconnections

Linking sentence: reconnect with language of the question the topic sentence

Structured-response questions Question 1

(20 marks)

a. Describe the features of desert landscapes around the world. b. Explain how riverine landscapes are formed and the processes involved. c. Explain how mountains and volcanic landforms are created.

(4 marks) (6 marks) (10 marks)

Extended-response questions Question 1

(20 marks)

Explain how weathering, deposition and erosion create and shape landscapes around the world.

Teachers, access the Online Teaching Suite for digital resources and tools that support review, assessment and reporting, including:

• student and class activity reports • a test generator to create custom assessments • built-in feedback tools • editable downloadable support material • a downloadable and printable “Writing focus” workbook for this chapter. Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78802-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Chapter

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Case study: The value and protection of landscapes and landforms: The Blue Mountains

Lessons 2.1

Geo Spark: What are the “dinosaur trees” of the Blue Mountains?

2.2

What were the geomorphic processes that shaped the Blue Mountains?

2.3

What is the environmental and economic value of the Blue Mountains?

2.4

What is the recreational value of the Blue Mountains?

2.5

What is the cultural value of the Blue Mountains?

2.6

How have the human impacts of mining and urban development modified the Blue Mountains?

2.7

How has the human impact of tourism modified the Blue Mountains?

2.8

How are the Blue Mountains protected on a global scale?

2.9

How are the Blue Mountains protected on a national scale?

2.10 How are the Blue Mountains protected on a local scale? 2.11

How do the Traditional Owners manage and care for the Blue Mountains?

2.12

Chapter review

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Image: Wentworth Falls, Blue Mountains National Park

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Chapter 2 Case study: The value and protection of landscapes and landforms: The Blue Mountains

2.1

Geo Spark: What are the “dinosaur trees” of the Blue Mountains? Success criteria

In this lesson, you will learn about the Blue Mountains and one of its most prized natural features.

❏ I can describe key features of the Blue Mountains.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Learning intention

What are the Blue Mountains?

Writing focus 2.1 Question words

The Blue Mountains are located approximately 50 kilometres west of Sydney. They are located at latitude 33°S and longitude 150°E. The region forms part of the Great Dividing Range and is centred around the Blue Mountains National Park, which is part of the Greater Blue Mountains World Heritage Area. The Blue Mountains National Park covers around 2,690 square kilometres, making it one of the largest protected areas in New South Wales.

The name “Blue Mountains” comes from the blue haze that often covers the region, caused by tiny oil droplets released from eucalyptus trees mixing with dust and sunlight.

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Wollemi pine one of the world’s oldest and rarest trees, a critically endangered “living fossil” dating back to the time of the dinosaurs

Figure 2.1.1 A scenic view of the Blue Mountains National Park from the Echo Point lookout

The “dinosaur trees” of the Blue Mountains refers to the Wollemi pine, one of the world’s oldest and rarest tree species. Thought to be extinct for over 90 million years, it was rediscovered in 1994 in a remote canyon of Wollemi National Park. Fewer than 100 adult trees exist in the wild, making it critically endangered. The Wollemi pine is often called a “living fossil” because it dates back to the time of the dinosaurs, with fossil records from the Jurassic period. Conservation programs now protect it through secret wild locations and propagation in botanical gardens worldwide.

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2.1 Geo Spark: What are the “dinosaur trees” of the Blue Mountains?

Protecting the dinosaur trees

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U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

During the devastating January 2020 bushfires, the NSW National Parks and Wildlife Service (NPWS) implemented an emergency operation to protect the only known wild population of the ancient Wollemi pine. Firefighters installed remote irrigation systems, deployed aerial water bombing, and created containment lines around the secret site deep within Wollemi National Park. Despite fires burning nearby, these precise and coordinated efforts successfully prevented the flames from reaching the grove, safeguarding the fewer than 100 remaining trees and preserving one of the world’s rarest living plant species.

Figure 2.1.2 A NPWS firefighter putting in a remote irrigation system to protect the Wollemi pines during the bushfire of 2020

Activity 2.1

Visible thinking routine: See, think, wonder

Refer to Figures 2.1.1 and 2.1.2. 1.

See: What are four key features you can see in Figure 2.1.1 about the landforms and landscape of the Blue Mountains? What clues in the image tell you why the Wollemi pine might be called a “dinosaur tree”?

Think: How do you think this landscape and landform of the Blue Mountains were formed or created? Why do you think NPWS worked so hard to protect the Wollemi pine during the 2020 bushfires?

Wonder: In what ways might how humans have used this unique landscape over time? What do you wonder about the future of the Wollemi pine?

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Chapter 2 Case study: The value and protection of landscapes and landforms: The Blue Mountains

2.2

What were the geomorphic processes that shaped the Blue Mountains? Success criteria

In this lesson, you will learn about the geomorphic processes that created and are shaping the Blue Mountains.

❏ I can identify the geographic processes that formed the Blue Mountains. ❏ I can explain the geographic processes that formed the Blue Mountains.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Learning intention

Starter activity

Using Figure 2.2.1, answer the question: What forces do you think have shaped this landscape over millions of years? Write down three ideas in your workbook.

Writing focus 2.2 Conjunctions

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Figure 2.2.1 A sandstone plateau within the Blue Mountains

The Blue Mountains

The Blue Mountains are one of Australia’s most famous natural landscapes. Their dramatic cliffs, deep valleys, waterfalls and unusual rock formations are a great example of how geomorphic processes such as tectonic uplift and weathering shape the Earth’s surface over time.

The Blue Mountains are not true mountains but are part of the Sydney Basin sandstone plateau. Around 250 million years ago, layers of sand, mud and other sediments were deposited by ancient rivers and seas. Over millions of years, these sediments compacted and hardened into sandstone, shale and limestone. Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78802-1 • (03) 8671 1400

2.2 What were the geomorphic processes that shaped the Blue Mountains?

Uplift About 50 million years ago, movements in the Earth’s crust caused the land to slowly uplift. This uplift happened because of tectonic forces, when movements of the Earth’s crust pushed the land upwards. Instead of forming sharp peaks, the entire sandstone block was raised into a plateau. Once lifted, the softer rocks began to break down. Water, wind, and gravity gradually wore away at the plateau, carving out the valleys, cliffs, and ridges we see today.

Mountains

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Continental crust

Mantle

Uplift

Erosion

Transport

Deposition

Subsidence

Deposition

Weathering

Uplift

Erosion

Transport

Deposition

Subsidence

Deposition

Uplift

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Weathering is the breakdown of rock in its original place, and it plays a key role in shaping the Blue Mountains. The sandstone here is relatively soft and contains many natural cracks and joints, making it especially vulnerable to weathering. Weathering weakens the rock, and erosion removes it. Rivers such as the Grose and Nepean have carved deep valleys through the plateau. Waterfalls like Wentworth Falls form where streams drop over harder rock layers and, over time, the erosion at their bases cause the cliffs to retreat backwards.

Figure 2.2.2 How uplift and erosion occur within a mountain environment

➜ Figure 2.2.3 A section of the Grose

River running through the Blue Mountains has created small waterfalls through weathering. Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78802-1 • (03) 8671 1400

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Chapter 2 Case study: The value and protection of landscapes and landforms: The Blue Mountains

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Figure 2.2.4 Wentworth Falls is a major waterfall that has been created in the Blue Mountains from weathering.

Review 2.2

Online quiz

Knowledge and understanding

Thinking and working geographically

Students can access sample responses and results online

Teachers can go online to assign questions, view results, reports and more!

Knowledge and understanding 1.

2. 3.

4. 5.

Recall how far the Blue Mountains are from Sydney, and their latitude and longitude. Recall the size of the Blue Mountains National Park. Explain why the Blue Mountains are called “Blue”. Define a plateau. Explain how tectonic uplift created the Blue Mountains. Describe how weathering has shaped the Blue Mountains.

Thinking and working geographically

Working with geographical concepts: Change 1.

Using the photos and the text, explain how the Blue Mountains changed over time. In your answer, refer to tectonic uplift and current weathering features such as rivers and waterfalls.

Geographical inquiry 2.

Investigate the geological history of the Blue Mountains and construct a timeline to show the key processes that have shaped the area.

change The concept of change is about explaining geographical phenomena by investigating how they have developed over time.

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2.3 What is the environmental and economic value of the Blue Mountains?

2.3

What is the environmental and economic value of the Blue Mountains? Success criteria

In this lesson, you will learn about the environmental and economic value of the Blue Mountains.

❏ I can describe the how the Blue Mountains has economic and environmental value to humans.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Learning intention

Starter activity 1.

In pairs, students sort the following examples into two columns: environmental values and economic values. a. Provides homes to over 400 native animal species b. Generates $560 million annually through tourism c. Provides clean air and water for Western Sydney

d. Supports ecotourism and outdoor recreation jobs

e. Protects unique ecosystems like the Wollemi pine f. Hosts over four million visitors each year

Discuss and justify one example you think is the most important.

Environmental value

The Blue Mountains hold immense environmental value due to their rich biodiversity, unique ecosystems and their role in environmental conservation. The region is home to more than 400 species of animals, including the spotted-tailed quoll, greater glider and superb lyrebird.

Writing focus 2.3 Conjunctions

More than 1,500 species of plants thrive in the Blue Mountains, including the Blue Mountains ash, scribbly gum and waratah. However, eucalypts dominate the landscape. In fact, the area contains the most diverse range of eucalypt species in the world, which play a vital role in supporting unique forest ecosystems and contributing to the characteristic “blue haze” caused by oil droplets from their leaves. ➜

Figure 2.3.1 A view from Cahill Lookout in Katoomba shows the “blue haze” of the Blue Mountains.

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Chapter 2 Case study: The value and protection of landscapes and landforms: The Blue Mountains

Case study: The Wollemi pine

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U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

A key environmental value of the Blue Mountains was the discovery of the Wollemi pine (Wollemia nobilis) in 1994. Once thought to be extinct for over two million years, fewer than 100 mature trees now survive in a secret location within Wollemi National Park. This “living fossil” is considered one of the world’s rarest and most scientifically significant plants. Strict conservation measures are in place to protect the remaining trees, including cloning and careful monitoring, making the Wollemi pine a symbol of the global environmental importance of the Blue Mountains.

Figure 2.3.2 The Wollemi pine is a significant plant species only found in the Blue Mountains.

Economic value

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The Blue Mountains are one of Australia’s most popular tourist destinations, attracting around 4.4 million domestic and international visitors each year and supporting over 5,000 jobs in hospitality, accommodation, retail and tour operations. Tourism generates over $560 million annually for the local economy.

Figure 2.3.3 Tourists at Echo Point Lookout in Katoomba

Iconic attractions such as the Three Sisters at Echo Point, Scenic World in Katoomba, and Jenolan Caves draw large numbers of visitors, while activities like bushwalking, canyoning and rock climbing encourage longer stays and greater spending. Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78802-1 • (03) 8671 1400

2.3 What is the environmental and economic value of the Blue Mountains?

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Beyond tourism, the Blue Mountains contribute to the economy in vital but less visible ways. The region’s catchments supply much of Sydney’s drinking water, a service worth hundreds of millions of dollars annually. Agriculture also plays a role, with orchards, nurseries, cut-flower industries and boutique cool-climate vineyards adding both production value and agritourism opportunities. The preservation of natural landscapes also enhances property values and supports industries such as education and research, as the region is frequently used for environmental fieldwork.

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Figure 2.3.4 The cool climate of the Blue Mountains suits nurseries as an agricultural activity.

Review 2.3

Online quiz

Knowledge and understanding

Thinking and working geographically

Students can access sample responses and results online

Teachers can go online to assign questions, view results, reports and more!

Knowledge and understanding 1.

2. 3.

4. 5.

Recall how many species of animals exist within the Blue Mountains. Name three species. Recall how many species of plants exist within the Blue Mountains. Name three species. Identify the dominant plant species in the Blue Mountains. Why is it important? Explain the environmental value of the Wollemi pine to the Blue Mountains. Explain the importance of tourism to the Blue Mountains. Describe the variety of industries that operate in the Blue Mountains. Why do you think those industries operate in the Blue Mountains?

Thinking and working geographically

Working with geographical concepts: Interconnection 1.

Explain the interconnection between environmental value of the Blue Mountains and the economic value of the Blue Mountains. In your answer, refer to the link between environment and tourism.

Visible thinking routine: Circle of viewpoints

interconnection The concept of interconnection emphasises that no object of geographical study can be viewed in isolation.

a. Write four points that show that the environmental value is the most important value of the Blue Mountains. b. Write four points that show that the economic value is the most important value of the Blue Mountains. c. Share and discuss your points with a partner and draw a conclusion as to which one you think is the most important.

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Chapter 2 Case study: The value and protection of landscapes and landforms: The Blue Mountains

2.4

What is the recreational value of the Blue Mountains? Starter activity

In this lesson, you will learn about the recreational value of the Blue Mountains.

❏ I can describe how the Blue Mountains has recreational value for humans.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Learning intention

Lesson starter 1.

Write a list of the recreational activities you participate in (sport, music, cultural).

Do you think they would be able to be done in the Blue Mountains? Give reasons for your answer.

Recreational value Bushwalking

Writing focus 2.4 Note-making for sentence construction

Bushwalking is the most popular recreational activity in the Blue Mountains. The region contains over 140 kilometres of walking tracks, many of which date back to the late nineteenth century and are now heritage-listed. These tracks provide opportunities for people of all ages and abilities, ranging from short family walks to challenging multi-day hikes. It is estimated that about 1.25 million visitors per year undertake bushwalking in the Blue Mountains region, throughout the whole year.

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One of the most famous trails is the Grand Canyon Walk near Blackheath, which takes walkers through lush rainforest, waterfalls, and canyon walls shaped by millions of years of erosion. Another wellknown track is the National Pass Walk near Wentworth Falls, which hugs dramatic cliff lines and provides spectacular views of the Jamison Valley. Bushwalking allows visitors to connect with nature, enjoy physical exercise, and appreciate the unique biodiversity of the area and natural beauty such as scenic waterfalls and Figure 2.4.1 The Blue Mountains has over 140 kilometres of bushwalking tracks with amazing scenery. stunning lookouts.

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2.4 What is the recreational value of the Blue Mountains?

Adventure recreation Adventure-based recreation is another growing sector. Canyoning, rock climbing, abseiling and mountain biking are popular activities that take advantage of the Blue Mountains’ dramatic cliffs and rugged terrain.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Canyoning is particularly popular in the warmer months, with participants navigating narrow, water-filled gorges through a combination of abseiling, swimming, scrambling and climbing. Sites such as the Wollangambe Canyon near Mount Wilson and the Empress Canyon at Wentworth Falls are among the most famous. According to NSW National Parks data, canyoning permits have increased by nearly 30 per cent since 2015, reflecting growing demand. Beyond the thrill, canyoning also highlights the geomorphic features of the Blue Mountains – the deeply eroded slot canyons carved over millions of years.

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Rock climbing and abseiling are a cornerstone of the region’s adventure tourism. Cliffs at Blackheath, Mount Victoria and Figure 2.4.2 Empress Canyon in the Blue Mountains Narrow Neck attract both domestic and international climbers, National Park is very popular, as it has a number of jumps with the Blue Mountains regarded as one of Australia’s premier and swims, finishing with a spectacular 30-metre abseil. climbing destinations. An estimated 40,000 climbing days are logged in the region each year, contributing significantly to the local economy through guiding companies, gear hire and accommodation. Mountain biking has also grown rapidly in popularity within the Blue Mountains. Trails such as the Oaks Fire Trail from Woodford to Glenbrook and the Narrow Neck Plateau provide a range of challenges while offering panoramic views. The Blue Mountains City Council estimates that mountain-biking tourism contributes over $30 million annually to the local economy, with visitors typically spending more per trip than traditional daytrippers.

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Figure 2.4.3 The Blue Mountains has a range of scenic trails that attract mountain-biking enthusiasts.

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Chapter 2 Case study: The value and protection of landscapes and landforms: The Blue Mountains

Case study: Ultra-Trail Australia Marathon

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

The Ultra-Trail Australia (UTA) Marathon, held every year in the Blue Mountains, is one of the largest trail-running events in the world. The event has grown from just 157 runners in 2008 to over 8,000 participants in more recent years. It attracts thousands of competitors from around the world, with races ranging from 11 kilometres to the gruelling 100-kilometre ultramarathon. In 2025, UTA had 8,000 runners, making it the largest trail-running event in the southern hemisphere.

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The event showcases the region’s rugged terrain, steep climbs, escarpments and dense forest trails, and also highlights the importance of the Blue Mountains as a centre Figure 2.4.4 The Ultra-Trail Marathon is an for endurance sport. The marathon contributes significantly annal event that now attracts more than 8,000 to the local economy, as participants and spectators spend participants to the Blue Mountains. on accommodation, food and tourism experiences. Beyond economics, the UTA strengthens the recreational identity of the Blue Mountains, encouraging people to push their limits in a natural environment while promoting fitness, resilience and sustainable tourism.

Review 2.4

Online quiz

Knowledge and understanding

Thinking and working geographically

Students can access sample responses and results online

Teachers can go online to assign questions, view results, reports and more!

Knowledge and understanding 1.

2. 3.

4. 5.

Identify how many kilometres of walking tracks are in the Blue Mountains. Suggest why some of the walking tracks in the Blue Mountains would be heritage-listed. Describe what attracts people to bushwalking in the Blue Mountains. Explain the geomorphic features that are needed for people to go canyoning. Using Figure 2.4.2, explain why the Blue Mountains are a prominent place for rock climbing and abseiling. How do you think the recreation of mountain biking contributes $30 million into the Blue Mountains economy?

Thinking and working geographically

Working with geographical concepts: Environment 1.

Write a paragraph to explain why the Blue Mountains environment is the perfect place to run the Ultra-Trial Marathon. In your answer, refer to how humans and the environment suit this event.

Visible thinking routine: Projecting across time

environment The concept of environment is about the significance of the environment in human life, and the important interrelationships between humans and the environment.

a. Write five points that you already know about the recreational activities in the Blue Mountains. b. What type of recreational activities do you think the Indigenous people did over 250 years ago? c. How do you think recreational activities will change in the Blue Mountains in the next 50 to 100 years?

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2.5 What is the cultural value of the Blue Mountains?

2.5

What is the cultural value of the Blue Mountains? Success criteria

In this lesson, you will learn about the cultural value of the Blue Mountains.

❏ I can explain how the Blue Mountains have cultural value for humans.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Learning intention

Starter activity 1.

rite down five things you know about how Indigenous people lived before European colonisation W of Australia.

hat do you think would be the difference between Indigenous people living in mountain W environments and Indigenous people living in rural environments 250 years ago?

Cultural value

The Blue Mountains are a place of spiritual meaning, identity and storytelling for the Gundungurra and Darug peoples, the Traditional Custodians of the land. Rock art, engravings, ceremonial sites and sacred landscapes across the valleys and escarpments reveal an unbroken connection stretching back tens of thousands of years. These cultural landscapes are intertwined with Dreaming stories that explain the creation of landforms, waterholes and plants, reinforcing the deep relationship between people and Country.

Writing focus 2.5 Developing sentences

Case study: The story of the Three Sisters According to one Dreaming story, three sisters named Meehni, Wimlah and Gunnedoo lived in the Jamison Valley. They fell in love with three men from a neighbouring tribe, but tribal law forbade their marriage. Conflict broke out, and to protect the sisters from harm, an Elder turned them into stone. Although he intended to reverse the spell, he was killed in battle, leaving the sisters forever as towering sandstone pillars.

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Figure 2.5.1 The Three Sisters are a key feature of the cultural value of the Blue Mountains.

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Chapter 2 Case study: The value and protection of landscapes and landforms: The Blue Mountains

Colonial culture

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

The Blue Mountains also hold cultural significance in Australia’s colonial history. In 1813, Gregory Blaxland, William Lawson and William Charles Wentworth successfully led an expedition across the rugged range, marking the first recorded European crossing of the Blue Mountains. Their journey overcame what was long considered an impassable barrier, and their route provided access to the fertile lands of the Bathurst Plains. This achievement paved the way for inland European expansion, grazing and farming, transforming the economic and social development of New South Wales.

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Today, remnants of this colonial heritage remain visible across the region. The historic town of Hartley preserves sandstone buildings from the 1830s, including the courthouse and post office, offering insights into early colonial life. Echo Point, where visitors marvel at the Three Sisters, was first developed as a tourism lookout in the late 1800s, reflecting the Blue Mountains’ growing importance as both a settlement and leisure destination. The Great Western Highway itself follows the line of the original crossing, while walking tracks such as the National Pass, built by stonemasons in the early 1900s, remain as symbols of colonial Figure 2.5.2 St Bernards Catholic Church and Presbytery in Hartley show the colonial history of the area. engineering and heritage.

Review 2.5

Online quiz

Knowledge and understanding

Thinking and working geographically

Students can access sample responses and results online

Teachers can go online to assign questions, view results, reports and more!

Knowledge and understanding 1.

2. 3.

4. 5.

Identify the names of the two First Nations groups in the Blue Mountains. Describe the features that show the history of the First Nations groups in the Blue Mountains. What are the characteristics of the Three Sisters Dreaming story? Who were Blaxland, Wentworth and Lawson? What was the significance of crossing the Blue Mountains for Europeans? How has colonial settlement influenced the cultural characteristics of the Blue Mountains today?

Thinking and working geographically

Working with geographical concepts: Change 1.

rite a paragraph to explain how cultural values have changed in the W Blue Mountains over tens of thousands of years up to today.

Photograph interpretation 2.

ompare the way Indigenous people used the Blue Mountains environment C and how colonial people used the environment.

change The concept of change is about explaining geographical phenomena by investigating how they have developed over time.

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2.6 How have the human impacts of mining and urban development modified the Blue Mountains?

2.6

How have the human impacts of mining and urban development modified the Blue Mountains? Success criteria

In this lesson, you will learn about the human impacts that modify the Blue Mountains.

❏ I can explain how mining and human development have had an impact on the Blue Mountains.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Learning intention

Starter activity

Think about the local suburb/town where you live. Create a mind map that lists five ways you think humans have impacted your local suburb/town. Give one reason why each is a human impact.

Human impact 1: Mining

Mining was one of the earliest European industries to significantly alter the landscapes of the Blue Mountains. During the 1800s, the region’s geology made it a target for resource extraction, particularly coal and shale. Coal seams were discovered near Lithgow and Katoomba, and mining operations quickly developed to supply fuel for Sydney’s growing population and industries. The opening of coal mines in the late nineteenth century brought employment and new settlements, but also left scars on the environment. The excavation of coal altered landforms, while run-off polluted creeks and rivers, affecting water quality and ecosystems.

Writing focus 2.6 Creating topic sentences

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Shale oil mining also had a brief but intense period of activity, with the most notable site at Joadja. Extraction left behind abandoned shafts and waste piles that contributed to soil erosion and vegetation loss. Forests were cleared to make way for mines and transport infrastructure, including tramways and rail links, which further fragmented habitats. By the late 1800s, mining towns had sprung up, but many were abandoned once resources declined, leaving behind derelict structures and disturbed land. Today, remnants of these early mining operations are part of the region’s industrial heritage, but the environmental legacy includes altered waterways, degraded landscapes and ecological imbalances that must continue to be managed. Figure 2.6.1 An example of the coal-mining history of the Blue Mountains in Katoomba

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Chapter 2 Case study: The value and protection of landscapes and landforms: The Blue Mountains

Case study: Lithgow coal mining

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U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

By the late 1800s, Lithgow had become a major coal-mining hub, producing more than 1.5 million tonnes annually by the 1920s. The mines supported the establishment of Australia’s first steelworks in Lithgow in 1900, attracting thousands of workers and building the town’s industrial base. However, environmental consequences were severe: Coxs River, which flows into Sydney’s water catchments, recorded heavy metal contamination and reduced biodiversity due to mine run-off. Today, rehabilitation efforts focus on stabilising waste piles and reducing water pollution, yet the long-term impact on ecosystems remains a significant legacy of nineteenth-century mining.

Figure 2.6.2 The old remains of a blast furnace from a coal mine in Lithgow

Human impact 2: Urban development

Urban development has been one of the most significant and ongoing human impacts on the Blue Mountains. From the early nineteenth century, towns such as Katoomba, Blackheath and Springwood developed along the Great Western Highway as settlers moved inland. Initially, small villages supported transport and farming, but by the twentieth century, these towns had expanded into suburban communities.

Residential development has placed pressure on native ecosystems, as bushland has been cleared for housing, infrastructure and services. Habitat loss threatens species such as the powerful owl and the broadheaded snake, while urban sprawl fragments ecological corridors. Roads and railways have contributed to pollution and increased the risk of bushfires through human activity.

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Figure 2.6.3 The powerful owl is one species that faces habitat loss due to the spread of residential development

Water management has also been an issue, as growing populations rely on local catchments and reservoirs. The construction of dams and stormwater systems has altered natural water flows, leading to erosion and reduced water quality. In addition, invasive species such as foxes, cats and weeds thrive on the fringes of urban environments, placing pressure on native biodiversity. Despite these impacts, urban communities in the Blue Mountains have also fostered conservation awareness, with heritage-listed towns promoting sustainable planning. Programs such as Bushcare groups highlight attempts to balance development with preservation of natural and cultural values.

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2.6 How have the human impacts of mining and urban development modified the Blue Mountains?

Case study: Katoomba and surrounding towns

Figure 2.6.4 Residential area of Katoomba in the Blue Mountains

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U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Katoomba grew rapidly in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, spurred by tourism and the coal industry. Today, it has a population of 13,430, making it the largest town in the Blue Mountains. Urban sprawl has increased housing density along the escarpment, leading to bushland clearing and higher fire risks. The Blue Mountains local government area as a whole supports over 79,000 residents, and water demand has impacted nearby catchments such as Lake Medlow and Wentworth Falls Lake. In response, local council Bushcare programs have engaged 1200 volunteers across 65 sites to rehabilitate ecosystems, replant natives and reduce weed invasion, balancing human settlement with conservation.

Figure 2.6.5 Main shopping street in Katoomba

Review 2.6

Online quiz

Knowledge and understanding

Thinking and working geographically

Students can access sample responses and results online

Teachers can go online to assign questions, view results, reports and more!

Knowledge and understanding 1.

2. 3.

Why do you think coal was mined in the Blue Mountains? Explain how it has had an impact on the environment in the Blue Mountains. Why do you think people want to live in the Blue Mountains? Explain how urban development has impacted the environment in the Blue Mountains.

Thinking and working geographically

Working with geographical concepts: Environment 1.

xplain how the relationship between humans and the environment has led to the E development of towns and settlements in the Blue Mountains.

Photograph types + interpretation

efer to Figure 2.6.4, this photograph is called an oblique aerial photograph, which R means it is taken in the air at a 45-degree angle from the ground. 2. Write down four things you can see in this photograph. 3. What are the benefits to geographers of using oblique aerial photos? 4. Refer to Figure 2.6.5, this photograph is called a ground level photograph, which means it is taken at ground level. a. Write down four things you can see in this photograph. b. What are the benefits to geographers of using ground level photos?

environment The concept of environment is about the significance of the environment in human life, and the important interrelationships between humans and the environment.

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Chapter 2 Case study: The value and protection of landscapes and landforms: The Blue Mountains

2.7

How has the human impact of tourism modified the Blue Mountains? Success criteria

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Learning intention In this lesson, you will learn about how the human impact of tourism has modified the Blue Mountains.

❏ I can explain how tourism has an impact on the Blue Mountains.

Starter activity

Think about the local suburb/town that you live in. Create a mind map that lists five ways you think tourism has impacted your local suburb/town. Give one reason why each is a human impact.

Human impact 3: Tourism

Writing focus 2.7 Creating topic sentences

Tourism is both a major economic driver and a source of environmental pressure in the Blue Mountains. Since the late 1800s, when improved rail access brought visitors from Sydney, the region’s dramatic landscapes and cooler climate have attracted holidaymakers. Today, the Blue Mountains welcome around four million visitors annually, making tourism one of its largest industries. Attractions such as the Three Sisters at Echo Point, Scenic World and Wentworth Falls draw international and domestic tourists year-round.

The economic benefits of tourism are substantial. Local businesses, from accommodation providers to restaurants and tour operators, depend heavily on visitor spending, which contributes hundreds of millions of dollars to the regional economy each year. Ecotourism initiatives, including guided bushwalks and Indigenous cultural experiences, also create opportunities for sustainable economic growth.

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However, tourism has also caused significant environmental impacts. Popular walking tracks and lookouts suffer from erosion, trampling and littering. Increased vehicle traffic contributes to air and noise pollution, while bushfire risks are heightened by human activity during peak seasons. The demand for infrastructure near major sites, such as car parks, toilets and cafes, has led to further habitat modification.

Figure 2.7.1 Echo Point Lookout at Katoomba

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2.7 How has the human impact of tourism modified the Blue Mountains?

Management strategies, such as the NPWS’s investment in track upgrades and visitor education, aim to reduce these pressures. Initiatives like limiting access to sensitive areas, promoting eco-certified tours and encouraging off-peak visitation seek to balance economic benefits with the preservation of the Blue Mountains’ World Heritage values.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Case study: Scenic World and Echo Point Scenic World in Katoomba is one of the region’s most visited attractions, drawing more than one million visitors annually with its cableway and steep railway rides. The Scenic Railway is located within the Scenic World complex, and is one of the Blue Mountains’ most iconic attractions. Originally built in the nineteenth century to transport coal miners, it now serves as the world’s steepest passenger railway, with an incline of 52 degrees. The glassroofed carriages descend 310 metres through ancient temperate rainforest into the lush Jamison Valley. Along the journey, riders experience stunning views of sandstone cliffs, the Three Sisters and the forest canopy below.

Figure 2.7.2 Scenic World’s main attraction is the Scenic Railway, which allows tourists to get down into the valley below. It is the steepest passenger railway in the world. ➜

Echo Point, home to the Three Sisters lookout, receives up to two million visitors each year, making it one of the busiest tourist sites in New South Wales. These high numbers have led to soil erosion along walking tracks, vegetation damage and heavy congestion. To mitigate impacts, the NSW Government invested $15 million in 2020 for upgrades at Echo Point, including improved viewing platforms and Indigenous cultural interpretation.

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U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Chapter 2 Case study: The value and protection of landscapes and landforms: The Blue Mountains

Figure 2.7.3 Tourists walking tracks in the Blue Mountains

Review 2.7

Knowledge and understanding

Online quiz

Thinking and working geographically

Students can access sample responses and results online

Teachers can go online to assign questions, view results, reports and more!

Knowledge and understanding 1.

How many tourists come to the Blue Mountains? Which areas are the most popular? Explain how tourism can have positive and negative impacts for the Blue Mountains.

Thinking and working geographically

Working with geographical concepts: Change 1.

xplain how human impacts have changed the environment and landscape of E the Blue Mountains over time.

Human impacts on the Blue Mountains 2.

Copy the table below.

Positive impact

Negative impact

change The concept of change is about explaining geographical phenomena by investigating how they have developed over time.

Mining

Human development Tourism

a. Fill in the table to show how these factors have both positive and negative impacts on the Blue Mountains. b. Share and discuss your table with another student. c. Once you have completed your discussion, write a paragraph assessing human impact on the Blue Mountains.

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2.8 How are the Blue Mountains protected on a global scale?

2.8

How are the Blue Mountains protected on a global scale? Success criteria

In this lesson, you will learn about how the Blue Mountains are protected on a global scale.

❏ I can describe how the Blue Mountains are protected on a global scale.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Learning intention

Starter activity

Global guardians quiz 1.

In small groups, answer these questions:

a. What does UNESCO stand for? b. Which other Australian site is also World Heritage listed? c. Why do you think a site would need global protection? d. How might this protection benefit the environment?

Discuss the answers as a class.

Geographical thinking Scale

In geography, scale has two meanings. 1.

Scale is the method used to represent the size of locations on map. For example 1:100000 or 1 cm represents 1 km. The other meaning of scale within the study of Geography is that you can look at issues at three different levels.

The first is global scale, where you look at how an issue, management approach or problem will affect the rest or the world, such as how global climate targets will influence climate change. The next level is national scale, where you look at how an issue, management approach or problem will affect the country you live in or another country.

The third level is local scale, where you look at how an issue, management approach or problem will affect the local area you live in such as your suburb or town. The Blue Mountains are protected on all three levels.

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Chapter 2 Case study: The value and protection of landscapes and landforms: The Blue Mountains

World Heritage listing by UNESCO

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Writing focus 2.8 Appositives

The Greater Blue Mountains was officially inscribed on the UNESCO World Heritage List in 2000, recognising its outstanding universal value for both natural and cultural heritage. Covering over 1 million hectares, the Greater Blue Mountains World Heritage Area is protected on a global scale by the listing, which ensures it is managed, monitored and conserved under international standards. One of the most significant reasons for listing it is the region’s extraordinary biodiversity. The Blue Mountains contain over 90 species of eucalyptus, representing one of the greatest diversities of this genus on Earth. The area also provides critical habitat for threatened species such as the koala, spotted-tailed quoll, and the critically endangered Wollemi pine, a “living fossil” dating back 200 million years. By receiving UNESCO recognition, the Blue Mountains are legally recognised as an area of global importance, which obliges Australia to safeguard its ecosystems under the World Heritage Convention. The listing also draws international attention and funding. Global conservation groups and research institutions partner with local organisations to monitor ecological health, restore degraded areas, and tackle threats such as invasive species, urban expansion and climate change. For example, collaborative projects supported by UNESCO have contributed to fire management strategies, especially after the devastating 2019–20 bushfires, which burned more than 80 per cent of the World Heritage property. Tourism is another dimension influenced by World Heritage status. The global recognition attracts millions of visitors each year, with the Blue Mountains receiving around four million tourists annually. While this provides a significant boost to the regional economy, UNESCO guidelines ensure that tourism development is balanced with sustainability. Strict management plans govern infrastructure projects, walking track upgrades and cultural interpretation to minimise environmental impacts while enhancing visitor awareness of conservation values.

Culturally, World Heritage recognition highlights the deep connections of the Gundungurra, Darug, and other Indigenous peoples to the Blue Mountains. The listing emphasises the importance of Indigenous heritage and traditional custodianship, creating opportunities for cultural tourism and educational programs that share Dreaming stories, rock art and traditional land management practices with a global audience.

Figure 2.8.2 The Wollemi pine (pictured here in sapling form) is a rare species that only exists within the Blue Mountains. ➜

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Figure 2.8.1 The Blue Mountains has outstanding universal value for both natural and cultural heritage, which why it is a UNESCO World Heritage Area.

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2.8 How are the Blue Mountains protected on a global scale?

Case study: Western Sydney International Airport and the Blue Mountains The Western Sydney International (Nancy-Bird Walton) Airport, under construction at Badgerys Creek, is scheduled to open in 2026. It will be Sydney’s second major airport, designed to handle 10 million passengers annually by 2031, with long-term capacity projected at over 80 million passengers per year. Located just 11 kilometres east of the Blue Mountains World Heritage Area, the airport has sparked debate about its potential environmental and cultural impacts.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Environmental concerns

Flight paths will take aircraft over or near the Blue Mountains, raising concerns about noise pollution in areas valued for their wilderness and tranquillity. Wilderness zones such as the Grose Valley may experience a loss of natural soundscapes, which UNESCO regards as part of the World Heritage values. Additionally, conservationists highlight risks of air quality degradation, light pollution and increased urban sprawl, which may impact sensitive ecosystems and species, including the regent honeyeater and spotted-tailed quoll. Stakeholder perspectives

• Government: The Australian Government argues that the airport is essential for economic growth,

job creation and meeting Sydney’s increasing aviation demand. Environmental impact assessments have been undertaken, and measures such as wildlife monitoring and noise management are being developed.

• Conservation groups: Organisations like the Blue Mountains Conservation Society warn that

cumulative impacts could threaten the integrity of the World Heritage property. They argue that once degraded, wilderness values cannot be restored.

• Local communities and tourism operators: Residents and ecotourism businesses fear the negative

impacts on visitor experience, with tourism contributing $560 million annually to the Blue Mountains economy.

UNESCO implications

If impacts significantly compromise natural or cultural values, UNESCO could place the Blue Mountains on the World Heritage “in danger” list, potentially damaging Australia’s international reputation for conservation.

Figure 2.8.4 Western Sydney Airport is planned to have 10 million passengers annually by 2031. ➜

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Figure 2.8.3 Western Sydney Airport is set to open in 2026.

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Chapter 2 Case study: The value and protection of landscapes and landforms: The Blue Mountains

Review 2.8 Knowledge and understanding

Online quiz

Thinking and working geographically

Students can access sample responses and results online

Teachers can go online to assign questions, view results, reports and more!

Knowledge and understanding

Why are the Blue Mountains protected by UNESCO? Explain why biodiversity is a key reason for the Blue Mountains being a World Heritage Area. Why is monitoring needed to look after and preserve the Blue Mountains? Why do you think the UNESCO guidelines want to balance tourism with sustainability in the Blue Mountains? What is the cultural significance of the Blue Mountains?

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

1. 2. 3.

Thinking and working geographically

Working with geographical concepts: Environment 1.

With reference to the case study on the Western Sydney Airport, explain how the development of the airport could have impacts on the environments within the Blue Mountains.

Stakeholder viewpoints 2.

Using the case study on the Western Sydney Airport, construct a table to identify the varied viewpoints of stakeholders in the airport development. Write two paragraphs to support your viewpoint of the development and whether it puts the area’s World Heritage status at risk.

environment The concept of environment is about the significance of the environment in human life, and the important interrelationships between humans and the environment.

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Figure 2.8.5 There are concerns wilderness areas such as the Grose Valley may experience a loss of natural soundscapes as a result of flight paths over the Blue Mountain. Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78802-1 • (03) 8671 1400

2.9 How are the Blue Mountains protected on a national scale?

2.9

How are the Blue Mountains protected on a national scale? Success criteria

In this lesson, you will learn about how the Blue Mountains are protected on a national scale.

❏ I can describe how the Blue Mountains are protected on a national scale.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Learning intention

Starter activity Quick facts race 1.

In pairs, guess how each term links to protecting the Blue Mountains:

a. NPWS b. national park c. bushfire recovery d. tourism management e. conservation law.

Discuss your responses as a class.

Explore how NPWS manages the Blue Mountains and how national strategies align with global conservation goals.

State government initiatives

The NSW Government, primarily through the NPWS, plays a crucial role in protecting the Blue Mountains. The region of the Greater Blue Mountains World Heritage Area, spanning over 1 million hectares, requires large-scale, coordinated management to balance ecological integrity with cultural values and growing tourism pressures.

Figure 2.9.1 Foxes threaten several native species in the Blue Mountains. ➜

The NPWS oversees eight conservation reserves within the Blue Mountains World Heritage Area, implementing comprehensive Plan of Management strategies. These include biodiversity conservation, habitat restoration and pest species control. For example, NPWS programs target invasive species such as feral foxes, which threaten native fauna. In 2022–23, NPWS conducted over 3,500 pest animal control operations across NSW, with a significant portion occurring in the Blue Mountains. Additionally, NPWS employs rangers and ecologists to monitor 400 threatened species, including the regent honeyeater and spotted-tailed quoll. The service also manages over 140 walking tracks and visitor facilities, ensuring both environmental protection and safe visitor access.

Writing focus 2.9 Conjunctions

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Chapter 2 Case study: The value and protection of landscapes and landforms: The Blue Mountains

Case study: NPWS pest and weed control in the Blue Mountains

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

The NPWS runs large-scale pest management programs across the Blue Mountains World Heritage Area to protect threatened species. Feral foxes, and weeds such as blackberry, are significant threats, contributing to habitat loss and predation. In 2022–23, NPWS reported over 3,500 pest control operations statewide, with intensive programs in the Blue Mountains targeting key biodiversity hotspots. For instance, fox baiting along the Grose Valley has been crucial in reducing predation on ground-dwelling mammals like the long-nosed bandicoot. Weed-removal projects in wetlands have also restored more than 200 hectares of upland swamps, ensuring the survival of critical ecosystems listed under national environmental laws.

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Figure 2.9.2 NPWS ranger setting a fox trap in the Blue Mountains to protect native wildlife.

Sustainable tourism and infrastructure

Tourism generates more than $560 million annually for the Blue Mountains region, attracting over four million visitors each year. To manage visitor impacts, NPWS and the NSW Government have invested in sustainable infrastructure. The $15 million Echo Point redevelopment (2020) is a key example, featuring upgraded viewing platforms, accessibility improvements and Indigenous cultural interpretation spaces. Similarly, NPWS maintains over 250 kilometres of walking tracks, including the worldrenowned Six Foot Track, balancing visitor experience with ecosystem protection. In addition, visitor education campaigns promote “Leave no trace” practices, ensuring tourism contributes to conservation rather than degradation.

Case study: Echo Point redevelopment and sustainable tourism

The most popular destination in the area is Echo Point Lookout, home to the iconic view of the Three Sisters, which can attract tens of thousands of visitors on peak weekends. However, such heavy visitation places significant pressure on walking tracks, viewing areas and surrounding vegetation, creating safety concerns and environmental degradation.

To address these challenges, the NSW Government committed $15 million in 2020 to a major redevelopment of Echo Point. The project delivered expanded multi-level viewing platforms, designed to disperse crowds and reduce trampling of surrounding bushland. Wheelchair-accessible pathways and railings were introduced, ensuring inclusive access for all visitors. Importantly, the redevelopment also featured cultural interpretation areas developed in consultation with Gundungurra and Darug Traditional Owners, enabling visitors to learn about Indigenous stories connected to the Three Sisters and the broader landscape.

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2.9 How are the Blue Mountains protected on a national scale?

The upgrades incorporated sustainable design principles, including low-impact construction materials, improved stormwater drainage to prevent erosion and landscaping with native plants to protect local biodiversity. Lighting was also designed to minimise disruption to nocturnal wildlife.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Since completion, Echo Point has become a model of sustainable tourism infrastructure. Visitor surveys in 2023 reported a 30 per cent rise in satisfaction, with international tourists praising the improved accessibility and cultural interpretation. Importantly, crowdmanagement strategies have reduced localised erosion and helped protect the World Heritage values of the site, showing how investment in infrastructure can balance visitor demand with long-term conservation goals.

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Figure 2.9.3 The redeveloped Echo Point lookout has a much larger viewing area and better facilities to cater for greater numbers of tourists.

Review 2.9

Online quiz

Knowledge and understanding

Thinking and working geographically

Students can access sample responses and results online

Teachers can go online to assign questions, view results, reports and more!

Knowledge and understanding 1.

4. 5.

Describe why the NPWS has a hard job managing the Blue Mountains. How many conservation reserves is the Blue Mountains divided into and what are the key areas of the protection plan? Why is targeting feral species in the Blue Mountains important? Use specific examples in your answer. How many people and how much money is generated by tourism in the Blue Mountains? What do you think is the purpose of the visitor education campaign that promotes “Leave no trace” in the Blue Mountains? How did the NSW Government improve the facilities at Echo Point to cater for tourists? Was it successful?

Thinking and working geographically

Working with geographical concepts: Sustainability 1.

Explain how strategies implemented by the NSW Government are expected to achieve sustainability in the Blue Mountains. In your answer, refer to feral animal and weed removal, and development of tourist infrastructure.

Photograph interpretation 2.

Using Figure 2.9.3, write a paragraph explaining how you see tourists interacting with the Echo Point Lookout. What activities do you see them doing?

sustainability The concept of sustainability is about the capacity of the environment to continue to support our lives and the lives of other living creatures into the future.

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Chapter 2 Case study: The value and protection of landscapes and landforms: The Blue Mountains

2.10

How are the Blue Mountains protected on a local scale? Success criteria

In this lesson, you will learn about how the Blue Mountains are protected on a local scale.

❏ I can describe how the Blue Mountains are protected on a local scale with global conservation goals.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Learning intention

Starter activity

Think about the local suburb/town that you live in. Create a mind map that lists five ways you think humans have impacted your local suburb/town. Give one reason why each is a human impact.

Council programs

Protecting Blue Mountains swamps from stormwater impacts

Writing focus 2.10 Conjunctions

The Blue Mountains swamps are one of the region’s most ecologically significant and vulnerable ecosystems. Listed as a Threatened Ecological Community under both NSW and Commonwealth legislation, these upland peat swamps provide critical habitat for rare species such as the Blue Mountains water skink and the giant dragonfly, while also acting as natural sponges that regulate water flow, filter pollutants and reduce downstream flooding. However, their positions near urban centres makes them highly susceptible to stormwater run-off, erosion and nutrient loading from human development.

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Figure 2.10.1 A view of Dunns Swamp in Wollemi National Park

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2.10 How are the Blue Mountains protected on a local scale?

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

To address this challenge, the Blue Mountains City Council, in partnership with Greater Sydney Local Land Services, the NPWS, and the Saving Native Species program, launched the Protecting Blue Mountains Swamps from Stormwater Impacts project in 2023. This multiagency initiative received $1.5 million in targeted funding, as part of a wider $4.5 million allocation across the Greater Blue Mountains World Heritage Area, to reduce the harmful effects of uncontrolled stormwater entering these fragile environments.

Figure 2.10.3 Rock armouring protects streams from erosion from stormwater in the Blue Mountains. ➜

Case studies highlight the project’s effectiveness. For instance, in the Leura Falls Creek catchment, where stormwater once caused significant channel erosion, new biofiltration systems have reduced sediment transport by an estimated 40 per cent in the first year. Similarly, in the Wentworth Falls area, early monitoring indicates improved water clarity and reduced nutrient inflow, creating better conditions for swamp-dependent species.

Figure 2.10.2 A biofiltration basin that uses plants to filter sediments and other pollutants out of stormwater in the Blue Mountains. ➜

The project combines both engineering and ecological restoration solutions. Stormwater interception systems, such as biofiltration basins, vegetated swales and sediment traps, are being installed to capture and treat run-off before it reaches swamp catchments. Rock armouring and erosion control structures are stabilising creek lines to prevent sedimentation, while targeted weed management ensures invasive plants do not exploit disturbed areas. At the same time, community education programs are raising awareness of the role swamps play in sustaining biodiversity and clean water supplies for Western Sydney.

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Chapter 2 Case study: The value and protection of landscapes and landforms: The Blue Mountains

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

By integrating stormwater engineering with ecological restoration, this program is a leading example of how local councils and state agencies can collaborate to protect World Heritage landscapes. It ensures that the Blue Mountains swamps continue to provide ecological, hydrological and cultural value, safeguarding them for both wildlife and future generations.

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Figure 2.10.4 Water monitoring has indicated that the water going over Wentworth Falls has improved in quality as a result of stormwater management strategies.

Review 2.10

Online quiz

Knowledge and understanding

Thinking and working geographically

Students can access sample responses and results online

Teachers can go online to assign questions, view results, reports and more!

Knowledge and understanding 1.

2. 3.

4. 5.

Why are the upland peat swamps important for the Blue Mountains? What features are having an impact on the peat swamps in the Blue Mountains? What does multi-agency approach mean and how much funding do they have? Explain how the stormwater interceptions system work. Explain how rock armouring and erosion control structures are preventing sedimentation. Have these approaches been successful? Use examples to support your answer.

Thinking and working geographically

Working with geographical concepts: Space 1.

Explain how urban development has influenced the space within the Blue Mountains and how it has influenced the environment. How has the local government managed this space?

Protection comparison table 3.

space The concept of space is about the significance of location and spatial distribution, and the ways people organise and manage the spaces where they live.

Compare the protection at the three different scales (local, national and global) in a table. Write down features of each scale. Discuss your table with the person next to you and then write one paragraph to explain which scale is the most successful.

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2.11 How do the Traditional Owners manage and care for the Blue Mountains?

2.11

How do the Traditional Owners manage and care for the Blue Mountains? Success criteria

In this lesson, you will learn about how the Traditional Owners manage and care for the Blue Mountains.

❏ I can explain how Traditional Owners manage and care for the Blue Mountains

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Learning intention

Starter activity

Think about what life would have been like for First Nations peoples in the Blue Mountains prior to European colonisation. Write down five ways you think they adapted to live in a mountain environment.

For tens of thousands of years, the Blue Mountains have been home to the Gundungurra and Darug peoples, whose deep cultural connection to Country is based on knowledge systems passed through generations. Indigenous management of the Blue Mountains is holistic, recognising that land, water, plants, animals and people are interconnected. Their practices ensured the sustainability of ecosystems while maintaining cultural and spiritual responsibilities.

Writing focus 2.11 Conjunctions

Fire management

One of the most significant Indigenous land management practices is cultural burning, also known as “cool burning”. Unlike the destructive bushfires seen in recent years, cultural burning involves using lowintensity fires during cooler months. These controlled burns reduce fuel loads, encourage new plant growth, and maintain habitats for animals such as kangaroos, wallabies and native birds. In the Blue Mountains, this practice created a mosaic of vegetation types, improving biodiversity and reducing the risk of catastrophic fires. Today, agencies like the NPWS are working with Traditional Owners to reintroduce these methods, blending ancient knowledge with modern science. ➜

Figure 2.11.1 Cool burning is done to protect areas of the Blue Mountains from major bushfires. Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78802-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Chapter 2 Case study: The value and protection of landscapes and landforms: The Blue Mountains

Case study: Gundungurra cultural burning in Megalong Valley

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

In 2021, Gundungurra Traditional Owners worked with the NPWS to carry out a cultural burn in the Megalong Valley. Unlike destructive wildfires, these “cool burns” were conducted in winter to reduce fuel loads, protect heritage sites and regenerate bush tucker plants. Following the burn, surveys recorded a 40 per cent increase in native plant diversity, including yam daisies and native raspberries. The patchy mosaic of burnt and unburnt land also created habitats for small mammals such as bandicoots. This case illustrates how cultural burning not only mitigates bushfire risks but also revives ecological and cultural values of Country.

Water and swamp management

Waterways and upland swamps in the Blue Mountains are sacred and vital for biodiversity. Gundungurra people have Dreaming stories connected to rivers such as the Wollondilly, Coxs and Burragorang. Ancient Indigenous practices included protecting catchments, using stone tools to manage channels, and harvesting water plants without damaging ecosystems. Seasonal knowledge ensured sustainable fishing and harvesting of eels, yabbies and other aquatic resources.

Case study: Water management and caring for sacred springs

Figure 2.11.2 Sacred springs feed into the creeks that supply water to Wentworth Falls in the Blue Mountains. ➜

For the Gundungurra and Darug peoples, water systems in the Blue Mountains are deeply spiritual, linked to Dreaming stories and ancestral beings. One example is the protection of sacred springs near Wentworth Falls, which provide both cultural significance and freshwater habitats. In 2019, Traditional Owners worked with Blue Mountains City Council to restore riparian vegetation around these sites. Monitoring showed a 25 per cent improvement in water quality and reduced sediment run-off. These practices highlight how Indigenous knowledge ensures clean water supplies, protects biodiversity such as frogs and freshwater crayfish, and maintains the cultural continuity of sacred waters.

Sacred sites and songlines

The Blue Mountains contains numerous rock-art sites, engravings and ceremonial grounds. These places are more than historical artefacts; they are active parts of cultural law and knowledge. Songlines connect sites across the landscape, guiding people physically and spiritually. Respecting and protecting these sites is a form of land management, as they encode ecological and survival knowledge within cultural traditions.

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2.11 How do the Traditional Owners manage and care for the Blue Mountains?

Case study: Protecting sacred sites at the Three Sisters

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

The Three Sisters at Echo Point is one of the most culturally significant sites in the Blue Mountains for the Gundungurra and Darug peoples, linked to Dreaming stories passed down for generations. In 2020, Traditional Owners partnered with local tourism authorities to improve visitor education and site protection. New interpretive signage explained the Dreaming stories while fencing restricted access to fragile rock areas. Visitor surveys indicated that 78 per cent of tourists gained a deeper cultural appreciation after the upgrades. Protecting this sacred site preserves cultural heritage and also demonstrates how Indigenous perspectives can shape sustainable tourism and enhance respect for Country.

➜

Figure 2.11.3 The Three Sisters have cultural significance for the Gundungurra and Darug peoples in the Blue Mountains.

Contemporary practice and revival

Today, Gundungurra and Darug communities continue to practise and share their knowledge, working alongside conservation bodies. Programs like cultural tours and bush tucker walks educate visitors about Indigenous perspectives on land, while co-management agreements with government agencies help integrate Indigenous practices into fire, water and park management. For example, cultural heritage assessments are conducted before major developments to protect sacred sites.

Review 2.11

Online quiz

Knowledge and understanding

Thinking and working geographically

Students can access sample responses and results online

Teachers can go online to assign questions, view results, reports and more!

Knowledge and understanding 1.

2. 3.

4. 5.

How long have First Nations peoples lived the Blue Mountains? Identify the main cultural groups that lived in the Blue Mountains. Explain how cool burning works. What is its purpose? Examine the activities of Gundungurra Traditional Owners carrying out a cultural burn in the Megalong Valley. How did First Nations peoples mange water resources in the Blue Mountains? Explain how Indigenous people protect a sacred water spring near Wentworth Falls. How have Indigenous people assisted in the protection of the Three Sisters?

Thinking and working geographically

Working with geographical concepts: Place 1.

In two paragraphs, explain how the significance of Blue Mountains to First Nations peoples allows them to provide care to the environment.

place The concept of place is about the significance of places and what they are like.

Geographical inquiry 2.

Investigate another place of Indigenous significance and compare the way in which the Traditional Custodians care for that place with how the Traditional Owners care for the Blue Mountains. Identify similarities and differences.

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Chapter 2 Case study: The value and protection of landscapes and landforms: The Blue Mountains

2.12

Chapter review Access the Interactive Textbook for a range of digital tools to help you review this chapter and build confidence.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

• Auto-marked questions for fast feedback and fun practice • Self-assessment tools to track your progress, review answers (if enabled by the teacher), and flag questions for extra help

• Downloadable worksheets for class or homework revision

Chapter summary Summary notes

Download chapter summary

What have you learned about the Blue Mountains?

For this activity, copy the table and fill it out by explaining your understanding. Aim for two points per topic.

Terms

What I have learnt

Wollemi pine Uplift

Environmental value Economic value

Recreational value Cultural value

Human impacts

Protection of Blue Mountains

Visible thinking routine Compass points 1.

E – Excited

What excites you about the Blue Mountains?

W – Worrisome

What do you find worrisome about the Blue Mountains?

N – Need to know What other information do you need to know about the Blue Mountains?

S – Stance What is your current stance or opinion on the human impacts on the Blue Mountains?

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2.12 Chapter review

Questions Scorcher quiz

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Access a fast, fun, competitive quiz that puts your understanding to the test.

Questions

The following questions various ways to demonstrate your understanding of the chapter. 1.

The Blue Mountains get their name from the blue haze created by oil droplets released from __________ trees mixing with dust and sunlight.

The Wollemi pine is often called a “_______ fossil”.

Two key geomorphic processes that shaped the Blue Mountains are tectonic __________ and weathering.

The Blue Mountains attract around ________ million visitors each year.

The Traditional Owners of the Blue Mountains are the _______ and the _______ Peoples.

The Blue Mountains are located west of which city?

A. Melbourne

B. Brisbane

C. Sydney

D. Perth

Which of these is the most popular recreation activity in the Blue Mountains? A. Mountain biking

B. Rock climbing

C. Bushwalking

D. Fishing

Cultural burning is best described as:

A. a high-intensity wildfire that clears land quickly.

B. a low-intensity fire used to manage vegetation and reduce fuel loads. C. a method used by tourists for camping.

D. a government plan to remove invasive plants.

What type of rock makes up most of the Blue Mountains? A. Sandstone B. Granite

C. Limestone

10.

What major industry has historically changed the environment in the Blue Mountains? A. Car manufacturing B. Ship building C. Oil drilling

D. Coal mining

Refer to Figure 2.12.1 to answer the following questions

Identify one natural landform or landscape feature shown in this image.

12.

Identify one safety feature that you think would be important for an attraction like the Scenic Railway.

13.

Outline why the Blue Mountains is a popular place for tourism.

Figure 2.12.1 Tourists riding the Scenic Railway in Katoomba, 1972 ➜

11.

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Chapter 2 Case study: The value and protection of landscapes and landforms: The Blue Mountains

Writing focus The following activities allow you to practise your writing skills.

Answering questions in paragraphs You can use this as a model when writing your own answers to the questions that follow. Question: Explain the geomorphic processes that have shaped the Blue Mountains. (20 marks)

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Writing focus 2.12 Single paragraph response model

Model answer: Topic sentence: the first sentence of the paragraph; directly answers the question

Evidence: specific, relevant evidence to support arguments Linking sentence: reconnects with language of the question the topic sentence

Marking criteria for each question can be found in the Interactive Textbook. Refer to these criteria when planning and writing your responses.

The geomorphic processes that shaped the Blue Mountains include sedimentation, tectonic uplift, weathering and erosion. The plateaus, cliffs and valleys of the Blue Mountains of today were first deposited around 250 million years ago when layers of sand and mud were slowly compacted into sandstone. Approximately 50 million years later, tectonic uplift raised the sandstone into a broad plateau that became exposed to strong weathering and erosion. Sandstone is particularly vulnerable to breakdown by wind, water and gravity because it is highly porous and contains natural joints and cracks that weaken the rock over time. Wentworth Falls, a prominent landform in the Blue Mountains, has been shaped by weathering and erosion, as the softer rock beneath the cliff has been worn away by the persistent force of falling water. In this way, following the initial geomorphic processes of sedimentation and tectonic uplift, the Blue Mountains landscape has been shaped by weathering and erosion.

Explain: clarify, define and describe

Elaborate: additional information, interconnections

Examples: provide credibility and illustrate the argument

Structured-response questions Question 1

(20 marks)

a. Describe the geomorphic processes that have shaped the Blue Mountains. b. Explain the recreational and cultural value of the Blue Mountains. c. Explain the environmental and economic value of the Blue Mountains. In your answer, give examples for each value.

(10 marks)

Question 2

(20 marks)

a. Describe one way the Blue Mountains are protected at a local scale. b. Explain how the Blue Mountains are protected at a national scale. c. Explain how the Blue Mountains are protected at a global scale. In your answer refer to different stakeholder viewpoints.

(4 marks) (6 marks)

(10 marks)

Extended-response questions Question 1

(20 marks)

Explain the human impacts on the Blue Mountains.

Teachers, access the Online Teaching Suite for digital resources and tools that support review, assessment and reporting, including:

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Chapter

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Geographical skills: Topographic mapping basics

Lessons 3.1

What makes a great map? BOLTSS

3.2

Area and grid references

3.3

Contour lines and elevation

3.4

Scale and distance

3.5

Fieldwork: Landscapes and landforms

3.6

Chapter review: Topographic mapping basics

➜

Teachers go online to the Online Teaching Suite to: • plan, sequence and assign directed tasks for students and classes using Task Manager • view student activity reports • provide feedback to students • download a printable “Writing focus” workbook for this chapter.

Image: A young woman using a map for directions

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Chapter 3 Geographical skills: Topographic mapping basics

3.1

What makes a great map? BOLTSS

Success criteria

In this lesson, you will learn the key features of topographic maps.

❏ I can identify key features of a topographic map. ❏ I can explain why these key features are important.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Learning intention

Introduction

topographic map a detailed, largescale map of part of Earth’s surface that shows the shape of the land and selected natural and human features

Maps are one of the most important tools geographers use to understand landscapes and landforms. Most often, geographers rely on topographic maps like the one shown in Figure 3.1.1. These maps display both physical and human features through a variety of symbols, and they show the shape of the land using contour lines. For a map to be truly useful, it must include certain key elements. To remember these elements, we use the acronym BOLTSS.

contour line a line on a map that indicates altitude

T - Title Tells us what place the map represents

Coburn Adventure Bay 56

B - Border Shows us the edge of the map

L - Legend Tells us what symbols on the map mean

Video 3.1.1 BOLTSS and why we need them

O - Orientation Shows us which direction is north

LEGEND

Jetty

Hotel

Road

Beach

Walking track

1 cm = 1 km

Geography Transformed ➜

Figure 3.1.1 An annotated topographic map showing BOLTSS

S - Scale Tells us what 1 cm on the map represents in the real world

S - Source Tells us who made the map

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3.1 What makes a great map? BOLTSS

Now you try! 3.1 Identify what part of BOLTSS is represented by each number in Figure 3.1.2. For each part of BOLTSS, write one sentence describing the problems that could arise if that feature is missing from a map.

1. 2.

Watch Video 3.1.2 to see how we worked out this answer.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Cizzio Island

Video 3.1.2 How we found the answer to Question 1

1 cm = 100 m

LEGEND

Jetty

Forest

Beach

Made by Cizzio Tourism Board

Helipad

➜

Figure 3.1.2 Topographic map

Activity 3.1 Find five maps, online or in an atlas. For each map, identify which part of BOLTSS have been included and any parts of BOLTSS that are missing. Write a description of how the missing elements could improve the usefulness of the maps you found.

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Chapter 3 Geographical skills: Topographic mapping basics

3.2

Area and grid references

Success criteria

In this lesson, you will learn how features can be located on a map.

❏ I can identify features on a map using area and grid references.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Learning intention

Introduction

Possibly the most important thing we do with maps is find points of interest, but how do we do that? Area and grid references are the fastest and easiest way to locate physical and human features on a map. With an area or grid reference, you can quickly find a place and save yourself from scanning the entire map. Many geographical skills that you will learn will start with using an area or grid reference to locate a place. Watch Video 3.2.1 to understand how to use area and grid references.

Area references

Area references tell us what grid square a feature is located within. If you are asking someone to find a school and there is only one within the chosen grid square, then an area reference is likely enough information. An area reference is given as four numbers. We start by finding the bottom left corner of the box and then drawing down to the easting. After finding the easting, we draw across to find the northing. This can be seen in Figure 3.2.1.

Northings

Video 3.2.1 Area and grid references

AR0212

Bottom left corner

Eastings

➜

Figure 3.2.1 A map with an area reference

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3.2 Area and grid references

Now you try! 3.2a 1.

Kateville

15 National park

Jetty

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Find the area reference of the oval. (Watch Video 3.2.2 to see how we worked out this answer.) Find the area reference of the national park. Find the area reference of the patrolled beach. Find the area reference of the cafe. Find the area reference of the jetty.

Cafe

Village

Patrolled beach

10 Ma in ro ad

Oval

Video 3.2.2 How we found the answer to Question 1

➜

Figure 3.2.2 Topographic map

Grid references

Grid references give even more detail and locate not just the grid square, but the specific location of a feature. We still use the eastings before the northings, but we imagine each grid square is broken into a further 10 × 10 grid. Or when drawing down and across, we treat the number either side of our line as a number line. In Figure 3.2.3, the easting is halfway between 02 and 03, so we think of this as 02.5 but eliminate the decimal place when writing the grid reference. 15

12.5 (2)

GR025125

02.5 (1)

➜

Figure 3.2.3 A map showing a grid reference

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Chapter 3 Geographical skills: Topographic mapping basics

Now you try! 3.2b 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

What is the grid reference of the cafe (go from the middle of the symbol)? What is the grid reference of the north arrow? What is the area reference of the end of the jetty? What is the grid reference of point A? What is the grid reference of point B?

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Watch Video 3.2.3 to see how we worked out this answer

Video 3.2.3 How we found the answer to Question 1

Kateville

National park

Jetty

Cafe

Village

in ro ad

Patrolled beach

Oval

➜

Figure 3.2.4 Topographic map

Activity 3.2

For this activity, students will work in pairs, with a textbook for each pair and a stopwatch. Use the more detailed map of the Blue Mountains on page xxx. One student starts by finding a place on the map. Then they hand the textbook to their partner and ask them to find the place by simply giving its name. Time how long it takes for the place to be located. Repeat the process with a second place, but this time give the area or grid reference. Compare the times to see how much faster the activity could be completed with a specific reference.

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3.3 Contour lines and elevation

3.3

Contour lines and elevation

Success criteria

In this lesson, you will learn how contour lines show the elevation of landscapes and landforms.

❏ I can identify the height of a specific point and understand the general shape of an area of land, using contour lines.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Learning intention

Introduction

Geographers use topographic maps as a tool to visualise the shape (or topography) of a landscape. Because the world is three dimensional, and maps are only two dimensional, we need a way to show the shape of the landscape on a two-dimensional surface. The feature of a topographic map that allows us to do this is contour lines. Contour lines are created by connecting areas of equal elevation. This allows us not only to get a sense of the topography of the landscape at glance, but also to calculate specific elevations at different locations. In this lesson we will be using contour lines to calculate the elevation of different places on a map. The contour interval is the difference between each contour. For this map the contour interval is 10 m.

Contour lines are always evenly spaced in height, which is called the contour interval. The contour interval is usually shown in the map legend, but it can also be found by working out the difference between the numbers on the contour lines. When contour lines are close together, the land is steep; when they are far apart, the slope is gentle. The contour lines can be read to find the elevation of a point, but when that point is between two contour lines, it must be written as a range. See Figure 3.3.1 for an example.

Evie Bay

elevation the height of a place above the level of the sea contour interval the difference in height between contour lines on a map

Point D is above the hightest contour: 60 – 70 m. Point C is between two contours: 40 – 50 m. It must be written as a range.

Point A is on a marked contour: 10 m.

1:50000

LEGEND

Major road

Video 3.3.1 Contour lines

B Boat ramp

Point B is on an unmarked contour: 30 m.

➜

Figure 3.3.1 An annotated topographic map showing contour lines

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Chapter 3 Geographical skills: Topographic mapping basics

Now you try! 3.3 1.

3. 5.

What is the contour interval of this map? (Watch Video 3.3.2 to see how to work this out.) Find the elevation of point B. Find the elevation of point D.

Find the elevation of point A.

Find the elevation of point C.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Amelia Mountain

30 0

Video 3.3.2 How we found the answer to Question 1

500

562

300

LEGEND

Spot height

Lookout

1:20000

➜

Figure 3.3.2 Topographic map

Activity 3.3

For this activity, you will need a pencil, paper and playdough or kinetic sand.

Use your playdough to make a model of a hill or mountain. Make sure it has some steep slopes and some gentle ones. If you have a hill that you know well, see if you can make a rough version of it. When you are happy with your playdough mountain, use a pencil to make a dotted line around the playdough mountain ensuring you stay at the same height above the desk. Repeat this two or three more times, with each line evenly spaced above the next. Once you have three or four lines evenly spaced vertically, look at your mountain from directly above and draw your view of the lines you dotted on it. You now should have a perfect representation of your playdough mountain using contour lines!

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3.4 Scale and distance

3.4

Scale and distance

Success criteria

In this lesson, you will learn about the different scales used on topographic maps.

❏ I can calculate the distance between places on topographic maps, using scales in different forms.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Learning intention

Introduction

Maps are helpful tools because they show a large area of land on a relatively small piece of paper. The scale on the map allows us to understand how much land is being shown on the map. It’s also a tool that enables us to find the distance between places on the map. This is important if you need to travel between places on the map. Understanding scale is important for other skills you will learn across stages 4 and 5 Geography. In this lesson we will start by looking at the three ways that a scale can be expressed, and then the simple mathematics we can use to convert scales from centimetres to metres or kilometres. Linear scale – uses a bar to show what a cm on the map represents in the real world. 0

Written scale – a very easy scale to read and understand.

3 km

1 cm = 1 km

Ratio scale – in this case 1 cm on the map is equal to 100000 cm in the real world.

1:100000

1 cm = 1 km

➜

Figure 3.4.1 Different scales used on topographic maps

We use the 2 + 5 rule to convert this to metres and kilometres.

Video 3.4.1 Using a scale scale the relation between the real size of something and its size on a map, model or diagram distance the amount of space between two places

To convert a ratio scale, you first need to understand how many centimetres are in a metre and how many metres are in a kilometre. You can then use this knowledge to multiply or divide to change the scale into different units. Another helpful method is the 2 and 5 rule shown in Figure 3.4.2, which allows you to cross out zeros and easily convert between centimetres, metres and kilometres. 1 m = 100 cm 1 km = 1,000 m or 100,000 cm

If a map has a scale of 1 : 1,000 We can cross out two zeroes to convert the scale to m 1: 100,000 1 cm = 1,000 m We can cross out the five zeroes to convert the scale to km 1: 100,000 1 cm = 1 km

➜

Figure 3.4.2 Converting ratio scales

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Chapter 3 Geographical skills: Topographic mapping basics

Now you try! 3.4a Complete the table by converting the ratio scales to metres and kilometres. Then think about how you could reverse this process to convert kilometres back to metres or centimetres.

1:250,000

1 cm = 2,500 m

1:30,000

1:1,000,000

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Video 3.4.2 How we found the answer to Question 1

1 cm = 0.3 km

1 cm = 4,000 m

1 cm = 20 km

We can now use this knowledge to find distances between places on a map. When given a ratio scale like the one in Figure 3.4.3, we first convert it into metres or kilometres, depending on the question. Next, we use a ruler to measure the distance between points on the map in centimetres. Finally, we multiply the measured distance by the number of metres or kilometres that each centimetre on the map represents.

Charlie Canyon

Find the distance between A and B in km.

300

Step two: Measure this with a ruler = 4.8 cm

350

Step three: 4.8 x 2 (from step one) = 9.6 km

1:200000

Figure 3.4.3 Annotated map showing how to find the distance between points ➜

Step one: Convert the scale 1 : 200,000 1 cm = 2,000 m 1 : 200,000 1 cm = 2 km

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3.4 Scale and distance

Now you try! 3.4b Use Figure 3.4.3 to answer these questions. 1. 2. 3.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Find the distance between point A and point C in metres. Find the distance between point B and point E in kilometres. Find the distance between point C and point D in metres. Find the distance between point A and point E in kilometres. Find the perimeter of the map in metres.

Video 3.4.3 How we found the answer to Question 1

Activity 3.4

Create a table in your book similar to the one shown. Review this chapter and find all of the scales used on different maps. For each one, convert the scale to metres and kilometres. Then find five more maps, either online or in books, and record the scale and complete the same conversions. The first one has been completed as an example.

Title of map

Scale

Converted to m

Converted to km

Figure 3.1.1 Coburn Adventure Bay

1 cm = 1 km Written scale

1 cm = 1000 m

1 cm = 1 km

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Chapter 3 Geographical skills: Topographic mapping basics

3.5

Fieldwork: Landscapes and landforms Success criteria

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Learning intention In this lesson, you will design a fieldwork investigation to evaluate the success of urban management in your local area.

❏ I can design and conduct a fieldwork report on the features of urban management.

Teachers can find an alternative downloadable assessment task, suggested answers and marking rubric for this focus area in the Online Teaching Suite.

Investigating landscapes and landforms in your neighbourhood Fieldwork is an essential part of studying geography. You can use fieldwork to investigate many of the concepts studied in the classroom while you are out in the real world. Also, you can use fieldwork to apply your knowledge to answer a research question about issues in your local area.

In this investigation, your aim is to determine whether the management of people and infrastructure in your local urban landscape is successful and sustainable. Use the structure outlined in Table 3.5.1 to develop your study.

Table 3.5.1 Sections of a fieldwork report Section

Explanation

Examples

Title and introduction

Choose a suitable topic and title for your investigation. It should include the scope and location of your investigation. Write a brief introduction outlining the main aspects of your study, including an outline of the type of urban management you will be investigating.

• An investigation of the availability and efficiency

Background information

Research some background information about your chosen topic and region. This will provide some context for your study.

• Geographic characteristics of your chosen

Research question

Write a research question that you plan to answer using the data that you collect. You may prefer to write one overall research question and multiple sub-questions.

• Is house availability and affordability sustainable

of public transport in Sydney’s south-eastern suburbs • A comparison of the quality and quantity of green space in Sydney’s inner and outer suburbs • The impacts of rapid population growth in Sydney’s west • The sustainability of urban-to-rural migration since 2020 location and a map showing your study area • Population trends and projected growth or decline

given population growth in Sydney’s outer west? • Does the quality of public transport reduce as you travel further out from Sydney’s CBD? • Are NSW’s rural areas lacking essential infrastructure and services?

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3.5 Fieldwork: Landscapes and landforms

Section

Explanation

Examples

Hypothesis

A hypothesis is a clear and concise statement that can be tested. It should be written before you collect your primary data.

• House prices in Sydney’s west are increasing

Primary data is data you collect in the field specifically for your investigation. Consider the types of primary data that you will need to collect to answer your research question. Consider the equipment and preparation required.

• Interviews with local residents, councillors

at a rate that is unaffordable for young couples and families • The quality of Sydney’s public transport reduces beyond a 10 km radius of the CBD and businesses • Surveys of residents living in a particular street • Traffic and public transport assessments • Measurements of the quality of public services, such as green space and sporting facilities • Photos and field sketches

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Primary data collection

Secondary Secondary data is data that other data collection people have collected that you can use as part of your investigation. Undertake research to find suitable sources of information that you can apply to your topic.

• Demographic data, such as total population,

Presenting and analysing your data

Summarise your findings in visual formats that are easy to read and understand.

• Different types of graphs (pie, line, bar) and

Discussion, conclusion and evaluation

Use your primary and secondary data to answer your research question. Provide a concise summary of your major findings. Evaluate the success of your data collection and your overall investigation.

• The extent to which your hypothesis has been

References

Include a bibliography of any sources used.

• Australian Bureau of Statistics 2021, Community

growth, median age • Satellite imagery and maps showing the location of relevant geographic characteristics • Planned upgrades to urban infrastructure, such as new train lines maps (choropleth, thematic, political) • Annotated photos and field sketches • Summary tables

supported or disproven • An answer to your research question • The strengths and weaknesses of your data collection and how it could be improved

Profiles, Australian Government, accessed 5 September 2023, https://www.abs.gov.au/ census/find-census-data/search-by-area

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Figure 3.5.1 Station building and plaza. North West Metro Stations, Sydney

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Chapter 3 Geographical skills: Topographic mapping basics

3.6

Chapter review: Topographic mapping basics Success criteria

In this lesson, you will consolidate learning from this chapter and apply a range of geographical skills to a topographic map.

❏ I can calculate elevation and distance and locate features using a topographic map.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Learning intention

Geographical data for activity questions Map of Blue Mountains

1000m

100

Video 3.6.1 Introducing the geographical data and skills-based activities in this chapter section

Lookout B

1000m

d tR

Piper’s Sanctuary 900m

Va Hollo le R w d

ipe rs F

Lookout A

LEGEND 01

Dam Hotel/B&B Eucalyptus trees

05 1:25000

1 km

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Figure 3.6.1 Topographic map of the Blue Mountains

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3.6 Chapter review: Topographic mapping basics

Please refer to Figure 3.6.1 to answer the questions.

Check your understanding BOLTSS

What is the title of this map?

Why are symbols useful for this map?

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Which of the symbols are for physical features and which are for human features?

What part of BOLTSS is missing from this map?

What is the orientation of the map?

Area reference 6.

What is the area reference for Piper’s Sanctuary?

What is the area reference for point F?

What is the area reference of lookout A?

What feature is located at AR0112?

Contour and elevation 10.

What is the contour interval of the map?

11.

Which area reference has a steeper slope: AR0114 or AR0318?

12.

What is the elevation of point C?

Scale and distance 13.

The scale of the map is 1:25,000. How many centimetres on the map equals 1 kilometre in real life?

14.

What is the distance between the two hotels?

Develop your understanding Area and grid reference 1.

What feature is found at AR0411? Find the grid reference of the each of the following: a. Lookout A b. Point E c. Point F d. Piper’s Sanctuary.

Elevation and contours 3.

4. 5.

What is the elevation of point G? Is point F at a higher or lower elevation than point E? What area reference contains the highest elevation? Locate two places with a grid reference that have a elevation difference of 40 metres.

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Chapter 3 Geographical skills: Topographic mapping basics

Scale and distance 7. 8. 9.

Use the scale to calculate the distance from point C to point G? Are point D and point F more than 1.25 kilometres away from each other? Calculate the distance along the road between lookout A and lookout B.

Extend your understanding Emily says that the area reference for lookout B is AR1505 because the point is closest to horizontal 15 line (northing). Explain why this is wrong. Has she made any other errors?

Describe the landscape around the dam in grid reference GR043117 of the map.

Select three points on the map. For each point, provide an area reference, grid reference, elevation and distance to the nearest feature.

Select two points on the map. Locate points with a grid reference. Which of the points has the steepest surrounding area? Give reasons for your answer.

Plan a hiking route between at least four points. You must start at a hotel and walk to your first location. In your planned route, include the heights of the points, distances between different points and any potential obstacles or slopes to avoid.

Giving reasons, identify which point would be most suitable for:

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

a. building a lookout platform b. camping c. agriculture.

Using at most three area references, explain how topography influences human activity.

You are planning a trail to connect points C, D and G to the existing paths. You need to ensure the trail allows for minimal environmental impact and is achievable for mediumlevel walkers. a. Draw the route and calculate the distances required. b. Extension: If a person walks an average of 5 kilometres per hour, how long would them to complete the trail?

Creative tasks

Task 1: Local map BOLTSS check 1.

2. 3.

Find two maps of your local suburb (Google Maps, council maps, flood maps, etc.) Label BOLTSS on each map. If any element is missing, add it yourself. Explain which map has stronger cartographic conventions and why.

Task 2: Draw your own topographic map 1.

Using 2 x 2 cm grid paper, design your own topographic map. It could show your own suburb, a fictional landscape, a fantasy world, or a location from a book or movie. Your map must include:

• contour lines to represent elevation • a legend with at least five different symbols (also shown on the map) • a north point • a title • at least two points labelled with the specific elevation.

Write three or four sentences explaining what inspired your map.

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3.6 Chapter review: Topographic mapping basics

Task 3: Mystery map challenge 1.

Using 2 × 2 cm grid paper, create a topographic map that follows these rules:

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

• Two landmarks are exactly 5 kilometres apart (you must set a scale!). • A pine forest is located to the east of a river. • A camping ground is below 300 metres elevation. • A lookout is above 700 metres elevation. • A picnic site is located at AR 3427. • A lake is in a valley. • One hill has a peak higher than 900 metres. • There are at least four contour lines. • A walking track between a campsite and a town must be longer than 2 kilometres but shorter than 3 kilometres. • Create a tourist photo point on a ridge line facing west

Swap maps with a partner and see if their map looks similar. Are you both correct?

Task 4: School mapping project

Your class is tasked to map out the school. Each student must measure a different feature at the school (oval, playground, building, garden, etc.) You must scale your feature so that each element of the school fits on an A4 piece of paper. 1.

Choose a scale that allows the feature to fill most of an A4 page.

Draw the feature as a scaled map.

Add BOLTSS and three symbols in a key.

Complete the sentence: “To draw my school’s _________, I need to reduce the real life size by ________ for it to fit on an A4 page.”

Compare your map with your peers’ maps. Are your scales the same? What are the advantages and disadvantages of having different scales to represent one site?

Task 5: 3D contour map 1.

Find a topographic map online of any area you like. Make sure it shows contour lines and heights. Print it, or draw a simplified version on paper.

Create a 2D base map of the map you chose. On a sheet of paper, redraw or trace the shape of the land shown on your topographic map. Make sure you include:

• contour lines • heights labelled on each contour line.

Prepare your contour layers. Each contour line on your map will become a layer in your model. A. Place a sheet of cardboard, paper or clay over your 2D map. B. Trace the highest contour lines. C. Cut that shape out. D. Trace the next lower contour line and cut that out. E. Continue until you have one cut-out piece for every contour level.

Important: Each layer equals one contour height.

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Chapter 3 Geographical skills: Topographic mapping basics

Build your model.

a. Start with the largest (lowest) contour piece at the bottom. b. Glue or stack the next highest layer on top. c. Continue stacking until the peak is finished. Label your model with BOLTSS.

Task 6: Grid reference hunt

Choose six places around the school that are easy to find (e.g. a gate, a shelter, a tree, a bench, a goal post, the canteen).

Print a map of the school. Choose one that shows buildings and outdoor areas (perhaps to use Google Maps).

Add horizontal (northings) and vertical (eastings) lines over your map and number each line.

For each of your chosen locations, record the area reference and grid reference.

Create a treasure hunt.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

a. Write clues that guide another group from place to place. b. Your clues should include area references and grid references, but you can be creative in how you word it! c. The final location should be the “treasure”.

Task 7: Elevation storytelling map

Create your own topographic map and write a 150- to 200-word story that uses elevation, area references and grid references to explain a range of events. For example, a bushwalker gets lost near a steep cliff and then a storm causes flooding in the valley. Your story must correctly refer to:

• slope • height • distance • features.

Task 8: Contour remix 1.

2. 3.

Find a topographic map online. Print or redraw this map. Identify the contour interval. Redraw a small section of the map using a different interval (e.g. change from 10 metres to 20 metres). Explain how the new interval:

• changed the appearance of the map • changed the accuracy of the map • changed the interpretation of the map.

Discuss: Is there a perfect contour interval? Why or why not?

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Chapter

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Geomorphic hazards

Lessons

4.1 Geo Spark: What happened to the doomed city of Pompeii? 4.2 What is the nature of geomorphic hazards?

4.3 Case study: What was the impact of the Türkiye earthquake in 2023?

4.4 Case study: What were the responses and management of the Türkiye earthquake in 2023? 4.5 Case study: What was the impact of the Guatemala volcanic eruption in 2018?

4.6 Case study: What were the responses and management of the Guatemala volcanic eruption in 2018? 4.7 Chapter review

➜

Image: Eruption of Volcán de Fuego in Guatemala

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Chapter 4 Geomorphic hazards

4.1

Geo Spark: What happened to the doomed city of Pompeii? Success criteria

In this lesson, you will learn about Pompeii and how it was destroyed.

❏ I can explain what happened to Pompeii.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Learning intention

➜

Writing focus 4.1 Question words

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Figure 4.1.1 The ancient city of Pompeii, in the foreground, was completely buried by a volcanic eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 ce.

Introduction

pyroclastic flow a fast-moving current of hot gas, ash and volcanic debris

The eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 ce serves as a chilling, definitive example of the destructive nature of geomorphic hazards, specifically, explosive volcanism. The initial phase involved hours of heavy ash and pumice fall, a primary hazard that caused roofs to collapse; however, the true catastrophe arrived in the form of what are known as pyroclastic flows. These flows are not molten rock; rather, they are complex secondary hazards consisting of super-heated gas, ash and volcanic rock fragments. A pyroclastic flow is generated when the eruption column, which can soar over 30 kilometres into the stratosphere, collapses under its own immense weight. The resulting dense mixture races down the volcano’s slopes at astonishing speed, sometimes exceeding 450 kilometres per hour. For the city of Pompeii, located approximately 10 kilometres away, the flow arrived with little warning. The gas cloud

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4.1 Geo Spark: What happened to the doomed city of Pompeii?

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was estimated to be several hundred degrees Celsius, killing inhabitants instantly through extreme thermal shock before their bodies were encased in ash. The sheer speed and density of these flows meant that escape was virtually impossible for those who had not already evacuated.

Figure 4.1.2 Pompei ruins with Mount Vesuvius in background

This event vividly illustrates the difference between primary and secondary volcanic effects. The primary cause was the pressure building within the magma chamber, driving the eruption. The primary effects included the ash fall and ground tremors. However, the mass devastation, including the loss of an estimated 16,000 lives across the region, was caused by the secondary hazards: the relentless, high-velocity pyroclastic flows and subsequent ash burial.

Understanding the nature of geomorphic hazards means recognising their sheer scale and rapid onset. The Vesuvius eruption demonstrated that the greatest threat often comes not from slow-moving lava, but from these fast, complex, gravity-driven flows. Today, the study of Pompeii’s remains helps modern volcanologists predict and prepare for the terrifying speed with which such hazards can engulf vulnerable, densely populated areas, like the millions who still live near the active volcano today.

Activity 4.1

Visible thinking routine: Fact, feeling, failure 1.

Remember that many people ignored the initial small earthquakes and ash falls.

Complete the three short statements based on the Pompeiian citizen’s experience:

a Fact: Write one key piece of data about the eruption you remember (e.g. speed of the flow, altitude of the plume, temperature). b Feeling: Describe the emotion that would have dominated the city after the eruption column first collapsed. c Failure: Identify one thing the city or the Roman administration failed to do that increased the death toll. Share: Discuss the “Failure” point. Why was long-term planning absent?

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Chapter 4 Geomorphic hazards

What is the nature of geomorphic hazards?

Learning intention

Success criteria

In this lesson, you will learn to develop an understanding of the range of geomorphic hazards and how they are created.

❏ I can identify a wide range of geomorphic hazards and how they are formed.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

4.2

Starter activity

Concept map starter (visual organisation) 1.

Write “Geomorphic hazards” large in the centre of your page.

Draw three main bubbles coming off the centre. Label them: “Cause”, “Characteristic” and “Impact”.

For each bubble, write down at least three key terms that fit (e.g. Cause: Tectonic plates, gravity, magma).

Connect two terms from different bubbles with a line and write one sentence explaining the link (e.g. Tectonic plates cause sudden onset).

Share and discuss as a class.

Geomorphic hazards are natural events that occur on or near the Earth’s surface and are caused by the movement or shaping of the land. These hazards are linked directly to geological processes such as tectonic plate movement, erosion, weathering and mass movement. They can dramatically change landscapes and create dangerous conditions for people living nearby. The main types of geomorphic hazards include earthquakes, tsunamis, volcanic eruptions, landslides and avalanches.

Earthquakes

➜

Writing focus 4.2 Conjunctions

Figure 4.2.1 This meeting point of the Atlantic tectonic plates is located in Thingvellir National Park, Iceland. ➜

Earthquakes occur when the Earth’s tectonic plates suddenly shift, releasing energy as seismic waves. This causes the ground to shake and can create cracks, uplift or sinking of land. One of the most significant earthquakes in recent history was the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake in Japan, which measured magnitude 9.0 on the Richter scale. It caused parts of Japan’s coastline to sink by more than 1 metre and moved the island of Honshu 2.4 metres east. Earthquakes can trigger other geomorphic hazards, such as landslides and tsunamis, making them extremely destructive.

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4.2 What is the nature of geomorphic hazards?

Figure 4.2.3 The damage to the town of Barpak Nepal after an earthquake in 2015 ➜

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Figure 4.2.2 Damage caused by the Tōhoku earthquake in Japan in 2011

Tsunamis

Tsunamis are giant ocean waves usually caused by underwater earthquakes, volcanic eruptions or landslides. When a large amount of water is suddenly displaced, waves travel across the ocean at high speeds until they hit land. The 2011 Tōhoku earthquake also produced a massive 40-metre-high tsunami that flooded entire towns and reshaped coastal landscapes. A second example is the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami, which is important because it permanently changed coastlines across Indonesia, Thailand and Sri Lanka.

Figure 4.2.5 People cross a damaged bridge on the main western coast road in the Aceh province in Indonesia a few weeks after the Indian Ocean tsunami. ➜

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Figure 4.2.4 Damage in Sri Lanka caused by the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami

Volcanic eruptions

Volcanic eruptions occur when magma escapes from beneath the Earth’s crust. Volcanoes can create new landforms such as mountains, lava plateaus and islands, and fertile soils. However, eruptions can also destroy landscapes through ashfall, lava flows, pyroclastic flows and lahars (mudflows). In 2018, Mount Fuego in Guatemala erupted violently, covering entire villages with ash and pyroclastic material, and reshaping valleys. Another example is the 2010 Eyjafjallajökull eruption in Iceland, which sent ash clouds across Europe and reshaped glacial landscapes.

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Chapter 4 Geomorphic hazards

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Figure 4.2.7 A large cloud of volcanic matter from Eyjafjallajökull volcanic eruption in Iceland in 2010 ➜

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Figure 4.2.6 The Eyjafjallajökull volcanic eruption in Iceland in 2010

Landslides and mass movement

Landslides happen when large amounts of rock, soil or debris slide down a slope. They are often triggered by heavy rainfall, earthquakes, volcanic eruptions or human activity such as deforestation. In 2015, the Nepal Gorkha earthquake triggered huge Himalayan landslides, including one that destroyed the village of Langtang. In 2020, the Hítardalur landslide in Iceland dramatically reshaped a valley and diverted a river. Landslides are powerful examples of how gravity and unstable slopes can rapidly change landscapes.

Figure 4.2.9 A landslide that destroyed large sections of Atsuma town, Hokkaido, was caused by an earthquake. ➜

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Figure 4.2.8 A large section of Loetschental valley has been destroyed by a landslide in the Swiss mountains.

Avalanches

Avalanches are fast-moving masses of snow, ice and rock that slide down mountains. They usually occur in steep, snowy environments such as the Himalaya’s, Alps or the Rocky Mountains. A notable event occurred in 2015 in the Himalayas, when an avalanche triggered by the Nepal earthquake swept through the Mount Everest Base Camp, reshaping parts of the Khumbu Glacier. Avalanches threaten human life but also alter mountain landforms by moving huge volumes of snow and debris downslope.

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4.2 What is the nature of geomorphic hazards?

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Figure 4.2.10 The aftermath of the avalanche that hit Mount Figure 4.2.11 The devastation caused to Mount Everest Everest Base Camp in 2015 Base Camp after the avalanche

Review 4.2

Online quiz

Knowledge and understanding

Thinking and working geographically

Students can access sample responses and results online

Teachers can go online to assign questions, view results, reports and more!

Knowledge and understanding 1.

2. 3.

4. 5.

Describe how earthquakes occur and how they create damage. How do tsunamis form and what makes them a geomorphic hazard? Explain the different ways that volcanos create hazards. Explain how landslides can impact the natural and physical environment. Examine how earthquakes can trigger avalanches. Provide an example to support your answer.

Thinking and working geographically

Working with geographical concepts: Environment 1.

Select three images from this lesson and compare how the environment and humans are impacted by the geomorphic hazards.

Geographical inquiry 2.

Select two examples from any of the geomorphic hazards and investigate their impact on humans and natural environment.

environment The concept of environment is about the significance of the environment in human life, and the important interrelationships between humans and the environment.

➜ Figure 4.2.12

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Chapter 4 Geomorphic hazards

4.3

Case study: What was the impact of the Türkiye earthquake in 2023? Success criteria

In this lesson, you will learn to identify the location, cause and impacts of the Türkiye earthquake.

❏ I can explain the impacts caused by the Türkiye earthquake.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Learning intention

Starter activity

The impact pyramid 1.

Draw a three-layer pyramid on your page.

On the bottom layer, write three least critical impacts of earthquakes.

On the middle layer, write two long-term, serious impacts of earthquakes.

On the top layer, write the most critical single impact of earthquakes.

A few students can be asked to justify their choice for the top layer.

The Türkiye earthquake, 2023 Location

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Writing focus 4.3 Note-making

Türkiye is a transcontinental country located at the crossroads of Europe and Asia, positioned between 36°N and 42°N latitude and 26°E and 45°E longitude. It covers an area of about 783,000 square kilometres, making it one of the largest nations in the region. Türkiye’s landscape includes mountains, plains, high plateaus, and long coastlines along the Mediterranean, Aegean and Black Seas. The country sits on several active tectonic plates, which makes earthquakes common. With a population of approximately 85 million people, Türkiye is a culturally diverse nation and an important geographic bridge between continents.

Causes

On 6 February 2023, a massive earthquake struck southern Türkiye and northern Syria, centred near the city of Kahramanmaraş. The quake measured magnitude 7.8, making it one of the strongest in the region in over a century. Less than 12 hours later, a second major quake of magnitude 7.5 hit the same area.

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4.3 Case study: What was the impact of the Türkiye earthquake in 2023?

RUSSIA UKRAINE MOLDOVA

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ROMANIA

BLACK SEA

BULGARIA

GEORGIA

AZERBAIJAN

ARMENIA

Ankara

GREECE

CASPIAN SEA

TÜRKIYE

SYRIA

CYPRUS

MEDITERRANEAN SEA

IRAN

LEBANON

ISRAEL

IRAQ

EGYPT

SAUDI ARABIA

1000 km

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Figure 4.3.1 Türkiye is located at the crossroads of Europe and Asia.

Geologically, the quake was caused by movement along major fault lines that exist in the area, especially the East Anatolian Fault and the Sürgü Fault Zone. When the crust along these faults ruptured, stored energy was released suddenly, causing strong shaking. The shallow depth of the earthquakes (around 10 kilometres) amplified the damage. Scientists believe that a complicated rupture pattern, including “backward branching” across different fault segments, helped spread the shaking widely.

Impacts

The human cost was devastating. More than 50,000 people were killed and more than 100,000 injured in Türkiye and Syria. Millions were left homeless; reports estimated 1.5 million people in Türkiye alone lost their homes. Buildings were badly damaged. In Türkiye, around 280,000 structures collapsed or were badly damaged, including homes built with weak or outdated materials. Many of these were older, low-rise buildings not designed to survive such strong tremors.

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Chapter 4 Geomorphic hazards

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Figure 4.3.3 Damage caused by the Türkiye earthquake in Kahramanmaraş ➜

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Figure 4.3.2 These survivors in Izmir, Türkiye, are some of the estimated 1.5 million people who lost their homes in the Türkiye earthquake.

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Figure 4.3.4 The debris blocks streets in Samandag Türkiye, making it hard for search-and-rescue efforts.

Other geological hazards made things worse. The earthquake triggered liquefaction in parts of the earthquake zone (soft ground turned to mush, causing further building collapse). Landslides also added to destruction in hilly areas. The massive damage in Türkiye was estimated at around US$148.8 billion, which is a significant percentage of the country’s GDP. Recovery was very difficult because much of the region was already vulnerable: parts of Syria were experiencing ongoing conflict, and many buildings were poorly built. Finally, the quake caused a major humanitarian crisis. Aid agencies had to respond quickly. Rescue teams from more than 90 countries joined the effort, and hundreds of thousands of tonnes of rubble needed to be cleared.

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4.3 Case study: What was the impact of the Türkiye earthquake in 2023?

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Figure 4.3.5 Rescue workers recovered earthquake survivor Ayse Ylidiz from a collapsed building where she was trapped for 20 hours.

Review 4.3

Online quiz

Knowledge and understanding

Thinking and working geographically

Students can access sample responses and results online

Teachers can go online to assign questions, view results, reports and more!

Knowledge and understanding 1.

2. 3.

4. 5.

Describe the location of Türkiye. What was unique about the Türkiye earthquake? Outline the human impact that the Türkiye earthquake caused. Explain how the earthquake was impacted by other geological factors. Explain how the ongoing conflict with Syria and high cost of damages influenced the impact of the earthquake.

Thinking and working geographically

Working with geographical concepts: Space 1.

Using Figures 4.3.3, 4.3.4 and 4.3.5, explain the challenges that exist after an earthquake when trying to recover people. What strategies could be used to help people?

Geographical inquiry 2.

Investigate whether there have been other major earthquakes in the region. Outline the features and impacts of these earthquakes and compare them to the 2023 event.

space The concept of space is about the significance of location and spatial distribution, and ways people organise and manage the spaces where they live.

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100

Chapter 4 Geomorphic hazards

4.4

Case study: What were the responses and management of the Türkiye earthquake in 2023? Success criteria

In this lesson, you will learn to explain the responses and management strategies that were used after the Türkiye earthquake.

❏ I can explain multiple responses to the Türkiye earthquake.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Learning intention

Starter activity

Think, pair, share: Who helps first? 1.

Think: Silently think for 30 seconds about the question: Who do you think responds first in a major earthquake and why?

Pair: Discuss your answer with a partner for one minute.

Share: A few pairs will share their ideas with the class.

After the catastrophic February 2023 earthquake that struck southern Türkiye and northern Syria, governments, aid agencies and citizens launched a massive and coordinated response to save lives, support survivors and begin rebuilding communities. The magnitude 7.8 main quake, followed by a 7.5 aftershock, caused extreme destruction across cities such as Kahramanmaraş, Gaziantep and Hatay.

Search and rescue

➜

Writing focus 4.4 Developing sentences

Within hours of the February 2023 earthquake, more than 141,000 international rescue workers from 94 countries joined local teams. Türkiye’s Disaster and Emergency Management Authority (AFAD) coordinated 60,000 rescuers, 5,000 health staff and 30,000 volunteers Dozens of countries sent search dogs, cranes and thermal-imaging equipment to find survivors. The operation became one of the largest ever seen: more than 19 charter flights delivered emergency medical kits capable of treating 400,000 people. By mid-March, UN agencies and aid organisations had provided emergency shelter for more than 3.2 million people. More than 6.9 million people received water, sanitation and hygiene support. In Türkiye, 1.4 million relief items were delivered by the International Organization of Migration, including blankets, tarpaulins, heaters and hygiene kits. Medical teams treated injured survivors in field hospitals. International medical teams provided surgical support, vaccinations and sanitation systems to prevent disease outbreaks. Food, clean water, blankets and generators were flown in by global humanitarian agencies.

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4.4 Case study: What were the responses and management of the Türkiye earthquake in 2023?

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Financial support and humanitarian relief

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Türkiye launched a major reconstruction fund to support affected families and rebuild essential infrastructure. Türkiye established a national reconstruction fund backed by billions of dollars in international pledges. The World Bank committed $1.78 billion for immediate and long-term rebuilding. In parallel, Oxfam supported more than two million people across Türkiye and Syria with cash grants, hygiene kits, food and water. The United Nations (UN) launched a flash appeal for billions more to meet urgent needs, including rebuilding at least 680,000 destroyed homes. International organisations, including the UN, Red Crescent and major NGOs, delivered aid packages, cash assistance and long-term recovery support. Countries around the world sent donations, building supplies, mobile kitchens and emergency power units to help stabilise daily life.

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Figure 4.4.1 Search-and-rescue services recovered a number people from the rubble of buildings in Türkiye.

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Figure 4.4.2 Temporary shelters are set up by Türkiye’s disaster agency (AFAD) in Hatay.

Rebuilding and stronger building codes

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A crucial part of the long-term response involved restoring cities while improving safety for the future. Engineers assessed damaged structures, demolished unsafe buildings, and began constructing new homes using updated earthquake-resistant Figure 4.4.3 A resident is transporting blankets to temporary standards. Türkiye strengthened its shelters set up by Türkiye’s disaster agency (AFAD) in Hatay. building regulations to ensure new developments included seismic-resistant materials and designs such as reinforced steel frames and shock-absorbing foundations. Retrofitting programs were expanded to make older structures safer.

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Chapter 4 Geomorphic hazards

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Figure 4.4.4 Oxfam shipping relief aid from England to Türkiye

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Figure 4.4.5 All the cranes indicate the amount of rebuilding required in Hatay after the earthquake.

Risk reduction and future preparedness

Following the quake, Türkiye accelerated investment in disaster resilience. The government expanded earthquake early-warning systems and hazard mapping to better identify vulnerable zones. Communities now run regular earthquake drills, especially in schools and neighbourhoods. Building codes have been tightened: structures must now meet higher seismic design standards, including base isolation and enhanced ductility, to better absorb quakes. The UN’s long-term recovery plan also includes educating people about earthquake safety and strengthening local governance systems to manage future disasters.

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4.4 Case study: What were the responses and management of the Türkiye earthquake in 2023?

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Figure 4.4.6 Newly built, permanent housing in Nurdagi, Türkiye, has been built to a higher standard to withstand earthquakes.

Review 4.4

Online quiz

Knowledge and understanding

Thinking and working geographically

Students can access sample responses and results online

Teachers can go online to assign questions, view results, reports and more!

Knowledge and understanding 1.

Which cities were the main ones damaged during the Türkiye earthquake in 2023? Outline the people and agencies involved in the search-and-rescue efforts after the earthquake. Who were the main organisations that provided financial and humanitarian support to victims of the Türkiye earthquake? What were the problems with the buildings in Türkiye that caused greater impact form the earthquake? What future planning has been done to prepare people in Türkiye for future earthquakes?

Thinking and working geographically

Working with geographical concepts: Place 1.

Explain how the cities in Türkiye have been changed by the earthquake. What do you think have been the main changes in places?

Geographical investigation 2.

place The concept of place is about the significance of places and what they are like.

Investigate the issue of poor building standards in Türkiye and how that led to greater damage caused by the earthquake. Have there been changes to the building standards in Türkiye today?

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Chapter 4 Geomorphic hazards

4.5

Case study: What was the impact of the Guatemala volcanic eruption in 2018? Success criteria

In this lesson, you will learn to outline the impacts that were caused by the volcanic eruption in Guatemala in 2018.

❏ I can explain multiple impacts of the volcanic eruption.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Learning intention

Starter activity

One-minute mind map 1.

Write “2018 Guatemala eruption impacts” in the middle of a page.

In 60 seconds, brainstorm to fill the page with as many possible impacts as you can think of.

Circle impacts you are confident about.

Put a question mark next to uncertain ones.

Discuss points as a class.

The Guatemala volcanic eruption, 2018 Location

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Writing focus 4.5 Creating topic sentences

Guatemala is a Central American country located between 13°N and 18°N latitude and 88°W and 93°W longitude, bordered by Mexico, Belize, Honduras, El Salvador and the Pacific Ocean. With a population of around 17 million people, it is the most populous country in Central America and covers an area of about 108,900 square kilometres, making it slightly smaller than Iceland.

Guatemala has a diverse landscape that includes volcanic mountains, tropical rainforests, fertile valleys and a long Pacific coastline. The country sits on the boundary of the Caribbean and Pacific tectonic plates, giving it frequent volcanic and seismic activity.

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4.5 Case study: What was the impact of the Guatemala volcanic eruption in 2018?

Cause

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UNITED STATES

The eruption of Volcán de Fuego in Guatemala, which occurred on 3 June 2018, was caused by a sudden and powerful release of pressure within the volcano’s magma system. Fuego is one of Central America’s most active stratovolcanoes, located on the Pacific Ring of Fire.

GULF OF MEXICO

MEXICO

CUBA

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

JAMAICA

GUATEMALA

Guatemala City

EL SALVADOR

PACIFIC OCEAN

HONDURAS

CARIBBEAN SEA

NICARAGUA

COSTA RICA

PANAMA

Figure 4.5.1 A map showing the location of Guatemala

MEXICO

BELIZE

GUATEMALA Quetzaltenango

CARIBBEAN SEA

HONDURAS

Guatemala City

Fuego

EL SALVADOR

NICARAGUA

Villa Nueva

PACIFIC OCEAN

200 km

Figure 4.5.2 A map showing the location of Volcán de Fuego in Guatemala

Figure 4.5.4 Full eruption of Volcán de Fuego in Guatemala in 2018 ➜

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Figure 4.5.3 The start of eruption of Volcán de Fuego in Guatemala in 2018

1000 km

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The catastrophic eruption was triggered when highly pressurised magma rapidly rose and interacted with groundwater, increasing explosiveness. This led to violent pyroclastic flows that swept down the volcano at speeds over 100 kilometres per hour and temperatures exceeding 700°C. The eruption column also stretched more than 15 kilometres into the atmosphere, making it the largest and most destructive eruption of Fuego in more than four decades.

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For months leading up to the disaster, Fuego had shown signs of elevated activity, including ash emissions and small explosions. However, these were relatively common for the volcano and did not indicate an imminent major eruption.

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Impacts

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The most destructive effects were caused by the pyroclastic flows, which buried entire settlements such as San Miguel Los Lotes and El Rodeo. Many residents were unable to evacuate in time due to the suddenness of the event. Official figures report that at least 190 people died, although the true number is likely higher, as more than 230 people were reported missing. More than 12,000 people were evacuated and thousands more were displaced.

Thick layers of ash blanketed towns and farmlands, and Guatemala City’s airport was forced to close temporarily. Ashfall contaminated water sources, damaged crops such as maize and coffee, and destroyed grazing land, creating long-term economic challenges for rural communities. More than 3,000 houses were damaged or destroyed, leaving families without shelter.

The eruption also had severe environmental impacts. Rivers such as the Pantaleón River became choked with volcanic material, increasing the risk of volcanic mudflows during rainstorms. These secondary hazards continued for months, repeatedly threatening roads, bridges and villages. Wildlife habitats on the slopes of Fuego were destroyed, and agricultural areas experienced reduced productivity due to ash-covered soils.

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Figure 4.5.5 The damage of the volcanic eruption, covering Figure 4.5.6 The village of San Miguel Los Lotes was the surrounding villages in ash and debris destroyed by the volcanic eruption.

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Figure 4.5.7 The volcanic eruption caused a range of environmental impacts such as choking rivers with debris.

The psychological and social impacts were equally significant. Survivors faced trauma, loss of family members and disruption to their livelihoods. Recovery was slow due to limited resources, the scale of destruction and ongoing volcanic activity.

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4.5 Case study: What was the impact of the Guatemala volcanic eruption in 2018?

Review 4.5 Online quiz

Knowledge and understanding

Thinking and working geographically

Students can access sample responses and results online

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Teachers can go online to assign questions, view results, reports and more!

Knowledge and understanding

Describe where Guatemala is located. Why is Guatemala at a higher risk for volcanic activity than other countries? Explain what a pyroclastic flow is and how it was a major influence in the impact of the Guatemalan volcanic eruption in 2018. How did the volcanic eruption impact humans in Guatemala? What impact did the volcanic eruption have on the environment?

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

1. 2. 3.

4. 5.

Thinking and working geographically

Working with geographical concepts: Change 1.

Explain how the volcanic eruption created change in both the human environment and natural environment. Describe how quick the timeframe was.

Visible thinking routine: Circle of viewpoints 2.

You’re going to explore the impacts of the 2018 Fuego volcanic eruption by imagining the viewpoints of different people affected. Choose one viewpoint:

change The concept of change is about explaining geographical phenomena by investigating how they have developed over time.

• A local resident who lost their home • A rescue worker • A farmer living near the volcano • A government disaster-response official • A child whose school was closed • A business owner affected by ashfall • A volcanologist studying the eruption

Answer these prompts in short sentences or dot points from the viewpoint you have chosen.

a. I am thinking about the eruption from the viewpoint of … b. I think the impact was … (describe social, environmental or economic effects) c. I believe this because … (use evidence, examples or reasoning) d. A question I still have is …

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Chapter 4 Geomorphic hazards

4.6

Case study: What were the responses and management of the Guatemala volcanic eruption in 2018? Success criteria

In this lesson, you will learn to investigate how Guatemala responded to volcanic eruption and what management strategies they have implemented.

❏ I can identify responses and management strategies that were used after the volcanic eruption.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Learning intention

Starter activity

Fact or prediction? 1.

Read the three statements. Write down if you think each one actually happened in Guatemala in 2018, or if it’s just a prediction. a People were evacuated immediately. b Volcanic ash buried entire villages. c International teams helped with recovery.

Discuss answers at the end of the lesson.

Immediate emergency response

➜

Writing focus 4.6 Appositives

When pyroclastic flows rapidly engulfed communities near Volcán de Fuego on 3 June 2018, the Guatemalan government activated its highest emergency protocol. The National Coordination for Disaster Reduction (CONRED) coordinated early response operations. More than 3600 emergency personnel, including firefighters, army units and police forces, were deployed to affected regions such as San Miguel Los Lotes and El Rodeo. Search-and-rescue teams worked for days under hazardous conditions, digging through metres of ash and volcanic debris to locate survivors. By the end of the first week, officials reported that more than 12,000 people had been evacuated from high-risk areas. However, rescue operations were repeatedly halted due to renewed volcanic activity and the danger of further collapses and lahars. Helicopters from the Guatemalan Air Force transported injured survivors to hospitals in Guatemala City. Medical teams treated patients suffering from severe burns, respiratory problems and trauma caused by superheated ash and debris.

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4.6 Case study: What were the responses and management of the Guatemala volcanic eruption in 2018?

Figure 4.6.1 Search and rescue by army and police looking for survivors from volcanic eruption

Humanitarian assistance and shelter management

Figure 4.6.3 Food supplies coming from neighbouring countries to help the Guatemalan people after the volcanic eruption ➜

International aid was significant. Countries such as Mexico, the United States, Spain and Israel supplied medical equipment, food parcels, water purification systems and portable shelters. The United Nations activated its disaster response mechanisms, delivering more than US$1.5 million in emergency funding within weeks. Food security became

Figure 4.6.2 The Red Cross providing support to affected children after the volcanic eruption ➜

The eruption displaced entire communities, with more than 4,000 people placed in temporary shelters located in schools, sports centres and public buildings. The Guatemalan Red Cross led many of these shelter operations, providing emergency beds, clothing, hygiene supplies and first-aid care. The government and aid organisations also established childfriendly spaces to support displaced children, ensuring access to safe play areas and basic education while families began the recovery process.

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Chapter 4 Geomorphic hazards

a major concern because ashfall damaged vast areas of cropland. The World Food Programme distributed food rations that supported more than 8,500 affected people during the first month.

Restoration of infrastructure and essential services

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U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

The eruption damaged roads, bridges, powerlines and water systems. Engineers from Guatemala’s Ministry of Communications, Infrastructure and Housing began clearing debris from major transport routes, enabling the delivery of aid into the disaster zone. La Aurora International Airport, which had been forced to close due to ashfall, was cleaned and reopened within Figure 4.6.4 Cleaning ash from the runway so normal air traffic 24 hours, allowing international can resume assistance to arrive without delay. Water systems contaminated by ash were repaired using temporary filtration units and tanker trucks, providing clean water to tens of thousands of residents.

Long-term recovery and risk management

Long-term rehabilitation became one of the most challenging aspects of the disaster. Many communities were permanently destroyed, forcing the government to begin construction of new housing developments outside high-risk volcanic zones. By late 2019, more than 1,000 new homes had been built for affected families.

Figure 4.6.5 The Guatemalan government helped rebuild some houses; however, more than 3,000 buildings were destroyed. ➜

To reduce future vulnerabilities, Guatemala strengthened its volcano monitoring systems. The National Institute of Seismology, Volcanology, Meteorology and Hydrology expanded its observation networks and improved communication systems for issuing timely warnings. Education programs were also introduced in nearby towns to teach residents evacuation procedures, volcano risks and the importance of relocating from hazardous areas. Reforestation projects were carried out to stabilise slopes and reduce erosion caused by ash deposits.

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4.6 Case study: What were the responses and management of the Guatemala volcanic eruption in 2018?

Review 4.6 Online quiz

Knowledge and understanding

Thinking and working geographically

Students can access sample responses and results online

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Teachers can go online to assign questions, view results, reports and more!

Knowledge and understanding

Describe what actions occurred during the immediate response to the volcanic eruption. What types of humanitarian assistance were provided? How would the airport be being closed impact the response effort for people in Guatemala? Explain why building houses for the people is a problem for the Guatemalan government. Do you think strengthening volcano monitoring and education programs are effective risk-management strategies for future volcano eruptions? Give reasons for your answer.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

2. 3.

Thinking and working geographically

Working with geographical concepts: Interconnection 1.

Explain how the level of development in Guatemala and the wide range of damage caused by the volcanic eruption make recovery efforts difficult.

Visible thinking routine: Claim, support, question 2.

Read three short statements about the Guatemala eruption response.

interconnection The concept of interconnection emphasises that no object of geographical study can be viewed in isolation.

• Evacuation was too slow. • International aid was essential. • Long-term rebuilding has been difficult. Choose one and complete the routine.

a. Claim: What do you think about the statement? b. Support: What evidence from the case study supports your claim? c. Question: What question do you still have about this response?

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Figure 4.6.6 Volcán de Fuego on the skyline of Guatamala

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Chapter 4 Geomorphic hazards

4.7

Chapter review Access the Interactive Textbook for a range of digital tools to help you review this chapter and build confidence.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Summary

Summary notes

Download chapter summary

What have you learned about geomorphic hazards?

For this activity, copy the table and fill it out by explaining your understanding. Aim for two points per topic.

Terms

What I have learned

Geomorphic hazards Tectonic plates

Human impact

Humanitarian aid

Risk management

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Figure 4.7.1 An avalanche crashes through the Savoia Pass on the northwest side of K2 in the Karakoram Range, Pakistan.

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4.7 Chapter review

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Visible thinking routine

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See, think, wonder

Earthquake

Landslide

Tsunami

Avalanche

Volcanic eruption

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Figure 4.7.2 Examples of geomorphic hazards

Select one of the geomorphic hazards shown in Figure 4.7.1 to complete the activity. 1.

2. 3.

SEE: What do you see happening in the geomorphic hazard? THINK: What do you think about as a result of seeing the geomorphic hazard? WONDER: What does the geomorphic hazard make you wonder?

Questions

Scorcher quiz

Access a fast, fun, competitive quiz that puts your understanding to the test.

Quick questions

The following activities offer various ways to demonstrate your understanding of the chapter. 1.

The city of _______ was buried by the eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 AD.

A _______ flow is a fast-moving current of hot gas, ash and rock

The 2023 Türkiye earthquake occurred near major fault lines, including the East _______ Fault.

Landslides and avalanches are examples of geomorphic hazards caused mainly by the force of _______.

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Chapter 4 Geomorphic hazards

Which of the following is an example of a geomorphic hazard? A. Drought B. Cyclone C. Earthquake D. Heatwave

What caused the greatest number of deaths in the Pompeii disaster?

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

A. Lava flows

B. Falling rocks

C. Volcanic gas from vents D. Pyroclastic flows

What was the magnitude of the first major Türkiye earthquake in 2023? A. 5.1

B. 6.0 C. 7.5

D. 7.8

What type of volcano is the Volcán de Fuego in Guatemala? A. Shield volcano B. Stratovolcano C. Cinder cone

D. Hotspot volcano

Which process most often triggers a tsunami? A. Underwater earthquakes B. Strong winds

C. Heavy rainfall D. Forest fires

10.

Identify one primary and one secondary impact of the 2023 Türkiye earthquake.

11.

Define what a geomorphic hazard is.

12.

Why did the 2018 Guatemala eruption cause so much damage to nearby villages?

13.

Why are volcanic areas like Guatemala and Italy hazardous places to live?

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4.7 Chapter review

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Writing focus The following activities allow you to practice your writing skills.

You can use this as a model when writing your own answers to the questions that follow. (6 marks)

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Question: Explain how tsunamis are formed and how they create damage.

Writing focus 4.7 Single paragraph response model ➜

Answering questions in paragraphs

Model answer:

Topic sentence: the first sentence of the paragraph; directly answers the question

Elaborate: additional information, interconnections

Examples: provide credibility and illustrate the argument

Tsunamis are powerful ocean waves formed by sudden movements of Earth’s crust that create severe damage when they reach coastal areas. Tsunamis form when underwater earthquakes, volcanic eruptions or landslides rapidly displace large volumes of water, sending waves across the ocean at high speeds. As these waves approach shallow waters, they increase in height and force, which makes them capable of flooding and reshaping entire coastlines. The 2011 Tōhoku tsunami reached heights of approximately 40 metres and flooded entire towns. This reshaped the coastal landscape by causing parts of Japan’s coastline to sink by more than 1 metre. In summary, tsunamis form through water dispalcement and cause damage because of the fast-moving, high-energy waves that overwhelm coastal landscapes.

Explain: clarify, define and describe

Evidence: specific, relevant evidence to support your arguments

Linking sentence: reconnects with language of the question the topic sentence.

Structured-response questions Question 1

(20 marks)

a. Describe the features of avalanches as geomorphic hazards. b. Explain how tsunamis are formed and how they create damage. c. Explain how volcanos and earthquakes occur and provide examples of the damage they cause.

(4 marks) (6 marks)

(10 marks)

Extended-response questions Question 1

Marking criteria for each question can be found in the Interactive Textbook. Refer to these criteria when planning and writing your responses.

(20 marks)

Explain the impacts that the geomorphic hazard had on the local people and environment.

Teachers, access the Online Teaching Suite for digital resources and tools that support review, assessment and reporting, including:

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Liveability of places

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Focus area

CHAPTERS

5. Perceptions of liveability 6. Geographical skills: What demographics tell us about places 7. Case study: The influences, the impacts and enhancing liveability: Slovenia 8. Enhancing liveability: A comparison of Australian cities

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Image: World Urbanism Day in Naples, Italy. The cycle path of Naples is the largest in the region and connects the suburbs to the city centre.

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Chapter

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Perceptions of liveability

Lessons 5.1

Geo Spark: Why do people live in slums?

5.2

What is the power of place?

5.3

How do social influences affect the liveability of places?

5.4

How does environmental quality affect liveability?

5.5

How does economic development affect liveability?

5.6

How do political factors affect liveability?

5.7

Why is it important to measure liveability?

5.8

How should we measure liveability?

5.9

Chapter review

Image: Flinders Street Station in Melbourne. Melbourne has been named as one of the most liveable cities according to the Global Liveability Survey.

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5.1

Geo Spark: Why do people live in slums? Success criteria

In this lesson, you will be learn about some of the features and concepts used when studying perceptions of liveability.

❏ I can identify the challenges to liveability. ❏ I can outline what influences people to live in certain areas.

➜

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Learning intention

Figure 5.1.1 Favelas in Rio de Janeiro

Introduction

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Writing focus 5.1 Question words

Our world’s population reached eight billion people in 2022 and continues to grow. More than four billion people – which is more than half of the world’s population – live in urban areas or cities. But what is it about cities that make them so popular for people to live in? Have you ever wondered why people would move to a busy city? Or why cities keep changing to meet our different needs?

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5.1 Geo Spark: Why do people live in slums?

Of the four billion people who live in cities, more than one billion will live in slums. These are places located at the very edge of cities where people are socially excluded, often experiencing some of the worst living conditions, which impact people’s health, safety and overall quality of life. Some of the main challenges with living in slums:

slum a heavily populated urban area, characterised by poor housing and few basic services such as clean water, sanitation, electricity and adequate infrastructure

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

• Poor housing conditions stem from many homes being made from weak or

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• • • •

temporary materials that have been collected, such as tin, wood or plastic. Lack of basic services and infrastructure, such as clean water or sanitation, can lead to the outbreak of diseases and an increase of illness. Safety and security are a concern because many squatter settlements are built illegally, meaning residents can be forced to move at any time. Fires are common as a result of the unsafe construction of homes made from poor quality building materials. Education is limited because children often have to help their families by collecting water or working, or schools may be located too far away. Job opportunities are limited because many adults have low levels of education and may therefore only have access to low-paying, informal jobs without job security.

infrastructure the basic physical features and facilities that are public or private; this can include roads, railways and water supply sanitation maintaining hygiene to prevent disease and promote health by providing services and facilities that remove human waste, garbage and wastewater squatter settlement an area where people have built homes on land they do not legally own or have permission to use

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Figure 5.1.2 A choropleth map of countries with the highest percentages of populations living in slums Source: United Nations Human Settlements Programme

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Chapter 5 Perceptions of liveability

megacity a very large city with a population of 10 million or more

The rising number of people living in slums is resulting from megacities not having enough affordable housing options, adequate sanitation or infrastructure development, as well as equal access to basic services or job opportunities to meet the diverse needs for a growing population. So, why live in an already overcrowded city?

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

favela a densely populated, lowincome urban area in Brazilian cities, where people build homes without formal planning or legal ownership of the land

Despite these challenges, the United Nations estimated that 1.1 billion urban residents lived in slums in 2020, which is expected to increase to 3.1 billion people in the next 30 years. Most of this growth is happening in developing countries, with 85 per cent of slum dwellers concentrated in three regions: Central and South Asia, East and SouthEast Asia and sub-Saharan Africa.

informal settlement densely packed housing made of scrap materials in locations where residents do not have legal ownership of the land

Although these slums are typically associated with poor living conditions, some cities with large slum populations still rank highly in terms of their liveability. This can be seen in favelas of Rio de Janeiro in Brazil, where these informal settlements contain approximately 1.4 million people who live in the city, which is about 22 per cent of the population. Some reasons for their higher liveability is because these parts of Rio provide working opportunities for people, and are also well developed with tourism, beaches, sports and culture. The area particularly also stands out for its natural beauty and rich culture, and is a major global destination, known for its colourful and bright buildings, despite the internal social inequalities that the residents face.

Activity 5.1

Visible thinking routine: See, think, wonder

Use Figure 5.1.1 to complete the activity. 1.

See: Identify three of four points about how people live in this area.

Think: Outline some reasons why people might live in this area.

Wonder: Ask one question about some challenges of living in this space.

Research 1.

Outline what a slum is.

Describe some of the challenges of living in slums.

Explain why there are so many slums today. In your response, refer to some examples.

Why do 1.4 million people live in favelas across Rio De Janeiro? Create a table providing reasons for and against living in the favelas?

Investigate and explain two to three specific challenges that people experience living in favelas across Rio De Janeiro.

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5.2 What is the power of place?

5.2

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What is the power of place?

Success criteria

In this lesson, you will learn to understand the geographical concept of place and explore the different perceptions of the liveability of places.

❏ I can outline “place” as a geographical concept. ❏ I can distinguish between relative and absolute locations. ❏ I can describe how different perceptions of places form.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Learning intention

Starter activity

Visible thinking routine: See, think, wonder

Use Figures 5.2.1 to 5.2.3 to complete the activity. 1.

See: Identify the kind of landscapes, buildings and features that you see in these pictures.

Think: Outline how different people would interact with these places.

Wonder: How does this place compare to where you live?

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Figure 5.2.1 Shibuya Crossing, Tokyo, Japan

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Figure 5.2.2 The Colosseum, Rome, Italy

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What is a geographical concept?

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Each concept helps answer questions about our world. There are three concepts in particular that will be discussed in this chapter.

Writing focus 5.2 Conjunctions ➜

A geographical concept is an idea that helps us understand the world and the places around us. Geographers use these concepts to explore, study and explain different features of Earth. Some key geographical concepts are place, space, environment, scale, change and sustainability.

• Place helps geographers understand what makes a location special or unique. • Space is about where things are located and how they relate to each other. • Environment looks at how humans and nature interact with each other.

Geographers use these concepts to ask questions, make observations and organise information. This helps them understand how different parts of the world work together and how they change over time.

What is a place?

A place can be defined as follows.

• Places are physical locations on Earth’s surface. • Each place has a unique set of characteristics that distinguish it from other places, •

although these can change over time. Place is an interaction of human activity with the physical environment and will have special meaning to people who live there.

How do geographers describe places?

Geographers Freeman and Morgan provide three perspectives on how “place” can be understood:

• The natural science perspective provides an objective or factual view of a

•

place on a map, focusing on the location and features, such as landscapes and human settlements. The humanistic perspective provides a subjective view of a place as a locality or community that has meaning for people and brings about a sense of place. The social science perspective considers the combination of human–environmental interactions at a variety of scales, ranging from the local neighbourhood to international level.

In Geography, we use absolute location to describe the exact position of a place on Earth using latitude and longitude. Latitude lines run east to west and measure the degrees of a place from the equator, while longitude lines runs north to south and measure the degrees from the prime meridian. Latitude is written first (remember: lat. lines are flat), followed by longitude. For example, the location of Melbourne is 37°S, 144°E. This means it is 37 degrees south of the equator, and 144 degrees east of the prime meridian.

objective a perspective that is not influenced by personal feelings or opinions, but uses facts and data to make a judgement subjective a perspective that is based on or influenced by personal feelings, experiences or opinions absolute location the latitude and longitude of a location, also known as coordinates

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Lat itu de

60°

North Pole 90°

–150° –120°

30°

–90° Equator

–30°

–60°

120°

90°

60° e ud 30° ngit –30° o 0° L Prime Meridian

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0°

180° 150°

–60°

–90° South Pole

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Figure 5.2.4 The imaginary lines of latitude (red) and longitude (black) create a grid that helps geographers pinpoint places with accuracy.

relative location an area that is identified in relation to other places, landmarks or points of reference

A place can also be described by its characteristics – the things that make them unique. Natural characteristics include features like landforms, climate and plants. Human characteristics refer to things created or influenced by people, such as buildings, roads and language. Together, these help us understand what a place is like and how it is different from other places. These characteristics can change over time due to natural processes, such as a volcanic eruption, or human activities, such as migration. ➜

characteristics the unique natural and human features of a place

Geographers also use relative location, an area that is identified in relation to other places, landmarks or points of reference. For example, relative location can be described using direction (e.g. “School is north of the main road”), distance (e.g. “It is 2 kilometres from the local library”) or time (e.g. “It is almost a 20-minute walk away”).

Figure 5.2.5 Kata Tjuta, Northern Territory

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Places hold deep significance for people who belong to them. For Indigenous Australians, connection to place is central to identity, knowledge and cultural practices. Place encompasses land, sea and sky, woven together through ancestral and spiritual connection. People belong to Country and care for it, with special places for ceremony, learning and healing, as well as landmarks linked to ancestor spirits and stories that connect places and people. These places are culturally and spiritually significant and it becomes important to understand the different connections people have to places so that ongoing responsibilities for care, protection and respect can happen. It is also important that these places are protected and managed effectively and sustainably so that different cultural practices can continue and be passed to future generations on Country. The canyons of Kata Tjuta National Park (Figure 5.2.5) are as cherished by the local Anangu people as the iconic Uluru. They are characterised by their significant domed rock formations across the ochre red landscape of the southern part of the Northern Territory. The area is estimated to be over 500 million years old and is also a sacred site, with its landscape and features explained through Dreaming stories.

Review 5.2

Online quiz

Knowledge and understanding

Thinking and working geographically

Students can access sample responses and results online

sacred site a place within the landscape that has deep spiritual or cultural significance

Teachers can go online to assign questions, view results, reports and more!

Knowledge and understanding 1.

Define the geographical concept of place in your own words.

Outline the three main ways that geographers describe place.

Distinguish between absolute and relative location. What makes them different?

Describe the role of place for Indigenous Australians.

Why might it be important for all Australians to understand Indigenous connection to place?

Thinking and working geographically

Working with geographical concepts: Place 1.

Annotate a drawing to show an example of latitude and longitude lines.

Identify a place that you have experienced and describe what features of that place hold meaning for you. It could be the landscape, the structures or homes, the local sites or the people.

place The concept of place is about the significance of places and what they are like.

Geographical inquiry 3.

Refer to Figure 5.2.5 to complete the inquiry.

a. Conduct research using reliable sources, such as local Indigenous organisations, Traditional Owner groups and cultural institutions, to learn about the significance of Kata Tjuta. b. Write a short paragraph respectfully explaining the current cultural and spiritual significance that Kata Tjuta has to the Anangu people.

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5.3

How do social influences affect the liveability of places? Success criteria

In this lesson, you will learn to understand what liveability is, and the diverse experiences and perceptions that influence why people live where they do.

❏ I can define liveability. ❏ I can describe the perceptions influencing why people live where they do.

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Learning intention

Starter activity

Visible thinking routine: Think, pair, share

Use Figures 5.3.1 to 5.3.3 to complete the activity. 1.

Think: Identify three or four features about each place.

Pair: Talk about your features with a partner, describing how people use these places.

Share: Discuss what each of these places might mean or offer to different people.

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Figure 5.3.1 Uluru, Northern Territory

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Figure 5.3.2 The Yamuna River next to the Taj Mahal in Agra, India

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5.3 How do social influences affect the liveability of places?

Figure 5.3.3 Luna Park in Milsons Point, Sydney

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What is a place?

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➜

Writing focus 5.3 Note-making

The word “place” refers to both the physical location of an area and the human interactions people have in an area, which influences the impact and meaning the location can have on people who live there. Different people can have different perceptions of the same place. This is because an individual’s sense of place can be shaped by the positive or negative experiences they have there, based on factors such as a person’s background, age and culture.

What is liveability?

The term “liveability” refers to how good the quality of life is for the people who live in a particular place. To measure whether a place has a high or low level of liveability, look at the quality of living conditions in that place. Places with high levels of liveability cater for people of many ages, backgrounds and physical abilities, as well as care for the environment. These places often include the following factors:

• safety and security • quality healthcare • access to quality education • infrastructure such as reliable transport systems and efficient utilities such as • • • • • •

electricity, water supply and internet affordable housing job availability and low unemployment access to arts, entertainment and sport facilities political and civic freedom access to services such as legal support or senior centres and community programs environment and climate.

Places that take these factors into consideration are often not only where people survive, but become places where they can thrive.

Why do people live where they do?

People live in different places for a variety of reasons. Some people move for employment and education opportunities; some people move seeking safety and security; some people stay in an area because of their connection to it.

perception the way something is viewed or understood by someone

push factor a reason people move away from an area access the right or ability to enter, look at or use something pull factor a reason people move to an area

The choices people make about where they live are often based on push factors and pull factors. A push factor is a reason that causes a person to leave an area. This can include war and conflict, unemployment, poverty, natural disasters or harsh climates, lack of access to services and limited opportunities for education.

A pull factor is a reason a person moves to or is drawn to an area. These are positive motivations that will benefit the person who is moving to a place, such as better job opportunities, good quality educational institutions and better living conditions. Environmental factors such as coastal areas, or more remote and isolated areas where people can enjoy retirement are other factors that can influence a person to stay in a place that seems more suitable to their lifestyle.

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5.3 How do social influences affect the liveability of places?

tangible an object that can physically be seen and held intangible something that exists but cannot be seen or held

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Overall, different people value different things and are drawn to places with those features. For example, young adults might be attracted to the excitement and opportunities of city life, where there are more opportunities or facilities offering entertainment and sporting events. People with children might prefer quieter areas with more space and nature. People judge the liveability of a place based on tangible factors like infrastructure and services, as well as intangible factors like safety and culture.

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Review 5.3

Online quiz

Knowledge and understanding

Thinking and working geographically

Students can access sample responses and results online

Teachers can go online to assign questions, view results, reports and more!

Knowledge and understanding 1.

Outline what influences perceptions of place.

a. Identify the factors that make a place liveable, and rank them in order of your own importance (1 as highest ranking, 10 as lowest). b. Share your list with the person next to you and compare whether your rankings are different. c. Choose two or three of these factors and explain why they make a place liveable. d. Provide examples and elaborate on the reasons why they are needed and the effect they have on different people.

a. Consider the push and pull factors that draw people to or from your suburb/town. b. List these in a table.

Distinguish between tangible and intangible factors.

Thinking and working geographically

Working with geographical concepts: Place

Classifying is the skill of organising ideas or information into categories. This process helps us to understand similarities and differences among the classified items. 1.

place The concept of place is about the significance of places and what they are like.

a. Consider the places shown in Figures 5.3.4 to 5.3.7. Create a table and identify different push and pull factors for each place. b. Write a question that you have about the liveability of each place. c. Rank the liveability of each of the places (1 as the highest and 4 as the lowest) and provide reasons to support your answer.

Geographical inquiry 2.

Choose one of the places shown in Figures 5.3.4 to 5.3.7 and create an infographic or report on the liveability of the place. Include a map in your report if possible and the following information:

a. Identify the place, and the country and region where it is located. b. Describe where the place is located with reference to surrounding cities/countries/oceans, latitude and longitude. c. Describe the kind of area it is: urban/suburban/rural. Provide the size of the population. d. Describe the physical features of the area with reference to nearby topographic features such as rivers, mountains, hills, forests or deserts. e. Describe the climate and suggest whether it is liveable. f. Describe whether there are any environmental issues (such as risks of drought, flooding, pollution, natural disasters). g. Explain whether there is sufficient housing and infrastructure, with reference to statistics.

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h. Describe the community, suggest whether it is diverse and provide detail on the cultural, recreational and leisure activities in the area. i. Suggest whether you would live here, and justify your response. Refer to the factors of liveability.

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Figure 5.3.4 Coober Pedy, South Australia, is a remote outback town with approximately 1,500 residents. Many people live in caves due to the hot climate. The town is a tight-knit community with a strong sense of place, thriving due to its opal mining industry, where some of the world’s most valuable opals are found. The industry provides well-paying jobs that keep the community alive. Due to a declining population, however, the availability of local services and facilities might change in the future.

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Figure 5.3.5 Kulusuk, Greenland, is a small settlement located on an island with a small population. It is known for its tundra climate, as residents face harsh Arctic weather, with long dark winters and short cold summer, when there is almost 23 hours of daylight. The Inuit are an Indigenous people who have lived and hunted in Greenland for 4,500 years, and have strong family and cultural ties to the place. The economy revolves around hunting, fishing and some tourism. Seal hunting provides skins to make warm clothing, blubber to heat homes and cook food, and meat to sustain life. Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78802-1 • (03) 8671 1400

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5.3 How do social influences affect the liveability of places?

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Figure 5.3.6 Kandovan, Iran, is a small village famous for its troglodyte/cave dwellings, where 700-year-old homes were carved into volcanic rock formations at the base of Mount Sahand. The first settlers arrived after fleeing the Mongol conquerors, and despite hot summers and subzero winter temperatures, people continue to live in the cone-like homes, which are unique and well adapted to moderate the temperature. While the economy relies on agriculture in the production of honey, walnuts, almonds, and warm woollen handmade clothes, they have a limited tourism industry.

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Figure 5.3.7 Telem houses on the Bandiagara Escarpment, Mali, are inhabited by the Dogon people, along with the earlier cultures of Telem and Toloy, whose cliff-dwellings remain visible. Recognised for its natural, cultural and archaeological value, the landscape is striking with cliffs, sandy plains and plateaus that draw interest from tourists, providing opportunities for some income through guiding or lodging in villages. The harsh climate, with very hot temperatures and winds, along with limited surface water, make living and farming difficult. People rely on hidden springs or wells for water. Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78802-1 • (03) 8671 1400

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5.4

How does environmental quality affect liveability? Success criteria

In this lesson, you will learn to investigate and explain the environmental factors affecting the liveability of a place.

❏ I can define environmental sustainability. ❏ I can explain how and why environmental quality can impact the liveability of a place.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Learning intention

Starter activity

This-or-that: Where would you rather live?

Use Figures 5.4.1 to 5.4.6 to complete the activity. 1.

For each pair of images, suggest which one you would rather live in. Give reasons why.

Outline the environmental factors that influenced your choice.

Figure 5.4.2 A street in Los Angeles

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Figure 5.4.3 A coastal village in Malta

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Figure 5.4.1 An urban park

Figure 5.4.4 A desert village in Mauritiania

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Figure 5.4.5 The city of Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia

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5.4 How does environmental quality affect liveability?

Figure 5.4.6 A forested suburb in Vancouver, Canada

Environmental quality directly affects our liveability. Clean air and water, green spaces and reduced pollution make our surroundings healthier and more enjoyable. With proper care of the environment and efficient management strategies, we can ensure a better quality of life for ourselves and our future generations. This approach is what can help to achieve environmental sustainability.

Environmental quality

Writing focus 5.4 Developing sentences

➜

Environmental quality refers to the condition of the natural environment around us, including the air, water and land. It also involves features like green spaces, pollution levels and how clean and safe our surroundings are. A good environment makes our lives healthier and happier. There are several factors that can help achieve environmental quality.

Clean air

Clean air is essential for good health. Poor air quality is often caused by the rise of motor vehicles and factories contributing to harmful emissions in the air. In cities, a mix of fog and smoke is called smog, which has many negative impacts on health, increasing the risk of respiratory illnesses, such as asthma, bronchitis and lung cancers. Clean air contributes to liveability in many ways:

• People can breathe easily: When the air is free from toxic pollutants, such as •

•

emissions from cars and factories, we are less likely to suffer from respiratory diseases or problems. People can concentrate better: Fresh air helps people think clearly and concentrate better. Exposure to poor air quality can have negative effects on brain development and can even increase the risk of a lower attention span, memory problems and learning difficulties. It supports the ecosystem: Polluted air can damage plants, forests and water systems. Clean air ensures a healthy environment for plants, animals and biodiversity, which in turn supports food production and a stable climate.

environmental sustainability the practice of managing resources and environments in a way that meets the needs of current generations without compromising or impacting the ability to meet the needs of future generations

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Clean water This is a fundamental part of a liveable environment. Without it, people cannot maintain a healthy lifestyle, hygiene or a stable quality of life. Access to clean water is crucial for drinking, cooking and cleaning. It affects every aspect of life:

• It keeps people healthy: Clean water helps prevent diseases and keeps us

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hydrated. Contaminated water and poor sanitation are linked to the transmission and spread of diseases such as diarrhoea, dysentry, hepatitis A, typhoid and polio. Safe handwashing, sanitation and food preparation help keep us healthy. It supports education: In areas with accessible clean water, children (especially girls) are more likely to attend school regularly rather than collecting water or suffering from illness. It provides economic stability: Access to clean water helps communities thrive by reducing healthcare costs and the amount of time people spend away from work due to water-related illnesses. Agriculture and local businesses also rely on clean water sources.

• •

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Figure 5.4.7 During a water crisis in Quetta, Pakistan, a girl has collected water for her family and is pushing her wheelbarrow loaded with water-filled containers back home, 2003

Green spaces

Spaces such as national or local parks, gardens, sports areas and playgrounds contribute to the liveability of communities for the many features they provide:

• Recreational areas for relaxing and playing: Offering a break from busy lives

can help reduce stress. They are also useful areas for people in the community to socialise and exercise.

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5.4 How does environmental quality affect liveability?

• Wildlife homes: Habitats for many plants and animals. Protecting these areas helps

habitat the natural environment where a plant or animal lives and grows, providing food, water and shelter in a space the organism needs to survive

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•

preserve biodiversity. Temperature control: Trees provide shade, which cools surfaces and reduces the amount of heat absorbed by buildings and roads. This is called the “urban heat island effect”. As trees absorb carbon dioxide and release moisture through a process called transpiration, the air cools and lowers overall temperatures.

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biodiversity the number and types of plants and animals that exist in an area

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Figure 5.4.8 Supertree Grove is part of Gardens by the Bay in Singapore. Visitors can walk through the gardens with large metal structures covered in greenery that connects a “sky” path

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Figure 5.4.9 An “urban forest” greenspace in Paris

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Clean soil and ecosystems Clean soil is essential for liveability because it supports life, health and sustains ecosystems in both natural and human environments:

• Safe, healthy food: Soil that is free from toxins and pollutants can support the •

growth of nutritious, healthy, crops. Contaminants (like lead, arsenic or pesticides) can cause health risks. Healthy living: Some litter, such a batteries and electronic waste, contain toxic chemicals that leak into the air, soil and water, posing long-term health risks. Litter can end up in waterways, contaminating drinking water sources with harmful chemicals and bacteria. Protection of natural environments: Litter can also harm ecosystems and wildlife, which can become trapped or poisoned by toxic waste. This can cause issues such as bioaccumulation, threatening food chains. Storage of carbon, fighting climate change: Soils store large amounts of carbon dioxide, which traps heat from the Sun into the atmosphere. Healthy soils help regulate Earth’s climate, cooling the planet, while damaged or destroyed soils can release more of this carbon dioxide back into the atmosphere, contributing to global warming.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

ecosystem a geographic area where living organisms (plants, animals and other microorganisms) interact with each other and their nonliving environment (such as weather and landscapes) to form a community of life

• •

Figure 5.4.10 Ganges River, India, where Hindu devotees perform rituals next to religious waste, which builds up when over 400 million people use the river for drinking, bathing, irrigation and other needs ➜

bioaccumulation the process where toxic substances (such as plastics, chemicals or metals) build up in an organism over time; a small fish might eat microplastics, and a bigger fish eats the smaller fish, and the plastic builds up in the body

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5.4 How does environmental quality affect liveability?

Review 5.4 Online quiz

Knowledge and understanding

Thinking and working geographically

Students can access sample responses and results online

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Teachers can go online to assign questions, view results, reports and more!

Knowledge and understanding

Define “environmental quality”.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

1. 2.

Identify the factors that impact environmental quality.

Account for why clean water is important for health.

Describe how green spaces have been essential for the liveability of place.

Define what is meant by smog.

Account for poor air quality and the effects this has on the liveability of places.

Identify one reason why clean soils and ecosystems are important to ensure places are liveable.

Thinking and working geographically

Working with geographical concepts: Sustainability 1.

Choose one photo from Lesson 5.4 and use the information to write a short paragraph describing: • what you see • what environmental factor it represents • how it affects liveability in that location.

Geographical inquiry 2.

Investigate and research two countries, one with good environmental liveability (clean air, lots of green spaces, clean water) and one with poor environmental liveability (high pollution, deforestation and poor waste management).

For each country, find data or examples showing: • air quality (is the air clean or polluted) • access to clean water and sanitation (percentage of people with access to clean water) • waste management and recycling (percentage of waste that is poorly managed) • availability of green spaces.

Extension: Put your data into a poster or infographic to present your findings.

sustainability The concept of sustainability is about the capacity of the environment to continue to support our lives and the lives of other living creatures into the future.

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Figure 5.4.10 Green space in Wuxi, Jiangsu Province, China

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5.5

How does economic development affect liveability? Success criteria

In this lesson, you will learn to investigate and explain the economic development of places that impact liveability.

❏ I can define what is meant by wealth inequality. ❏ I can explain how liveability is impacted by wealth.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Learning intention

Starter activity

Visible thinking routine: See, think, wonder

Use Figure 5.5.1 for this activity. 1.

See: Identify elements on the map that you notice.

Think: Give reasons why you think some of the richest people would live in these countries.

Wonder: Design a question about the distribution or different locations of where the super-rich choose to live.

➜

Figure 5.5.1 A choropleth map of countries representing where the super-rich live globally

Source: Forbes World’s Billionaires List

resource anything that people need or use (e.g. water, metals, oil and gas and trees) asset property or something that can be exchanged for monetary value or cash (e.g. house or car)

Wealth and liveability are closely linked, each influencing the other in significant ways. As we know, liveability refers to the overall quality of life in a particular place, considering factors such as safety, healthcare, education and the environment. Wealth, on the other hand, relates to having a lot of valuable resources, assets or income within a community. Understanding how these two concepts are interconnected is important.

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The impact of wealth on liveability

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New York City (Figure 5.5.2) is one of the world’s wealthiest world cities, as a result of being a centre of finance, media, commerce and culture, particularly with its concentration of world bank headquarters, stock exchanges and large trans-national corporations. For example, Manhattan, a borough in the Upper East Side of New York City, is one of the wealthiest neighbourhoods in the city. Distinguished by its elite private schools offering better educational opportunities, as well as famous cultural institutions such as the Metropolitan Museum of Art, the Guggenheim and Museum Mile. It is home to the city’s wealthiest elite, with Park Avenue being one of the most prestigious streets, housing residents that can afford to live in its expensive prewar apartments, which hold heritage value and are often shown on TV shows as a symbol of prestige and success. For the wealthy residents living in this area, their property taxes contribute towards maintaining and cleaning the streets, sidewalks and local infrastructure, which benefit the community. These wealthy residents can also access job opportunities, as the neighbouring communities hold the commercial headquarters for global businesses such as J.P. Morgan Chase & Co., which is a major financial institution for banking and investments. We can see that these wealthier communities tend to offer high-quality living conditions and better job opportunities, leading to higher incomes and improved living standards for their residents.

Writing focus 5.5 Creating topic sentences ➜

Wealth can greatly influence liveability. In wealthier communities, residents typically have better access to higher quality facilities and services, particularly healthcare, education and public infrastructure. For instance, affluent areas often feature well-maintained parks, clean streets and efficient public transport, all of which enhance the quality of life.

world city a global city that is highly connected and influential in global economics, politics and culture

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Figure 5.5.2 Central Park and the Upper East Side of New York City. Parks, public transport and clean streets can indicate an area of high liveability and wealth Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78802-1 • (03) 8671 1400

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Figure 5.5.3 Park Avenue in Midtown, Manhattan

How liveability attracts wealth

Evidently, high liveability can attract wealth to a region. When an area is known for offering a high quality of life, it tends to draw businesses and skilled workers. Companies often choose to operate in locations where their employees will enjoy, or most likely be, living. This rise of businesses and talent can boost the local economy, increasing the wealth of the area. For example, a city with excellent schools, low crime and abundant recreational activities may see a rise in property values and business investments.

The challenge of inequality

inequality the unequal spread of wealth or resources, opportunities or treatment of people

However, it is important to recognise that this connection between wealth and liveability can also lead to inequality. Not all communities have the same level of wealth, which can result in differences in liveability. Poorer areas may face challenges such as inadequate healthcare, low-quality education and limited public services, making it difficult for residents to improve their quality of life. For example, as evident in Figure 5.5.5, just north of Park Avenue is the borough of the Bronx. Known for its low-income neighbourhoods, this area is often cited as having some of the highest poverty rates as a result of high unemployment, housing and infrastructural challenges, and poor access to quality education and transport services. Addressing these inequalities is crucial to ensure that everyone can live in a healthy and prosperous environment.

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5.5 How does economic development affect liveability?

➜ Figure 5.5.5 A comparison of

the wealth divide in New York City: blue dots represent areas where households making more than USD$200,000 outnumber households making less than USD$25,000. Orange dots represent areas where households making less than USD$25,000 outnumber households making USD$200,000. Source: Wealth Divides website

Review 5.5

Online quiz

Knowledge and understanding

Thinking and working geographically

Students can access sample responses and results online

Teachers can go online to assign questions, view results, reports and more!

Knowledge and understanding 1.

2. 3.

4. 5.

Define “wealth”. Describe how wealth can influence the liveability of places. Outline reasons why New York City is a world city. Identify ways high liveability can attract wealth to a region. Propose a key challenge with the strong association between wealth and liveability.

Thinking and working geographically

Working with geographical concepts: Space 1.

Create a table summarising the differences between Manhattan and the Bronx. Write a paragraph explaining the reasons why one suburb experiences better liveability than the other.

Geographical inquiry 3.

Create a photo essay/collage of two contrasting areas. Research two suburbs in one city that show good versus poor economic liveability. In your response, include photos and a description of:

space The concept of space is the significance of location and spatial distribution, and the ways in which people organise and manage the spaces where they live.

• the quality of streets • the quality of housing • the availability of job opportunities • the range of schools available • types of public transport available.

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How do political factors affect liveability?

5.6

Success criteria

In this lesson, you will learn to investigate and explain how political factors determine the liveability of places.

❏ I can define political stability ❏ I can explain how political stability impacts the liveability of places.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Learning intention

Starter activity

Visible thinking routine: Think, pair, share

Use Figure 5.6.1 and The Conversation extract to answer the questions: 1.

Think: Identify cities with the highest crime index and describe the distribution of least liveable cities.

Pair: What are some factors that contribute to high crime rates?

Share: Use both sources to discuss how this factor impacts the liveability of places.

The most dangerous cities 20 in the world, 2025

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Pietermaritzburg South Africa

Pretoria South Africa

81.8

Caracas Venezuela

81.5

Port Moresby Papua New Guinea

81.2

Johannesburg South Africa

80.8

Durban South Africa

80.6

San Pedro Sula Honduras

79.7

Port Elizabeth South Africa

78.1

Memphis USA

77.4

Salvador Brazil

76.7

➜

Figure 5.6.1 The most dangerous cities in the world according to their crime index

Source: Data sourced from Numbeo

“Papua New Guinea has had a difficult year, beginning with serious rioting and looting in the capital, Port Moresby, and several other towns.”

Miranda Forsyth & Sinclair Dinnen. (2024). “PNG has had a horror year of conflict – but peace rarely comes through the barrel of a gun”. The Conversation.

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5.6 How do political factors affect liveability?

➜

Figure 5.6.2 Angry protests in Port Moresby, Papua New Guinea, in January 2024 led to a crowd torching police cars. Unrest spread throughout the city, with shops damaged and police scrambling to restore order.

➜

Figure 5.6.3 Destruction from looting caused by the angry protests in January 2024, after a dispute over pay with security forces. This sparked angry protests in the capital of Port Moresby.

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Political decisions can play a major role in the liveability of places, as political factors often include the laws, policies and government decisions that affect how a place is managed and resources are shared. Everything from housing, transport, education, safety and the environment can be impacted by poor government decision-making.

Political stability can impact liveability Political stability can influence the liveability of places and can instil a sense of safety among the population. For example, effective government decisions on healthcare, education, crime and environmental regulations can impact the social cohesion and connectedness of places.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

stability the prevalence of crime, terror, civil/ social unrest, military conflict

social cohesion the unity or connection between people based on a sense of belonging within a society or shared values

developing country a nation that is still improving its economy and services with many of its people not having access to education, healthcare and clean water (e.g. Chad)

looting the act of stealing goods, often by force, during a social or political crisis, such as war, natural disaster or riot literacy rate proportion of the population aged over 15 years old that can read and write

Conflict in Papua New Guinea

Papua New Guinea (PNG) is a developing country with a population of over 11 million. Experiencing a difficult start to the year in 2024, police strikes on 10 January became known as the “Black Wednesday” riots, which resulted in looting and at least 20 deaths. Throughout the year, there followed inter-group conflicts – violent clashes between different ethnic groups within the country – which led to approximately 70 killings. Community warfare in PNG date back for generations, with tensions showing no signs of easing as the conflicting issues are ongoing and complicated, resulting from the countries’ complex colonial history. Many have claimed that the government is powerless in more remote areas, stating that although police or security are deployed and sent to stop conflicts, when the forces leave, fighting begins again.

In addition to this, PNG is known to be one of the poorest countries in Oceania, with almost 40 per cent of the population living below the World Bank’s poverty line of approximately $2.15 a day. Within the poor economy, the country faces several challenges, such as limited social welfare and poor sanitation. According to UNICEF, over 75 per cent of the population lack access to safe toilets and 66 per cent do not have access to clean drinking water. As a result, the schooling attendance rates, for adolescent girls particularly, is low, due to the absence of hygiene facilities, combined with the poor school facilities, bus services and inability to pay school fees. This has meant that the literacy rate of students is the lowest in global standards, estimated at under 65 per cent. With growing inequality, lack of facilities and services, social unrest and rising unemployment, the crime rates in PNG are quite high. Particularly in Port Moresby, the capital city, the reputation of these high crime rates due to the common nature of violence and civil unrest has made it one of the most dangerous cities in the world. Additionally, the lack of law enforcement and enough police presence throughout the region have meant that many crimes have been difficult to respond to in a timely manner.

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5.6 How do political factors affect liveability?

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PACIFIC OCEAN GUAM (U.S.)

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PHILIPPINES

MARSHALL

FEDERATED STATES

PALAU

ISLANDS

OF MICRONESIA

PAPUA

NAURU

NEW GUINEA

INDONESIA

SOLOMON ISLANDS

Port Moresby

VANUATU

NEW CALEDONIA (FRANCE)

2000 km

➜

Figure 5.6.4 Map of Papua New Guinea

Table 5.6.1 The world’s least liveable cities, ranked by Numbeo’s Quality of life index Rank

City

Country

Quality of life index

294

Caracas

Venezuela

76.9

295

Cairo

Egypt

76.1

296

Ho Chi Minh City

Vietnam

76.1

297

Jakarta

Indonesia

75.6

298

Kathmandu

Nepal

74.4

299

Cebu

Phillipines

70.5

300

Tehran

Iran

67.9

301

Dhaka

Bangladesh

65.1

302

Colombo

Sri Lanka

56.1

303

Manila

Phillipines

53.2 Source: Numbeo

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Political participation to improve liveability

However, with Australia’s close location and ties to the country, there have been political attempts to help and improve the liveability of PNG over time. Recently, Australia’s Prime Minister, along with Papua New Guinea’s Prime Minister and National Rugby League (NRL) boss, have confirmed the anticipated deal to establish an NRL team in PNG. Although this has led some to argue that sports and political security should not mix, this effort to fund and introduce the NRL to PNG could possibly lead to the start of many benefits for the country. Since rugby league is the country’s national sport, many throughout the nation are either strong supporters or have the desire to play in the NRL. Over $500 million is expected to be invested in PNG by Australia over the next decade. As a result, much of the funding will go towards team infrastructure and welfare systems in the country to support the players, and also provides pathways for young men and women aspiring to play. Many see this as an opportunity to improve social unity within the country and increase economic growth, as there will be efforts to increase job opportunities and social security.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

➜

Writing focus 5.6 Appositives

As indicated in Table 5.6.1, Port Moresby is ranked as one of the least liveable cities in the Asia-Pacific region. This is due to its political instability, healthcare, social environment, education and infrastructure.

FPO AW05032

➜

Figure 5.6.5 A plan between Australia and PNG for expanding the NRL, with PNG forming its own team

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5.6 How do political factors affect liveability?

Review 5.6 Online quiz

Knowledge and understanding

Thinking and working geographically

Students can access sample responses and results online

147

Teachers can go online to assign questions, view results, reports and more!

Knowledge and understanding

Outline how political decisions can impact the liveability of places.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

1. 2.

Distinguish between political stability and social cohesion.

Using Figure 5.6.3, describe the geographical location of Papua New Guinea.

Define a “developing country” and outline why Papua New Guinea is considered one.

a. List some factors that are impacting the liveability of Papua New Guinea. b. Choose two of those factors and write a paragraph explaining how they impact the liveability in Papua New Guinea.

Debate the topic: Sports and politics shouldn’t mix.

Suggest why sporting opportunities might impact the liveability of place in Papua New Guinea, and justify your response.

Thinking and working geographically

Working with geographical concepts: Scale 1.

Using government sources, research the PNG–Australia partnership and investigate what strategies are in place to support the development of PNG.

Research the progress of the PNG NRL team. Is it a failure or a success? Give reasons why.

Geographical inquiry 3.

scale The concept of scale highlights how geographical challenges can be managed across a range of scales, from local to global.

Search the Economist Intelligence Unit for the least liveable cities and answer the questions:

a. List the top 10 least liveable cities. b. Research one other country in this list experiencing political instability and create a profile including:

• the geographical location of the country • the political instability it is experiencing • why this is happening, using statistics suggesting the effects of the political instability in the

country, including social impacts (number of injuries/fatalities), economic impacts (loss of infrastructure/jobs) and environmental impacts (extent of land impacted or degraded, plant or animal species affected). c. Summarise how this impacts the liveability of a place.

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5.7

Why is it important to measure liveability? Success criteria

In this lesson, you will investigate the different methods used to measure, assess and rank liveability.

❏ I can outline what is objective and what is subjective data. ❏ I can explain why it is important to rank liveability.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Learning intention

Starter activity

Visible thinking routine: Circle of viewpoints 1.

Write four points highlighting the social features that are important to enhance liveability.

Write four points highlighting the environmental features that are important to enhance liveability.

Share your points with a partner and discuss which features are most important for a liveable city.

➜

Writing focus 5.7 Conjunctions

qualitative non-numerical information that is descriptive and open-ended, often subjective and based on people’s perceptions, experiences and opinions

quantitative numerical data based on objective and factual information

Several organisations research the liveability of cities around the world. Every year, these organisations rank cities from the most liveable to the least liveable based on specific criteria. Some criteria include physical (tangible) features like roads and public transport, while others focus on what people think (intangible features), such as how safe or connected they feel in the community.

Geographers and city planners use this information to decide what makes a place good or bad to live in. They can collect data that is either qualitative or quantitative. Qualitative data is subjective and can be collected through observations, surveys and questionnaires, focus groups and interviews, or even photographs and sketches. Quantitative data is objective and can be collected through census data or government statistics, fieldwork data on the population density in an area, temperature and air quality readings or soil samples. Geographers, planners or even politicians can use this knowledge to make our cities and towns better places to live. Organisations like Mercer and the Economic Intelligence Unit (EIU) measure liveability for different reasons, and can therefore get different results, as seen in Table 5.7.1.

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Table 5.7.1 Table comparison of the top liveable cities in 2024 Top 10 liveable cities, 2024 (based on Numbeo Quality of Life index)

Zurich, Switzerland

The Hague (Den Haag), Netherlands

Vienna, Austria

Eindhoven, Netherlands

Geneva, Switzerland

Luxembourg, Luxembourg

Copenhagen, Denmark

Rotterdam, Netherlands

Auckland, New Zealand

Valencia, Spain

Amsterdam, The Netherlands

Helsinki, Finland

Vancouver, Canada

Vienna, Austria

Frankfurt, Germany

Copenhagen, Denmark

Bern, Switzerland

Munich, Germany

Basel, Switzerland

Amsterdam, Netherlands

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Mercer’s top 10 cities, 2024

Source: Numbeo

The EIU is a global economic and political analysis firm that looks at a wider range of factors that affect the quality of life. These include culture, the environment, the strength of the economy, and the quality of infrastructure such as roads and buildings. Specifically, they focus on the following:

• stability • healthcare • culture and environment • education • infrastructure.

Their research helps governments and city planners understand how cities can handle and plan for challenges.

While Mercer is a US-based global consulting company, they base their annual global rankings of cities on data that assess the quality of life and factors that affect how well foreigners can live and work in a new city. It is intended for the use of its companies and employees that want to live or invest internationally. Their ranking system acknowledges that quality of life is subjective to personal circumstances, such as health or social connections and how these might impact how easy it is to adapt to a new place. As a result, their data mostly assesses the quality-of-life standards that can affect how happy employees are and how long they might choose to stay in a foreign country. The Mercer list is, therefore, intended to help companies decide where to open offices and factories, and can also determine how much to pay employees by looking at factors like cost of living in a city. Overall, although Mercer’s list has a heavier weighting of social, economic and environmental indicators than the EIU, it includes objective data of daily living, such as personal safety, health, access to public transport, schooling, housing and recreational activities, in its liveability criteria.

Despite some differences, many surveys measure liveability against the criteria outlined in Figures 5.7.1 to 5.7.5. Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78802-1 • (03) 8671 1400

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Issues of ranking liveability

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The rise of liveability rankings have become useful tools for organising lots of different data, and helpful for politicians and planners to confront issues such as housing affordability, ageing population trends, and a rise in air pollution and congestion. Rankings can impact a city’s reputation, especially when there are factors that are out of a city’s control, such as climate or terrorist attacks. Tracking the progress for some factors that shape the quality of life can sometimes be unrealistic and unattainable, and can lead to disappointment and less public confidence in city policies. Another limitation to these rankings is that they ignore policy trends, such as the policies that cities might have already applied to promote better living and improve quality of life.

Figure 5.7.2 Healthcare: quality and accessibility of healthcare services, including hospitals, clinics and healthcare professionals ➜

➜

Figure 5.7.1 Political stability: measured by crime rates and the likelihood of civil unrest or conflict

➜

Figure 5.7.3 Education: quality of schools, universities and educational resources, as well as opportunities for lifelong learning Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78802-1 • (03) 8671 1400

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5.7 Why is it important to measure liveability?

➜

Figure 5.7.4 Infrastructure: the quality and reliability of transport networks, utilities (water, electricity and gas), communication systems (internet and mobile networks) and housing

➜

Figure 5.7.5 Culture and environment: availability of cultural amenities such as museums, theatres and restaurants, as well as environmental factors such as pollution levels, green spaces and access to nature

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Review: 5.7 Online quiz

Knowledge and understanding

Thinking and working geographically

Students can access sample responses and results online

Teachers can go online to assign questions, view results, reports and more!

Knowledge and understanding

Outline the differences between tangible and intangible features.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

1. 2.

Distinguish between qualitative and quantitative data, using examples of how these are collected.

Describe which form of data is more reliable. Justify your answer with examples.

Referring to Table 5.7.1, identify the Australian cities ranked in the top 10 in both Mercer and EIU rankings.

Outline the uses of EIU’s list and research into the most liveable cities.

Explain what data Mercer uses to rank more liveable cities.

Describe the challenges and issues with ranking the world’s most liveable cities.

Thinking and working geographically

Working with geographical concepts: Scale 1.

scale The concept of scale highlights how geographical challenges can be managed across a range of scales, from local to global.

a. Choose one of the five liveability criteria from Figures 5.7.1 to 5.7.5 and create a poster. b. Write the name and definition of the criteria in the centre (e.g. Healthcare) and surround it with examples of what facilities and services are needed to achieve this. c. Identify cities around the world that address this criteria well, and add them to your poster.

Geographical inquiry 2.

Using the text and your own research, create a Venn diagram highlighting differences in the EIU’s list and Mercer’s list of liveable cities, and where they overlap.

EIU’s liveable list

Mercer’s liveable list

Search the Economist Intelligence Unit for the Safe Cities Index and answer the questions:

a. List the top ranking cities in 2021. b. Research and find the 2019 infographic to outline what are the four pillars that make up urban security. c. Use the 2019 infographic to suggest the quantitative and qualitative data that sets the cities apart. d. Use the 2019 infographic and discuss whether cities need to get rich before they can become safe. Give examples of low-cost steps that can improve different elements of a city’s safety.

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5.8 How should we measure liveability?

5.8

153

How should we measure liveability? Success criteria

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Learning intention

❏ I can outline how liveability can be measured. ❏ I can explain why ranking liveability can be a challenge.

In this lesson, you will analyse and determine the best methods used to measure, assess and rank liveability.

Starter activity

Visible thinking routine: Think, pair, share 1.

Think: List your own criteria that you think would be important to assess the liveability of an area.

Pair: Combine your list with a partner’s list, creating a list of the criteria you both think would be important to assess the liveability of an area. Add or remove any criteria to the combined list.

Share: As a class, discuss and share the data you think would be necessary to determine the liveability of cities.

Measurements of liveability in Australia

Australia holds a national census every five years: the Census of Population and Housing. This provides a snapshot of Australia’s general population and helps to inform government funding, electoral boundaries and planning. Timor Sea

Darwin

Gulf of Carpentaria

census an official count of every person in a specific country or region along with detailed information about their household and characteristics

Cairns

AUSTRALIA

Brisbane

Perth

LEGEND Arrivals between August 2020 and 2021 Based on address one year ago 25446 to 47326 17594 to 25445 10934 to 17593 5969 to 10933 343 to 5968

Great Australian Bight

Sydney

Adelaide

Canberra

Melbourne 0

Bass Strait

1000 Hobart

➜

Figure 5.8.1 A choropleth map showing population movement in Australia from the 2021 Census Source: Adapted from the Australian Bureau of Statistics

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LEGEND Sydney

Commute by Car Car % >68.8 - 79.7 >60.6 - 68.8 >48.4 - 60.6 >31.8 - 48.4 0 - 31.8

Sydney

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Commute by Active Active% >20.4 - 37 >10.7 - 20.4 >5 - 10.7 >2.4 - 5 0 - 2.4

LEGEND

20 km

LEGEND

Commute by Bus Bus % >7 - 16.6 >4.5 - 7 >2.6 - 4.5 >1.1 - 2.6 0 - 1.1

20 km

LEGEND

Sydney

20 km

Commute by Train Train % >7.8 - 12.2 >4.5 - 7.8 >2.5 - 4.5 >0.9 - 2.5 0 - 0.9

Sydney

20 km

➜

Figure 5.8.2 A choropleth map showing how Sydneysiders travel to work according to the 2021 Census

Source: Adapted from the Australian Bureau of Statistics

The Australia Bureau of Statistics (ABS) is Australia’s independent national statistics agency, responsible for conducting the census and then collecting, compiling, analysing and distributing statistics, and providing reliable information that looks at a range of economic, social, political and environmental factors of suburbs. The data collected from the census includes information of every person and household in the country, showing detailed information of the country’s demographics including age, gender, race, and other social and economic information. Census data is used by governments and agencies to plan for future needs of cities such as infrastructure and social services, including schools, roads, and programs for children and for the elderly. Statistical geography allows people to understand, compare and analyse data to make decisions about different aspects of places from cities to suburbs. They also provide a historical record of how the population has changed over time, such as population movements from 2021 (Figure 5.8.1), and can even be a key tool for international comparisons of statistical data.

International comparisons

The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) Better Life Index is an initiative encouraging the development of economic indicators, achieved by showing global comparisons of economic and social progress. The data collected includes different indicators, measuring areas of wellbeing, environmental quality, and quality of services and security. Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78802-1 • (03) 8671 1400

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➜

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There are over 11 topics that are scored, weighted and ranked across 30 countries. Some of these include subjective indicators of human wellbeing, which are taken into consideration when measuring community or the quality of social support networks, as well as life satisfaction such as happiness levels and work–life balance.

Figure 5.8.3 OECD Better Life Index Indicators and countries rankings. Visit https://cambridge.edu.au/redirect/11878 to try it out!

Limitations to data

Good indicators and reliable measurements are essential for good policymaking. While both the ABS census data and OECD Better Life Index provide useful insights and information for assessing and projecting the liveability of cities and countries, each has limitations. For example, the OECD data is dependent on many countries contributing their different datasets; however, it is possible that the data is outdated by a couple of years before it is shared by each country. Additionally, there may be inaccurate population counts by different countries, as developing countries can be particularly affected by internal migration, cross-border movement, or refugee inflows and outflows, making it challenging to maintain up-to-date population data. Many developing countries also lack thorough population registers, so census data quickly can become outdated or may not count moving populations, especially with large numbers of people living in informal settlements and slums. This is where official data collection may be weak. The population data may be inaccurate, which impacts data on urban density, access to housing and sanitation, and the reliability of liveability projections.

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Review 5.8 Online quiz

Knowledge and understanding

Thinking and working geographically

Students can access sample responses and results online

Teachers can go online to assign questions, view results, reports and more!

Knowledge and understanding

Define the census and outline its purpose.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

1. 2.

Describe the choropleth map in Figure 5.8.1. Where is there more and less population movement across Australia?

Describe the choropleth map in Figure 5.8.2. a. Where are there higher and lower numbers of people commuting by train around Sydney? b. Explain reasons for this data.

Define the ABS and outline its role.

Describe the function of census data in political decision-making.

Distinguish between the ABS census data and OECD Better Life Index.

Explain the limitations of measuring and comparing the liveability of places.

Thinking and working geographically

Working with geographical concepts: Space

space The concept of space is the significance of location and spatial distribution, and the ways in which people organise and manage the spaces where they live.

Using the ABS data or another government website, research the Census All persons QuickStats data for your suburb or local government area. Find: • number of people • number of families • number of private dwellings • median weekly household income • median monthly mortgage repayments • average number of motor vehicles per dwelling • the cultural diversity and the most common ancestry • the occupation of professionals and labourers.

Create an infographic using your data to inform the public about the liveability of your suburb. In your infographic include: • a map of the area • a description of the location • average climate conditions • photos of the area using Google Maps/Earth • statistics from part 1 of the task.

Geographical inquiry 3.

Write a paragraph about your suburb, and suggest whether it is a liveable area or not, using the data and information from your infographic. In your response, justify why people would want to live there, with reference to the description of the area (is it urban/rural?), weather patterns and description of locational features such as housing, proximity to resources and population of the suburb.

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5.9 Chapter review

5.9

157

Chapter review Access the Interactive Textbook for a range of digital tools to help you review this chapter and build confidence.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Summary

Summary notes

What have you learned about perceptions of liveability?

For this activity, copy the table and fill it out by explaining your understanding. Aim for two points per topic.

Terms

What I have learnt

Infrastructure

Download chapter summary

Absolute location Push factors Pull factors

Social cohesion

Visible thinking routine

I used to think … now I think

This exercise asks you to track the difference between what you knew about liveability before, and what new understandings you have acquired since reading this chapter.

Using the stem sentences here, write a paragraph explaining what you previously knew about the topic. Then write another paragraph explaining what you now understand about the topic. I used to think that liveability meant … Now I think that liveability means … I used to think that place meant … Now I think that place means …

A simple explanation for what shapes people’s perceptions of liveability is … A better explanation for what shapes people’s perceptions of liveability is …

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Questions Scorcher quiz

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Access a fast, fun, competitive quiz that puts your understanding to the test.

Quick questions

The following activities offer various ways to demonstrate your understanding of the chapter. 1.

A _____ is defined as a heavily populated urban area with poor housing, services and infrastructure.

The exact position of a place on Earth using latitude and longitude is known as its _____ location.

Clean air, green spaces and access to clean water are all examples of environmental _____.

Which of the following is a pull factor? A. War and conflict B. Unemployment

Which of the following is a push factor? A. Beautiful natural scenery B. Limited job opportunities

C. Access to good education D. Harsh climate

C. A low-crime neighbourhood D. Access to good education

Which pair correctly matches the type of data with its definition? A. Qualitative – numerical and factual B. Quantitative – based on opinions C. Quantitative – numerical and measurable D. Subjective – based on official statistics

Using Figure 5.9.1, identify two features of a green space.

Summarise why environmental quality is important for liveability.

Recall how liveability rankings can sometimes be misleading.

➜

Figure 5.9.1 Balmoral Beach, Sydney

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5.9 Chapter review

Writing focus The following activities allow you to practice your writing skills.

Answering questions in paragraphs You can use this as a model when writing your own answers to the questions that follow.

Marking criteria for each question can be found in the Interactive Textbook. Refer to these criteria when planning and writing your responses.

(6 marks)

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Question: Explain what liveability is and why it is important.

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Model answer:

Topic sentence: the first sentence of the paragraph; directly answers the question

Elaborate: additional information, interconnections

Examples: provide credibility and illustrate the argument

Liveability refers to how good the quality of life is for people living in a particular place. It considers whether a place provides the services, opportunities and conditions people need to live safely and comfortably, such as access to healthcare, education, transport, affordable housing and a clean environment. Liveability is important because it affects people’s wellbeing, shapes where they choose to live, and influences whether communities can thrive socially, economically and environmentally over time. Melbourne is consistently ranked in the top cities on the EIU Liveability Index because it offers good public transport, clean environments and high-quality healthcare and education. This allows residents of all ages and backgrounds to enjoy a good quality of life. Liveability helps us understand whether a place can support a healthy and enjoyable life for the people who live there.

Explain: clarify, define and describe

Evidence: specific, relevant evidence to support your arguments

Linking sentence: reconnects with language of the question the topic sentence

Structured-response questions Question 1

(20 marks)

a. Outline what liveability is and why it is important. b. Explain why social influences affect the liveability of places. c. Discuss how economic and environmental quality might conflict with each other in making a city more liveable.

(10 marks)

Question 2

(20 marks) (4 marks) (6 marks)

Writing focus 5.9 Single paragraph response model ➜

a. Outline the different methods used to assess liveability. b. Explain how political influences affect the liveability of places. c. Analyse the different methods of measuring liveability. What is the purpose and effect of ranking liveability?

(4 marks) (6 marks)

(10 marks)

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Chapter 5 Perceptions of liveability

Extended-response questions Question 1

(20 marks)

Evaluate which factor (environmental, social, economic or political) has the greatest impact on liveability. Question 2

(20 marks)

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Compare how social and political factors have contributed to changes in liveability in two different cities or regions.

Teachers, access the Online Teaching Suite for digital resources and tools that support review, assessment and reporting, including:

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Chapter

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Geographical skills: What demographics tell us about places

Lessons

6.1 Types of photos

6.2 Types of maps

6.3 Line and bar graphs

6.4 Population profiles

6.5 Fieldwork: Liveability of places

6.6 Chapter review: Understanding place through photos, maps and charts Teachers go to the Online Teacher Suite to:

➜

• plan, sequence and assign directed tasks for students and classes using Task Manager • view student activity reports • provide feedback to students • download a printable “Writing focus” workbook for this chapter. Image: Port Moresby skyline with Poreporena villages in the foreground

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6.1

Types of photos

Success criteria

In this lesson, you will learn to understand the four main types of photographs that geographers use.

❏ I can identify each of the four main types of photos and their key features.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Learning intention

Introduction

Video 6.1.1 Types of photos

Geographers use photographs as a tool to help understand the world around us. Photographs can give us insight into how large a place is, show us how well organised it is, help us understand what it would be like to live there, or even show us how it has changed over time. However, no one type of photo can do all these things at once. For this reason, geographers use four main types of photos, each with a distinct advantage in a different area. In this lesson we will investigate satellite photographs, aerial vertical photographs, aerial oblique photographs and ground photographs. Satellite photograph

Photo taken from space

Shows human and physical landscapes and changes in land use

Clouds show high altitude

Urban area

Park

Covers a large area

Waterway

➜

Figure 6.1.1 Satellite photograph of Manhattan Island

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6.1 Types of photos

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Vertical aerial photograph Shows street layout and settlement patterns

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Can show congestion levels

Lower than satellite, so shows smaller area and larger scale (see Lesson 2.2)

➜

Figure 6.1.2 Vertical aerial photograph of high-rise rooftops, New York City Oblique aerial photograph

Visible skyline

Shows background

Gives perspective of the size and shape of the city

Shows foreground

Sides of buildings are visible.

Taken from above but at an angle ➜

Figure 6.1.3 Oblique aerial photograph showing the Manhattan skyline with Central Park

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Ground photographs You’ve likely taken a photo like this!

Taken from ground level

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Shows great detail about liveability and street life

Shows people and faces

Close-up – largest scale

➜

Figure 6.1.4 Ground photograph showing the sunset in alignment with Manhattan streets, also known as Manhattanhenge

➜

Figure 6.1.5 Four images of Ljubljana, Slovenia

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Now you try! 6.1 Use Figure 6.1.5 to answer the questions. 1. 2.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Identify each type of photo in Figure 6.1.5. What feature of photo B makes it easy to identify what type of photo it is? Which photo would be best to use as a map if you were a tourist in Ljubljana? Why is this the best choice? Which photo would be best to use on the cover of a tourist brochure or website prompting Ljubljana? Justify your answer.

Video 6.1.2 Finding direction

Activity 6.1

For this activity you will need access to the internet.

Use the internet to find one of each of the types of photos mentioned in this lesson for both the city of Port Moresby, Papua New Guinea and a city of your choice from the developed world, other than New York City or Ljubljana. Write an extended paragraph that compares and contrasts the size, layout, level of development, and differences in levels of wealth and poverty that are evident in your series of photos. Ensure that you are making direct reference to your sources for each of your comparisons.

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6.2

Types of maps

Success criteria

In this lesson, you will learn to understand the four main types of maps that geographers use

❏ I can identify four main types of maps and their key features.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Learning intention

Introduction

Geographers use many different types of maps to understand the world. Some maps, such as topographic maps, show physical features like coastlines and mountains. Other maps are used to show how humans use land, who owns it, or the relative location of features using simplified representations. Still others are designed to communicate the spatial pattern of a particular variable, such as rainfall or population density. This section focuses on four map types that serve these purposes.

Video 6.2.1 Types of maps

topographic map a large-scale map that shows the surface of the Earth in detail, including natural terrain and human landmarks

Precis maps

A precis map shows locations highlighting specific features or categories, such as land use, bodies of water and types of vegetation. Helps to quickly understand a place

Simple legend shows key features

Roseton

Ocean Town

Point A

Forest

Flood plain

Farmland

Point B

Beach

Helpful when creating transects (Lesson 6.2) ➜

Figure 6.2.1 Precis map of Roseton

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Carswell West Lagoon

1:100 000

6.2 Types of maps

167

Topographic maps Topographic maps show the height of a landscape using contour lines. They are used by hikers, military and for planning as they show a 3D landscape as a 2D image. We explored topographic maps in Chapter 3.

Carswell West Lagoon Contour lines connect areas of equal height (metres above sea level).

274

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Spot height shows the highest point of a slope.

200

100

Sea level =0m

100

229

200

Boat ramp

1:100000

➜

Figure 6.2.2 Topographic map

Cadastral maps

Cadastral maps depict land boundaries. It can be used for legal and administrative purposes when it comes to property management.

cadastral map a map that displays property boundaries, roads land parcels and lot numbers; used for legal and administrative purposes, such as land ownership, planning and land management

Cadastral map

128

May show green spaces, but not the shape of the land

127

125

124

123

Shows streets

126

122

129

r st D

130

e Fo Lak

121

131

132

Blu

155

156

154

157

Numbers show “lots”

Lines show property boundary.

Wa y

133

153

158

134 152

➜

Figure 6.2.3 Cadastral map

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Choropleth maps A choropleth map is a type of thematic map that uses colour or shading to indicate spatial pattern in a single variable. Defined areas (discrete suburbs in this case) are differently coloured to show single variable. Choropleth map

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

thematic map a map designed to show geographic trends and patterns over time, using visual techniques like colour, shading, symbols, dots and connecting lines spatial pattern the way natural and human features are spread out and organised in a geographic area

Gosford

Woy Woy

Lithgow

Brooklyn

Kurrajong

Richmond

Blackheath

Katoomba

Hornsby

Hazelbrook

Blaxland Penrith

Chatswood

Parramatta

Sydney

Easy to see patterns (e.g. areas of high and low affordability)

10 km

LEGEND Very affordable Affordable Acceptable Moderately unaffordable Unaffordable Severely unaffordable Extremely unaffordable Critically unaffordable Data not available

Colours show a single variable (e.g. housing affordability).

➜

Figure 6.2.4 A choropleth map showing rental affordability in the greater Sydney area by suburb

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Political maps Political maps show how Earth’s surface is divided by human-made boundaries. Shows cities Barents Sea

Shows borders between countries

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Greenland Sea Denmark Strait

Norwegian Sea

Oslo

White Sea

ICELAND

Tórshavn

FINDLAND

Faroe Islands (DENMARK)

SWEDEN

NORWAY

Shetlands Islands

Locates oceans and seas

Rockall (U.K.)

Herbides

Oslo

Orkney Islands

North Sea

IRELAND Dublin

Celtic Sea

UNITED KINGDOM

London

PORTUGAL

Lisbon

Strait of Gibraltar

Rabat MOROCCO

Helsinki d n inla of FTallinn f l u Aland G ESTONIA Islands

Gotland Rïga

DENMARK Copenhagen

Öland Baltic Sea Bornholm

Moscow

LATVIA

LITHUANIA Vilnius RUSSIA

Minsk

BELARUS

NETHERLANDS Amsterdam

Warsaw

Berlin

GERMANY Brussels BELGIUM Guernsey (U.K.) English Channel Luxembourg LUXEMBOURG Jersey (U.K.) Paris

Shows the size and shape of countries

Stockholm

Skagerrak

NORTH ATLANTIC OCEAN

RUSSIA

Gulf of Bothnia

Kyiv

POLAND

Prague

CZECH REPUBLIC SLOVAKIA

UKRAINE

MOLDOVA Chişinău Vienna Bratislava LIECHTENSTEIN Budapest AUSTRIA Vaduz ROMANIA Bern HUNGARY Bay of FRANCE SLOVENIA Zagreb SWITZERLAND Bucharest Ljubljana Biscay CROATIA Belgrade Black BOSNIA AND Sea SERBIA Sarajevo ITALY HERZEGOVINA BULGARIA MONACO Pristina Ligurian SAN MARINO Adr MONTENEGRO Soﬁa Andorra la Vella iati Podgorica KOSOVO Sea c Skopje Corsica Sea Tirana MACEDONIA Rome ANDORRA Madrid TURKEY ALBANIA Balearic Aegean Sea Tyrrhenian Sardinia GREECE FRANCE Sea Sea Balearic Islands Athens Mediterranean Sea Ionian Rhodes Sea Sicily Alborán Sea Tunis Algiers Crete Valletta MALTA TUNISIA ALGERIA 0 1500 km

These borders can influence identity, culture, conflict and trade.

➜

Figure 6.2.5 Political map of Europe

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Now you try! 6.2 1. 2.

Of the maps in Figures 6.2.1 to 6.2.5, which map shows property boundaries? In Figure 6.2.1, if you travelled from Point A to Point B, what land cover/use would you pass through in which order? Look at Figure 6.2.4, describe areas of high and low housing affordability.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Use Figure 6.2.5 for Questions 4 to 7. 4.

Video 6.2.2 Working out the answer for Question 2

6. 7.

Which countries share a border with Poland? Which country has the most islands? Identify five countries that have no direct access to an ocean or sea. Identify the only country on the map that does not share a border with another country.

➜

Figure 6.2.6 Landcover change around Mount Taranaki, New Zealand

Activity 6.2

For this activity, you will need a pen and paper and access to the internet.

Use the satellite image in Figure 6.2.6 of Mount Taranaki, New Zealand, to create a precis map of this area. The image shows a snow-capped volcanic peak at the centre, steep upper slopes with little or no vegetation, areas of dense native vegetation, and extensive land clearing for agriculture, with towns mainly located closer to the coast. Use this source to simplify these broad land-cover patterns, representing each type of land cover with clear, simple symbols or colours. Remember to include a legend to show what each shade or symbol represents. Once you have completed this map, use the internet to find another visually striking aerial photograph and create a precis map of that location.

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6.3 Line and bar graphs

6.3

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Line and bar graphs Success criteria

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Learning intention In this lesson, you will learn how bar and line graphs work and how they are used by geographers.

❏ I can interpret line and bar graphs to understand general trends. ❏ I can calculate how line and bar graphs show differences in quantity and change over time.

Introduction

Line graphs and bar graphs are common tools used by geographers to display and interpret data. A line graph shows how a variable changes over time by connecting data points with a line, making it especially useful for identifying trends, patterns or fluctuations. Bar graphs use separate bars to compare values between different categories or places, allowing similarities and differences to be seen clearly at a glance. Geographers use line and bar graphs to represent data such as population change, rainfall totals, temperatures or land use comparisons, helping them analyse patterns Video 6.3.1 Line and and explain geographical processes. These graphs make complex information easier to bar graphs understand and allow data to be compared in a clear and meaningful way.

Line graphs

The line graph in Figure 6.3.1 shows life expectancy in different places over time. A clear trend is visible that in all places, life expectancy has increased since 1950. See the worked example in Figure 6.3.1 to find the life expectancy in Australia in 2000. Life expectancy

y-axis shows life expectancy in years

Period life expectancy¹ is the number of years the average person born in a certain year would live if they experienced the same chances of dying at each age as people did that year. 90 years

Australia Slovenia

80 years

World

70 years

Australia’s life expectancy in 2000 was 80 years.

Papua New Guinea

60 years 50 years 40 years 30 years

x-axis shows time in years

20 years 10 years

0 years

1950

1960

1970

1980

1990

Data source: Riley (2005); Zijdeman et al. (2015); HMD (2025); UN WPP (2024)

2000

2010

2023

OurWorldinData.org/life-expectancy | CC BY

1. Period life expectancy Period life expectancy is a metric that summarizes death rates across all age groups in one particular year. For a given year, it represents the average lifespan for a hypothetical group of people, if they experienced the same age-specific death rates throughout their whole lives as the age-specific death rates seen in that particular year. Learn more in our articles: • Life expectancy – what does this actually mean? • Period versus cohort measures: what’s the difference?

➜

Figure 6.3.1 Life expectancy in selected countries, 1950–2023

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NSW population, 1961–2026

2,000 1,800 1,600

1,200

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Population (000s)

1,400

1,000 800 600

400

200

0 1961

1966

1971

1976

1981

1986

1991 1996 2001 2006 2011 Year 65 years and over 0–14 years

2016 2021 2026

➜

Figure 6.3.2 NSW population change, 1961–2026

Now you try! 6.3a

Use Figure 6.3.2 to answer the questions. 1.

2. 3.

Video 6.3.2 Working out the answer for Question 5

How many 0–14 year olds were there in NSW in 2016? How many people aged 65 and over were there in NSW in 2001? What was the difference in population between 65 year old and over and 0-14 year olds in 1971? By what amount did each population increase between 1961 and 2026? Suggest possible reasons for the steep increase in the blue line but only gradual increase in the red line.

Bar graphs

The column graph in Figure 6.3.3 shows house prices across Australian states. You can see where house price is highest and lowest. Columns are also labelled, but three zeroes need to be added to each amount. See the worked example in Figure 6.3.3 for NSW.

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Only one date, unlike line graph in FIgure 6.3.2. Mean house price, states and territories, December quarter 2021

1,400

NSW mean house price = $1,207,200

1,300 1,207.2

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1,200

1,000

979.6

956.1

900

Price ($000s)

y-axis = mean price in $000s

1,100

920.1

800

749.1

700

600

614.3

649.2

614.3

Lowest

500

489

400 300

200

100 0

NSW

VIC

Highest

QLD

WA TAS State/Territory

ACT

Australia

Mean price ($000)

x-axis = states and territories

➜

Figure 6.3.3 Mean Australian house price by state/territory

353

Australian capital cities

Canberra

Perth

302

Hobart

298

285

Darwin

Melbourne

116

Brisbane

112

Adelaide

Sydney

100 150 200 250 300 Green space per capita (square metres)

350

400

➜

Figure 6.3.4 Green space per capita in Australian capital cities

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Now you try! 6.3b Use Figure 6.3.4 to answer the questions. 1. 2. 3.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Identify the city with the most green space per capita. Identify the city with the least green space per capita. What is the difference in green space per capita between these two places? Suggest some reasons for Sydney having the least amount of green space per person.

Video 6.3.3 Working out the answer for Question 4

Activity 6.3

For this activity, you will work as a class to identify the factors that make a city liveable. Begin by brainstorming ideas from the liveability of places topic, considering features such as access to services, housing, transport, employment, green space, safety and environmental quality. Agree on a list of five to seven key factors that contribute to a city’s liveability. Once the list has been finalised, each student will vote for the one factor they believe is the most important for a liveable city. Record and tally the class results, then use this data to construct a bar graph showing the number of votes each factor received. If you need a larger dataset to use, then have everyone vote for their top two most important features rather than just one.

➜

Figure 6.3.5 Bangkok cityscape with Lumpini park in the foreground

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6.4 Population profiles

6.4

175

Population profiles

Success criteria

In this lesson, you will learn to understand population profiles.

❏ I can recall the characteristics of a population profile. ❏ I can interpret a country’s level of development by looking at its population profile. ❏ I can calculate specifics about a country’s age structure from its population profile.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Learning intention

Introduction

Population profiles (also called population pyramids) are one of the most effective graphs used in geography to display a large amount of population data in a clear and accessible way. Population profiles show the age structure of a population for a place such as a country or even the world, with males shown on one side and females on the other, and each bar representing an age group, usually in five-year intervals. The population of each age group can be displayed in percentages or as whole numbers. The youngest age groups appear at the base of the profile and the oldest at the top, allowing geographers to quickly identify patterns related to birth rates, life expectancy and population change. Because of this, population profiles provide valuable insight into levels of development, population growth and future challenges facing a place. They can also be used to calculate the number of people within a specific age and gender, making them a powerful visual tool and a precise source of data.

Video 6.4.1 Population profiles

➜

Figure 6.4.1 The bustling population of Milan in the Piazza del Duomo city square

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y-axis shows age

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2.9% of Australians in 2024 were females aged 60–64

x-axis shows percentage of total population

Using the total, we can calculate the value of females aged 60–64. 2.9/100 × 26,713,205 = 744,682

Figure 6.4.2 Australia’s population profile, 2024

Source: PopulationPyramid.net

To understand a population profile structure, we break it into three sections:

fertility rate the average number of children born to each woman

mortality rate the average number of deaths in a population over a certain time, usually shown per 1,000 or 100,000 people each year

life expectancy the average number of years a person is expected to live, calculated from birth

1. Base: The base is described as wide or narrow. This shows you the fertility rate of the country. A wide base means that a high proportion of the population is young. This indicates a high fertility rate and rapid population growth. This is commonly seen in less economically developed nations. A narrow base means that fertility rates are low and that the population is declining. 2. Side: The side is described as concave or convex. This shows you the mortality rate of the country. A concave side shows a high mortality rate as fewer people are surviving into the older ages. This is commonly seen in less economically developed nations. A convex shape shows a lower mortality rate where people are surviving into the older age categories. 3. Peak: When looking at the peak, we want to see how high the population profile reaches. This shows us the life expectancy of the country. Countries with a lower life expectancy, such as less economically developed nations, will have a lower peak.

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6.4 Population profiles

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Somalia 2024

Japan 2024 High peak High life expectancy

Convex Low mortality rate

Concave High mortality rate

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Low peak Low life expectancy

Narrow Low fertility rate

Wide High fertility rate

➜

Figure 6.4.3 Japan and Somalia population profiles, 2024

Therefore, population profiles tend to fall into one of four categories. Age 80 65

Age 80 65

Rapid growth

Slow growth

Male

Stable

Declining

Female

➜

Figure 6.4.4 Most common population profile shapes

Population profiles can also show anomalies known as bulges and dips where a certain age range measures considerably more than those around it (bulge) or considerably less (dip). A dip shows fewer people than expected in an age group and is usually the result of events such as war, famine, disease or economic hardship, which can reduce births, increase deaths or cause people to leave a place. A bulge in a population profile shows an unusually large number of people in a particular age group and is most commonly caused by high birth rates or by migration into a place, where large numbers of people move in for work, safety or opportunity.

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U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Bulge caused by migration

Dip caused by conflict

➜

Figure 6.4.5 Ukraine and United Arab Emirates population profiles, 2024

➜

Figure 6.4.6 Italy and Mali population profiles, 2024

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Now you try! 6.4 Use Figure 6.4.5 to answer the questions. 1. 2. 3.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

How many males in Italy are aged 10–14? How many people in Italy are aged 55–59? What percentage of people in each country are aged under 20? How many people in Mali are aged under five? Which of the two countries (Italy or Mali) is experiencing the most rapid population growth and what feature of the population profile gives you this information? Which country has the highest life expectancy and what feature of the population profile gives you this information? Suggest a problem for each country that may arise in the future based on their 2024 population profile.

Video 6.4.2 Working out the answers for Questions 1 and 2

Activity 6.4

For this activity you will need access to the internet.

Visit populationpyramid.net and select one country that best represents each of the four general population profile shapes in Figure 6.4.4. For the rapid growth and declining cases, conduct some research and write two or three sentences explaining the main factors that have contributed to that shape. For example, why does one have high fertility and low life expectancy, and why does the other have low birth rates and an ageing population? Your explanations should refer to at least two relevant causes for each shape.

➜

Figure 6.4.7 Bellagio town, Lake Como, Lombardy, Italy

Figure 6.4.8 The city of Bamako, Mali

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6.5

Fieldwork: Liveability of places

Success criteria

In this lesson, you will have the opportunity to apply fieldwork techniques to evaluate the liveability of your neighbourhood.

❏ I can assess the liveability of my neighbourhood by conducting a survey and using a fieldwork report.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Learning intention

Investigating liveability criteria in your neighbourhood

Fieldwork is an essential part of studying geography. It allows you to investigate many of the concepts studied in the classroom while out in the real world. It also provides you with the opportunity to apply your knowledge to answer a research question based on issues in your area. In this investigation, your aim is to determine whether your local neighbourhood meets certain liveability criteria. The following structure in Table 6.5.1 will help to form the basis of your study.

Figure 6.5.1 Time to do fieldwork in your own neighbourhood! Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78802-1 • (03) 8671 1400

6.5 Fieldwork: Liveability of places

181

Table 6.5.1 Structure of a typical fieldwork report Section

Explanation

Examples and prompts

Title and introduction

Write a brief introduction explaining what liveability is and how it is measured.

• Liveability refers to … • Geographers measure liveability using criteria

Write a research question that you intend to answer using the data that you collect.

• What are the best and worst liveability features in my neighbourhood?

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Research question

such as …

Hypothesis

A hypothesis is your predicted answer to your fieldwork question. It is something that can be tested using your fieldwork techniques.

Primary data Primary data is data you collect collection yourself in the field specifically for your investigation.

• The best liveability features of my neighbourhood

are … • The worst liveability features of my neighbourhood are …

• Walk through your neighbourhood and complete

the survey provided in Table 6.5.2. • Where possible, support your observations with photos or field sketches. For example, you may take photos that demonstrate the good or poor quality of green spaces, playgrounds or sporting facilities.

Secondary data collection

Secondary data is data that other people have collected that you can use as part of your investigation.

• Search online and use Google Maps to answer

Presenting and analysing your data

Summarise your findings in visual formats that are easy to read and understand.

• Use your data to create bar or pie graphs for the

Discussion, conclusion and evaluation

Use your primary and secondary data to answer your research question. Provide a concise summary of your major findings. Evaluate the success of your data collection and your overall investigation.

• Identify the extent to which your hypothesis has

References

Include a bibliography of any sources used.

some other parts of your survey, such as how many childcare centres are in your neighbourhood. • Save the URL of each website you use, as you will need this for your bibliography. different liveability criteria in your survey. • Include photos and field sketches. Annotate these to explain what they show in the context of liveability. • Provide an annotated map of your neighbourhood. been supported or disproven. • Write an answer to your research question. • Outline the positive and negatives of your data collection techniques and how they can be improved.

• For example: Australian Bureau of Statistics 2021, Community Profiles, Australian government, accessed 5 September 2023, https://www.abs.gov.au/census

How to complete the survey

In this fieldwork task, you will visit your neighbourhood and assess it in terms of some criteria. These questions will form a class survey about the local neighbourhood. Here are the steps to take.

1. As a class, discuss the criteria to make sure that you understand what each criterion is asking you to look for. You can write notes on the survey to help you remember what each criterion means. 2. Complete the survey form in Table 6.5.2, based on the suburb or town that you live in. 3. Compare your completed survey with people in your class who live in the same neighbourhood as you. Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78802-1 • (03) 8671 1400

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Table 6.5.2 Fieldwork survey template Criteria

Score:

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1. Very limited 2. Limited 3. Satisfactory 4. Good 5. Very good

Environment

• Average weather conditions • Access to parks, gardens and green space • Access to sports and entertainment facilities • Quality of green spaces and appearance of streets

Culture

• Quality of recreational facilities • Access to and diversity of places of worship • Diversity of restaurants and shopping • Access to libraries and historical sites Economy

• Broad range of job opportunities • Affordable housing • Access to goods and services Infrastructure

• Quality of roads • Quality and availability of public transport • Telephone and internet coverage • Quality of housing • Water, sewerage and electricity availability Education

• Quality and availability of public schools • Access to vocational and higher education facilities • Access and availability of childcare and kindergartens

Healthcare

• Quality and availability of public healthcare • Quality and availability of aged care facilities Law and order

• Lack of petty crime (theft) • Lack of violent crime • Level of vandalism • Sense of personal security

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6.6 Chapter review: Understanding place through photos, maps and charts

6.6

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Chapter review: Understanding place through photos, maps and charts Success criteria

In this lesson, you will consolidate learning from this chapter and apply a range of geographical skills relating to how to use photos, maps and graphs.

❏ I can interpret photos, maps and charts to understand a place and its demography.

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Learning intention

Geographical data for activity questions

Video 6.5.1 Introduction to Lesson 6.5

➜

Figure 6.6.1 Europe’s population forecast to 2100

Figure 6.6.2 Happiness across Europe

Source: Visual Capitalist website

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Chapter 6 Geographical skills: What demographics tell us about places

2025 EIU Liveability Scores

100 99 98 97 96 95 94 93 92 91 90 89 88 87 86 85

pe n De hag nm en Vi en ark , na ,A us tri a Sw Z itz ur er ich lan , Me d l Au bou st rne ra , lia Sw G itz ene er va lan , d Sy Au dn st ey ra , Os lia ak a, Ja pa n Ne Au w ck Ze lan ala d, nd Ad Au ela st ide ra , li Va a nc o Ca uve na r, da

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Overall index

Stability

Healthcare

Culture and environment

Education

Infrastructure

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Figure 6.6.3 EIU liveability top 10 places, 2025

Source: EIU 2025 Liveability Report

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Figure 6.6.4 Switzerland population profile, 2024 Source: PopulationPyramid.net

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Figure 6.6.5 Photo of a park in Zurich, Switzerland

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6.6 Chapter review: Understanding place through photos, maps and charts

Figure 6.6.6 Photo of the cityscape of Zurich, Switzerland

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Burkina Faso

200 km Chad

Niger Lake Chad

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Sokoto

Niamey

Baga

Ni g e r

Riv er

Kano

Gusau

Togo

Kainji Reservoir

ug u Komad

Maiduguri

Zaria

Nigeria

Kaduna

duna Ri v er Ka

Jos

Benin

Kumo

Minna

Chad

Yankari National Park

Abuja

Shaki

Benue R

Ogbomosho

i v er

Porto Novo

Ibadan

Benin City

Lagos

ATLANTIC OCEAN

Warri

Niger River

Oshogbo

Chappal Waddi

Enugu

Port Harcourt

Calabar

Cameroon

Oron

LEGEND

Yaounde

Gulf of Guinea

Low / Hills / Plateau / Mountains

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Figure 6.6.7 Map of Nigeria

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Figure 6.6.8 Central business district of Lagos, Nigeria

Figure 6.6.9 Lagos, Nigeria

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Life expectancy Period life expectancy¹ is the number of years the average person born in a certain year would live if they experienced the same chances of dying at each age as people did that year. 80 years World Lower-middle-income countries

70 years

Africa 60 years Nigeria

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50 years

40 years

30 years

20 years

10 years

0 years

1950

1960

1970

1980

1990

2000

Data source: Riley (2005); Zijdeman et al. (2015); HMD (2025); UN WPP (2024)

2010

2023

OurWorldinData.org/life-expectancy | CC BY

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Figure 6.6.10 Life expectancy in Nigeria compared to Africa and the world

Source: Our World in Data website

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Figure 6.6.11 Nigeria population profile, 2024 Source: PopulationPyramid.net

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Check your understanding Use Figure 6.6.1 to answer Questions 1 to 5. 1. 2. 3.

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What type of map is shown in Figure 6.6.1? What is the purpose of Figure 6.6.1? Which place is expected to have the largest population increase by 2100? Which five countries are expected to decrease the most by 2100? Rank them from the biggest decline to the smallest decline. What is Europe’s expected overall population loss by 2100?

Use Figure 6.6.2 to answer Questions 6 to 8. 6. 7.

From which year was the data collected? Which country is the happiest in Europe? What is its score? What is the difference in the happiness scores between Germany and Cyprus?

Use Figure 6.6.3 to answer Questions 9 to 11. 9.

10.

11.

In which two categories did Zurich perform best? Choose one city, and rank the categories of stability, healthcare, culture & environment, education and infrastructure in order from the highest to lowest score. Which city has the biggest gap between stability and culture & environment? Estimate the gap.

Use Figure 6.6.4 to answer Questions 12 to 14. 12. 13.

14.

What is the total population of Switzerland in 2024? What do the sides of the population profile represent? What age cohort has the largest percentage of the population for males?

Use Figures 6.6.5 and 6.6.6 to answer Questions 15 to 18. 15.

16. 17.

18.

What type of photo is Figure 6.6.5? What type of photo is Figure 6.6.6? In Figure 6.6.6, identify what is shown in the foreground, middle ground and background. In Figure 6.6.5, identify three human features you can see.

Use Figure 6.6.7 to answer Questions 19 to 24. 19.

20. 21.

22.

23.

24.

What type of map is shown? The capital of Nigeria is Abuja. How is this shown on the map? Identify three countries that border Nigeria. The Niger River flows into which ocean? Identify one of the mountain regions in Nigeria. What is the distance in kilometres from Abuja to Lagos?

Use Figures 6.6.8 and 6.6.9 to answer Questions 25 to 28. 25.

26. 27.

28.

What type of photo is Figure 6.6.8? What type of photo is Figure 6.6.9? In Figure 6.6.9, identify what is shown in the foreground, middle ground and background. In Figure 6.6.8, identify three human features you can see.

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Use Figure 6.6.10 to answer Questions 29 to 31. 29. 30. 31.

What does the y-axis represent? Describe Nigeria’s overall trend in life expectancy from 1950 to 2023. Approximately what was the life expectancy of a person living in Nigeria in 1970?

Use Figure 6.6.11 to answer Questions 32 to 35. 32.

What is the total population of Nigeria in 2024? What age cohort has the largest percentage of the population for females? What is the total number of males aged 15–19 in Nigeria? What percentage of the population is aged 19 and below?

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33.

34. 35.

Develop your understanding

Use Figure 6.6.1 to answer Questions 1 and 2. 1.

Europe’s December 2025 population was 744,040,860. Calculate the percentage decrease in Europe’s total population by 2100. What information is missing from the map that would help a person understand the impact of an increase or decrease in a population?

Use Figure 6.6.3 to answer Questions 3 to 6. 3.

Which city shows the least variation between scores? a. Which category shows the most variation between cities? b. Determine the difference.

a. Which city performed worst in infrastructure?

b. What is the difference between this city’s highest and lowest performing score?

If you were moving cities, which three categories would matter most to you and why?

Use Figure 6.6.4 to answer Questions 7 to 9. 7.

8. 9.

Which age cohort has the greatest difference between number of males and number of females? What is the total number of females aged 25–29 in Switzerland? What percentage of the female population is aged 19 and below?

Use Figures 6.6.5 and 6.6.6 to answer Questions 10 to 12. 10. 11.

12.

What evidence shows how people move around Zurich? What evidence suggests Zurich has been planned or designed carefully? From the photos, would Zurich be considered modern or historic? What evidence suggests this?

Use Figure 6.6.10 to answer Questions 13 to 15. 13.

14. 15.

Calculate the change in Nigeria’s life expectancy from 1980 to 2023. Over which years did Nigeria’s life expectancy increase the fastest? Compare Nigeria’s life expectancy to Africa in 2023, which is higher and by approximately how many years?

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Extend your understanding Use Figure 6.6.1 to answer Questions 1 and 2. 1.

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The map states that the forecast uses data from fertility, mortality and migration. For one shrinking country, research the expected decline. Which of these factors is most important to the decline, and why? If you were the government of a country projected to shrink, what are two strategies you could use to respond?

Use Figure 6.6.2 to answer Questions 3 and 4. 3.

Describe the differences in Europe’s happiness between regions? Does a higher happiness score necessarily mean a country has a “better quality of life” for everyone? Why or why not? Find evidence to support your opinion.

Use Figure 6.6.4 to answer Questions 5 and 6. 5.

Describe the shape of the population profile. Use at least three points of evidence in your description. What challenges might Switzerland face if the 65+ group continues growing?

Use Figures 6.6.8 and 6.6.9 to answer Questions 7 to 9. 7.

8. 9.

What evidence shows how people move around Lagos? What evidence suggests that the infrastructure in Lagos is minimal? From the photos, would Lagos be considered highly liveable? What evidence suggests this?

Use Figure 6.6.10 to answer Questions 10 and 11. 10.

11.

Does Nigeria’s gap to the world look like it is closing, widening or staying similar over time? Use evidence to justify your answer. Suggest two reasons why Nigeria’s life expectancy might be lower than the world average.

Use Figure 6.6.11 to answer Questions 12 to 14. 12.

13.

14.

Is the base (0–14) wider or narrower than the 25–39 age groups? What does that suggest about birth rates? Describe the shape of the population profile. What challenges might a very large youth population create for Nigeria?

Use Figures 6.6.4 and 6.6.11 to answer Questions 15 to 17. 15.

16.

17.

What is the difference between the number of people aged 40–44 in Nigeria and Switzerland? Which country is more likely to face rapid urbanisation pressures in the next 20 years? Use the population profiles as evidence to justify your answer. Using the population profiles, determine which country will need more of each of the following facilities over the next 10 years: a. primary schools b. aged-care services c. housing d. universities e. employment opportunities.

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Use Figures 6.6.5, 6.6.6, 6.6.8 and 6.6.9 to answer Questions 18 to 21. 18. 19.

20. 21.

Which city seems to have greater walkability? Use one visible clue as evidence. Which city seems to have more pressure of traffic and congestion? Use evidence from the photos. Why can photos be misleading for judging liveability? a. What liveability factors are not visible from the photos?

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

b. If you wanted to make this comparison fairer, what more would you want to view from each city?

Creative tasks

Task 1: A day in a liveable place – a photo storyboard 1.

Choose a city. Collect six photos (your own or online) showing:

• transport • housing • public space (park, plaza, beach, etc.) • shopping/food • school/community place • one “problem photo” (e.g. traffic, crowding, pollution, lack of shade)

You must have at least three different types of photos. 3.

For each photo, label:

• foreground, middleground and background • three liveability clues (e.g. shade, safety, footpaths, crowding, noise, cleanliness, access).

4. 5.

Put the photos in an order that tells a story of the location from morning to night. Write a 150- to 200-word caption on how liveable this place is and why? Use evidence from at least four photos.

Task 2: Liveability map pack

Create a pack of maps of one place for a person to understand a city or country of your choice. Your pack must include at least three different map types. 1.

2. 3.

All maps must have a title, key/legend (if applicable), source and short captain describing what is shown in the map. At least one map must show something good for the place’s liveability. At least one map must show a challenge (e.g. traffic, flood risk, pollution). Write a summary explaining which map is most useful in understanding the place and which map could be most misleading to people, and why.

Task 3: Liveability Scorecard

Create a liveability scorecard for at least three places: a. your suburb or school area b. another place in Australia c. one international place (or fictional). 1.

Choose five components of liveability to assess. These could include safety, transport, green space, healthcare and others of your choice.

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3. 4.

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Create a scorecard so different people can score it with clear scoring rules: a. Use a 0–10 scale. b. Add two descriptions for each component of liveability (what a 2 looks like and what an 8 looks like). Share your scorecard for students to fill out. Each student must rate all places. Calculate the average score for each component of liveability (add all the student scores for each component and divide by the number of students who voted). Create a column graph showing the average scores. a. Determine which place has the highest overall liveability average.

b. Which category had the largest range? Why do you think this happened.

a. Extension: Complete a bias check: what might have influenced someone’s scores? b. Could the data be unfair?

Task 4: Make your own local population profile

Create a population profile for: a. your street b. your sports club c. your school.

2. 3.

Collect or estimate numbers in each age cohort. Split the data by male/female. Draw the profile. What does your profile suggest the place will need more of in the future?

Task 5: Design challenge 1.

2. 3.

Choose a place (your suburb, a big city, a country or a fictional city) that has a liveability problem. Identify one liveability problem (e.g. too hot, not walkable, traffic, no parks, flooding, safety). Design three changes to improve it. Show your changes using at least two different tools: • one map • one graph (line or column) • and/or photo annotations. Write a 200-word pitch to the mayor explaining why these changes improve liveability, who benefits and what trade-off might happen.

Task 6: Travel brochure vs reality check 1.

Choose a city. Create a one-page brochure that makes the place look extremely liveable (you must include at least one map, two types of photos and one graph). Create a reality check page including: • three things the brochure leaves out • two data points (from a graph or map) that show a challenge. Final decision: Is it truly liveable?

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Chapter

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Case study: The influences, the impacts and enhancing liveability: Slovenia

Lessons 7.1

Geo Spark: Why is Slovenia considered a sustainable nation?

7.2

How does social connectedness influence liveability?

7.3

How does access to services and facilities influence the liveability of places?

7.4

How do natural hazards cause physical influences that impact environmental quality and liveability?

7.5

How do development and tourism impact environmental quality and liveability?

7.6

How can community groups enhance liveability?

7.7

How do we plan for greater liveability in places using sustainable strategies?

7.8

Chapter review

Teachers go to the Online Teacher Suite to:

Image: The city of Piran, Slovenia, offers high liveability. Although it is a tourist destination, it has maintained the Venetian cultural heritage throughout its city design and architecture, while offering good access to nature with a coastal lifestyle and pedestrian-friendly urban spaces.

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7.1

Geo Spark: Why is Slovenia considered a sustainable nation? Success criteria

In this lesson, you will learn about why Slovenia is considered sustainable and highly liveable.

❏ I can outline the location of Slovenia. ❏ I can describe how the physical and human influences impact the environmental quality and liveability of places in this country.

➜

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Learning intention

Figure 7.1.1 Houses in a Slovenian village

Identify three different features of liveability within the landscape in Figure 7.1.1. What challenges might people face living here? What advantages might they have?

➜

Writing focus 7.1 Question words

temperature the quantitative shortterm measurement of warmth or coldness in degrees that are present in the environment

Introduction

Slovenia is a relatively small country, just over 20,000 square kilometres, in the heart of Europe. Its population is just over two million people. Slovenia is known for its diverse landscapes and landforms of mountains, plains, karst plateaus and coasts, as shown in Figures 7.1.3 and 7.1.4. The country is affected by three main types of climate:

• sub-Mediterranean characterised by hot, dry summers and cooler, wet winters • temperate continental defined by greater temperature extremes of hot summers and cold winters

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• mountain climate characterised by colder temperatures and higher precipitation than the surrounding flatlands. This is caused by increasing altitude, which thins the air and cools it. Other features include strong winds and drastic weather changes.

POLAND GERMANY CZECH REPUBLIC

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

SLOVAKIA AUSTRIA

SLOVENIA

HUNGARY

Ljubljana

➜

BOSNIA Due to its unique location and ITALY and HERZEGOVINA AD various environmental and RIA TIC SEA climate conditions, Slovenia has become a biodiversity hotspot. MEDITERRANEAN SEA The small area that takes up less than 0.004 per cent of Earth’s 0 1000 km surface, contains around 1 per cent of known biodiversity. Many Figure 7.1.2 Map of Central Europe of the plant and animal species present within the country are endemic, such as the Carniolan honey bee and the olm, an amphibian also known as “the baby dragon” (Figure 7.1.5). These are important for maintaining biodiversity and play an important role in maintaining the health of the ecosystem, performing functions such as pollination and nutrient cycling. Their extinction would have a negative impact on the food chain within the unique ecosystem. For example, in Slovenia there are many brown bears, due to extensive and expanding forest cover, which play an important role in dispersing seeds and adding nutrients in the soil through their droppings.

biodiversity hotspot regions with high biodiversity and large numbers of endemic species that are often threatened with extinction endemic species that are particular to one region and cannot be found in other regions; they are vulnerable to external changes such as deforestation or human habitation and extinction pollination the transfer of pollen from flowers by pollinators such as bees, butterflies, birds; essential for plant reproduction, the production of seeds and creation of crops

➜

Figure 7.1.3 Lake Bled and the medieval castle of Bled, one of Slovenia’s biggest tourist attractions

nutrient cycling the process where essential nutrients such as carbon, nitrogen and phosphorus move between living and non-living things in the ecosystem

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Figure 7.1.4 Predjama Castle, a Renaissance construction at the mouth of a UNESCO-listed karst cave filled with eerie rock formations, stalactite-hung tunnels and unique wildlife

The nationwide green mindset

In appreciation of their nation’s flora and fauna, Slovenians are very enthusiastic about preserving their biodiversity and landscape. According to the European Commission, Slovenia is the only European Union Member State to have protected its native and endemic bee species called the Carniolan honey bee, and successfully proposed to the United Nations to celebrate 20 May as World Bee Day. As a result, this endemic species has been synonymous with Slovenian beekeeping, which is a growing

➜

Figure 7.1.5 Olm, the endemic amphibian species, in Postojna Cave, Slovenia

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industry with more than 90,000 beekeepers contributing to the country’s initiative in preserving the species (Figure 7.1.6). It is no wonder Slovenia is considered one of the most environmentally-friendly countries in the world. According to the Good Country Index, it ranks fourth among 153 countries for its positive contributions to the planet and climate.

Figure 7.1.6 Local beekeeper with colourful, traditionally painted beehive houses

Activity 7.1

Visible thinking routine: See, think wonder 1.

See: With reference to the information and Figures 7.1.4 to 7.1.6, identify the different landforms and landscapes in Slovenia.

Think: Describe how these landscapes can influence the flora and fauna within Slovenia’s landscapes.

Wonder: What is the importance of Slovenia’s landscapes in supporting different ecosystems?

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7.2

How does social connectedness influence liveability? Success criteria

In this lesson, you will learn how social connections and community identity can impact the liveability of places.

❏ I can define sustainable development. ❏ I can explain how social, cultural and community connections can influence the liveability of a place.

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Learning intention

Starter activity

Visible thinking routine: Think, pair, share 1.

Think: Using Figures 7.2.1 to 7.2.5, what aspects of culture can you see?

Pair: Share your ideas of social and cultural features with a partner.

Share: Discuss what seems familiar or different compared to your own country.

Extension: How might Slovenia be connected to other places around the world?

➜

Figure 7.2.1 People dancing in traditional Slovenian costumes

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Figure 7.2.2 Church of the Mother of God on Lake Bled

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7.2 How does social connectedness influence liveability?

Figure 7.2.3 Cross-country skiing competition

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Figure 7.2.4 Aerial view of the Old Town of Ljubjana, the capital of Slovenia

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Social connectedness and community identity are important factors that influence how people perceive the liveability of places. These contribute to a sense of belonging, security and wellbeing, which are essential for a high quality of life. ➜

Writing focus 7.2 Conjunctions

Social connectedness

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Social connectedness refers to the relationships and bonds people have with others in their community. Strong social connections can make a place feel welcoming and supportive. When people have friends, family and neighbours they can rely on, they are more likely to feel happy and content. Communities with active social networks often have various activities and events that bring people together, fostering a sense of unity and shared purpose. This can enhance the liveability of a place by making it feel more inclusive and vibrant.

sustainable development growing an economy to meet the needs of a current generation without compromising the ability for future generations to meet their own needs

Community identity is about the shared values, traditions and characteristics that define a group of people living in a particular area. This identity can be strengthened by cities holding historical events, maintaining cultural practices and creating common goals. When people feel a strong connection to their community’s identity, they are more likely to take pride in their surroundings and work together to maintain and improve them. This collective effort can lead to cleaner, safer and more attractive neighbourhoods, boosting liveability.

socialist republic a state or nation with a socialist economic and political structure; sharing ownership of production and facilities among the population, with the aim all people have access to basics such as food, housing and healthcare

Social and political history of Slovenia

Located in Central Europe, Ljubljana (pronounced loo-blee-ana) is the capital of Slovenia, and is renowned for its cultural scene, dynamic hub for sustainable development, civic engagement and community wellbeing, often celebrating its rich heritage and hosting various SLOVENIA international events. CROATIA

It has a diverse ethnic make-up, since it was part of former Yugoslavia, which included six socialist republics (SR), shown in Figure 7.2.6. When Yugoslavia broke apart and Slovenia declared its independence as a nation in 1991, Slovenia saw a mix of different ethnicities such as Serbians, Croatians and Bosnians living within the country. Each group had its own language and religious beliefs, forming a mix of Catholic, Muslim, Orthodox and other Christian communities within Slovenia.

Vojvodina

BOSNIA and HERZEGOVINA

SERBIA

RIA TIC

SEA

MONTENEGRO

KOSOVO

250 km

NORTH MACEDONIA

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Figure 7.2.6 The six nations that made up the former Yugoslavia

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Features enhancing cultural connectedness

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Figure 7.2.7 Dragon Bridge in Ljubljana

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To represent the political changes, the symbolic capital was altered to reflect the Slovenian people and serve the needs of the current society. For example, Ljubljana’s city centre includes a walkable and green design, known for its compact and pedestrian-friendly spaces with squares, parks, wide streets and bridges, linking people to public green areas and institutions such as libraries, churches, markets and cultural facilities. This has been sensibly integrated into the Old Town, which has maintained its historical heritage value with significant sites such as the ancient remains from the Roman-era at the Emona Archaeological Park, along with other features seen in Figures 7.2.7 to 7.2.9, to create a new urban identity for the city and its residents.

Figure 7.2.8 National Gallery Building, Ljubljana

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7.2 How does social connectedness influence liveability?

Figure 7.2.9 Ljubljana Castle dates back to the fifteenth century and is one of the city’s most visited castles.

This cultural connectedness to place influences the perception of liveability for people in Slovenia, as living in or near traditional spaces and areas maintaining historical heritage can improve social wellbeing and create a sense of belonging. Furthermore, access to diverse religious centres improves spiritual wellbeing for different groups living within the country. Therefore, it is important to preserve the cultural heritage of a place, while also living in a sustainable way with the natural environment.

Review 7.2

Online quiz

Knowledge and understanding

Thinking and working geographically

Students can access sample responses and results online

Teachers can go online to assign questions, view results, reports and more!

Knowledge and understanding 1.

Outline why social connectedness and community identity are important for liveability.

Describe how communities can enhance the liveability of places.

What is community identity and how can this be achieved?

Outline sustainable development and suggest how you think this can be achieved in Slovenia.

Explain the ethnic make-up of the population in Slovenia.

What was the cause for ethnic diversity in Slovenia and what is the effect?

Outline the features that contribute to enhancing the social connectedness and sense of community in the city of Ljubljana.

Thinking and working geographically

Working with geographical concepts: Space 1.

In a paragraph, explain the impact of the city’s design in enhancing cultural and social connectedness in Ljubljana.

Geographical inquiry 2.

Create a collage of the diverse cultural features of a European country of your choice, and describe the role of those facilities and services in enhancing a sense of community and social connectedness.

space The concept of space is the significance of location and spatial distribution, and the ways in which people organise and manage the spaces where they live.

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7.3

How does access to services and facilities influence the liveability of places? Success criteria

In this lesson, you will learn to explain how access to services and facilities can impact the liveability of places.

❏ I can outline how the spatial distribution of services and facilities is different in wealthier countries compared to poorer countries. ❏ I can explain how this can influence the liveability of places.

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Learning intention

Starter activity

Brainstorm and discussion 1.

Using Figure 7.3.1, brainstorm and identify factors that you remember from the previous lesson about what makes this place liveable.

Write three sentences about those factors to describe why they make the place liveable and influence why people would want to either visit or reside here.

What is missing? Justify your answer of what else would be required to improve liveability.

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Figure 7.3.1 The Ljubjanica River, with the Triple Bridge and the Franciscan church, in old Ljubjana

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Access to facilities and services

Writing focus 7.3 Note-making

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Providing good quality access to facilities and services improves and enhances the liveability of a place. Accessibility is essential, as is affordability. Facilities and services need to be environmentally, socially and economically sustainable, so that future generations can continue to enjoy living in a place. The availability and affordability of services and facilities become pull factors that attract people to places.

Spatial distribution of facilities and services

The concept of space is an important one for geographers. A key aspect of space is spatial distribution. This refers to how things are spread out or arranged across different areas. It is also the way in which people organise and manage the spaces that they use. The inclusion of certain features in one space influences how that space is then used. For example, when you organise a projector, desks and chairs in a room, this influences how that space will be used, which in the case of a classroom, is for teaching and learning. The way facilities and services are spatially distributed can greatly affect people’s access to them.

facility a physical location or structure providing service an activity or action that provides direct aid or benefit to people; includes healthcare, education (teachers), public transport, waste collection and emergency assistance (police, fire, ambulance) accessibility the practice of making resources and facilities available and affordable for all people to use affordability the ability to pay for a service or attendance of a facility; for example, going to the doctor or purchasing a home

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Figure 7.3.2 An aerial view of Ljubljana. The orange rooftops are traditional clay tiles that were used and preserved to maintain the heritage value and historical structures within the area.

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Wealthier versus poorer areas Wealthier areas have more money available to afford better and more facilities. For instance, a wealthy country is able to invest more funding towards facilities for a growing population. At a smaller scale, a wealthy neighbourhood might have many well-maintained parks, libraries and healthcare centres. This is because these neighbourhoods might have wealthier residents who earn more and can help towards improving the accessibility and availability of essential facilities and services in the local community. This is possible as wealthier residents may donate to local schools or centres, or their tax payments go towards the maintenance or investment of local government facilities.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

tax payment mandatory payment collected by local, state or national government from individuals or companies to cover the costs of essential government services and facilities municipality a town or district with a local government

internal migration the movement of people from one place to another within a country demographic the structure of populations and the different groups within them, determined by factors such as age and gender

Poorer areas with less money might not have as many facilities, or the ones they have might not be in the best condition. This means people living there might struggle to access good-quality services. For example, in a developing country with a poor economy, facilities and services might not be well maintained. Rising populations place pressure on existing services, making it difficult for a country to constantly update facilities when its economy is still growing.

Case study: Ljubljana A liveable city

The city of Ljubljana is recognised as the richest city in the country, while also having a growing population that has reached almost 300,000 people. It is not the highest population, but it is the most densely or heavily populated municipality within the country. There is a lot of internal migration within the country, as the city is an economic, political and cultural centre with many benefits including its strong services and infrastructure, which are pull factors drawing in a younger demographic of university students, particularly attracted to a city centre that is located close to commercial and educational opportunities.

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Figure 7.3.3 Tourist bikes in front of the University of Ljubljana

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Infrastructure and safety While not included in the Economist Intelligence Unit Global Liveability Index of 2025, Slovenia has been ranked as one of the top 20 safest countries for its Quality of Life Index, scoring well for safety, healthcare, cost of living, pollution and more as the government has invested well in public infrastructure, safety and security.

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Since its independence in 1991, Slovenia embarked on a journey towards becoming one of Europe’s leading sustainably-designed cities. Its capital, Ljubljana, has received awards for upgrading what was once a run-down city into a car-free city centre with a well-developed transport network. It has successfully integrated public transport and “greener” public spaces, which have widened sidewalks and cycling paths, along with added street lights and renovated monumental heritage-listed buildings. This has allowed the city to limit the number of cars accessing the inner city, creating a city that embraces “green mobility”. This has led to less car dependence by urban residents and more walking and cycling, assisted by bike-sharing systems and an expanding electric public transport system, keeping traffic congestion in the streets low. The walkable city now allows residents and tourists to access key locations, facilities and services as well as calmer public spaces without a car (Figure 7.3.4).

The crime rates within the city are also low, with serious crime being quite rare and employment opportunities quite high. This has created a safe and stable environment for the city’s residents and visitors. However, there are still some challenges, such as providing enough public housing and affordable housing options for long-term residents.

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Figure 7.3.4 Tourists strolling and residents cycling through the downtown area of the city, among famous art deco buildings

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Healthcare and education

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Slovenia has a high-quality education system, with free basic public education for all children, along with extracurricular activities offered through schools. Along with high-quality healthcare, every worker in Slovenia has access to health insurance, where they are entitled to emergency care for urgent treatment and basic services.

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Figure 7.3.5 Electric-powered cars named Kavalir are free of charge and increase accessibility for the elderly and people with disabilities in the city centre

Review 7.3

Online quiz

Knowledge and understanding

Thinking and working geographically

Students can access sample responses and results online

Teachers can go online to assign questions, view results, reports and more!

Knowledge and understanding 1.

Describe the differences between facilities and services, providing at least two examples for each.

Describe what is meant by “spatial distribution”. Support this with your own example of how one space is used and how elements are organised within it.

Justify (give reasons) why people in wealthier areas have better accessibility to services and facilities than people in poorer areas.

Define “internal migration”. Explain why this happens in Slovenia.

Describe how Slovenia achieves “green mobility”. Refer to any of the figures in this lesson to highlight examples.

Describe the quality of healthcare and education offered in Slovenia.

Thinking and working geographically

Working with geographical concepts: Space 1.

In a paragraph, explain what Slovenia is doing to make sure everyone can access important facilities and services.

Geographical inquiry

space The concept of space is the significance of location and spatial distribution, and the ways in which people organise and manage the spaces where they live.

Create a brochure showcasing the liveability of Slovenia. Include photos and a description next to each, showing the facilities and services that improve the quality of life for residents.

Extension: Conduct some research and provide statistics about Slovenia (i.e. how many hospitals/ schools/police stations there are).

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7.4 How do natural hazards cause physical influences that impact environmental quality and liveability?

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How do natural hazards cause physical influences that impact environmental quality and liveability? Success criteria

In this lesson, you will learn how physical influences such as natural hazards can impact the liveability of places.

❏ I can define “natural hazard” and “natural disaster”. ❏ I can distinguish between El Niño and La Niña. ❏ I can explain how physical influences from climate change can impact environmental quality and the liveability of places.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Learning intention

Starter activity

Inferential learning activity

With reference to Figure 7.4.1 answer the following questions: 1.

Identify the countries that have experienced the most changes in air and sea surface temperatures.

Describe the spatial distribution of the countries most affected by the change – are they coastal, are they inland?

Discuss the impact these changes would have across these countries. (Hint: Talk about the social, economic and environmental changes.)

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Figure 7.4.1 Changes in sea surface and air temperature globally. Red indicates where temperatures are above normal.

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As discussed in Chapter 5, environmental quality is a factor that directly affects the liveability of places, with clean air and water, green spaces and reduced pollution making our surroundings healthier and more enjoyable. The liveability of places can be greatly affected by changes to environmental quality. These can be caused by human factors such as carbon emissions from factories, urban development and destruction of landscapes by humans, and contamination of water from different industries, but also by climate-related events and natural hazards from the movement of tectonic plates, rising sea levels and increasing global temperatures.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

climate the long-term average of weather conditions in a specific area, which includes patterns of temperature, rainfall, humidity, wind and other variables atmospheric hazard a natural hazard that occurs mainly due to processes in the atmosphere, such as cyclones, bushfires and severe thunderstorms

hydrological hazard a natural hazard that occurs mainly due to changes in the hydrosphere where there is too much water (causing floods) or too little water (causing drought) phenomena an event or situation that is observed to exist or has happened

trade winds permanent winds that travel from east to west along Earth’s tropical regions near the equator

upwelling the process by which winds push warm surface water away, allowing colder, nutrient‑rich water from deep in the ocean to rise to the surface

equatorial Pacific a region of the Pacific Ocean that is close to the equator, known for its role in pushing trade winds and warm waters to the west, and pushing cold water to the east

Climate

Climate is an important factor that can affect the liveability of a place. People are drawn to different climates; however, most people prefer milder climates where there is little to no extremes in heat or cold. Places with reliable rainfall, low humidity and little to no risks of weather-related hazards such as floods or bushfires, have greater liveability. Many natural hazards have increased over time as a result of changing climates.

Natural hazards and disasters

It is important to note there is a distinct difference between a natural hazard and a disaster. A natural hazard is a natural process or event, such as a storm or earthquake, that has the potential to cause harm. However, a natural disaster is when the hazard has impacted a community, caused significant loss of life, damage to property and the environment, and also disrupted economic development. As indicated in earlier chapters, there are two main types of natural hazards: atmospheric and hydrological hazards. Natural hazards often occur when there are changes in sea surface temperatures and air pressure, much like the effects that are seen across natural phenomena that change normal climate conditions, such as El Niño and La Niña events. During normal conditions in the Pacific Ocean, trade winds blow west along the equator, taking warm water from South America towards Asia. To replace that warm water, cold water rises from the depths of the ocean floor, a process called upwelling. El Niño and La Niña are two opposing climate patterns that break these normal conditions over the equatorial Pacific. They both contribute to the complicated mix of sea surface temperatures, rainfall, air pressure and winds, where atmospheric and hydrological circulation influence each other. El Niño and La Niña typically last between nine to 12 months, but can sometimes last for many years. El Niño and La Niña events occur every two to seven years, but not regularly or on a set schedule. El Niño tends to be more frequent.

El Niño

El Niño occurs when surface water in the equatorial Pacific becomes warmer than average and winds from the east blow weaker than usual (Figure 7.4.3). The cold water does not push strongly enough, which causes warm water to travel to the South Pacific. This is why El Niño was named after a Spanish term for “boy child”,

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referring to the birth of Jesus, as fishermen along South America noticed changes to the amount of fish available during Christmas time. The warm water currents would reduce the food supply and impact the coastal communities in Peru. This event would also lead to less rainfall forming across eastern Australia, which is why El Niño is often the cause of heatwaves and droughts.

NORTH AMERICA

El Niño

ASIA

Normally

ASIA

NORTH AMERICA

Warmer winter

PACIFIC OCEAN

Winds

Equator

Warm water

SOUTH AMERICA

5000 km

Cold water

AUSTRALIA

Equator

Warm water

SOUTH AMERICA

5000 km

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Figure 7.4.2 Arrows indicating the direction of warm and cold water and winds during El Niño

La Niña

On the other hand, La Niña, means “the girl” in Spanish, and as shown in Figure 7.4.3, it brings contrasting weather to El Niño. This is because it is characterised by unusually cold ocean temperatures from the equatorial Pacific, as cold water in the South Pacific pushes warm water strongly across the east coast of Australia, bringing lots of rainfall to the coastline and increasing the chances of natural hazards such as flooding and cyclones. In areas across South America, this cold water caused by upwelling means rich nutrients from the ocean floor are brought to the surface, which attracts plenty of fish catches to the coastal communities. El Niño

ASIA

Cool and wet weather

PACIFIC OCEAN

Increased winds

Warm water

AUSTRALIA

Normally

ASIA

NORTH AMERICA Warm weather

NORTH AMERICA

PACIFIC OCEAN

Winds

Equator

Cold water

SOUTH AMERICA

5000 km

Equator

Warm water

Cold water

AUSTRALIA

5000 km

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Figure 7.4.3 Arrows indicating the direction of La Niña winds and water

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SOUTH AMERICA

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La Niña and El Niño: The impact on environmental liveability

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Writing focus 7.4 Developing sentences

With the changing climate, there has been an increase in La Niña events, particularly between 2020 and 2023, which brought a transition of warmer El Niño conditions and was a period that saw record-breaking temperatures, widespread heat stress and extensive flooding. This had a significant impact across Europe, killing approximately 60,000 people in what was known as one of the hottest summers of 2022. Figure 7.4.5 indicates the many impacts seen across Europe, with extreme heat and raging fires across the continent, and people dying due to heat-related causes or heatstroke. Healthcare systems were overwhelmed with patients during these times, and those with existing health risks became more vulnerable. These events were brought on by the rising temperatures caused by increased pollution in the atmosphere from burning fossil fuels and the destruction of natural environments, which triggered further deaths, especially across Italy and Spain, where regions faced days with temperatures over 40°C.

In 2023, the onset of floods following the heatwaves and droughts led to huge social, environmental and economic losses, with 38 countries experiencing damages that cost over €45 billion. Slovenia saw the highest losses per capita from the flooding, which was one of the worst natural disasters the country has experienced (Figure 7.4.6), resulting in serious damage to infrastructure such as roads, buildings and bridges.

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Figure 7.4.4 Impact of El Niño and La Niña events on weather patterns

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7.4 How do natural hazards cause physical influences that impact environmental quality and liveability?

➜ Figure 7.4.5

Infographic of wildfires and heatwaves across Europe, 2025

➜ Figure 7.4.6

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Review 7.4 Online quiz

Knowledge and understanding

Thinking and working geographically

Students can access sample responses and results online

Teachers can go online to assign questions, view results, reports and more!

Knowledge and understanding

Outline how climate is different from temperature.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

1. 2.

Compare how we can show changes in temperature and climate.

Distinguish between a natural hazard and a disaster.

Outline what trade winds are.

Describe the normal conditions in the Pacific Ocean.

Define “El Niño” and outline the weather conditions this brings.

Outline the reasons for the name “El Niño”.

Define “La Niña” and outline the weather conditions this brings.

Explain the impact of El Niño and La Niña on ocean species in a paragraph. Use the term “upwelling” in your response.

Thinking and working geographically

Working with geographical concepts: Change 1.

Write a report or three paragraphs explaining the following impacts of El Niño OR La Niña around Europe:

• social (people and systems that support people) • environmental (landscapes and ecosystems) • economic (jobs or monetary value).

change The concept of change is about explaining geographical phenomena by investigating how they have developed over time.

Use evidence or statistics in your response.

Geographical inquiry 2.

How does upwelling impact marine species? Write two paragraphs about the impact of La Niña on upwelling and ocean species, and El Niño’s impact on ocean species.

Explore the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration’s website (NOAA) and search for the further impacts of El Niño and La Niña. Investigate one natural hazard each event has caused.

Research solutions to any El Niño and La Niña hazard. Outline what was done and provide statistics on what was achieved.

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7.5 How do development and tourism impact environmental quality and liveability?

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How do development and tourism impact environmental quality and liveability? Success criteria

In this lesson, you will learn how human influences such as development and tourism can impact the liveability of places.

❏ I can define sustainable tourism. ❏ I can explain how human influences can impact environmental quality and the liveability of places.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Learning intention

Starter activity

Visible thinking routine: See, connect, wonder 1.

See: The video clip at https://cambridge.edu.au/redirect/11881 and Figure 7.5.1 show tourists visiting the city of Ljubljana. Identify reasons for visiting.

Connect: Brainstorm the positive and negative effects of tourism on the area.

Wonder: How do cities like Ljubljana manage tourism?

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Figure 7.5.1 People travelling in a funicular on the way to the Ljubljana Castle

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After being awarded “Europe’s Greenest Capital” in 2016, Ljubljana caught global attention for being a “smart green city” and has gained popularity as a tourist destination, along with other areas within Slovenia including Lake Bled and Piran. Through maintaining a commitment to preserving culture and language, as well as encouraging innovation to improve mobility and maintain the environment, Slovenia appeals to visitors due to the country’s walkable green spaces and overall charm seen through its rich history, vibrant culture and beautiful landscapes.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

overtourism when there are too many tourists visiting a destination, which leads to many negative impacts on the local infrastructure, environment and residents within the community

sustainable tourism a type of travel that considers the current and future environmental, economic and social impacts of tourism to ensure that the industry benefits all stakeholders involved: the tourists, local communities and environment

Although Slovenia doesn’t receive as many visitors as other European countries, there has been discussion that overtourism remains an issue due to a growing tourism market, especially during peak seasons such as summer, when popular spots including Lake Bled experience the negative effects of environmental damage and overcrowding.

As shown in Figure 7.5.2, Bled is rural town in the north-western region of Slovenia, and has been recognised by the United Nations for its sustainable tourism as well as its cultural heritage. With its glacial lake, island church and nearby Julian Alps, this picturesque town is a hotspot for tourism, providing activities such as hiking, water sports and winter sports, which have been successful in boosting the local economy.

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Figure 7.5.2 Lake Bled and the town of Bled

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7.5 How do development and tourism impact environmental quality and liveability?

Figure 7.5.3 Piran, a medieval coastal town

Impacts on liveability

The surge of tourism has resulted in overcrowded streets, strained public services and increased pollution. Local residents often find it hard to access housing due to rising prices driven by short-term rental platforms. Noise pollution and congestion are common complaints, and the character of neighbourhoods can change as local shops and services are replaced by tourist-focused businesses. The other concern for local residents and surrounding towns is the cost of services and resources such as food, which rise during peak tourist times.

Writing focus 7.5 Creating topic sentences ➜

Overtourism occurs when the number of tourists overwhelms a place, leading to negative impacts on the environment, infrastructure and local residents’ quality of life. In Slovenia, the boutique coastal towns of Piran and Bled, along with smaller cities such as Ljubljana, have experienced significant issues due to the influx of tourists.

Managing overtourism

To address these challenges and improve liveability, the Slovenian government and authorities have implemented several strategies for environmentally responsible tourism and mobility practices.

Regulating accommodation

The number of short-term rentals have increased by five times over the last 10 years, which has limited the amount of housing that is available for current residents. Since 2024, new regulations have been implemented to limit the number of short-term rental properties available and amount of time they can rent the property out. Neighbourhood permission and licences are now required to rent apartments to tourists, and fines are imposed for illegal holiday rentals. This helps to ensure that there is more housing available for residents.

regulation law or rule

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Community engagement Authorities have involved local communities in decision-making processes. At local levels, meetings with community councils, surveys and public debates have allowed residents to voice concerns and suggest solutions. This ensures that tourism development meets the needs of the local population.

Promoting sustainable tourism

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

environmental conservation protection of habitats through sustainable practices, which aim to maintain or preserve existing species and the biodiversity of ecosystems

off-peak travel travel that occurs during less popular times of the year

Winning awards for its sustainable tourism, the country has a great commitment to environmental conservation, ecological awareness and waste management, along with efforts towards promoting lesser-known places and off-peak travel to spread tourists more evenly throughout the country and the year. Advertising campaigns highlight the rural areas, small towns and cultural festivals to offer more diverse tourist experiences. For example, Slovenia has partnered with Alpine countries such as Germany and Austria to encourage sustainable tourism across their mountainous areas, with low-impact and community or nature-based experiences, offering mountaineering and hiking to protect local traditions and environments across villages.

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Figure 7.5.4 Triglav National Park promotes sustainable tourism by encouraging tourists to use eco-friendly infrastructure, walk or cycle to reduce their carbon footprint. It has received recognition for its efforts through the Slovenia Green Award.

Slovenia has also implemented a nationwide program and green scheme to improve and promote sustainable tourism throughout the country. It works as a tool and national certification system under the “Slovenia Green” brand, which offers businesses providing tourism services, such as travel agencies, parks and accommodations, methods to promote and manage their green practices. It encourages tourism as an industry that can enhance the local quality of life, while also protecting natural ecosystems and resources.

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Improving infrastructure Investment in sustainable, visitor-friendly public transport and infrastructure is important. Expanding train lines, improving bus services and creating pedestrianfriendly areas, particularly in the city centre of Ljubljana, which is car-free, helps to manage the flow of tourists and reduce traffic congestion, and noise and air pollution.

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Environmental protection

Slovenia has taken great efforts towards protecting natural resources and reducing pollution by enforcing strict regulations on waste management, water use, and the conservation of natural parks and coastal areas. Sustainable practices such as green taxes and zero-waste initiatives banning single-use plastics and encouraging the separation of waste among tourists and businesses have been successful strategies that have boosted Slovenia’s sustainable tourism.

Review 7.5

Online quiz

Knowledge and understanding

Thinking and working geographically

Students can access sample responses and results online

Teachers can go online to assign questions, view results, reports and more!

Knowledge and understanding 1.

Recall some factors that make Slovenia a popular tourist destination.

Define “overtourism”.

Outline sustainable tourism and describe how Slovenia achieves this.

Identify the different management strategies used to address tourism.

Identify which of the management strategies mentioned in this topic would best manage overtourism. Justify your answer.

Slovenia is trying to reduce the number of tourists visiting at peak times. Suggest how they are trying to achieve this.

Thinking and working geographically

Working with geographical concepts: Interconnection 1.

Explain some interconnections between tourists, the locals and environment by outlining three impacts of tourism in Slovenia. These can be positive or negative. Show links between each impact; for example: Overtourism causes … which leads to …

interconnection The concept of interconnection emphasises that no object of geographical study can be viewed in isolation.

Geographical inquiry 2.

Research online to find different activities, events and festivals in Slovenia. Use your research to create a poster advertising a variety of tourist activities in Slovenia. Ensure that you are advertising events and celebrations that are spread throughout the year and occur in different regions of Slovenia.

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7.6

How can community groups enhance liveability? Success criteria

In this lesson, you will learn how the roles and actions of individuals and community groups can improve the liveability of place.

❏ I can outline some strategies to enhance liveability. ❏ I can explain how community groups play an important role in improving liveability.

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Learning intention

Starter activity

Visible thinking routine: Think, pair, share 1.

Think: Working individually, use Figures 7.6.1 and 7.6.2 to think about the liveability of cities. Complete the following sentences: a. Some things that increase the liveability of my area are … b. Some things that reduce the liveability of my area are …

Pair: Discuss your responses with the person next to you and combine your lists of what challenges and what contributes to the liveability of places.

Share: As a class, discuss what strategies can be done to improve the liveability of places.

Extension: Who is responsible for or has the power to make this happen in your community?

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Figure 7.6.1 A city corner where homeless people are living in a tent

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7.6 How can community groups enhance liveability?

Figure 7.6.2 Busy roads in big cities

Ways that liveability can be improved

Geographers not only play a vital role in measuring the liveability of places, but also in creating solutions to solve the challenges that impact the liveability of different places. Here are some examples of the many initiatives taking place in cities to improve liveability.

Investing in good public services such as healthcare, education and transport can make a big difference. Barriers to accessing these basic services and facilities often lead to a lower quality of life. Poor availability of these public services often leads to higher rates of illnesses, poorer literacy and fewer opportunities for someone to improve their situation. When people have access to good hospitals and doctors, quality education and easy ways to get around, their quality of life improves.

Writing focus 7.6 Appositives ➜

Enhance public services

literacy the ability to read and write

Increase green spaces

Parks and recreational areas provide places for people to relax, exercise, socialise and enjoy nature. Providing and planning for green spaces can improve the liveability of areas for different groups of people, as they have the freedom to access these open spaces for different activities. As cities grow, green space is often reduced, causing environmental issues of air pollution and contamination, while using more energy. Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78802-1 • (03) 8671 1400

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Ensure safety passive letting things happen without taking action or being directly involved

Promote affordable housing

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biophysical feature a natural physical element of an environment that can be biotic (living) or abiotic (nonliving) features (soil, climate, topography)

Safety can impact our sense of place and community connection. We can enhance our social connection, community and safety by promoting cultural understanding and celebrating cultural diversity, as well as by using passive and direct security measures to ensure the safety of all people.

Ensuring that there is enough affordable housing helps everyone have a place to live. This can reduce homelessness and allow people to use their money to improve their quality of life, while feeling safe and having a roof over their heads. This also serves to make communities more inclusive, where people of all incomes can live in the same area and have access to similar services.

Support local businesses

Encouraging local businesses can boost the economy and provide jobs. Vibrant shopping areas and markets can also make neighbourhoods more lively and attractive.

Improve infrastructure

Maintaining roads, bridges and public buildings makes a community more functional and pleasant. Good infrastructure supports and connects people to each other, allows them to access daily activities, and keeps people safe. Better infrastructure also addresses issues such as traffic congestion, which occurs as cities grow and people need to travel further for work and educational opportunities.

Case study: The importance of urban planning in Ljubljana

Urban planning is important when it comes to thinking about how cities are going to connect people and give opportunities to growing populations. It is the role of the urban planner to develop and manage the use of spaces in towns and cities to improve quality of life, sustainability and liveability – all while balancing the needs of communities, the economy and the environment. Nominated Europe’s Green Capital in 2016, Ljubljana contains many elements connecting people to services and facilities that were designed by the famous architect Joze Plecnik. Globally recognised for creating sustainable solutions across major cities such as Vienna, Prague and Ljubljana, Plecnik reshaped the city in a sustainable way, aiming to not only serve the community and economy, but also to preserve the heritage of the local culture and the environment. This was achieved through blending biophysical features within the human landscape; for example, Tivoli park (Figure 7.3.5) is the largest green space in the urban area, covering almost 500 hectares in the city centre, while the Triple Bridge (Figure 7.3.6) was made out of locally sourced stone. It was designed to encourage walking in the car-free city, with two side bridges added to an existing bridge, improving the flow of traffic and people within the city.

Maintaining natural features within urban environments is equally important, as 70 per cent of the world’s population is expected to live in urban areas. This means that more natural spaces will be built over with urban development for the purpose of infrastructure, housing and services. While these features are important to ensure that environments are liveable for people, it is also important to acknowledge that environmental initiatives are also important to make cities more liveable.

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Figure 7.6.3 Tivoli Park in Ljubljana’s city centre

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7.6 How can community groups enhance liveability?

Figure 7.6.4 The Triple Bridge is part of the UNESCO World Heritage site.

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Maintain biodiversity

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Preserving and maintaining biodiversity and nature in urban communities is essential, as people living in biodiverse suburbs will see the benefits of improved air and water quality. This is because plants, trees and healthy soils absorb carbon dioxide and produce oxygen, which can reduce or regulate the temperature of environments. These spaces also provide habitats for wildlife, making the environment healthier for everyone. Maintaining biodiversity is also important to support local food production and for the future of food security.

Protect and restore natural landscapes

Cities can be difficult places for plants and animals, as they need resources to survive. Many species can be separated and isolated by major roads, railways and the urban development of buildings that disrupt the natural migration paths of species. By protecting and restoring natural forests for animals and plants, we can make our cities more liveable for urban wildlife as well.

reforestation the process of replanting an area with trees

Case study: Acting for change through community groups

Local government and conservation groups across the country work together to recognise and protect the natural resources and landscapes, while the Slovenian government has implemented national policies and laws to stop illegal logging. Reforestation efforts by organisations such as the Slovenia Forest Service and volunteer-driven projects have taken place on International Forest Day to address the threats of storms, fires and climate change (Figure 7.6.5). Since almost three-quarters of the city is green area, there have been many efforts to protect and preserve the city’s green identity, with greening initiatives such as planting over 2,000 trees, creating five parks and strengthening the river bank. Ljubljana, which consists of aquatic, forest and agricultural spaces in an urban area, has shown how these interconnected spaces have been well maintained through effective initiatives over the past decade.

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Figure 7.6.5 A young girl carrying tree saplings during the first of reforestation events after a large wildfire, where the region’s forests were heavily damaged

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Review 7.6 Online quiz

Knowledge and understanding

Thinking and working geographically

Students can access sample responses and results online

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Teachers can go online to assign questions, view results, reports and more!

Knowledge and understanding

a. Identify the different initiatives that can improve liveability. b. Rank the list in order of most important (1) to least important (6). Write a sentence next to each, justifying your reasons. What is urban planning and why is it important to achieve sustainability?

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2. 3.

Explain why Ljubljana was nominated Europe’s Green Capital in 2016. Refer to examples from the text and figures.

Explain why maintaining biodiversity is important to improve liveability.

Define “reforestation” and suggest what groups have contributed to these efforts.

Thinking and working geographically

Working with geographical concepts: Interconnection and Sustainability 1.

In a paragraph, explain how aquatic, forest and agricultural spaces can be compromised within cities.

Geographical inquiry 2.

Research the role of the following in Slovenia and suggest what they do and what impact they have had in the country: a. Slovenia Forest Service b. Focus or Friends of the Earth Slovenia c. Institute of the Republic of Slovenia for Nature Conservation d. Greenpeace Slovenia e. Umanotera f. Sustainable Business Network CER Slovenia.

Extension task

interconnection The concept of interconnection emphasises that no object of geographical study can be viewed in isolation.

sustainability The concept of sustainability is about the capacity of the environment to continue to support our lives and the lives of other living creatures into the future.

Research and explain in a paragraph the role of bees in maintaining biodiversity.

Research one endemic species in the world and create an infographic with information addressing the following criteria: • Describe where it is mainly located. • Describe the actual species and how many exist. • Explain the importance and role of the species. • Explain the impact of what would happen if the species were to become extinct. • Include photos of the species and a map of its location, with arrows pointing out the general areas where it can be found.

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7.7

How do we plan for greater liveability in places using sustainable strategies? Success criteria

In this lesson, you will learn about the different sustainable strategies that have been implemented at global, regional and local scales to improve liveability.

❏ I can outline the UN’s Sustainable Development Goals. ❏ I can describe why the Sustainable Development Goals are important. ❏ I can outline different planning strategies. ❏ I can explain how different planning strategies can enhance the liveability of places.

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Learning intention

Starter activity Class discussion

Using Figure 7.7.1, answer the questions as a class: 1.

Identify the different goals in this infographic and discuss what challenges they aim to address.

Give reasons why some of these are important and how they impact the liveability of places.

What challenges will arise in trying to meet these goals?

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Figure 7.7.1 The United Nations’ Sustainable Development Goals 2030

natural resource a material or substance found in a natural environment that is used by humans; might be renewable, such as water, or non-renewable, such as coal, oil and metals greenhouse gas gas in the air that traps heat from the Sun and keeps Earth warm (e.g. carbon dioxide)

Improving sustainability

As discussed in previous chapters, environmental quality has a huge effect on the liveability of places. Cities consume many natural resources, such as vegetation, water and energy. They leave a negative impact on the environment, especially by producing harmful substances such as greenhouse gases, along with waste from sewage and general household rubbish.

As cities are growing globally, there have been major efforts to reduce the impact of urban development, particularly across developed countries, like Australia, who have the funding and ability to make more rapid changes. Initiatives such as reducing waste, water use and pollution in Australian cities have been made a priority, especially with the development of newer technologies in the last century that have been able to reduce environmental impacts. For example, establishing electric-vehicle charging

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Figure 7.7.2 Different outdoor rubbish bins for separating waste

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ports around cities has improved the urban air quality and also encouraged the use of renewable energy sources such as solar power for charging. Many cities have placed restrictions on how much water is used in households, along with how urban residents dispose of their waste, with many encouraged to use red bins for general waste, yellow bins for recycling, and green bins for food and garden waste (Figure 7.7.2). However, further actions can be taken by governments at national and global levels to create long-lasting and sustainable change.

Figure 7.7.3 Electric-vehicle charging station

The Sustainable Development Goals

Writing focus 7.7 Conjunctions ➜

The Sustainable Development Goals are 17 priorities that were formed and adopted by the United Nations and its member countries in 2015, with the aim to achieve these globally by 2030. They provide a united effort to address global challenges of poverty, inequality, climate change and environmental damage, while promoting the improvement of social wellbeing and environmental growth. Watch the video about the Goals: https://cambridge.edu.au/redirect/11882.

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Goal 11 on “Sustainable Cities and Communities” is one the 17 sustainability goals that focuses on making cities and human settlements inclusive, safe, resilient and sustainable. It acknowledges that while cities are centres of economic growth, they face many challenges with the use of resources, social inequality and environmental degradation. This video discusses Goal 11: https://cambridge.edu.au/redirect/11883.

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Since the world’s population reached eight billion, more than half live in urban areas, with 70 per cent of the population predicted to live in cities by 2050. This growing population places a lot of pressure on cities that are not ready for rapid urbanisation, as the quick growth surpasses the ability of developing countries and cities to develop enough housing, infrastructure and services, which leads to a rising number of informal settlements with slum-like conditions.

informal settlement densely packed housing made of scrap materials in locations where residents do not have legal ownership of the land

The growth of informal settlements can have negative effects on the environment, especially through pollution from waste that is not managed, leading to poor sanitation, which contaminates soil, air and water. The quality of materials to create informal settlements often contribute to this pollution, as the building materials used, such as wood, plastic, cardboard, concrete blocks and iron sheets, are left in landfill, which is bad for the environment. This can be seen in Figures 7.7.4 and 7.7.5, which show how people organise themselves in urban areas, but also demonstrates how these areas are vulnerable to other challenges such as climate change and natural disasters. Many people are exposed to hazards because the settlements are built from unstable materials.

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Figure 7.7.4 Wooden houses along a river in Saigon, Vietnam

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7.7 How do we plan for greater liveability in places using sustainable strategies?

Figure 7.7.5 Local outdoor laundry facility in Mumbai, India

Sustainable development, therefore, cannot be achieved without transforming the way cities and urban areas are designed, built and managed. It prioritises using resources to create cities that enrich lives, while remaining within Earth’s carrying capacity and not depleting natural resources. To “futureproof” our cities, the United Nations recommends a few targets and strategies to achieve sustainable development (https://cambridge.edu.au/redirect 11882).

• safe and affordable housing • affordable and sustainable transport systems such as electric transport • renewable energy • green public spaces • clean water and sanitation • sustainable waste solutions. Sustainable waste management in Sweden

Sweden has effectively created a nationwide, sustainable, waste management solution. The strategy turns their waste into energy. More than 34 waste-to-energy plants across the country convert household waste into heat and electricity, and produce enough energy to power approximately 250,000 homes and provide heat for 1.5 million homes per year. This has been effective as nearly 99 per cent of household waste is now recycled or processed through waste-to-energy plants, which leaves less than 1 per cent for landfill disposal. It keeps landfills generally empty while powering the nation’s homes and buildings. As a result, this system not only reduces landfill and emissions

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such as methane, but it also secures energy and minimises the use of fossil fuels to generate electricity and even power buses. (Watch the video to see how they did it: https://cambridge.edu.au/redirect/11885.)

Figure 7.7.6 Biofuels made from food waste also provide “clean” energy, which powers city buses with biogas. ➜

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Economically, the waste industry supports thousands of jobs in operating and maintaining the plants. It has generated €1.7 billion through energy sales, and imports waste from other countries to fuel its plants.

Figure 7.7.7 This factory produces and distributes electricity energy across the city.

Sustainability in Slovenia

organic waste material that can be broken down from living organisms, such as food scraps, paper and garden waste

biogas a renewable fuel that is created from organic matter such as food scraps or waste on farms

Apart from being a car-free city and promoting sustainable tourism, Ljubljana has made significant progress in managing the city’s waste and wastewater. Committed to a zero-waste goal, the city has worked ahead of Europe’s climate and energy goals by using recycled waste as a resource. The city effectively collects four types of waste from packaging, paper, organic food waste and mixed waste across households. Every year, its regional waste management centre treats 20,000 tonnes of organic waste, turning it into high-quality compost that is then used for house gardens or for agriculture. Biogas is also used to generate electricity, leading to a further reduction of greenhouse gas emissions.

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Review 7.7 Knowledge and understanding

Online quiz

Thinking and working geographically

Students can access sample responses and results online

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Teachers can go online to assign questions, view results, reports and more!

Knowledge and understanding

Outline how cities can leave a negative impact on the environment.

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1. 2.

Describe how Australia has reduced the impact of urban development.

Explain what the Sustainable Development Goals are and what they hope to achieve. Give an example of one goal.

Define “informal settlements” and outline why they are formed.

Explain the environmental impact of informal settlements.

Evaluate whether Sweden’s waste management strategy is effective or not. Use statistics to support your answer.

Thinking and working geographically

Working with geographical concepts: Interconnection 1.

Recreate the fishbone model in Figure 7.7.8 and suggest some strategies and their impacts to help a city manage air quality, water quality, waste and energy. The first example has been done for you.

interconnection The concept of interconnection emphasises that no object of geographical study can be viewed in isolation.

Strategies

Waste

Water

Air

Energy

Encourage recycling of plastics and paper

Reuse and convert old buildings

Making cities more sustainable

Reduce pollution and contamination

Reduce landfill waste Waste

Water

Management

Energy

Efforts

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Figure 7.7.8 Using a fishbone model

Geographical inquiry 2.

Recognised as the Green Capital of Europe in 2016, Slovenia has tried to design a city focused on a “circular economy”.

a. Using sites such as Bee Smart City, research what a “circular economy” is and suggest how Slovenia has become one. b. Give three reasons why this has improved the liveability of the country.

a. Outline the targets needed to create and “futureproof” sustainable cities. b. Research how one of these targets is met by one city in the world. Find some statistics to prove how effective this city has been in meeting this target.

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7.8

Chapter review Access the Interactive Textbook for a range of digital tools to help you review this chapter and build confidence. Auto-marked questions for fast feedback and fun practice Self-assessment tools to track your progress, review answers (if enabled by the teacher), and flag questions for extra help Downloadable worksheets for class or homework revision

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• • •

Summary

Summary notes

Download chapter summary

What have you learned about liveability in Slovenia?

For this activity, copy the table and fill it out by explaining your understanding. Aim for two points per topic.

Terms

What I have learnt

Demographics Liveability

Sustainability

Urban development Migration

Visible thinking routine Circle of viewpoints

This exercise asks you to explore multiple perspectives on liveability in Slovenia. 1.

Choose one viewpoint to explore from the options below:

• A tourist • A school student • A business owner

With your chosen perspective, complete these three sentence starters:

• I am thinking of liveability in Slovenia from the viewpoint of … describe the viewpoint you’ve chosen.

• I think … describe the topic from your viewpoint. • A question I have from this viewpoint is … ask a question from this viewpoint.

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Questions Scorcher quiz

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Access a fast, fun, competitive quiz that puts your understanding to the test.

Quick questions

The following activities offer various ways to demonstrate your understanding of the chapter. 1.

Slovenia is considered a biodiversity hotspot because it contains around ____ per cent of the world’s known biodiversity despite its small size.

The capital city of Slovenia is ____, known for its sustainable urban design.

An _____ species is a plant or animal found only in one specific region.

The weather pattern where unusually warm weather develops in the equatorial Pacific is known as _____.

Tourism that protects the environments and benefits communities is called _____ tourism.

Which of the following is a reason Slovenia is considered a sustainable nation? A. It has a very large population. B. It has high levels of pollution. C. It protects native species such as the Carniolan bee. D. It has no national parks.

What is one effect of La Niña on weather patterns? A. Hot, dry conditions across Australia B. Increased rainfall and flooding

Which Slovenian town is famous for its glacial lake? A. Bled B. Piran

C. No change in temperature D. Strong earthquakes C. Ljubljana D. Maribor

What does the term “overtourism” refer to? A. Too few tourists visiting a destination B. Tourists visiting only during winter C. Too many tourists putting strain on the environment and residents D. Only international tourists arriving

10.

Which Sustainable Development Goal relates directly to improving cities? A. SDG 1 – No poverty B. SDG 6 – Clean water C. SDG 15 – Life on land D. SDG 11 – Sustainable cities and communties

Define the difference between a natural hazard and a natural disaster.

12.

How does social connectedness enhance liveability?

13.

Referring to Figure 7.8.1, recall how Ljubljana’s green mobility strategies improve liveability.

Figure 7.8.1 A zero-emission electric vehicle in Ljubljana ➜

11.

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Writing focus The following activities allow you to practise your writing skills.

Answering questions in paragraphs You an use this as a model when writing your own answers to the questions that follow.

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Writing focus 7.8 Single paragraph response model

Question: Explain how cultural connectedness is enhanced in cities using a case study.

(6 marks)

Model answer: Topic sentence: the first sentence of the paragraph; directly answers the question

Elaborate: additional information, interconnections Evidence: specific, relevant evidence to support your arguments

Marking criteria for each question can be found in the Interactive Textbook. Refer to these criteria when planning and writing your responses.

A city’s cultural connectedness is strengthened when people can share traditions, spaces and community activities. In Ljubljana, Slovenia, the city maintains its historic buildings, streets and public squares. These spaces support community events, cultural festivals and shared traditions, allowing residents to feel a sense of belonging and pride in their city. Ljubljana contains a wide mix of different ethnicities, such as Serbians, Croatians and Bosnians, all of whom have their own language and religious beliefs. The city preserves landmarks like the Dragon Bridge, the medieval Old Town and the National Gallery, while also introducing new festivals and celebrations to create a shared urban identity for the city’s diverse residents. Therefore, Ljubljana demonstrates how cultural heritage and shared community spaces can enhance cultural connectedness.

Explain: clarify, define and describe

Examples: provide credibility and illustrate the argument

Linking sentence: reconnects with language of the question the topic sentence

Structured-response questions Question 1

(20 marks)

a. Describe how cultural connectedness is enhanced in cities using a case study. (4 marks) b. Explain how access to services and facilities can influence liveability. (6 marks) c. Compare the of actions two different groups on improving the liveability of places. (10 marks) Question 2

(20 marks)

a. Outline what is sustainable tourism and how this improves the liveability of places. (4 marks) b. Distinguish between El Niño and La Niña and suggest the hazard and impact that each phenomenon has across the world. (6 marks) c. Explain how natural hazards impact the liveability of places. Refer to social, economic and environmental impacts. (10 marks)

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Extended-response questions Question 1

(20 marks)

Evaluate two different strategies used to improve liveability in a place you have studied. In your response, explain what each strategy aimed to achieve, how it was implemented and the impact it had on the community. Were the strategies successful or not? Give reasons and use specific examples to support your evaluation. (20 marks)

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Question 2

Explain the purpose of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). In your response, describe why the SDGs were created, what global issues they aim to address, and how they help countries work towards a more sustainable future. Use examples to support your explanation.

Teachers, access the Online Teaching Suite for digital resources and tools that support review, assessment and reporting, including:

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Figure 7.8.2 Global leaders met to discuss Sustainable Development Goals during the week of the 80th session of the United Nations General Assembly in September 2025.

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Chapter 8 Enhancing liveability: A comparison of Australian cities

Chapter

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Enhancing liveability: A comparison of Australian cities

Lessons 8.1

Geo Spark: What is a 15-minute city?

8.2

What is the impact of population growth on liveability?

8.3

How do cultural enclaves help build a multicultural Australia?

8.4

How does accessibility across Australia influence liveability in rural and urban areas?

8.5

What is Caring for Country and how do its benefits enhance liveability for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples?

8.6

What are the roles and actions of community groups in enhancing liveability?

8.7

Chapter review

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Image View of the skyline in Melbourne’s city, from the Yarra River

Image: A young woman using a map for directions

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8.1 Geo Spark: What is a 15-minute city?

8.1

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Geo Spark: What is a 15-minute city?

Success criteria

In this lesson, you will learn about strategies that can enhance the liveability of places for groups of people.

❏ I can describe what a 15-minute city is. ❏ I can explain why planning strategies are important to enhance the liveability of places.

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Learning intention

Writing focus 8.1 Question words ➜

Have you ever heard of a 15-minute city? These are city models that are making headlines globally. In coining the term and developing the model, Professor Carlos Moreno drew on concepts and inspiration from earlier planned urban ideas, which highlighted the importance of creating walkable cities, where residents can easily access their local services and facilities. This is a concept designed with the aim of creating urban communities where residents are able to reach essential services and facilities within a 15-minute walk or cycle ride from their homes. The general idea of the 15-minute city can best be shown in Figure 8.1.1.

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Figure 8.1.1 The 15-minute-city model Source: Buro Happold, 2023

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Introduction As indicated in Figure 8.1.1, there are many critical elements to a 15-minute city including social infrastructure, such as educational and health facilities, along with cultural venues such as religious centres, community centres and libraries.

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Open and accessible spaces with streets designed to enhance connectivity, along with enough greenery, are also vital for diverse groups of people, as it provides a space that supports health and encourages a sense of community. By designing communities this way, there are enough retail centres and amenities such as sports and recreational facilities, all within walking distance, which not only creates a welcoming space, but enhances the local economy. By providing job opportunities that are close to where people live, it is possible for people to access services and facilities with minimal car use, which will overall improve quality of life for people and the environment.

There are many benefits to a 15-minute city, as these become spaces where interactions and connection can happen, solving challenges for elderly or disadvantaged people who experience isolation, further building a sense of belonging within a community.

Shops and hospitality

Places to study and work

Childcare centres

Schools

Safe cycling networks

Community hubs

Walkable streets

Health services

Public transport connectiaons

Local food and fresh produce

Features of an inclusive 20-minute neighbourhood

Housing for all needs

Energy efficient buildings

Affordable housing

Cool and comfortable streets

Well-designed buildings and streets

Mix of housing types and densities

Places to play, meet and gather

Arts and culture

Sport and recreation Nature, parks facilities and open spaces

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Figure 8.1.2 The 20-minute-neighbourhood plan in Melbourne Source: Adapted from the Victorian Government website

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Figure 8.1.3 Melbourne Cricket Ground, known as the MCG

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U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Melbourne is an example of a city that has been designed with the “20-minute neighbourhood” concept, where suburbs are walkable and connected with a variety of land uses, housing types and access to quality public transport.

Figure 8.1.4 Campbells Cove and Victorian Warehouses in The Rocks, Sydney

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The delivery of 20-minute neighbourhoods is one strategy or place-based approach, aiming to bring communities together while meeting the daily needs of people locally. (Watch a video on “What is a 20-minute neighbourhood?”: https://cambridge.edu.au/redirect/11886) These daily needs include allowing people to go to school, access health food stores, as well as local health facilities and services. The Victorian plan for a 20-minute city emphasises the need to have cities that are:

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

• safe, accessible and well connected for pedestrians and cyclists • supportive of local businesses and jobs • able to provide easy access to services and facilities that support local living • able to adapt to climate change and natural hazards • inclusive of high-quality public and open spaces • considerate of population densities and housing that is supportive of local services and transport options.

It is important for different groups of people to be able to access these features, including people who are economically disadvantaged, live with disabilities, have young families, are elderly and so on. For example, an elderly person might live closer to the city centre to access community centres and medical services, while younger families might want to access similar services as well as childcare centres, as indicated across Figures 8.1.5 to 8.1.7.

30 km

LEGEND

Accessibility score

100.0

0.0

Source: Adapted from the University of Melbourne website

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Figure 8.1.5 Accessibility to general practitioners in Greater Melbourne

30 km

100.0

0.0

Figure 8.1.6 Accessibility to pharmacies in Greater Melbourne

Source: Adapted from the University of Melbourne website

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8.1 Geo Spark: What is a 15-minute city?

LEGEND

Accessibility score

30 km

100.0

➜

Figure 8.1.7 Accessibility to childcare centres in Greater Melbourne

Source Adapted from the University of Melbourne website

Activity 8.1

Visible thinking routine: See, think, wonder 1.

See: Identify elements and features in Figure 8.1.1.

hink: Describe the model and outline the services and facilities you think are T necessary in a city.

Wonder: What challenges might these features address within cities?

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8.2

What is the impact of population growth on liveability? Success criteria

In this lesson, you will learn about the human and social influences that can affect liveability, and solutions to improve the liveability of places.

❏ I can outline the human influences impacting the liveability of places. ❏ I can explain the impact of urban planning strategies on the liveability of places.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Learning intention

Starter activity

Visible thinking routine: Think, pair, share

Figure 8.2.1 and Figure 8.2.2 show the differences between 2000 and 2020 in the development of new suburbs around Sydney. The brown areas indicate housing and development, while the green areas represent natural spaces. 1.

Think: Write a list comparing some of the differences and changes you see between 2000 and 2020 in Sydney’s landscape.

Pair: With a classmate, discuss your thoughts on why these changes have happened.

Share: Discuss as a class what might be some of the opportunities and challenges in Sydney due to these changes.

➜

Figure 8.2.1 An aerial satellite image of Sydney’s landscape in 2000

Source: Google Earth Pro data

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8.2 What is the impact of population growth on liveability?

Figure 8.2.2 An aerial satellite image of Sydney’s landscape in 2020

Source: Google Earth Pro data

Sydney and Melbourne have been listed in the top 10 of the Economist Intelligence Unit’s Global Liveability Index. But what makes these cities so popular for residents and visitors alike?

Have you ever wondered how Melbourne and Sydney were designed in the first place? Or how the cities have kept evolving to meet our changing needs? Throughout this chapter, we will be comparing the development of these cities.

Both Sydney and Melbourne have been consistent in their rankings for safety, education, healthcare, infrastructure and employment opportunities. Both cities have a central business district (CBD), which plays an important and major role in the appeal of living in a city. Mostly, because it is an area that provides lots of employment and social opportunities for people living within cities. Melbourne’s CBD, for example, is easy to navigate thanks to its design, where main streets are arranged in a grid pattern, shown in Figure 8.2.3. Easy travel within the city is also enhanced by Melbourne’s iconic tram network and pedestrian-friendly laneways. All these features are not accidental; they exist because of urban planning. Although Sydney has been considered a “car-centric” or car-focused city, both Sydney and Melbourne have scored highly in walkability rankings, mostly because of the trail tracks and open spaces offered to the public. Urban planners play an essential role in shaping the world we live in as they design our cities and plan our infrastructure. Urban planning in Melbourne, for example, has significantly influenced its evolution. Cities used grid systems from the seventeenth to the nineteenth centuries, adapting later to accommodate cars in the twentieth century. Today, urban planners prioritise sustainability and accessibility, reflecting modern needs and trends caused by growing populations and changing settlement patterns.

central business district (CBD) a central area for businesses in a town or city pedestrian a person who is walking rather than travelling in a vehicle urban planning the process of planning the layout and infrastructure of a place accessibility the practice of making resources and facilities available and affordable for all people to use

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urban sprawl where a city’s buildings and houses spread into areas outside its main centre, often taking over rural land

Fragmented parallel (c. 1950)

Warped parallel (c. 1960)

Loops and lollipops (c. 1970)

Lollipops on a stick (c. 1980)

suburban a residential community located on the edges of cities, often familybased suburbs, where people live in larger low density houses, with more space life expectancy the average number of years a person is expected to live, calculated from birth

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U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

low-density housing housing consisting of detached, singlefamily homes or individual lots of land with lots of space; few high rise buildings, or people per unit of land

Grid (c. 1900)

Figure 8.2.3 Types of street patterns in urban planning during the twentieth century

Responding to growing populations

Since Australia’s population has exceeded 27 million people as of 2025, with both Melbourne and Sydney exceeding five million people, the population growth experienced across both cities has led to urban sprawl. Urban sprawl is the outward movement of people from the city centre or the CBD. There have been many issues associated with urban sprawl, such as habitat destruction to accommodate more housing and infrastructure, along with increased air pollution due to traffic congestion. This type of urban area is characterised with lots of low-density housing built further away from cities across both Sydney and Melbourne. This type of housing is normally found in suburban areas or more isolated regions, where the conditions are less crowded and there is more open space. However, housing has been quite limited across Australian cities due to a variety of reasons:

immigration the process where a person moves from one country to live permanently in another

• Longer life expectancy: As people are expected to live longer healthier lives, there

rural-to-urban migration moving from regional or remote areas to urban areas such as cities

•

natural increase the number of births exceeds the number of deaths in a population; populations grow due to people having more children

•

is more housing that is held by elderly people. Immigration: There are many people who migrate to Australia for many reasons, whether it be for a change in lifestyle, different opportunities, to join family members or due to political factors impacting the liveability of their own homes overseas. Rural-to-urban migration: This is the internal migration within Australia where people are pulled into cities for the opportunities they can access. Natural increase: Where there are more people having families, they need access to housing along with any surrounding services and facilities.

Since urban sprawl has been a response to a growing population. It has been difficult for cities to keep up with creating enough public transport for so many new suburbs. This has challenged residents living in newly developed areas, who might experience economic and social isolation due to insufficient jobs available, and become highly dependent on cars as a result of the limited transport infrastructure they can access.

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8.2 What is the impact of population growth on liveability?

greenfield site previously undeveloped land; usually located on the fringes of cities and could have been used for farming

➜

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Examples of urban sprawl around Sydney can be seen in Figures 8.2.4 and 8.2.5, where suburbs such as Box Hill have been built on. These are known as greenfield sites, where land that was previously used as rural land or farm land has been transformed into large-scale housing areas, in response to Sydney’s rapid population growth and limited housing availability. While sites offer opportunities for the development of more affordable housing, they present challenges where there are environmental impacts from building on farmland or green areas, and new infrastructure needed for new families living moving there.

245

urban consolidation the development of new apartments and other buildings in areas that already exist as part of the city; often involves building upwards, rather than outwards

Figure 8.2.4 Satellite photo of Box Hill and its surrounding areas in 2000

Source: Google Earth Pro data

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Figure 8.2.5 Satellite photo of Box Hill and its surrounding areas in 2020

Source: Google Earth Pro data

Strategies to enhance liveability

Writing focus 8.2 Conjunctions ➜

Due to these challenges, cities are trying to become more sustainable and reduce urban sprawl. One of the strategies to become more sustainable is a process called urban consolidation.

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U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

brownfield site previously developed land used for industrial purposes where there were factories or office buildings that may have been abandoned or carry a risk of pollution

Urban consolidation means that new houses, apartments and other developments are built within areas that already exist as part of the city. This helps stop cities from spreading outward into rural areas or natural spaces. Instead of expanding outward, cities focus on improving and redeveloping areas within their urban areas that are less used or abandoned. Some of these areas are called brownfield sites. They’re parts of the city that may have been used for something else before, like factories or warehouses. By redeveloping brownfield sites, cities can make these areas more liveable, with better connections to transport, shops and services. A good example of urban consolidation in Sydney is a suburb called Breakfast Point, where old industrial land was converted into new urban neighbourhoods. The changes in this area can be seen in Figures 8.2.6 and 8.2.7, where lots of urban development changed an area that was previously abandoned. Figure 8.2.10 indicates the types of changes that were made, where the development included mid- to high-rise apartments or properties. Designed to house more people in a smaller environment, Breakfast Point has been a well-planned suburb with access to services and facilities, while also maintaining high liveability for its residents.

Figure 8.2.6 Satellite photo of Breakfast Point in 2002

Source: Google Earth Pro data

➜

Figure 8.2.7 Satellite photo of Breakfast Point in 2025 Source: Google Earth Pro data

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Case study: The history of Breakfast Point

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Breakfast Point has a rich history, starting with the Traditional Owners, the Wangal Clan, who are part of the Eora Nation and valued the land along with its surrounding areas, such as Canada Bay. The bushlands and the foreshore areas that were part of the Parramatta River provided a focus for local traditional food gathering, where animals were also hunted, plants were harvested and raw materials were collected along the local area.

Mortlake

Breakfast Point

V ill

S tr eet

reet

Stre

et ke Stre Mortla t k Stree Fredric

Gale St

ard

Rick

N orm

ve D r i v e Dri l a A d m ir ty

Cabarita

a Road

Cabarit

venue Links A

500 m

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Figure 8.2.8 Map of Breakfast Point and surrounding suburbs including Mortlake and Cabarita

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Figure 8.2.9 Mortlake Gas Works in 1937. Breakfast Point is at the lower left and Cabarita is in the background. Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78802-1 • (03) 8671 1400

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Figure 8.2.10 High rise developments in Breakfast Point

From the late 1800s, as seen in Figure 8.2.9, the area saw the development of a gasworks from the Australian Gas Light Company (AGL). This company distributed gas for Sydney and had a lot of industrial infrastructure on the land. Thousands of tonnes of coal were used each year and transported by the river, which provided a cheap and efficient way to move raw materials. As a result, the first coal wharf was created at the edge of Breakfast Point towards Parramatta River.

Due to the industrial use and jobs within this space, the area became more developed with housing and smaller businesses established for the local residents. In the 1990s the gasworks closed and the area was sold to developers, who began transforming the land in 1999 into a modern residential suburb. This is because there was a shift away from coal gas and a need to use the land for different purposes, being so close to the city, which ultimately led to the gasworks’ closure. Now, Breakfast Point remains a quiet suburb surrounded by an expansive white picket fence, containing white properties within a green village, and near an exclusive country club with its own swimming pool. With water views, this small suburb provided enough green space and affordable housing for about 4,000 people. Reaching the “Australian Dream” of providing a safe community for young families, the suburb in Sydney’s inner west is only 16 kilometres from the central business district.

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Review 8.2 Online quiz

Knowledge and understanding

Thinking and working geographically

Students can access sample responses and results online

249

Teachers can go online to assign questions, view results, reports and more!

Knowledge and understanding

Outline what a CBD is and its importance.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

1. 2.

Define “urban planning” and describe the design of Melbourne’s CBD.

Outline the role of urban planners.

Define “urban sprawl” and explain the effect of this within cities.

Explain two reasons why housing is limited in Australian cities.

Distinguish between greenfield sites and brownfield sites.

With reference to Figures 8.2.4 and 8.2.5, explain the environmental, social and economic impacts of urban sprawl in Sydney.

Thinking and working geographically

Working with geographical concepts: Change 1.

Use the text and Figures 8.2.6 and 8.2.7. Write a short paragraph explaining the changes between the two images. In your paragraph, include:

• the location of the change • the dates of the change (the date range when the changes occurred) • the description of change (the differences you can see between the two images) • possible reasons and impacts of the change using information.

change The concept of change is about explaining geographical phenomena by investigating how they have developed over time.

Geographical inquiry 2.

Fishermans Bend is a transformed area that was a 30-year project in Melbourne with a focus on urban consolidation. Conduct an investigation into this change by researching:

• a description of its location • the dates of change • the description of change: how many residents, jobs and houses • reasons for the change and development (what was there versus what is there now).

What are some challenges associated with this 30-year project?

Place your information in a report containing:

• a title and subtitles for each section • a map of the area • before and after photos of the change • photos of the industries, businesses and green spaces within the area.

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8.3

How do cultural enclaves help build a multicultural Australia? Success criteria

In this lesson, you will learn the influence of social, cultural and community connections on liveability across Australia.

❏ I can describe how social, cultural and community connections can influence liveability. ❏ I can explain how cultural enclaves form and are human influences that impact the liveability of places.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Learning intention

Starter activity

Visible thinking routine: Identify, connect, wonder

Using Figure 8.3.1, complete the following tasks: 1.

Identify: List, from highest to lowest, the populations by country of birth for both 2014 and 2024.

Connect: Suggest three reasons why people from these countries might have migrated to Australia. Think about their location and other factors pushing people out of other home countries.

Wonder: How has this changed Australia’s cultural landscape today? What impact has this had on different suburbs? Population by country of birth

Population (thousands)

1,200

1,000 800 600

400 200

sia

lay

fri

ilip

ala

ina

dia

gla

Country of birth 2014

2024

➜

Figure 8.3.1 Top overseas countries of birth for Australian residents in 2014 and 2024

Source: Adapted from the Australian Bureau of Statistics

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A history of migration

Writing focus 8.3 Note-making

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

➜

The population of Australia is a result of a history of international migration since before Federation. This can be seen in Figure 8.3.2, where there have been many different groups that have migrated to Australia over time. Emigrants from places with lower liveability often leave their homes permanently to seek a better life, or may temporarily seek employment or educational opportunities, staying in Australia for a limited amount of time. The reasons for why people have migrated to Australia have varied over time due to different “push” factors (which are reasons why people leave a country) and “pull” factors (which are reasons why they are drawn to a different country). Some of these include the forced transportation of convicts bringing the first wave of European migrants after 1788, to the discovery of gold in the 1850s called the “gold rush”, which pulled in many people from countries such as China, England and Ireland. Other factors such as changing policies in 1901, where migration from Britain was particularly encouraged by the government, saw many people from England, Ireland, Scotland and Wales migrating to Australia. The postwar period saw many Jewish families from Germany arriving after World War II, while many Vietnamese refugees arrived after the Vietnam War in the 1970s. Other wars such as the Yugoslav Wars in the 1990s saw many Balkans (such as Croatians, Serbians, Bosnians and Macedonians) arrive, while the Lebanese Civil war in the 1970s saw an influx of Lebanese migrants. Political changes in South America caused many people from the region to migrate to Australia. More recently, the government has pushed for “skilled migration”, a process encouraging migrants to fill in gaps in the workforce, allowing skilled workers to immigrate based on their skills, education and occupation. 3.0

United Kingdom India Greece Poland Yugoslavia

2.0

2.5

2.0

2016

2011

2006

2001

1996

1991

1986

1981

1976

1971

0.0

1966

0.0

1961

0.5

1954

0.5

1947

1.0

1933

1.0

1921

1.5

1911

refugee a person who has been forced to leave their country to escape war, political danger or natural disasters

3.0

China Germany Netherlands Vietnam

1.5

1901

emigrant a person who leaves their country of origin to live in another country

People (millions)

2.5

New Zealand Philippines Italy Sweden and Norway

international migration the temporary or permanent movement of people between countries

Year

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Figure 8.3.2 Top five overseas countries of birth for Australian residents over time

Source: Adapted from the Australian Department of Home Affairs website

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Many people have migrated and settled in Australia. Data from the Australia Bureau of Statistics in 2016 suggested more than one-fifth of Australians spoke a language other than English at home, with common languages being Cantonese, Vietnamese, Mandarin and Arabic. As a result, Australia has become increasingly multicultural and diverse as it has welcomed a range of people from different countries with different cultures and ethnicities.

Percentage of residents born overseas

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Estimated proportion of residents born overseas, by state and territory

30 25

Vic

NSW

ACT

Qld

Tas

State or territory

2001

2006

2011

2016

2021

Country of birth is available at the state and territory level for census years only.

➜

Figure 8.3.3 Estimated proportion of residents born overseas, by state and territory

Source: Adapted from the Australian Bureau of Statistics website

global city a city with significant economic, political and cultural influence in the world, as it acts as a major centre for finance, trade and exchange cultural enclave a geographic area where a specific cultural, ethnic or immigrant group lives together, maintaining their cultural practices within a larger community

As indicated in Figure 8.3.3, the largest groups of overseas-born residents for each state and territory varies across Australia. As a global city with a large population of overseas-born residents, Sydney is an important entry point for many new arrivals to Australia. This is because Sydney is home to many established migrant communities, and also contains many internationally known and recognised educational institutions and businesses, which have attracted migrants from overseas. In particular, the Asia-Pacific head offices of many Fortune 500 and significant technology companies, such as Apple, IBM, Amazon, Microsoft, Google and Samsung, are located in Sydney.

When visiting or choosing a place to live, many migrants to Australia will choose areas where migrants from similar backgrounds already live. This is where cultural enclaves have been created as a result of a long-standing tradition where migrants have concentrated or moved as a collective to several key urban centres in Sydney. This is because people are naturally drawn to living among people who are similar to them, either because they might share ethnic backgrounds or similar languages or religions. For example, as can be seen in Figure 8.3.5, many Italians migrated and lived around Leichardt, while Koreans settled in Lidcombe, South-East Asians such as Vietnamese settled in Cabramatta, and Lebanese communities around Punchbowl. The movement of these cultural groups has influenced the design and development of homes and stores in these suburbs to reflect and represent the cultures living within that space.

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8.3 How do cultural enclaves help build a multicultural Australia?

Penrith

Woodcroft

Blacktown

Parramatta

Harris Park

Rhodes

St Ives

253

Church Point

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Dee Why

Manly

LEGEND

% migrants 50 or more 40 - 49 30 - 39 20 -29 Less than 20 Excluded

Fairfield Cabramatta Liverpool

Dover Heights

Haymarket Haberfield

Austral

Hoxton Park

Cronulla

Hurstville

10 km

Campbelltown

Bankstown

➜

Figure 8.3.4 Map indicating percentage of migrants in Sydney by suburb

Source: Adapted from the Australian Bureau of Statistics website

LEGEND Top migrant language by postal area Arabic Assyrian Maltese German Spanish French Serbian Italian Greek Armenian Portuguese Hebrew Korean Tagalog Thai Vietnamese Mandarin Cantonese Punjabi Tamil Hindi Bengal

10 km

➜

Figure 8.3.5 Map of languages spoken and how diversity is shaping real estate markets in Sydney Source: Adapted from Knight Frank Research, the Australian Bureau of Statistics

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Case study: Cabramatta

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U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Between the 1970s and the 1990s, many Vietnamese refugees resettled in Australia after the Vietnam War. The suburb of Cabramatta became an entry point for many new Vietnamese migrants, and a centre of settlement, because there were more affordable housing options, as well as people with similar backgrounds and circumstances who could communicate and help support new arrivals to Australia. Over time, Cabramatta has developed into one of Australia’s most recognised cultural enclaves.

Figure 8.3.6 The shopping and market hub in Cabramatta

➜

Figure 8.3.7 Image of the stone dragon, a symbol of prosperity and strength who is even believed to bring harmony and good weather. Lion statues adorn the streets in Cabramatta, creating a familiar atmosphere for migrants.

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As a result, Cabramatta has many distinct characteristics that showcase Vietnamese culture, from the restaurants, bakeries and supermarkets offering access to traditional meals, to the Asian grocery stores, which sell the herbs, spices and fresh produce needed to create these cultural cuisines. There are many stores that have bilingual signage in English and Vietnamese, which are helpful for urban village migrants who are settling into Australia. Additionally, people can celebrate and practise a mixed their cultural and religious traditions with the availability of temples and cultural centres, community helping maintain a strong community identity.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

within a city that has housing, employment, facilities along with stores and cafes that are influenced by the social and cultural groups within the suburb

Cabramatta as a suburb serves a social and community function in supporting Vietnamese migrants and families. By offering a space that provides a cultural support network with shared language and practices, it has become an Asian-centric urban village, with 25 per cent of residents being born in Vietnam and over 40 per cent speaking Vietnamese. This has influenced the street design, with public spaces containing Chinese ceremonial gates as can be seen in Figure 8.3.6, along with stone statues of dragons and lions. These represent connection to heritage and enhances the liveability of the suburb for many migrants by maintaining a cultural identity and a sense of community.

Review 8.3

Online quiz

Knowledge and understanding

Thinking and working geographically

Students can access sample responses and results online

Teachers can go online to assign questions, view results, reports and more!

Knowledge and understanding 1.

Define an “emigrant”.

Construct a timeline outlining reasons why people migrated to Australia over time.

Define a “global city”. Describe why migrants have been drawn to Sydney in particular.

Explain why new migrants might choose to settle near people from similar backgrounds.

Define a “cultural enclave”. How do they form?

Using an example from the text, explain how a cultural enclave improves liveability?

Thinking and working geographically

Working with geographical concepts: Space

space The concept of space is the significance of location and spatial distribution, and the ways people organise and manage the spaces where they live.

Research and create a poster with annotated photos of Cabramatta’s Freedom Plaza, labelling cultural features. Include photos of: • stores and businesses • street signage • public works and figures • temples and cultural centres • celebrations such as the Moon Festival.

Write a paragraph explaining how these features provide a sense of place and improve liveability for Vietnamese people in Sydney.

Geographical inquiry 3.

Compare Cabramatta with one of the following enclaves: a. Chinatown (Sydney/Melbourne) b. Little Italy in Leichardt c. Lakemba’s Lebanese community.

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Complete the Venn diagram to show what patterns are similar, and what is unique. 4.

Visit the Think HQ website or Profile Id and choose a suburb.

Cabramatta

Other suburb

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

a. Investigate one ethnic group that is popular in that suburb. b. Create an infographic of that suburb and collect photos answering the question: How do cultural and community connections influence the liveability in my suburb? In your infographic include the following:

• a map of the area, a description of its

location in Sydney, and the cultural group that dominates this suburb • shops, signage and community centres, with a short paragraph describing how cultural services (grocery stores, places of worship and language support) improve daily life for residents • a short written observation of the public spaces (how does culture influence community identity, do cultural features make the place more liveable?) • any barriers reducing liveability for some groups (think about its distance from the city in Sydney and whether there is enough access to public transport, different schools and job opportunities).

➜

Figure 8.3.8 Asian grocer on a shopping strip in Cabramatta

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8.4 How does accessibility across Australia influence liveability in rural and urban areas?

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How does accessibility across Australia influence liveability in rural and urban areas? Success criteria

In this lesson, you will learn how access to services and facilities can influence the liveability of places for different groups of people

❏ I can outline who is considered to be marginalised. ❏ I can describe how access to services and facilities influence the liveability of places. ❏ I can explain the roles and actions of community groups in enhancing liveability.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Learning intention

Starter activity

Visible thinking routine: See, think, wonder 1.

See: Identify the features of the landscapes seen in Figures 8.4.1 to 8.4.3.

Think: As a class, discuss what some of the challenges would be to liveability in rural communities.

Wonder: What groups of people would be most impacted by these challenges within rural areas?

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Figure 8.4.1 In Wilcannia, in the Central Darling Shire, in north-western NSW, 30 motorhomes were set up to allow people to isolate during the COVID-19 pandemic.

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Figure 8.4.2 Kangaroos in front of a local hospital in Wicannia

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Figure 8.4.3 Aerial view of Wilcannia

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Urban vs rural areas

Writing focus 8.4 Developing sentences

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Urban areas have more than 10,000 residents and are often more compact than rural areas. There is usually better access to services and infrastructure in urban areas, because a lot of resources are made available and organised in less space. Cities usually have many facilities and services close by. For example, in a city, you might find several schools, hospitals and parks within a short distance. This makes it easy for people to access what they need. Rural areas are found in the countryside and have fewer than 10,000 residents. They are often larger spaces with smaller populations, compared to urban settlements. This makes it harder for governments and businesses to organise and provide services and facilities. Therefore, facilities and services are often far apart, impacting the liveability of places because accessibility to these essential features is limited. These become push factors, encouraging the movement of people away from rural areas to urban areas. For example, there might be only one school or hospital serving a larger area, meaning people might have to travel long distances, making it more difficult to get there.

According to the Australian Institute of Health and Welfare, approximately seven million Australians live in rural and remote areas. The liveability of these communities is impacted by geographic location and isolation, and residents often have poorer health outcomes than those who live in urban areas. Data has indicated that people living in rural regions experience higher rates of injury, hospitalisations and death due to poorer access to health-care services.

Why spatial distribution matters

Spatial distribution is an important concept in Geography. As we have seen, the allocation and distribution of facilities and services can have a significant impact on the liveability of places. Good access to community services is a key element to consider when assessing liveability, because it impacts different groups of people and connectedness in communities, along with other major factors such as the following:

• Health: If hospitals are far away or overcrowded, it can be difficult for people • • •

spatial distribution the arrangement and pattern of things, such as people, industries, facilities and services across a geographic area

to get medical help quickly, which can be dangerous in emergencies. Facilities and services needed to improve health care include health centres, pharmacies, specialists, and even emergency services such as police and fire stations. Education: If there are not enough schools nearby, children might have to travel a long way to learn, or the schools might be too crowded, making it more difficult for students to get a good quality education. Daily life: Everyday activities, such as exercising, shopping for groceries or visiting a friends’ house, can be more challenging if facilities are not easily accessible. Facilities and services needed to improve daily life could be local markets and convenience stores, bus stops and train stations, and even parks and playgrounds. Inequality: If services and facilities are only accessible to a few people, such as those who are wealthier, can drive or have access to people that can drive them around, it can create inequality. Opportunities are fewer for those without access. For example, if someone lives far away from working opportunities and they don’t have access to a car or public transport, this presents more challenges for them and can make it difficult for them to improve their outcomes.

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Disconnection from communities Some community members feel disconnected because they cannot physically access their local area or resources and facilities. This leads to social isolation. Improving physical connections through upgrading and providing enough public transport and ramps for those with disabilities enhances social connections to places. Organisations working with marginalised people foster these social connections by creating inclusive spaces or offering support, which enhances liveability and wellbeing. Groups of people that are at higher risk of experiencing disadvantage are often also marginalised in Australia. Some of these groups may include the following:

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marginalised people who experience poorer treatment, are isolated by others, and have more trouble accessing basic services and opportunities

• People experiencing homelessness: They face challenges due to their • •

• • •

circumstances that led to their homelessness, which could be economic difficulties, mental health concerns or social factors. People with disabilities: They experience barriers to fully participating in society, due to reduced access to facilities and services such as employment or educational opportunities. Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples: They face ongoing impacts from colonisation, or experience the effects of when there are gaps in essential services such as health, education and justice. There are Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people who also live in rural and remote areas, and further experience geographical barriers to accessing services. Refugees and migrants: They experience barriers in language, particularly if they do no speak English, which may create challenges with accessing housing, work opportunities and education. People in remote or rural area: They experience barriers towards accessing facilities and services, due to their more isolated location in comparison to people living in urban areas. Elderly people: They experience barriers towards accessing services and may experience financial challenges due to limited employment opportunities.

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Figure 8.4.4 Members of the ‘Australian Defence Force’, as per Aus Gov style manual, police force and volunteers assisted with food supplies in regional town Wilcannia, after hearing about the isolation that residents experienced during the COVID-19 lockdowns Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78802-1 • (03) 8671 1400

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Improving connections There are many different organisations that advocate for marginalised groups and help empower them by providing opportunities and resources that can support the liveability of their communities. Some of these organisations include the following:

• Australian Red Cross: They supporting refugees and those seeking asylum, along

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with other vulnerable migrants. This is achieved through either finding employment and housing, or providing food or emergency relief, such as financial assistance. National Disability Insurance Agency: The NDIS is an agency working towards improving the quality of life and supporting Australians with disabilities to better access support services they need. They provide funding and help create plans for people with disabilities to participate in community activities, connecting them with others who have disabilities or empower them with skills to get a job and work towards independence. Koorie Youth Council: This is a representative body for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people in Victoria, which connects young people with their culture and community, but also represents and advocates for them to the government to encourage political and social change.

•

Overall, community groups and activities offer opportunities to connect like-minded people. Traditionally, these connections are formed through organised clubs, like sporting teams, but now a wider variety of ways exist to create connections. Events like community choirs, ‘No lights, no lycra’ dance classes and ‘Men’s sheds’ provide community-based initiatives and platforms for socialising, bonding and sharing interests. These groups help increase confidence and foster connections within local communities.

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Figure 8.4.5 Centrelink is an Australian government agency that administers Medicare and NDIS Insurance.

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Review 8.4 Online quiz

Knowledge and understanding

Thinking and working geographically

Students can access sample responses and results online

Teachers can go online to assign questions, view results, reports and more!

Knowledge and understanding

Outline what an urban area is and give reasons why people would live there.

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1. 2.

Outline what a rural area is and give reasons why people might be pushed away from these areas.

Describe how people are impacted by poor liveability in rural areas.

Define a “spatial distribution” and why this is an important factor of liveability.

Identify the liveability factors impacted by the spatial distribution of services and facilities.

Choose two or three factors and explain how they are impacted by the spatial distribution of services and facilities.

Thinking and working geographically

Working with geographical concepts: Scale 1.

scale The concept of scale highlights how geographical challenges can be managed across a range of scales, from local to global.

Investigate one disadvantaged group within Sydney. Working in pairs, create a proposal that will enhance the liveability of a disadvantaged group in Sydney. Your proposal should be presented in the style of a report and must address the following: • Identify the disadvantaged group your initiative will support. • Outline the challenges affecting the liveability of a place, experienced by this group. • Explain how limited access to services and facilities affects the liveability of a place in Sydney for this group. • Justify how your initiative will support the liveability of a place for this disadvantaged group • Summarise the impact are you hoping your initiative will have in the present and that into the future.

Geographical inquiry 2.

Research one of the organisations that help empower and improve liveability for marginalised people.

Create an infographic informing the public about the role of this organisation, its aim and impact on how it supports marginalised communities. Use statistics in your response.

Research a local community group or activity offered in your own community, and suggest how this improves the liveability of your local area. (Use the “Access and inclusion map” of Sydney: https://cambridge.edu.au/redirect/11887. Describe your area after clicking on different areas, and explain how access impacts liveability).

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8.5 What is Caring for Country and how do its benefits enhance liveability for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples?

What is Caring for Country and how do its benefits enhance liveability for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples?

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Learning intention

Success criteria

In this lesson, you will learn about how the benefits of Caring for Country enhance the liveability for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples.

❏ I can define “stewardship”. ❏ I can outline why stewardship is important for enhancing liveability. ❏ I can describe what Caring for Country is and its benefits in enhancing liveability for Aboriginal Peoples. ❏ I can explain how planning strategies can enhance the liveability of a place for groups of people.

Starter activity

Visible thinking routine: See, think, wonder

Refer to Figures 8.5.1 to 8.5.4. 1.

See: Identify how land is managed and used by Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples. What is it used for?

Think: Discuss the importance of land for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples.

Wonder: What happens when these environments change? How might these changes impact people’s relationship with land?

➜ Figure 8.5.1 Elvina

Aboriginal site lies off the Elvina Track at West Head, Sydney, and is an important ritual site. The Elvina rock engravings include a large spiritual ancestor of the Daramulan type in the shape of an emu.

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Figure 8.5.2 Engraved illustration of the hut of the Tanganekald people or Milmendura Tribe of South Australia

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Figure 8.5.3 Dukaladjarrnj is a sacred rock site for the Rembarrnga people. Families return to the sacred site to learn about their ancestors and their Dreaming, and how to enjoy and protect this site.

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8.5 What is Caring for Country and how do its benefits enhance liveability for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples?

Figure 8.5.4 Nineteenth-century engraving of meal preparation beside a river

What is Caring for Country?

Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples have cultivated a deep, reciprocal relationship with their lands since time immemorial. This sacred, two-way relationship ensures that Country and people are healthy and happy. For First Nations peoples, cultural connectedness to Country and place is significant. Country refers not just to the physical land but also to spiritual, cultural and historical connections, and the cultural responsibility that First Nations people have in relation to their lands. These spiritual and cultural connections continue to be maintained through practices such as sharing oral histories, ceremonies and Caring for Country. The strong cultural connections and respect for Country contribute to a profound sense of identity and belonging. Jude Barlow, Ngunnawal Elder explained connection to Country as: “Country is everything. It’s family, it’s life, it’s connection.”

This holistic relationship means that the land is inseparable from the people – it is part of people, and people are part of the Country. As a result, Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples have a deep understanding of stewardship, where they have an obligation to protect the environment based on their knowledge and understanding of landscapes. Caring for Country is a First Nations approach to managing the environment and includes traditional practices and laws, knowledge and customs that recognise the deep connection to Country, which comprises the physical environment, flora and fauna, sky and ancestors as well as cultural heritage. Country is considered a

Country traditional lands that are culturally important to Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples and include water, air, plants, animals, and the stories and ancestors connected to that place stewardship management of environments and places where it is responsibly cared for with the aim of preserving it for future generations

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living entity, with a heartbeat and spirit, as ancestors and stories are connected to each place. It is therefore essential to identity and culture, as well as sustaining spiritual, social, physical, cultural and emotional elements in life.

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This cultural connectedness influences the perception of liveability for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples, as living on or near traditional lands provides a sense of continuity, where people are connected to their ancestors through their land. It also increases an understanding of heritage and improves spiritual wellbeing. It emphasises the importance of preserving cultural sites and living in sustainable ways with the environment.

colonisation the action or process where settlers moved and established control over the Indigenous people of an area

During colonisation, many First Nations Peoples were forcibly removed from their Country, causing immense harm to individuals and communities. Missions, reserves and stations were established by religious groups and churches as well as governments, and became areas where Aboriginal people were placed. These places were strict and controlled the movement of people and what they were allowed to do. Many Aboriginal people were not allowed to return to their traditional lands, losing access to hunting grounds and sacred spaces. Many were also not allowed to speak their language and were punished if they shared their traditions and continued their ceremonies. Consequently, many stories, languages and traditions were taken, as people were limited from sharing their knowledge between generations (see https://cambridge.edu.au/redirect/11888).

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Figure 8.5.5 Location of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander communities in Australia

1000 km

LEGEND Very remote Remote Outer regional Inner regional Major cities Discrete First Nations communities

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How liveability is impacted for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples

Writing focus 8.5 Creating topic sentences

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The liveability of a place refers to how good the quality of life is for people who live in that place. It is how healthy, comfortable and suitable an area is for people to live in as well. For many Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples, liveability is closely associated with connection to culture, Country, access to traditional lands and the wellbeing of the community. There are many factors that impact liveability for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples:

• Loss of access to Country: Disconnection from land disrupts cultural practices and • •

the ability to engage with ceremonies, land management and storytelling, which are important for the continuation of knowledge between generations. Environmental changes: From climate-related impacts such as flooding and fires, to human-caused changes such as mining and land clearing for development, changes have destroyed sacred sites and areas with access to important food and medicinal resources. Limited resources or services: Many First Nations communities – particularly in remote areas – experience poor access to health care and education, limited housing and fewer working opportunities. These can impact the mental, physical and social health outcomes for many.

Benefits of Caring for Country

Many urban planners and developers are integrating Caring for Country into sustainable development, by creating urban spaces that include Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples’ perspectives in design and decision-making. This has been important when taking into account sustainable practices along with cultural and spiritual connections to land. Since around 40 per cent of Australia’s threatened species are found in urban areas, this also has provided opportunities to improve areas of biodiversity in cities, which have become more protected. Living in a space that physically and spiritually represents Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples’ cultures is important for liveability and improving wellbeing, as it allows them to experience a sense of identity and pride through being able to practise and preserve their traditions and knowledge.

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Case study: Parramatta Riverside Walk

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The Parramatta Riverside Walk has successfully celebrated traditional Aboriginal cultural practices across a painted pathway, which shows the Aboriginal history of the area along the Parramatta River. Specific sections, such as the Warami Mittigar Aboriginal Cultural Walk, highlight the importance of the area to the Darug people. The river itself is a significant cultural and spiritual feature for the Darug people, who have been connected to the resource for thousands of years – it has served as an important source for food, a meeting place and a means of travel.

The name Parramatta came from the Aboriginal word Burramatta, with “burra” meaning “place”, while ‘matta’ is a word for eels (https://cambridge.edu.au/redirect/11889). There are bushland areas where the Burramatta people lived, traded and met prior to European arrival in 1788. This walk reflects Aboriginal perspectives and their connections to the land and the animals, with the eel often featuring near the waterway. The river was not only a source of transport and food, but also a community space for reflection and truth-telling, and a place of eel Dreaming, part of a larger narrative of connection to land.

reconciliation strengthening relationships between Indigenous and non-Indigenous Australians through a process of acknowledging history and truth-telling, while encouraging equality and unity as Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples and cultures are treated with dignity and respect

There are features along the walk demonstrating the story of the Burramatta people and include artwork that shares stories of hunting, fishing and languages, with signage along the river educating the public and preserving traditional knowledge of the area. Other features also acknowledge the history of colonial conflict and the impact of colonisation, with the journey of and ongoing efforts towards reconciliation seen on the Wangal Walk along Parramatta River.

There is further historical evidence along the riverside and towards Parramatta Park, with native scar trees, which have marks left behind from harvesting bark for canoes, water and food carriers, shelter and other uses. There is also evidence of shell middens along nearby streams, which are remains left from when Aboriginal people gathered and ate shellfish, representing the area as a historical site for gathering, trading and meeting.

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Figure 8.5.6 Parramatta Riverside Walk along the Parramatta River

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8.5 What is Caring for Country and how do its benefits enhance liveability for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples?

Figure 8.5.8 Parramatta Riverside Walk signage on reconciliation

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Figure 8.5.7 Parramatta Riverside Walk with images of reconciliation

Review 8.5

Online quiz

Knowledge and understanding

Thinking and working geographically

Students can access sample responses and results online

Teachers can go online to assign questions, view results, reports and more!

Knowledge and understanding 1.

In your own words, define the concept of Country.

Describe how an understanding of Country impacts how someone perceives liveability.

Explain the concept of Caring for Country.

Define “stewardship” and describe how this is important to Caring for Country.

Explain the impact of colonisation on the liveability of places in Australia.

Identify the factors that impact liveability for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples in Australia.

Choose one factor and explain how this factor has impacted liveability for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples.

Thinking and working geographically

Working with geographical concepts: Place 1.

Explain how Parramatta Riverside Walk has enhanced the liveability of a place through its design.

Research a place in New South Wales that has integrated Aboriginal culture in the design of its place. Explain how this has increased the liveability of place for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples.

place The concept of place is about the significance of places and what they are like.

Geographical inquiry 3.

Using resources such as the National Museum of Australia, research life on missions and reserves across New South Wales and Victoria. Choose one of the following and write about what life was like on these missions and reserves for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples. a. Ebenezer e. Warangesda b. Lake Tyers f. Brewarrina c. Ramahyuck g. Coranderrk d. Wellington Valley h. Cummerangunja

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8.6

What are the roles and actions of community groups in enhancing liveability? Success criteria

In this lesson, you will learn to identify different community groups and investigate their roles and actions in enhancing liveability.

❏ I can outline different community groups. ❏ I can describe the roles and actions of different groups in enhancing liveability. ❏ I can explain what biourbanism is and how this planning strategy can enhance liveability of places for different groups of people.

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Learning intention

Starter activity Brain burst 1.

Identify which of the following groups could make the biggest impact and difference in creating change: environmental groups, sports clubs, youth groups, Indigenous groups, volunteer organisations, local council committees, independent organisations.

Justify how each of these groups can influence liveability.

What actions can each group take?

What would be some challenges to creating change for each of these groups?

Strategies towards managing liveable cities

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Writing focus 8.6 Appositives

As populations rise cities face even more challenges, such as overcrowding, pollution, rising traffic congestion and housing shortages. Strategies to enhance liveability are important because they can reduce the pressures added from these challenges and address residents’ health, safety and wellbeing. These strategies can include improving public transport networks, creating more green spaces and providing support programs or initiatives that aim to improve health, education and safety, which can enhance the liveability of places, while making cities more sustainable.

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Long-term sustainable solutions can also create stronger cities with improved social, economic and environmental outcomes that enhance liveability through creating inclusive neighbourhoods.

Figure 8.6.1 Traffic congestion on Sydney’s outskirts

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8.6 What are the roles and actions of community groups in enhancing liveability?

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Figure 8.6.2 Seabin Project works within cities, identifying hotspots and deploying Seabin technologies to create cleaner communities and to address the problem of ocean pollution. Their Seabins remove litter and plastic from the sea

The role and importance of different groups

equitable fair and just; it takes into account and seeks to address existing inequalities between social groups

While governments play an important role in improving liveability by providing infrastructure such as public transport and community facilities. They also engage in urban planning, prioritise public and green spaces, and invest in social services that create equitable opportunities for residents such as quality schooling or healthcare.

The following are just a few groups that have taken initiatives to improve liveability in cities:

• Environmental groups: These groups aim to protect and restore

natural spaces within cities. Some of the actions they take are planting trees, caring for wildlife habitats and engaging in the removal of weeds and invasive species. Examples include Landcare, a non-for-profit

Figure 8.6.3 A Seabin in Darling Harbour, Sydney. Environmental technicians empty these units daily and take data samples. This allows marine scientists to analyse, manage and collect data, which is then sent to governments to monitor ocean health and implement better practices to reduce the amount of plastics that end up in the ocean. ➜

There are many community groups and organisations within cities that also play essential roles in enhancing the liveability of places, particularly as many of them work alongside local governments to create fairer, healthier and more sustainable cities that meet the needs of different groups of people within communities. They can make significant changes such as improving the environment, supporting people in need, strengthening community and social connections, protecting cultural heritage, and creating safe and welcoming neighbourhoods. The actions of community groups can include planting trees, holding and organising community-run events, providing resources such as food or shelter, supporting youth or vulnerable groups, and Caring for Country.

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regeneration the process of renewing or restoring the growth of ecosystems and organisms by removing invasive weeds and allowing native plants to regrow naturally

organisation, while Bushcare is a local government volunteer program where community volunteers care for and restore unique natural environments. There are approximately 50 Bushcare regeneration groups working in the Blue Mountains, removing invasive plants and allowing native species to regenerate across multiple areas. Social support groups: These include charities and support services that aim to improve and support vulnerable groups of people who experience disadvantage or hardship. Their actions for change include providing food, clothing and shelter, along with additional support such as counselling and advice or connections for people to access job opportunities. Examples of these groups include food banks, refugee support centres and the Wayside Chapel in Sydney, a not-for-profit organisation that provides services for people experiencing homelessness. Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander organisations: These organisations strengthen cultural identity, support communities and protect First Nations cultures, ensuring Country is respected and cared for. Some actions undertaken by these organisations include organising programs and language workshops, as well as land-care projects using traditional knowledge. Examples of organisations supporting Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples include Aboriginal ranger programs and cultural centres such as the Redfern Community Centre for social activities. Link-Up is another organisation supporting Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples impacted by past government policies by reconnecting people with their families, communities and culture. There are also many “Caring for Country” projects focusing on local First Nations custodians working to preserve the environment using their cultural knowledge and connection to Country. Local neighbourhood associations and cultural groups: These associations bring neighbours and communities together to create inclusive and friendly spaces. Through running social events such as Parkrun, festivals, workshops and community garden projects, this encourages social connectedness within communities. Examples of some of these groups include multicultural centres such as the Philippine-Australian Community Services Inc (PACSI) located in Blacktown, Sydney. This organisation provides support for Filipino refugees and migrants to Australia through connecting them with new friends, employment and support. Parkrun is an initiative that is sponsored by Medibank and independent companies around the world, but it involves residents in the greater community to run for 5 kilometres, with community volunteers organising and recording the timings of each participant. Bringing people together, it encourages a sense of belonging and community identity. Youth mentoring programs: These community programs are designed to create connected and safer neighbourhoods for young people, providing support and building confidence, as well as developing life skills, while allowing youth groups to access positive role models within the community. Examples of programs include youth leadership or church groups, and university peer mentors such as AIME (Australian Indigenous Mentoring Experience). This program brings together over 5000 network leaders from schools, businesses and young people, particularly encouraging university students to volunteer and develop tools to mentor high school students with the aim of breaking down barriers to education and cycles of disadvantage.

•

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Figure 8.6.4 Bush regeneration is achieved by community groups.

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8.6 What are the roles and actions of community groups in enhancing liveability?

Figure 8.6.5 Parkrun held in Stockholm, Sweden

Urban planning strategies for liveable city design

Community groups and organisations are important for enhancing the liveability of places, supporting initiatives in urban planning and design. Biourbanism is an approach that works towards creating cities that are resilient in the face of change. Changes that can particularly impact cities are rising temperatures and sea levels, along with natural hazards. This can especially impact developing countries, as many buildings or homes in these cities are made from materials that are less durable and less able to cope with problems.

The biourbanism approach treats urban areas as different types of environments or living ecosystems, with residents as active agents who can shape and change cities. This approach understands the importance of natural processes and systems in an urban environment, and it aims to maintain the natural environment within cities while also meeting the needs of its human residents. This is why community groups are so important: they contribute to the liveability of these places as well as to urban development.

biourbanism an urban planning model with a focus on nature and the idea of the city is a whole ecosystem resilient able to overcome challenges or recover quickly from changes or difficult conditions durable the ability to survive and withstand changes such as pressure or damage

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For example, Sydney’s Green Square is a mixed-use town centre on what was a former brownfield site, with a focus on high-rise housing, or high-density living, and mixed-use urban spaces. The Drying Green is an open space in the middle of the town centre that was designed to be used as a public backyard for those living in the many apartments in the area. Features in the area include a wetland with native palms, solarpowered public artworks, water features that collect and reuse stormwater, and lawns and barbeque picnic areas for people to connect. There are also paths for exploring and accessible walkways across to the Green Square town centre. This allows easy access to facilities and services, while maintaining a sense of community for residents. It benefits different groups of people:

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high-density living a lot of apartments to house many people within a small area, often multistorey buildings

• Young families with children can access the multipurpose community spaces, • • •

playgrounds and picnic areas. Young professionals can access job opportunities in the area, while public transport and pedestrian-friendly areas provide further access to the city, which is less than 5 kilometres from Green Square. Older people have access to high-quality, walkable neighbourhoods, providing opportunities for low-impact exercise and social connections. The green spaces and public amenities such as the library and community spaces provide opportunities for social connection as well. Diverse cultural groups have opportunity for inclusive social connection in the public spaces, with the area being home to people from various language backgrounds.

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Figure 8.6.6 Infinity building, Green Square, Sydney. This is a mixed-use residential development or “vertical village” of apartments, hotel rooms, cafes and restaurants. It is designed to create urban sustainability with natural light and ventilation flowing through the building, while the building itself connects people directly to Green Square transport hub. Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78802-1 • (03) 8671 1400

8.6 What are the roles and actions of community groups in enhancing liveability?

Review 8.6 Online quiz

Knowledge and understanding

Thinking and working geographically

Students can access sample responses and results online

275

Teachers can go online to assign questions, view results, reports and more!

Knowledge and understanding

Outline the challenges and solutions needed to enhance liveability.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

1. 2.

Outline the role of governments in improving liveability.

Describe the role of community groups and organisations in improving liveability.

a. Identify the different groups and organisations that can improve liveability in cities. b. Outline the roles of each of these organisations and groups and how they aim to improve liveability c. Explain the impact of at least two of these groups, using examples on how they have improved liveability.

Outline what biourbanism is.

Define “resilience”.

Write two or three sentences answering the question: “How do community groups help create a more liveable city?”

Thinking and working geographically

Working with geographical concepts: Space 1.

Explain biourbanism and how this approach was applied in the design of one urban case study.

Explain the impact of biourbanism on improving liveability for different groups of people.

Geographical inquiry 3.

space The concept of space is the significance of location and spatial distribution, and the ways people organise and manage the spaces where they live.

a. Research online the role of one of the following groups. i. Bushcare Group Planting Trees in Western Sydney ii. Wayside Chapel Supporting Homeless Communities iii. National Parks & Wildlife Service (NPWS) Indigenous Discovery Rangers iv. Youth Mentoring Program Helping High-School Students such as PCYC NSW or the Smith Family v. Redfern Community Garden Improving Local Food Access b. Write a paragraph including the following information: • Outline the role of the group. • What problem is the group addressing? • Describe what actions they are taking. • Explain the impact the group has on the community and how it has improved liveability. How does it make a city more liveable and who benefits?

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8.7

Chapter review Access the Interactive Textbook for a range of digital tools to help you review this chapter and build confidence.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Summary

Summary notes

Download chapter summary

What have you learned about liveability in Australia?

For this activity, copy the table and fill it out by explaining your understanding. Aim for two points per topic.

Terms

What I have learned

Urbanisation Liveability

Infrastructure Sustainability

Spatial distribution

Visible thinking routine Circle of viewpoints

This exercise asks you to explore multiple perspectives on liveability in Australia. 1.

Choose one viewpoint to explore from the options below:

• A tourist • A school student • A business owner

With your chosen perspective, complete these three sentence starters:

• I am thinking of liveability in Slovenia from the viewpoint of … describe the viewpoint you’ve chosen.

• I think … describe the topic from your viewpoint. • A question I have from this viewpoint is … ask a question from this viewpoint.

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Questions Scorcher quiz

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Access a fast, fun, competitive quiz that puts your understanding to the test.

Quick questions

The following activities offer various ways to demonstrate your understanding of the chapter. 1.

The outward sprawl of low-density housing on the edge of cities is known as _____.

A ____ enclave is a suburb or area where a specific cultural group lives together, maintaining its traditions.

Which of these features is most essential to a 15-minute city?

A. High-rise office towers B. Essential services within walking distance C. Airports close to housing D. Major highways Which of the following is a major cause of urban sprawl in Australia? A. Decreasing population B. Fewer suburbs being built C. Immigration and natural population increase D. Less demand for housing

Which group often faces the greatest challenges accessing services in rural and remote Australia? A. Airline employees B. Backpackers C. Indigenous communities D. Tourists

Which of the following best describes urban consolidation?

A. Building new houses only outside the city B. Demolishing public spaces C. Only constructing highways D. Building more housing within existing urban areas

Referring to Figure 8.7.1, identify two reasons why cultural enclaves form in Australian cities.

Recall what a 15-minute city aims to achieve.

Summarise how Caring for Country benefits Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples.

Figure 8.7.1 Cabramatta’s Pai Lau Gate, erected in 1989 to commemorate South-East Asian communities in Australia ➜

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Writing focus The following activities allow you to practise your writing skills. ➜

Writing focus 8.7 Single paragraph response model

Answering questions in paragraphs You an use this as a model when writing your own answers to the questions that follow.

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Question: Explain the role and importance of urban planning. Use examples to justify how good urban planning can enhance liveability. (8 marks)

Model answer: Topic sentence: the first sentence of the paragraph; directly answers the question

Elaborate: additional information, interconnections Evidence: specific, relevant evidence to support your arguments Examples: provide credibility and illustrate the argument

Marking criteria for each question can be found in the Interactive Textbook. Refer to these criteria when planning and writing your responses.

Urban plannning plays a key role in organising how cities grow by designing transport networks, housing, public spaces and services in ways that support safe and efficient living. Good planning helps cities manage population growth, reduce congestion and ensures people can easily reach essential services like schools, shops, healthcare and recreation. This improves liveability by making neighbourhoods more walkable, connected and sustainable while reducing reliance on cars, and supporting social and economic participation. Melbourne’s CBD is particularly easy to navigate because the main streets are arranged in a grid pattern. This helps residents access key facilities within a short walk or cycle. Meanwhile Sydney’s redevelopment of Breakfast Point introduced the development of mid- to high-rise apartments. This transformed the old industrial land into a well-connected suburb with housing, green space and community facilities. Effective urban planning creates accessible, sustainable and communityfocused places that significantly enhance liveability.

Explain: clarify, define and describe

Examples: provide credibility and illustrate the argument Evidence: specific, relevant evidence to support your arguments Linking sentence: reconnects with language of the question the topic sentence

Structured-response questions Question 1

a. Outline some of the challenges impacting Australian cities. b. Explain the role and importance of urban planning. Use examples to justify how good urban planning can enhance liveability. c. With examples from the text, distinguish between urban sprawl and urban consolidation. Question 2

(20 marks) (4 marks)

(8 marks) (8 marks)

(20 marks)

a. Outline what is a cultural enclave and describe how they have formed. (4 marks) b. Using examples from the text, explain the impact of migration in Australian cities. (8 marks) c. How can unequal access to services and facilities create disadvantages for certain groups in a community? (8 marks)

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Extended-response questions Question 1

(20 marks)

Explain how Caring for Country activities can benefit both Aboriginal communities and the broader Australian population. Question 2

(20 marks)

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Distinguish between the availability of services and facilities in rural and urban areas, and explain how accessibility can impact liveability for people in both regions.

Teachers, access the Online Teaching Suite for digital resources and tools that support review, assessment and reporting, including:

➜

Figure 8.7.2 Residents of remote Australian communities like Bonya, NT sometimes have to travel hours to access public services and healthcare.

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Water in the world

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Focus area

CHAPTERS

➜

9. Water resources and their value 10. Water scarcity and water management 11. Geographical skills: Understanding weather and climate 12. Hydrological and atmospheric hazards

Image: A mangrove forest in Phang Nga Bay, Thailand

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Chapter

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Water resources and their value

Lessons 9.1

Geo Spark: What are the haves and have nots of water?

9.2

Why is water such an important resource?

9.3

Unequal waters: Who gets what?

9.4

What is the journey of a drop of water?

9.5

What is the water cycle?

9.6

Rain, rocks and roads: What influences water’s path?

9.7

How do humans affect the water cycle?

9.8

Water: Priceless or price-less?

9.9

What is the value of water for different people?

9.10 Chapter review

Image: The Rio Grande ﬂows south near Taos, New Mexico. The river begins in south-central Colorado and ﬂows through the US state of New Mexico before entering Mexico and spilling into the Gulf of Mexico.

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9.1

Geo Spark: What are the haves and have nots of water? Success criteria

In this lesson, you will learn to explore, using geographical sources, differences of water availability, access and quality across the world.

❏ I can identify differences in water availability, access and quality across the world.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Learning intention

Where does water come from?

➜

Writing focus 9.1 Question words

Every time you turn on the tap and water pours out, you probably don’t give it a second thought. But have you ever stopped to wonder where it actually comes from? What would happen if one day you turned the tap and water didn’t come out? For many people around the world, that simple turn of the tap is a luxury they’ve never known.

Activity 9.1

Visible thinking routine: See, think, wonder 1.

See: Describe what you see as clear differences in water situations around the world in terms of availability, access and quality.

Think: Consider why those differences occur and what they could mean for communities.

Wonder: Propose what future challenges may occur for the different groups shown. How could these differences be addressed by individuals, communities and governments?

➜

Figure 9.1.1 Water is not readily accessible in all parts of the world.

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9.1 Geo Spark: What are the haves and have nots of water?

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Unequal availability, access and quality of water

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Water is not an equally distributed resource. Many nations around the world find it challenging to access clean water for consumption. There are many factors that contribute to this uneven distribution, including government policies on industries, investments in urban and rural infrastructure, and Earth’s natural processes that make some parts of the world wetter and some parts drier. Australia is the driest inhabited continent on Earth! We face many challenges with water access and have had to develop strategies to ensure we have a steady supply for our individual and business needs. These include the construction of dams, using desalinated ocean water and recycling schemes to ensure our water supply doesn’t run out. It was not that long ago that Sydney introduced their first taskforce of water police, who aimed to regulate water usage during one of the city’s longest droughts, in 2005.

Case study: The Millennium Drought

The early years of the twenty-first century witnessed parts of Australia experiencing its worst drought on record and was named the “Millennium Drought”. It was characterised with a long period of very low rainfall, and water supplies in rivers and dams dropped significantly. Farmers in far west New South Wales watched as their livestock perished and vegetation disappeared. Meanwhile, many city households faced water restrictions that were enforced by water police who would drive around suburbs ensuring restrictions were being followed. This made people aware of how every drop of water was being used. LEGEND

Highest on record Very much above average Above average Average Below average Very much below average Lowest on record

1000 km

➜

Figure 9.1.2 Australian rainfall deciles

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➜

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This experience made Australians consider how we think about water. Even though the rains returned, most households started using water-saving devices and appliances, like dual-flush toilets and low-flow showerheads. Governments acted as well, with the construction of Kurnell NSW’s seawater desalination plant and the implementation of large-scale water-recycling projects to ensure our future supply of water.

Figure 9.1.3 A family with tank water in use

Activity 9.2

Visible thinking routine: Think, pair, share

Read the case study at the following link: https://cambridge.edu.au/redirect/11868 1.

Think: What did the Millennium Drought refer to?

Pair: With a partner, discuss the ways farmers and households were affected by this extended change in climate.

Share: As a pair, account for ways individuals and governments responded to the change in water availability.

➜

Figure 9.1.4 Inside the Kurnell desalination plant

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9.2 Why is water such an important resource?

9.2

285

Why is water such an important resource? Success criteria

In this lesson, you will learn about the different states and types of water resources found on Earth.

❏ I can outline the different states water can be found in. ❏ I can describe the different types of water resources found on Earth.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Learning intention

Starter activity

Thinking about drinking water

Figure 9.2.1 shows a wastewater treatment plant where wastewater, such as sewage, is filtered and purified to specific levels of quality. This recycled water can be used to water crops, flush toilets and even as drinking water if it is treated to the highest quality. Many places in Australia, such as Perth, are currently investigating the possibility of adding recycled water to their water supply, while some parts of Australia are already using water that contains recycled water. 1.

Would you be comfortable drinking water that contains recycled water? Justify your opinion.

Investigate the benefits and risks of using recycled water as part of water supplies. Based on this research, has your opinion changed?

➜

Figure 9.2.1 This wastewater treatment plant in California’s Orange County recycles enough water to supply 1,000,000 people.

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How much water is there on Earth?

➜

Figure 9.2.2 Water in liquid form

➜

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

➜

Writing focus 9.2 Conjunctions

Water is a chameleon and can take on many different states depending on its temperature and its stage within the water cycle (more on that later!). In its liquid form, water is found in our oceans, rivers, lakes and even falling from the sky as rain. When water drops below freezing, it changes into a solid, such as snow and ice. Water can also turn into a gas called water vapour, which occurs when liquid water is heated and turned into steam. These constant changes in state allow water to move through the environment and support life on Earth.

Figure 9.2.3 Water in solid form

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9.2 Why is water such an important resource?

➜

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Water is also one of the most abundant resources on Earth. Approximately 97.5 per cent of this water is found as salt water in oceans, which cover 71 per cent of Earth’s surface. This leaves 2.5 per cent as fresh water. Although fresh water is a small percentage of the total water on Earth, if this 2.5 per cent were readily available then it would be a plentiful supply. However, of this 2.5 per cent, 79 per cent is frozen in glaciers and ice sheets, such as those covering Greenland and Antarctica. A further 20 per cent is located underground in the groundwater supply. In fact, just over 0.5 per cent of all the fresh water on Earth is available as surface water in lakes and rivers.

287

Figure 9.2.4 Water in gaseous form

Oceans (saltwater) 97.5%

Fresh water 2.5%

Ice caps and glaciers 79%

fresh water water with less than 0.5 per cent of dissolved salts glacier a large mass of ice that moves slowly; a frozen river of ice that forms when snow accumulates and is compacted ice cap a thick layer of ice that permanently covers an area of land

Groundwater 20%

surface water water available on the surface of Earth in rivers and lakes

Other fresh water source 1%

Water in lakes 52%

Water in soil 38%

Water in rivers

Water vapour in the atmosphere

Water in living organisms

➜

Figure 9.2.5 Although Earth contains a very large amount of water, only a very small percentage is available as fresh water and an even smaller amount is available as surface water.

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Surface water perennial something that happens repeatedly or all the time

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

ephemeral something that happens only for a short time

As the name suggests, surface water is water located on the surface of Earth. This includes rivers, lakes and wetlands such as swamps. Most major cities are built near a reliable supply of surface water because it is easy and cheap to access. In some cases, surface water resources are perennial, which means that they are permanent. Perennial resources are lakes that always contain water and Figure 9.2.6 The Georges River is a perennial river in New South Wales. rivers that flow all year round, such as the Georges River in New South Wales (Figure 9.2.3). Although the Georges River is permanently flowing, the amount of flow varies each year. In drier areas, surface‑water resources are often ephemeral, which means they are semi-permanent. Ephemeral resources dry up during seasons with low rainfall. This is a common occurrence in many arid places in Australia, such as the Flinders Ranges in South Australia (Figure 9.2.7).

arid extremely dry, especially from lack of rainfall

➜

Figure 9.2.7 This dry riverbed in the Flinders Ranges, South Australia, is an example of an ephemeral resource.

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9.2 Why is water such an important resource?

Review 9.2 Online quiz

Knowledge and understanding

Thinking and working geographically

Students can access sample responses and results online

289

Teachers can go online to assign questions, view results, reports and more!

Knowledge and understanding

Outline the different states in which water can exist.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

1. 2.

Describe how a water source can be perennial or ephemeral.

If Earth has so much water, explain why it is still considered a limited and valuable resource for people.

Thinking and working geographically

Working with geographical concepts: Scale

Use the online resource to complete the following questions: https://cambridge.edu.au/redirect/11869 1.

Which continent has the lowest number of freshwater resources?

Which North American country is more vulnerable to running out of fresh water?

Identify three countries that have a large supply of freshwater resources.

scale The concept of scale highlights how geographical challenges can be managed across a range of scales, from local to global.

Geographical inquiry

Classify the following surface water sources as perennial or ephemeral, giving justification and an example for each. The first row has been completed for you.

Water source

Perennial or ephemeral?

Justification

Example

A river that flows all year round

Perennial

Perennial surface water flows The Georges continuously throughout the River, NSW year and does not dry up during low-rainfall periods.

A lake that always contains water Rivers in arid parts of Australia that dry up during low rainfall

➜

Wetlands which experience irregular rainfall

Figure 9.2.8 Myall Lake, NSW

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9.3

Unequal waters: Who gets what?

Success criteria

In this lesson, you will learn about global variations in the distribution, quantity and quality of water resources.

❏ I can describe reasons for global variations in the distribution, quality and quality of water resources.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Learning intention

Starter activity

Study the image in Figure 9.3.1. Working geographically, use the source information from the infographic to answer the questions.

➜

Figure 9.3.1 World water use

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9.3 Unequal waters: Who gets what?

Look at the map of the world that shows water footprint per capita by metres cubed (m3), which gives how many cubic metres of water each person, on average, consumes. a. Identify two countries whose people consume the least amount of water. b. Identify two countries whose people consume the most amount of water.

Look at the pie graph that shows the different types of water on Earth. a. Which type of water accounts for the largest amount of water found on Earth? b. Which type of water accounts for the smallest amount of water found on Earth?

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Look that the pictogram of waterdrops that shows countries that import water and visit https://cambridge.edu.au/redirect/11870 to look up the locations of the countries. a. Which two countries are most dependant on importing water resources? b. Which regions are these two countries located in?

Look at the water footprint of different foods consumed. a. Which popular food requires 24,000 litres of water to make 1 kilogram?

Extension

b. Select one food from the group and propose two reasons why its production requires so much water.

Global variations in the availability, quantity and quality of water

Writing focus 9.3 Note-making ➜

Due to the unpredictable nature of water flows and storages, the distribution of water over Earth’s surface is not equal. Recall that 71 per cent of Earth’s surface is covered by water and of that, 96 per cent is made up of oceans, making salt water the most prevalent source of surface water found on Earth. On the other hand, fresh water, the main resource land-based organisms require, is a valuable and scarce resource. This precious resource is not shared equally. Just as the world’s eight billion people are spread unevenly across the continents, so are our water resources.

➜

Figure 9.3.2 Where is Earth’s water?

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Global differences in the availability of water resources Access to clean and reliable drinking water differs greatly across the globe. Many developed countries have established infrastructure that has allowed for the collection and distribution of fresh water directly to homes and businesses. However, developing countries still rely on unsafe or distant water sources, creating significant social disadvantages for women and children, who are often the ones who are required to source and collect it.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

developed country a nation that has a strong economy, good healthcare, reliable services and a high standard of living for most people (e.g. Australia)

infrastructure the basic physical features and facilities that are public or private; this can include roads, railways and water supply

developing country a nation that is still improving its economy and services with many of its people not having access to education, healthcare and clean water (e.g. Chad)

Global differences in the quantity of water resources

Global freshwater distribution is uneven due to differences in climate and the physical makeup of a specific area (think mountains, proximity to the ocean and how high the land is above sea level). Countries like Brazil, Canada and Russia have higher quantities of fresh water thanks to their vast river systems that feed into lakes, and steady levels of rain that falls throughout the year. Conversely, places like Central Australia and the Middle East experience dry climates with limited rain, making water insecurity a constant issue. Population growth in these regions also puts additional pressure on the quantity of fresh water available to all people who live in an area.

Annual precipitation, 2025

Total annual precipitation — rain and snow — calculated as the sum of daily averages, reported as the depth of water falling to Earth's surface, excluding fog and dew.

597

1.64k

No data

0 mm

250 mm

500 mm

750 mm

1,000 mm

1,250 mm

1,500 mm

Data source: Contains modiﬁed Copernicus Climate Change Service information (2026)

1,750 mm

2,000 mm

2,250 mm

2,500 mm

OurWorldinData.org/water-use-stress | CC BY

Note: These estimates are based on satellite imagery. The uncertainty is higher for smaller regions as the estimates are based on approximately 30 km² grid averages rather than exact local measurements.

➜

Figure 9.3.3 Annual precipitation, 2025

Global differences in the quality of water resources Just because water is plentiful, it does not mean it is always clean. In some developing countries, poor sanitation can lead to contamination from bacteria, parasites and waste. People exposed to this source of water are more likely to contract diseases such as cholera and typhoid. In developed countries, water pollution often stems from Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78802-1 • (03) 8671 1400

9.3 Unequal waters: Who gets what?

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industrial chemicals, agricultural fertilisers and microplastics. For example, in New Zealand, blue-green algae outbreaks in river systems are triggered by agricultural fertilisers running off into water ways.

Share using safely managed drinking water, 2024

➜ Figure 9.3.4

Share of the population able to access safe drinking water, 2024

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Safely managed drinking water service means an improved water source¹ is located on the premises, available when needed, and free from contamination.

No data 0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

70%

80%

90%

100%

Data source: WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply, Sanitation and Hygiene (2025) OurWorldinData.org/water-access | CC BY

Death rate from unsafe water sources, 2023

1. Improved drinking water sources Improved drinking water sources are those that have the potential to deliver safe water by nature of their design and construction, and include: piped water, boreholes or tubewells, protected dug wells, protected springs, rainwater, and packaged or delivered Estimated annual number of deaths attributed to unsafe water¹ sources per 100,000 people. water.

No data

100

300

Data source: IHME, Global Burden of Disease (2025)

➜ Figure 9.3.5

Death rate from unsafe water sources, 2023

1,000

OurWorldinData.org/water-access | CC BY

Note: To allow for comparisons between countries and over time, this metric is age-standardized². 1. Unsafe water Microbial contamination of drinking water poses the greatest risk to drinking-water safety. It is often the result of contamination with feces. Unsafe water is a risk factor in diarrhea, cholera, dysentery, typhoid, and polio. 2. Age standardization Age standardization is an adjustment that makes it possible to compare populations with diﬀerent age structures, by standardizing them to a common reference population. How does age standardization make health metrics comparable?

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Chapter 9 Water resources and their value

Figure 9.3.6 Algae outbreak on a section of the Darling River, Tilpa, NSW, January 2019

Review 9.3

Online quiz

Knowledge and understanding

Thinking and working geographically

Teachers can go online to assign questions, view results, reports and more!

Students can access sample responses and results online

Knowledge and understanding 1.

Distinguish between developing and developed countries.

Account for the global differences in availability, quantity and quality of water resources.

Thinking and working geographically

Working with geographical concepts: Scale and Interconnection

Study Figures 9.3.4 and 9.3.5 to answer the following questions. 1.

How many people die in India every year per 100,000 people because of unsafe water?

Identify three countries that have an 80 to 100 per cent rate of people using safe drinking water sources.

Create written texts to describe geographical process 3.

scale The concept scale refers to the size of an area and how it is viewed in relation to another area.

interconnection The concept of interconnection emphasises that no object of geographical study can be viewed in isolation.

Watch the video Troubled Waters at https://cambridge.edu.au/redirect/11871. After watching, take on the role of a junior reporter and write a short newspaper article that explains what blue-green algae is, why it occurs, how it affects people and the environment, and what can be done to stop it.

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9.4 What is the journey of a drop of water?

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What is the journey of a drop of water?

9.4

Success criteria

In this lesson, you will learn what a catchment and drainage basin are, the different stages in the water cycle and how it operates.

❏ I can define “catchment” and “drainage basin”. ❏ I can explain how each stage in the water cycle works.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Learning intention

Starter activity

Water’s incredible journey

A drainage basin is an area of land drained by a river and its tributaries (smaller rivers that feed into the largest river). A catchment is an area within a drainage basin where rain is collected and directed into a particular river system. Study the image in Figure 9.4.1 and answer the questions.

➜

Figure 9.4.1 A drainage basin and catchment area

Where is rain caught and where does it eventually flow?

If a raindrop landed at the top of the mountain, list two different pathways it could take before reaching the ocean.

Propose reasons why you think rivers start small in the mountains and become much wider as the reach flatter land near the ocean.

Which natural features shown in the picture assist with guiding the flow of water?

How might human activities change the natural flow of water?

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The water cycle

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➜

Writing focus 9.4 Developing sentences

Water is constantly moving through landscapes by the processes that make up the water cycle (see Figure 9.4.2). Solar energy heats the water in rivers and lakes, and turns it into water vapour, in a process known as evaporation. Similarly, water in plants undergoes transpiration as water is lost from the leaves. As water cools in the atmosphere, clouds form and the water condenses. From this condensation, water droplets and ice crystals form. When clouds grow large enough, the water falls as precipitation, such as rain and snow. When this falls on the land, some of the water is absorbed into the soil and is added to the groundwater supply. Water that infiltrates into the soil eventually flows underground into rivers and lakes, or to the coast. Water that does not infiltrate into the soil flows over the land and into rivers. This is known as run-off. This water eventually makes its way into river systems and flows back out into the ocean where the cycle repeats itself.

evaporation the process of a liquid changing to a gas, especially by heating

transpiration the process of losing water through the surface or skin of a body or a plant

Condensation

Precipitation

condensation the process by which water vapour in the atmosphere cools and changes into liquid water

Transpiration

precipitation water that falls from the clouds towards the ground, especially as rain or snow

Infiltration

Run-off

inﬁltration the process where surface water soaks into the soil and becomes groundwater

erg

➜

run-off water that is not absorbed by the land and ﬂows from high areas to low areas

Und

rou

Evaporation

flow

Figure 9.4.2 The different processes involved in the natural water cycle

Despite constantly changing between a solid, liquid and gas through the water cycle, the total amount of water on Earth never changes. This means that the overall supply of water is finite. However, in areas that receive high and regular amounts of rain, the resource can seem infinite because the supply is constantly renewed. In other places, supplies are constantly monitored and use might need to be restricted if the finite supplies run low.

Water flows and water storages Think of the water cycle as a large water park. There are slides (where water is moving) and the pools (where water collects). In the water cycle, they are called water flows and water storages. Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78802-1 • (03) 8671 1400

9.4 What is the journey of a drop of water?

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Water flows consists of all the stages water travels on its journey – it is literally water in action! Precipitation is water moving from the atmosphere back down to Earth, like rain and snow. When water hits the land, it can become run-off, which is water moving over the top of the land and into lakes or rivers. Not all run-off makes it to a body of water; some seeps into the soil through infiltration. Think of water being absorbed by a sponge.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Water storages are places where water is stored. It can stay in these places for a few days or for thousands of years. The biggest storage of all is the oceans, which hold almost all of Earth’s salty water. The second largest storage is ice and glaciers, where water is stored in its solid frozen form. Aquifers are collections of groundwater that form through the process of infiltration. Clouds, believe it or not, are also examples of water storages as they hold onto the moisture absorbed by the atmosphere.

Review 9.4

Online quiz

Knowledge and understanding

Thinking and working geographically

Students can access sample responses and results online

aquifer a collection of groundwater that forms through infiltration

Teachers can go online to assign questions, view results, reports and more!

Knowledge and understanding 1.

Distinguish between a drainage basin and a catchment.

Summarise, in a series of dot points, the changes water goes through as it moves through the water cycle.

Justify why water can be classified as both finite and infinite, depending on the circumstances. (Hint: Review section 1.2.)

Thinking and working geographically

Working with geographical concepts: Interconnection 1.

Draw your own illustration of the water cycle and annotate the illustration with the main stages.

Create a Venn diagram with one side representing places with little amounts of water and the other side representing places with a lot of water. Categorise the following statements into the appropriate section of the diagram, ensuring the middle section of the diagram shows what the two sections have in common.

interconnection The concept of interconnection emphasises that no object of geographical study can be viewed in isolation.

• Area experiences regular rain throughout the year. • Area has lots of dry deserts. • People depend on freshwater sources such as rivers and rain for drinking water. • Water scarcity and drought are threats. • Often there are mountains and forests that store water. • Climate change affects the availability of water. • Flooding is a common hazard. • Population does not put as much pressure on water resources. • Governments must plan how water is used and managed. • Population growth creates water stress.

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9.5

What is the water cycle? Success criteria

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Learning intention

❏ I can explain the importance of groundwater using the example of the Great Artesian Basin.

In this lesson, you will learn about the importance of groundwater and investigate the world’s largest groundwater storage: the Great Artesian Basin.

Starter activity

Watch the video at https://cambridge.edu.au/redirect/11872 to learn about groundwater and answer the questions. 1.

What is an aquifer?

Where is the water table located and what does it show?

How does rainwater become groundwater?

How can groundwater come back to the surface?

Groundwater

➜

Writing focus 9.5 Creating topic sentences

porous something that has many small holes so liquid or air can pass through, especially slowly

Water located below Earth’s surface is known as groundwater. It comes from rain that has infiltrated into the ground and been absorbed by soil and porous rocks. The boundary between groundwater supplies and the drier soil above it is called the water table. Australia has a large system of groundwater basins, which stretch across about 60 per cent of the continent. The Great Artesian Basin is the largest of these; it is estimated to hold around 65,000 megalitres of water. Many people living in dry areas are reliant on groundwater supplies, especially when rain is erratic or during extended periods of drought. During these periods, water is pumped to the surface using bores. Although groundwater supplies are finite, they are replenished during periods of high rainfall.

Transpiration

water table boundary between groundwater supplies and the drier soil above

Infiltration

megalitre a metric unit of capacity equal to a million litres; symbol ML

Evaporation

bore a hole drilled into the ground to access underground water resources

ate r flo w di recti on

Precipitation

Pumping well

Riparian zone

Water

tab

Stream

Groundwater flow ➜

Figure 9.5.1 Groundwater comes from rain that infiltrates the soil layer.

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9.5 What is the water cycle?

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Australia’s liquid pot of gold: The Great Artesian Basin Deep underground in eastern Australia lies one of the most vital water storages on Earth: the Artesian Basin, the largest underground freshwater reservoir in the world! It stretches beneath Queensland, New South Wales, South Australia and the Northern Territory and covers an area more than 1.7 square kilometres. That is about 20 per cent of the entire mainland of Australia.

LEGEND Great Artesian Basin Recharge area

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Direction of water flow

Flinders River

Springvale

Barcaldine

QLD

Mulligan River

Springsure

Dalhousie

Eulo

Lake Eyre

Lake Frome

Bourke

Bogan River

NSW

ACT

VIC

500 km

TAS

➜

The water in this reservoir comes from rain that falls high along the Great Dividing Range, where water slowly seeps down through tiny spaces in layers of sandstone and becomes trapped between hard layers of rock. Natural springs have also formed where water under high pressure is pushed to the surface. These natural springs have been supporting life for millions of years.

Mitchell Straten River

Figure 9.5.2 The Great Artesian Basin

The Great Artesian Basin supports outback towns that have few freshwater sources such as rivers and lakes. It supplies drinking water, and water for livestock and industry, including mining. This vast hidden water resource reminds us that even though we cannot always see water beneath our feet, it is one of our most precious resources. Protecting it helps ensure that inland communities, environments and industries have a sustainable future.

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Review 9.5 Knowledge and understanding

Online quiz

Thinking and working geographically

Students can access sample responses and results online

Teachers can go online to assign questions, view results, reports and more!

Knowledge and understanding

Identify the type of water that is formed through the process of infiltration.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

1. 2.

Identify how much water is stored in the Great Artesian Basin.

Describe the challenges faced by people who live in dry inland communities regarding their water supply, and how they respond to them.

Explain the importance of the Great Artesian Basin to Australian communities.

Thinking and working geographically

Working with geographical concepts: Environment

Use Figure 9.5.1 to answer the questions. 1.

According to the diagram in Figure 9.5.1, which feature marks the top of the groundwater supply beneath the surface?

Using the arrows shown in the diagram, explain how water that infiltrates the ground can later emerge into a stream. Include reference to groundwater flow direction in your answer.

Interpreting geographical information using maps

Use Figure 9.5.2 to answer the questions.

environment The concept of environment is about the significance of the environment in human life, and the important interrelationships between humans and the environment.

Which four Australian states or territories does the Great Artesian Basin cover according to the map?

Why do many towns and communities shown on the map rely on the Great Artesian Basin for fresh water? Use evidence from the map to support your explanation.

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Figure 9.5.3 Water vapour from the high-temperature artesian water of Poonarunna 1 Bore, Kalamurina Station Wildlife Sanctuary, Lake Eyre Basin, northeast South Australia. Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78802-1 • (03) 8671 1400

9.6 Rain, rocks and roads: What influences water’s path?

9.6

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Rain, rocks and roads: What influences water’s path? Success criteria

In this lesson, you will learn about the main natural factors that influence water flows and storages including climate, topography and vegetation.

❏ I can explain how climate, topography and vegetation influence water flows and storages.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Learning intention

Starter activity

Annual precipitation, 2025

Total annual precipitation — rain and snow — calculated as the sum of daily averages, reported as the depth of water falling to Earth's surface, excluding fog and dew.

597

1.64k

No data

0 mm

250 mm

500 mm

750 mm

1,000 mm

1,250 mm

1,500 mm

Data source: Contains modiﬁed Copernicus Climate Change Service information (2026)

1,750 mm

2,000 mm

2,250 mm

2,500 mm

OurWorldinData.org/water-use-stress | CC BY

➜

Figure 9.6.1 Annual precipitation, 2024

Visible thinking routine: Think, pair, share

Study the map in Figure 9.6.1 to answer the questions. 1.

Which continents are the driest?

Which continents are the wettest?

Independently, write three reasons for the dry and wet patterns found across the world.

Discuss your responses with a partner. Combine your ideas to form one response to share with the class.

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Natural factors that influence water flows and availability

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Writing focus 9.6 Appositives

Do you ever wonder why the desert is so dry yet rainforests get a regular soaking? The water cycle is a global machine that is set in different gears in different places. The amount of rain an area gets depends on natural factors that can quicken, slow down or change the flow of water in an area. The three most important natural factors are an area’s climate, the shape of the land called topography, and the amount and type of vegetation (plants and trees) that grows.

Climate

climate the long-term average of weather conditions in a specific area, which includes patterns of temperature, rainfall, humidity, wind and other variables

Climate refers to the long-term weather pattern of a place and acts as the engine for the water cycle. In hot, tropical climates that are near the equator, the Sun’s heat energy causes high levels of evaporation over oceans and seas. Water vapour forms in the air, leading to high humidity and heavy daily rainfall. On the other hand, in cold, polar regions, there is much less heat energy. This means evaporation is very slow, and lots of water is contained in ice composites. This is why polar regions are actually considered deserts: they receive very little rain.

topography the shape of the land

orographic rainfall rain that forms when moist air is forced up over mountains and cools

➜

Figure 9.6.2 A tropical mangrove (left) and a glacial edge (right)

What differences do you notice between the two regions shown in Figure 9.6.2?

Topography

Topography refers to the shape of the land and it may form a wall that can stop and redirect where water falls. Mountains, valleys and coastlines can change how the air moves, where clouds form and how much rain different places receive. When moist ocean air hits a mountain, it is forced to rise because it cannot go through the rock. As the air climbs higher, it gets colder and the moisture inside it turns into clouds that drop rain or snow. They process is called orographic rainfall. The mountain side facing the ocean (leeward side) becomes very wet and green but once the air passes over the peak, it has lost most of its moisture. The far side of the mountain is much drier and often becomes a rain shadow as very little rain falls. This dramatic difference from forests to deserts can be existing within a space of a few kilometres.

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Rain shadow region

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Condensing water vapour

Precipitation

Dry, descending air

Moist, rising air

➜

Figure 9.6.3 Orographic rainfall

Another way rain is formed is through convectional rainfall, which happens on hot days. The Sun heats the ground and then warm air above it rises quickly like a hot air balloon being pulled into the sky. The air rises until it meets cool air and forms into clouds. These can turn into heavy showers and intense thunderstorms, which mainly form in tropical areas where the air is warm and humid.

convectional rainfall rain caused by hot air rising quickly from the heated ground and forming storm clouds

Rising air cools, condenses and forms clouds

Energy from the Sun heats the ground

Warm, moist pockets of air (convection currents) rise rapidly

The warm ground heats the shallow layer of the air above; moisture on the ground evaporates

Precipitation occurs

➜

Figure 9.6.4 Convectional rainfall

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Frontal rainfall occurs when two giant air masses meet. A warm, lighter air mass is forced to rise above a heavier, colder one. As the warm air moves upwards and cools down, the moisture in it forms clouds and leads to steady, widespread rain. The topography can influence the extent and strength of the downpour. For example, if the warm air mass is pushed towards a mountain range, the landscape forces it upwards even more. This extra lift causes the air to cool faster, increasing cloud formation, leading to a heavier rain event. Therefore, regions with higher areas of land receive much more rain during passing weather fronts.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

frontal rainfall rain that forms when warm air is pushed up over cold air where air masses meet

Condensation forms clouds

Warm air forced to rise over cold air

Front

Heavy rain along the front

➜

Figure 9.6.5 Frontal rainfall

Vegetation

Vegetation refers to the amount and types of plants and trees found in an area. This plays an important role in the functioning of the water cycle. Believe it or not, trees are like living water pumps – their roots pull water from the ground and then breathe the water out through leaves as water vapour. This process, called transpiration, adds a large amount of moisture to the atmosphere. In rainforests, for example, there are so many trees that this process allows them to create their own clouds and rainfall! Conversely, in areas of no vegetation, like a city or a desert, the lack of vegetation reduces the amount of moisture in the air and the level of precipitation the area experiences.

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9.6 Rain, rocks and roads: What influences water’s path?

Figure 9.6.6 Bucca Bucca Creek, Orara East State Forest, west of Coffs Harbour

Review 9.6

Online quiz

Knowledge and understanding

Thinking and working geographically

Students can access sample responses and results online

Teachers can go online to assign questions, view results, reports and more!

Knowledge and understanding 1.

Define climate.

How does the amount of heat energy in a place influence how much evaporation and rain it receives?

Explain how trees contribute to rainfall in areas such as rainforests.

Thinking and working geographically

Working with geographical concepts: Space and Environment 1.

Refer to the two images in Figure 9.6.2. How do climatic conditions differ between tropical and polar areas, and how do you think this affects the form of water that is stored in each place.

Refer to Figures 9.6.3, 9.6.4, 9.6.5. Explain how topography influences where rain falls by referring to the movement of moist air shown in the diagrams.

Geographical inquiry 3.

space The concept of space is the significance of location and spatial distribution, and the ways people organise and manage the spaces where they live. environment The concept of environment is about the significance of the environment in human life, and the important interrelationships between humans and the environment.

Research one place in Australia that has either high rainfall and lush vegetation or low rainfall and limited water supplies. Identify two natural factors that influence water availability in the chosen location and explain how each factor affects the amount of rain, water stored in the environment, and the types of plants and animals that can survive there. Present your findings in a creative platform of your choice (infographic, poster, travel brochure, etc.).

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9.7

How do humans affect the water cycle? Success criteria

In this lesson, you will learn how population growth, human activities and climate change have influenced the water cycle.

❏ I can explain how population growth, types of human activities and climate change have influenced the water cycle.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Learning intention

Starter activity

Cartoons are powerful tools that are used in geography to turn complex issues surrounding society or the environment into visuals that make it easier to understand and discuss. Symbolism, exaggeration and humour are often used to highlight the relationship between people and the environment. Through cartoon analysis, we are able to explore key geographical concepts including sustainability, water resources, human impacts and competition for resources. It encourages critical thinking and makes real-world issues more accessible and engaging. Let’s have a go!

➜

Use these steps to analyse the cartoon.

Figure 9.7.1 The fight for water

Observe: Identify the objects, characters, colours and expressions used in the image.

Symbols: Identify the characters that are used as symbols in the cartoon. For example, what do you think the fruit and vegetables symbolise?

Issue: Describe the message or problem the artist is showing.

Infer the message: Which feelings is the artist trying to evoke in the viewer?

Human factors that influence the water cycle

climate change a long-term shift in Earth’s average weather patterns and temperatures

As the global population continues to grow, the demand for cities, food and jobs will grow alongside it. Human activities related to these demands will directly divert, deplete and pollute the limited freshwater resources available. These activities also release greenhouse gases, triggering climate change, which fundamentally changes the water cycle and can lead to extreme weather events such as floods, tropical cyclones and drought.

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9.7 How do humans affect the water cycle?

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Population growth

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The Earth’s water cycle is a continuous, natural process. However, surging global population and the expansion of human activity have placed enormous stress on Earth’s natural systems. As our global population grows, so does the demand for water for drinking, sanitation, agriculture and industry. This demand is usually satisfied by diverting water sources, such as rivers, lakes and aquifers, to humanmanaged storage systems such as dams. Unfortunately in most cases, water is taken faster than it can be replenished, also compromising the quality of the water and the natural pathway the water would have passed.

➜

Figure 9.7.2 A small dam built in the village of Morbe, India, to collect and store rainwater during a monsoon and supply it to the city of Navi Mumbai

Water used for industry and agriculture

➜

One of the most significant impacts people have had on the water cycle comes from the development of industry and industrialised agriculture. Farming alone accounts for approximately 70 per cent of all freshwater withdrawals worldwide, mainly for irrigation. Irrigation diverts large amounts of water from its natural courses, leading to lower river flows and decreasing groundwater reserves. Figure 9.7.3 Large agricultural irrigation machine spraying corn crops with water in Additionally, agricultural run-off Toowoomba, Queensland is filled with pesticides and fertilisers that pollute downstream water bodies. Factories also demand large volumes of water for cooling, processing and manufacturing. Chemical residue from these processes often make their way back into the environment and can disrupt the aquatic ecosystems further.

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Amazing but true … Forever chemical PFOA (perfluorooctanoic acid) has entered the global water supply in frightening ways. Since the 1970s, factories poured waste into rivers and landfills, where this chemical leaked into the groundwater. Today, PFOA can found in remote mountain streams and Arctic snow, proving that once it enters the environment, it never leaves.

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Writing focus 9.7 Appositives

Climate change

PFOA (perfluorooctanoic acid) an artificial "forever chemical" used to make products non-stick and waterproof, which persists in the environment and the human body

Human activities, primarily land clearing for agriculture or settlements, and the burning of fossil fuels like coal, oil and gas, release greenhouse gases into the atmosphere. These gases trap additional heat within Earth’s atmosphere, causing global temperatures to rise. This increase in temperature has led to the enhanced greenhouse effect and has a direct and intensifying impact on the water cycle.

greenhouse gas gas in the air that traps heat from the Sun and keeps Earth warm (e.g. carbon dioxide) enhanced greenhouse effect the unnatural warming of Earth caused by excess human-released greenhouse gases that trap too much heat in the atmosphere

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Figure 9.7.4 Global carbon dioxide emissions since 1900

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9.7 How do humans affect the water cycle?

➜

Figure 9.7.5 Significant amounts of water are required to operate the cooling systems of AI data centres like this one in Sydney, a co-investment of OpenAI and Australian data centre operator NextDC.

Review 9.7

Online quiz

Knowledge and understanding

Thinking and working geographically

Students can access sample responses and results online

Teachers can go online to assign questions, view results, reports and more!

Knowledge and understanding 1.

Describe how population change has put more pressure on Earth’s water supply.

Explain how climate change could affect global water supplies.

Identify which human activity accounts for approximately 70 per cent of all freshwater withdrawals worldwide. Outline other ways farming impacts freshwater supplies.

Compare and contrast the impact of PFOA on the water cycle with the impact of greenhouse gases.

Thinking and working geographically

Working with geographical concepts: Interconnection

Use Figure 9.7.4 to answer the questions.

interconnection The concept of interconnection emphasises that no object of geographical study can be viewed in isolation.

The graph shows that CO2 emissions have mostly increased over time. What are two possible reasons why emissions have continued to rise since the 1950s?

According to the graph, during which major historical event did CO2 emissions experience the biggest drop and why do you think this event caused emissions to fall?

Engaging in geographical inquiry using geographical information 3.

Visit the website https://cambridge.edu.au/redirect/11873. Read through the information on climate change and create an infographic about it that includes:

• a definition • causes • impacts to water flows and storages.

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9.8

Water: Priceless or price-less?

Success criteria

In this lesson, you will learn about different economic and aesthetic values of water.

❏ I can describe economic and aesthetic ways people value water.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Learning intention

Starter activity

Table 9.8.1 describes the different ways people value can water.

Table 9.8.1 The different ways people value water Value

Description

Economic

How water helps people earn income and/or support business processes

Cultural

How water is linked to traditions, history and the idea of community

Spiritual

How water connects to beliefs, sacred places or religion

Aesthetic

How water makes a place beautiful or pleasing to view

Copy Table 9.8.2 and categorise each of the activities according to the associated value of water it has.

Table 9.8.2 Examples of the different ways people value water Economic value

Cultural value

Spiritual value

Aesthetic value

List of activities:

➜

• Fishing to sell the catch in the market • Swimming at Bondi Beach • Holding ceremonies in sacred rivers • Creating artwork inspired by a waterfall • Boating tours on a river for tourists • Learning traditional stories about water • Producing hydropower electricity • Enjoying a calm lake view • Farming crops using irrigation • Visiting a river important to native cultures • Drinking water blessed during rituals • Relaxing by the city waterfront

Figure 9.8.1 People canooing at Brunswick Heads, NSW

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9.8 Water: Priceless or price-less?

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Water: A valuable resource

Writing focus 9.8 Conjunctions

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Water is valued in different ways, including for its ability to generate income for a community or be a place of beauty for people to admire. The economic value of water comes from how it supports jobs, tourism, farming and industries. The aesthetic value is about how water creates beautiful places that people often enjoy for recreational and leisure purposes. Together these values show why communities worldwide should be protective of their water resources.

The economic value of water

Water is essential for industries that help countries develop and become wealthier. In Australia, the Murray–Darling River Basin provides vital water for farming, supporting billions of dollars’ worth of food production and thousands of jobs in regional towns each year. Globally, tourism that depends on water, such as tropical getaways and cruise-ship travel, earn high levels of profit for countries that depend on spending by tourists on accommodation, food and recreational activities. These examples show that water is a key driver of economic prosperity.

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Figure 9.8.2 Aerial view of the Murray–Darling River Basin

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Chapter 9 Water resources and their value

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Charleville

Roma

Toowoomba

Cunnamulla

QLD

St. George

Brisbane

Goondiwindi

Moree

NSW

Bourke

Narrabri

Tamworth

Broken Hill

Dubbo

Ivanhoe

Renmark

Adelaide

Murray Bridge

Wentworth Mildura

Pinnaroo

Swan Hill

Forbes

Cowra Wagga Wagga

Griffith

Deniliquin Echuca

Orange

Sydney

Canberra

Albury

Shepparton Horsham Shepparton Mooroopna Bendigo Seymour VIC

Melbourne

LEGEND

Capital city Main town

Main rivers

State border

300 km

TAS

Irrigation districts

Murray–Darling Basin

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Figure 9.8.3 Map of the Murray–Darling River Basin

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9.8 Water: Priceless or price-less?

Figure 9.8.4 Can we turn tourism from a threat into an opportunity?

The aesthetic value of water

Water can transform places into beautiful and enjoyable environments that people want to visit and explore. Sydney Harbour is one of the most famous waterfronts in the world, drawing visitors who enjoy its breathtaking views, sandy beaches and interactive experiences such as ferry rides, sailing and waterfront dining. The scenery creates a relaxing atmosphere, at the same time making the city of Sydney feel more vibrant and alive. On a global scale, natural wonders like Plitvice Lakes National Park in Croatia show how stunning water landscapes can be. The park’s clear turquoise lakes and cascading waterfalls attract millions of tourists each year. These examples show how the aesthetic value of water makes places special and unforgettable for people who get the opportunity to experience them.

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Figure 9.8.5 Plitvice Lakes National Park Waterfalls, Croatia

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Review 9.8 Knowledge and understanding

Online quiz

Thinking and working geographically

Students can access sample responses and results online

Teachers can go online to assign questions, view results, reports and more!

Knowledge and understanding

Distinguish between the economic and aesthetic value of water.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

1. 2.

Describe two economic examples that show how water supports jobs and income in Australia and globally.

Explain how water can enhance a place and make it more enjoyable to experience. Use an example in your response.

Thinking and working geographically

Working with geographical concepts: Sustainability

Refer to the infographic in Figure 9.8.4 to answer the questions. Make sure to include evidence from the source in your responses. 1.

Describe one way tourism affects natural resources and one way it impacts local communities.

Explain how sustainable tourism minimises environmental damage.

Geographical inquiry

For each of the below examples, decide whether it shows the economic value, aesthetic value, or both, and explain why.

Example

Economic value Aesthetic value Both

sustainability The concept of sustainability is about the capacity of the environment to continue to support our lives and the lives of other living creatures into the future.

Explanation

The Murray-Darling River Basin supporting farming and jobs Tourists spending money on cruise-ship travel Sydney Harbour attracting visitors with views and leisure activities

➜

Plitvice Lakes National Park attracting millions of tourists

Figure 9.8.6 A tourist ferry boat on Plitvice Lake, Croatia

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9.9 What is the value of water for different people?

9.9

315

What is the value of water for different people? Success criteria

In this lesson, you will investigate the importance of water to the Gunditjmara people.

❏ I can explain the importance of water at Budj Bim to the Gunditjmara people.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Learning intention

Starter activity

Visible thinking routine: See, think, wonder

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson. 1.

See: Examine Figure 9.9.1 and describe what you notice about the image.

Think: What is it used for?

Wonder: What questions do you have about this image?

Ways of thinking about water

Writing focus 9.9 Conjunctions ➜

For First Nations peoples, water is more than just a resource: it is a sacred part of life. Water is part of Country and is closely tied to the land, spirituality and wellbeing of communities. Waterways such as rivers, lakes and springs are seen as living beings with their own meaningful stories or songlines, which have been passed down through generations. These places are often connected to important cultural practices, ceremonies and the health of Country as a whole.

➜

Figure 9.9.1 What do you think this object is?

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aquaculture system the farming or growing of aquatic animals and plants in a controlled environment

Lake Condah on Gunditjmara Country in Victoria is home to one of the most remarkable examples of ancient aquaculture systems in the world. The stone fish traps found at Lake Condah, and similar sites, demonstrate the advanced knowledge and ingenuity of Aboriginal people in sustainably managing resources.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

selfdetermination having the freedom and power to make decisions about one’s own life and future, including the ability to maintain and develop culture, language and identity

In contrast, many other Australians might see water mainly as something to use in daily life: for drinking, farming or making electricity. Non-Indigenous people often understand that water is important for survival and fun, but may not fully appreciate the deep spiritual and cultural connections that First Nations people have with water as Country.

The Budj Bim landscape in south-western Victoria was formed around 30,000 years ago through volcanic activity from the Budj Bim (Mount Eccles) volcano. Basaltic lava flows altered the terrain by filling valleys and blocking watercourses, leading to the creation of Lake Condah and extensive wetlands. Bruce Pascoe, in Young Dark Emu, highlights the genius of these aquaculture systems, which allowed communities to harvest fish and eels efficiently and sustainably. Accounts from colonial diaries often dismissed these complex engineering feats, undermining the intelligence and sophistication of Indigenous peoples and cultures. These writings reflect the prejudiced ideas of the time, failing to recognise the advanced and sustainable practices that were already in place long before European colonisation.

Amazing but true …

Aquaculture systems have been used by Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples for thousands of years to catch and breed fish in a way that protects the environment and ensures there is always enough food for the community.

Since colonisation, First Nations peoples have been denied the right to control their own lives, lands and water. This right is called self-determination. Colonial policies on water management have often ignored Aboriginal voices. The removal of First Nations Peoples from their lands and waters during the Stolen Generations caused significant harm. First Nations Peoples were not allowed to speak their own languages, which impacted the ways that stories about water were passed on. To ensure a sustainable future for water in Australia, it’s important to listen to and act on First Nations Peoples’ knowledge about water management.

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9.9 What is the value of water for different people?

Whittlebury Swamp

Lake Condon

Lake Condah Aboriginal Mission

317

Lake Surprise

Garie Swamp

Glenelg Ri er v

Wan

Mount Clay

Lake Condah Aboriginal Mission

Eu m e

Tyrendarra

ra l la River

Kurtonitj

Dar

lo t s

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

C reek

Budj Bim

iver nR o n

Gunditjmara

Budj Bim

pki

Tyrendarra

ns Riv e r

Kurtonitj

20 km

➜

Figure 9.9.2 The location of Lake Condah and Budj Bim Cultural Landscape in western Victoria on Gunditjmara land. Budj Bim is a Gunditjmara name meaning “High head”, referring to the roughly conical peak rising 178 metres.

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Review 9.9 Online quiz

Knowledge and understanding

Thinking and working geographically

Students can access sample responses and results online

Teachers can go online to assign questions, view results, reports and more!

Knowledge and understanding

Define “aquaculture”. Define “self-determination”. Review your responses to the starter activity at the beginning of this lesson. Read the artist’s description below and consider your learning in this chapter, then respond to the question.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

1. 2. 3.

The breeze going through the eel trap gives a feeling of water flowing through the vessel with the feathers softly waving as the water flows. My grandfather Nicholas Couzens and my uncles made eel traps to fish the Hopkins River – this is how my mother learnt the techniques, which she passed on to me.

Bronwyn Razem, Gunditjmara/Kirrae Whurrong

Outline how creating art based on traditional water practices is related to self-determination for Gunditjmara people today.

Thinking and working geographically

Working with geographical concepts: Sustainability and Interconnection

“Rather than living passively off whatever nature provided, the Gunditjmara actively and deliberately manipulated local water flows and ecologies to engineer a landscape focused on increasing the availability and reliability of eels.

Manipulation of the landscape involved stone structures (such as traps and channels) dating back at least 6,600 years. Eel aquaculture facilities (ponds and dam walls) predate contact with Europeans by many hundreds (and possibly thousands) of years.”

Damien Bell, The Conversation

“The Budj Bim landscape is full of meaning to the Gunditjmara people. More than 30,000 years ago the Gunditjmara witnessed the ancestral creation-being, Budj Bim, reveal himself in the landscape.”

Department of Climate Change, Energy, the Environment and Water

Write a short paragraph or create a visual representation (e.g. a drawing or diagram) that explains your understanding of the quotes. Include the following points:

sustainability The concept of sustainability is about the capacity of the environment to continue to support our lives and the lives of other living creatures into the future. interconnection The concept of interconnection emphasises that no object of geographical study can be viewed in isolation.

• how Gunditjmara people use water in their daily lives (e.g. for farming eels) • the spiritual and cultural importance of water to Gunditjmara people • why water is so central to the health of the land and the community.

Geographical inquiry

Investigate the importance of water sources for Custodians of Country in your local area. With reference to your research, explain the spiritual and cultural value of water to First Nations people.

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9.9 What is the value of water for different people?

➜

Figure 9.9.3 Timeline of Gunditjmara connection to Budj Bim, (c) Sharon Davis & Julie Bover

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9.10

Chapter review Access the Interactive Textbook for a range of digital tools to help you review this chapter and build confidence.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Summary

Summary notes

Download chapter summary

What have you learned about water resources and their value?

For this activity, copy the table and fill it out by explaining your understanding. Aim for two points per topic.

Terms

What I have learned

Water availability

Water accessibility Water quality Water cycle

Topography

Visible thinking routine Circle of connections

This exercise helps you connect physical geography, human use and value of water into one integrated mental model. 1.

At the centre of your page write: WATER.

Draw a large circle around it. Then add four connected branches:

• Where water is • How water moves • How people use water • Why water is valued.

Under each branch, write at least four ideas from the chapter.

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9.10 Chapter review

321

Use these prompts to help you get started. Where is water

How water moves

What forms does water exist in?

How does water travel through Earth’s systems?

Where is most fresh water stored?

What processes shift water between places (e.g. evaporation, precipitation, run-off, groundwater, the water cycle)?

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

What proportion is actually usable (e.g. glaciers, groundwater, rivers, lakes, oceans)? How people use water

Why water is valued

What do people and societies use water for? Why does water matter? How does this differ between places (e.g. households, agriculture, cities, industry, sanitation)?

What different values does water have (e.g. economic, cultural, spiritual, environmental, survival)?

Extension: Deepening thinking

Draw three arrows between branches and explain the relationship.

Example: “Water stored in glaciers affects how much flows through rivers, which affects how much water farmers can use.”

Questions

Scorcher quiz

Access a fast, fun, competitive quiz that puts your understanding to the test.

Quick questions

The following activities offer various ways to demonstrate your understanding of the chapter. 1.

Only 2.5 per cent of Earth’s water is available as surface water.

Water that infiltrates the soil and collects underground is known as

The

occurs when water vapour cools and changes back into liquid water in the atmosphere.

Which water source accounts for the largest percentage of Earth’s total water?

, and only a tiny portion of that is .

is an area of land that drains into a river and its tributaries.

Basin stores approximately 65,000 megalitres of water underground.

A. Lakes B. Groundwater C. Ice caps D. Oceans

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What is the main reason fresh water is considered a limited resource?

A. Most fresh water is polluted. B. Most fresh water is frozen or underground. C. People do not use water wisely. D. There are too many rivers. What caused the severe impacts of the Millenium Drought in Australia?

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

A. Cyclones and floods B. High rainfall over many years C. Long periods of extremely low rainfall D. Industrial pollution of water

Which human activity uses around 70 per cent of the world’s fresh water?

A. Agriculture B. Household use C. Firefighting D. Manufacturing

10.

What is a key cultural value of water for First Nations Peoples? A. It represents a spiritual connection to Country. B. It is mainly used for irrigation. C. It is a recreational resource. D. It is only used for drinking.

11.

Identify one way climate influences water availability.

12.

Recall the difference between perennial and ephemeral water sources.

13.

Using Figure 9.10.1, outline how human activities like farming can affect the water cycle.

Condensation

Precipitation

Transpiration

Infiltration

Run-off

Und

erg

rou

Evaporation

flow

➜

Figure 9.10.1 The different processes involved in the natural water cycle

14.

Why is the Great Artesian Basin important for inland Australian communities?

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323

Writing focus The following activities allow you to practise your writing skills.

You can use this as a model when writing your own answers to the questions that follow. (10 marks)

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Question: Explain why water is considered both abundant and scarce.

Writing focus 9.10 Single paragraph response model ➜

Answering questions in paragraphs

Model answer: Topic sentence: the first sentence of the paragraph; directly answers the question

Elaborate: additional information, interconnections Examples: provide credibility and illustrate the argument

Water is considered abundant because it covers approximately 71 per cent of Earth’s surface. However, it is also scarce, because 97.5 per cent of this water is salt water and cannot be used for drinking or agriculture. Although freshwater makes up the remaining 2.5 per cent, most of it is locked away in glaciers and ice caps or stored underground, making it difficult for humans to access. This means that less than 1 per cent of Earth’s total water is available as surface water in rivers and lakes, which is the portion humans rely on for daily use. As a result, communities in dry climates or areas with growing populations can experience water shortages even though the planet appears water rich. This includes areas in Central Australia and the Middle East, which experience limited rainfall. Therefore, water is abundant in quantity but scarce in usability for humans.

Explain: clarify, define and describe

Evidence: specific, relevant evidence to support your arguments

Linking sentence: reconnects with language of the question the topic sentence

Structured-response questions Question 1

(10 marks)

Explain why water is considered both abundant and scarce. Question 2

(10 marks)

Describe two reasons why access to clean water varies between countries. Question 3

(10 marks)

Marking criteria for each question can be found in the Interactive Textbook. Refer to these criteria when planning and writing your responses.

Outline how climate and topography influence water availability. Question 4

(10 marks)

Explain one way human activity has altered the natural water cycle.

Extended question

Explain how physical and human factors influence the availability, use and value of water in different places.

Teachers, access the Online Teaching Suite for digital resources and tools that support review, assessment and reporting, including:

Chapter

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Water scarcity and water management

Lessons

10.1

Geo Spark: Mexico City: A megacity on the brink?

10.2

Scarce supply: What are the causes of water scarcity?

10.3

Case study: How did the city of Kabul in Afghanistan run out of water?

10.4

What are the impacts of water scarcity?

10.5

Social and economic impacts: How much does data cost Earth?

10.6

Environmental impacts: What has changed in Earth’s natural systems?

10.7

What are the short-term and long-term solutions to water management?

10.8

Case study: What has been Israel’s response to water management?

10.9

What do we know about Indigenous management and care for Country?

10.10

Chapter review

➜

Image: Dried up reservoir soil at sunset

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10.1 Geo Spark: Mexico City: A megacity on the brink?

10.1

325

Geo Spark: Mexico City: A megacity on the brink? Success criteria

In this lesson, you will learn about water scarcity and its effects on a major city.

❏ I can explain the main causes of water scarcity in Mexico City.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Learning intention

Introduction

Severe water rationing was imposed, with many poor residents receiving water for only a few hours every few days. They were forced to wait in long lines, sometimes overnight, for government-supplied water, and store water in their rooftop tanks and any other container available.

Writing focus 10.1 Question words ➜

In early 2024, the Cutzamala System, a network of reservoirs, pumping stations and canals that supplies nearly 30 per cent of Mexico City’s water, reached an all-time low. Due to years of abnormally low rainfall and extended periods of drought, the reservoirs fell to below 30 per cent of their capacity.

➜

Figure 10.1.1 A river forms in the Villa Victoria dam and leads to the Cutzamala System to supply water to Mexico City.

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Activity 10.1 Visible thinking routine: Circle of viewpoints Setting the scene: Where is Mexico City located? 1.

Find Mexico City on a world map and identify the following characteristics:

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

a. The continent and country it belongs to b. Altitude (how high above sea level does it lie) and surrounding mountains c. Where the Cutzamala System lies in relation to the city

Write a mini summary that describes Mexico City’s location and the type of environment it is built in. (Consider how being built in a basin affects its water supply.)

Investigating perspectives

A viewpoint refers to a perspective or point of view taken by a group of people. Many people are affected differently to issues that involve them and it is important to consider all viewpoints when analysing a geographical issue.

The table shows four different viewpoints related to Mexico City’s water crisis. Draw up a similar table in your notebook. Complete the sentence prompts for each viewpoint shown in the table.

Viewpoint

I am thinking about …

I believe …

I am concerned about …

I think others should know …

A local resident in a poor neighbourhood A city government planner

An environmental scientist A student from Sydney imagining this crisis at home

Reflection and class discussion 4.

Which viewpoint surprised you?

How did geography influence this issue?

Complete the sentence: If this happened in my city, I think people would …

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10.2 Scarce supply: What are the causes of water scarcity?

10.2

327

Scarce supply: What are the causes of water scarcity? Success criteria

In this lesson, you will learn about the main causes of water scarcity in the modern world.

❏ I can explain the main causes of water scarcity with the use of examples.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Learning intention

Starter activity

LEGEND

Little or no water scarcity Physical water scarcity Approaching physical water scarity Economic water scarcity Not estimated

5000 km

➜

Figure 10.2.1 A map showing global water scarcity

Use Figures 10.2.1 and 10.2.2 to answer the questions. 1.

Identify patterns you notice in Figure 10.2.1. Which parts of the world are facing the highest levels of physical water scarcity?

Compare the two figures. Are any of the top freshwater-consuming countries also located in areas of high-water scarcity? Give two examples.

Why do you think China and India use so much fresh water?

Look at Brazil and Russia on both figures. How does their water availability compare with their total freshwater use?

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1,368,004

LEGEND

1,144,605

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Other (milk, eggs, fruits, oils, nuts, sugar, rubber, and more) Meat

821,354

Agriculture, cereals Industry

Household

355,374

270,490

232,239

199,429

197,425

174,779

157,336

China

India

USA

Brazil

Russia

Indonesia

Pakistan

Mexico

Japan

Nigeria

➜

Figure 10.2.2 Top 10 freshwater-consuming countries

What do you think might happen if countries that already experience water scarcity continue to increase their freshwater consumption?

Based on your observations of both figures, what kinds of actions could help countries reduce pressure on their freshwater resources?

What is water scarcity?

➜

Writing focus 10.2 Conjunctions

physical water scarcity when there isn’t enough water in a place for all the people, animals, plants and the environment that need it economic water scarcity when there’s water in a place, but people can’t access it because they don’t have the money, pipes or technology

Water scarcity is the lack of sufficient freshwater resources to meet the standard water demands of an area. It is caused by the demand for water from multiple sources, including agriculture, domestic use and industry, exceeding the supply of water available. This issue is usually broken down into two main types. The first is physical water scarcity, which occurs in dry desert regions where there is not enough water in the natural environment to meet current needs. The second is economic water scarcity. This occurs when water is physically available but due to a lack of investment, infrastructure or proper management, people are unable to access available sources.

Causes of water scarcity

There are many interconnected factors that drive water scarcity in the modern world, transforming it into a critical global challenge that we all need to manage. The main causes include population growth and agricultural demand, climate change, pollution and poor management.

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10.2 Scarce supply: What are the causes of water scarcity?

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Population growth and agricultural demand

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

The world’s population has exceeded eight billion people, increasing demand for water for drinking, sanitation and manufacturing. The single largest driver for water is agriculture, which accounts for approximately 70 per cent of all global freshwater withdrawals. To feed our growing population, more and more water is diverted for irrigation to grow crops. This problem is then compounded by inefficient irrigation methods and the growing of waterintensive crops in regions that are not naturally designed to support them. This leads to the depletion of local rivers, lakes and groundwater.

Climate change

Climate change is a significant driver of water scarcity. It disrupts traditional weather patterns, leading to more extreme weather events, where some places experience severe extended periods of drought while other places experience intense unpredictable flooding. The culprit is global warming, which occurs when global temperatures increase over time. This is caused by releasing more carbon and other greenhouse gases into our atmosphere, trapping more heat than in the past. Rising global temperatures increase the rate of evaporation from surface water and soils, causing changes to Earth’s natural systems. Furthermore, climate change is causing glaciers and snowpack, which act as natural sources of stored fresh water for billions of people, to melt at a faster rate, compromising the long-term supply of many catchments.

global warming a rise in Earth’s average temperature due to the atmosphere’s inability to release heat because of the growth of greenhouse gas emissions

Pollution and poor management

Unfortunately, many sources of fresh water are contaminated due to human activity and/or poor management. Run-off from agricultural activity contains pesticides and Colorado River allocations (20,295 gigalitres (GL*)

WYOMING

NEVADA

Green R.

th Sou

Upper basin (45.5% )

COLORADO Arkansas River

G ila R

iver.

500 km

MEXICO

LEGEND

Upper Colorado Basin Lower Colorado Basin Colorado Basin in Mexico

Upper Colorado export areas Lower Colorado export areas

Mexico (9%)

NEW MEXICO

Nevada (2%)

MX (9%)

ARIZONA

S a n Jaun

R i o Grand e

CALIFORNIA

d C o lara

Wyoming (6%)

New Mexico (5%)

oR .

UTAH

Utah (10%)

Colorado (23%)

e Plat

Low

e r b a s i n (4 5 . 5 %

)

Arizona (17%)

California (27%)

*1GL = 1 billion litres (about the same amount of water in 400 Olympic-size swimming pools)

➜

Figure 10.2.3 Where water from the Colorado River is used

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➜

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

fertilisers, which can disrupt the natural pH balance of river systems. Furthermore, untreated sewage from cities and chemical waste from industries all pollute surface water and groundwater supplies, reducing the amount of safe, usable water. This is a problem of mismanagement, which also includes factors like dated or decaying infrastructure and the over-extraction of groundwater from aquifers at a faster rate than they can be replenished.

Figure 10.2.4 The Hoover Dam, Colorado River, Nevada

Review 10.2

Online quiz

Knowledge and understanding

Thinking and working geographically

Teachers can go online to assign questions, view results, reports and more!

Students can access sample responses and results online

Knowledge and understanding 1.

Outline the two main types of water scarcity.

Explain why agriculture is considered the largest driver of water scarcity.

How does climate change affect both the short-term and long-term availability of water resources?

Based on the text, how are pollution and poor management connected to economic water scarcity?

Thinking and working geographically

Working with geographical concepts: Interconnection

Visit the website https://cambridge.edu.au/redirect/1187446 to answer the following questions:

interconnection The concept of interconnection emphasises that no object of geographical study can be viewed in isolation.

Identify the two American cities that could face water-security issues in the foreseeable future.

Identify the largest river reservoirs within the Colorado River Basin and why they are at record low levels. What other resources rely on these water systems?

How many people rely on the river for water? What are the main uses of this water supply?

Geographical inquiry 4.

Research one of the following river basins that has been altered by unsustainable usage of its water sources:

• Murray–Darling River Basin • Amazon River Basin – Negro Tributary • Indus River Basin. In your research:

• locate the country and state(s) the river is located in and where it supplies water to • describe the main factors that have negatively changed the flow of the river system.

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10.3 Case study: How did the city of Kabul in Afghanistan run out of water?

331

Case study: How did the city of Kabul in Afghanistan run out of water?

10.3

Success criteria

In this lesson, you will learn about the main factors that contributed to Kabul’s declining water supply.

❏ I can explain physical and human factors that have contributed to Kabul’s declining water supply.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Learning intention

Starter activity

TAJIKISTAN

UZBEKISTAN

CHINA

TURKMENISTAN

Badakhshan

Kunduz

Mazar-e-Sharif

KUSH

Tashkurghan

U HIND

Pul-e Khumri

Nuristan

Bamiyan

Chaghcheran

Herat

Jalalabad

Kabul

Minaret of Jam

AFGHANISTAN

Ghazani

ver

h Ri Fara

IRAN

Helmand Valley

Farah

Girishk

Kandahar

Lashkar Gah Zaranj

nd Helma

Gardez

Ri v e

INDIA

Dasht-e Margo

300 km

➜

Figure 10.3.1 Map of Afghanistan and surrounding territories

Visible thinking routine: Connect, extend, challenge 1.

Connect: Study the map in Figure 10.3.1. Describe its location in relation to bodies of water, mountains, deserts and access to the sea/ocean. Share responses as a class.

Extend: Read this newspaper passage and list two new facts or ideas that build on what you already know about the causes of water scarcity and why Afghanistan may be affected by this issue.

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U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Afghanistan is facing a serious water crisis. Rising temperatures are melting the snow and glaciers in the Hindu Kush Mountains faster than ever before, causing rivers to dry up earlier each year. Long periods of drought mean there is less rain to refill wells and reservoirs. In many villages, families walk for hours each day just to collect water. Years of war have damaged pipes and irrigation systems, and many people rely on digging deeper wells – which drains underground water supplies. Rapid population growth in cities like Kabul is also putting extra pressure on limited resources. With most of Afghanistan’s rivers flowing into neighbouring countries, tensions over who controls the water are increasing. Experts warn that unless action is taken soon, Afghanistan’s next big challenge may not be about land – but water.

Adapted from Lina Rahimi, “Running dry: Afghanistan faces a growing water crisis”, 2025

Challenge: What still puzzles you about Afghanistan’s water situation? Individually, consider one question that you would like to know about this geographical issue.

Afghanistan’s water resources

➜

Writing focus 10.3 Note-making

Afghanistan is one of the world’s most water-stressed countries. Although its physical landscape is characterised by high mountains, flowing rivers and snow as found in the Hindu Kush Range, its supply of clean water is rapidly declining. Current trends indicate that the country could face extreme water shortages within the next decade. This crisis is due to a combination of physical and human factors that are getting more serious each year.

Physical factors

landlocked a country that has no border with the ocean, but is surrounded by other countries

urban growth the increase in the population that lives in city areas

The geography of Afghanistan makes it more prone to water shortages than other countries. It is a landlocked and mountainous country that relies on melting snow and glaciers to feed its rivers. Climate change and rising temperatures are causing the glaciers to melt earlier in the year, meaning there is a reduced flow during the summer months, when people need it most. Temperatures can reach up to 50°C in the desert regions and often get to 40°C in areas of low elevation like Kandahar. Long-lasting droughts and changing rainfall patterns have also reduced groundwater recharge and river levels. In some areas, rivers are drying before they reach settlements or farms, and wells are not being replenished.

Human factors

War and conflict have been being waged for decades and in the process damaged key water infrastructure including pipes, dams and irrigation systems. This has left many communities unable to access reliable water supplies. Furthermore, rapid urban growth in cities like Herat and Kabul have increased the demand for fresh water faster than authorities can provide it. In response, residents are over-pumping groundwater from wells, which causes the underground aquifers to fall lower each year. Weak government management and limited investment mean that many areas still lack adequate water planning and recycling systems. In addition, most of Afghanistan’s rivers flow into neighbouring countries, creating regional tension and limiting how much water remains within its national borders.

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10.3 Case study: How did the city of Kabul in Afghanistan run out of water?

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Kabul: A city in crisis

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Figure 10.3.2 The polluted Kabul River bed in Afghanistan

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U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Kabul stands at an elevation of approximately 1,800 metres, making it slightly cooler than lower lying areas. It reaches between 35°C and 38°C during the summer months, but it is running out of water. The city depends on the Kabul, Logar and Paghman Rivers, which are fed by the snowmelt of the Hindu Kush Mountains and have been hit by the impacts of global warming and climate change. These factors have resulted in less water reaching the city’s dams and aquifers. The Taliban’s return to power in 2021 has resulted in a lack of aid and investment in water infrastructure, with projects to improve water storage and water management stalling. Additionally, rapid population growth and overuse of groundwater are leaving Kabul’s water supply in crisis. If these challenges continue, Kabul could become a city that faces Day Zero – when the taps run completely dry.

Figure 10.3.3 Kabul’s bazaar – a market along the river

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Figure 10.3.4 A girl carries canisters of water from a water truck to her home on top of a hill in Kabul, where access to water taps is impossible due to the elevation.

Review 10.3

Knowledge and understanding

Online quiz

Thinking and working geographically

Students can access sample responses and results online

Teachers can go online to assign questions, view results, reports and more!

Knowledge and understanding 1.

Recall two natural features that Afghanistan relies on to supply its rivers with water.

Describe how both conflict and urban growth have added to the country’s water-shortage challenges.

Explain how climate change has affected the timing and amount of water flowing through Afghanistan’s rivers.

Thinking and working geographically

Working with geographical concepts: Place 1.

Using the evidence from the text, make a judgement as to why Kabul could be one of the first cities in the world to reach Day Zero. In your answer, consider both physical and human factors.

place The concept of place is about the significance of places and what they are like.

Creative writing 2.

Refer to Figure 10.3.4. Imagining you are the girl in the photo, write a diary entry from her perspective that considers the challenges of living in this constant state of uncertainty.

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10.4 What are the impacts of water scarcity?

10.4

335

What are the impacts of water scarcity? Success criteria

In this lesson, you will learn about the environmental, social, economic and political impacts of water scarcity.

❏ I can describe environmental, social, economic and political impacts of water scarcity.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Learning intention

Starter activity

The 4Cs: Connections, challenges, concepts, changes

Refer to Figure 10.4.1 to complete the questions. 1.

Connections

a. Identify three countries that will have low levels of water stress by 2050. b. Identify three countries that will have high levels of water stress by 2050. c. Does anything surprise you about the countries listed based on what you now know about water availability and scarcity?

Challenges: State factors that would make countries more or less vulnerable to water stress by 2050.

Concepts: With a partner, discuss the main ideas this map deals with. Record two concepts and develop a definition for each term together.

➜

Figure 10.4.1 Where water stress is expected to be highest by 2050

Changes: What changes in thinking, attitudes or actions does the map aim to inspire? Looking at Australia’s projection, how might governments, communities and individuals make changes?

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Impacts of water scarcity

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➜

Writing focus 10.4 Developing sentences

Water scarcity affects how entire societies function and reflects how governments, communities and individuals interact with water resources to live, work and maintain a healthy lifestyle. When water becomes limited, governments must make hard decisions about how it is shared. This may result in economies struggling to keep industries and farms running, and social tensions as people start to compete for this vital resource. In some parts of the world, disagreements over rivers and dams have led to political conflict between countries. Understanding these impacts helps us understand why careful water management is vital for a stable and sustainable future.

soil erosion the wearing away and removal of the top layer of soil by wind, water or human activity

desertification the process where fertile land becomes dry and barren due to drought, deforestation and/ or poor farming practices feedback loop a cycle where the outcome of a process affects how that same process continues – either increasing (positive loop) or reducing (negative loop) its effects ecological sustainability using natural resources in ways that protect the environment and ensure it can support life for future generations

The main types of impacts that arise from water scarcity are environmental, social, and economic and political.

Environmental impacts

The physical environment is one of the first areas to suffer when water becomes scarce. Precious ecosystems supported by rivers and wetlands begin to dry up, reducing the habitats for plants, fish and other animals. Lower water levels can lead to the death of important aquatic species and increase pollution due to there being less water and filtering organisms to clean and/or dilute waste. Dry conditions also lead to soil erosion, desertification and the loss of vegetated landcover. These changes can affect rainfall patterns, making droughts more extreme. Overall, these environmental effects can trigger feedback loops that worsen weather conditions and threaten the functioning of connected ecosystems, threatening long-term ecological sustainability.

Social impacts

For many communities, the consequences of water scarcity are deeply personal as it undermines community wellbeing and human health. Inadequate access to safe drinking water increases the incidence of water-borne diseases and sanitation problems. Food insecurity rises and farming output declines. The main victims are usually low-income and rural populations, with women and children, particularly in developing countries, facing the biggest hardships. They are required to find and collect water, which restricts their access to educational and employment opportunities, creating cycles of poverty within communities. As living conditions continue to deteriorate, families are forced to move to other areas, which can create tensions in areas that have many refugees. Water scarcity magnifies existing social inequalities and places additional pressure on social systems.

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10.4 What are the impacts of water scarcity?

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Economic and political impacts

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The economic and political impacts of water scarcity are closely linked. Economically, reduced water availability disrupts industries reliant on steady supplies. Water-intensive industries include agriculture, manufacturing and energy production. Crop failures can cause food shortages, which cause prices to increase and farmers’ incomes to decline. Collectively, governments may have less output to trade, and people may find themselves out of work as businesses reduce their employment requirements. Disputes may also arise between rural and urban areas, or neighbouring nations that share rivers and groundwater sources, such as the Nile River in northern Africa and the Indus River in Central Asia. These tensions can strain diplomatic relations and demand cooperation in water-sharing agreements. UZBEKISTAN

TAJIKISTAN

CHINA

TURKMENISTAN

Herat

Kabul

AFGHANISTAN

Mianwali

Che na

lum Jhe Sargodha

Sulaim an Rang e

Quetta

Zahedan

e Rang

26°

nge

Bela

Makran Coast Range

Miraur Khas

Karachi

ARABIAN SEA

62°

Ludhiana

Okara Sahiwal

Delhi

n d ia t In a e r

ert Des

Bikaner

Jaipur

INDIA

Jodphur

Nawabshah

Hyderabad

Gwadar

Lahore

i Rav

New Delhi

Dadu

Indus

lej Sut Bahawalpur

Shikarpur Sukkur Larkana

Kirthar Range

a ran R l Mak Centra

Multan

us Ind Rahimyar Khan

Khuzdar

Nal

Siahan Panjgur

IRAN

BALUCHISTAN Surab

Nara

Nok Kundi

Dera Ghazi Khan

Canal

30°

PUNJAB

River

Khojak Pass

and Helm

Faisalabad

ge ar Ran Toba Kak Zhob

Ran

Islamabad ISLAMABAD CAPITAL TERRITORY Jammu Gujrat b Gujranwal

Chiniot

Kandahar

kora m

AZAD KASHMIR

Muzaffarabad Khyber Pass Mardan Peshawar Rawalpindi

34°

Kara

as Ban

Cha mb al

NDU

Gilgit

Kon ar

Chitral

Udaipur

Rann of Kutch

200 km

66°

70°

74°

➜

Figure 10.4.2 Pakistan and the Indus River

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25°

30°

LEBANON ISRAEL

NILE DELTA

MEDITERRANEAN SEA

Zifta Dam

Port Said

Dilta Dam

SINAI PENN.

LOWER EGYPT QATTARA DEPRESSION LIBYAN DESERT

Cairo

40°

IRAQ

Amman

Jerusalem

Alexandria 30°

SYRIA

JORDAN 30° SAUDI ARABIA

NIL

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EGYPT

Asyut UPPER EGYPT Naj Hammadi

ARABIAN DESERT

25°

RED

Isna Aswan Dam 2nd Cataract

AI-JILF AL-KABIR PLAIN

25°

Aswan

Aswan High Dam

LIBYA

Mecca

2nd Cataract

Jiddah

SAHARA

LEGEND

NUBIAN DESERT

20°

Elevation

CHAD

metres

4th Cataract

3rd Cataract Dongola

Al-Dabbah

Omdurman

Khartoum

15°

e Blu

200

SUDAN

N il

10°

Kusti

Malakal

Lol

Ju r

Waterfalls and rapids Canals

300 km

lk o

Kampala

Lake Edward

Kagera

Lake Kivu Bukavu

RWANDA

BURUNDI

Jinja

Lake Victoria

ETHIOPIAN PLATEAU

ETHIOPIA

BADIGERU Sue SWAMP Mongalla Juba Fula Rapids Nimule Albert Nile Murchison Falls Victoria Nile Lake Albert Lake Kyoga Nalubaale Dam UGANDA

Kisangani

CONGO BASIN

Pi b o r

Dams

10°

Addis Ababa

Gambela

DEM. REP. OF THE CONGO

Al-Jab al

5°

0°

Jonglei Canal

SOUTH SUDAN

Nile River

Intermittent streams

R ah

ile Blue N

l A l - G h azã

CENTRAL AFRICAN REPUBLIC

Sand areas

Tek e

15°

AL-SUDD

Swamps and areas subject to flooding

g er eb ad Gonder Al-Rusayris Lake AlTana D i n d ar

White Nile

Irrigated areas

Asmera

Al-

SUDAN

Al-`A ra b

Khashm al-Qirbah

Sennar Dam

MARRAH MTS.

ERITREA

6th Cataract

2000

SEA

5th Cataract Barbar Atb ar

Kurti

20°

Port Sudan

Abu hamad

Kisumu

Nakuru

5°

Lake Rudolf

KENYA

EAST AFRICAN PLATEAU

0°

Nairobi

Mwanza TANZANIA Gitega Lake Tanganyika

Kilimanjaro

➜

Figure 10.4.3 The Nile River Basin

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10.4 What are the impacts of water scarcity?

Review 10.4 Online quiz

Knowledge and understanding

Thinking and working geographically

Students can access sample responses and results online

339

Teachers can go online to assign questions, view results, reports and more!

Knowledge and understanding

Define ecological sustainability, using your own words.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

1. 2.

Describe one way water scarcity can increase social inequity within a community.

Explain two environmental impacts that occur when water becomes scarce.

Thinking and working geographically

Working with geographical concepts: Space 1.

Use Figure 10.4.2 to answer the question: Which countries depend on the Indus River as a freshwater source?

Refer to Figure 10.4.3 to list the number of countries that the Nile River flows through.

Explain why these two river systems are important to the countries they flow through.

space The concept of space is sbout the significance of location and spatial distribution, and ways people organise and manage the spaces where they live.

Geographical inquiry

➜

Choose one river to research further to understand the current situation of water scarcity in the region. How is water scarcity along your chosen river impacting the environment, people and economy of the surrounding region.

Figure 10.4.4 Confluence (meeting point) of the Indus and Zanskar Rivers in Ladakh, India

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10.5

Social and economic impacts: How much does data cost Earth? Success criteria

In this lesson, you will learn about the impact on water resources from data centres that support artificial intelligence systems.

❏ I can evaluate the impact of data centres on local water resources.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Learning intention

Starter activity

➜

Figure 10.5.1 How much water do you think is being used in each of these images?

Visible thinking routine: See, think, wonder 1.

See: Identify what you see in the photos.

Think: Rank the processes shown in order of water usage, with 1 being the process that you think uses the most water to 4 being the process using the least amount of water.

Wonder: How much water do you think each of these activities uses per day? Match each activity to the amount of water it requires. a. Hydrating a dairy cow

i. 22,500 litres of water

b. Producing a car

ii. 170 litres of water

c. Maintaining a modest-sized swimming pool

iii. 175,000 litres of water

d. Running a data centre

iv. 5,000,000 litres of water

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10.5 Social and economic impacts: How much does data cost Earth?

Digital demand: The hidden water cost of data centres

data centre the physical location housing IT infrastructure, such as servers, storage and network equipment, to power applications utilities water, electricity and gas supplies used in households

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

The surge in digital services, from cloud storage and streaming to the increasing use of AI, has driven a sharp increase in the number and size of data centres worldwide. These facilities require a vast quantity of water for cooling and processing power. In regions already facing water stress, the water demands of these centres add a significant burden to the already declining water levels. These centres have a hidden water footprint that competes with other essential uses. By understanding the effects of water usage in data centres, we can see how technological change intersects with environmental, social and economic water challenges.

341

Wyoming

SPAIN

GREECE

Nebraska

Arizona

KUWAIT

UNITED STATES

CHINA

ISRAEL

UAE

INDIA

HONG KONG

TAIWAN

THAILAND

LEGEND

Active Developing Area of water scarcity

CHILE

SOUTH AFRICA

5000 km

➜

Figure 10.5.2 Data centres in areas of water scarcity

Social impacts

Writing focus 10.5 Creating topic sentences ➜

The social impacts of data centres’ water usage are far reaching, especially for communities that live near the facilities. When large amounts of water are diverted for industrial cooling, households’ access to clean and reliable water can become more difficult. In some regions, residents experience higher water bills or usage restrictions as local authorities attempt to temper the growing demand for water from business and households. This pressure can expose existing inequalities, as rural and low-income households are less able to afford the higher costs. Community wellbeing may also decline if people perceive that corporate water users are prioritised over every-day needs. The lack of transparency around water consumption by data centres often leads to distrust in all levels of governments.

Economic impacts Data centres bring economic benefits to a region in terms of financial investments, job creation and technological development. However, government and utilities may need to spend large sums of money to upgrade water infrastructure, including treatment Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78802-1 • (03) 8671 1400

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plants, pipelines and cooling systems, to meet the needs of both residents and datacentre operations. This is sometimes not done, or the cost of doing so is passed onto consumers. Balance is even harder to reach if there are competing industries whose production processes are water-intensive too, such as agriculture and manufacturing. Over time, this can create an economic imbalance, where short-term digital growth undermines the long-term sustainability of water-dependent sectors and communities.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Case study: The environmental footprint of data centres in Sydney

Data centres could use the equivalent of a quarter of Sydney’s current annual drinking water supply within a decade, according to Sydney Water. Currently 3.5 billion litres of water are used per year to support these centres. As Australia looks to position itself as a global data-centre hub, industry and government are investing in new ways to wean these buildings off the drinking water supply. Australia currently hosts more than 260 data centres and 33 per cent are in Sydney. These data centres demand large quantities of high-quality water due to their servers generating immense heat, and rely on cooling systems that consume potable water. Australia is exploring alternatives to reduce pressure on the water network that many rely on for drinking and household consumption. Sydney Water is actively preparing to supply treated wastewater or recycled water as a substitute for fresh drinking water in the data centres.

Adapted from Rhiannon Shine and Emily Jane Smith, “Data centres are vital for the future and AI but their environmental footprint can be a problem”, ABC News, 27 August 2025

Review 10.5

Online quiz

Knowledge and understanding

Thinking and working geographically

Students can access sample responses and results online

Teachers can go online to assign questions, view results, reports and more!

Knowledge and understanding 1.

Explain why data centres require large volumes of water.

How can data centres impact local communities socially?

Explain how economic benefits of data centres also create long-term challenges for other water-dependent industries.

Refer to the case study to answer these questions.

a. Why is Australia exploring recycled and treated wastewater for data centres? b. How does this relate to broader sustainability concerns highlighted in the text?

Thinking and working geographically

Working with geographical concepts: Place Use Figure 10.5.2 to answer these questions.

place The concept of place is about the significance of places and what they are like.

Identify two regions that support a high concentration of data centres.

Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of having emerging industries, such as data centres that support AI technologies, in areas where water scarcity is a current challenge.

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Class debate

Class debate activity: Should Neeraburra approve the new data centre? Scenario

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Neeraburra is a small inland Australian town of 22,000 people, located on the edge of a dry agricultural region. The town has experienced three drought cycles in the past decade, and its main river – which was once reliable – now runs low for most of the year. Local authorities have recently announced that Neeraburra is officially experiencing heightened water stress. Residents already face mild water restrictions, and concerns about long-term supply are growing.

A global technology company has proposed building a large data centre on the outskirts of Neeraburra. Supporters argue that it will bring jobs, investment and digital development, turning the town into a regional technology hub. Opponents are worried about the large volumes of water needed to cool datacentre servers, especially given Neeraburra’s fragile water resources. The town council must vote on whether to approve the project. Six stakeholder perspectives for role-play 1.

Local government councillor (pro-development): Believes the data centre will boost the local economy. Highlights increased employment, upgraded infrastructure and new opportunities for young people. Thinks water concerns can be managed with new technology or recycled water.

Environmental scientist (opposed): Concerned about the town’s existing water scarcity. Argues that data centres require large amounts of high-quality water and will worsen water stress. Emphasises long-term environmental risk over short-term profit.

Young tech-skilled resident (pro-development): Sees the data centre as a chance to stay in town rather than move to a big city for work. Excited about career opportunities in AI, cybersecurity and IT services. Believes modern cooling methods can reduce water use.

Farmer from the Neeraburra agricultural district (opposed): Concerned that farms are already struggling with reduced river flow and drought. Fears that diverting water to the centre will harm crop yields, livestock and irrigation. Believes agriculture should be prioritised over digital industries in a water-scarce region.

Data-centre company spokesperson (pro-development): Promises to use recycled water for cooling systems and the transparent reporting of water use. Emphasises the company’s commitment to sustainability and local partnerships. Stresses that the project will put Neeraburra on the map as a regional AI hub.

Community representative for low-income households (opposed): Worries that increased water demand will raise water bills for residents. Concerned that water restrictions may become harsher. Concerned that large corporations may be prioritised over households.

The debate

Conduct the town meeting debate using the question: Should Neeraburra approve the new data centre? Students will be chosen to represent each of the roles identified and placed into two groups to develop and prepare three arguments, plus one rebuttal as the town meeting debate progresses. After the debate, run a short reflection: 1.

Whose perspective was most convincing and why?

How does water scarcity shape community decision-making?

Could sustainable alternatives make the proposal more acceptable?

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10.6

Environmental impacts: What has changed in Earth’s natural systems? Success criteria

In this lesson, you will learn about the environmental impacts of water scarcity and how it changed the Mesopotamian Marshes in Iraq.

❏ I can describe environmental impacts of water scarcity. ❏ I can explain how water scarcity changes Earth’s natural systems.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Learning intention

Starter activity

One change, three consequences 1.

Working independently, identify and explain environmental impacts of water scarcity through cause-and-effect reasoning.

Imagine a region has experienced three years of below average rainfall. River levels have dropped by 60 per cent, wetlands are dying and groundwater isn’t being replaced.

a. Write one sentence that answers the question: What is the first environmental challenge that happens because of this water stress? You may choose to consider habitat loss, aquatic species decline, soil dying, pollution concentration and/or wetlands shrinking. b. Extend your answer by writing three additional environmental consequences that follow from the change you identified. Use the scaffold below to help structure your extended response:

wetland ecosystem an area where the land is covered by water either all year or for part of the year, creating a habitat where plants, animals and insects live in and around shallow water lagoon a shallow body of water separated from the sea or a larger lake by sand, coral or a narrow strip of land marsh ground near a lake, a river or the sea that often floods and is always wet

When _______________ happens, it can lead to ___________________, which then causes _________________ and eventually results in ____________________. Here is an example:

When a reduction in river flows happens, it can lead to fish populations declining, which then causes birds to lose their food source and eventually results in a loss of biodiversity observed in an area. This builds a causal chain that shows the interconnections of ecosystems and how their links can become unravelled.

The Mesopotamian Marshes: Collapse of a wetland ecosystem

The Mesopotamian Marshes of southern Iraq were once the largest wetland ecosystem in the Middle East, stretching across thousands of square kilometres of interlinked lagoons, reed beds and shallow lakes. For over 1,000 years these marshes depended on seasonal flooding from the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers, which fed the wetlands with sediment, nutrients and fresh water that sustained a thriving and productive ecosystem. Unfortunately, during the late 1900s, the marshes experienced a near collapse, due to a combination of an upstream dam construction, deliberate drainage policies, and

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10.6 Environmental impacts: What has changed in Earth’s natural systems?

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extended periods of drought that reduced the water inflows of the rivers. It was during this time that the wetlands experienced its lowest levels of water in history and triggered significant ecological and environmental changes to the ecosystem. 1973

2000 Tig

K ar

Amarah

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h khe

ris

h khe

Tig

K ar

ris Amarah

IRAN

Hammar Marches

S ha

at e s

Hawizah Marches

Ahvaz

IRAN

Qurnash

Hammar Marches

KUWAIT

PERSIAN GULF

Basrah

LEGEND

S ha

Permanent marsh Permanent lake Shallow or seasonal lake Dead or dry vegetation Former extent of marshlands

➜

Figure 10.6.1 The destruction of the Mesopotamian Marshes from 1973 to 2000

➜

Figure 10.6.2 An abandoned boat on dry land in Iraq’s southern marsh

100 km

tt a Abadan l-Ar

100 km

tt a l-Ar

Abadan

Permanent marsh Seasonal marsh Permanent lake Shallow or seasonal lake

E u phr

Basrah

LEGEND

Central Marches

Nasiriyah

Qurnash

rum

at e s

Ahvaz

E u phr

Central Marches

Canal

Nasiriyah

Qalat Salih

IRAQ

Hawizah Marches

rum

Qalat Salih

IRAQ

KUWAIT

PERSIAN GULF

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➜

Figure 10.6.3 Iraq’s central Mesopotamian Marshes has recently experienced an increase in water levels as a result of abundant rain following a long period of drought.

Hydrological changes

embankment a raised wall or mound of earth or concrete built to block, control or hold back water, such as along a river or around wetlands

salinity the amount of salt in soil or water; high salinity means there is too much salt for most plants and animals to survive

Hydrological change was the driver for the change in this precious wetland ecosystem. Throughout the 1970s and 1980s, major dams built in Turkey, Syria and Iraq reduced downstream flows significantly, limiting the seasonal flooding needed to maintain wetland ecosystems. In the early 1990s the situation became even worse, when large areas of marshes were intentionally drained through the construction of canals and embankments. These built structures diverted river water away from the wetlands and channelled it directly towards the Gulf, leaving vast areas without any incoming fresh water. As water levels dropped, natural channels dried, lagoons fragmented and salinity increased, undermining the natural hydrological processes that had shaped the marshes for over a thousand years.

Ecological consequences

The ecological consequences were fast and severe. Thriving populations of fish and migratory birds declined significantly as they were forced into small, fragmented pools surrounded by dry land. The reed beds that provided food, shelter and nesting sites died as the soil became too salty, causing many species to disappear. As plants died and the soil dried, dust storms became more common as the process of desertification started to take shape. Without water, food webs started to collapse and the whole area shifted from a healthy productive wetland to a dry and dying ecosystem.

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10.6 Environmental impacts: What has changed in Earth’s natural systems?

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Restoration efforts After 2003, efforts were made to restore parts of the marshes. Some embankments were pulled down and water was introduced to selected areas, leading to a partial recovery of some wetlands. Once reed beds returned in several locations, birdlife began to reappear in areas that had long been dry. Damming continued as the rivers that fed the wetlands created a freshwater source for surrounding settlements. While parts of the marshes have been revived, large sections remain severely degraded, and experts agree that the ecosystem is unlikely to return to its thriving original state.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

➜

Writing focus 10.6 Appositives

The Mesopotamian Marshes demonstrate how both human actions and natural factors can combine to push an environment to collapse. They highlight the vulnerability of wetland ecosystems that rely on consistent water inflows and the difficulty of restoring such systems once water scarcity becomes a serious issue, as it is today.

Review 10.6

Online quiz

Knowledge and understanding

Thinking and working geographically

Students can access sample responses and results online

Teachers can go online to assign questions, view results, reports and more!

Knowledge and understanding 1.

Outline what the Mesopotamian Marshes depended on to sustain this once thriving ecosystem.

Describe factors that led to the collapse of this ecosystem.

Explain the impact of embankments and dams on the wetland ecosystem.

Discuss how effective the restoration efforts were in restoring the wetland ecosystem.

Thinking and working geographically

Working with geographical concepts: Change

Study Figure 10.6.1 to answer the following questions. 1.

Identify three countries shown on the map.

Explain the changes you observe between 1973 and 2000. Consider one cause and three effects that can be interpreted from this source.

change The concept of change is about explaining geographical phenomena by investigating how they Have developed over time.

Geographical inquiry 3.

Visit this website https://cambridge.edu.au/redirect/11875 to learn more about the Tigris River. Investigate in what ways it was a key source of irrigation, power and travel for past and present civilisations.

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10.7

What are the short-term and long-term solutions to water management? Success criteria

In this lesson, you will learn how to categorise fresh water in terms of how it is used globally and how it could be managed more effectively.

❏ I can explain how fresh water is used and how it can be managed more effectively.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Learning intention

Starter activity

Have you ever considered the hidden water footprint of your food? We often don’t think about the significant amount of “virtual water”, which is the total volume of water used to grow, produce and transport the items we consume. Overall, it is the unseen part of every product on our plates. This footprint gets bigger when we include other items we use daily, including clothing, shoes and tech equipment. To explore this concept further visit https://cambridge.edu.au/redirect/11876 and choose five items that you have consumed this week and complete a little fact file for each by recording the following pieces of information:

• food type • where they the produced • how much is in a serving size • how much water is used in each serving • what is the breakdown of blue, green and grey water used.

The importance of managing water scarcity

Water scarcity is a growing global challenge that affects communities, industries, ecosystems and the development of countries. Effective management demands a combination of both short-term strategies, which provide immediate relief during periods of crisis, and long-term strategies, which aim to foster sustainable and secure water for present and future generations.

Short-term management strategies

➜

Short-term strategies address immediate shortages when demand exceeds available supply. They help stabilise essential services Figure 10.7.1 Water restrictions in place in Goulburn, New South Wales and prevent severe social, economic and environmental disruptions. These responses are usually reactive, implemented during times of drought, extreme heatwave or other unexpected supply disruptions.

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Table 10.7.1 Some strategies for water management

Water restrictions

Governments will impose stages of restrictions that limit household and commercial water use. They include reduced outdoor watering, bans on car washing, limits on irrigation or restrictions on filling swimming pools. This strategy can dramatically reduce demand and extend the life of stored water supplies during critical shortages.

Writing focus 10.7 Appositives

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Description

➜

Strategy

Temporary ground water extraction

During severe shortages, governments may approve temporary access to groundwater reserves. Boreholes are drilled and reactivated to provide a supplementary supply. This method must be tightly regulated as over-pumping can permanently lower water tables, degrade ecosystems and cause land to become unstable.

Public education campaigns

Awareness campaigns drive behaviour change and are often targeted at households. When effective, they have immediate effects and collectively conserve large sums of water for an area. Tactics include having shorter showers, fixing leaking pipes and reduced outdoor watering. These campaigns are effective, inexpensive and are relatively easy to apply in water-stricken communities.

Long-term management strategies: The many colours of water

Long-term strategies focus on building water systems that will last into the future. These solutions minimise the pressure on natural water sources and support communities to stay resilient during times of water stress. A major part of this planning is understanding how we can use blue, grey and black water more wisely.

Blue-water strategies

Blue water is fresh water stored in rivers, dams and aquifers. Governments can protect this important water source by limiting how much can be taken from rivers and groundwater supplies. Building sustainable long-term infrastructure, such as dams, pipelines and underground storage, helps store water for dry times. Many cities also use desalination plants, which turns seawater into drinking water and provides a reliable supply during drought.

Grey-water strategies

Grey water refers to water that has been used to shower, take baths or by washing machines. Homes and large buildings can reuse grey water for toilets, gardens or cooling systems. Councils can also use treated grey water for water parks and sporting fields. This reduces the demand for fresh water to fulfil these watering needs.

Black-water strategies

Black water refers to wastewater from toilets and kitchen sinks. Wastewater treatment plants can clean black water to a very high standard. The recycled water can then be used for farming and industry, or added safely back into drinking supplies in some countries. Treatment plants can also recover energy and nutrients from black water, reducing waste and supporting a more sustainable water cycle.

blue water the fresh water stored in rivers, dams and aquifers; the main water supply, so it must be protected from overuse desalination plant where salt and other minerals are removed from water grey water water from showers, baths and washing machines, which can be cleaned and reused for gardens or flushing toilets, helping save blue water black water wastewater from toilets and kitchen sinks, which is heavily polluted, but can be treated and reused for farming, industry or even drinking (after strict purification)

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Chapter 10 Water scarcity and water management

Figure 10.7.2 Treated water flowing into the River Irwell from the Bolton Wastewater Treatment Works

Case study: Recycled sewage water in Las Vegas

Las Vegas recycles its wastewater to help deal with extreme water scarcity. Sewage from homes and businesses is collected, cleaned through several treatment steps and disinfected with UV light. The treated water is then released back into Lake Mead, and every litre returned allows the city to take the same amount of new water from the Colorado River. This system, which treats about 190 million gallons a day, helps Las Vegas reuse water efficiently and protect its limited supplies.

Adapted from Colton Lochhead, “From toilet to tap: How Las Vegas recycles its sewage water”, Las Vegas Review-Journal, 23 August 2023

Review 10.7

Online quiz

Knowledge and understanding

Thinking and working geographically

Students can access sample responses and results online

Teachers can go online to assign questions, view results, reports and more!

Knowledge and understanding 1.

Outline the aim of short- and long-term water management strategies.

Describe two short-term strategies that can be used to manage immediate water scarcity.

Distinguish between blue, grey and black water.

Thinking and working geographically

Working with geographical concepts: Place and Interconnection 1.

Read through the case study. Explain how the city of Las Vegas is able to reduce its demand on freshwater sources.

Research and newspaper writing 2.

Research reasons for Las Vegas’s quest to conserve water as much as possible. In your article discuss:

place The concept of place is about the significance of places and what they are like.

interconnection The concept of interconnection emphasises that no object of geographical study can be viewed in isolation.

• reasons for the natural lack of water going to Las Vegas • the main source of freshwater • different ways residents, businesses and governments aim to conserve this precious resource. Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78802-1 • (03) 8671 1400

10.8 Case study: What has been Israel’s response to water management?

10.8

351

Case study: What has been Israel’s response to water management? Success criteria

In this lesson, you will learn about how Israel has developed short-term and long-term water management strategies to make the nation’s water secure.

❏ I can describe short-term and longterm water management strategies used in Israel to maintain their freshwater reserves and resources.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Learning intention

Starter activity

Water under pressure

Imagine the following scenario: A prominent city wakes up one morning to discover its main freshwater reservoir has dropped to less than 15 per cent capacity. Watering of gardens is banned immediately, tap pressure is reduced, and authorities warn that drinking water may run out within months. What immediate problems would residents, businesses and the environment face? Discuss this with a partner and record five main impacts you both think would occur in the short-term and five main impacts that might appear over a longer timeframe.

Water scarcity in Israel BULGARIA

KOSOVO

BLACK SEA

GEORGIA Tbilisi Yerevan

Istanbul

Thessaloniki ALBANIA GREECE Athens

Ankara

Baku AZERBAIJAN

TURKEY

SEA

Adana

Halab E Mosul u Nicosia SYRIA phrat es CYPRUS LEBANON MEDITERRANEAN SEA Beirut Damascus IRAQ ISRAEL Amman Alexandria Jeruselam CRETE

LIBYA

Suez

JORDAN

Al Jawf

SAUDI ARABIA

EGYPT

Nile

Esfahan

Yazd

Abadan

Al Kuwayt KUWAIT

Aswan

Kabul

Herat

Shiraz

Bandar-e Abbas

ERITREA Asmara

Sanaa

YEMEN

Faisalabad Multan

PAKISTAN

Bikaner Sukkur INDIA Jodhpur

Karachi

Hyderabad

Rajkot

ARABIAN SEA

Mirbat

Islamabad

AFGHANISTAN

Port Sudan

Khartoum

Dushanbe TAJIKISTAN

Qarshi

Kandahar

Al Manamah PERSIAN Riyadh Ad Dawhah GULF Dubayy Abu Dhabi U.A.E Masqat Arabian Sur Mecca OMAN Peninsula

CHAD SUDAN

IRAN

Medina

EA RED S

Lake Nasser

Qom

Baghdad Tigr

Tashkent

Turkmenbasy TURKMENISTAN Ashgabat

Tehran

Hamadan

Cario

UZBEKISTAN

CASPIAN

Mumbai

1500 km

➜

Figure 10.8.1 The location of Israel in the Middle East

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Israel is located in the Middle East and has borders with Lebanon, Syria, Jordan and Egypt, with the Mediterranean Sea to its west. Israel is one of the most water-stressed countries in the world. It has a hot and dry climate, variable rainfall and an everincreasing population, which all contribute to its declining water supplies. Historically, the Sea of Galilee (now known as Lake Kinneret) and mountain aquifers supplied the nation’s water. However, by the early 2000s these sources had fallen to unsustainable levels. The situation demanded immediate action and strategic (long-term) planning to ensure water security for households, agriculture, industry and ecosystems. Israel’s response is not considered one of the most effective examples of national water management.

Short-term solutions

Short-term strategies focused on stabilising the water system and reducing pressure on natural sources. These measures were designed to have immediate impact, helping the country buy time while long-term projects were underway.

➜

Writing focus 10.3 Conjunctions

Water restrictions

During severe years of drought, Israel adopted strict nationwide water restrictions. Limits were placed on garden watering, household consumption and agricultural irrigation. This reduced demand quickly and prevented reservoirs from collapsing further.

Public awareness campaigns

The government launched major campaigns to change water-use behaviour. Messages such as “Israel is drying up” motivated residents to reduce their time in the shower, fix leaky pipes and take other water-saving actions. These campaigns led to one of the highest levels of public compliance seen globally.

Rapid repair of leaking infrastructure

Authorities prioritised fixing leaks in municipal pipes. Non-revenue water (water lost before reaching consumers) was reduced dramatically, improving supply efficiency without increasing extraction.

Long-term solutions

Israel invested heavily in long-term solutions designed to secure water supply for future generations and reduce dependence on rainfall. These strategies transformed the country from a water-scarce nation into a global innovator in sustainable water management.

Large-scale desalination

Desalination became the foundation of Israel’s water system. Five major plants were placed along the Mediterranean coast, including at Sorek, Hadera and Ashkelon, and now supply more than half of Israel’s domestic water. Desalination technology removes

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salt from seawater, producing reliable fresh water all year. It has also removed the reliance Israel had on rainfall.

Nationwide wastewater recycling

➜

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Israel treats and reuses around 85 to 90 per cent of its wastewater, the highest rate in the world. Treated black water is piped to farms for irrigation. Scientists in the country also Figure 10.8.2 Mediterranean seawater is pretreated in the filtration tanks of the Sorek Desalination Plant to remove solid impurities pioneered drip irrigation, which delivers water directly to plant roots through small tubes. This technology reduces evaporation, run-off and waste. Farmers also use advanced sensors and cropmonitoring technologies to further reduce water usage. This ensures their agricultural sector is not impacted by low rainfall and does not put additional pressure on freshwater sources.

➜

Figure 10.8.3 A high-tech greenhouse to grow seed tomatoes in Tel Aviv, Israel. Israel scientists invented technologies that purify wastewater and use drip irrigation to water plants efficiently.

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Integrated national water grid Israel built a connected water distribution network that allows water to be transported around the country efficiently. Water from desalination plants can be moved from the coast to inland areas quickly, groundwater sources can be balanced between regions, and emergency shortages can be addressed quickly.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Overall, Israel’s innovation, strict policy and long-term investment have allowed it to become water secure. Their model is widely studied by other water-stressed nations as an example of how technology and strong governance can solve severe water scarcity.

Review 10.8

Online quiz

Knowledge and understanding

Thinking and working geographically

Students can access sample responses and results online

Teachers can go online to assign questions, view results, reports and more!

Knowledge and understanding 1.

Outline Israel’s spatial distribution.

Reading through the long-term solutions used in Israel, justify which one would be the hardest for households to adopt.

Explain the use of technology in managing Israel’s water supplies.

Thinking and working geographically

Working with geographical concepts: Change 1.

How did Israel’s freshwater availability change from the early 2000s to today, and what short-term actions were taken to slow or reverse its decline?

Explain how Israel’s long-term water strategies have changed the way people, farms and cities access and use water. How is this different from the way water was managed before these strategies were introduced?

change The concept of change is about explaining geographical phenomena by investigating how they have developed over time.

Geographical inquiry

Conduct research and use the information in the text and the images provided to collect, organise and interpret geographical data about Israel’s response to water scarcity. 3.

On a blank outline map of Israel, locate and label the following:

• the Mediterranean Sea • the approximate coastal zone where desalination plants operate • Lake Kinneret (Sea of Galilee) • an agricultural region that would benefit from recycled wastewater.

Underneath your map, write three or four sentences explaining how this spatial pattern of infrastructure helps Israel maintain a continuous water supply.

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10.9 What do we know about Indigenous management and care for Country?

10.9

355

What do we know about Indigenous management and care for Country? Success criteria

In this lesson, you will learn about Indigenous water management techniques and how they have been used in contemporary management strategies.

❏ I can explain how Indigenous Peoples’ knowledge has informed contemporary water management strategies in Australia.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Learning intention

Starter activity

Figure 10.9.2 In this photograph, Lake Hume reservoir is at 19.6 per cent capacity. By the end of the summer of 2009, it had dropped to 2.1 per cent capacity. ➜

➜

Figure 10.9.1 A sheep, weak with hunger, stands on a severely drought-affected property.

Visible thinking routine: Think, pair, share 1.

Write down three things you think would change in everyday life if Australia entered a period of severe water scarcity. Consider what might happen in cities, in rural areas and in environments that depend on rivers and groundwater.

Answer the following questions.

Figure 10.9.3 Recycled water in use at the Bluescope steel works in Port Kembla, Wollongong ➜

a. Which groups of people would be most affected and why? b. What water management strategies do you think Australia would rely on first? c. How might Indigenous understanding of water flows help guide decision-making? d. Which parts of Australia would feel the impacts first? Explain your reasoning. Discuss your answers with a partner before sharing with the class.

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Indigenous knowledge and water management in Australia

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

➜

Writing focus 10.9 Conjunctions

First Nations people have cared for water across Australia for over 65,000 years, and have developed interconnected knowledge systems that protect rivers, wetlands, groundwater and coastal environments. Their understanding of the seasons, the way plants and animals behave, and the movement of water through an environment ensured a clean, abundant water supply that was nurtured through cultural responsibilities. Today, this knowledge is increasingly acknowledged as essential for sustainable water management, especially as Australia faces rising water stress, climate change and pressure on natural systems.

The living Country of water and seasons

Water is understood as a living part of Country by Indigenous communities, connected to identity, spirituality and cultural law. Rivers, creeks and springs are seen as ancestors or their pathways, creating deep responsibilities to protect and care for these places. These processes influenced how communities travelled, harvested resources and interacted with their environment. This cultural approach ensured that no water resources were overused or polluted as strict rules guided when and how they could be accessed. Indigenous knowledge of the seasons is complex and intricate. It is based on six seasons that relate to environmental indicators such as animal movement, plant flowering, wind change and ocean patterns. These signs showed when water sources would rise, retreat and require protection. By aligning their activities with the seasons, communities prevented stress of fragile waterways, which were given time to regenerate naturally.

Caring for water through land management and sustainable use

First Nations peoples protected water quality by carefully managing the surrounding landscape. Land management practices, such as cultural burning, reduced fuel loads and supported native plants to regenerate. It also limited the extent of soil erosion, which kept waterways healthy and clear. Plants situated near waterholes were left untouched so they could act as a natural filter, trapping debris and improving water purity. This shows the interconnections between land and water management. Cultural laws guided when and how water sources could be accessed, which meant that water was managed in a sustainable way. During periods of drought, some watering holes were off limits, while others were restricted at certain times to support breeding patterns of specific animals. Fishing practices were also regulated, with a focus on only catching mature fish. Any techniques that would damage long-term populations were forbidden. By balancing human needs with ecological care, First Nations communities maintained healthy waterways that supported cultural life and environmental wellbeing.

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The Brewarrina fish traps (Ngemba peoples)

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

The Brewarrina fish traps, or Baiame’s Ngunnhu, are one of the world’s oldest and most impressive examples of sustainable water engineering. Located on the Barwon River in northern NSW, the traps consist of a series of strategically arranged stone channels that guide fish into holding ponds. The design allowed people to catch only what was needed, releasing smaller fish and protecting breeding populations. Importantly, the traps worked with natural river flows. During drought, these traps allowed efficient harvest without exhausting fish numbers. On the other hand, during floods, they protected the riverbed and supported species survival by guiding fish safely into calmer waters.

Indigenous knowledge in contemporary water management

Across Australia, Indigenous knowledge is being increasingly integrated into water policy, catchment planning and ecosystem restoration. Australian authorities draw on Indigenous expertise to monitor river health, restore biodiversity and develop droughtresistant water strategies. Through involving the Traditional Owners in decision-making, governments and communities gain insight into long-term environmental trends and landscape changes. This partnership highlights the value of Indigenous knowledge in managing water sustainably in a drying climate.

Review 10.9

Online quiz

Knowledge and understanding

Thinking and working geographically

Students can access sample responses and results online

Teachers can go online to assign questions, view results, reports and more!

Knowledge and understanding 1.

Recall the types of water-based environments that were naturally protected by Indigenous Peoples.

Distinguish between the perspectives taken by Indigenous people and non-Indigenous people regarding water.

Explain how water is managed through Caring for Country.

Thinking and working geographically

Working with geographical concepts: Interconnection 1.

Explain how the Brewarrina fish traps are sustainable. Interpreting maps

Study a map of NSW and locate where the Barwon River is. Identify features of the natural environment that may influence the flow of water in the river.

interconnection The concept of interconnection emphasises that no object of geographical study can be viewed in isolation.

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10.10

Chapter review Access the Interactive Textbook for a range of digital tools to help you review this chapter and build confidence.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Summary

Summary notes

Download chapter summary

What have you learned about water scarcity and management?

For this activity, copy the table and fill it out by explaining your understanding. Aim for two points per topic.

Terms

What I have learned

Water scarcity Water quality

Water management Data centres

Sustainability

Visible thinking routine Cause—impact—resource

This exercise helps you trace the chain of cause, consequence and solution, which is core to geographical thinking. 1.

Create a three-column table:

Causes of water scarcity

Impacts

Responses and management

You must fill in at least three rows, using different case studies from the chapter. Case studies must include:

• one global cause • one city case study • one management response. Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78802-1 • (03) 8671 1400

10.10 Chapter review

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Here is an example:

Cause

Impact

Response

Climate change increases evaporation and drought.

Rivers and reservoirs decrease → Water rationing in cities like Mexico City

Desalination, recycling, restrictions

Which of your responses is the most sustainable long-term and why? In your answer, refer to Israel, Indigenous water knowledge or long-term blue-/grey-/black-water strategies.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Questions

Scorcher quiz

Access a fast, fun, competitive quiz that puts your understanding to the test.

Quick questions

The following activities offer various ways to demonstrate your understanding of the chapter. 1.

Water describes when a region lacks the infrastructure, pipes or investment to access water. accounts for approximately 70 per cent of global freshwater

withdrawals.

Kabul’s rivers rely heavily on snow melt from the

The environmental collapse of the Mesopotamian Marshes was worsened by upstream .

Mountains.

is a process that turns sea water into fresh water.

What was a major cause of Mexico City’s water crisis in 2024? A. Long-term drought B. Too many large lakes inside the city C. Heavy rainfall and flooding D. Increased population

Physical water scarcity occurs when:

A. people cannot afford to pay their water bills. B. water is available but pollution makes it unsafe. C. water is available but communities lack infrastructure. D. natural water supply is too low to meet demand.

Which of these factors have contributed to Kabul’s declining groundwater levels? A. Regular seasonal flooding B. Over-pumping of wells and rapid urban growth C. Expansion of rivers due to melting glaciers D. Large freshwater lakes nearby

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Chapter 10 Water scarcity and water management

Which of the following is an environmental impact of water scarcity?

A. Flash flooding B. Soil erosion C. Decreased fish populations D. More stable weather conditions 10.

What long-term strategy has helped Israel become more water-secure?

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

A. Removing all water restrictions B. Relying only on rainfall C. Large-scale desalination and wastewater recycling D. Banning agriculture

11.

Identify one environmental consequence of water scarcity.

12.

Recall one physical and one human factor that contributed to Kabul’s water crisis.

13.

How do data centres pose a challenge to water-scarce cities?

14.

Why does climate change increase water scarcity?

15.

How does Israel’s wastewater recycling system help conserve fresh water? Refer to Figure 10.10.1 in your answer.

➜

Figure 10.10.1 An engineer walks through the world’s largest desalination plant in Tel Aviv, Israel.

Writing focus

The following activities allow you to practise your writing skills.

Answering questions in paragraphs

You can use this as a model when writing your own answers to the questions that follow.

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10.10 Chapter review

Question: Explain why agriculture is considered the largest driver of global water scarcity.

361

(10 marks)

Model answer: Agriculture is considered the largest driver of global water scarcity because it uses more fresh water than any other sector and puts pressure on limited water supplies. Feeding a growing population requires huge quantities of water for irrigation, meaning farms withdraw water from rivers, lakes and aquifers faster than natural systems can replace it. As a result, inefficient irrigation and the expansion of crops in dry regions deplete local water sources. Agriculture accounts for approximately 70 per cent of all global freshwater withdrawals, making it the biggest user of fresh water worldwide. In many regions, farmers divert so much water for irrigation that irrigation systems like parts of the Colorado River Basin become severely depleted, contributing to physical water scarcity even where water was once abundant. These enormous and increasing water demands reduce the supply available for people and ecosystems, which intensifies shortages across the world.

Explain: clarify, define and describe

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Topic sentence: the first sentence of the paragraph; directly answers the question

Elaborate: additional information, interconnections

Examples: provide credibility and illustrate the argument

Evidence: specific, relevant evidence to support your arguments

Linking sentence: reconnects with language of the question the topic

Structured response questions Question 1

(10 marks)

Distinguish between physical water scarcity and economic water scarcity. Question 2

(10 marks)

Explain why agriculture is considered the largest driver of global water scarcity. Question 3

(10 marks)

Marking criteria for each question can be found in the Interactive Textbook. Refer to these criteria when planning and writing your responses.

Describe two social impacts of water scarcity on communities. Question 4

(10 marks)

Outline one environmental impact of prolonged water scarcity.

Extended response questions Question 1

(20 marks)

Analyse how water scarcity affects environments, societies and economies, and how long-term water management strategies respond to these impacts.

Teachers, access the Online Teaching Suite for digital resources and tools that support review, assessment and reporting, including:

Chapter

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Geographical skills: Understanding weather and climate

Lessons 11.1

Weather vs. climate

11.2

Climate graphs

11.3

Reading a synoptic chart

11.4

Wind direction and speed, and weather fronts

11.5

Fieldwork: Water in the world

11.6

Chapter review: Understanding weather and climate

➜

Image: Tropical cyclone seen from space

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Weather vs. climate

Success criteria

In this lesson, you will learn about the key differences between weather and climate

❏ I can compare weather and climate. ❏ I can describe how each is shown using geographical tools.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Learning intention

Introduction

Weather and climate are key terms in geography, but it is important to understand the difference. Weather tells us what is happening at a certain place over a short period of time. Whereas climate gives us an idea of averages in temperature and precipitation for a place using data for a much longer period of time. One way to remember is this: if you want to know what to wear today, check the weather, but if you’re planning a holiday for a future date, check the climate. The two most common tools that geographers use for studying weather and climate can be seen in Figure 1.11.1. (°C) 50

(mm) 100

Synoptic charts show us weather. These will be explored further in Lesson 11.3 and 11.4. This synoptic chart tells us the weather for Australia on 1 June 2020.

Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec

weather the conditions in the air above Earth such as wind, rain or temperature, especially at a particular time over a particular area climate the typical weather patterns experienced in a place over time, including temperature, rainfall and wind

Climate graphs show us climate. These will be explored further in Lesson 11.2. This climate graph tells us averages in temperature and rainfall in Gisborne, Victoria.

➜

Figure 11.1.1 Tools used to show weather and climate

Video 11.1.1 Weather vs. climate

Source: Bureau of Meteorology and ClimateCharts.net

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Chapter 11 Geographical skills: Understanding weather and climate

Now you try! 11.1 For the following scenarios, determine whether the person needs to consider the weather or climate, and what geographical tool they need to use. A farmer is considering which crops to plant during spring for the best yield (see Video 11.1.2 for the solution).

A mother is planning a day out tomorrow and needs to pack a bag and choose clothes.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Video 11.1.2 How we found the answer to Question 1

satellite image a picture or data of Earth's surface captured from space by an orbiting satellite

A scientist is studying a place to determine how to best support communities during times of drought.

An architect is designing an apartment complex that minimises energy usage.

A soccer coach needs to decide whether to postpone a match.

A family is planning a holiday for next year to a tropical location and wants to avoid extreme weather events.

The Bureau of Meteorology (BOM) is the first place most people visit to find information about the weather or climate. The BOM provides up-to-date satellite images and synoptic charts, and a wide range of data about weather conditions across Australia. When completing fieldwork, geographers have a range of tools that can be used obtain more specific data about weather at a location. HYGROMETER This handy tool can be used to find the temperature (dry) on the left and humidity (wet) using both sides and the table in the middle.

RAIN GAUGE The simple tool allows you to collect and measure rainfall over a chosen period of time.

ANEMOMETER The fan on this tool will spin and tell you the wind speed by pointing in the direction of incoming wind. Use a compass as well to determine wind direction – where the wind is coming from.

➜

Figure 11.1.2 Geographical tools used to measure weather

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11.1 Weather vs. climate

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Activity 11.1 For this activity, you will need access to the internet and a rain gauge. You are going to compare the Bureau of Meteorology (BOM) and your own data. Use a rain gauge from your school and find an open space to attach it. If you school doesn’t have a rain gauge, you can make one using a plastic container and marking millimetre interval (best to choose one that is tall and skinny, similar to the one in Figure 11.1.2). Start by looking at the BOM website for your area and find a day next week that has some predicted rain. If there isn't rain predicted, you may need to return to this activity later.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Place the rain gauge out at 9 a.m. one school day and then collect it at 9 a.m. the following day. Write down the amount of rainfall over the 24-hour period.

Use the BOM website and the page "New South Wales Rainfall and River Conditions" to find a weather station near your school. Write down the name of the station and the rainfall over the last 24 hours.

Compare your result to that from the BOM. You might also like to use Google Maps to work out how far your school is from the weather station.

Answer the following questions: 1.

What date did you choose to measure?

What was the predicted rainfall on the BOM before data was collected?

Describe how you collected your data. Did you have a rain gauge or make one? Where did you place your rain gauge?

How many millimetres of rain did you collect?

Compare this to the predicted rainfall from the BOM.

Compare this to the measured rainfall from the BOM (NSW Rainfall and River Conditions).

Why might your result be different from the predicted rainfall and the measured rainfall from the BOM?

➜

Figure 11.1.3 Storm clouds over the Hume Freeway between Barnawartha and Wodonga

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11.2

Climate graphs

Success criteria

In this lesson, you will learn about the different parts of a climate graph.

❏ I can determine the climate of a place using a climate graph to calculate a range of data.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Learning intention

Introduction

climate graph a graph that shows the average monthly temperature and rainfall of a place

Climate graphs combine a column graph and a line graph to show the average monthly temperature and precipitation for a location. We can use climate graphs to gain an understanding of a place; for example, desert areas will show very little precipitation across the entire year. We can also use climate graphs to determine seasons and which parts of the year have higher or lower precipitation; for example, areas in the tropics will show a wet season during summer. The temperature range and total annual rainfall also provide us with a picture of the type of climate the location experiences. Watch Video 11.2.1 to see how we use climate graphs in geography.

Average monthly temperature is measured in ˚C along the y-axis.

Video 11.2.1 Climate graphs

A line graph shows average temperature. Jan. = 13˚C

(°C)

(mm)

300

100

Jan

Feb

Mar

Apr

May

Jun

Jul

Aug

Sep

Oct

Nov

Dec

Months are shown along the x-axis.

Average monthly precipitation is measured in millimetres along the other y-axis. This can swap depending on the graph, so always check.

A column graph shows average precipitation. Nov. = 38 mm

➜

Figure 11.2.1 Climate graph for Mexico City showing temperature range and annual average rainfall

Source: ClimateCharts.net

We can use a climate graph like the ones in Figures 11.2.1 and 11.2.2 to calculate the average temperature and precipitation in each month for that location. We can also use these climate graphs to determine the temperature range and the annual average rainfall.

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11.2 Climate graphs

(°C)

(mm)

300

Highest temperature is 18˚C.

100

Annual average rainfall is found by adding rain for all months together. They are already averages so we don’t need to divide by 12 at the end. Annual average = 1058 mm

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Temperature range is found by subtracting the lowest average temperature from the highest average temperature. Temperature range = 18 – 3 = 5˚C Places closer to the equator tend to have smaller temperature ranges.

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Lowest temperature is 13˚C.

Jan

Feb

Mar

Apr

May

Jun

Jul

Aug

Sep

Oct

Nov

Dec

➜

Figure 11.2.2 Climate graph for Mexico City showing temperature range and annual average rainfall

Source: ClimateCharts.net

(°C)

(mm)

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Jan

Feb

Mar

Apr

May

Jun

Jul

Aug

Sep

Oct

Nov

Dec

➜

Figure 11.2.3 Climate graph for Henderson, Nevada, USA

Source: ClimateCharts.net

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Now you try! 11.2a Use Figure 11.2.3 to answer these questions. Find the average temperature across March, June and September.

Find the average precipitation across April, November and December.

Which month has the highest average temperature?

Which month has the lowest average precipitation?

What is the difference in temperature between March and November?

What is the temperature range for Henderson?

What is the annual average precipitation for Henderson?

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Video 11.2.2 How we found the answer to Question 1

Climate graphs also show differences in temperature and precipitation between seasons. If we don’t know the location of a climate graph, we can work out what hemisphere it is located in by looking at the highest and lowest temperatures. (°C)

(mm)

Winter has the highest rainfall.

100

Hottest part of the year

Jan

Feb

Mar

Apr

May

Jun

Jul

Aug

Sep

Oct

Nov

Dec

Summer has the least rainfall.

Summer This indicates that this place is located in the northern hemisphere. ➜

Figure 11.2.4 Climate graph for Henderson, Nevada, USA

Source: ClimateCharts.net

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11.2 Climate graphs

(mm)

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Jan

Feb

Mar

Apr

May

Jun

Jul

Aug

Sep

Oct

Nov

Dec

➜

Figure 11.2.5 Climate graph for Kabul, Afghanistan

Source: ClimateCharts.net

Now you try! 11.2b

Use Figure 11.2.5 to answer these questions. 1.

In what months does Kabul experience summer?

Is Kabul located in the northern or southern hemisphere?

What season has the highest rainfall?

For how many months of the year is the temperature below 0°C?

Make a prediction of a place that might have an opposing climate graph where temperature is lowest in the middle. Use Google to find that climate graph and see how close you were.

Video 11.2.3 How we found the answer to Question 1

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Activity 11.2 For this activity you will need access to the internet and PowerPoint. Refer to Chapters 9 and 10, and write down five different locations that have been mentioned, other than the ones already used in this lesson (Kabul, Mexico City and Henderson).

For each location, find a climate graph and copy it into a PowerPoint Presentation.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

For each climate graph, identify the following information:

a. the hottest and coldest part of the year: when are summer and winter, and therefore in what hemisphere is this place located? b. the temperature range: does it have a large temperature range or is the temperature relatively consistent? Is this location likely close to the equator or further away? c. the annual average rainfall: how wet is this location?

For each location, determine when you would most like to travel there. Justify your answer with reasons. This is subjective and will differ from person to person. Consider the temperature and rainfall.

➜

Figure 11.2.6 Heavy rainfall

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11.3 Reading a synoptic chart

11.3

371

Reading a synoptic chart

Success criteria

In this lesson, you will learn the key features of a synoptic chart and understand what these features tell us about weather.

❏ I can identify the barometric pressure of a place on a synoptic chart. ❏ I can determine the weather of a place based on pressure patterns.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Learning intention

Introduction

Weather is shown using a synoptic chart. Synoptic charts combine information about barometric pressure (shown in hectopascals), rainfall, wind direction and speed, and weather fronts. In this lesson we will learn about the basic features of a synoptic chart and what these features tell us about weather. Synoptic charts are made up of isobars that connect areas of equal air pressure and form pressure patterns. On synoptic charts we see these patterns through high- and low-pressure systems. An intense low-pressure system is a tropical cyclone where isobars are very close together.

Isobar connecting areas of equal air pressure

synoptic chart a map that shows the weather conditions on the Earth’s surface at a specific moment in time isobar a line on a map marking places of equal air pressure pressure pattern the layout and movement of highand low-pressure systems shown on a weather map

Lowpressure system shown by L and numbers decreasing toward the Video 11.3.1 Features of a synoptic chart centre

High-pressure system shown by H and numbers increasing towards the centre

Air pressure given in hectopascals (hPa)

➜

Figure 11.3.1 Key features of a synoptic chart

Source: Bureau of Meteorology

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An important skill in geography is finding the air (barometric) pressure of a place. We use the following conventions when writing air pressure. Unmarked isobars can be calculated using the isobar on either side. 1020

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When a place is on an isobar, we find the value of the isobar and show the units (hPa). 1 = 1016 hPa

10 08

1016

H × 1027

100

101

1024

100

1016

When a place is between two isobars, we write the answer as a range given the information we have. 2 = 1020 – 1024 hPA

20E

130E

140E

150E

160E

➜

Figure 11.3.2 Finding air pressure on a synoptic chart

Source: Bureau of Meteorology

Now you try! 11.3a

Use Figure 11.3.2 to answer these questions.

Video 11.3.2 How we found the answer to Question 4 meteorologist a scientist who studies the processes that cause particular weather conditions

What is the air pressure at point 3?

What is the air pressure at point 4?

What is the air pressure at point 5?

What is the air pressure at point 6?

What is the difference in air pressure between point 1 and point 3?

How do we know that this is a high-pressure system (there are two ways to tell)?

Pressure systems are important on synoptic charts because they show areas of high and low pressure that control weather conditions like wind, clouds and precipitation. By identifying these systems, meteorologists can predict weather patterns and changes more accurately.

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11.3 Reading a synoptic chart

Low-pressure system (LPS)

High-pressure system (HPS) H = high

Air pressure decreases towards the centre.

Air pressure increases In the towards the southern centre. hemisphere, a LPS rotates clockwise.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

In the southern hemisphere, a HPS rotates anticlockwise.

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High-pressure systems bring calm and stable weather with clear skies, little or slight wind and dry conditions.

Rising air in low-pressure systems brings unsettled weather with cloudy skies, rain and, in severe cases, tropical cyclones.

It is important to note that neither system is associated with hot or cold temperatures – Antarctica is dominated by high-pressure systems. ➜

Figure 11.3.3 Annotated high- and low-pressure systems

Source: Bureau of Meteorology

➜

Figure 11.3.4 Synoptic chart of Australia Source: Bureau of Meteorology

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Now you try! 11.3b Use Figure 11.3.4 to answer these questions. 1.

a. What is the highest air pressure on this synoptic chart? b. Where is it located? How many low-pressure systems are on this synoptic chart?

How many high-pressure systems are on this synoptic chart?

On this synoptic chart, rain is shown using black diagonal lines. Describe the relationship between rainfall and pressure systems. In your answer, locate two pressure systems and compare the rainfall in those two area.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Video 11.3.3 How we found the answer to Question 4

Activity 11.3

For this activity you will need access to the internet. 1.

Visit the BOM website and find the page “Latest colour mean sea-level pressure analysis”.

Use the control at the top of the synoptic chart to scroll back through the last six days.

Choose three points on the synoptic chart, including your school and two others in different locations. For those three points find a way to show how the weather might change across the six days, as they move through different pressure systems.

By searching “colour forecast map” or “interactive weather and wave forecast maps” you can also find the rainfall for your chosen areas using the legend or finding the black diagonal lines as shown in Figure 11.3.4.

Choose a way to present this information. You might like to write a description, create a weather report, or draw a comic showing the weather across the six days in six different slides.

➜

Figure 11.3.5 Australian Government Bureau of Meteorology website

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11.4 Wind direction and speed, and weather fronts

11.4

375

Wind direction and speed, and weather fronts Success criteria

In this lesson, you will learn how wind direction and speed, and cold and warm fronts, are shown on a synoptic chart.

❏ I can identify the wind direction and speed on a synoptic chart. ❏ I can identify weather fronts on a synoptic chart.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Learning intention

Introduction

Synoptic charts also show us wind direction and wind speed at a location. This can be shown using wind barbs or arrows, or through the pressure systems explored in Lesson 11.3. Cold and warm fronts also impact the weather and these are shown on synoptic charts using symbols. In this chapter, we will explore the different ways that wind speed and direction are shown on synoptic charts as well as weather fronts and what conditions they bring. Wind barbs

Feathers show wind speed and will always have a legend. In this example, each feather equals 4 km/h and a half feather is 2 km/h.

km/h

О Calm 0–2 3–4

5–6

7–8

To find direction, draw a compass on the end with no feathers. Wind direction tells us where the wind is coming from. In this case it's the NE.

Video 11.4.1 Wind speed and direction

➜

Figure 11.4.1 Explanation of wind barbs

This synoptic chart from the BOM uses arrows to show wind direction. This shows patterns of wind around pressure systems.

In this section we see a wind direction of SW as that is where the wind is coming from.

Wind speed is shown using colour.

wind speed = 30–40 km/h ➜

Figure 11.4.2 Explanation of wind arrows

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High – rotates anticlockwise

Wind rotates around pressure systems. We can use this knowledge to find wind direction. We draw an S for southern hemisphere.

* We flip this information for the northern hemisphere.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Low – rotates clockwise

➜

Figure 11.4.3 Wind direction around pressure systems

HPS rotates anticlockwise.

× 1000

1016

100

1008

100

20S

90S

15 kt

1016

100

National Operations Center Bureau of Meteorology MSLP Analysis (hPa) Valid: 0600 UTC 25 Dec. 2025 05pm AEDT 25/Dec./2025

15 kt

110E

L × 1002

1008

1016

40S

H × 1026

120E

130E

140E

150E

160E

L × 98 L ×

Key: km/h Calm 0–2 3–4 5–6 7–8

Wind direction at 1 is N.

➜

Figure 11.4.4 Barbs, arrows and pressure systems

Source: Bureau of Meteorology

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11.4 Wind direction and speed, and weather fronts

377

Now you try! 11.4a Use Figure 11.4.4 to answer these questions. 1. What are the wind direction and speed at point 2? What are the wind direction and speed at point 3?

What is the wind direction at point 4?

What is the wind direction at point 5?

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

What is the wind direction at point 6? Consider what type of pressure system it is a part of and, therefore, which way it is rotating.

There are a range of fronts that can be seen on synoptic charts – the two most important to know are cold fronts and warm fronts.

Video 11.4.2 How we found the answer to Question 1

A cold front occurs when a mass of cold air moves in and forces warmer air to rise. A warm front occurs when a mass of warm air moves in and rises over a colder air mass.

Both cold and warm fronts cause rain but in different amounts, because cold fronts force warm air to rise quickly, producing heavier, shorter bursts of rain, while warm fronts cause air to rise more slowly, leading to lighter but longer-lasting rainfall.

Cold front

Warm front

➜

Figure 11.4.5 Cold and warm fronts

Cold fronts are shown by triangles. The triangles point in the direction that the front is moving. They bring a drop in temperature and heavy rainfall. Warm fronts are shown by semi-circles. The semi-circles point in the direction that the front is moving. They bring a rise in temperature and prolonged rainfall.

➜

Figure 11.4.6 Cold and warm fronts on a synoptic chart Source: BOM

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Now you try! 11.4b Use Figure 11.4.6 to answer these questions. Draw the symbol for a cold front.

Draw the symbol for a warm front.

Describe the difference in rainfall between a cold and warm front.

In what general direction is the cold front moving on the synoptic chart?

In what general direction is the warm front moving on the synoptic chart?

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Video 11.4.3 How we found the answer to Question 3

Activity 11.4

For this activity you will need a synoptic chart from the BOM, and a pencil or pen. 1.

Print out a synoptic chart from the BOM page “Latest colour mean sea-level pressure analysis”.

Use a blue pen to draw small arrows around the high- and low-pressure systems. You are attempting to make a wind map like the one in Figure 11.4.2. This is not an easy task, but do your best and see how well you can fit the arrow around the different pressure systems.

➜

Figure 11.4.7 A windy day on the coast

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11.5 Fieldwork: Water in the world

11.5

379

Fieldwork: Water in the world

Success criteria

In this lesson you will have the opportunity to design a fieldwork investigation in which you will collect data relating to a local water resource.

❏ I can use a fieldwork report to assess water health and management in NSW.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Learning intention

Investigating water sources in your neighbourhood Fieldwork is an essential part of studying geography. It enables you to investigate many of the concepts studied in the classroom while in the real world. It also provides you with the opportunity to apply your knowledge to answer a research question based on issues in your local area. In this investigation, your aim is to explore a water resource close to your school or home and to determine the ways it is used, investigate its significance for the surrounding region, and evaluate its health and management. The following structure will help to form the basis of your study.

Figure 11.5.1 The Warragamba Dam supplies about 80% of Greater Sydney’s water.

Section

Explanation

Examples

Title and introduction

Choose a suitable topic and title for your investigation. It should include the scope and location of your investigation. Identify the Country on which your local water resource is located. Write a brief introduction outlining the main aspects of your study including an outline of the type of water management you will be investigating.

• An investigation of the health and management of

the Warragamba Dam • A comparison of the health of Sydney’s urban waterways • An evaluation of sustainable urban water management in Cooks River, Sydney • An evaluation of the management of the Sydney Freshwater wetlands in maintaining both a diverse ecosystem and a tourist attraction • An investigation of how water is used and managed in rural areas like Orange, NSW

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Section

Explanation

Examples

Background information

Research some background information about your chosen topic and region. This will provide some context for your study.

• Geographic characteristics of your chosen location

Research question

Write a research question that you intend to answer using the data that you collect. You may prefer to write one overall research question and multiple sub-questions.

• Do the different land uses along the Hawkesbury

A hypothesis is a clear and concise statement that can be tested. It should be written prior to collecting your primary data.

• The water quality of the Hawksbury decreases from

Primary data collection

Primary data is data you collect yourself in the field specifically for your investigation. Consider the types of primary data that you will need to collect in order to answer your research question. Consider the equipment and preparation required.

• Interviews with councillors and local environment

Secondary data collection

Secondary data is data that other people have collected that you can use as part of your investigation. Undertake research to find suitable sources of information that you can apply to your topic.

• Satellite imagery and elevation data from Google

and a map showing your study area • A brief history of your chosen water resource and surrounding land uses

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

River affect its water quality? • Are the Sydney Freshwater wetlands a successful example of sustainable environmental management? • Do residents of Paramatta consider the Ponds Creek to be an important local resource?

Hypothesis

Summarise your findings in visual Presenting and analysing formats that are easy to read and understand. your data

its source to its mouth. • The Sydney Freshwater wetlands is a thriving ecosystem with a high level of biodiversity.

groups • Surveys of residents living close to the water resource • Water quality samples and measurements • Habitat assessments including vegetation identification and soil tests • Photos and field sketches

Earth Pro • Water-quality studies conducted by groups such as Sydney Water • Information about works undertaken by local volunteer groups

• Different types of graphs (pie, line, bar) and maps (topographic, thematic, GIS) • Annotated photos and field sketches • Summary tables

Discussion, conclusion and evaluation

Use your primary and secondary data to answer your research question. Provide a concise summary of your major findings. Evaluate the success of your data collection and your overall investigation.

• The extent to which your hypothesis has been

References

Include a bibliography of any sources used.

Sydney Water 2026, Our main water sources, NSW government, accessed 24 April 2026, https://www.melbournewater.com.au/water-andenvironment/water-management/rivers-and-creeks/ dandenong-creek

supported or disproven • An answer to your research question • The positive and negatives of your data collection and how they can be improved

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11.6 Chapter review: Understanding weather and climate

381

Chapter review: Understanding weather and climate

11.6

Success criteria

In this lesson, you will consolidate learning across this chapter and apply a range of geographical skills relating to weather and climate

❏ I can interpret climate graphs and synoptic charts to understand weather and climate.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Learning intention

Geographical data for activity questions

(°C)

(mm)

100

Jan

Feb

Mar

Apr

May

Jun

Jul

Aug

Sep

Oct

Nov

Dec

Video 11.6.1 Introducing the geographical data and skills-based activities in this section

➜

Figure 11.6.1 Climate graph of Mildura, Victoria

Source: ClimateCharts.net

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Darwin Brisbane Adelaide Sydney

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Melbourne

Hobart

km/h

О Calm 0–2 3–4 5–6 7–8

➜

Figure 11.6.2 Synoptic chart of Australia, 5 January 2026

Source: Bureau of Meteorology

°C

500

300

100

Jan

Feb

Mar

Apr

May

Jun

Jul

Aug

Sep

Oct

Nov

Dec

➜

Figure 11.6.3 Climate graph of Manaus, Brazil Source: ClimateCharts.net

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11.6 Chapter review: Understanding weather and climate

1016

1016 1016

1012

10 1012

B 1010

METAREA V

1012 ZCIT

1012

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Manaus

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B 1006

— 10

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— 15

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— 30

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— 35

1024 1024

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1020

1016 1012 1008 1004

1016

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— 45

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1000 1000

B 996 994

1016

996996

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1004 B 1004 9981000 1000 1000 986

992 992

B 994

B 990

B 978

982

B 982

988 988 — 85 — 80

984 984 984984 988 — 75 — 70 — 65 — 60 — 55

— 65

984 984 — 50 — 45

988 988

B 986

988

— 40

B 984 988 988 984 982 — 35 — 30 — 25 — 20

1500 km

982 982 — 15 — 15

982982 —5

➜

Figure 11.6.4 Synoptic chart of South America, 5 January 2026

Source: Brazil government website

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Chapter 11 Geographical skills: Understanding weather and climate

(°C) 50

(mm) 100

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–10

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Feb

Mar

Apr

May

Jun

Jul

Aug

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Dec

–20

➜

Figure 11.6.5 Climate graph of Budapest, Hungary

Source: ClimateCharts.net

km/h

О Calm 0–2 3–4 5–6 7–8

➜

Figure 11.6.6 Synoptic chart of Europe, 5 January 2026 Source: © British Crown copyright, Met Office.

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11.6 Chapter review: Understanding weather and climate

385

Check your understanding Use Figure 11.5.1 to answer Questions 1 to 7. Is rainfall shown using the line graph or the column graph?

a. Is Mildura in the northern or southern hemisphere? b. What feature on the graph confirms this?

In which month does the highest temperature occur?

How much rainfall does Mildura receive in: a. February b. April c. June d. November?

What is the temperature range?

What is the average temperature for Mildura over the year?

Which month is the wettest and what season does this fall in?

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Use Figure 11.6.2 to answer Questions 8 to 13. 8.

Determine the current the air pressure (hPa) in: a. Brisbane b. Sydney c. Perth d. Hobart.

Identify the highest pressure value shown on the map.

10.

Is the Southern Ocean (south of Australia) currently experiencing a high or low pressure system?

11.

What weather conditions would New Zealand currently be experiencing?

12.

What is the wind direction and wind speed in: a. Darwin b. Brisbane c. Sydney d. Hobart.

13.

a. In which direction is the cold front moving south of Australia? b. What conditions would be expected with this type of front?

Develop your understanding 1.

Using Figure 11.6.2, explain why most of Australia is likely experiencing different weather conditions from New Zealand.

Using Figure 11.6.2, determine the wind direction in Adelaide.

The locations have the following climate classification: • Figure 11.6.1, Mildura is a BSh (semi-arid). • Figure 11.6.3, Manaus is an Af (tropical rainforest climate). • Figure 11.6.5, Budapest is a Cfa (humid, subtropical climate).

Using the temperature and rainfall pattern, explain how this classification is appropriate.

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Chapter 11 Geographical skills: Understanding weather and climate

Using Figure 11.6.2, explain the expected weather conditions in Sydney in the next 24 hours.

Using Figure 11.6.4, which part of South America is likely experiencing the most intense rainfall on 5 January 2026?

Using Figure 11.6.6, determine the wind speed and direction at: a. Budapest b. Point A c. Point B d. Point D.

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Using Figure 11.6.6, explain why weather conditions are likely to be highly variable across the region.

Using Figure 11.6.4, determine the wind direction at: a. Point C b. Point E c. Point F.

Use Figures 11.6.1, 11.6.3 and 11.6.5 to answer Questions 9 to 11. 9.

Which location has the highest average annual temperature: Mildura, Manaus or Budapest?

10.

Which location has the smallest annual temperature range?

11.

Which climate graph shows the greatest contrast between wet and dry months?

Use Figures 11.6.2, 11.6.4 and 11.6.6 to answer Questions 12 to 16. 12.

Identify one similar feature shown on both the Australian and European synoptic charts.

13.

Identify one difference in the pressure systems shown over Australia and Europe.

14.

Which synoptic chart shows stronger wind conditions? Give evidence to justify your answer.

15.

Compare the number and type of fronts shown in the South America and Europe charts.

16.

Which region appears to have more unstable weather on 5 January? Explain why.

Extend your understanding 1.

Explain why the weather shown on in Figure 11.6.2 represents weather, not climate.

Using Figure 11.6.3, explain why a single hot or wet day would not change the climate of Manaus, Brazil.

“Manaus is more vulnerable to drought than to flooding.” Using Figure 11.6.3, explain whether you agree or disagree with this statement.

Explain why the weather shown on the South America synoptic chart (Figure 11.6.4) is consistent with the January conditions of Manaus (Figure 11.6.3).

Assess which of the three locations is most vulnerable to extreme weather, using evidence from both a climate graph and a synoptic chart.

Using the climate graphs and synoptic charts, explain how rainfall and temperature patterns shape agricultural activity near major rivers in Budapest, Mildura and Manaus.

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Creative tasks Task 1: Design your own synoptic chart 1.

Create a synoptic chart for a fictional place. Your chart must include:

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

• at least one high pressure system (H) and one low pressure system (L) • isobars with realistic pressure values • one front (cold, warm, or occluded) • at least four locations identified on the chart • a north point • a title and date • a legend explaining symbols.

Write a three- to four-sentence summary of your chart including what type of weather your chart represents and which region would experience the worst weather.

Write five questions for another student. You may want to include questions relating to air pressure, wind direction, expected weather conditions, etc. Provide them with your chart and see if they can answer these correctly.

Task 2: School weather-forecast project

You are a team of meteorologists creating a weather forecast for your school. 1.

Use a synoptic chart to predict the weather for the school.

Determine the temperature range, chance of rain, wind direction and strength.

Present your forecast TV weather report, weather app screen or short script.

Extension: Plan this around a school event (swimming carnival, assembly, excursion, etc.). Your group will need to establish whether the event should go ahead given the conditions you have predicted. All your statements must be based on evidence you have gathered from the chart.

Task 3: Forecast gone wrong

Find a real synoptic chart from a day when the weather did not turn out as expected. 1.

Describe what the forecast predicted using the synoptic chart.

Describe what actually happened.

Explain two reasons why forecasts can be wrong, even with accurate charts.

Suggest one improvement that could have reduced the error.

Task 4: Weather designer

You are to research different weather scenarios (you could include flash flooding, heatwaves, strong coastal winds, etc.) and create an A4 information page. 1.

Describe the pressure pattern needed for the scenario to occur (high or low pressure, over land or ocean, moving or stationary systems).

Explain how isobars and fronts create the conditions (spacing of isobars, wind speeds, role of fronts or troughs).

Choose one specific impact on people (transport, agriculture, health, infrastructure, emergency services). Explain how the weather causes this impact.

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Chapter 11 Geographical skills: Understanding weather and climate

Task 5: Build-a-climate chatterbox

You will need a piece of paper to create the chatterbox and a piece of grid paper to draw a resulting climate graph. 1.

Create your chatterbox.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

a. Write latitudes on the four outside flaps: tropical, subtropical, mid-latitude, polar. b. On the four inside flaps, write four geographical controls, each with two options: • distance from ocean (coastal or inland) • altitude (low or high) • ocean currents (warm or cold) • pressure systems (dominated by highs or lows).

One student will operate the chatterbox and the other chooses the flaps. Repeat until three or four climate factors have been chosen.

Predict the climate, design a climate graph and justify the drawn climate graph.

➜

Figure 11.6.7 Time to create your own weather report!

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Chapter

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Hydrological and atmospheric hazards

Lessons 12.1

Geo Spark: What is extreme weather and how does it impact the world?

12.2

How does the El Niño Southern Oscillation affect the world?

12.3

What are the causes and impacts of drought?

12.4

Case study: What are the causes and impacts of the drought in the Horn of Africa?

12.5

What are the atmospheric processes that create tropical cyclones, typhoons and hurricanes?

12.6

Case study: What were the causes, impacts and management of Hurricane Katrina?

12.7

How do floods form and why are their impacts so severe?

12.8

Case study: What were the causes, impacts and responses to the Lismore floods?

12.9

Chapter review

Image: During the 2022 floods in Lismore, NSW, water depth reached almost 14 metres, and hundreds of people lost their homes and businesses.

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12.1

Geo Spark: What is extreme weather and how does it impact the world? Success criteria

In this lesson, you will learn about extreme weather events that have impacted the world this century.

❏ I can describe the nature and scale of extreme weather events that have impacted the world this century.

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Learning intention

Introduction

➜

Writing focus 12.1 Question words

Across the world, extreme weather events such as heatwaves, floods, cyclones and blizzards have shaped the lives of millions of people this century. Activity 12.1.1 will introduce you to different types of extreme events and help you recognise the hazards that cause them. Atmospheric hazards are associated with changes in climate and weather, whereas hydrological hazards are associated with water.

Activity 12.1.1

Read the eight extreme weather event scenarios below. Each scenario describes a real type of weather event that has occurred since 2000. Scenarios

A long, extreme dry period caused rivers and water storages to shrink and turn farms into dust bowls.

A large rotating storm formed over warm ocean water and brought destructive winds and waves to coastal communities.

A dangerous rise in temperatures continued for days, forcing people to stay inside for safety.

Weeks of heavy precipitation caused rivers to overflow and spread to surrounding businesses, homes and streets.

A bushfire spread rapidly through forests, whose vegetation has dried out due to sustained hot weather and no rain.

A sudden powerful snowstorm created white out and icy conditions, which caused roads and freeways to close.

A hillside gave way after days of intense rain and crashed into a nearby settlement.

Coastal areas were inundated when a sudden rise in seawater was pushed inland by a severe storm.

➜

Figure 12.1.1 Snowstorm hits New York City, February 2026

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12.1 Geo Spark: What is extreme weather and how does it impact the world?

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Copy the table into your notebook. For each scenario: a.

Identify the type of hazard. Choose from the following types of hazards: blizzards, drought, floods, cyclone, bushfire, landslide, storm surge, heatwave. Categorise it as being hydrological or atmospheric.

Scenarios

Type of hazard

Hydrological or atmospheric

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2 3

4 5

6 7

Extreme weather events this century

Over the last 25 years, countries around the world have experienced some of the most destructive weather events in history. These events are becoming more and more common as Earth’s climate warms, heating up oceans and causing established weather patterns to shift. Extreme weather can damage homes, disrupt communities and change environments, so understanding these events helps us to prepare and respond more effectively. One of the most common events has been flooding. In South-East Asia, eastern Australia and parts of Europe, heavy rainfall has overwhelmed rivers and stormwater systems. When too much rain falls in a relatively short period of time, rivers collect the water, causing them to rise rapidly. As their capacity is exceeded, water spreads over towns, roads and farmland. Many of these floods have been linked to climate conditions such as La Niña.

Other events include tropical cyclones, hurricanes and typhoons where warm ocean temperatures can ignite rotating storms that produce strong winds, heavy rain and storm surges that push seawater inland. Cyclone Tracy (1974) and Cyclone Yasi (2011) had immense impacts on affected Australian communities, with the latter wiping out a large portion on Australia’s banana crop, which led to high prices. Heatwaves, drought and bushfires are also becoming more extreme as global temperatures increase. Australia suffers terribly from the impacts of these events, with the economic and social costs still being felt today. The bushfires of 2019–20 saw a loss of life and significant environmental damage. Its power was made stronger by the extended period of drought eastern Australia had already experienced when the bushfire began.

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Amazing but true …

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The 2019–20 “Black Summer” bushfires were among the most destructive in Australia’s history, burning an estimated 24 to 33 million hectares across multiple eastern states. The fires destroyed over 3,000 homes and caused significant loss of life, including 33 direct fatalities and hundreds more deaths linked to smoke inhalation. Ecologically, the fires devastated habitats, killing or displacing an estimated three billion animals and placing several species at greater risk of extinction. Communities endured prolonged smoke haze, evacuations, school closures and widespread disruption. Economically, the disaster cost Australia over $10 billion in recovery, rebuilding and business losses. The fires highlighted the increasing intensity of extreme weather conditions and the vulnerability of people, places and ecosystems under a warming climate.

Figure 12.1.2 Australia has experienced many deadly bushfires.

Review 12.1

Online quiz

Knowledge and understanding

Thinking and working geographically

Students can access sample responses and results online

Teachers can go online to assign questions, view results, reports and more!

Knowledge and understanding 1.

Identify one type of hydrological hazard.

Identify one type of atmospheric hazard.

Describe the ecological impacts of the 2019–20 Australian bushfires.

Study the graph in Figure 12.1.3 to answer the questions:

Figure 12.1.3 Storms and floods in the twenty-first century Source: Statista website ➜

a. During which period does the graph show the steepest rise in the number of natural disasters in Europe? b. What is the approximate cumulative total of natural disasters by the year 1999? c. What major change in the trendline begins around the 1980s and what might this suggest about extreme weather in Europe? d. Based on the trends shown, what predictions could you make about extreme weather events in Europe over the next 20 years?

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12.2 How does the El Niño Southern Oscillation affect the world?

12.2

393

How does the El Niño Southern Oscillation affect the world? Success criteria

In this lesson, you will learn about the El Niño Southern Oscillation and how it affects weather differently in different places.

❏ I can explain the differences between a La Niña event and an El Niño event. ❏ I can identify where these events are likely to occur.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Learning intention

Starter activity

Visible thinking routine: See, think, wonder

Climate scientists use satellite images and ocean measurements to track changes in the Pacific Ocean. These changes influence weather patterns across the globe. The El Niño Southern Oscillation is a natural climate cycle that shifts the distribution of warm and cool water in the Pacific. This activity will allow you to explore how changes in oceans may affect climate.

Equatorial winds gather warm water

PACIFIC OCEAN

South Equatorial

5000 km

Easterly winds weaken; warm water moves towards South America

South Pacific

PACIFIC OCEAN

South Equatorial

5000 km

Cold water along coast of South America

Warmer winter

South Pacific

➜

Figure 12.2.1 The physical process of the El Niño Southern Oscillation Source: Adapted from the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration website

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See: Observe the image in Figure 12.2.1. Make a list of what you notice, including temperature patterns, colours and the distribution of warmer and cooler water.

Think: Consider what you think might be happening in the ocean. You may want to answer the following questions: a. How might the changes you observed in temperature affect the surrounding weather? b. What might happen to rainfall? Incidence of storms? Winds? Wonder: What do you still wonder about this climate system? Consider answering the following questions:

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a. Why does the Pacific Ocean heat up in some areas but cool down in others? b. Do these changes affect areas that are further away from the ocean?

What is the El Niño Southern Oscillation?

➜

Writing focus 12.2 Conjunctions

➜

The El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO) is a natural climate system that forms over the Pacific Ocean. It is one of the most significant drivers of global weather patterns. ENSO involves shifts in ocean temperatures, atmospheric pressure and wind strength across the Pacific Ocean. These changes affect rainfall, storms, temperature patterns and the incidence of droughts and flooding experienced around the world. It swings between three phases: neutral conditions, El Niño and La Niña. It is important to understand how these phases form and explain the impact they have on our climate on a yearly basis, so that countries are able to prepare for its events. Farmers use ENSO forecasts to plan crops; governments manage water supplies differently depending on the phase, and emergency services prepare for flooding or fire risk. ENSO influences millions of people and studying how it forms is essential for preparing communities for its impact.

Figure 12.2.2 The El Niño Southern Oscillation weather event

Normal Pacific Ocean conditions

Under normal conditions, the Pacific Ocean is warmest in the west, near Australia and Indonesia. Strong trade winds blow from east to west along the equator, pushing warm surface water towards Asia. As the warm water accumulates in the west, it rises and forms tall clouds that bring heavy rainfall, especially during the summer months. Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78802-1 • (03) 8671 1400

12.2 How does the El Niño Southern Oscillation affect the world?

Meanwhile, cooler water rises to the surface in the eastern Pacific Ocean close to South America through the process of upwelling, which supports fish stocks and keeps the region relatively dry. This is the baseline for the Pacific Ocean. An ENSO event demonstrates when this baseline is out of balance.

How El Niño forms

upwelling the process by which winds push warm surface water away, allowing colder, nutrient‑rich water from deep in the ocean to rise to the surface

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El Niño forms when the trade winds weaken and, in some cases, change direction! Without the strong winds pushing warm water west, the warm water begins to settle and spread across the central and eastern parts of the Pacific Ocean. As a result, these sections become warmer than usual and create a shift in rainfall. Wet conditions move away from Australia and Indonesia and towards the central Pacific Ocean and South America.

395

El Niño has major global impacts on the world’s climatic patterns and affects places differently. Australia often experiences hotter, drier weather and an increased risk of bushfires. On the other hand, South America receives heavier rainfall and flooding. Due to the links between oceans and the atmosphere, regions far from the Pacific feel the effects of El Niño.

jet stream a narrow band of very fast-moving air high in the atmosphere; helps guide weather systems around the world and can shift during events like El Niño, affecting rainfall and temperatures

Amazing but true …

North America has felt the impact El Niño has on its seasonal climate. During the 2015–16 El Niño event, warmer water in the Pacific changed the position of the jet stream – a fast-moving band of wind high in the atmosphere. This shift caused unusual winter weather across the continent.

In the southern United States, states like Texas, Louisiana and Florida experienced higher rainfall and widespread flooding. Meanwhile, the northern states and parts of Canada had a much warmer and drier winter than usual. Ski resorts struggled with a lack of snow, and some areas experienced record-breaking winter temperatures. These unusual conditions showed how changes in the Pacific Ocean can ripple across the atmosphere and reshape weather patterns on the other side of the world.

How La Niña forms

La Niña is the opposite phase of El Niño. It forms when the trade winds become stronger than usual. These intensely strong winds push even more warm water into the western Pacific, allowing cold water to rise in the east. This makes the eastern Pacific cooler than usual and the western Pacific even warmer. During the La Niña phase, rainfall patterns change again. Australia often experiences cooler temperatures, higher rainfall and an increased risk of flooding. Meanwhile, the eastern Pacific becomes drier, and South America may face drought. La Niña events usually last longer than El Niño ones, and sometimes occur back-to-back over several years.

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Chapter 12 Hydrological and atmospheric hazards

➜

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396

Figure 12.2.2 La Niña set to start at the end of summer

Shifts between ENSO phases

It is still not fully understood how and why ENSO shifts between the three main stages – normal, El Niño and La Niña – however, several processes play a role in its transformation. Small changes in trade-wind strength, ocean currents, surface temperatures and air pressure can build over weeks or months. The accumulation of changes can cause the Pacific Ocean system to tip into a new phase. This makes ENSO difficult to predict.

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12.2 How does the El Niño Southern Oscillation affect the world?

397

Climate change and ENSO

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Climate change is adding new challenges and uncertainty to the ENSO system. In the past, ENSO phases usually occurred every four to seven years, giving the Pacific time to settle back into normal predictable conditions between events. However, the increasing warmth of the oceans appears to be disrupting this rhythm. Warmer seasurface temperatures and shifting air-pressure patterns may be allowing El Niño and La Niña phases to form more frequently and with greater intensity. Scientists are still studying the long-term trends of the system, with many climate models suggesting that global warming is likely making ENSO events longer and more extreme.

Review 12.2

Online quiz

Knowledge and understanding

Thinking and working geographically

Students can access sample responses and results online

Teachers can go online to assign questions, view results, reports and more!

Knowledge and understanding 1.

Outline what the El Niño Southern Oscillation is and why it is important.

Describe normal phases and conditions of the ENSO cycle.

Distinguish between La Niña and El Niño in terms of ocean temperatures and rainfall patterns.

Explain how climate change is affecting ENSO climatic patterns.

Thinking and working geographically

Working with geographical concepts: Change 1.

Explain how ENSO shows that natural environments can change over time. Use examples to support your response.

Describe how the movement of warm and cold water in the Pacific during El Niño and La Niña represents change to the normal baseline of the ocean system.

Geographical inquiry 3.

change The concept of change is about explaining geographical phenomena by investigating how they have developed over time.

Source a newspaper article that identifies La Niña or El Niño as a main driver of an extreme weather event within the last 24 months. Summarise the article in your own words by including the following facts:

• the country affected • the type of extreme weather event • whether El Niño or La Niña was identified as the key driver • the main impacts on people, environments and infrastructure.

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12.3

What are the causes and impacts of drought? Success criteria

In this lesson, you will learn about what causes drought and how its impacts can be felt at local, national and global scales.

❏ I can explain the causes and impacts of drought at local, national and global scales.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Learning intention

Starter activity

Who feels the impacts of drought?

Drought affects people, environments and communities in different ways. Before learning about its causes and impacts, consider how drought might be experienced differently depending on who you are, were you live and what resources you rely on. 1.

Read the scenario: An area has experienced very little rain for more than a year. Water levels in rivers and dams are dropping, crops are failing, and some towns within the region are facing water restrictions.

Choose three characters from the list below and write one or two sentences for each, explaining how the scenario might be true for them. Ensure you consider the challenges each character may be facing, how the drought has altered their daily lives, and what decisions they may need to make.

• A farmer • A student living in a large city away from the affected area • A wildlife ecologist • A town mayor • A family living in a rural community within the region • A business owner • An environmental scientist

In pairs, share one perspective that you considered.

Drought: A thirsty land

➜

Writing focus 12.3 Note-making

Drought occurs when an area receives significantly less rain than normal over a prolonged period of time, causing water storages in rivers, soil and groundwater to fall to dangerously low levels. They tend to develop slowly, often over months or years, which is why it is sometimes called a creeping disaster. Drought affects cities, dry inland areas and farmland. As temperatures rise and rainfall patterns shift, droughts are becoming more frequent and intense in many parts of the world. Understanding what causes drought and how it impacts people and environments are paramount for planning water use, protecting ecosystems and reducing the risks faced by communities.

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12.3 What are the causes and impacts of drought?

399

Causes of drought

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Drought is often caused by large-scale climate patterns, such as ENSO, which shifts warm water and rainfall away from Australia. High pressure systems can also settle over a region, reducing the incidence of clouds and subsequent rain. Climate change is making droughts more frequent and severe by increasing temperatures, which leads to faster evaporation and drier soils. Human activities, such as overuse of water for agricultural and industrial purposes, can add additional pressure to already stressed water systems.

➜

Impacts of drought

Figure 12.3.1 Conditions along the Darling River have changed over the past 60 years. Local communities and farmers in the Darling River area are facing drought and clean-water shortages as debate grows over the alleged mismanagement of the Murray–Darling Basin.

Impacts of drought can be categorised into social, environmental and economic impacts. Social impacts refer to how people and communities are affected by the natural disaster. Economic impacts refer to the financial cost to people and governments in responding to the challenges of the disaster as well as rebuilding, insurance and government support costs. Lastly, environmental impacts refer to how the environment and Earth’s natural systems have been affected. Loss of animal and plant life, and destruction of natural ecosystems and supplies of natural resources would all be included.

Social impacts

➜

Drought places enormous pressure on communities. Water restrictions that require limiting Figure 12.3.2 Mapping global drought risk washing, gardening and, in some extreme cases, Source: Statista website showering may be put in place. Rural families often times experience stress as water supplies decline and local services struggle to meet demand. Drought can also affect human health, as dust, heat and poor water quality increase the risk of respiratory illness and dehydration. Schools, households and hospitals all have to adapt to living with less water.

Economic impacts

Drought places significant strain on the economy, especially in regions that rely on farming. Crop failures, reduced harvests and the high cost of feeding livestock can lead to financial stress for farmers and higher food prices for consumers. Businesses that depend on water, such as agriculture, manufacturing and tourism, may lose income or

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be forced to cut jobs. Governments also face rising costs as they fund drought relief, water infrastructure and emergency support for affected communities. For example, most economic studies suggest that the Millenium Drought in Australia cost the country at least $20 billion.

Environmental impacts

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Drought can have a detrimental impact on the environment. Often, native grasses will die off and if natural vegetation has been cleared for agricultural purposes, soil erosion is a serious concern. The topsoil can be blown away, creating dust storms if the winds are strong enough. Land degradation is often a by-product of drought. Water quality in river systems can also be affected, when soils and other pollutants make their way into surrounding water systems. Other environmental impacts include loss of biodiversity, increased risk of extinction for endangered plants and animals, and a build-up of dried vegetation, which act as a fuel source to bushfires.

Case study: The Dust Bowl

The Dust Bowl was a major environmental disaster in the United States during the 1930s, caused mainly by a long and severe drought. With very little rain over several years, crops failed and the soil dried out, becoming loose and dusty. Strong winds then lifted this unprotected soil into the air, creating huge dust storms that swept across the Great Plains. The drought was the key driver because it removed the moisture needed to hold the soil together, and the widespread clearing of native grasses made the land even more vulnerable. As a result, thousands of families lost their farms, many were forced to move away, and communities struggled with poor air quality and health problems. CANADA

North Dakota

Montana

South Dakota

Nebraska

Colorado

PLAI

California

GREA

Wyoming

ATLANTIC OCEAN

Kansas

New Mexico

LEGEND

Oklahoma

Dust Bowl region Other areas affected by dust storms Major migration route

Texas

PACIFIC OCEAN

Gulf of Mexico

MEXICO

1000 km

➜

Figure 12.3.3 Location of the Dust Bowl

Source: Adapted from Kids Britannica website

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12.3 What are the causes and impacts of drought?

➜

Figure 12.3.4 Three girls wearing various masks in areas where the amount of dust in the air was causing breathing difficulties, c. 1935

Review 12.3

Online quiz

Knowledge and understanding

Thinking and working geographically

Students can access sample responses and results online

Teachers can go online to assign questions, view results, reports and more!

Knowledge and understanding 1.

Define what a drought is.

Describe how droughts occur.

Explain the environmental impacts of drought.

Thinking and working geographically

Working with geographical concepts: Place 1.

Describe the location of the Great Dust Bowl of the 1930s in the USA.

Explain the social impacts of the Dust Bowl.

place The concept of place is about the significance of places and what they are like.

Creative writing task: Showing perspectives 3.

Imagine you have travelled back in time to a Texan farm at the height of the Dust Bowl. Write a diary entry from the perspective of a young teenager living through this ecological disaster. In your diary entry, ensure you include:

• a description of daily life on the farm and how the Dust Bowl has changed it • what the landscape looks and feels like, such as dust storms, dry soil and damaged crops • how the drought and dust storms are affecting your family, including emotions, health or difficult decisions • a personal reflection on your fears or hopes for the future.

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12.4

Case study: What are the causes and impacts of the drought in the Horn of Africa? Success criteria

In this lesson, you will learn about the causes and impacts of the recent drought affecting the Horn of Africa.

❏ I can explain the causes and impacts of drought experienced in the Horn of Africa.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Learning intention

Starter activity

➜

Figure 12.4.1 During the long drought, children and women run among a cloud of dust in the village of El Gel, Ethiopia, 2023.

➜

Figure 12.4.2 Men walk among animal carcasses, caused by drought, in the village of Antalale, Ethiopia, 2023.

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12.4 Case study: What are the causes and impacts of the drought in the Horn of Africa?

GERMANY NORTH ATLANTIC OCEAN

FRANCE

HUNGARY

UKRAINE RUSSIA

ROMANIA BULGARIA

ITALY PORTUGAL

SPAIN

BLACK SEA TÜRKIYE

GREECE

SYRIA

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

TUNISIA

403

MEDITERRANEAN SEA

MOROCCO

JORDAN

ALGERIA

WESTERN SAHARA

LIBYA

EGYPT

SAUDI ARABIA

RED

SEA

MAURITANIA

ERITREA

NIGER

CHAD

BURKINA FASO

IVORY COAST

GAMBIA

GUINEA BISSAU SIERRA LEONE LIBERIA

GHANA

Nile Riv e r

MALI

SENEGAL

GUINEA

IRAN

IRAQ

BENIN

TOGO

EQUATORIAL GUINEA

SUDAN

YEMEN

DJIBOUTI

NIGERIA

SOMALIA

ETHIOPIA SOUTH CENTRAL AFRICAN SUDAN REPUBLIC CAMEROON Co n g o Riv e r UGANDA REPUBLIC OF KENYA Lake Victoria GABON THE CONGO DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF THE CONGO

TANZANIA

INDIAN OCEAN

RWANDA BURUNDI

MALAWI

ANGOLA

SOUTH ATLANTIC OCEAN

ZAMBIA

MOZAMBIQUE

MADAGASCAR

ZIMBABWE

NAMIBIA

BOTSWANA

2000 km

INDIAN OCEAN

SOUTH AFRICA

SWAZILAND

LESOTHO

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Figure 12.4.3 Map of Africa

Study Figures 12.4.1 to 12.4.3 carefully. Use them to answer the questions. 1.

Using the Figure 12.4.3, identify at least three countries in Africa that commonly experience drought. (Hint: Use the captions to the photographs.)

What environmental changes are visible in Figure 12.4.2?

Referring to Figure 12.4.1, describe what the conditions might be like for communities living here. List two challenges families might face during drought.

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Drought in the Horn of Africa

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Writing focus 12.4 Developing sentences

Between 2020 and 2025, the Horn of Africa, mainly Ethiopia, Somalia, Eritrea and Djibouti, experienced one of the most severe droughts in decades. This event created a major humanitarian crisis and caused long-lasting obstacles to people and environments. Multiple rainy seasons failed, temperatures increased and water sources dried up. The next rainy season, from March to May, is also expected to be below average. According to the UN, drought has plunged 12 million people into “acute food insecurity” in Ethiopia alone, where conflict has also ravaged the north of the country.

Causes of the drought

Indian Ocean Dipole a climate driver that involves the movement and location of warmer and colder waters along the equator in the Indian Ocean

The drought was driven by the continued lack of rain that spanned across five full seasons, which prevented soils, crops and rivers from recovering. A persistent negative Indian Ocean Dipole was largely responsible, being very similar in effect to ENSO. It occurs when warmer-than-usual waters build up in the eastern Indian Ocean, while the western side becomes cooler than normal. This climate system disrupted normal rainfall by limiting the amount of moist air reaching East Africa. Higher global temperatures increased evaporation, drying out land faster than it could be replenished. Human activities, such as overgrazing of livestock, land clearing and growing populations, also reduced efforts to respond swiftly.

Increased convection

EQUATOR

Cooler than normal

Warmer than normal

Increased change of rainfall

Downwelling

Upwelling

EQUATORIA L

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Figure 12.4.4 The typical conditions and effects of a negative Indian Ocean Dipole

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Indian ocean dipole (iod) index

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IOD index (°C)

–1

Week ending on 31 August 2025

ril 2 Ju 019 Oc ly to 20 Ja ber 19 nu 20 ar 19 y Ap 202 ril 0 2 J 0 Oc uly 20 to 20 b 2 Ja er 2 0 nu 0 ar 20 y Ap 202 ril 1 2 J 0 Oc uly 21 to 20 Ja ber 21 nu 20 ar 21 y Ap 202 ril 2 2 J 0 Oc uly 22 to 20 Ja ber 22 nu 20 ar 22 y Ap 202 ril 3 2 J 0 Oc uly 23 to 20 Ja ber 23 nu 20 ar 23 y Ap 202 ril 4 2 J 0 Oc uly 24 to 20 Ja ber 24 nu 20 ar 24 y Ap 202 ril 5 2 Ju 02 ly 5 20 25

–2

Month

Weekly IOD Index

Positive IOD

Negative IOD

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Figure 12.4.5 The negative Indian Ocean Dipole

Source: Adapted from Weatherzone website

Social impacts

The drought caused widespread food insecurity, with millions of people relying on emergency aid. Many families were forced to move to meet their basic needs such as water and relief support. Health systems came under strain as unsafe water and poor nutrition increased illness. School attendance fell, especially among girls, as children travelled long distances to collect water or moved on with their families.

food insecurity the condition of not having access to sufficient food, or food of an adequate quality, to meet one's basic needs

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Figure 12.4.6 People lining up to receive food aid, Mogadishu, Somalia, February 2026

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Chapter 12 Hydrological and atmospheric hazards

Humanitarian organisations such as WFP, UNICEF and the Red Cross delivered food aid, water trucks and medical support. They repaired wells, installed water tanks and provided nutritional treatment for children.

Families reduced water use, travelled further to collect water and moved livestock to areas with remaining pasture. Some households planted drought-tolerant crops or relied on support from neighbours and extended family networks.

Individuals

Governments introduced emergency measures such as drilling new boreholes, supplying fodder and subsidising basic food. They strengthened early-warning systems and invested in longer-term solutions like irrigation and improved water storage.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Responses

Organisations

Governments

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Figure 12.4.7 Responses to the drought

Environmental impacts

Vegetation loss became severe as grasses and shrubs failed to recover between seasons. Wildlife struggled to find food and water, and many habitats shrank or disappeared. Water sources, including wells, rivers and wetlands, reached historic lows. With little plant cover, soils eroded easily, reducing the land’s ability to recover.

Economic impacts

Livestock deaths caused major economic losses in farming communities. Crop failures reduced local food supplies and pushed up market prices. Many households faced rising costs as they bought imported grain and water. Governments spent large sums on emergency relief, redirecting money away from long-term development.

Why this drought was different

Figure 12.4.8 A woman sits in a tent in a camp for internally displaced people in the village of Adlale, near the city of Gode, Ethiopia, April 2022. ➜

This drought was more devasting than previous droughts because it combined unusual climate behaviour, higher temperatures and repeated rainfall failures. Human pressures on the land made the environment less resilient, prior to the drought taking full effect. These interconnected factors created a crisis that affected millions of people and reshaped landscapes across the region.

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12.4 Case study: What are the causes and impacts of the drought in the Horn of Africa?

Figure 12.4.9 Aerial shot of the dry landscape of Gedo, Somalia, April 2022

Review 12.4

Online quiz

Knowledge and understanding

Thinking and working geographically

Students can access sample responses and results online

Teachers can go online to assign questions, view results, reports and more!

Knowledge and understanding 1.

What major climate patterns contributed to the failure of rainfall in the Horn of Africa between 2020 and 2025?

Describe two social impacts of the drought on communities in Ethiopia, Somalia or neighbouring countries.

Explain the government response to this natural disaster.

Thinking and working geographically

Working with geographical concepts: Sustainability 1.

Why is improving land management important for making communities more sustainable during future droughts?

Suggest one long-term strategy that could help countries in the Horn of Africa reduce the impact of severe drought events.

Geographical inquiry 3.

Study Figure 12.4.4. How does the pattern shown help explain the weather changes shown in Figure 12.4.5?

sustainability The concept of sustainability is about the capacity of the environment to continue to support our lives and the lives of other living creatures into the future.

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12.5

What are the atmospheric processes that create tropical cyclones, typhoons and hurricanes? Success criteria

In this lesson, you will learn to understand the atmospheric processes that create hurricanes, tropical cycles and typhoons.

❏ I can explain the atmospheric processes that create hurricanes, tropical cycles and typhoons.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Learning intention

Starter activity

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Figure 12.5.1 Kaohsiung, Taiwan, when Typhoon Gaemi in hit on 25 July 2024. It was the strongest typhoon to hit Taiwan in eight years, and had already forced authorities to close schools and offices, suspend the stock market and evacuate thousands of people. 1.

Look up a map of Taiwan and locate Kaohsiung. Describe where Kaohsiung is on the island, which seas are closest, and which cities it is close to.

Study Figure 12.5.1 and imagine you lived in this settlement. What challenges would you be facing?

Typhoons, hurricanes and tropical cycles: Same storm, different worlds

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Writing focus 12.5 Creating topic sentences

Hurricanes, tropical cyclones and typhoons are large, organised storm systems featuring a central rotating structure. Around the world, powerful rotating storms form over warm tropical waters. A storm that forms in the Atlantic Ocean or the Northeast Pacific is called a hurricane. A storm originating in the Northwest Pacific is known as a typhoon. A storm

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that forms in the Indian Ocean or the South Pacific, including near northern Australia, is referred to as a tropical cyclone. These storms can stretch hundreds of kilometres across. They are fundamentally the same type of weather system with the different names simply reflecting the region where the storm developed. These weather systems can cause substantial damage to coastlines, disrupt communities and affect millions of people.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Tropical cyclones

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Tropical cyclones begin over ocean waters that are at least 26.5°C – this warmth provides the heat energy needed to fuel the system. Warm, moist air rises from the ocean’s surface and cools as it rises, leading to the formation of large clouds and thunderstorms. This ascending air creates a zone of low pressure at the surface, drawing in more air from surrounding areas and strengthening the developing system. Earth’s rotation causes the storm to spin clockwise in the southern hemisphere. Additionally, there is minimal change in wind speed and direction at different altitudes, which allows the storm to remain intact rather than being torn apart. When these conditions align, the storm can intensify rapidly and travel across warm ocean waters with increasing strength.

Figure 12.5.2 Category 4 Cyclone Jasper over the Pacific Ocean, south of the Solomon Islands and Papua New Guinea

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Tropical cyclone categories

90–124 km/h

125–164 km/h

165–224 km/h

225–279 km/h

>280 km/h

Damaging winds

Destructive winds

Very destructive winds

Figure 12.5.3 Tropical cyclone categories

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Hurricanes

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Hurricanes form in the Atlantic Ocean and the Northeast Pacific, and frequently impact regions such as the Caribbean, Central America and the south-eastern United States. One well-known example is Hurricane Sandy in 2012. This hurricane caused catastrophic flooding in the Caribbean, the United States and Cuba. In the US alone, this storm caused $65 billion worth of damage, hitting most of the US’s eastern seaboard including New Jersey, New York and Florida.

Figure 12.5.4 Cloud formation during a hurricane

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Figure 12.5.5 Waves break in front of a destroyed amusement park wrecked by Hurricane Sandy on 31 October 2012 in Seaside Heights, New Jersey. At least 50 people were reportedly killed in the US by Sandy, with New Jersey suffering massive damage and power outages. Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78802-1 • (03) 8671 1400

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Typhoons

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Typhoons develop in the Northwest Pacific, where countries such as the Philippines, Japan, Taiwan and China experience frequent storms of varying intensities. Typhoon Haiyan, which struck the Philippines in 2013, is one of the strongest storms ever recorded. With exceptionally high wind speeds and powerful storm surges, Haiyan caused widespread damage to towns and cities and affected millions of people across the region.

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Figure 12.5.6 Destruction from Typhoon Haiyan, also known as Super Typhoon Yolanda in the Philippines

Review 12.5

Online quiz

Knowledge and understanding

Thinking and working geographically

Students can access sample responses and results online

Teachers can go online to assign questions, view results, reports and more!

Knowledge and understanding 1.

Identify the minimum ocean temperature that supports the development of the tropical cyclone.

Describe the location where hurricanes are likely to form.

Explain the impact of Typhoon Haiyan on the Philippines.

Thinking and working geographically

Working with geographical concepts: Change 1.

How has the coastal environment shown in Figure 12.5.5 changed as a result of the storm event, and what further environmental changes are likely to occur if storms of this intensity become more frequent?

In Figure 12.5.6, how has the local community changed as a result of the typhoon, and how might the social and economic situation continue to change as the community rebuilds?

change The concept of change is about explaining geographical phenomena by investigating how they have developed over time.

Geographical inquiry 3.

Prepare a newspaper article aimed at the teenage market that investigates the causes and impacts of one the natural disasters discussed in this unit. Ensure you engage your target audience. You will need to ensure that you discuss: • the development of the storm • the movement of the storm (where it started and travelled to) • the social, environmental and economic impacts of the storm • testimonies of people who experienced the storm.

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12.6

Case study: What were the causes, impacts and management of Hurricane Katrina? Success criteria

In this lesson, you will learn about the causes, impacts and management of Hurricane Katrina, one of the most devastating atmospheric disasters to impact the United States.

❏ I can explain the causes and impacts of Hurricane Katrina. ❏ I can discuss the management and responses of governments, organisations and individuals to the disaster.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Learning intention

Starter activity

Figure 12.6.2 A headline of the Daily News: “Hurricane Katrina poised to unleash fury: Hell’s a-comin’” ➜

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Figure 12.6.1 A headline of the Daily News: “New Orleans mayor: Thousands feared dead”

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12.6 Case study: What were the causes, impacts and management of Hurricane Katrina?

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Figure 12.6.3 Emergency services searching for survivors in the midcity section of New Orleans after Hurricane Katrina

Study Figures 12.6.1 to 12.6.3 carefully. They show different moments connected to the same major atmospheric event. Answer the questions using only what you can observe in the images. 1.

What do these images suggest about how serious the event was for the people of New Orleans? (Hint: Think about the language used in the newspaper headlines and the conditions shown in the photograph.)

Which image do you think represents before the disaster, and which represent during and after? Explain your reasoning using evidence.

How do the images show different types of impacts (social, economic or environmental)? Identify one impact for each.

Based on the photograph, what challenges might people and emergency services have faced when responding to the disaster?

Why do you think newspapers used such dramatic language in their headlines? What effect might this have on the public?

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The storm that changed a nation

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Writing focus 12.6 Appositives

In late August 2005, Hurricane Katrina hit the southern United States and became one of the most destructive atmospheric disasters in American history. The storm led to massive flooding, widespread damage, and ongoing social and economic challenges. Understanding how Katrina formed, why it became so extreme and how communities responded provides important insight into natural disasters, and the ways people and governments can prepare for and effectively manage them.

Causes of Hurricane Katrina

Hurricane Katrina formed over the warm waters of the Atlantic Ocean, where surface temperatures were above 26°C – the minimum warmth needed to fuel this type of storm. As warm, moist air rose from the ocean, it created a low-pressure system that rapidly intensified. Katrina strengthened in the Gulf of Mexico, where even warmer waters allowed it to reach a category 5 intensity (the highest category) before it hit land.

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Figure 12.6.4 Pathway and development of Hurricane Katrina

The flat coastline and surrounding wetlands provided little barrier to slow the storm’s movement. When the hurricane hit Louisiana and Mississippi, the extreme winds and storm surge were strong enough to overpower parts of the region’s flood defences, including New Orleans’ levee system.

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Floodwall

–30

~6 a.m., 29 August

Fence

Sheet piling 17th St. Canal

–20

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Peat

–10 0

Floodwall

–30

~6:30 a.m., 29 August

Fence

Sheet piling

17th St. Canal

–20

Peat

–10 0

14 metres

~9 a.m., 29 August

Fence

–30 –20 –10 0

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Figure 12.6.5 The failure of the floodwalls was mostly due to erosion caused by the overtopping waterfall, and the force of the water pushing the floodwall over. Source: Adapted from Tulane University website

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Impacts of Hurricane Katrina

Figure 12.6.6 The neighbourhood of Chalmette, New Orleans – largely underwater after Hurricane Katrina

Hurricane Katrina caused catastrophic damage across multiple states, but the city of New Orleans was one of the hardest hit. When the levees failed, around 80 per cent of the city was flooded. Homes, schools and hospitals were submerged, leaving thousands stranded. Many residents had to evacuate to rooftops or temporary shelters, and more than a million people were displaced. The social impacts were severe, with vulnerable communities – especially low-income households – experiencing the greatest hardships during and after the disaster. The environment suffered, too. Floodwaters polluted wetlands and rivers with debris, chemicals and sewage. Coastal ecosystems were damaged by erosion and saltwater intrusion. The environment is still in the process of recovering after Katrina’s impact. Economically, the storm caused hundreds of billions of dollars’ worth of destruction, disrupting businesses, tourism and essential infrastructure.

Responses to Hurricane Katrina

Individuals and local communities played a crucial role. Neighbours helped each other evacuate, shared resources, and supported the elderly and those without transport. Many opened their homes to displaced families or travelled long distances to help clean debris and repair homes. Their actions showed resilience and community spirit, even when official assistance was slow to arrive.

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Volunteers, charities and even news crews were a vital source of help in getting essential services and supplies to affected people. Organisations such as the Red Cross, faith-based groups and community charities brought food, medical care and essential supplies when official support was limited. Rescue workers from other states drove in with boats and equipment to evacuate people from flooded neighbourhoods. Many journalists covering the disaster also helped residents find safety, transported stranded families and highlighted urgent needs on national television, pressuring authorities to act more quickly.

On the other hand, the government response to Hurricane Katrina revealed major weaknesses in government planning and coordination. Many residents waited days for food, clean water and rescue, especially in New Orleans. Confusion between local, state and federal agencies slowed evacuations and delayed vital supplies. The Federal Emergency Management Agency struggled to organise transport, communication systems and emergency shelters, leaving thousands stranded in unsafe conditions. These delays highlighted how unprepared the government was for a disaster of this scale. This combination of slow government response and exceptional community-led support became one of the defining features of Hurricane Katrina.

Review 12.6

Online quiz

Knowledge and understanding

Thinking and working geographically

Students can access sample responses and results online

Teachers can go online to assign questions, view results, reports and more!

Knowledge and understanding 1.

Outline how warm ocean temperatures contributed to the formation and rapid intensification of Hurricane Katrina.

Describe two major social impacts that occurred in New Orleans after the levees failed.

How did the failure of the floodwalls and levees increase both environmental and economic damage across the region?

Why were volunteers, charities and news crew initially able to provide support more effectively than government agencies?

Thinking and working geographically

Working with geographical concepts: Change 1.

Describe how Hurricane Katrina changed both the physical environment and the human environment of New Orleans.

How did the slow government response influence long-term changes in the lives of vulnerable communities affected by the disaster?

change The concept of change is about explaining geographical phenomena by investigating how they have developed over time.

Geographical inquiry 3.

Watch this video: https://cambridge.edu.au/redirect/11879 from The Weather Network to learn more about this disaster. Prepare a multimedia presentation or television program to educate the public of the dangers of hurricanes, if not prepared.

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12.7

How do floods form and why are their impacts so severe? Success criteria

In this lesson, you will learn how floods form, the different types of floods that can develop, and the impacts of flooding on affected communities.

❏ I can explain the causes and impacts of flooding on a community, environment and economy. ❏ I can propose management strategies to prepare and reduce the impact floods have on people, the environment and the economy.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Learning intention

Starter activity

Visible thinking routine: See, think, wonder

Study Figure 12.7.1 and answer the questions.

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Figure 12.7.1 Cars and properties were swept into the sea during flash flooding in Cumberland River, Victoria, in January 2026.

See: Describe what is going on in the photo.

Think: What level of force must have been generated to result in the level of damage pictured?

Wonder: Which groups of people are likely to be impacted by flooding?

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Floods: Surrounded by water riverine flooding when rivers, streams and creeks overflow and spread across surrounding floodplains

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

A flood results from prolonged heavy rain, rapid winter snowmelt or sudden and heavy downpours. It occurs when water overflows its natural boundaries, such as a riverbank, and spills on to normally dry land. It usually happens slowly over several days as water accumulates due to ongoing rain. Floods are a natural part of Earth’s water cycle and occur in many environments around the world. While floods can provide benefits to natural systems, they can also lead to immense damage to communities, infrastructure and economies.

Causes of flooding

Floods are mostly caused by heavy and extended periods of rain that exceed the ability of the ground, waterways and drainage systems to absorb or carry water away. When soil becomes saturated after long periods of rain, additional rain quickly turns to surface run-off, flowing into creeks, tributaries and rivers. Flooding can also occur when intense storms deliver large amounts of rain in a short period of time or when storm surges push seawater inland along low-lying coastlines. Urban development, land clearing and other human activities increase the risk of flood damage by reducing the land’s ability to absorb the excess water.

Types of floods

There are three main types of floods that can affect a region: riverine flooding, flash flooding and coastal flooding. Riverine flooding occurs when rivers, streams and creeks overflow their banks and spread across surrounding floodplains. These floods are common after continuous rain across a river catchment and often affect large areas. Flash floods develop rapidly after sudden heavy downpours, particularly in steep or urban areas. These can be extremely dangerous due to the speed of rising water. Coastal floods occur when storm surges, king tides or intense low-pressure systems push seawater inland, flooding estuaries and coastal settlements. In some locations, flooding can result from a combination of riverine and coastal processes acting at the same time.

coastal flood flooding that happens when seawater flows onto dry coastal land, usually because of very high tides, rising sea levels, or powerful storm surges storm surge a sudden rise in sea level caused by strong winds and low air pressure during a storm, pushing seawater inland and flooding coastal areas king tide an unusually high tide that happens when the Sun, Moon and Earth line up, increasing tidal height and sometimes causing minor coastal flooding

Figure 12.7.3 A flooded road in Sydney, 2024, after heavy rain. Hundreds of Australians were ordered to evacuate as torrential rain battered the city and floodwaters inundated its outskirts. ➜

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Figure 12.7.2 A boy wades through a waterlogged street on the banks of the overflowing Brisbane River, 2022.

flash flood a sudden and severe flood

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Impacts of floods Social impacts of flooding

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Writing focus 12.7 Appositives

Floods can have serious impacts on people and communities. Homes may be damaged or destroyed, forcing families to evacuate and, in some cases, become homeless. Floodwaters can also disrupt essential services such as electricity, water supply, transport and communication networks. Human health may be compromised as flooding can lead to injuries, loss of life and the spread of disease. Overall, the social effects often last longer than the event itself, as many people experience stress, anxiety and trauma as they recover from the loss of homes, belongings and livelihoods.

Environmental impacts of flooding

Figure 12.7.4 Flooding in 2022 caused pollution in Lennox Head to hit record highs, with authorities warning visitors and locals to stay out of the water. ➜

Floods play an important role in maintaining healthy river and floodplain ecosystems by depositing nutrient-rich sediment, recharging groundwater and supporting breeding cycles for plants and animals. However, extreme floods can cause environmental damage by eroding soil, uprooting vegetation, and spreading pollutants, rubbish and sewage into waterways. Floodwaters can also reduce water quality and harm aquatic ecosystems, particularly when large amounts of organic matter enter rivers and wetlands, causing oxygen levels to drop.

Economic impacts of flooding

Flooding can be extremely costly for individuals, businesses and governments. Homes, shops, factories and farms may suffer extensive damage. Agriculture can be devastated when crops are destroyed and livestock perish, which puts additional strain on our farming communities. Governments face large costs associated with emergency response, clean-up, infrastructure repair and long-term recovery. Insurance claims following major flood events can run into billions of dollars, placing pressure on both insurers and households.

riparian vegetation the plants and trees that grow along riverbanks, streams and waterways, helping to reduce erosion, slow floodwaters and improve water quality

Managing and reducing flood impacts

Flood management aims to reduce the damage caused by floods rather than prevent them entirely. Governments use strategies such as flood forecasting and early warning systems, land-use planning that limits development on floodplains, and the construction of levees. Natural management approaches include restoring wetlands and riparian vegetation to slow run-off and store floodwaters. Individuals can reduce their flood risk by preparing emergency plans, elevating buildings in flood-prone areas and staying informed during severe weather events.

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U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

As climate change is affecting the extent and severity of flood events, governments need to consider current settlements and their ability to support communities and commerce into the future.

Figure 12.7.5 A diagram illustrating riparian vegetation

Amazing but true …

The floods that affected eastern Australia in early 2022 were the most expensive flood disaster in Australian history. Insurance losses from these events were estimated at more than $9.6 billion, placing enormous pressure on households, communities and the insurance industry, and highlighting the growing cost of extreme weather events in Australia.

Review 12.7

Online quiz

Knowledge and understanding

Thinking and working geographically

Students can access sample responses and results online

Teachers can go online to assign questions, view results, reports and more!

Knowledge and understanding 1.

Define what floods are. How do they occur naturally?

Describe two natural causes of flooding.

Explain how human activities can increase the impacts of floods

Describe one social impact and one economic impact of flooding.

Thinking and working geographically

Working with geographical concepts: Change 1.

Explain how the natural environment is impacted and ultimately changed from a flood event.

How is climate change influencing flood events?

Geographical inquiry 3.

Evaluate one strategy governments use to reduce the impacts of floods.

change The concept of change is about explaining geographical phenomena by investigating how they have developed over time.

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12.8

Case study: What were the causes, impacts and responses to the Lismore floods? Success criteria

In this lesson, you will learn about the floods in Lismore, NSW – the causes, impacts and responses to this natural disaster.

❏ I can describe the causes of the Lismore floods. ❏ I can discuss the impacts and responses to the natural disaster.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Learning intention

Starter activity

Work individually to annotate the map and answer the questions.

Use the interactive topographic map of Lismore this website https://cambridge.edu.au/redirect/11880 to answer the questions. 1.

Describe the height of the land around Lismore. Is it mostly high, low or a mix of both? (Hint: Look at the colour shading and elevation numbers on the map to support your answer.)

Identify the main rivers or creeks shown near Lismore. Where are they located in relation to the town? (Hint: Name at least one waterway and describe whether it runs through, beside or around Lismore.)

Which areas on the map appear lowest in elevation? Why might these areas be more likely to flood? (Hint: Use elevation information to explain your thinking.)

How could the surrounding higher land affect the amount of water flowing into Lismore during heavy rain? (Hint: Think about how water moves downhill across the landscape.)

Based on the map, suggest one reason why Lismore is vulnerable to flooding. (Hint: Use evidence from the map such as elevation, rivers or land shape in your answer.)

A snapshot of Lismore

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Writing focus 12.8 Conjunctions

Lismore is a large regional city in northern New South Wales, located on the floodplain of the Richmond River. The city sits at the meeting point of Wilsons River and Leycester Creek, two waterways that drain steep catchments before flowing through low-lying land. This location has made Lismore one of the most flood-prone settlements in New South Wales, with more than 150 recorded floods since observations began. Human activities have increased vulnerability through land clearing, drainage of wetlands, river modification and urban development on floodplains, reducing the landscape’s natural ability to absorb and store floodwater.

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12.8 Case study: What were the causes, impacts and responses to the Lismore floods?

Mt Nardi

Kyogle Shire

Mullumbimby

Byron Shire

Nimbin

Mountain Top

Whian Whian

The Channon

Jiggi

423

Byron Bay

Rosebank Dunoon

Bangalow

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Koonorigan

Modanville

Rock Valley

Goolmangar

Clunes

Bexhill

Woodlawn Lismore Heights

Lismore

East Lismore

Etham

Tintenbar

Goonellabah

Tregeagle

Casino

Wyrallah

Tatham

Ballina

Ballina Shire

Richmond Valley Council

North Woodburn

Woodburn

Broadwater 0

20 km

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Figure 12.8.1 Map of Lismore

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Figure 12.8.2 Lismore flood levels

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Causes of the 2022 floods

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

The 2022 Lismore floods were caused by a rare combination of weather and river conditions. A strong La Niña increased moisture in the atmosphere, while slow-moving low-pressure systems and an east coast low delivered intense and prolonged rain. The river carried additional moisture from the tropics, and months of earlier rain had already saturated the soil, causing most rain to run straight into rivers. As water flowed rapidly into Wilsons River and Leycester Creek, which meet at Lismore, river levels rose quickly and exceeded predictions. The city’s levee was overtopped, flooding large areas of the city. A second major flood occurred in March, before recovery from the first event was complete. During the February peak, nearly half of Sydney Harbour’s volume of water flowed through Lismore in just 24 hours, making this the most severe flood on record for the city.

Impacts

➜

Floodwaters transported large amounts of sediment, pollutants and organic material into rivers and floodplains. In some areas,

Figure 12.8.3 An aerial view of houses surrounded by floodwater in Lismore in March 2022. Evacuation orders were issued for towns across the NSW Northern Rivers region, with flash flooding expected as heavy rainfall continued. It was the second major flood event for the region within the same month ➜

The floods caused devastating impacts across Lismore and surrounding communities. Thousands of homes and businesses were damaged or destroyed, leaving many people homeless and without income. Power, water, transport and communication networks were disrupted for extended periods. Thousands of jobs were affected, particularly in agriculture and small businesses. The emotional toll on the community was severe, with many residents experiencing trauma, uncertainty and longterm stress. The recovery cost of this disaster alone was US$6.6 billion according to Global Reinsurance company reports.

Figure 12.8.4 A car stuck in floodwaters coming into Lismore, 2022

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12.8 Case study: What were the causes, impacts and responses to the Lismore floods?

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oxygen levels in waterways dropped, causing fish deaths and damage to aquatic ecosystems. The loss of wetlands and riparian vegetation over time reduced the catchment’s natural resilience, worsening the environmental effects of flooding.

Responses and management

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Emergency responses included evacuation orders, flood rescues by the State Emergency Service and community volunteers, and the establishment of relief centres. In the recovery phase, governments provided financial assistance, temporary housing and funding for infrastructure repair. The floods renewed debate about long-term flood management in Lismore, including land-use planning, levee effectiveness, catchmentwide management and the potential relocation of some developments out of high-risk flood zones. The Lismore floods highlight how natural processes and human decisions interact to shape disaster risk. With climate change predicted to increase the intensity of extreme rainfall events, managing floods in places like Lismore will require a wholeof-catchment approach that balances environmental restoration, community safety and sustainable development.

Review 12.8

Online quiz

Knowledge and understanding

Thinking and working geographically

Students can access sample responses and results online

Teachers can go online to assign questions, view results, reports and more!

Knowledge and understanding 1.

Where is Lismore located and why is it flood-prone?

Identify two physical features of the Richmond River catchment that increase flood risk.

Describe how atmospheric conditions contributed to the 2022 Lismore floods.

Explain how land-use change increased flood vulnerability in Lismore.

Thinking and working geographically

Working with geographical concepts: Interconnections 1.

Describe one social and one environmental impact of the 2022 floods in Lismore.

Explain why the 2022 floods were described as unprecedented.

Geographical inquiry 3.

Using the Lismore case study, explain how natural systems and human decisions interact to create flood disasters.

interconnection The concept of interconnection emphasises that no object of geographical study can be viewed in isolation.

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Chapter 12 Hydrological and atmospheric hazards

12.9

Chapter review Access the Interactive Textbook for a range of digital tools to help you review this chapter and build confidence.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Summary

Summary notes

Download chapter summary

What have you learned about hydrological and atmospheric hazards?

For this activity, copy the table and fill it out by explaining your understanding. Aim for two points per topic.

Terms

What I have learned

Hydrological hazards

Atmospheric hazards Extreme weather Vulnerability Mitigation

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Figure 12.9.1 Lismore floods, 2022

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12.9 Chapter review

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Visible thinking routine What caused the disaster

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Figure 12.9.2 Hurricane Katrina, 2021

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U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

This exercise encourages you to separate natural processes from human decisions, and evaluate risk and responsibility.

Figure 12.9.3 Horn of Africa drought, 2023

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Chapter 12 Hydrological and atmospheric hazards

Choose one case study from the chapter:

• Lismore floods • Hurricane Katrina • Horn of Africa drought.

Write the title at the top of the page. Then draw a T-chart with Natural causes (out of human control) on the left and Human decisions (that increased damage) on the right. See below for an example:

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

What caused the disaster

Natural causes

Human causes

Sort the causes by listing at least five causes in each column. Example: Lismore

Natural causes

Human causes

La Niña

Wetland clearing

East Coast low

Urban run-off

Below the chart, list at least two social impacts, two economic impacts and two environmental impacts.

Make a judgment by answering the following question: Was this disaster mostly natural or mostly shaped by human decisions?

In your response, you must:

• choose one side • give two reasons • use evidence from the case studies.

Here are some sentence starters to get you going:

• “Although the hazard was natural, the damage was worsened by …” • “This disaster became severe because …”

Debate

“Natural disasters are no longer mainly natural — human decisions now cause most of the damage.”

• Debate structure (20–25 minutes) • Opening statements (two minutes per team) • Evidence round (each side presents three pieces of evidence) • Rebuttal (teams respond to each other) • Audience vote

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Instructions: Divide the class into two teams: Team A: Positive Argue that human actions make disasters far worse. They may refer to:

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

• flood-plain development (Lismore) • levee failure (New Orleans) • land clearing and wetland loss • climate change • poor disaster planning.

Team B: Negative

Argue that nature and climate systems are the main cause. They may refer to:

• La Niña and ENSO • Indian Ocean Dipole • extreme rainfall • warm ocean temperatures (cyclones) • drought and failed rainy seasons.

Evidence rule

Every argument must include:

• one case study • one physical process (rainfall, ocean warming, river flow, climate system).

Whole-class verdict:

“The disasters discussed in this chapter happened because …”

Questions

Scorcher quiz

Access a fast, fun, competitive quiz that puts your understanding to the test.

Quick questions

The following activities offer various ways to demonstrate your understanding of the chapter. 1.

A rotating storm system formed over warm ocean water in the Atlantic or Northeast Pacific is called a ______.

The El Niño Southern Oscillation includes three phases: Neutral, El Niño and _____.

A prolonged period of below-average rainfall causing water stores to fall is known as a ____.

What type of hazard is associated with rainfall, river flooding and storm surges? A. Geological B. Hydrological C. Biological D. Technological

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Chapter 12 Hydrological and atmospheric hazards

What was one major cause of the Horn of Africa drought? A. Rapid snow melt from the Himalayas B. A persistent negative Indian Ocean Dipole C. A major volcanic eruption D. A strong La Niña

Why is Lismore highly vulnerable to flooding? A. It sits on a flood plain where two rivers meet. B. It is located on a high plateau far from rivers. C. It does not have sufficient infrastructure for heavy rains. D. It is near the coast and vulnerable to storm surges.

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Identify one social and one environmental impact of drought.

Distinguish between hydrological and atmospheric hazards.

How does La Niña affects Australia’s climate?

10.

How did human land-use contribute to the severity of the 2022 Lismore floods?

Writing focus

The following activities allow you to practise your writing skills.

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Writing focus 12.9 Single paragraph response model

Answering questions in paragraphs

You can use this as a model when writing your own answers to the questions that follow. Question: Explain why Lismore is particularly vulnerable to flooding.

(10 marks)

Model answer: Topic sentence: the first sentence of the paragraph; directly answers the question

Elaborate: additional information, interconnections Examples: provide credibility and illustrate the argument

Lismore is particularly vulnerable to flooding because of its physical location and landscape features. The city is built on a low-lying flood plain between Wilsons River and Leycester Creek, meaning large volumes of water from steep surrounding catchments naturally drain into town during heavy rain. This funnel effect increases the speed and intensity of rising water levels, and because the land is low and flat, floodwaters spread quickly across urban areas. Lismore has recorded more than 150 floods, making it one of the most floodprone settlements in New South Wales. In 2022, the intense La Niña rainfall overtopped the city levee and produced the most severe flood in Lismore history. Therefore, Lismore’s combination of natural river systems and low-lying topography makes it susceptible to frequent and severe flooding.

Explain: clarify, define and describe

Evidence: specific, relevant evidence to support your arguments Linking sentence: reconnects with language of the question the topic

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12.9 Chapter review

Structured-response questions Question 1

(10 marks)

Distinguish between hydrological hazards and atmospheric hazards. Question 2

(10 marks)

Describe how ENSO influences weather patterns in Australia. (10 marks)

Marking criteria for each question can be found in the Interactive Textbook. Refer to these criteria when planning and writing your responses.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Question 3

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Explain two social impacts and two environmental impacts of drought. Question 4

(10 marks)

Explain why Lismore is particularly vulnerable to flooding.

Extended-response questions Question 1

(20 marks)

Explain how natural processes and human decisions combined to increase the impacts of one hazard studied in this chapter.

Teachers, access the Online Teaching Suite for digital resources and tools that support review, assessment and reporting, including:

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Interconnections and trade

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Focus area

CHAPTERS

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13. How the world has become more interconnected 14. Geographical skills: Quantifying connections 15. Case study: How personal, cultural and technological interconnections shape the global flow of coffee 16. Case study: How our coffee consumption impacts people, places and environments

Image: The logistics for international trade are extensive.

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Chapter

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How the world has become more interconnected

Lessons

13.1 Geo Spark: Unravelling fast fashion: What is the hidden cost of your clothes?

13.2 What do the geographical concepts of place, space and interconnection mean? 13.3 How has globalisation enhanced connectivity?

13.4 How have improvements in networks changed the way people live, travel and connect? 13.5 How have technological advancements made our world more interconnected? 13.6 Chapter review

Teachers go to the Online Teacher Suite to:

➜

• plan, sequence and assign directed tasks for students and classes using Task Manager • view student activity reports • provide feedback to students • download a printable “Writing focus” workbook for this chapter. Image: Ground level photograph showing standardised containers at a port hub

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13.1

Geo Spark: Unravelling fast fashion: What is the hidden cost of your clothes? Success criteria

In this lesson, you will learn how global trade and supply chains connect people places, and environments, using the Rana Plaza factory disaster and fast fashion as a case study.

❏ I can explain how the global fashion supply chain links different countries and people. ❏ I can describe what happened at Rana Plaza and why it is important for understanding fast fashion.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Learning intention

FPO replace with 9781009788021_ AW13006

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Figure 13.1.1 The collapsed ruins of the Rana Plaza building in Dhaka, Bangladesh, and the tense events and protests following the collapse on 24 April 2013

The Rana Plaza disaster

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Writing focus 13.1 Question words

In the early morning hours of 24 April 2013, in Dhaka, Bangladesh, tens of thousands of garment workers prepared for another day in one of the world’s largest textile industries. Among them were young women stitching clothes destined for some of the biggest fast fashion brands worldwide. Suddenly, the eight-storey Rana Plaza

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13.1 Geo Spark: Unravelling fast fashion: What is the hidden cost of your clothes?

garment worker an individual who sews, manufactures or finishes clothing, often facing poor working conditions such as low wages, long hours and unsafe environments

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

building – a commercial complex housing several garment factories – began to crack. Despite warnings and visible damage the day before, which included workers raising concerns with supervisors, thousands entered the building. At 9:45 a.m., the structure collapsed, trapping workers underneath tons of rubble. Over 1,100 people lost their lives, and more than 2,500 were injured in what remains the deadliest garment factory disaster in history. There were harrowing stories of survival, of people who had no choice but to amputate their own limbs in order to be freed from the rubble and survive.

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What does this reveal?

The Rana Plaza tragedy exposed the dark side of the global fashion industry’s quick turnaround times and cut-throat profit margins. Bangladesh’s garment factories, powered by cheap labour and poor safety regulations, supply approximately 80 per cent of the country’s export earnings. Here, workers, mostly women (Figure 13.1.2), often endure long hours, low pay (sometimes less than A$100 per month) and unsafe working conditions to produce ready-to-wear clothes sold across the world. The fastfashion model relies on rapid production cycles and global supply chains that connect cotton fields, factories, shipping ports and consumers thousands of kilometres apart. Bangladesh’s labour force consists of 69 million workers, four million of whom are garment workers.

60.5%

of garment workers in Bangladesh are women.

The typical worker in the ready-made garment sector is female, 23 years old, and an internal migrant from a rural area who lives with her family in inadequate housing near to work.

supply chain the sequence of processes involved in producing and distributing a product from raw materials to consumer water scarcity the lack of sufficient clean, safe fresh water to meet the demands of a region

Figure 13.1.2 Graphic showing data on garment workers in Bangladesh (adapted from the International Labour Organization) ➜

Though the Rana Plaza disaster happened halfway across the world, it revealed an unsettling truth about everyday clothes bought in countries like Australia. Many garments originate from places where workers’ rights, safety and environmental protections are insufficient or overlooked, sacrificed for cheaper prices and rapid delivery. The collapse prompted global outrage, leading to campaigns for better factory safety and ethical fashion practices, but challenges remain.

fast fashion a contemporary fashion industry model characterised by inexpensive clothing produced rapidly to capture current trends, often prioritising speed and cost over ethical and environmental considerations

Fast fashion and cotton farming: The global journey of your clothes

The journey of a cotton T-shirt begins in fields often located in countries such as India, China or the USA, where cotton farmers face their own set of challenges, from pesticide exposure to water scarcity. The cotton is then spun into fabric, dyed, transported to sewing factories like those in Bangladesh, and finally packed in containers for shipment worldwide. This complex web of production and trade (Figure 13.1.3) highlights the interconnections between distant places and people, most of whom never see or meet one another, yet are linked through the clothes they wear.

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Chapter 13 How the world has become more interconnected

Key cotton lint trade flows, 2022 1. United States → China 2. Australia → Vietnam 3. Brazil → China 4. United States → Vietnam 5. United States → Türkiye 6. United States → Pakistan 7. India → Bangladesh

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U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

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Figure 13.1.3 Cotton lint trade flows

Interconnections are not only visible in trade but in the stories and struggles of people within these global supply chains. The Rana Plaza disaster exposed the ethical dilemmas behind our fashion choices: the exploitation of vulnerable workers, insufficient health and safety regulations, and the environmental costs of mass-produced clothing. For example, as shown in Figure 13.1.4, Bangladesh is the most cost-effective country for T-shirt manufacturing, at just $8.55 per shirt including shipping, whereas manufacturing in the US results in the highest total cost: $1,750 for 100 shirts or $17.50 per unit.

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Figure 13.1.4 How much it costs to make 100 T-shirts by origin country Source: Visual Capitalist

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13.1 Geo Spark: Unravelling fast fashion: What is the hidden cost of your clothes?

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Impacts and implications of global interconnections

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Since the Rana Plaza collapse, awareness of the human cost behind cheap clothing has increased, leading some brands to improve factory safety, transparency and workers’ rights through initiatives like the Accord on Fire and Building Safety in Bangladesh. However, millions of garment workers still face unstable jobs and unsafe conditions. Consumers also face choices about the sustainability and ethics of their fashion consumption. Fast fashion contributes to environmental problems including water pollution from dyes, pesticide use in cotton farming, and textile waste heaps. On a positive note, some communities and workers have started engaging in alternative livelihoods or found empowerment through trade unions and movements advocating for fair trade fashion. This case study invites us to think critically about the complexities and ethical responsibilities embedded in global trade, reminding us that each product we use, whether clothing, food or technology, is connected to people and environments far away.

Activity 13.1

Interconnection is about the ways in which people, places and environments are connected to each other through various natural and human processes. 1.

How does the Rana Plaza disaster illustrate the concept of global interconnection between people and places?

How do economic factors like low labour costs and cheap manufacturing influence global clothing supply chains?

Visible thinking routine: Compass points

Propose one idea that could make the interconnections between garment workers and consumers more sustainable. Swap your idea with a partner and evaluate theirs using the following criteria: 1.

E = Excited

What excites you about this idea or proposition? What’s the upside?

W = Worrisome

What do you find worrisome about this idea or proposition? What’s the downside?

N = Need to know

What else do you need to know or find out about this idea or proposition? What additional information would help you to evaluate it?

S = Stance or suggestion for moving forward

What is your current stance or opinion on the idea or proposition? How might you move forward in your evaluation?

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13.2

What do the geographical concepts of place, space and interconnection mean? Success criteria

In this lesson, you will learn about the geographical concepts of place, space and interconnection as they relate to human geography and the study of people’s lives and activities.

❏ I can define the geographical concepts of place, space and interconnection. ❏ I can explain the geographical concepts of place, space and interconnection. ❏ I can apply these concepts to real-world examples, such as the Rana Plaza disaster and the global fast-fashion industry.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Learning intention

Starter activity

Visible thinking routine: See, think, wonder

Consider the workers and the conditions shown in Figure 13.2.1. 1.

See: What do you notice going on in the image?

Think: How are people interconnecting with this place?

Wonder: What meaning might Tongi have for these groups of people?

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Figure 13.2.1 Garment workers at their sewing stations in a garment factory in Tongi, on the outskirts of Dhaka

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13.2 What do the geographical concepts of place, space and interconnection mean?

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Which key geographical concepts will be used in this investigation?

Writing focus 13.2 Conjunctions

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

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People throughout the world are connected to places and to each other in many ways. The networks that connect us are growing rapidly through constant developments in transportation and in information and communication technologies, in particular artificial intelligence (AI). This chapter introduces the phenomenon of globalisation. It explores how and why we are connected to people and places from a local to a global scale, and the impacts of these connections on environments and societies. Throughout the chapters in this investigation, there will be a focus on developing your understanding of the essential geographical concepts of place, space and interconnection.

What is the geographical concept of place?

Places are physical locations, or a specific point on Earth with unique physical and human characteristics. It has meaning and significance for people. For example, Rana Plaza in Dhaka, Bangladesh (Figure 13.2.2), is a place with a specific social and economic context (poor working conditions, poverty), which contributed to the nature and extent of the disaster. Places can range in scale from a booth at a cafe to an entire country. However, from a geographic perspective, places also hold meaning for people. The meaning a place has is different for everybody, depending on the type of connection a person has with that place. 86°

NEPAL

88°

90°

26°

92°

94°

Rangpur

Saidpur

INDIA

Dinājpur

Sylhet

Bogra

Nawābganj

24°

INDIA

Jamālpur Mymensingh

Naogaon Rājshāhi Kishorganj Sirajganj Tangail Ishurdi Bhairab Bāzār Pābna Brāhmanbāria Narsinghdi Kushtia Dhaka Chuadānga Farīdpur Comilla Nārāyanganj

BANGLADESH

Sātkhira

22°

Jessore Khulna

Mādārīpur Bāgerhāt

Chalna Port Patuākhāli

Chāndpur Chaumuhāni Noākhāli Barisāl Rāngāmāti Chittagong

Cox’s Bazar

MYANMAR Bay of Bengal 0

150 km

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Figure 13.2.2 A map showing Bangladesh and its bordering countries

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Geographers distinguish places based on their unique geographic characteristics.

• Physical characteristics might include landforms, vegetation, roads and buildings. • Intangible characteristics are more difficult to observe and relate to how different people experience and value a place (e.g. a feeling of familiarity, spirituality or security).

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

What is the geographical concept of space?

The concept of space relates to how human‑made and natural features are distributed on Earth’s surface. It involves the distribution of phenomena, distances, patterns and arrangements across Earth’s surface. For example, the global space of the fashion supply chain refers to how clothing is produced in one part of the world (Bangladesh) and sold in shops thousands of kilometres away (Australia, USA, Europe).To understand spaces, geographers:

• identify the distribution patterns of certain features • investigate why these patterns have occurred • explore how these patterns have changed • understand how these spaces are used, and the impacts of these patterns and changes for people and the environment.

What is the geographical concept of interconnection?

Interconnection involves the links between places and the influences that people have on the characteristics of places. It highlights how places are connected through flows of goods, people, information and culture; for example, how consumers in rich developed countries are connected to workers in Bangladesh through fastfashion brands, affecting economies, environments and lives across the globe. People are interconnected with places in the ways that they create, change and manage them. Advances in technology have enabled people to connect with places on a variety of scales with ease. For example, a raw material might be harvested in a local area, then transported to another country to be processed and turned into a product, which is sold online all over the world. Although this investigation focuses on place, space and interconnection, these concepts are part of a group of seven (Figure 13.2.4) interrelated key ideas that help us think geographically.

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Figure 13.2.3 Satellite view of Bangladesh

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13.2 What do the geographical concepts of place, space and interconnection mean?

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Environment

Change

Space

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Place

Geography Seven key concepts

Interconnection

Sustainability

Scale

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Figure 13.2.4 Geography is a structured way of exploring, analysing and understanding the characteristics of the places that make up our world. There are seven concepts in Geography.

How do our perceptions of places and how we use them change over time?

As we age, the places that we use and the way we perceive certain places can change as our needs and interests change. For example, the places where you played as a young child (such as the local playground) may not be the places where you socialise today. Moreover, the ways people connect with each other have been changing over time as technology plays an increasing role in our lives. Take the garment factories in Bangladesh, such as those in Tongi near Dhaka, which gained global attention due to the Rana Plaza disaster. Before the tragedy, many consumers in wealthy countries may have seen these places simply as distant, unknown locations where cheap clothing was made. However, after the disaster, perceptions shifted. These factories became symbols of the human cost behind fast fashion and raised awareness about workers’ conditions, and the social and economic realities of the place. Furthermore, advances in technology and communication have transformed how people connect with these places. Whereas once they were seen as remote and disconnected, today consumers can better understand the interconnections through documentaries, social media and campaigns advocating for ethical fashion. This change in perception influences how people think about consumption, sustainability and the global economy, highlighting that places are not static but dynamic, and continually redefined by human experiences and technological change.

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Chapter 13 How the world has become more interconnected

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Figure 13.2.5 Aerial view of lithium mining pits in Atacama Salt Flat, Chile. After Australia, Chile is the world’s second highest exporter of lithium, the metal used in batteries that power many of our modern technological devices.

Review 13.2

Online quiz

Knowledge and understanding

Thinking and working geographically

Teachers can go online to assign questions, view results, reports and more!

Students can access sample responses and results online

Knowledge and understanding 1.

Define the geographical concepts of place, space and interconnection in your own words.

How does the concept of space help us understand the global fast-fashion supply chain and perhaps change the way we think about buying clothes and global industries?

Describe how people’s perceptions of a place can change over time. Why does this happen?

Thinking and working geographically

Working with geographical concepts: Interconnection 1.

Explain how interconnection links consumers in rich developed countries to garment workers in Bangladesh.

Geographical inquiry 2.

Imagine you are a geographer investigating the environment, social and economic impacts of the fast-fashion industry.

interconnection The concept of interconnection emphasises that no object of geographical study can be viewed in isolation.

a. Create an inquiry question for each impact that could be used as the basis for a research project. b. Identify two forms of secondary research that could be used for the inquiry questions c. Outline one stakeholder who would be interested in the findings of this inquiry.

How would you use satellite images or maps to study the distribution of garment factories in Bangladesh? What would you be looking for?

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13.3 How has globalisation enhanced connectivity?

13.3

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How has globalisation enhanced connectivity? Success criteria

In this lesson, you will learn about the concept of globalisation and how to explain that enhanced global connectivity has influenced people, places and spaces.

❏ I can define “globalisation” and the “Great Acceleration”. ❏ I can explain how globalisation has connected people to places, goods and each other.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Learning intention

Starter activity

Visible thinking routine: Think, pair, share

Complete this activity with reference to the statement: “There are always winners and losers in an interconnected world.” 1.

Think: Individually, consider the statement.

Pair: Talk about your answers with a partner.

Share: Discuss your ideas with the whole class.

The role of globalisation in the interconnections of people, places and spaces

Globalisation refers to the process by which businesses, cultures and economies around the world become interconnected and interdependent. Today, circumnavigating Earth is simpler and much less dangerous. Moreover, rapid changes in technology mean that we continue to push the boundaries of travel. In 2019, the first nonstop flight from New York to Sydney, called “Project Sunrise”, carried 40 passengers across 15 time zones in just 19 hours to become the longest commercial flight ever. Meanwhile, in Texas, the Starship spacecraft – designed to take people as far as Mars – began its orbital test flights. Advances in battery technology and artificial intelligence have led to the development of electric cars and self-driving vehicles, making travel more sustainable and potentially safer. Now companies like SpaceX, Blue Origin and Virgin Galactic are developing spacecraft to enable commercial space travel, opening up new frontiers for human exploration and tourism beyond Earth.

Writing focus 13.3 Note-making ➜

The first circumnavigation of Earth was achieved when a fleet of ships led by Portuguese explorer Ferdinand Magellan sailed west from Spain in 1519 and returned from the east in 1522 after crossing the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian oceans. The departing fleet consisted of 270 men on five ships. However, after mutiny, murders, illness and shipwrecks, only 18 men on one ship returned.

circumnavigation sailing or travelling all the way around something interdependent a situation where two or more people, groups, things or systems rely on each other and are mutually connected

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goods items for sale that can be moved

Faster and easier transport (technology)

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homogenisation the process of changing something so that all its parts or features become the same or very similar

Advances in transportation and in information and communication technologies have fuelled globalisation. This phenomenon is driven by improvements in technology, communication and transportation, which make it easier for people, goods, services and ideas to move across borders.

More links between countries and global networks

More big companies (TNCs)

Growth of new markets, especially in industrialising countries

Globalisation

More global brands

➜

Great Acceleration a term used to describe the rapid and widespread increase in human activity, which began around the mid-twentieth century, and its impact on Earth's natural systems; often associated with the Anthropocene epoch, a proposed geological era marked by significant human influence on Earth's ecosystems and climate; encompasses social, economic and environmental changes that have occurred on a global scale since the 1950s

Faster and easier communication (technology)

Increase in the number and memberships of international organisations

Figure 13.3.1 A mind map showing some of the effects of globalisation

When we think about fast fashion and globalisation, we can see how globalisation works through these key ideas:

• Economic integration: Countries depend on each other for making and selling • •

•

clothes. For example, a brand in one country might design clothes, factories in another country make them, and stores in a different country sell them. Each part depends on the others to keep fast fashion moving. Cultural exchange: Fast fashion spreads styles from all over the world. For instance, a clothing trend that starts in Korea can quickly become popular in Australia because people share ideas and styles across countries. Different cultures influence each other’s fashion choices. Technological connectivity: The internet lets people everywhere buy clothes online, through platforms like Shein (Figure 13.3.2) and The Iconic, and follow fashion trends from other countries. Social media platforms like Instagram and TikTok connect designers, brands and customers globally, making global fashion happen fast. Political cooperation: Countries work together to set rules about trade, labour laws and environmental protections. For example, governments might agree on standards to make sure factories producing fast fashion don’t harm the environment or exploit workers.

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➜

Figure 13.3.4 Cotton processing in China

Figure 13.3.3 TikTok logo

➜

Figure 13.3.2 Models walking the Shein fashion runway in Milan, Italy

➜

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13.3 How has globalisation enhanced connectivity?

Figure 13.3.5 United Nations meeting

Globalisation has both positive and negative effects. It can lead to economic growth, cultural diversity and innovation, but it can also cause job displacement, cultural homogenisation and environmental challenges such as the Great Acceleration.

The role of globalisation in travel and trade

Globalisation has had an enormous impact on how and why we are connected to places, goods and each other. It has also influenced the scale of interconnections. While people have always travelled and traded, there has never been as much trade and travel over such long distances.

Not only has technology allowed greater movement of people and goods, but it has also allowed ideas, cultures and knowledge to cross countries without the need for physical travel. While nothing (yet) can replace the full immersive experience of travelling to a different place, tools such as Google Earth let us see what a place is like from above via satellite images or from street view.

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In terms of communication, people are now closer than ever before. When the First Fleet arrived in Australia, letters to loved ones in England took over eight months to arrive. Today, we can catch up instantly with family and friends on the other side of the world using video calls or messaging tools, often via social media.

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Gross domestic product (GDP) is the total monetary value of all goods and services produced and sold within a country during a specific time period, typically one year. According to the Statista website, in 2024 the world’s combined GDP was US$110,064,920,000,000 – over 110 trillion dollars!

Table 13.3.1 The top 15 countries by gross domestic product (GDP) Source: From GDP/breakdown at current prices in US Dollars, by United Nations Statistics Division – National Accounts, ©2024 United Nations. Used with the permission of the United Nations. #

Country

GDP (nominal, 2023; $)

GDP growth (%)

Population (2023)

GDP per capita ($)

Share of world GDP (%)

USA

27.721 trillion

2.89

343,477,335

80,706

26.11

China

17.795 trillion

5.25

1,422,584,933

12,509

16.76

Germany

4.526 trillion

-0.27

84,548,231

53,528

4.26

Japan

4.204 trillion

1.68

124,370,947

33,806

3.96

India

3.568 trillion

8.15

1,438,069,596

2,481

3.36

3.381 trillion

0.34

68,682,962

49,224

3.18

France

3.052 trillion

0.94

66,438,822

45,934

2.87

Italy

2.301 trillion

0.70

59,499,453

38,672

2.17

Brazil

2.174 trillion

2.91

211,140,729

10,295

2.05

Canada

2.142 trillion

1.25

39,299,105

54,517

2.02

Russia

2.021 trillion

3.60

145,440,500

13,899

1.90

Mexico

1.789 trillion

3.20

129,739,759

13,790

1.69

Australia

1.728 trillion

3.44

26,451,124

65,330

1.63

South Korea

1.713 trillion

1.36

51,748,739

33,098

1.61

Spain

1.620 trillion

2.68

47,911,579

33,814

1.53

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13.3 How has globalisation enhanced connectivity?

Review 13.3 Online quiz

Knowledge and understanding

Thinking and working geographically

Students can access sample responses and results online

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Teachers can go online to assign questions, view results, reports and more!

Knowledge and understanding

Identify advancements in two areas that have fuelled globalisation.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

1. 2.

Outline three effects of globalisation.

Describe how globalisation has enhanced the fast-fashion industry.

Describe the relationship between global exports and GDP.

Thinking and working geographically

Working with geographical concepts: Change 1.

Explain the nature and rate of change that has occurred since the 1950s as a result of globalisation.

Interpreting data

In this activity we will research a range of data about global trade using the McKinsey Global Institute website. 2.

Visit the McKinsey webpage, “What are the most important trade corridors?”: https://cambridge.edu.au/redirect/11893. a. Identify the nations exporting the most products. b. Identify the nations importing the most products.

Visit the McKinsey webpage, “Which products are supplied by a small number of economies?”: https://cambridge.edu.au/redirect/11894.

change The concept of change is about explaining geographical phenomena by investigating how they have developed over time.

a. Which nation exports the most electric vehicles? b. What is the economic value of exports to that country’s economy per year? c. Which country exports the most crude oil per year? d. What share of total imports around the world does the country that produces the most laptops have? e. Identify the product categories in which Australia leads global exports. f. Explain whether any of these results surprised you or not.

Refer to Table 13.3.1 to answer these questions.

a. Identify the world regions that contain countries with the largest GDP. b. Is there an association between countries with high GDPs and the amount of trade (imports and exports)? c. Propose a reason for the association described in part b.

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13.4

How have improvements in networks changed the way people live, travel and connect? Success criteria

In this lesson, you will learn how networks have made the world even more interconnected.

❏ I can explain the importance of global trade and travel networks in enhancing peoples quality of life.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Learning intention

Starter activity Cartoon analysis

➜

Figure 13.4.1 This cartoon illustrates the importance of globalisation in our use of everyday items.

Use Figure 13.4.1 to answer the questions. 1.

Identify two sources of technology found in the cartoon.

Which continent do most of the items come from?

With reference to your knowledge from previous lessons, explain why you think this continent makes the greatest number of items?

Choose one item from the cartoon and outline two possible ways it came to be in Australia.

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13.4 How have improvements in networks changed the way people live, travel and connect?

➜

Figure 13.4.2 Globalisation has resulted in shrinking time and space, increasing connectedness and interdependence of world cultures and economies.

How transport networks connect people to services

• roads • railways • airways • seaports (Figure 13.4.3).

Global trade networks

Transport networks play a pivotal role in global trade by connecting producers, suppliers and consumers across different regions. Efficient transport systems enhance market accessibility, allowing businesses to reach larger markets and a wider customer base. They enable the smooth functioning of global supply chains, ensuring the timely delivery of goods and minimising inventory costs. Reliable transportation reduces trade barriers (e.g. customs delays and logistical bottlenecks), promoting international trade and fostering economic integration. Investments in transport infrastructure stimulate economic growth by attracting investments, creating jobs and enhancing productivity.

Writing focus 13.4 Developing sentences ➜

Transport networks are essential systems that help move goods, services and people, connecting various regions and enabling economic activities. These networks form the backbone of global trade and include:

economic activity an action or process involved in producing, buying and selling products and services

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Case study: Geo in the news

➜

Figure 13.4.3 Maritime traffic around the world. Each year, thousands of ships travel across the globe, transporting everything from passengers to goods like wheat, coffee and oil. Source: Visual Capitalist

➜

Figure 13.4.4 You can see some distinct areas where traffic is heavily concentrated. These high-density areas are the world’s main shipping lanes.

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13.4 How have improvements in networks changed the way people live, travel and connect?

Impact on global trade The Suez Canal is a vital artery for global trade, connecting Europe and Asia, and facilitating the transit of around 12 per cent of global trade. The blockage led to delays in the delivery of goods and increased shipping costs, and highlighted the vulnerability of relying on key chokepoints for trade.

➜

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

The Suez Canal is a 190-kilometre artificial waterway that runs through Egypt and connects the Mediterranean Sea to the Red Sea, saving ships from travelling between Asia and Europe via a long passage around Africa. Over 20,600 vessels travelled through the canal in 2021. In March 2021, the massive container ship Ever Given became wedged across the Suez Canal, blocking one of the world’s busiest maritime trade routes. The blockage halted traffic through the canal, disrupting global shipping and causing a backlog of hundreds of vessels on either side.

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Figure 13.4.5 The Ever Given container ship sails through Suez Canal.

Importance of global networks and shipping routes

Figure 13.4.6 Stranded ships wait in the Gulf of Suez to cross the Suez Canal at its southern entrance near the Red Sea port city of Suez. The waterway is blocked by the Ever Given, which has remained wedged sideways about 6 kilometres north of the canal’s entrance, impeding all flowing traffic. ➜

Global shipping networks depend on key maritime routes like the Suez Canal, Panama Canal and the Strait of Malacca for efficient trade. Shipping is the backbone of global trade handling 90 per cent of the world’s goods by volume. It enables the efficient and cost-effective transport of raw materials, finished goods and other commodities.

The Ever Given incident highlighted the interconnected nature of the global economy and the reliance on smooth and uninterrupted flow of goods through strategic chokepoints. It prompted discussions on diversifying shipping routes, improving supply chains and investing in digital technologies to mitigate future disruptions.

Trade within Australia

In Australia, transport networks are crucial for connecting remote areas with urban centres, facilitating the movement of raw materials, finished goods and services. The freight and logistics industry accounts for approximately 8.6 per cent of Australia’s GDP. Efficient transport systems support domestic economic activities by enabling the movement of goods by road, rail, air and coastal shipping. Australia’s major ports, airports and other transport terminals (that use more than one form of transportation) serve as critical intersections in the freight system. Government initiatives such as the National Freight and Supply Chain Strategy aim to increase the productivity and efficiency of Australia’s freight networks. These networks are vital for maintaining Australia’s economic prosperity and quality of life.

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Transport networks and online shopping in Australia

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

In Australia, transport networks are changing the way we access retail services. Australia Post has shifted from primarily delivering letters to becoming a courier service that supports the rise in online shopping. New technologies such as drones will also play a greater part in providing convenient online shopping services. While drone delivery is more fuel-efficient than other forms of transport, laws regarding airspace above private property may limit the scale of this service. Some new technologies that could reduce travel time for people and services in the near future include self-driving trucks, trains that reach speeds of 400 kilometres per hour using magnetic levitation technology, and hybrid cargo airships.

How a lack of transport networks limits access to services

As we have seen, transport networks are vital for connecting people to basic services such as food, water and healthcare to maintain a good quality of life. However, transport networks can be hindered by a region’s physical geography. For example, Papua New Guinea is in the south-west Pacific. Its coastal areas have beaches and coral reefs, while inland there are active volcanoes, dense rainforests (including the Kokoda Trail) and steep topography, as shown in Figure 13.4.7.

There are only 22,000 kilometres of road in Papua New Guinea, and half of that is unsealed. Figure 13.4.8 shows the distribution and types of roads and trails. People in the highlands are cut off from the rest of the country – and the world – for six months of the year because of the risk of landslides. This limits access to services, jobs and trade. Sixty-one per cent of the population in this area have no access to safe water and 55 per cent have no access to modern sanitation. This results in poor health, diseases, malnutrition and stunted growth, as well as fewer business and tourism opportunities. It also makes recovery from disasters such as landslides more difficult.

0°

4,000 3,000

–2°

2,000 1,000

–4°

–6°

–8°

400 km

–10° 130°

132°

134°

136°

138°

140°

142°

144°

146°

148°

150°

152°

➜

Figure 13.4.7 Elevation map of Papua New Guinea. Note that the western half of the island is Papua, a province of Indonesia, and the eastern half is the independent nation of Papua New Guinea. Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78802-1 • (03) 8671 1400

13.4 How have improvements in networks changed the way people live, travel and connect?

453

New Ireland Kavieng

Lorengau Manus Vanimo Wewak

Sandaun

WEST NEW BRITAIN

Mount Hagen Madang

Buka

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

EAST SEPIK

EAST Kokopo NEW BRITAIN

Kimbe

ENGA Jiwaka Hela Madang Wabag Kundiawa Tari Goroka Mendi Western Lae Highlands Southern Chimbu Eastern Highlands Highlands Morobe GULF WESTERN Kerema

BOUGAINVILLE

Popondetta

LEGEND

Oro

Daru

Milne Bay

Port Moresby Kwikila

200 km

Central

Alotau

Primary road Secondary road Tertiary/trail

➜ Figure 13.3.8 Roads

in Papua New Guinea

Review 13.4

Online quiz

Knowledge and understanding

Thinking and working geographically

Students can access sample responses and results online

Teachers can go online to assign questions, view results, reports and more!

Knowledge and understanding 1.

Identify whether rail or road transportation is more important to Australia’s economy.

Identify transport technologies from this lesson that help perform the following tasks (note that many of the technologies discussed fit into more than one category): a. connects people to a service b. connects people to information c. connects people to other people.

Outline some of the impacts that can result from having a poor transportation system.

Describe how the physical geography of a place can impact people’s access to services. Refer to the highlands region of Papua New Guinea in your answer.

Thinking and working geographically

Working with geographical concepts: Interconnection 1.

How did the blockage of the Suez Canal by the Ever Given in 2021 demonstrate the concept of interconnection between global trade routes and economies?

Interpreting transport networks

interconnection The concept of interconnection emphasises that no object of geographical study can be viewed in isolation.

Refer to Figure 13.3.7 to describe how elevation varies across Papua New Guinea. For example, which areas have a high or low elevation?

Refer to Figure 13.3.8 to describe the distribution of roads in Papua New Guinea. For example, which parts of the country have a lot of roads and which are lacking roads? In your answer, try to distinguish between primary, secondary and tertiary roads.

Based on your answers to Questions 1 and 2, discuss whether there is an association between road networks and elevation. In other words, do areas with high or low elevations have more or fewer roads? Or is there no apparent link between these features?

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13.5

How have technological advancements made our world more interconnected? Success criteria

In this lesson, you will learn how technological advancements have made the world more interconnected.

❏ I can identify various technological advancements that have changed the way I connect with others. ❏ I can construct a survey to investigate the extent of online gaming and social media use in young people.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Learning intention

Starter activity Article analysis

Read the article “9 things that have become obsolete in the past 20 years” by Business Insider: https://cambridge.edu.au/redirect/11895 1.

Recall three technologies from the article that are now obsolete.

Identify what they were used for and what replaced them.

Explain how the replacement connects the world more efficiently.

➜

Figure 13.5.1 Apple iPod, fifth generation

Online gaming

➜

Writing focus 13.5 Creating topic sentences

➜

global phenomenon a widespread event or occurrence that affects or is observable in many parts of the world

More teenagers are connecting with each other online, which can change how people feel about and use places. Whereas in the past a teenager’s bedroom was a place to retreat from the world, today it may be a portal to an online community. Platforms such as Steam, the PlayStation Network, Xbox Live, Discord, Twitch and YouTube Figure 13.5.2 A large percentage of teenagers play games connect people on an international and watch TV online. scale. As of 2025, the worldwide online gaming market is projected to be worth an estimated $29.48 billion. Technological advancements, especially the internet, have transformed online gaming into a global phenomenon that connects people from different countries and cultures.

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13.5 How have technological advancements made our world more interconnected?

geographical barrier a natural feature like a mountain, river, desert or oceans, or long distances or poor roads, that make it hard for people, animals or plants to move, communicate or share resources

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Online gaming platforms like Fortnite, Minecraft and Roblox allow players to interact in real time, collaborate, compete and even build friendships regardless of where they live. For example, Fortnite had over 125 million registered players worldwide in 2020, and many games support voice chat and live messaging, breaking down language and geographical barriers, enhancing interconnections. This constant connection encourages teamwork and communication among players globally, making the world feel smaller and more connected. Online gaming communities often share tips, stories and cultural exchanges that enrich players’ understanding of each other’s countries and lifestyles.

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Online gaming by Australian teens

A February 2024 report from Australia’s eSafety Commissioner titled Levelling up to stay safe: Young people’s experiences navigating the joys and risks of online gaming sheds light on the gaming habits of Australian teenagers. The survey of nearly 2000 young people aged eight to 17 revealed that in 2023, 89 per cent had played online games, with 66 per cent playing for more than six hours per week. Seventy-nine per cent had played with others online, including 40 per cent who played with people they did not already know offline. Overall, young Australians feel that online gaming is a positive experience. Figures 13.5.4 to 13.5.7 show key survey results that suggest how Australian teenagers use online gaming technology to stay interconnected. Minecraft 53%

Roblox 50%

Fortnite 46%

Mario Kart/Super Smash Bros 40% Among Us 33%

Call of Duty 27%

FIFA 24%

Grand Theft Auto 22% Pokemon Go 18%

Lego video games 16%

Fall Guys 14%

Rocket League 13%

Clash of the Clans or Clash Royale 12% The Sims 11%

NBA 2K 10% ➜

Figure 13.5.3 Games commonly played by Australians aged eight to 17 years. How many of these games have you played? Since this report has been released, do you think any new games would be on this list? Source: esafety.gov.au Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78802-1 • (03) 8671 1400

Chapter 13 How the world has become more interconnected

With other people who are playing online/ who are just in the game at the same time as me

79%

On my own (without other players in the game)

69%

With other people who are in the same room as me (in real life)

61%

➜

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

456

Figure 13.5.4 Percentages of young people who game with others (online or in person) and alone Source: esafety.gov.au Friends or other people I already know in real life

75%

Brothers or sisters

58%

Other people in my family

43%

Parents

42%

People I didn’t already know in real life

40%

I don’t want to say

78% (Family)

91% (People they knew)

Figure 13.5.6 Young peoples’ perceived benefits of gaming. What percentage of Australian teenagers said they played online games to stay connected with existing friends? What percentage said they played online to meet new friends? Source: esafety.gov.au

Get better at using digital technology

45%

Get better at solving problems

39%

Think faster

34%

Feel less lonely

29%

Get to know my friends better

29%

Make new friends

20%

Feel like I belong to a community

19%

Get on with or work better with others

14%

Feel more confident

27%

Improves my mental health (how I think and feel)

20%

Get better at controlling my feelings

12%

In other ways not listed

No, playing video games hasn’t helped me

58% (Social connections)

46%

41% (Emotional benefits)

➜

Learn something new

76% (Skill development)

➜

Figure 13.5.5 Relationships between young people and those they game with. What percentage of Australian teenage gamers play with people online they have not met in person? Source: esafety.gov.au

I don’t want to say

I don’t know or I’m not sure

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Impacts of online gaming on interconnections between people

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Figure 13.5.6 shows that 58 per cent of eight- to 17-year-olds in Australia use online gaming to stay socially connected. The results suggest that playing online games with friends can strengthen friendships, and sometimes help people make new friends. On the other hand, the survey also reveals that 11 per cent of online gamers did not think gaming helped their lives or were unsure of its benefits.

Social media

Platforms such as TikTok, Instagram, Snapchat and Facebook have revolutionised the way people communicate and share information. With billions of users worldwide, these platforms allow individuals to stay in touch with family and friends, share their lives, and discover new cultures instantly. For instance, as of 2023, TikTok had over one billion active users globally, making it one of the fastest-growing social media platforms. Social media enables users to follow content creators from different parts of the world, participate in global trends, and access news in real time. This has made it easier for people to connect across vast distances, exchange ideas, and build communities based on shared interests, no matter where they live.

Case study: GEO in the news!

Government actions on social media use and youth safety in Australia

With technological advancements making the world more interconnected, social media platforms have become popular ways for young people to connect globally. However, these platforms can also expose teenagers to risks such as cyberbullying, harmful content and privacy issues. To protect young Australians, the eSafety Commissioner introduced a new law, effective from 10 December 2025, that requires social media companies to stop people under 16 from creating or maintaining accounts on major platforms including TikTok, Instagram, Snapchat, Facebook and similar sites. This “minimum age law” aims to reduce negative impacts on young teenagers by limiting their access to potentially harmful or inappropriate online content.

The enforcement of this law helps promote a safer online environment for youth, while still allowing them to benefit from digital connections. It reflects how governments are taking action to manage the challenges that come with our interconnected world, balancing the advantages of technology with the need to protect people’s wellbeing.

Inequality in connectivity

Information and communication technology has transformed how we connect to services, information and each other. However, not everyone experiences the same level of connectivity – this gap is known as the digital divide. Barriers can be economic on a household scale (e.g. the internet may be too expensive for some families or individuals to access) or on a national scale (e.g. the cost of building infrastructure for remote areas may be considered too high). However, internet access is growing worldwide, and more people are being connected.

digital divide the problem of some members of society not having the opportunity, access or knowledge to use technology and the internet that others have

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Adoption of communication technologies, World 10 billion Mobile phone subscriptions 8 billion

➜ Figure 13.5.7 This

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

6 billion

Internet users

4 billion

2 billion

Landline Internet subscriptions Landline phone subscriptions

1960

1970

1980

1990

2000

2010

2024

chart highlights the total number of users of various communication technologies worldwide. Which device do you think the majority of people use to connect to the internet? Source: Our World in Data, 2025

Data source: International Telecommunication Union (ITU), via World Bank (2025); Multiple sources compiled by World Bank (2024); Population based on various sources (2024)

Note: Landline Internet subscriptions are deﬁned as a ﬁxed access to the public Internet with a download speed of at least 256 kbit/s. Internet users are people who have accessed the Internet from any location in the last three months.

Review 13.5

OurWorldinData.org/technological-change | CC BY

Knowledge and understanding

Online quiz

Thinking and working geographically

Students can access sample responses and results online

Teachers can go online to assign questions, view results, reports and more!

Knowledge and understanding 1.

Recall the percentage of young Australians who told the eSafety Commissioner they use social media to enhance or develop friendships.

Recall some popular online gaming platforms mentioned that connect players internationally.

How much is the worldwide online gaming market projected to be worth in 2027?

Discuss the positive and negative impacts of online gaming and/or social media. Refer to the data in this lesson and your own experiences in your answer.

Propose what governments could do to reduce digital inequality and help more people connect safely online

Thinking and working geographically

Working with geographical concepts: Interconnection 1.

The new law in Australia will stop people under 16 from using popular social media platforms like TikTok and Instagram. Explain how this age ban both could help protect young people and at the same time make it harder for them to experience the positive benefits of being interconnected with friends and cultures around the world.

Creating a survey 2.

interconnection The concept of interconnection emphasises that no object of geographical study can be viewed in isolation.

Construct a survey using Google Form or Survey Monkey to measure the use of online gaming and/ or social media between different age groups and the impact of these activities on people’s sense of connectedness and community.

You may want to interview people from your class and another age group, such as your parents. Your survey may investigate different aspects of online gaming and/or social media, such as daily usage, how connected or disconnected users feel, what types of games or social media people use, or where they play online games or use social media. Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78802-1 • (03) 8671 1400

13.6 Chapter review

13.6

459

Chapter review Access the Interactive Textbook for a range of digital tools to help you review this chapter and build confidence.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

• Auto-marked questions for fast feedback and fun practice • Self-assessment tools to track your progress, review answers (if enabled by the teacher), and flag questions for extra help

• Downloadable worksheets for class or homework revision

Summary

Summary notes

What have you learned about enhanced global connectivity and interconnection, due to the emergence of networks? For this activity, copy the table and fill it out by explaining your understanding. Aim for two points per topic.

Terms

Download chapter summary

What I have learned

Fast fashion

Supply chain

Globalisation

The Great Acceleration Trade networks Suez Canal

Digital divide Social media

Garment worker Chokepoint

Visible thinking routine

I used to think … now I think

This exercise asks you to track the difference between what you knew about interconnection before, and what new understandings you have acquired since reading this chapter.

Using the stem sentences here, write a paragraph explaining what you previously knew about the topic. Then write another paragraph explaining what you now understand about the topic. I used to think that the fashion industry was … Now I think that the fashion industry was …

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Chapter 13 How the world has become more interconnected

I used to think that global trade … Now I think that global trade … A simple explanation for how technological advancements have changed the way I connect with others is … A better explanation for how technological advancements have changed the way I connect with others is …

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Questions

Scorcher quiz

Access a fast, fun, competitive quiz that puts your understanding to the test.

Quick questions

The following activities offer various ways to demonstrate your understanding of the chapter. 1.

The concept that describes how goods, people, information and cultures move between places is known as _______.

Globalisation has been accelerated by improvements in transportation and ______ technologies.

When many countries rely on each other for goods, labour and resources, they are described as _______.

What was a key cause of the Rana Plaza factory collapse?

A. A cyclone struck Bangladesh. B. Workers vandalised the building. C. Structural cracks in the building were ignored. D. The factory caught fire. Which technological advancement has most improved global communication? A. Satellites and the internet C. Carrier pigeons B. Steam engines D. International postal services Why is Bangladesh one of the main hubs of fast-fashion manufacturing? A. It has the world’s largest cotton farms. B. It uses robots instead of human workers. C. It exports only luxury clothing. D. It has cheap labour and large garment-factory networks.

Which statement best explains why the world’s supply chains are vulnerable? A. Products are all made locally. B. No country relies on imports. C. Items often travel across multiple countries. D. Transport networks rarely impact trade.

Identify one positive and one negative effect of globalisation.

Recall one way the Rana Plaza disaster showed global interconnection.

10.

How have advances in transport networks improved interconnection?

11.

Referring to Figure 13.6.1, identify three reasons why people might protest or boycott fast-fashion brands like Shein.

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➜

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13.6 Chapter review

Figure 13.6.1 Demonstrators protest against Shein’s brand inauguration at the BHV Marais (a Parisian department store), 2025.

Writing focus

The following activities allow you to practice your writing skills.

Answering questions in paragraphs

Question: Explain how the Rana Plaza fashion disaster illustrates the concept of interconnection. (6 marks)

Writing focus 13.6 Single paragraph response model ➜

You can use this as a model when writing your own answers to the questions that follow.

Model answer: Topic sentence: the first sentence of the paragraph; directly answers the question

Elaborate: additional information, interconnections

Linking sentence: reconnects with language of the question the topic

The Rana Plaza disaster shows interconnection because it reveals how people and places are linked through the global fashion supply chain. Consumers and brands in wealthy countries are directly connected to Bangladeshi garment workers through fast-fashion supply chains that rely on cheap production. This means that demand for cheap clothing in one part of the world influences factory conditions, wages and worker safety in another. Bangladesh’s garment industry provides 80 per cent of the country’s export earnings, yet many workers earn less than A$100 per month and face unsafe conditions. The collapse of the Rana Plaza building in 2013 exposed how global demand for cheap clothing contributes to dangerous factory environments. Therefore, the Rana Plaza disaster demosntrates global interconnection by revealing the cause-andeffect relationship beween consumer demand in one part of the world and working conditions in another.

Explain: clarify, define and describe

Evidence: specific, relevant evidence to support your arguments

Examples: provide credibility and illustrate the argument

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Chapter 13 How the world has become more interconnected

Structured-response questions Question 1

(20 marks)

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a. Outline one way technology has made young people more interconnected. (4 marks) b. Describe how the Rana Plaza fashion disaster illustrates the concept of interconnection. (6 marks) c. Explain the ways that globalisation has had both positive and negative impacts on the way the world is interconnected. (10 marks) Question 2

(20 marks)

Refer to the text box and your knowledge of interconnection and trade to answer the questions. The fast-fashion model relies on rapid production cycles and complex global supply chains that connect cotton farms, textile factories, shipping ports, retail outlets and consumers across the world. Cotton may be grown in countries such as India or the United States, spun and dyed in factories in Bangladesh or Vietnam, assembled into clothing in China, and then transported thousands of kilometres by ship to be sold in countries like Australia. This global supply chain highlights strong interconnections between people, places and environments at different scales. Consumer choices in wealthy countries can influence working conditions, environmental impacts and economic outcomes in distant places, showing how everyday decisions can have global consequences.

a. Define “interconnection”, using an example. (4 marks) b. Using the information in the text box, describe two ways the fast-fashion supply chain shows interconnections between people and places. (6 marks) c. Explain how a clothing purchase made by a consumer in Australia can impact both people and environments in another country. (10 marks) In your answer, refer to:

• the global supply chain • at least one group of people • at least one environmental impact.

Extended-response questions Question 1

(20 marks)

Explain how the movement of important goods and services relies on global networks. Question 2

(20 marks)

Discuss the positive and negative effects of the emergence of technologies such as social media platforms and online gaming.

Teachers, access the Online Teaching Suite for digital resources and tools that support review, assessment and reporting, including:

Chapter

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Geographical skills: Quantifying connections

Lessons

14.1

Flowline maps

14.2

Pie charts

14.3

Composite column graphs

14.4

Ternary graphs

14.5

Fieldwork: Interconnections

14.6

Chapter review: Quantifying connections

➜

Image: Maps are useful to help navigate an unfamiliar city.

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Chapter 14 Geographical skills: Quantifying connections

14.1

Flowline maps

Success criteria

In this lesson, you will learn how to read and understand flowline maps, and understand how the world is connected through flowline maps.

❏ I can interpret the direction of flows of people and trade using flowline maps. ❏ I can determine the relative sizes of flows using flowline maps.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Learning intention

Introduction

Video 14.1.1 Flowline maps

Flowline maps are a type of thematic map used to show the movement of people, goods or money from one place to another. They use lines or arrows to represent flows between locations, such as between countries, states or regions, with the thickness of the line usually indicating the quantity being moved. Flowline maps are commonly used by geographers to show migration patterns, trade flows or transport routes, helping to explain how places are connected and how movement influences economic activity, population change and global interconnections. There are several different styles of flowline maps and in this lesson we will explore some of the most commonly used ones. In this first example, the flow of people (migration) into Australia is shown using lines that connect the countries of origin to Australia. The number of people is shown using shading.

Legend shows that different shades of green represent different numbers of migration.

Lines connect migrants’ country of origin to Australia.

➜

Figure 14.1.1 Simple flowline map of country of birth of Australian citizens born overseas, 2020 Source: PopulationPyramid.net Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78802-1 • (03) 8671 1400

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More frequently, flowline maps use lines of different thickness to indicate the relative proportion of the flow and an arrow to indicate direction. Title explains the flow.

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Origin

Sometimes the line thickness is supported by numbers to make them easier to read.

Direction of flow

➜

Figure 14.1.2 Flowline map of cotton exports from selected West African countries, given as a percentage of total cotton export market Source: Data Europa

Now you try! 14.1a

Use Figure 14.1.2 to answer these questions. 1.

What is the commodity being exported from West Africa?

What is the general direction of flow of this commodity?

Which country is the largest recipient of the commodity?

What percentage of the total is exported to the largest recipient?

Some flowline maps are more stylised using names or icons to represent places. This can help us understand size of a flow between multiple places easily.

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Chapter 14 Geographical skills: Quantifying connections

Flow of people within Australia

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Arrivals from outside Australia

Legend explains the arrow colours.

➜

UNITED KINGDOM Exports: $15006M Imports: $19501M

Figure 14.1.3 Flowline map of internal and external migration in Australia, 2016–21 Source: Australian Government

INDIA Exports: $34207M Imports: $15857M

CHINA Exports: $212664M Imports: $112796M

UNITED STATES Exports: $37549M Imports: $88220M

REPUBLIC OF KOREA Exports: $42279M Imports: $28432M JAPAN Exports: $80504M Imports: $32877M THAILAND Exports: $9085M Imports: $24642M

MALAYSIA Exports: $12853M Imports: $20155M

LEGEND

Total trade

NEW ZEALAND Exports: $19367M Imports: $18409M

SINGAPORE Exports: $22601M Imports: $24715M

5000 km

➜

Figure 14.1.4 Flowline map of Australia’s top 10 trade partners, 2023–24

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Now you try! 14.1b Use Figure 14.1.3 to answer Questions 1 to 3. Where are most external migrants to Australia deciding to settle?

In terms of internal migrants, where is the largest flow, and how many people made this move between 2016 and 2021?

Suggest some reasons why internal migrants chose to make this move more than any other flow? Think both in terms of why they want to leave the old place and why they might like the new place.

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Use Figure 14.1.4 to answer Questions 4 to 6. 4.

Which country/countries is/are Australia’s largest export and import partner.

Approximately what is the total combined value of imports and exports to/from the USA?

Why might a country like Thailand be high on the list of countries that Australia buys things from (imports), but not high on the list of countries that Australia sells things to (exports)?

Video 14.1.2 How we found the answers to Questions 2 and 3

Activity 14.1

For this activity, you will need red and blue pens or pencils, a blank world map with country borders and an atlas (optional). Using the data in Table 14.1.1, construct a flowline map showing Australia’s four largest sources of overseas migration. 1.

On your blank world map, locate Australia and the four countries listed, using an atlas if required.

Draw flowlines to represent both incoming migration to Australia and outgoing migration from Australia, ensuring the direction of movement is shown using arrows.

• Use a different colour for your incoming and outgoing flowlines. • Use increasing line widths to represent different the different migration

totals; for example, 1 centimetre for 0–100,000 people, 2 centimetres for 100,000–200,000 people, 3 centimetres for 200,000–300,000 people, and 4 centimetres for more than 300,000 people. Include a clear legend explaining both the direction of movement and what each line width represents.

Table 14.1.1 Australia’s four largest sources of overseas migration, 2024–25 Source: Australian Bureau of Statistics Country

People leaving Australia (outgoing flow)

People arriving in Australia (incoming flow)

China

150,640

282,690

India

234,010

302,620

United Kingdom

100,430

159,520

New Zealand

95,200

138,410

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14.2

Pie charts

Success criteria

In this lesson, you will learn to read and understand pie charts, and how to calculate total values of pie chart segments using a protractor.

❏ I can explain how varying components contribute to a whole using pie charts. ❏ I can calculate a total value of a component.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Learning intention

Introduction

Video 14.2.1 Pie charts

Pie charts are a type of graphical representation used to show how a whole is divided into different parts. Each pie chart is a circle, with each segment representing a category that makes up a proportion of the total. The size of each segment is determined by the percentage or fraction of the whole that it represents. Pie charts are especially useful when geographers want to compare how different components contribute to an overall total. They are often used to display data such as population composition, economic activity, land use, resource consumption, or trade and migration patterns. Thus they can help us understand the relative importance of connections between different locations. 35 to 39 years, 17,846, 4%

30 to 34 years, 46,676, 11%

25 to 29 years, 103,360, 26%

40 to 44 years, 6,397, 2% 45 to 49 years, 2,146, 1% 50 to 54 years, 872, 0% 55 and over, 470, 0%

15 to 19 years, 50,097, 15%

This pie chart is labelled with whole numbers and percentages.

Not specified, 2, 0%

20 to 24 years, 164,152, 41%

➜

Figure 14.2.1 Student visas granted to international students in 2023 by age group Source: Data.gov.au

Sometimes specifics are not given and need to be calculated. See the worked example in Figure 14.2.2 that answers the question: what proportion of energy came from renewables in 2023–24?

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Australian energy generation: Renewable vs. non-renewable 2023–24

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1993–94

Non-renewable

Renewable

2. Align your protractor with the centre so that 0° faces up.

1. Find the renewable slice and extend the start and ending line.

0 10 20 180 170 1 60

30 0

80 90 70 0 60 1 0 10 0 1 12

Faces up

170 18 0 60 0 1 10 0 20 30

4. To calculate as a percentage, place 126 over the whole (360) and multiply by 100 = 126 × 100 = 35% 360

1 00 11 0 120 80 7 0 60 130 50

Centre

3. Read this line: 126°

➜

Figure 14.2.2 Renewable vs. non-renewable power generation in Australia, 1993–94 and 2023–24

If we are given the total value, we can calculate the percentage in the same way and then determine the total value for that particular slice of the pie! See the worked example in Figure 14.2.3 for the total value of export trade to China. Australia’s top 15 export trading partners

0°

137°

Trading partner China Japan Republic of Korea United States India Singapore Taiwan New Zealand Hong Kong (SAR) Indonesia United Kingdom Vietnam Malaysia Thailand Philippines

Total = $561.1 billion ➜

Figure 14.2.3 Australia’s top 15 export trading partners, 2023–24

To find the percentage: slice – 137 × 100 whole 360 = 38%

To find the value: 38 × 561.1B 100 = 213.2B

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Chapter 14 Geographical skills: Quantifying connections

Now you try! 14.2 Use Figure 14.2.2 to answer Questions 1 and 2. 1.

What was Australia’s proportion of renewable energy usage in 1993–94?

By how much had this increased in 2023–24?

Use Figure 14.2.3 to answer Question 3. Use the method shown to calculate the total export value of the following countries:

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Video 14.2.2 How we found the answers to Questions 2 and 3

a. Japan

b. United States

c. Taiwan.

Activity 14.2

For this activity students will need a pen, a protractor, a ruler and a calculator.

Using the data in Table 14.1.2, construct a pie chart showing the countries of birth of Australia’s overseasborn population in 2025. 1.

For each country, calculate its percentage of the total overseas-born population by using the formula (country population ÷ 7,654,000) × 100. Record each percentage carefully to 1 decimal place.

Convert each percentage into an angle for the pie chart by multiplying the percentage by 3.6. This gives you the number of degrees for that slice of the circle. Do this until you have an angle for every category in the table (including “Other overseas countries”)

Draw a large circle using a compass, place a point in the centre, and draw a straight line from the centre to the top of the circle to mark your starting point (12 o’clock position).

Using a protractor, measure each angle from the centre and draw the slice, working around the circle carefully in one direction until all slices are complete.

Check that your angles add to 360°.

Colour each slice clearly, label each slice with the country name and either the percentage or the population, and include a legend if needed.

Table 14.1.2 Top 10 countries of birth for Australians born overseas, 2025 Country of birth

Population

England

980,000

India

721,000

China

651,000

New Zealand

565,000

Philippines

310,000

Vietnam

270,000

South Africa

200,000

Italy

178,000

Malaysia

177,000

Sri Lanka

147,000

Other overseas countries

3,455,000

Total overseas-born population

7,654,000

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14.3 Composite column graphs

14.3

471

Composite column graphs

Success criteria

In this lesson, you will learn how to read and understand composite column graphs, and how to calculate relative change using composite column graphs.

❏ I can extract data using a composite column graph. ❏ I can calculate the relative change between two data points using a composite column graph.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Learning intention

Introduction

Composite column graphs are used to show how different categories make up a whole by stacking values within a single column. They are useful in geography because they allow us to compare both total amounts and the proportions of each part across places or time. In the study of interconnections, composite column graphs help explain globalisation by clearly showing how factors such as trade, production or consumption are shared between countries. When a composite column graph shows change in variables over time on the x-axis, as shown in Figure 14.3.1, we can also calculate how much it has changed relative to where it started. This is called relative or percentage change.

y-axis = percentage of fibre production

In the composite column graph in Figure 14.3.1, the production of fibre (used in fast fashion) is shown broken up by continents. Each block of colour represents a continent and a percentage of the total amount of fibre production in that year. When asked for the production percentage of a continent for a chosen time, you need to look at the top and bottom of that block. See the worked example in Figure 14.3.1. Production of fibre crops

100%

Video 14.3.1 Composite column graphs

Calculate fibre production for South America in 2020 96 – 82 = 14%

90%

80% 70%

60% 50%

40%

Trends are clear, such as rise in production of fibre in Asia.

30% 20%

10% 0%

1980 Asia

2000 Africa

South America

2020 North America

Other

➜

Figure 14.3.1 An annotated composite column graph showing production of fibre crops

x-axis = time

Legend shows what the colours represent.

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Now you try! 14.3a Use Figure 14.3.1 to answer these questions. What percentage of fibre crop did South America produce in 1980?

What percentage of fibre crop did North America produce in 2000?

What was the difference in fibre crop production from South America between 1980 and 2000?

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Video 14.3.2 How we found the answer to Question 4

In 2020, the total production of fibre crop was 740,585 tonnes. How much fibre crop (in tonnes) did Africa produce in 2020?

Relative or percentage change tells us how much a data point has changed over time, expressed as a percentage of where it started. If crop production doubled from 10 tonnes to 20 tonnes, we would say that this is a relative change of 100 per cent. To find relative change, we use the equation: change × 100 original

See the worked example in Figure 14.3.2 that solves the problem: calculate the relative change of Australia’s “out-of-home consumption” food wastage from 2019 to 2022.

1. Calculate out-of-home consumption for 2019 and 2022.

Australia’s food wastage

100%

3. Original is the first amount, in this case, 15%

90%

80% 70%

60%

2. Change is found by subtracting the 2019 value from the 2022 value. 35 – 15 = 20

50%

40%

30%

20%

10% 0%

45 – 12 = 35

23 – 8 = 15

Retail

= 133%↑

2019

4. Put these figures into the equation. change −20 × 100 original −15

2022

Out-of-home consumption

Household

➜

Figure 14.3.2 An annotated composite column graph showing Australia’s food wastage

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14.3 Composite column graphs

473

Now you try! 14.3b

Use Figure 14.3.2 to answer the questions. What is the relative change in retail food wastage (per capita) in Australia between 2019 and 2022?

What is the relative change in household food wastage (per capita) in Australia between 2019 and 2022? This one will be a percentage decrease but complete the equation in the same way.

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What category of food wastage in Australia has the largest relative change?

What might this suggest about the way Australians consume food in 2022 compared to 2019? Might world events have had an impact on this data?

Video 14.3.2 How we found the answer to Question 1

Activity 14.3

For this activity you will need blank paper (preferably graph paper) or access to the internet and Excel. Use the data in Table 14.3.1 to create a composite column graph using graph paper or Excel.

Table 14.3.1 Annual plastic waste by disposal method Source: OECD Disposal method

2000

2005

2010

2015

2019

Landfilled

59.4%

55.7%

52.6%

50.1%

49.2%

Mismanaged

26%

25.3%

24.1%

22.5%

Incinerated

10.9%

13.2%

15.4%

17.6%

19%

Recycled

3.7%

5.2%

6.6%

8.2%

9.3%

For each disposal method, calculate the relative change from 2000 to 2019. Which disposal method has seen the largest relative change?

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Chapter 14 Geographical skills: Quantifying connections

14.4

Ternary graphs

Success criteria

In this lesson, you will learn what a ternary graph is, why they are useful for geographers and how to read and plot three variables.

❏ I can define a ternary graph and what makes it unique. ❏ I can interpret a ternary graph and accurately plot variables.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Learning intention

Introduction

Video 14.4.1 Ternary graphs

variable a number, amount or situation that can change development economic, social and political changes that improve the wellbeing of people

production the process of making or growing goods to be sold

consumption the use of resources to fulfill present needs and desires globalisation the process by which countries become more connected through trade, travel and instantaneous communication

Up until now you have studied graphs that show two variables as they relate to each other, such as time on the x-axis and weight on the y-axis. Geographers also have a way to plot data when there are three variables, as long as these three numbers add up to 100 per cent. To do this, geographers use a ternary graph. This helpful triangle graph allows you to plot three points of data at one time; for example, showing a country’s industry broken into primary, secondary and tertiary sectors. This in turn tells us a lot about a country’s level of development and their participation in the production and consumption of goods.

We need to start this lesson by understanding the three main sectors of the economy: primary, secondary and tertiary.

Primary industry involves the production of raw material, such as agriculture, mining coal or metals, forestry or fishing. Developing countries often have a higher proportion of the workforce engaged in primary industries.

Secondary industry involves turning these raw materials into goods for sale, such as manufacturing and energy production. As a result of globalisation, much of secondary industry takes place in countries with low wages and high urban populations. Tertiary industry involves providing services such as education, finance and tourism. Developed countries have a higher proportion of the workforce engaged in tertiary industry.

If we know the breakdown of a country’s economy based on these three industries, we can plot it on the ternary graph. For example, the industry breakdown of country A:

• primary: 20 per cent • secondary: 20 per cent • tertiary: 60 per cent.

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14.4 Ternary graphs

A 100%

10%

90%

20%

80%

30%

2. Complete the second side. Each number has two options (shown in red). Don’t repeat the line already used for primary. Secondary = 20%

1. Always start on the right-hand side and draw straight across. Primary = 20%

nd ary

50%

60%

Pri

40%

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70%

50%

60%

40%

70%

30%

80%

20%

90%

100

% C

90%

80%

70%

60%

50%

40%

30%

20%

10%

100

10%

Tertiary

3. Tertiary also has two options (shown in red). Never repeat a line, so choose the other option. Tertiary = 60% ➜

Figure 14.4.1 An annotated ternary graph showing three tiers of industry

There are two ways that you can check you have completed the ternary graph correctly.

90%

P20 + S20 +T60 = 100% ➜

Figure 14.4.2 How to check if your working out on a ternary graph is correct

100 % C

90%

80%

70%

60%

50%

40%

30%

10%

20%

100 % C

90%

80%

70%

10%

60%

20%

100

50%

30%

90%

10%

40%

80%

30%

50%

70%

40%

20%

60%

50%

100

10%

70%

50%

60%

90%

80%

40%

70%

90%

30%

80%

0%A 100%

20%

✗ A line crosses the whole graph.

10%

✓ Numbers add to 100%.

0%A 100%

If a line crosses from one axis to another, you need to try again.

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Now you try! 14.4 Use Figure 14.4.3 to answer the questions. Complete the table. Point A has been done for you.

Point

Primary

Secondary

Tertiary

Total

20%

60%

100% ✓

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Video 14.4.2 How we found the answer to Question 1B

D E F

Which country, from A to G, is most likely to represent a developed economy? How do you know?

Which country, from A to G, is most likely to represent a developing economy? How do you know?

Plot the data for Country H on the graph in Figure 14.4.3.

Point H: Primary = 30%, Secondary = 50%, Tertiary = 20%

ary

Se co

10%

100 % C

90%

80%

Tertiary

70%

60%

50%

40%

30%

20%

10%

100 % C

90%

80%

70%

60%

50%

40%

30%

20%

ary

10%

20%

30%

% 100

10%

ry ma

Pri

40%

90%

20%

➜

Figure 14.4.3 Ternary graph

50%

80%

30%

60%

70%

40%

70%

60%

50%

Tertiary

80%

50%

60%

ry ma

60%

Pri

40%

70%

% 100

90%

30%

80%

90%

0% A 100%

20%

90%

50%

Se co

10%

0% A 100%

Figure 14.4.4 Ternary graph

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14.4 Ternary graphs

477

Activity 14.4 For this activity you will need access to the internet, the blank ternary graph in Figure 14.4.4 and this link: https://cambridge.edu.au/redirect/11892 Visit the World Bank weblink and find the checkboxes on the right-hand side. Under “Sex” uncheck “Male” and “Female” so that only “Total” is shown.

On the map, hover the cursor over a country to see the percentage of people employed in the “Employment sector’ shown on the right.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Swap between agriculture (primary), industry (secondary) and services (tertiary) and record the percentages in the table. Repeat for five countries, and try to get a range of development levels. Australia is already shown in the table as an example, which you can use as your first country.

Country

Agriculture (P)

Industry (S)

Services (T)

Australia

19%

79%

Plot your five countries on the ternary graph in Figure 14.4.4.

➜

Figure 14.4.5 Example for Australia services industry

Source: World Bank

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14.5

Fieldwork: Interconnections

Success criteria

In this lesson you will have the opportunity to investigate – by collecting both quantitative and qualitative data – the products and/or services that businesses sell to other places.

❏ I can use a fieldwork report to extrapolate and assess quantitative and qualitative data relevant to my local area.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Learning intention

Investigating global supply chains

Fieldwork is an essential part of studying geography. It lets you investigate many of the concepts learned in class while working in the real world. It also gives you the chance to apply your knowledge to answer a research question about issues in your local area. In this investigation your aim is to detail the international division of labour that goes into producing a chosen product, including where the materials come from, where production occurs and who buys the product. The following structure will help form the basis of your study.

➜

Figure 14.5.1 We all use products that are part of a complex web of international trade and labour. What will you choose to investigate? Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78802-1 • (03) 8671 1400

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Section

Explanation

Examples

Title and introduction

Choose a suitable topic and title for your investigation. It should include the scope and location of your investigation.

• The global chain of single-origin coffee pods • From lithium to lithium-ion batteries • How is it possible to pay only $5 for a t-shirt?

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Write a brief introduction outlining the main aspects of your study including an outline of the product you will be investigating.

Background information

Research some background information about your chosen topic and region. This will provide context for your study.

• Volume and value of international trade in

Research question

Write a research question that you intend to answer using the data you collect. You may prefer to write one overall research question and multiple sub-questions.

• To what extent do consumer preferences

Hypothesis

A hypothesis is a clear and concise statement that can be tested. It should be written before you collect your primary data.

• Australia produces more lithium than it can

Primary data collection

Primary data is data you collect yourself in the field specifically for your investigation. Consider the types of primary data you need and the equipment and preparation required.

• Interviews with local businesses and

Secondary data collection

Secondary data is data that others have collected, which you can use in your investigation. Research to find suitable sources of information for your topic.

• Company annual reports detailing

Summarise your findings in visual formats Presenting and analysing that are easy to read and understand. your data Discussion, conclusion and evaluation References

your product at each stage (e.g. tonnes of green coffee beans exported from Colombia) • Overview of shipping corridors or air-freight routes linking each production stage in Australia shape the final roasting and packaging locations for single-origin coffee? • Why is it not possible for Australia to refine its own lithium and produce all of its own batteries onshore? refine in its own facilities • The cost of labour is the main contributor to the price of a clothing item households

• Fieldwork to gather details on prices component origins • FAO coffee-sector reports

• Different types of graphs (pie, line, bar) and maps (choropleth, thematic, political) • Annotated photos and field sketches • Summary tables

Use your primary and secondary data to answer your research question. Provide a concise summary of your major findings. Evaluate the success of your data collection and overall investigation.

• The extent to which your hypothesis has

Include a bibliography of any sources used.

• Food and Agriculture Organization, 2025,

been supported or disproven

• An answer to your research question • The positive and negatives of your data collection and how it can be improved

‘Markets and Trade - Coffee’, FAO, accessed 28 April 2025, https://www.fao.org/ markets-and-trade/commodities-overview/ beverages/coffee/en

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14.6

Chapter review: Quantifying connections Success criteria

In this lesson, you will consolidate learning across this chapter and apply a range of geographical skills relating to how to use flowline maps, pie charts, composite column graphs and ternary graphs.

❏ I can determine the connection between places using flowline maps, pie charts, composite column graphs and ternary graphs.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Learning intention

Geographical data for activity questions

Video 14.6.1 Introducing the geographical data and skillsbased activities in this lesson

➜

Figure 14.6.1 Cargo shipped from the Zara Group, January to September 2023

Source: Public Eye

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Figure 14.6.2 World’s top used-clothing exporters

Source: ScienceWorld

Fashion segments by US market share: 2012, 2022 and 2032

Off price Tj Maxx, Ross

Second-hand thredUP, Goodwill Mid-priced specialty Gap, Abercrombie & Fitch

11%

25%

18%

16%

Value chains Target, Walmart

Fast fasion Zara, Shein

12%

Other retailers Costco, QVC

The resale market is expected to reach $57 billion by 2032.

12%

11%

12%

14%

10%

15%

Amazon fashion Including Amazon Style stores Subscription Stitch Fix, Dia & Co

19%

Direct-to-consumer Everline, Allbirds

Department stores Macy’s, Nordstorm

16%

11%

20%

Rental Rent the Runway, Nuuly

10% 4%

2012

2022

9% 5%

Fast fashion is likely to remain unchanged to 2032.

2032

➜

Figure 14.6.3 Fashion segments by US market share, 2012, 2022 and 2032

Source: Website Planet

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Second-hand fashion market value by region in billions USD, 2021–27 2021

$138B

2022

$177B

2023

Experiences 28% growth

Accounts for 10% of the global apparel market

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$211B

2024

$248B

2025

$288B

2026

Sees three times faster growth than the global apparel market

$324B

2027

$351B

$0B

$50B

Asia

$100B

Europe

$150B

$200B

North America

$250B

$300B

South America

$355B

Australasia

Africa

➜

Figure 14.6.4 Second-hand fashion market value, 2021–27

Source: Website Planet

A 100%

10%

90%

20%

80%

Ind us

50%

60%

70%

Bangladesh

Vietnam

40%

30%

80%

China

20%

90%

United United States Kingdom 10% France Germany

90%

80%

100 %

Services

70%

60%

50%

40%

30%

20%

10%

50%

India

100

ure ult ric

60%

40%

try

30%

70%

➜

Figure 14.6.5 Ternary graph showing selected countries and their three tiers of industry

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Table 14.6.1 Top exporters and importers of fast fashion Country

Agriculture

Industry

Services

China

Vietnam

India

United States

Germany

United Kingdom

France

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Bangladesh

Shein material use, 2023

Polyester Cotton Viscose

Spandex Polyamide Other (including linen, acrylics and metallics)

➜

Figure 14.6.6 SHEIN material use, 2023 Source: 2023 Sustainability and Social Impact Report

Global fibre production, shares, selected years (1996-2023) percentage

100.0

5.5

4.2

3.3

2.7

2.3

9.7

9.0

7.9

6.9

6.2

80.0

32.5

34.7

29.3

22.9

1.7 1.6 1.6 1.6 1.8 5.8 6.3 5.6 5.7 5.4

21.4 20.8 20.8 20.1

21.6

39.8

60.0

40.0

20.0

45.0

1996

54.4

54.1

2000

2005

61.1

2010

68.7

70.9 70.7 72.1 71.9

2015

2019

2021

72.7

2023

➜

Figure 14.6.7 Global fibre production, 2024 Source: Textile Exchange September 2025 Report

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Check your understanding Use Figure 14.6.1 to answer Questions 1 to 6. What type of map is shown?

What is purpose of the map?

What does the thickness of the lines represent?

What do the two colours represent?

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Identify three destinations that receive cargo from Zaragoza.

Which place sent the most cargo to Zaragoza in 2023?

Use Figure 14.6.2 to answer Questions 7 to 15. 7.

What type of map is shown?

What is purpose of the map? What is the map trying to show about used clothing?

What do the two colours represent?

10.

What do the curved red lines represent?

11.

Does the map quantify used clothing or mainly show direction and connections? How can you tell?

12.

Identify three importers of used clothing.

13.

Identify the countries to which the United Kingdom exports used clothing.

14.

Which continents show both exporting and importing countries?

15.

From which countries does India receive imports?

Use Figure 14.6.3 to answer Questions 16 to 19. 16.

What is this type of graph?

17.

Which segment has the largest market share in 2012? In 2022? In 2032?

18.

Describe the change in market share of “second-hand”?

19.

List the highest to lowest market-share segment in 2022.

Use Figure 14.6.4 to answer Questions 20 to 22. 20.

What does this graph measure?

21.

What does the total number at the end of each bar represent?

22.

Describe the overall trend in global second-hand market value from 2021 to 2027.

Use Figure 14.6.5 to answer Questions 23 to 27. 23.

What type of graph is shown?

24.

What do the three axes represent?

25.

What rule must always be true for any point on this graph?

26.

Which country has the highest percentage of workers in agriculture?

27.

Which country has the most even split across the three sectors?

Use Figure 14.6.6 to answer Questions 28 to 31. 28.

What type of chart is shown?

29.

Which material is used the most?

30.

Which material is used the least?

31.

Are the categories of polyamide, spandex and other combined larger than viscose?

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Use Figure 14.6.7 to answer Questions 32 to 34. 32.

What is the global total fibre production shown?

33.

List the four main categories and their percentages of fibre production.

34.

Rank the following fibres by percentage of total fibre production: polyester, cotton, viscose, nylon and wool.

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Develop your understanding

Use Figure 14.6.1 to answer Questions 1 to 6. 1.

Calculate the difference in tonnes that were sent to the USA and Saudi Arabia.

Identify one country that both receives from and sends to Zaragoza.

Pick one labelled city and describe its connection to Zaragoza using evidence (colour, line thickness and direction).

What region has the densest cluster of routes?

Describe the spatial pattern of shipped cargo.

Did Turkey receive or send more cargo? By how much?

Use Figure 14.6.2 to answer Questions 7 to 10. 7.

What important information is missing that would change how you interpret this map?

Are there similarities between countries who receive used clothes? You may want to investigate income level, percentage of population involved in agriculture and industry, etc.

Compare China as shown here with Figure 14.6.1. How is China positioned differently in each map.

10.

Compare this used-clothing network with the Zara cargo network. Which network looks more global, and which network looks more concentrated around hubs?

Use Figure 14.6.3 to answer Questions 11 to 14. 11.

Which segment shows the biggest overall increase from 2012 to 2032?

12.

Which segment shows the biggest overall decrease from 2012 to 2032?

13.

The graphic says, “Fast fashion is likely to remain unchanged to 2032.” Is this statement accurate? Explain, using evidence from the graph.

14.

Add up the labelled percentages in 2032. Do they total 100%? What does that tell you about rounding or unlabelled categories?

Use Figure 14.6.5 to answer Questions 15 to 22. 15.

Which year shows the largest increase compared to the previous year?

16.

Which continent appears to make up the largest share in most years?

17.

Determine the North American share (%) of the second-hand fashion market in 2023.

Use Table 14.6.1 and Figure 14.6.5 to answer Questions 18 to 22. 18.

What is the difference between France’s and China’s services percentage?

19.

Calculate the missing values to complete the table: a. x

b. y

c. z

20.

Which countries are most developed?

21.

Determine which four of the listed countries are the top exporters of fast fashion.

22.

Calculate the average services percentage for the importers of fast fashion.

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Use Figure 14.6.6 to answer Questions 23 to 25. 23.

Estimate the percentage of polyester.

24.

Determine the difference in percentage between polyester and cotton.

25.

What does this chart suggest about SHEIN’s reliance on synthetic fibres (polyester, spandex, polyamide, acrylic/metallics)?

Use Figure 14.6.7 to answer Questions 26 to 30. How many million tonnes more of cotton is produced than viscose?

27.

How many times more polyester is produced than cotton?

28.

What is polyester’s percentage of the total fibre production?

29.

Calculate polyester’s percentage of synthetics.

30.

Calculate the ratio of synthetic to plant fibres (reduce plant fibres to 1) using tonnes.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

26.

Extend your understanding

Use Figure 14.6.1 to answer Questions 1 to 4. 1.

Zaragoza received 129,753 tonnes of cargo from January to September 2023. What percentage of this was from the top four countries listed?

Compare China and the United Arab Emirates in the tables. Which has higher arrivals to Zaragoza? Which has higher arrivals from Zaragoza, and what might explain that?

Compare two cities that are close together on the map but have very different line thicknesses. What might explain the difference?

What information is missing that you would need to judge the full impact of Zara’s fast-fashion logistics?

Use Figure 14.6.2 to answer Questions 5 to 8. 5.

Explain two reasons why used clothing is traded internationally rather than all being recycled locally.

Research the potential benefits for countries importing used clothing.

Evaluate whether exporting used clothing is a form of “recycling” or “waste dumping”. Justify your view.

“The used-clothing trade reflects global inequality.” To what extent do you agree with this statement.

Use Figure 14.6.3 to answer Questions 9 to 11. 9.

a. Determine the ratio of second-hand to fast fashion in: i. 2012 ii. 2022 iii. 2032.

b. Describe the changes in ratios.

10.

If the total US fashion market in 2022 was hypothetically $300 billion, how many dollars would the “Mid-priced speciality” segment represent?

11.

Assume the resale market is second-hand only and this is worth $57 billion by 2032. Estimate the total US fashion market value in 2032.

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Use Figure 14.6.4 to answer Questions 12 to 14. 12.

Calculate Europe’s share (in dollar value) of the market in 2025.

13.

Calculate the change in Asia’s share of the market from 2025 to 2027.

14.

Calculate the change in percentage of North America’s share from 2024 to 2027.

Use Figure 14.6 .6 to answer Questions 15 to 18. Research polyester. Why might polyester dominate fast fashion?

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15. 16.

What key information is missing that would help you judge sustainability properly?

17.

What is a limitation of this type of chart for this topic? What type of graph might be clearer?

18.

If a brand claims it is “improving sustainability”, what changes would you expect to see in this chart over time?

Use Figure 14.6.7 to answer Questions 19 to 22. 19.

Compare polyester and cotton. What does this tell you about fast-fashion material choices?

20.

a. If the total amount of polyester decreased by 10 per cent, how many million tonnes would be reduced? b. What would be the new total of polyester?

21.

If synthetics fell from 91.0 to 80.0 million tonnes, and the total stayed 132 million tonnes, what would the new synthetic percentage be?

22.

This chart shows production, not consumption or waste. What extra data would you need to judge whether global fibre production is sustainable?

Creative tasks

Task 1: Track a product through the world 1.

Choose one product (T-shirt, jeans, phone, chocolate, coffee, sneakers, etc.)

Research the supply chain and identify five to seven locations (countries or cities) that link the raw materials to processing to manufacturing to shipping to retail.

Create a flowline map showing the movement between locations (use arrows; if the data exists then also use thickness).

Write three or four sentences explaining how these places are connected and identify one point in the chain where a disruption would have the biggest impact and why.

Task 2: Fair trade or fast trade?

Your class is a “trade court” judging the sustainability of different fashion companies. 1.

Create three “evidence exhibits” for the case:

a. a flowline map showing the movement of the products (materials and final products, if possible) b. a pie chart of fibre use (synthetic, cotton, viscose, etc.) c. a combined column graph showing either cost, emissions, etc.

For each exhibit, complete a source audit. Determine who produced the data, the year it was produced, is there anything missing or what are the limitations to the data?

Prepare a one-minute argument for either:

• Prosecution: the company’s model is harmful • Defence: the company is improving. 4.

As a class, analyse the data and arguments presented to determine the verdict (guilty, not guilty or a mistrial).

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Task 3: Graph detective

You will be given (or create) two versions of the same data. Create two pie charts of the same fibre data: a. one honest b. one misleading (e.g., colours, ordering, labels missing, 3D effects).

Create two combined column graphs of the same sales or waste data: a. one with a fair y-axis b. one with a misleading y-axis that may jump by uneven numbers, have an interesting scale, etc.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Explain how each misleading choice changes interpretation.

Discussion: Is misleading data ever “accidental”? Find at least one example from the news, social media or advertisements that used data misleadingly.

Task 4: Interconnections in your suburb

You are to create a flowline map that shows how your suburb is connected to other places through people, goods, services, information and money. 1.

Find a map of with your suburb in the centre (you may use sites like Google My Maps).

Using multiple colours (one for each “type” of connection), show how your suburb connects to other places.

Which connections are most important to your suburb?

Task 5: Where does clothing end up?

Use a pie chart to show outcomes of clothing waste. 1.

Research what happens to clothing after disposal (landfill, export, resale, recycling, incineration).

Find one dataset that gives information on outcomes for a country or the world.

Create a pie chart showing outcomes.

Write a conclusion for the country. Which outcome dominates and what does that imply?

Extension: Suggest one policy or behaviour change and predict how the pie chart would change.

Task 6: Guess who?

Work in groups to create a ternary graph for “Guess who?” 1.

Using the weblinks from Lesson 14.4, create a ternary graph for six different countries showing the percentages of agriculture, industry and services.

Label the countries 1 to 6 (do not use country names).

Develop three clue cards for each country:

• Clue 1 (hardest/most vague) is a broad hint (e.g. highly urbanised) • Clue 2 (medium) is more specific (e.g. major manufacturing exporter) • Clue 3 (easy) is very specific (e.g. the capital is …)

Two groups swap their ternary graphs. One group will choose one of the countries and request a clue. After each clue, the group must either guess the country or receive the next clue. The scoring is:

• Correct after 1 clue = 3 points • Correct after 2 clues = 2 points • Correct after 3 clues = 1 point • Incorrect guess at any stage = 0 points for that country (and the other group reveals

the answer) The winner is the group with the most points.

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Chapter

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Case study: How personal, cultural and technological interconnections shape the global flow of coffee

Lessons

15.1

Geo Spark: Why does coffee from around the world taste different?

15.2

What makes coffee a globally traded commodity that connects people worldwide?

15.3

What are the origins of coffee?

15.4

What do the spatial patterns of production and consumption in the coffee industry reveal?

15.5

Why do a select few producers and varieties dominate the global coffee industry?

15.6

What makes the coffee supply chain unique?

15.7

Country and Culture: How are Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples connected to economies on a local, national and global scale?

15.8

Why does Australia consume so much coffee but produce so little?

15.9

How did the COVID-19 pandemic disrupt the global flow of coffee?

15.10

How is climate change reshaping where coffee can be grown?

15.11

Chapter review

➜

Image: Cappuccino art

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Chapter 15 Case study: How personal, cultural and technological interconnections shape the global flow of coffee

15.1

Geo Spark: Why does coffee from around the world taste different? Success criteria

In this lesson, you will learn how geography shapes the flavour of coffee, and why every cup of coffee tells a geographical story.

❏ I can explain how physical geographical factors (such as soil, elevation, rainfall and climate influence coffee flavour. ❏ I can identify flavour characteristics using a coffee tasting wheel.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Learning intention

Every cup of coffee tells a geographical story

➜

Writing focus 15.1 Question words

At first glance, coffee may seem like a simple everyday drink. However, every cup of coffee tells a geographical story shaped by the place where the coffee was grown. Coffee does not taste the same everywhere because place matters. The unique flavour profile of each coffee reflects a combination of physical environmental conditions and human decisions within a specific region.

Coffee beans are highly sensitive to their environment (Figures 15.1.1 and 15.1.2). Small differences in climate, landforms and soils can significantly change how a coffee bean develops, which in turn affects its aroma, flavour and body. Therefore, coffee from Vietnam, Colombia, Ethiopia and Brazil all taste different – even before being roasted, blended or brewed. Therefore, the world of coffee and the unique character and taste of each cup connects to our geographical concepts:

• Place: Each coffee-growing region has a distinct character. • Interconnection: Consumers of coffee are connected to distant environments. • Scale: Local conditions influence global markets and unique tastes.

➜

Figure 15.1.1 Coffee at a farm in Colombia

Figure 15.1.2 Coffee plantation in Manizales, Zona Cafetera, Colombia

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15.1 Geo Spark: Why does coffee from around the world taste different?

491

Geography shapes flavour Every coffee-growing region has a distinctive set of physical geographical factors that influence how coffee plants grow and how the beans taste: Table 15.1.1 Geographical features and coffee Elevation

Slope and aspect

Rain

Many coffee farms are located on steep slopes, particularly in mountainous regions. Slopes improve drainage, preventing excess water from damaging roots. Aspect (the direction a slope faces affects how much sunlight coffee plants receive throughout the day.

Coffee plants require a careful balance of rain. Too much rain can dilute flavours and increase the risk of disease, while too little rain can stress the plant and reduce yields. Welltimed rain helps coffee cherries develop evenly, supporting balanced sweetness and acidity in the final cup.

Sunlight and temperature

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Soil The type and quality of soil plays a major role in flavour development. Volcanic soils, commonly found in countries such as Vietnam and Ethiopia, are rich in minerals and nutrients. These soils help coffee plants develop deeper, richer and more complex flavours. Welldrained soils also prevent waterlogging, allowing healthy root systems to form.

Elevation is one of the most important factors influencing coffee flavour. Coffee grown at higher altitudes experiences cooler temperatures, which slows the growth of the coffee cherries. This slower growth allows sugars to develop more fully within the bean, often producing coffees with greater acidity, sweetness and complexity. Lower-elevation coffee tends to grow faster and often produces bolder but less complex flavours.

Sunlight and temperature control how energy is used by the coffee plant. Moderate temperatures and filtered sunlight help the plant produce sugars gradually. If temperatures are too high or sunlight is too intense, coffee cherries may ripen too quickly, reducing flavour complexity.

The combination of soil, elevation, slope, rain and temperature varies from place to place. As a result, coffee from different regions develops distinct flavour profiles. Even within the same country, coffee grown on different farms can taste noticeably different. Coffee flavour is the result of environmental processes interacting with human decisions. Farmers choose where to plant, how to manage shade, when to harvest and how to process beans. These decisions, combined with the natural characteristics of place, mean that every cup of coffee is unique.

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Activity 15.1 Taste the map

Study the coffee-tasting wheel diagram (Figure 15.1.3). With a partner consider: Why do you think coffee can taste chocolatey, fruity, nutty, floral or even smoky, when it all comes from the same plant?

Which flavours surprise you the most?

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Which flavours do you think would come from hot, tropical places?

Which flavours sound like they might come from mountainous regions?

How might every cup of coffee tell a unique geographical story?

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Figure 15.1.3 Coffee-tasting wheel

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15.2 What makes coffee a globally traded commodity that connects people worldwide?

15.2

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What makes coffee a globally traded commodity that connects people worldwide? Success criteria

In this lesson, you will learn about the scale of the global coffee industry and how the product connects people across the world.

❏ I can explain the scale of the global coffee industry. ❏ I can explain why coffee is a highly sought-after global commodity.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Learning intention

Starter activity Furious 5 for 5!

Answer the five multiple choice questions in five minutes.

Recap our first inquiry question from Chapter 13: “How has the world become more interconnected?” 1.

The collapse of the Rana Plaza factory in Bangladesh highlighted which key idea about global interconnections? A. Fast fashion is only a local problem in Asia. B. Most clothing is now made within Australia. C. Factories around the world operate independently. D. Global trade connects consumers and workers across countries.

What does the term “globalisation” refer to?

A. The isolation of individual countries due to COVID-19 B. The process by which the world becomes increasingly connected through trade, culture and technology C. The decline in international cooperation due to war and conflict D. The local production of goods only for domestic markets

Improvements in transport and communication technologies have led to which major change? A. Reduced global travel and trade B. Slower exchange of ideas across borders D. Decreased access to global markets for Australia C. Greater connectivity between people, places and economies

What did the 2021 Ever Given blockage in the Suez Canal demonstrate?

A. The independence of global economies B. How one event in a key trade route can disrupt the global flow of goods C. That maritime trade is no longer important D. That all trade now happens online

Online gaming and social media platforms such as TikTok and Instagram illustrate which type of interconnection?

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Why are geographers interested in the coffee industry?

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Writing focus 15.2 Conjunctions

Coffee production and trade are important global actions that involve agricultural production, distribution and consumption across all levels of society. The coffee industry’s primary goal (like all activities) is to increase profits and market share. In Geography, understanding productive activities (such as for coffee, tea, chocolate, wheat, rice, wine, diary and sugarcane) is important because many such activities directly relate to the use of Earth’s surface, especially in agriculture. These activities require suitable environmental conditions, such as specific climates and temperatures. Furthermore, productive activities involve complex trade networks and partnerships between countries, connecting people worldwide. As we explored in Chapter 13, since we live as global citizens, learning about these activities helps us understand how local actions can have international consequences.

profit revenue minus costs

market share percentage of a total market that is supplied by a company

range of scales the varying frames of reference used for viewing and analysing the world in spatial terms, commonly describes as local, national, regional and global transnational corporation (TNC) a large company that operates and has assets in multiple countries, with a headquarters in a home country

The scale of the coffee industry

Coffee is one of the most popular commodities on Earth. It’s grown by nearly 125 million farmers, from Latin America to Africa to Asia. Coffee perfectly exemplifies a globally traded commodity that involves productive activities operating at a range of scales, from small family farms to large transnational corporations (TNCs). The world producers about 500 billion cups of coffee per year. Coffee is the world’s second most traded commodity, after crude oil, highlighting its vast influence and reach in the global economy. Globally, coffee production amounts to approximately 170 million 60-kilogram bags per year, equivalent to around 10.2 million tonnes. This massive production supports over 25 million farmers and workers worldwide, mainly in developing countries, emphasising coffee’s importance in global economic and social systems.

Coffee is more than just your local barista

The coffee supply chain is a good example of how different economic sectors contribute to bringing a product from the farm to the consumer:

1. In the primary sector, coffee production involves the cultivation and harvesting of coffee beans, mainly in developing countries located in the “Coffee Belt” near the equator. This region includes countries such as Brazil, Vietnam, Colombia, Ethiopia and Indonesia, where consistent temperature and rainfall are ideal climate conditions for growing coffee plants. 2. Once harvested, coffee passes into the secondary sector, where it is processed, roasted and packaged. This adds value to the raw beans, preparing them for consumers. 3. The tertiary sector includes all marketing, retail and service aspects such as coffee shops and supermarkets, which bring coffee to customers worldwide. For example, global coffeehouse chains like Starbucks and local cafes play a significant role in how consumers experience coffee.

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15.2 What makes coffee a globally traded commodity that connects people worldwide?

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Figure 15.2.1 Visualising the global coffee trade by country Source: Visual Capitalist

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4. The quaternary sector supports the industry via research into sustainable farming practices, climate adaptation strategies, and the use of technology to improve coffee quality and production efficiency. 5. Finally, the quinary sector involves innovation and high-level decision-making such as developing new coffee blends or creating fair trade programs that aim to support farmers.

Figure 15.2.2 A coffee farm and coffee crop plant

Because coffee production and consumption cross multiple continents, the coffee industry is a prime example of interconnection. Despite coffee’s popularity and international operations, the industry faces significant challenges that need to be sustainably managed (see Table 15.2.1). Table 15.2.1 The environmental, social and economic production of coffee Environmental

Social

Economic

• Droughts in places like

• Labour rights and fair

• Global coffee prices

Brazil can affect coffee prices and availability for consumers globally.

• Climate change threatens

coffee-growing regions by altering rainfall patterns and temperatures, which can reduce yields and threaten farmers’ livelihoods.

compensation, persist in many producing countries, such as Colombia and Rwanda.

• Child labour and gender inequality exist within the industry.

fluctuate considerably, which can create economic instability for farmers, many of whom live in poverty.

• A breakdown in global

networks, such as the blockage of the Suez Canal and the COVID-19 pandemic, can hinder production and consumption.

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15.2 What makes coffee a globally traded commodity that connects people worldwide?

Review 15.2 Online quiz

Knowledge and understanding

Thinking and working geographically

Students can access sample responses and results online

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Teachers can go online to assign questions, view results, reports and more!

Knowledge and understanding

Identify the five sectors of the economy.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

1. 2.

Apply the five sectors of the economy to another product, other than coffee.

Outline how the coffee industry relates to sectors of the economy.

Outline the different scales at which the coffee industry operates.

Define range of scales in this context.

Approximately how many farmers worldwide are involved in coffee production?

What is the approximate annual global production of coffee in tonnes and cups?

Thinking and working geographically

Working with geographical concepts in a structured response: Interconnection

Around 70 per cent of coffee produced worldwide is exported, reflecting its importance as a traded commodity. In order to move coffee beyond its place of production, the industry requires the use of global networks. 1.

Outline one reason why coffee is considered a globally traded commodity.

Describe why geographers are interested in studying the coffee industry.

How can global events, like the COVID-19 pandemic or shipping blockages, impact the coffee industry?

interconnection The concept of interconnection emphasises that no object of geographical study can be viewed in isolation.

Analysing and describing data

Refer to Figure 15.2.1 to conduct a PQE. The PQE method is a tool used by geographers to analyse maps and graphs. It stands for Pattern, Quantify, Exceptions:

• Pattern: Identify a general pattern or trend. • Quantify: Support this pattern or trend with specific evidence like numbers or percentages. • Exceptions: Identify any outliers that don’t fit the pattern.

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Figure 15.2.3 Coffee beans stored in a warehouse in Ruira, Kenya, awaiting export

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15.3

What are the origins of coffee?

Success criteria

In this lesson, you will learn about the history of coffee to determine where it originated from so you can build an appreciation for how it became a global commodity.

❏ I can describe what coffee is. ❏ I can explain where coffee comes from and how it was discovered.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Learning intention

Starter activity

Cops and robbers: Source analysis

Study the map in Figure 15.3.1.

ICELAND

CANADA

Atlantic Ocean

UNITED STATES

TO U.S.

HAWAII

CENTRAL AMERICA

MEXICO

FROM CENTRAL AMERICA

COSTA RICA

ECUADOR

EL SALVADOR GUATEMALA

NICARAGUA

COLOMBIA

U.S.S.R.

HUNGARY

NETHERLANDS

UNITED KINGDOM

FRANCE

SPAIN

YUGOSLAVIA

TURKEY

CHINA

JAPAN

Pacific Ocean

INDIA

ALGERIA

YEME 8

IVORY COAST

CENT. AF. REP.

UGANDA

CAMEROON

ZAIRE

BRAZIL

ETHIOPIA

Indian Ocean

SRI LANKA

SUMATRA

KENYA

TANZANIA

VIETNAM PHILIPPINES

MIDDLE EAST

PAPUA NEW GUINEA

INDONESIA

JAVA

ISRAEL

ANGOLA

SAUDI ARABIA

FROM BRAZIL

AUSTRALIA

MADAGASCAR

UNITED ARAB EMIRATES

VENEZUELA

APPROXIMATE CONSUMPTION LBS. PER CAPITA ANNUALLY

COFFEE PRODUCTION AREAS

EXPORT AND IMPORT

AUSTRIA

TOGO

SOUTH AMERICA

ITALY

BELGIUM

FINLAND

W. GERMANY

LIBERIA

COLOMBIA

PERU

TO EUROPE

FROM COLOMBIA

HONDURAS

SWITZERLAND

VENEZUELA

TO JAPAN

NORWAY SWEDEN U.K.

HAITI AND DOMINICAN REPUBLIC

CUBA

Pacific Ocean

EUROPE DENMARK

BRAZIL

ECUADOR

Countries with annual per capita coffee consumption under four pounds are not shown.

DRAWN BY JANE WOLFE COMPILED BY ROSS M. ENERSON NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC ART DIVISION

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Figure 15.3.1 Exploring the global history, culture and trade of coffee

Adapted from Vividmaps

In groups, outline three key trends or inferences that are evident from the map. Consider trends or inferences in relation to: a. export and import b. coffee production areas c. consumption per capita.

Move around the room and share your ideas with other groups. You can also steal new ideas.

Add one more key trend or inference that you robbed from another group.

The coffee plant (Figures 15.3.2 and 15.3.3) is a woody perennial evergreen shrub. It produces white flowers that grow into fruits called coffee cherries. Each cherry usually contains two seeds, known as coffee beans, which are roasted and ground to make coffee. Coffee grows best in warm climates with rich soils and regular rainfall. Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78802-1 • (03) 8671 1400

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Figure 15.3.2 Sunrise in a coffee farm in the mountains of Chiriqui, Panama

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15.3 What are the origins of coffee?

Figure 15.3.3 Raw, red coffee cherries on a coffee tree branch

Where did coffee originate?

Writing focus 15.3 Note-making ➜

The word “coffee” comes from Kaffa, a region in central Ethiopia where coffee beans originated (Figure 15.3.4). According to traditional accounts, coffee was discovered when a goatherd named Kaldi noticed his goats became energetic after eating red berries from a plant. By the fifteenth century, coffee had spread across the Red Sea to the Arabian Peninsula, especially to Yemen, where it was first cultivated and traded. From there, coffee spread to Italy by 1600, before reaching the rest of Europe through expanding trade routes.

origin the point or place where something begins, arises or is derived

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Figure 15.3.4 Ethiopian woman preparing coffee for a traditional coffee ceremony

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Coffee and the emergence of cafe culture Cafe culture emerged alongside the spread of coffee as a global commodity and played an important role in shaping economic, social and cultural connections between places. By the seventeenth century, coffee houses had spread to Europe, following expanding trade routes between the Middle East and European port cities (Figure 15.3.5). Cafes opened in major cities such as Venice, London, Paris and Vienna, quickly becoming centres of social and intellectual life. In many European cities, coffee houses were places where merchants, writers, scientists and politicians gathered to exchange ideas, conduct business and discuss current events. As a result, coffee houses were sometimes referred to as “penny universities” because anyone could enter, buy a cup of coffee and participate in discussion. In London, coffee houses became powerful centres of business and trade; for example:

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

coffee house a social space where people gather to drink coffee, exchange ideas and interact

• Lloyd’s Coffeehouse later became Lloyd’s of London • the Baltic Coffeehouse evolved into the East India Company.

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Figure 15.3.5 Nineteenth-century illustration of people enjoying themselves at a cafe in Amsterdam

As European empires expanded, cafe culture spread to colonies in Asia, Africa and the Americas, further increasing global demand for coffee. This demand encouraged the establishment of large-scale coffee plantations and strengthened trade links between producing regions in the Global South and consuming regions in Europe and North America. Over time, coffee houses evolved into modern cafes (Figure 15.3.6), which remain central to urban life today.

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15.3 What are the origins of coffee?

Figure 15.3.6 Degrave St in Melbourne’s CBD is now known as Cafe Lane.

Coffee and conflict

As coffee spread, it was not always welcomed. In parts of the Middle East, coffee was blamed for encouraging political discussion, social unrest and even immoral behaviour. In sixteenth-century Türkiye, the Mufti of Constantinople attempted to ban coffee, with severe punishments for those caught drinking it. Similar bans occurred in Cairo (Egypt) and Mecca (Saudi Arabia). Those caught sipping the forbidden drink were supposedly sewn into leather bags and dumped into the Bosporus Strait. Consumers in Cairo and Mecca also faced prohibitions.

Review 15.3

Online quiz

Knowledge and understanding

Thinking and working geographically

Students can access sample responses and results online

Teachers can go online to assign questions, view results, reports and more!

Knowledge and understanding 1.

Identify the region where coffee is believed to have originated.

Describe how coffee spread seen from Africa to Europe by 1600.

Outline one reason why coffee faced resistance in the Middle East.

Explain why coffee houses became important in European cities.

Listen to the video on “How humanity got hooked on coffee”: http://www.ted.com/talks/jonathan_morris_how_humanity_got_hooked_on_coffee

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Furious 5 for 5 1.

What event is traditionally credited with the discovery of coffee? A. A merchant bringing coffee from the Middle East to Europe B. A farmer discovering coffee beans in a market C. A scientist experimenting with different plants D. A goatherd named Kaldi observing his goats after they ate berries In what way did coffee become popular in the Middle East?

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

A. It was used primarily for medicinal purposes. B. It became a staple in local diets. C. It was introduced by European explorers. D. Its popularity began brewing in the 1450s.

How did coffee houses in Europe contribute to society, despite attempts to ban them? A. They were primarily used for business meetings. B. They served only as places to drink coffee. C. They became places for political gatherings. D. They transformed into social and intellectual centres.

Thinking and working geographically

Working with geographical concepts: Place 1.

Explain how the physical characteristics of Ethiopia made it suitable for coffee cultivation.

Describe how coffee gave cultural and economic meaning to places such as London or Türkiye.

place The concept of place is about the significance of places and what they are like.

Structured response 1.

Women play a crucial role in the global coffee industry, particularly in coffee-growing regions such as Ethiopia. Investigate the role of women in coffee production by completing a structured response. In your response:

➜

a. Outline the types of work women commonly do in coffee production. b. Describe two challenges women face in the coffee industry (e.g. access to land, wages, decision-making). c. Justify one way the coffee industry could be made more equitable for women.

Figure 15.3.7 Woman harvesting crops from an Arabica coffee plantation

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15.4 What do the spatial patterns of production and consumption in the coffee industry reveal?

15.4

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What do the spatial patterns of production and consumption in the coffee industry reveal? Success criteria

In this lesson, you will learn how coffee is produced and consumed around the world, and identify spatial patterns that reveal differences between producing and consuming regions.

❏ I can describe global patterns of coffee production and consumption. ❏ I can explain why coffee is mainly produced in some regions and consumed in others.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Learning intention

Starter activity True or false

Determine if each of the following statements is true or false. 1.

The first coffeehouse in the world was opened in Paris in the early 1600s.

Coffee was first discovered in Ethiopia, where legend says a goatherder named Kaldi noticed his goats becoming energetic after eating coffee cherries.

Coffee was originally consumed as a solid food, often mixed with animal fat, by early African tribes before being brewed as a beverage.

Vietnam is the largest coffee producer in the world, accounting for nearly half of all coffee production globally.

Coffee plants thrive in warm, tropical climates, typically in regions between the tropic of cancer and tropic of Capricorn

Espresso is a type of coffee bean that is darker and stronger than regular coffee beans.

Bean Belt the tropical region between the Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic of Capricorn suitable for coffee cultivation smallholder farm a small-scale agricultural operation

Global patterns of coffee production

Writing focus 15.4 Developing sentences ➜

Although coffee is consumed worldwide, it is produced mainly in countries located in the Bean Belt (Figure 15.4.1), the tropical region between the Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic of Capricorn. This is because coffee thrives in tropical climates with specific temperatures (arabica: 18–22°C; robusta: 22–28°C), consistent rainfall (1500–2000 millimetres per year) and well-drained soil. Coffee is grown on approximately 12.5 million farms across more than 50 countries, mostly in Latin America, Africa and South-East Asia (Figure 15.4.2). These regions are known as less economically developed countries (LEDCs) or developing. Around 95 per cent of coffee farms are smallholder farms (less than 5 hectares), yet they produce about three-quarters of the world’s coffee. Despite this, small farmers often have limited power in global supply chains dominated by large traders and roasters.

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Figure 15.4.1 The “Bean Belt” comprises several countries in Latin America, Africa and South-East Asia.

12 million t

Europe Oceania North America

10 million t

Africa

8 million t

Asia

6 million t

4 million t

South America

2 million t

1961

1970

1980

1990

2000

2010

2023

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Figure 15.4.2 Coffee production by region, 1961–2023

Source: Our World in Data

The world’s top coffee producers

Although more than 70 countries produce coffee, most of the world’s supply comes from just a handful of countries. By 2024, the top five producers – Brazil, Vietnam, Colombia, Indonesia and Ethiopia – accounted for most of the global production (Figure 15.4.3). Brazil is the world’s largest producer, supplying around 35 to 40 per cent of global coffee, or about 60 million bags annually. Its climate, large-scale farms and efficient production methods make it a global coffee powerhouse. Vietnam is the second-largest producer, specialising in robusta coffee, which is more

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15.4 What do the spatial patterns of production and consumption in the coffee industry reveal?

heat-tolerant and contains higher caffeine levels. Government reforms in the 1990s led to rapid growth in coffee production. Colombia is famous for producing arabica coffee only, supported by favourable highland climates and strong branding.

505

Coffee production

10.5 million tonnes

by country in 2024 Global coffee production increased by 4% from 2023 to 2024.

of global coffee bean production

38%

2% Mexico

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Global patterns of coffee consumption

ORDEM E P

ROG RES SO

Brazil

11% Coffee consumption is highest in developed Rest of the world Vietnam regions, including the United States, Europe and Australia. These regions have strong cafe 4% cultures, urban lifestyles and high disposable Colombia 6% Uganda 3% Indonesia incomes. Europe is the largest consuming Peru 4% 5% continent (Table 15.4.1), with countries such as Ethiopia 3% India Honduras Luxemburg, Finland and Sweden leading the world in per capita consumption. Luxembourg leads the world with 5.31 cups per day per person, far ahead of larger economies. Finland and Sweden, long known for their strong Figure 15.4.3 The 10 largest producers of unroasted (green) coffee coffee cultures, follow closely behind. All the beans and their share of global coffee production in 2024 top 10 countries are European, reflecting both Source: US Department of Agriculture historical preferences and high purchasing power. Globally, coffee consumption roughly matches production at around 170 million consumption the 60-kilogram bags per year. In the United States alone, more than 400 million cups use of resources to fulfill present needs of coffee are consumed daily, making it the largest single national market. These and desires consumption patterns demonstrate the strong demand in developed countries that per capita sustains the international trade in coffee. consumption

17%

➜

average consumption per person

Table 15.4.1 Which country consumes the most coffee? Source: Visual Capitalist Rank Country

Daily coffee Lifetime consumption per consumption capita (cups) (cups)

Price per cup ($)

Lifetime spending ($)

Luxembourg

5.31

118,227

3.60

425,618

Finland

3.77

83,939

4.00

335,756

Sweden

2.59

58,612

3.70

216,863

Norway

2.57

58,159

4.40

255,900

Austria

2.03

45,198

3.30

149,153

Denmark

2.04

44,676

5.40

241,250

Switzerland

1.87

42,318

5.00

211,591

Netherlands

1.79

39,854

3.10

123,548

Greece

1.71

37,449

3.10

116,092

Germany

1.61

35,259

3.10

109,303

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Review 15.4 Knowledge and understanding

Online quiz

Thinking and working geographically

Students can access sample responses and results online

Teachers can go online to assign questions, view results, reports and more!

Knowledge and understanding

Identify two regions with the highest coffee consumption.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

1. 2.

Describe, using geographical information, the Bean Belt.

Describe the world’s largest coffee producing countries globally.

Explain why coffee production is concentrated in specific parts of the world.

Explain, using examples, how income and lifestyle influence consumption patterns.

Thinking and working geographically

Working with geographical concepts: Interconnection 1.

Explain how coffee production and consumption patterns demonstrate global interconnection.

Source analysis

Use Figure 15.4.1 to answer these questions. 2.

Identify one country located within the Bean Belt.

Explain why coffee production is limited to this zone.

Explain how physical geography influences economic activity.

interconnection The concept of interconnection emphasises that no object of geographical study can be viewed in isolation.

Use Figure 15.4.2 to answer these questions. 5.

Identify one region where coffee production has increased over time.

Describe one trend shown in the graph.

Explain one reason why coffee production levels may fluctuate over time.

Use Figure 15.4.3 to answer these questions. 8.

Identify the world’s largest coffee-producing country.

Extract the approximate percentage of global coffee production accounted for by Brazil.

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Figure 15.4.4 Brazilian coffee farm

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15.5 Why do a select few producers and varieties dominate the global coffee industry?

15.5

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Why do a select few producers and varieties dominate the global coffee industry? Success criteria

In this lesson, you will learn about the world’s leading coffee-producing countries and explain why some countries dominate global coffee production.

❏ I can apply geographical concepts to coffee production. ❏ I can explain why countries such as Brazil, Vietnam and Colombia produce so much coffee.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Learning intention

Starter activity

Literacy challenge!

Use the key terms below to fill in the gaps in the sentences.

2024, Colombia, Latin America, 70, Brazil, International, Ethiopia, 60 kilogram, LEDCs

According to the _________ Coffee Organization, a total of 169.6 million _______ bags of coffee were produced worldwide in _____.

Most of this coffee is produced in _____ _______, Africa and South-East Asia. These regions are known as less economically developed countries (_______) or developing. More than ___ countries produce coffee, but most of the global output comes from just the top five producers: ______, Vietnam, _______, Indonesia and _______.

The scale of production

Figure 15.5.3 A group of Colombian farmers working at a coffee farm ➜

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Figure 15.5.2 A coffee farm up high in the fog in Figure 15.5.1 A sprawling, vibrant green coffee Da Lat, Vietnam plantation in rural Brazil

Writing focus 15.5 Creating topic sentences ➜

In many cities around the world, there’s a cafe on every corner, so it comes as no surprise that coffee is one of the globes’ top commodities. As coffee is the third most consumed beverage globally, after water and tea, coffee beans are in high demand almost everywhere. The top producing nations each produce billions of kilograms of coffee beans that find their way into the hands of eager consumers.

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arabica highquality coffee bean grown at higher elevations

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robusta hardy coffee bean with higher caffeine content

Brazil is the world’s largest coffee producer. Together, Brazil and Vietnam produce more than half of the world’s coffee annually. These two countries are also the largest exporters of coffee. However, the two countries produce different varieties of coffee. Brazil primarily produces arabica coffee, whereas Vietnam specialises in the more heat-tolerant robusta variety. Colombia, the third-largest producer, is one of the few countries in the world that grows only arabica coffee, thanks to favourable climatic conditions. Overall, five of the 10 largest coffee producers are from South and Central America, highlighting both the importance and popularity of coffee from these regions. Table 15.5.1 summarises the reasons why Brazil, Vietnam and Colombia dominate coffee production.

Table 15.5.1 Comparing coffee production in Brazil, Vietnam and Colombia Country

Why coffee grows well here (environmental factors)

How coffee is produced (political and economic factors)

Why production and trade volumes are so high

Brazil

• Located within the

• Uses large commercial

• Produces around 35–40%

• Large areas of flat or gently sloping land (Figure 15.5.4)

• Coffee cherries are often sun-dried, reducing processing costs

Bean Belt, with warm temperatures and reliable rainfall

• Lower elevations are

suitable for growing arabica coffee on a large scale

Vietnam

plantations and mechanised farming, which increases efficiency

• Well-developed roads,

ports and export systems support trade

• Tropical climate with

• Mostly smallholder

• Lower elevations are ideal for robusta coffee, which is more heat-tolerant

• Government reforms in the 1990s encouraged rapid expansion of coffee farming

high rainfall and warm temperatures

farms, but with very high productivity

• Fertile volcanic soils support • Focus on robusta, which high crop yields

Colombia

• Mountainous landscape with high elevations (600–2300 m)

• Cooler temperatures and consistent rainfall

is hardy, fast-growing and easier to manage

• Large-scale farming lowers costs per unit

• Strong links to global

markets make exporting fast and reliable

• Brazil’s 60 kg coffee bag has become the global standard

• World’s largest producer of robusta coffee

• Supplies about 40% of global robusta beans

• Lower production costs

allow Vietnam to sell coffee cheaply on global markets

• Strong focus on exports to

meet international demand

• Coffee grown mainly by

• Produces only premium

• Beans are hand-picked,

• High global demand for

smallholder farmers

improving quality and flavour

• Ideal conditions for growing • Strong marketing and high-quality arabica coffee

of the world’s coffee (about 60 million bags each year)

national branding (e.g. Juan Valdez)

arabica coffee quality coffee

• Strong reputation allows Colombia to maintain stable export markets and higher prices

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15.5 Why do a select few producers and varieties dominate the global coffee industry?

70°

VENEZUELA

60°

50°

40°

FRENCH GUIANA

SURINAME

COLOMBIA

GUYANA

509

ATLANTIC OCEAN

Negro

0°

Manaus

Amazo nas

Belém

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Amazonas

São Luis

Fortaleza

Teresina

Natal

Recife

uaia

A ra g

São Fran cisc o

Xing

BRAZIL

PERU

Tocantins

Rio Branco

10°

Maceió

Salvador

Brasilia

BOLIVIA

20°

Belo Horizonte

Vitória

ran

Campo Grande

PARAGUAY

CHILE

Curitiba

PACIFIC OCEAN

Rio de Janeiro

São Paulo

7000m

6000m

Santos

4000m 2500m

ARGENTINA

30°

LEGEND

1500m

Pôrto Alegre

500m 50m

1000 km

➜

Figure 15.5.4 Brazilian topographic map showing neighbouring countries in South America as well as lines of latitude and longitude

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VENEZUELA COLOMBIA

SURINAME GUYANA

ATLANTIC OCEAN

Negro Amazon

Manaus

Belém

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Amazon

Ma dei r

Fortaleza

Bahia Cerrado

BRAZIL

A ra g

PERU

u a ia

Tapajós

X in g

Tocantins

Bahia Cerrado

BOLIVIA

São F ran

Rondonia (Robusta)

Bahia Planalto

Chapada de Minas

Brasilia

Cerrado

Sao Paula Centro Deste

Mogiana

Conilon Capixaba

Belo Horizonte

Montanhas de Minas

Norte Pioneiro de Paraná

ran

PACIFIC OCEAN

PARAGUAY

Rio de Janeiro

São Paulo

Sulde Minas

LEGEND

Porto Alegre

ARGENTINA

URUGUAY

Coffee zones

1000 km

➜

Figure 15.5.5 Coffee production zones in Brazil

Review 15.5

Online quiz

Recife

co cis

Knowledge and understanding

Thinking and working geographically

Students can access sample responses and results online

Teachers can go online to assign questions, view results, reports and more!

Knowledge and understanding 1.

Identify the world’s largest coffee-producing country.

Outline why Vietnam specialises in robusta coffee.

Explain how political and economic factors contribute to the scale of coffee production in Brazil, Vietnam and Colombia.

Describe how Colombia’s mountainous landscape influences the type of coffee grown.

Discuss whether reliance on coffee production is an advantage or a risk for producing countries.

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15.5 Why do a select few producers and varieties dominate the global coffee industry?

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Thinking and working geographically Working with geographical concepts: Interconnection 1.

With reference to the lesson, source material and online research, explain how the concepts of place, environment and interconnection have contributed to Brazil’s role as a powerhouse global coffee producer.

Research and reflection

Conduct online research on arabica and robust coffee varieties to complete the table.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

interconnection The concept of interconnection emphasises that no object of geographical study can be viewed in isolation.

Feature

Arabica

Robusta

Flavour

Caffeine content Typical altitude

Climate tolerance

Resistance to pests and disease Labour intensity

Yield per harvest

a. Explain why arabica coffee is generally more expensive for consumers. b. Identify one reason why farmers might choose to grow robusta instead of arabica. c. Explain how consumer demand influences which type of coffee beans are grown globally.

➜

Figure 15.5.6 Raw coffee beans

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15.6

What makes the coffee supply chain unique? Success criteria

In this lesson, you will learn how coffee moves through a global supply chain, and how different sectors of the economy, technologies and transport networks work together to produce and deliver coffee to consumers worldwide.

❏ I can identify the key stages in the coffee supply chain. ❏ I can explain how different sectors of the economy are involved in coffee production. ❏ I can describe the role of technology and global transport networks in the coffee industry.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Learning intention

supply chain the sequence of processes involved in producing and distributing a product from raw materials to consumer global trade network the systems of transport, ports, shipping routes and digital technologies that connect producers and consumers worldwide

➜

Writing focus 15.6 Appositives

Starter activity Jeopardy! 1.

The table shows the answers to some important questions. You have five minutes to create possible questions that they answer. For example, for Question 1, How many coffee producing countries are there? 1. 70

2. Ever Given

3. Bean Belt

4. 35-40%

5. LEDCs

6. Arabica

7. Kaldi

8. Brazil, Vietnam, Colombia

9. Luxembourg

Create a question and answer of your own that didn’t feature in this quiz!

The coffee supply chain

Coffee is a globally traded commodity that relies on a highly interconnected supply chain. The coffee supply chain is a complex, global journey from farm to cup, involving growing, harvesting, processing, milling, exporting/trading, roasting, packaging and, finally, retailing/brewing for consumers (this process is shown in Table 15.6.1 and Figure 15.6.11). From the growing of coffee plants to the moment coffee is consumed, many people, places and technologies are involved in a global trade network. Along the way, coffee interacts with a range of important people, including farmers, co-ops, processors, exporters, importers, roasters and retailers, with stages like transport and logistics connecting these steps, often across continents, impacting quality and price. The coffee supply chain is unique for several reasons:

1. Coffee is grown in specific climatic zones in the “Bean Belt”. 2. Production often occurs in lower-income countries, while consumption is highest in wealthier nations. 3. Coffee passes through multiple stages and economic sectors before reaching consumers by relying on technologies and transport networks. 4. It is highly vulnerable to any disruption in its global supply chain.

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Table 15.6.1 A typical coffee supply chain from farm to cup 1 Growing

➜

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Plants take anywhere from four to seven years to produce their first harvest. They then grow fruit for around 25 years.

Figure 15.6.1 Sowing the land at a farm in Colombia

2 Picking

The fruit of the coffee plant is the coffee cherry, containing two beans within. Ripened cherries are harvested either by hand or machine.

➜

Figure 15.6.2 Collecting coffee cherries from a coffee plant, Ethiopia

3 Processing

Coffee cherries are processed either in a traditional “dry” method using the sun or “wet” method using water and machinery. This removes the outer fruit encasing the sought-after green beans.

➜

Figure 15.6.3 Coffee cherries being washed during the wet processing stage

4 Milling

The green coffee beans are hulled, cleaned, sorted and (optionally) graded.

➜

Figure 15.6.4 Women sorting coffee beans on a coffee farm, Ethiopia

5 Packaging

Any imperfect or somehow ruined beans are discarded, and the remaining roasted beans are packaged together by type in standardised coffee sacks

➜

Figure 15.6.5 Standardised coffee sacks being stored in a warehouse ready for shipping Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78802-1 • (03) 8671 1400

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6 Shipping

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Beans are shipped both domestically and internationally. Bulk shipments go to retailers, coffee shops and, in some cases, direct to consumer.

➜

Figure 15.6.6 Container ship leaving the port of Hamburg to transport coffee beans around the world

7 Roasting

Green beans are industrially roasted, becoming darker, oilier and tasty. Different temperatures and heat duration impact the final colour and flavour, with some preferring light roasts to dark roasts.

➜

Figure 15.6.7 Dark roasted coffee beans

8 Grinding

Roasted beans are ground up in order to better extract their flavours, either by machine or by hand. The preferred fineness depends on the darkness of the roast and the brewing method, such as espresso or filter.

➜

Figure 15.6.8 Grinding freshly roasted coffee in an espresso machine

9 Brewing

Water is added to the coffee grounds in a variety of methods. Some involve water being passed or pressured through the grounds (espresso, drip) while others mix the water and grounds (French press, Turkish coffee).

➜

Figure 15.6.9 Barista expertly prepares pour-over coffee

➜

Figure 15.6.10 Coffee ready to be consumed

10 Drinking

Liquid coffee is ready to be enjoyed! One average cup requires 70 roasted beans.

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➜

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15.6 What makes the coffee supply chain unique?

Figure 15.6.11 How coffee works!

Review 15.6

Online quiz

Knowledge and understanding

Thinking and working geographically

Students can access sample responses and results online

Teachers can go online to assign questions, view results, reports and more!

Knowledge and understanding 1.

Watch the video “The life cycle of a cup of coffee”: https://cambridge.edu.au/redirect/11896.

Complete a “stop and jot” activity summary from the video, using the following scaffold: a. Summarise the key issues/details. b. Summarise what you found interesting. c. Summarise what you agree and disagree with.

Identify three examples of technology in the coffee supply chain.

Identify an example of a step involved in the primary sector of the coffee supply chain.

Describe one important geographical vocation involved in the coffee supply chain.

Explain how one stage of the coffee supply chain would have a negative impact on the environment.

Explain how transport networks are essential to the global coffee industry.

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Thinking and working geographically Working with geographical concepts: Interconnection

As mentioned in Chapter 13, in 2021, the container ship Ever Given became stuck in the Suez Canal, blocking one of the world’s most important shipping routes for six days. This delayed global trade, including food and agricultural products. Answer the questions using your knowledge of the coffee supply chain.

interconnection The concept of interconnection emphasises that no object of geographical study can be viewed in isolation.

Identify which stage(s) of the coffee supply chain would be most affected by the Suez Canal blockage.

Describe one impact this disruption could have had on: coffee retailers OR coffee consumers.

Explain how the blockage demonstrated the importance of the concept of interconnection to the coffee supply chain.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES 1.

Scenario: Supply chain disruption

A major coffee-producing country experiences:

• prolonged drought • increased shipping costs • a delay at a major international port.

In pairs, choose one disruption, and complete the table and reflection questions.

Stage of supply chain affected

What happens at this stage?

Who is impacted?

Which group is most affected by this disruption: farmers, transport companies or consumers?

Explain why disruptions to global supply chains can lead to higher prices.

Suggest one strategy the coffee industry could use to reduce the impact of this disruption in the future.

➜

Figure 15.6.12 The Suez Canal Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78802-1 • (03) 8671 1400

15.7 Country and Culture: How are Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples connected to economies on a local, national and global scale?

Country and Culture: How are Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples connected to economies on a local, national and global scale?

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

15.7

517

Learning intention

Success criteria

In this lesson, you will learn how Aboriginal, and Torres Strait Islander Peoples connect to local, national and international economies, using the Australian coffee industry alongside Indigenous bush foods and knowledge systems.

❏ I can describe how Aboriginal, and Torres Strait Islander Peoples participate in modern economic activities. ❏ I can explain how Indigenous knowledge of Country and plants contributes to industries such as food, tourism and hospitality. ❏ I can compare global coffee production with Indigenous-led food and cultural enterprises in Australia.

Starter activity

Visible thinking routine: Think, pair, share

When you buy a coffee in Australia, whose knowledge, land and labour might be involved? 1.

Think: Write one idea individually.

Pair: Discuss your idea with a partner.

Share: Record key ideas from peers in the class.

Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander economies

➜

Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples have participated in sophisticated economic systems for over 60,000 years, long before European colonisation or modern Writing global trade networks. These economies were based on deep knowledge of Country, focus 15.7 including seasonal movement, sustainable harvesting, trade between language Appositives groups, and careful management of resources (Figure 15.7.1). Today, Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander economies continue to operate and evolve. Indigenous Peoples now participate in local, national and international markets through food and agriculture, hospitality and cafes, cultural tourism and art, design and education. These modern enterprises often combine traditional knowledge with contemporary business models, allowing Indigenous communities to participate in the economy while maintaining strong cultural connections to Country. Figure 15.7.1 An Aboriginal man performing a medicine ritual ➜

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Indigenous participation in Australia’s economy

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Indigenous businesses play an increasingly important role in the national economy. According to the Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS), there are approximately 16,000 Indigenous-owned businesses in Australia, generating over $1 billion in annual revenue. Census data shows the number of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander business owner/managers has increased significantly in recent decades, highlighting growing participation in Australia’s economic systems (Table 15.7.1 and Figure 15.7.2). Indigenous agriculture alone generates around $185 million each year, supporting employment, regional development and culture. Indigenous economies are not separate from Australia’s economy – they are a vital and growing part of it. Table 15.7.1 Indigenous businesses are concentrated in regional parts of the eastern states of Australia Source: The Indigenous Business Factsheet

State/Territory

Region

Indigenous business (count)

% of total

NSW

Greater Sydney

878

NSW

Rest of NSW

1,332

VIC

Greater Melbourne

230

VIC

Rest of Vic.

208

QLD

Greater Brisbane

450

QLD

Rest of QLD

1,028

Greater Adelaide

Rest of SA

Greater Perth

298

Rest of WA

381

TAS

Greater Hobart

182

TAS

Rest of Tas.

381

Greater Darwin

Rest of NT

408

ACT

Australian Capital Territory

Total

6,057*

*Indigenous businesses lacking locational information; hence the total of 6,057 in the table is lower than the total count of Indigenous small businesses across Australia as a whole (8,900).

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15.7 Country and Culture: How are Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples connected to economies on a local, national and global scale?

519

NT 382

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

QLD 5,057

WA 1,371

SA 712

NSW 7,153

VIC 2,012

ACT 267

TAS 953

Note: Refers to employed persons 15 years and over. Includes owner managers of incorporated and unincorporated enterprises with/without employees and where the numbers of employees was not stated.

➜

Figure 15.7.2 Number of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people who manage their own business Adapted from the Australian Bureau of Statistics website

Coffee in Australia: Connecting local cafes to global systems

Australia’s cafe industry is part of the tertiary (service) sector and operates at multiple economic scales. Coffee is not indigenous to Australia; however, Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples are actively reshaping how coffee is used and understood within Australian society. Indigenous-owned businesses such as Blak Cede Gunyah cafe in Nowra, NSW, use coffee to create jobs, share culture and support communities. Indigenous-run coffee enterprises demonstrate that culture can strengthen social and economic sustainability.

Figure 15.7.3 Aboriginal waitresses greet customers at their contemporary Sydney cafe ➜

The contribution of Australia’s coffee industry can be seen on three scales. Locally, cafes provide jobs, training and community spaces. Nationally, coffee brands supply products across Australia. Globally, coffee relies on international supply chains, trade routes and imports. The specific contributions of Indigenous-owned cafes and coffee brands include offering employment and skills development; providing platforms for storytelling, visibility and cultural pride; and a way to support economic self-determination and wellbeing.

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Review 15.7 Online quiz

Knowledge and understanding

Thinking and working geographically

Students can access sample responses and results online

Teachers can go online to assign questions, view results, reports and more!

Knowledge and understanding

Identify how long Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples have participated in economic systems.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

1. 2.

Identify how many Indigenous-owned businesses operate in Australia today.

Outline two features of traditional Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander economies before European colonisation.

Describe what is meant by “knowledge of Country” in relation to Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander economies.

Using an example from the lesson, explain how Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples connect to economies at local, national and global scales.

Thinking and working geographically

Working with geographical concepts: Interconnection

Respond to the following question as a PEEL paragraph, or as a pictorial/visual mind map. 1.

Explain how buying coffee in Australia connects people to other countries and to Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples.

interconnection The concept of interconnection emphasises that no object of geographical study can be viewed in isolation.

Mini geographical investigation in teams! 2.

Complete an inquiry on the Indigenous enterprise called Blak Cede Gunyah cafe (Nowra, NSW) using secondary research. Gather information on the four main themes in the table and present your findings to the class.

Inquiry question: How does Blak Cede Gunyah cafe connect Indigenous knowledge and culture to local and national economies? Part A: Business overview

Part B: Local economic connections

1. Name the business.

1. How does Blak Cede Gunyah cafe support employment and training for Aboriginal women?

2. State the location (town/city and state).

3. What type of business is it?

4. Who established the business and why?

2. Explain how the cafe contributes to the local economy and community wellbeing in Nowra.

Part C: Culture, knowledge and Country

Part D: National economic connections

1. Identify two ways Indigenous knowledge or culture is represented in the café.

1. Explain how Blak Cede Gunyah cafe supports other Indigenous-owned businesses.

2. Explain why the cafe chooses to use native ingredients such as wattleseed and finger lime.

2. Describe how awards, media attention or popularity help connect the cafe to the national economy.

3. Describe how food choices can be used to make cultural or environmental statements.

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15.8 Why does Australia consume so much coffee but produce so little?

15.8

521

Why does Australia consume so much coffee but produce so little? Success criteria

In this lesson, you will learn why coffee production in Australia is small-scale and limited to specific regions, using Mareeba and the Atherton Tablelands in Queensland as a case study.

❏ I can identify where coffee is grown in Australia. ❏ I can explain why coffee production is limited to specific regions. ❏ I can describe how climate and environmental conditions influence agricultural production. ❏ I can explain coffee-growing patterns using the concept of terroir.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Learning intention

Starter activity Six billion cups

Australians drink around six billion cups of coffee each year!

Explain two possible reasons why most of this coffee is made from imported beans rather than from Australian-grown beans.

Australia: A high-value coffee-consumer market

Australia is one of the world’s largest and most sophisticated coffee-consumer markets that operates at a local, national and global scale. In 2024, the Australian coffee industry generated approximately $11 billion, driven mainly by cafe sales, roasted coffee, and specialty coffee (Figure 15.8.1) and third-wave coffee culture.

➜

Coffee is now Australia’s most popular drink, with around 48 per cent of the population consuming coffee regularly. There are over 55,000 cafes across the country, particularly concentrated in major cities such as Melbourne, which is often described as a global coffee capital. Despite this high level of consumption, Australia produces very little coffee domestically.

Figure 15.8.1 Creating coffee latte art

specialty coffee highquality coffee that is carefully grown, processed and roasted, often with a focus on flavour, traceability, ethical production and sustainability rather than mass production third-wave coffee a movement in coffee culture that treats coffee as an artisanal product, emphasising where it is grown, how it is produced, the skill of the barista, and the unique flavour characteristics of different regions

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Import dependence: Where does Australian coffee come from?

• In 2024, Australia imported approximately 102,000 tonnes of green coffee beans. • In contrast, Australian farms produced only around 500 tonnes of green beans

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

➜

Writing focus 15.8 Conjunctions

Australia experiences import dependence, relying heavily on imported coffee beans to meet demand. The following data highlights Australia’s role as a consumer and smallscale premium processing nation, rather than a major producer:

import dependence reliance on overseas producers to meet domestic demand

•

volcanic soil soil formed from volcanic ash and lava that is rich in minerals, drains well and supports healthy plant growth, making it ideal for crops such as coffee

•

terroir the combination of climate, soil and location that influences how a crop grows and tastes

• •

in 2024. Coffee imports were valued at approximately $1.19 billion, compared with exports of just $112 million. By weight, Australia imports more than 200 times the amount of coffee it produces. Major supplier countries include Brazil and Colombia, which are located within the global Bean Belt and can produce coffee at much larger scales and lower costs. Fewer than 50 coffee growers operate nationally, most running small, family-owned farms.

Why is coffee grown in only a few places in Australia?

As we have learned previously, coffee requires very specific environmental conditions, including warm temperatures year-round, reliable rainfall, suitable light and growing seasons, and well-drained soils. Globally, these conditions are found within the Bean Belt, between the Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic of Capricorn. Most of Australia lies outside this zone, meaning only a small number of regions can replicate these conditions. Additionally, Australia’s relatively flat topography (which differs from the highland regions in Ethiopian, Colombian, Rwandan and Indonesian coffee-growing regions) makes it difficult to mirror the climatic conditions and flavour production found in world-class plantations. Overall, Australia has limited suitable land, coupled with high labour costs and too much competition from lower-cost international producers. As a result, coffee growing in Australia is geographically concentrated in a select few regions, rather than widespread (as shown in Figure 15.8.2).

Mareeba and the Atherton Tablelands: Australia’s premier coffee region

Australia’s largest and most established coffee-growing region is the Atherton Tablelands in Far North Queensland, centred around the town of Mareeba (shown in Figure 15.8.2). This region is suitable for coffee because it has a tropical to subtropical climate, distinct wet and dry seasons, volcanic soils that drain well and a moderate altitude compared to surrounding lowlands. Together, these factors create the right terroir for coffee production. Despite this, some smaller coffee-growing regions have emerged, as their localised climatic conditions (mirroring those found in Far North Queensland) allow coffee to grow successfully. These include, south-east Queensland, north-east New South Wales (Figure 15.8.3), Margaret River and Carnarvon in Western Australia, and Mildura in Victoria. Australian-grown coffee is known for flavour profiles including chocolate, berries and nuts, reflecting its unique terroir.

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15.8 Why does Australia consume so much coffee but produce so little?

523

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Mareeba

Proserpine

Tropic of Capricorn

Tropical coffee

Yeppoon

Bundaberg

Carnarvon

Subtropical coffee

Nambour

Alstonville

Comboyne

Bunbury

Margaret River

Mildura

Berry

LEGEND

Current coffee production area

Potential coffee production area

1000

➜

Figure 15.8.2 Current and future potential coffee production areas in Australia, as presented in the Australian Coffee Growers’ Manual (AgriFutures publication no. 24 130; project no. PRO 017729). © 2024 AgriFutures Australia.

➜

Figure 15.8.3 A coffee plantation near Byron Bay, New South Wales

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Review 15.8 Knowledge and understanding

Online quiz

Thinking and working geographically

Students can access sample responses and results online

Teachers can go online to assign questions, view results, reports and more!

Knowledge and understanding

Approximately how many cups of coffee do Australians drink each year?

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

1. 2.

Approximately how many coffee growers operate in Australia today?

Recall the approximate value of Australia’s coffee industry in 2024.

Identify the percentage of coffee consumed in Australia that is grown domestically.

Identify two countries that are major suppliers of coffee beans to Australia.

Describe the location of Australia’s main coffee-growing region.

Explain why Australia relies on imported coffee beans despite having a large coffee industry?

Watch the video “Bid to boost Australia’s homegrown coffee industry” and summarise three key points: https://cambridge.edu.au/redirect/11897

Thinking and working geographically

place The concept of place is about the significance of places and what they are like.

Working with geographical concepts: Place 1.

Describe how terroir influences coffee production in Mareeba and the Atherton Tablelands.

Analysing climate data 2.

Coffee grows successfully in only a few regions of Australia because it requires specific climatic conditions. In this activity, you will use real climate data to investigate why the Atherton Tablelands (Mareeba) are suitable for coffee production and compare this with your local area. a. Access climate data. Use one of the following climate data websites:

• Bureau of Meteorology (BOM) • Meteoblue • WeatherSpark.

b. Record climate data. Complete the table using annual averages.

Climate factor

Mareeba / Atherton Tablelands

Your hometown

Mean annual temperature (°C) Summer temperature range Winter temperature range Annual rainfall (mm)

Wet and dry seasons Frost risk

c. Describe the climate.

Answer the questions using your data. 3.

Describe the annual temperature pattern in Mareeba.

Describe the rainfall pattern in Mareeba, including any wet or dry seasons.

Identify two climatic similarities or differences between Mareeba and your hometown.

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15.9 How did the COVID-19 pandemic disrupt the global flow of coffee?

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How did the COVID-19 pandemic disrupt the global flow of coffee? Success criteria

In this lesson, you will learn how a global shock, such as the COVID-19 pandemic, can disrupt the production, trade and consumption of coffee, revealing the vulnerability of interconnected global supply chains.

❏ I can describe how COVID-19 disrupted the global coffee supply chain. ❏ I can explain how changes in transport, labour, and consumption affected coffee prices. ❏ I can explain the impacts of a global disruption on trade, using data. ❏ I can apply the concept of interconnection to a real-world case study.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Learning intention

Starter activity Cafe closures

During the COVID-19 pandemic, cafes were closed for long periods of time.

Choose one of the following questions. Make one prediction and give one reason for what might happen.

• How might cafe closures in Australia affect coffee farmers in Brazil or Colombia? • How might cafe closures in Australia affect Australian consumers?

Coffee as a globally interconnected industry

Writing focus 15.9 Conjunctions ➜

Coffee is one of the most globally interconnected commodities in the world. Around 25 million smallholder farmers grow coffee, producing approximately 80 per cent of the world’s supply, while an estimated 125 million people worldwide depend on coffee for their livelihoods, from farming and processing to transport, roasting and retail. Because coffee relies on long supply chains (as seen in Lesson 15.6), the COVID-19 pandemic created disruption at every stage of production and trade. Coffee connects farmers, exporters, shipping companies, roasters, cafes and consumers across multiple countries. When one part of this system failed, the impacts were felt throughout the entire supply chain. The COVID-19 pandemic was not only a health crisis, but it was also a global economic shock. As borders closed, workplaces shut down and transport systems were disrupted, global trade slowed dramatically (Figure 15.9.1). Products that rely on complex, international supply chains, such as coffee, were particularly affected.

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Social distancing

81%

Travel restrictions

81%

Partial lockdown

75%

Curfew

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

38%

Full lockdown

31%

No specific measures

25%

50%

75%

100%

➜

Figure 15.9.1 Impact of COVID-19 on the global coffee sector Source: International Coffee Organization, 2020

Disruptions to coffee production during COVID-19

According to the International Coffee Organization, COVID-19 affected coffee production in two major ways:

• Labour availability declined: Travel restrictions prevented seasonal and migrant

workers from reaching farms, lockdowns reduced the movement of workers within countries, and illness and quarantine reduced available labour. As coffee harvesting is labour-intensive, particularly for Arabica beans, some crops were left unharvested, reducing global supply.

➜

Figure 15.9.2 During the COVID-19 pandemic, hundreds of coffee pickers wore masks and kept their distance while picking the golden beans in the plantations of northern Nicaragua, an agricultural country struggling to keep its economy going during the pandemic

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• Transport and logistics breakdown: Ports

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

operated at reduced capacity, shipping container shortages emerged, and freight costs increased significantly. The ICO reported that internal logistics networks and export systems were disrupted, leading to delayed shipments and higher transaction costs. Even when coffee was harvested, it could not always reach processing nations like Australia efficiently.

➜

While supply chains were under pressure, consumer behaviour in Australia changed rapidly. According to Statista 2026, during Figure 15.9.3 The Port of Oakland operated at reduced capacity, an effect 2020, at-home consumption of coffee beans of China’s lockdowns during the COVID-19 pandemic. increased by 49 per cent, premium instant coffee consumption rose by 48 per cent and standard instant coffee consumption rose by 47 per cent. This data shows a sharp shift away from cafes toward home-based consumption, particularly during lockdown periods. Due to government restrictions and social distancing, cafes and baristas were among the first businesses to close during lockdowns. While some cafes adapted through takeaway, delivery and online sales, others were unable to survive prolonged restrictions, resulting in reduced income for cafe workers and owners.

Table 15.9.1 Coffee prices in Australia before, during and after COVID-19 Before COVID-19

During COVID-19

After COVID-19

• Coffee prices were • Shipping costs increased. • Supply-chain pressures continued. relatively stable. • Labour and operating • Climate-related events (e.g. 2021 frost in Brazil) reduced yields. • A typical cafe coffee costs rose. cost $4 to $4.50. • Supply delays became • Demand for specialty coffee common. • A typical cafe coffee cost $4.50 to $5.

remained strong. • A typical cafe coffee in cities like Sydney and Melbourne rose to around $5.50 or more.

The rise of at-home coffee culture

COVID-19 accelerated a major technological shift in coffee consumption as more people were directed to purchasing coffee beans online and learning to make their own coffee at home. One major change was the rapid expansion in specialty and “prosumer” coffee equipment. Australian company Breville reported $1.53 billion in revenue, with strong growth in coffee machines, with consumers turning to espresso machines, coffee grinders and online tutorials via social media platforms like YouTube and Instagram.

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Figure 15.9.5 Coffee making at home

Figure 15.9.6 Mobile coffee trucks were sometimes able to open for business during the pandemic when cafes could not. ➜

➜

Figure 15.9.4 The pandemic led to a surge in purchases of at-home coffee machines.

➜

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Chapter 15 Case study: How personal, cultural and technological interconnections shape the global flow of coffee

Review 15.9

Knowledge and understanding

Online quiz

Thinking and working geographically

Students can access sample responses and results online

Teachers can go online to assign questions, view results, reports and more!

Knowledge and understanding 1.

Approximately how many people worldwide depend on coffee for their livelihood?

Outline two ways COVID-19 disrupted coffee production.

Describe how at-home coffee consumption changed in Australia during early 2020.

Explain how transport disruptions affected coffee trade.

Describe how cafe coffee prices in Australia changed during and after COVID-19.

Thinking and working geographically

Working with geographical concepts: Place

place The concept of place is about the significance of places and what they are like.

Using the concepts of interconnection, change and scale, write a short paragraph explaining why the COVID-19 pandemic exposed the vulnerability of the global coffee industry.

The COVID-19 pandemic disrupted coffee production, transport and consumption across the world. Complete the table to show how events in one place affected people and businesses elsewhere.

Place

Event during COVID-19

Impact on another place

Coffee farm (e.g. Brazil or Colombia) Global shipping route Australian cafe

Australian consumer

Geographical inquiry 3.

Create a labelled flow diagram showing where COVID-19 disrupted the coffee supply chain. Include labour, transport and consumption.

Using the consumption and price data, explain why coffee prices continued to rise even after lockdowns ended.

Discuss how technology helped consumers and businesses adapt to coffee shortages and cafe closures. Use Breville or home-brewing examples in your response. Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78802-1 • (03) 8671 1400

15.10 How is climate change reshaping where coffee can be grown?

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How is climate change reshaping where coffee can be grown? Success criteria

In this lesson, you will learn how climate change is altering where coffee can be grown, reshaping global production patterns and affecting farmers and consumers at local, national and global scales.

❏ I can describe how climate change affects coffee-growing conditions ❏ I can explain why suitable coffee-growing land is shrinking ❏ I can explain impacts on farmers and consumers using evidence from sources.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Learning intention

Starter activity Coffee supply 1.

Outline one change in the Australian coffee industry due to the COVID-19 pandemic.

Outline two important steps in the coffee supply chain.

Outline the importance of the Suez Canal for global trade.

Coffee farming in a changing climate Coffee, like all agricultural crops, is climate sensitive, particularly arabica coffee, which dominates global consumption. Even small changes in temperature or rainfall (shown in Figure 15.10.1) can reduce yields, affect flavour and increase plant stress. Recent research from the International Coffee Organization suggests that climate change is rapidly shrinking the areas where coffee can be grown. A major study estimates that by 2050, the amount of land suitable for coffee production (Figure 15.10.3) could decline by up to 50 per cent.

How climate affects coffee

Rising temperatures Heat stress can lead to stunted growth and reduced yields.

Erratic rainfall

Irregular rainfall patterns, causing droughts or floods, lead to water shortages or excess moisture, both of which harm coffee crop.

Pests and diseases Warmer temperatures create favourable conditions for pests and diseases that attack coffee plants.

climate sensitive being strongly affected by changes in temperature, rainfall, or extreme weather events

Quality of coffee beans

Climate change can alter the delicate balance of soil nutrients and impact the flavour profiles of the coffee beans.

➜

Figure 15.10.1 Some of the impacts of climate change on coffee

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Due to climate change, existing coffee-growing areas are projected to shrink

60% Brazil

70% South-East Asia

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48% Central America

Proportion of current areas suitable for arabica bean production by 2050

➜

Figure 15.10.2 Rising temperature and erratic weather patterns are forcing coffee growers to change the way they farm, leading to reduced crop yields and concerns with quality. One example is coffee leaf rust, visible here on leaves from a coffee farm in India.

Current levels

➜

Figure 15.10.3 Will we run out of coffee?

Coffee farming in a changing climate Climate vs. coffee timeline

Since 1850

Global mean temperature 0.8°C

2050

Total global coffee growing area reduced by 50% Production moving away from the equator and upslope increased deforestation risk

Arabica

2100

4.8°C hotter Wild coffee extinct

CO2

Risk of deforestation as coffee migrates upslope. Biodiversity may be lost, and emissions rise.

Key coffee pests, coffee borer beetle and coffee leaf rust, spread upslope and into new areas.

Robusta

Coffee farming: robusta starting in the lowlands and arabica starting in the highlands move upslope and away from the equator.

What can consumers do to help?

Weather becomes more extreme – worsening drought/heavier downpours and more frequent hot spells impact coffee quality and yields.

Farmers and workers are more exposed to heat-related illness due to rising temperatures and more frequent heatwaves, impacting health and productivity.

Some coffee companies, under pressure from consumers and realising the risks, are beginning to assist smallholders to adapt.

Choose brands that guarantee a fair return to smallholder farmers and their communities, helping them build their capacity to adapt to climate change.

Demand action from companies and governments.

➜

Figure 15.10.4 Coffee farming in a changing climate

Adapted from the Australia Institute

deforestation the permanent removal of trees and forests to use the land for other purposes

Figure 15.10.4 shows how rising temperatures affect coffee over time. Since 1850, global temperatures have increased by approximately 1°C and by 2050, many current coffee-growing regions may no longer be suitable. This is resulting in coffee farms being pushed to higher altitudes, where land is limited. This limited land is causing more widespread deforestation to make way for coffee plantations, further increasing coffee’s environmental impacts (see Chapter 16). Further, climate stress increases pests, disease, and extreme weather risks.

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Table 15.10.1 Climate change and its impacts on coffee production Threats/changes due to climate change

Effect of change

Rising temperatures

• Coffee plants experience • On-farm production,

such as harvest yields (fewer coffee cherries)

Possible future trend or long-term consequence

• Large areas of current coffee-growing land becoming unsuitable

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

heat stress. Arabica coffee is especially vulnerable because it requires cooler, stable conditions.

Parts of coffee production or supply chain affected

• Flowering becomes

• Quality control (lowergrade beans reduce market value)

less reliable.

• Farmers moving

production to higher altitudes, where possible

• Reduced global supply

increasing coffee prices

• Bean size and flavour quality decline.

Changing rainfall patterns

• Overall yields decrease. • Longer and more

frequent droughts stress coffee plants.

• More intense rainfall causes flooding and soil erosion.

• Unpredictable seasons disrupt flowering and harvesting cycles.

Increased pests and diseases

• Warmer temperatures

allow pests and diseases to spread into new regions and higher altitudes.

annual production

• Soil quality on steep

• Increased risk of crop

• Transport and

• Higher costs for irrigation

• Plant health and yields • Farm costs, due to

• Higher production

plantation slopes

processing, when floods damage roads and infrastructure

increased use of pesticides and disease control

failure in some years

and soil management

reducing farmer profits

• Small farmers leaving

coffee farming altogether

• Long-term decline in

• Smallholder farmers, who

• Sudden damage is

• Production and

• Increased volatility in

• Global supply chains,

• Sharp price rises for

caused to coffee plants and crops

• Entire harvests may be

lost in extreme years (e.g. droughts and frosts).

Economic pressure on farming communities

of harvests

• Coffee leaf rust and

coffee borer beetles cause significant crop losses.

More frequent extreme weather

• Crop growth and timing • Greater variability in

harvesting stages when production drops suddenly

• Export volumes • Reduced yields and rising • Farmer livelihoods costs make farming less • Local communities viable. • Income instability increases poverty risk.

coffee quality and supply

may lack resources to respond

dependent on coffee income

• Labour availability

global coffee markets consumers and less predictable incomes for farmers

• Farmers shifting to other crops or migrate to cities

• Increased inequality

between large producers and smallholders

• Threats to long-term

sustainability of coffee production

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Brazil’s coffee industry

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Climate change poses a major threat to Brazil’s coffee industry because rising temperatures and extreme weather are making many traditional arabica-growing regions unsuitable. Studies suggest that up to 60 per cent of current coffee-growing land could be lost by 2050, while droughts and frosts (shown in Figure 15.10.5 and 15.10.6), like those in 2020–21, reduced production and caused global coffee prices to rise by over 60 per cent. A 3°C rise in temperature and a 15 per cent increase in rainfall from pre-industrial levels in two of the country’s major coffee-producing states, Minas Gerais and Sao Paulo, could see the potential area for production dwindle from 70–75 per cent to 20–25 per cent. Although some higher-altitude areas may remain suitable, they are limited and cannot replace widespread losses. As covered previously, because Brazil supplies around 35 to 40 per cent of the world’s coffee, climate impacts in Brazil have serious consequences to the quality and availability of coffee to meet the global demand.

➜

Figure 15.10.5 Aerial view of a coffee plantation during a drought on the dry banks of the Rio Grande River in Brazil

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ATLANTIC OCEAN

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Brazil

BRAZIL

PACIFIC OCEAN

Areas that produce the majority of the country’s coffee were among the hardest hit by drought

LEGEND

Difference in Jan — March 2014 rainfall relative to 1998 – 2015 (mm) -400

-200

Average

200

400

+600

1000 km

➜

Figure 15.10.6 Brazil’s 2014 drought was the worst in 85 years

Review 15.10

Online quiz

Knowledge and understanding

Thinking and working geographically

Students can access sample responses and results online

Teachers can go online to assign questions, view results, reports and more!

Knowledge and understanding 1.

Recall the estimated percentage of coffee-growing land that may be lost by 2050.

Identify two environmental conditions coffee plants require.

Describe one climate-related threat to coffee production.

Explain how climate change affects coffee farmers’ livelihoods.

Identify one impact of climate change on coffee consumers.

Watch the video “The global coffee crisis is coming”: https://cambridge.edu.au/redirect/11898 and complete the table.

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Chapter 15 Case study: How personal, cultural and technological interconnections shape the global flow of coffee

Focus area

Notes

Where coffee is mainly grown Environmental conditions coffee needs Climate-related threats to coffee Impacts on farmers

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Impacts on global consumers

Thinking and working geographically

Working with geographical concepts: Change 1.

Which is the greater threat to the coffee industry: global disruptions like COVID-19 or long-term climate change? Justify your answer.

Future predictions

Complete one of the following activities:

change The concept of change is about explaining geographical phenomena by investigating how they have developed over time.

By 2050, coffee prices increase significantly due to climate impacts. Evaluate whether technology or consumer behaviour is more important in securing the future of coffee.

By 2050, suitable land for coffee has declined by 50 per cent. a. Predict two impacts on producers. b. Predict one impact on consumers. c. Propose one response that could reduce these impacts.

Research one coffee-producing country and explain how climate change is affecting farmers there.

➜

Figure 15.10.7 A supervisor takes notes while examining the quality of coffee beans sent for auction from farms around Kenya in the samples room at the Nairobi Coffee Exchange (NCE) in Nairobi, Kenya. Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78802-1 • (03) 8671 1400

15.11 Chapter review

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Chapter review Access the Interactive Textbook for a range of digital tools to help you review this chapter and build confidence.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Summary

Summary notes

Coffee is one of the most widely traded agricultural commodities in the world and provides a powerful example of global interconnection. For this activity, copy the table and fill it it out by explaining your understanding. Aim for two points per topic.

Terms

Download chapter summary

What I have learned

Transnational corporation Terroir

Arabica

Robusta

Coffee house

Smallholder farm Bean belt

Global south

Monoculture

Specialty coffee

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Visible thinking routine I used to think … now I think

➜

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

This exercise asks you to make careful, detailed observations by slowing down and seeing beyond your first impressions and obvious features. This activity encourages you to demonstrate your understanding of new knowledge acquired since reading this chapter by applying it to a source.

2. 3.

Figure 15.11.1 Raised coffee drying beds in Yirgacheffe, Ethiopia

Study Figure 15.10.1 quietly for at least 30 seconds. List 10 words or phrases about any aspect of the image. Repeat steps 1 and 2. Look at the image again and try to add 10 more words or phrases to your list.

Questions

Scorcher quiz

Access a fast, fun, competitive quiz that puts your understanding to the test.

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Quick questions The following activities offer various ways to demonstrate your understanding of the chapter.

The region where coffee naturally originated is called ______, located in Ethiopia.

Coffee grows best in the tropical region known as the ______ Belt.

Around ______ million smallholder farmers depend on coffee production for their livelihoods.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Brazil and ____ together produce 50 per cent of the world’s coffee.

True or false? Climate change is expected to reduce suitable land for growing Arabica coffee by up to 50 per cent.

What physical factor has the strongest influence on the flavour complexity of coffee beans? A. Wind speed B. Soil colour C. Moon cycle D. Elevation

Why does Australia consume far more coffee than it produces?

A. Most of Australia lies outside the ideal climate zone for coffee production. B. Australia only produces robusta coffee. C. Coffee is illegal to grow in Australia. D. Australia only produces arabica coffee.

Which event during COVID-19 had the biggest impact on the global flow of coffee? A. Increased tourism B. Shipping and logistics disruptions C. Better harvests D. Less farmers

What major climate-related threat is affecting arabica coffee production worldwide? A. Stronger monsoons B. Higher temperatures and irregular rainfall C. Snowstorms D. Decreasing global demand

10.

Identify one way the COVID-19 pandemic disrupted the global coffee industry.

11.

How is climate change reshaping where coffee can be grown?

12.

How does the coffee supply chain demonstrate global interconnection?

Writing focus

The following activities allow you to practise your writing skills.

You can use this as a model when writing your own answers to the questions that follow. Question: Explain the effects of climate change on at least two stages of the coffee supply chain.

Writing focus 15.10 Single paragraph response model ➜

Answering questions in paragraphs

(10 marks)

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Chapter 15 Case study: How personal, cultural and technological interconnections shape the global flow of coffee

Model answer: Topic sentence: the first sentence of the paragraph; directly answers the question

Explain: clarify, define and describe Elaborate: additional information, interconnections

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Explain: clarify, define and describe

Climate change significantly disrupts multiple stages of the coffee supply chain, affecting how coffee is grown, processed and supplied to global markets. The growing stage is directly impacted by rising temperatures and changing rainfall patterns, which reduce flowering and lower bean yield and quality. These climatic changes also increase the spread of pests and disease, which further reduces harvests and increases costs for farmers. Climate change also affects the harvesting stage by making weather patterns unpredictable, causing droughts, floods and extreme heat events that disrupt crop picking. These extreme events can destroy coffee cherries and erode soil on steep plantations, which make production inconsistent. Estimates suggest that Brazil could lose up to 60 per cent of current growing areas as heat, drought and pests worsen. When plantations are damaged, it leads to global price spikes, as seen in Brazil’s 2020–21 droughts. Therefore, climate change affects multiple stages of the coffee supply chain, including growing and harvesting, which threatens the entire coffee supply chain.

Elaborate: additional information, interconnections Linking sentence: reconnects with language of the question the topic

Marking criteria for each question can be found in the Interactive Textbook. Refer to these criteria when planning and writing your responses.

Evidence: specific, relevant evidence to support your arguments

Examples: provide credibility and illustrate the argument

Structured-response questions Question 1

(20 marks)

a. Outline how interconnection allowed coffee to become a global phenomenon. (4 marks) b. Describe the spatial patterns of coffee production and consumption. (6 marks) c. Explain the effects of climate change on at least two stages of the coffee supply chain. (10 marks) Question 2

(20 marks)

a. Outline how buying coffee in Australia connects people to Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples. b. Describe how people’s income and lifestyle influence coffee consumption. c. Explain why coffee production in Australia is small-scale and limited to specific regions.

(4 marks) (6 marks)

(10 marks)

Extended-response questions Question 1

Explain how the COVID-19 pandemic disrupted the global flow of coffee.

(10 marks)

Question 2

Explain how biophysical factors influence the spatial patterns of coffee production. (10 marks)

Teachers, access the Online Teaching Suite for digital resources and tools that support review, assessment and reporting, including:

Chapter

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Case study: How our coffee consumption impacts people, places and environments

Lessons 16.1

Geo Spark: How has large-scale coffee production impacted the environment?

16.2

How has coffee production shaped societies and cultures?

16.3

Who benefits economically from coffee and who doesn’t?

16.4

How has the coffee industry shaped life in Vietnam?

16.5

How can the environmental impacts of coffee be reduced?

16.6

How can social justice in the coffee industry be improved?

16.7

How can the coffee economy be made fairer and more resilient?

16.8

Why do different stakeholders disagree about how coffee should be managed?

16.9

What does the future hold for coffee in a changing world?

16.10 Chapter review

➜

Image: Coffee cherries for processing

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Chapter 16 Case study: How our coffee consumption impacts people, places and environments

Geo Spark: How has large-scale coffee production impacted the environment?

16.1

Success criteria

In this lesson, you will learn how the scale of global coffee production has impacted the environment, particularly through land clearing, biodiversity loss and water use.

❏ I can identify key environmental impacts of large-scale coffee production. ❏ I can describe how coffee farming affects forests, water systems and biodiversity. ❏ I can explain why these impacts are increasing as global demand for coffee grows.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Learning intention

Starter activity

Coffee and water use

Study Figures 16.1.1 and 16.1.2 showing the coffee supply chain and water use, and answer the questions. 1.

Which stage of the coffee supply chain appears to use the most water?

Identify one environmental input used at the plantation stage.

Predict one environmental problem that might occur if coffee production continues to increase.

Discuss with a partner how your daily coffee might be connected to environmental change in another country.

From the field, to green coffee beans up to the coffee cup

Green coffee beans

Coffee cherry

Plantation:

Primary processing:

Energy for drying, de-pulping, hulling Yield (and losses) Water inputs

Inorganic fertilisers Pesticides Operations

Recycling

Ground coffee

Secondary processing:

Consumption

Energy for roasting, grounding Yield (and losses) Packaging

Energy inputs Water inputs Coffee drinks

Recycling

➜

Figure 16.1.1 Supply chain from plantation up to the consumption stage

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m3 water/tonne coffee in drinks

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Drink preparation 32 Wet processing 18

Irrigation 788

➜

Figure 16.1.2 Contributors to water consumption for coffee drinks

Environmental impacts of coffee production Deforestation

No data 0 ha

1,000 ha

3,000 ha

10,000 ha

30,000 ha

Writing focus 16.1 Question words ➜

Large-scale coffee production has contributed significantly to deforestation, particularly in tropical regions within the Bean Belt. Coffee is produced in very large volumes to meet global demand, which requires extensive areas of land (shown in Figure 16.1.3). According to the International Coffee Organization, around 10 to 12.5 million hectares (25 to 30 million acres) of Earth’s land surface is dedicated to coffee production.

100,000 ha 300,000 ha 1 million ha

➜

Figure 16.1.3 Coffee bean yields per unit of land, measured in tonnes per hectare, 2023 Source: Our World in Data

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Chapter 16 Case study: How our coffee consumption impacts people, places and environments

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As discussed in Chapter 15, global coffee production amounts to approximately 170 million 60-kilogram bags per year, equivalent to around 10.2 million tonnes of coffee. To sustain this level of output, coffee is grown on approximately 12.5 million farms across more than 50 countries, mainly in Latin America, Africa and South-East Asia. As production volumes increase, forests in places like Brazil, Indonesia and Vietnam are often cleared to expand plantations, directly linking high coffee output to deforestation. NASA satellite data, combined with other land-use data, reveals that forest loss linked to coffee production in Brazil hit 737,000 hectares between 2002 and 2023, primarily in the Cerrado and Atlantic Forest biomes (Figure 16.1.4). Clearing forests releases stored carbon dioxide into the atmosphere, contributing to climate change, and destroys habitats that support diverse plant and animal species.

➜

ecosystem service an essential benefit humans receive from healthy, functioning ecosystems

Figure 16.1.4 Aerial view of a coffee plantation in Brazil

Deforestation also reduces vital ecosystem services such as carbon storage, erosion control and water regulation. In regions like the Central Highlands of Vietnam, forested land has been cleared to expand coffee farming, replacing complex natural ecosystems with single-crop (monoculture) plantations. Figure 16.1.5 highlights how deforestation and monoculture have transformed once-diverse landscapes into simplified agricultural systems. This shows how natural environmental systems are often sacrificed to meet global demand for coffee.

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16.1 Geo Spark: How has large-scale coffee production impacted the environment?

➜

Figure 16.1.5 In the Central Highlands of Vietnam, the farmers are clearing the land, carefully preparing the forested area for planting fresh coffee saplings. What we see is a decimated natural ecosystem in order to build up an artificial one.

Dr Athina Koutouleas, an Australian researcher specialiding in coffee plant ecophysiology, agroforestry and pathology

Monoculture and biodiversity loss

Coffee monoculture is a type of agriculture that involves growing large areas of coffee plants with very little plant diversity in the surrounding ecosystem. Monoculture leads to:

• reduced plant, insect and animal diversity • increased vulnerability to pests and disease • greater reliance on chemical pesticides and fertilisers.

pesticide any substance or mixture designed to kill, repel or control pests like insects, weeds, fungi, rodents or microbes

In Brazil, the world’s largest coffee producer and pesticide consumer, chemical pesticide use has increased by 190 per cent over the past decade. Estimates show that roughly 38 million kilograms of pesticides are used annually in Brazilian coffee production. And since 2019, 475 new pesticides have been approved in Brazil, more than a third of which are not approved in Europe due to their toxicity.

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Excessive water use

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Coffee production is a water-intensive process, especially during growing and processing stages in the supply chain (discussed in Chapter 15). Coffee plants require reliable rainfall or irrigation systems in times of water stress. Studies show that irrigation at the plantation stage is the largest contributor to water consumption across the coffee life cycle. Wet processing uses large amounts of water to de-pulp and wash beans so they can be dried and bagged for shipping. Water is also used during consumption (brewing coffee). According to the Water Footprint Network, it takes approximately 140 litres of water to produce a 125 millilitre cup of coffee. This is nearly 10 times more water than what is required to produce the same volume of tea. More water is required than for an equivalent volume of wine. Excessive water use can lead to water scarcity for local communities (especially those in LEDCs), reduced river flows and pollution from wastewater released into waterways.

Activity 16.1

Source analysis

Study Figure 16.1.6 and explain how coffee production could contribute to both deforestation and forest degradation.

➜

Figure 16.1.6 Identifying the drivers of forest loss Source: Our World in Data

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16.2 How has coffee production shaped societies and cultures?

16.2

545

How has coffee production shaped societies and cultures? Success criteria

In this lesson, you will learn how global coffee production has shaped societies and cultures, particularly through labour conditions, inequality, and everyday cultural practices such as cafe culture.

❏ I can identify key social impacts of coffee production. ❏ I can describe how labour conditions affect coffee-growing communities. ❏ I can explain how global supply chains create social inequalities.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Learning intention

Starter activity

Working conditions

Read the text in Figure 16.2.1 and answer the questions:

“Morally repugnant”: Brazilian workers sue coffee supplier to Starbucks over “slavery-like conditions”

…In Brazil, coffee farming is the economic sector with the highest number of workers rescued from conditions analogous to slavery – a legal category that includes a combination of factors such as debt bondage, excessively long working hours, degrading accommodation and food, and lack of payment… … the NGO Coffee Watch also filed a complaint with US Customs and Border Protection (CBP) seeking to “exclude coffee and coffee products produced ‘wholly or in part’ with forced labour in Brazil” … The complaint cites examples of various operations by Brazilian authorities that rescued workers in recent years and states that the cases “are only the tip of the iceberg – examples of widespread exploitative working conditions on coffee plantations in Brazil that are far too common” …

debt bondage when someone is forced to work to repay an excessive debt

forced labour any work or service that people are forced to do against their will, usually under threat of punishment

…“To put an end to this, we need consumers to be aware that every cup of coffee they drink, without questioning its true origin, is financing slave labour in coffee production”…

“‘Morally repugnant’: Brazilian workers sue coffee supplier to Starbucks over ‘slavery-like conditions’”, The Guardian, 24 April 2025

➜

Figure 16.2.1 Coffee, labour and modern slavery

Identify one labour issue linked to coffee production mentioned in the text.

Outline why these labour conditions are considered unfair or exploitative.

Describe one way consumers in countries like Australia might be connected to these labour conditions.

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The hidden human cost of coffee

certification scheme a system that checks and labels products to show they have been produced in a responsible and ethical way

➜

Figure 16.2.2 Children and a woman pick ripe coffee cherries during coffee harvest season in the mountains of Panama

➜

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

➜

Writing focus 16.2 Conjunctions

Would you enjoy your morning coffee as much if you knew it may have arrived through exploitative labour practices? You may spend $5.50 on a cup of coffee, but coffee growers typically receive 7 to 10 per cent, and as little as 1 per cent of the retail price. Most have no idea where their beans end up or how much they sell for. Often, this wage is not enough to support them or their families. Despite coffee being one of the world’s most valuable agricultural commodities, its production has been linked to child labour, forced labour, gender inequality and unsafe working conditions across Latin America, Africa and South-East Asia (Figures 16.2.2 and 16.2.3). These social issues can occur even on farms linked to major brands and certification schemes, raising questions about sustainably managing the production and consumption of the global coffee supply chain.

Figure 16.2.3 Young Ethiopian women collecting coffee cherries from a coffee plant

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Labour and working conditions smallholder farmer a farmer who grows crops or raises animals on a small area of land, often less than a few hectares, and usually relies on family labour

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Coffee production is a labour-intensive industry, relying heavily on manual work. Around 125 million people worldwide depend on coffee for their livelihoods, yet many experience poor working conditions and low pay. Despite coffee having a global market value of approximately $102 billion, many of the 25 million smallholder farmers who produce about 80 per cent of the world’s coffee struggle to earn a reliable income to maintain adequate living standards (Figure 16.2.4). Reports suggest that nearly half of coffee farmers live below the international poverty line, with more than one-fifth living in extreme poverty. Coffee workers often face long working hours in extreme heat, exposure to pesticides and sharp tools, and limited access to healthcare or worker protections.

The living income story

Potential household income

Living income benchmark

Cost of a basic, decent standard of living for a household

Other sources of income

Net off-farm income

Income gap

Food for model diet

Primary cash crop income

Decent housing

Other income Net off farm income

Other essential needs

Actual income

Unexpected events

Net farm income

Secondary crop income

Produce consumed at home

➜

Figure 16.2.4 A living income benchmark represents the minimum income a household needs to cover essential expenses such as food, housing, healthcare and education while maintaining a decent standard of living

Child labour and modern slavery

In some coffee-producing regions, low wages and unstable incomes from fluctuating prices and climate have led families to rely on child labour. According to the International Labour Organization (ILO), while coffee is not the only industry to engage in child labour practices, it ranks fourth globally among industries associated with child labour. The nature and extent of child labour can be seen in Figures 16.2.5 and 16.2.6. Investigations have found children as young as five years old working on coffee farms in countries such as Guatemala, Uganda, Nicaragua and Brazil. These children often miss school and perform hazardous work, affecting their long-term health and education. In extreme cases, coffee production has been linked to modern slavery, including forced labour and debt bondage. In Brazil, more than 3,700 workers were found in slavery-like conditions on coffee plantations between 1996 and 2023, with hundreds rescued in recent years.

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There are more than 150 million children in child labour in the world, half of whom work in hazardous conditions.

88 million boys

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

64 million girls

73 million children in hazardous work

Almost 1 in 10 of all children worldwide

152 million children in child labour

218 million children in employment

69% perform unpaid work within their own family unit

71% work in the agricultural sector

➜

Figure 16.2.5 Absolute number of children in employment, child labour and hazardous work

Among regions, Africa has the highest number of child labourers and the highest percentage of its children in child labour. The Asia–Pacific region is close behind in terms of absolute numbers of child labourers.

72.1M

62.1M

19.6%

7.4%

Africa

Asia and the Pacific

5.3% 10.7M

4.1%

Americas

Europe and Central Asia

5.5M

2.9%

1.2M

Arab States

Percentage of children in child labour, by region Number of children in child labour, by region (in millions) ➜

Figure 16.2.6 Percentage and number of children (in millions) in child labour by region

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Inequality in the coffee supply chain

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

The social impacts of coffee production are intensified by the complex global supply chain discussed in Chapter 15. Coffee beans pass through dozens of hands on their journey from farm to cup – from growers and traders, all the way to roasters and retailers. More than 90 per cent of coffee is exported as green beans, meaning the most profitable stages, such as roasting, branding and retail, occur in wealthy countries in the Global North (Figure 16.2.7), such as the United States and Switzerland. In the last 30 years, exports of processed coffee from rich, non-growing countries in the Global North, such as the United States (home of Starbucks) and Switzerland (home of Nestlé) have exploded, allowing these countries to capture a major portion of coffee’s market value. This creates deep inequalities between producers and consumers. GLOBAL NORTH

Arctic Circle

NORTH AMERICA

Line a n dt

EUROPE

ASIA

Tropic of Cancer

AFRICA

Equator

Tropic of Capricorn

SOUTH AMERICA

AUSTRALIA

GLOBAL SOUTH

Antarctic Circle

ANTARCTICA

5000 km

➜

Figure 16.2.7 This map shows a common depiction of the Global North and the Global South, as divided by the Brandt Line. Coffee is predominantly growth in the Global South, home to the Bean Belt but consumed in the Global North.

➜

Figure 16.2.8 Drinking coffee in the Global North, overlooking Lake Gruyere in Switzerland

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Review 16.2 Online quiz

Knowledge and understanding

Thinking and working geographically

Students can access sample responses and results online

Teachers can go online to assign questions, view results, reports and more!

Knowledge and understanding

Identify two social impacts of large-scale coffee production. Recall one statistic that shows the importance of coffee to people’s livelihoods. Describe one working condition commonly faced by coffee workers in producing countries. Explain why some families in coffee-growing regions rely on child labour. Define “modern slavery”. Identify one way modern slavery can occur in the coffee industry. Outline one reason why coffee farmers often struggle to earn a living income, despite coffee being a valuable global commodity. Do you think consumers should be responsible for labour conditions in the coffee industry? Justify your response using evidence from this lesson.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

1. 2. 3.

4. 5.

6. 7.

Thinking and working geographically

Working with geographical concepts: Scale 1.

Explain how the scale of the global coffee industry contributes to labour exploitation. In your response, refer to global demand, the number of workers involved, or the structure of the supply chain.

Geographical inquiry

scale The concept of scale highlights how geographical challenges can be managed across a range of scales, from local to global.

Using Figures 16.2.2 and 16.2.3, describe one similarity in the roles of women and children in coffee production.

Using Figures 16.2.5 and 16.2.6, explain how child labour in coffee production varies between world regions.

In groups, investigate one coffee-producing country and describe: a. one labour issue faced by workers b. one organisation or strategy that aims to improve labour conditions.

Present your findings as a short paragraph or dot points.

➜

Figure 16.2.9 Coffee farmer spreads coffee beans into rows Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78802-1 • (03) 8671 1400

16.3 Who benefits economically from coffee and who doesn’t?

16.3

551

Who benefits economically from coffee and who doesn’t? Success criteria

In this lesson, you will learn how economic benefits from coffee production are unevenly distributed, and why some groups profit far more than others within the global coffee supply chain.

❏ I can identify key economic impacts of coffee production. ❏ I can explain who benefits most from coffee, using data. ❏ I can explain why coffee farmers often face economic insecurity. ❏ I can describe how price volatility affects producers differently from corporations.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Learning intention

Starter activity

Data skills: Coffee price volatility (1969–2025)

This chart shows changes in global coffee prices over time. Examine Figure 16.3.1 and answer the questions.

Daily coffee prices ($ per pound)

$0.8 $0.6

$0.4

1970

1980

1990

2000 Year

2010

2020

➜

Figure 16.3.1 Daily coffee prices, 1969–2025

Source: Macrotrends

3. 4. 5. 6.

Identify the overall trend in coffee prices between 1969 and 2025. Overall, did it increase or decrease, or is there no clear trend? Identify one time period where coffee prices: a. increased sharply b. decreased sharply. Estimate the highest price shown on the chart: $________ per pound Estimate the lowest price shown on the chart: $________ per pound Calculate the approximate difference between the highest and lowest prices. Explain one reason why coffee prices might rise or fall over time.

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Economic impacts of coffee production on farmers

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

➜

Writing focus 16.3 Note-making

Coffee is a global economic powerhouse and is one of the world’s most valuable traded agricultural commodities, traded globally and consumed daily by millions of people. Despite this enormous value, economic benefits are unevenly distributed along the supply chain, with smallholder farmers facing far greater risks than large corporations. One of the key economic challenges within the coffee industry is price volatility, which refers to frequent and often unpredictable changes in global coffee prices.

economic insecurity the anxiety and risk associated with potential financial hardship, stemming from threats like job loss, income volatility or unexpected expenses

Figures 16.3.1 and 16.3.2 illustrate the historical fluctuation of global coffee prices between 1969 and 2025. The graphs show repeated periods of sharp price increases followed by sudden declines. For example, global coffee prices peaked at over US$3 per pound in the mid-1970s, and experienced major spikes again around 2011 and 2022, before falling rapidly. In contrast, prices dropped to below US$0.50 per pound in the early 2000s. This pattern highlights that coffee prices do not follow a stable upward trend, but instead fluctuate significantly over time. $4

100

Annual change (%)

price volatility the degree to which a product's price fluctuates over time, measuring rapid or large price swings (high volatility) versus slow, stable movements (low volatility)

–50

1980

1990

2000

2010

2020

Year

➜

Figure 16.3.2 Annual percentage change in coffee prices, 1969–2025

Source: Macrotrends

For smallholder farmers (Figure 16.3.3 and 16.3.4) who produce around 70 to 80 per cent of the world’s coffee on farms smaller than 2 hectares, this volatility creates serious economic insecurity. Many farmers must invest months of labour and resources into growing coffee before knowing what price they will receive at harvest. In countries such as Brazil, the world’s largest coffee producer, extreme weather events linked to climate change have worsened this problem. While higher prices may appear beneficial, many farmers were unable to take advantage of them due to reduced yields and rising production costs, such as fertilisers, irrigation and labour, and are often trapped in a cycle of poverty and inequality (Figures 16.3.5). Thus, farmers are highly vulnerable to global events they cannot control, such as climate change, pandemics, and disruptions to shipping and trade.

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➜

Figure 16.3.3 Group of Colombian farmers transporting coffee on a car

➜

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

16.3 Who benefits economically from coffee and who doesn’t?

Figure 16.3.4 Panamanian coffee pickers live and work on a coffee farm in San Marcos de Tarrazu, Costa Rica

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Poverty cycle begins and continues.

Children have to work on farms and are unable to go to school.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Their children are born into a poor family.

Farming is the only option to earn money.

Lack of education leads to few job opportunities and a lower socio-economic status.

➜

Figure 16.3.5 Nearly 50 per cent of coffee farmers live below the international poverty line. This means that even when global coffee consumption increases, farmers’ incomes often do not.

Table 16.3.1 Economic inequality in the coffee supply chain Group

Economic outcome

Smallholder farmers (Global South)

Low income, high risk, price instability

Plantation workers

Low wages, insecure employment

TNCs and large brands

High profits, market control

Consumers (Global North)

Stable supply, affordable prices

Transnational corporations: Where the profits are made

In contrast, corporations and transnational companies (TNCs) are better protected from price volatility. Large coffee roasters and retailers, such as Nestlé, JDE Peet’s, Starbucks and Lavazza, often purchase coffee through long-term contracts, allowing them to lock in prices and reduce risk. These companies also capture the most valueadded stages of the supply chain, including roasting, branding, marketing and retailing. For example, Starbucks Coffee Company has annual revenues of $36.2 billion, was founded in 1971, and has now grown into a global coffee phenomenon with over 32,000 coffee shops in 80 countries. More than 50 per cent of stores are in the US. The company buys approximately 3 per cent of the world’s coffee, sourced from more than 400,000 farmers in 30 countries. Because of their size and influence, TNCs are able to:

• set buying prices for coffee beans • control branding and marketing • capture most profits in consuming countries in the Global North. Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78802-1 • (03) 8671 1400

555

➜

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

16.3 Who benefits economically from coffee and who doesn’t?

Figure 16.3.6 Starbucks at Darling Harbor, Sydney

Review 16.3

Online quiz

Knowledge and understanding

Thinking and working geographically

Students can access sample responses and results online

Teachers can go online to assign questions, view results, reports and more!

Knowledge and understanding 1.

Identify two reasons why coffee is considered a globally valuable agricultural commodity.

Outline one economic impact of coffee price volatility on smallholder farmers in the Global South.

Describe two ways TNCs reduce their exposure to coffee price volatility.

Explain why high global coffee prices do not always lead to higher incomes for coffee farmers.

Explain what is meant by “price volatility” in the global coffee market.

Thinking and working geographically

Working with geographical concepts: Interconnection 1.

Explain how global coffee price volatility demonstrates the concept of interconnection between producers in the Global South, and corporations and consumers in the Global North.

TNC case study 2.

Using Google Maps or Google Street View, locate a Starbucks store.

interconnection The concept of interconnection emphasises that no object of geographical study can be viewed in isolation.

a. Where is the Starbucks store located? b. Why is this location economically strategic for Starbucks? c. What does the location of this store suggest about who Starbucks primarily serves and profits from?

Starbucks connects people, places and economies across multiple scales. For each of the stakeholders, create three primary interview questions about their place in the coffee chain: a. Stakeholder 1: coffee farmer on a Starbucks-linked farm (Costa Rica) b. Stakeholder 2: Starbucks barista (retail worker) c. Stakeholder 3: Starbucks consumer.

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16.4

How has the coffee industry shaped life in Vietnam? Success criteria

In this lesson, you will learn how the coffee industry has shaped Vietnam’s development, livelihoods and national identity, and why this creates both opportunities and risks at different scales.

❏ I can describe Vietnam’s location and physical characteristics using geographical terminology. ❏ I can explain how coffee production has shaped livelihoods and development in Vietnam. ❏ I can apply the geographical concept of place to explain why coffee is significant to Vietnam.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Learning intention

Starter activity

Describing a location like a geo guru! 1.

Look carefully at the maps of Vietnam in Figure 16.4.1.

Write a short geographical description of the location of Vietnam. Your description should sound like a geographer, not a tourist. Use precise geographical language rather than dot points. Information to include:

• continent • hemisphere • relative location • neighbouring countries • shape and size • capital city

• population • directional language (north of, south

of, bordered by) • geographical terms such as region, peninsula, coastline, South-East Asia.

Arctic Ocean

66° 30’ N

EUROPE

Caspian Black Sea Sea

Med. Sea

ASIA

Aral Sea

MIDDLE EAST

VIETNAM

23° 5’ N

AFRICA

Arabian Sea Gulf of Aden

Bay of Bengal Equator

Pacific Ocean

OCEANIA

Red Sea

Indian Ocean 23° 5’ S AUSTRALIA 0

1500 km

➜

Figure 16.4.1 Maps showing (left) Vietnam and its bordering countries and (right) Vietnam in relation to Australia Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78802-1 • (03) 8671 1400

16.4 How has the coffee industry shaped life in Vietnam?

557

Vietnam: Place and location agricultural economy an economy that depends on farming to produce food and other goods, provide jobs and support trade, but is vulnerable to climate and price changes

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Vietnam (Figure 16.4.2) is in South-East Asia, within the northern and eastern hemispheres. It is a long, narrow country stretching along the eastern edge of the Indochinese Peninsula, bordered by China to the north, Laos and Cambodia to the west, and the South China Sea to the east. Vietnam’s capital city is Hanoi (located in the north), while its largest city, Ho Chi Minh City (located in the south), is a major economic and cultural hub. With a population of over 100 million people, Vietnam is one of the most densely populated countries in the region. Vietnam’s physical geography plays a key role in shaping its agricultural economy. The country contains fertile river deltas, mountainous regions and a tropical climate influenced by monsoon systems. Of particular importance is the Central Highlands, an elevated region with rich volcanic soils, warm temperatures and reliable rainfall – ideal conditions for coffee cultivation (Figure 16.4.3). 110° E

105° E

Ha Giang

Dien Bien Phu

LAOS

20° N

Thai Nguyen Vinh Yen Tuyen Quang Yen Bai Viet Tri Son La Ha Noi Hoa Binh Ha Dong Phu Ly

Vientiane (Viangchan)

Cao Bang

CHINA

Bac Kan Lang Son

Bac Giang Bac Ninh Hai Duong

Hon Gai Hai Phong Thai Binh Nam Dinh Ninh Binh Gulf Thanh Hoa of Tonkin Vinh Ha Tinh

Dong Hoi

Dong Ha

Hue

THAILAND

Da Nang

Tam Ky

Quang Ngai

15° N

South China Sea

Kon Tum Pleiku

Quy Nhon

Bangkok

VIETNAM

CAMBODIA

Gulf of Thailand

LEGEND Country capital Province capital Major roads

Phnom Penh

Cao Lanh

Ca Mau

Buon Ma Thuot

Thu Dao Mot

Tay Ninh Tan An My Tho

Long Xuyen Vinh Long Rach Gia

Tuy Hoa

Da Lat

Nha Trang

Dong Xoai

Phan Rang-Thap Cham Bien Hoa Phan Thiet Ho Chi Minh Vung Tau 10° N Ben Tre Can Tho Tra Vinh Soc Trang Bac Lieu 0 200 km

➜ Figure 16.4.2 Physical map

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The rise of coffee in Vietnam

➜

Figure 16.4.3 Coffee farms in Da Lat, in the Central Highlands of Vietnam

➜

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

➜

Writing focus 16.4 Developing sentences

Coffee was introduced to Vietnam in 1857 during French colonial rule, initially as a small-scale crop. While early production focused on arabica, the introduction of robusta beans in the early twentieth century transformed the industry. Robusta proved far better suited to Vietnam’s climate and soils, especially in the Central Highlands (Figures 16.4.3 and Figure 16.4.4).

Figure 16.4.4 Po Ko River, with coffee farms on the adjacent hills in the Central Highlands of Vietnam

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16.4 How has the coffee industry shaped life in Vietnam?

A major turning point occurred in 1987 with the introduction of Vietnam’s economic reform policy. This shift opened Vietnam to global markets and expanded agricultural exports. As a result, coffee production grew at an unprecedented rate. By the early 2000s, Vietnam had surpassed Colombia to become the world’s second-largest coffee exporter (Table 16.4.1). Vietnam produces around 15 to 20 per cent of the world’s coffee, supplies 40 per cent of global robusta beans, and exports over 1.65 million metric tonnes annually, valued at $3.13 billion in 2023 (Figure 16.4.5). Approximately three million people in Vietnam depend directly or indirectly on coffee for their livelihoods, making it one of the country’s most important agricultural industries.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

economic reform changes made by a government to improve how an economy works, often aiming to increase growth, reduce poverty, improve living standards, and make industries more efficient and competitive

Table 16.4.1 World’s top coffee producing countries, 2023–24 Country

Production Global (million bags) share (%)

Notes

Brazil

64.3

World’s largest arabica producer; mechanised harvesting; diverse growing regions

Vietnam

31.8

Dominates robusta coffee beans production (95% of output); small-scale farmers; Central Highlands focus

Colombia

11.5

Premium arabica coffee producer; high-altitude growing; known for hand-picking

Indonesia 11.0

Mix of robusta (85%) and arabica (15%); island-based production; organic farming

Ethiopia

Arabica’s birthplace; forest-grown coffee; diverse genetic varieties

8.2

Germany

Spain

Russia

5.45%

8.57%

Italy

12.6%

Belgium

Philippines South

Japan

Netherlands France Poland

7.25%

Thailand

2.64%

2.56%

Malaysia

China

1.56%

1.39%

Indonesia Lebanon 0.39%

1.56%

2.98%

3.94%

United Kingdom

10.3%

2.98%

2.71%

Switzerland

1.1%

Portugal

0.97%

2.1%

1.57%

Ukraine Bulgaria Greece 0.34% Serbia 0.32% 0.23% 0.19% Romania 0.33% 0.15% Austria Denmark 0.12% 0.32%

India Algeria

Korea

United States

Israel

0.27%

1.71.%

United Arab Emirates

0.54%

Armenia Hong 0.13%

Chinese Taipei

Kong

0.099%

0.12%

0.073%

Turkey

Georgia

0.11%

1.31%

Mexico

Finland

Slovakia

0.56%

South Africa 0.38%

Tunisia 0.12%

Australia Colombia

Bosnia and...

0.093%

Morocco

Saudi...

0.066%

Slovania

Sweden

4.47%

Egypt

0.39%

2.25% Canada

Brazil

Dominican Republic

9.21%

0.66%

0.29%

Ecuador

0.22% 0.19%

0.95% Chile

New Zealand

➜

Figure 16.4.5 Vietnam exports coffee to many countries.

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0.18%

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Coffee, livelihoods and national identity

➜

Figure 16.4.6 Refreshing iced Vietnamese coffee in Hanoi

➜

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Coffee in Vietnam is not just an export commodity – it is a deeply embedded part of ~’a d̄á (Vietnamese daily life and national identity. Traditional drinks such as cà phê su iced coffee with condensed milk, shown in Figure 16.4.6) reflect local tastes, climate and history. Coffee shops are central social spaces in cities like Hanoi (Figure 16.4.7) and Ho Chi Minh City, serving as places for relaxation, business and community connection. Vietnam’s domestic coffee culture is also evolving. Between 2019 and 2023, the number of coffee shops doubled from 816 to 1,657. This has occurred due to rising disposable incomes, growing demand for premium and specialty coffee, and increased spending on cafe-based social experiences.

Figure 16.4.7 Busy street coffee cafe in Hanoi

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16.4 How has the coffee industry shaped life in Vietnam?

Review 16.4 Online quiz

Knowledge and understanding

Thinking and working geographically

Students can access sample responses and results online

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Teachers can go online to assign questions, view results, reports and more!

Knowledge and understanding

Identify two ways coffee production has shaped livelihoods in Vietnam.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

1. 2.

Outline one way the economic reforms changed Vietnam’s coffee industry.

Describe how coffee contributes to Vietnam’s national identity.

Describe the nature and scale of coffee production in Vietnam. Use data and figures from the chapter to support your answer.

Explain why the Central Highlands are well suited to coffee production.

Thinking and working geographically

Working with geographical concepts: Place 1.

Describe how coffee contributes to the character of Vietnam as a place.

Explain how both physical and human characteristics of Vietnam have influenced the development of its coffee industry.

Discuss how the coffee industry has shaped Vietnam’s identity, livelihoods and development as a place.

place The concept of place is about the significance of places and what they are like.

Research task: Weasel coffee (cà phê chồ n)

Cà phê chồ n, commonly known as weasel coffee, is one of Vietnam’s most famous and controversial coffee products. It is made using beans eaten and excreted by the Asian palm civet, creating a rare, premium coffee sold at extremely high prices. 4.

What is weasel coffee and how is it produced?

Why is weasel coffee considered a premium product in global markets?

Identify one ethical concern and one economic benefit associated with weasel coffee production in Vietnam.

Do niche coffee products like weasel coffee represent sustainable development for Vietnam? Justify your answer using evidence.

➜ Figure 16.4.8 Collecting

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16.5

How can the environmental impacts of coffee be reduced? Success criteria

In this lesson, you will learn how the environmental impacts of coffee production can be reduced through sustainable management strategies, with a focus on shade-grown coffee, agroforestry and water-wise practices.

❏ I can explain how shade-grown coffee reduces deforestation and biodiversity loss. ❏ I can describe water-wise strategies that reduce water use in coffee production.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Learning intention

Starter activity

From problems to solutions

Think back to Lesson 16.1 to answer the questions.

➜

Writing focus 16.5 Creating topic sentences

agroforestry a farming method that combines trees with crops or animals to improve environmental and economic sustainability

Identify one environmental problem caused by large-scale coffee production.

Propose one way this problem could be reduced through changes in farming practices.

Why is it important to manage coffee production rather than stop it altogether?

Managing the environmental impacts of coffee production

As global demand for coffee continues to grow, the challenge is not whether coffee should be produced, but how it is produced. Sustainable coffee farming aims to meet current demand without damaging ecosystems while safeguarding people’s livelihoods. This lesson focuses on three key management strategies: shade-grown coffee, agroforestry and water wise practices. Environmentally sustainable coffee production supports multiple United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), including:

• SDG 6: Clean water and sanitation • SDG 12: Responsible consumption and production • SDG 13: Climate action • SDG 15: Life on land.

By shifting from monoculture to shade-grown, water-efficient systems, coffee production can become environmentally sustainable while remaining economically viable.

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of native trees instead of clearing forests. • Trees remain part of the farming system, mimicking natural forest conditions.

Agroforestry systems (Figures 16.5.3 and 16.5.4)

hectares of land globally are used for coffee production • In Brazil alone, 737,000 hectares of forest were lost between 2002 and 2023 due to coffee expansion. • Forest clearing releases stored carbon and destroys habitats.

Monoculture farming leading to biodiversity loss and heavy chemical use

of coffee uses 140 litres of water. • Irrigation and wet processing are the largest contributors. • Excess water use can reduce river flows and pollute waterways.

• Producing one 125-millilitre cup

Excessive water use and water pollution

• Monoculture reduces plant, insect and animal diversity. • In Brazil, pesticide use in coffee production increased by 190% over the past decade. • Around 38 million kg of pesticides are used annually.

to plant roots via a controlled system during dry periods. • Dry (natural) processing reduces or eliminates water use during processing.

Evidence/Proof

support up to twice as many bird species as sun-grown farms. • FAO reports agroforestry systems increase biodiversity by 30 to 50% compared to monoculture.

supplies • Ensures water remains available for local communities

use by 30 to 50% compared to traditional irrigation. • Dry processing significantly lowers wastewater pollution.

• Drip irrigation can reduce water

• Reduces water waste and

evaporation

systems improve ecosystem services such as pollination and soil stability. • Agroforestry farms are more resilient to pests and climate shocks than monoculture farms.

pest control • Reduces reliance on chemical pesticides and fertilisers • Improves soil health and farm resilience

• Increases biodiversity and natural • FAO states diversified farming

the need to clear new land • Stores carbon, helping reduce climate change • Protects ecosystem services such as erosion control and water regulation

• Maintains tree cover and reduces • Shade-grown coffee farms can

• Drip irrigation delivers water directly • Protects rivers and groundwater

Water-wise management strategies (Figures 16.5.5 and 16.5.6)

shrubs and other crops, creating a diverse farming system rather than a single-crop plantation. In Brazil, this has been trialled with avocado, mango, jackfruit, citrus, macadamia, and pecan nut.

• Coffee is grown alongside trees,

• Coffee is grown beneath a canopy

Shade-grown coffee (Figures 16.5.1 and 16.5.2)

Deforestation caused by expanding coffee plantations

• Around 10 to 12.5 million

Response and how it works

Environmental problem (Lesson 16.1)

Why this is effective

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Table 16.5.1 Managing the environmental impacts of coffee production

16.5 How can the environmental impacts of coffee be reduced?

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SHADE-GROWN COFFEE

Sun-grown coffee

Shade-grown coffee

✗ Grows faster ✗ Requires more water, fertiliser and pesticides ✗ Supports less biodiversity ✗ Degrades ecosystems

✓ Grows slower ✓ Requires less water, fertiliser and pesticides ✓ Supports greater biodiversity ✓ Sustains healthy ecosystems ✓ Allows farmers economic diversification ✓ Tastes better

➜

Figure 16.5.1 Sun-grown vs. shade-grown coffee

➜

Figure 16.5.2 Terraced coffee fields and lush forested hills in San José, Costa Rica

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➜

Figure 16.5.3 Banana and coffee beans plantations on the fertile slopes of Mount Elgon, Uganda

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16.5 How can the environmental impacts of coffee be reduced?

Figure 16.5.4 The carbon storage and biodiversity value plotted against coffee agroforestry complexity.

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Figure 16.5.5 Coffee beans are laid out to dry in the sun in rows by Lake Atitlan, Guatemala.

➜

Figure 16.5.6 By-products generated during wet and dry processing of coffee. Dry processing bypasses the wash phase, which makes it significantly more sustainable. Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press & Assessment © Cooke, et al 2026 • 978-1-009-78802-1 • (03) 8671 1400

16.5 How can the environmental impacts of coffee be reduced?

Review 16.5 Online quiz

Knowledge and understanding

Thinking and working geographically

567

Teachers can go online to assign questions, view results, reports and more!

Students can access sample responses and results online

Knowledge and understanding

Identify one environmental problem caused by large-scale coffee production.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

1. 2.

Describe how shade-grown coffee differs from sun-grown monoculture coffee.

Explain one way agroforestry reduces biodiversity loss in coffee-growing regions.

Outline one water-wise strategy used in coffee production and describe how it works.

Explain how sustainable coffee farming addresses environmental impacts identified in Lesson 16.1.

Identify one Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) supported by sustainable coffee production and explain the connection.

Explain why managing coffee production is more sustainable than stopping coffee production altogether.

Thinking and working geographically

Working with geographical concepts: Sustainability 1.

Using Figure 16.5.7 and your own knowledge, explain how sustainable coffee farming practices reduce environmental impacts and support sustainability. In your answer, refer to:

• at least two sustainable farming strategies • Figure 16.5.7, explicitly • causation language to demonstrate your ability to explain.

sustainability The concept of sustainability is about the capacity of the environment to continue to support our lives and the lives of other living creatures into the future.

Sustainable coffee solutions Adapting coffee farming to protect the environment

Geographical inquiry 2.

Identify which management strategy best addresses deforestation. Explain your choice using evidence.

Conduct online research to explain how water-wise coffee practices in one coffeeproducing region in Africa, Asia or Latin America helps reduce pressure on local water systems and communities.

a. Watch the documentary “Shade Grown Coffee”: https://cambridge.edu.au/redirect/11899

b. Complete a Cornell note-taking template that covers:

• what is coffee • what is shade grown coffee • environmental benefits of shade

➜

grown coffee • economic and social benefits of shade grown coffee • the benefits on wild animal populations.

Figure 16.5.7 An infographic showing how shade-grown coffee, agroforestry and water-wise practices reduce environmental impacts and support the SDGs

Deforestation*

Forest loss from expanding plantations *10-12.5 million hectares used globally for coffee production

Reduces habitat loss and supports biodiversity

Shade-grown coffee

Agroforestry

Water scarcity

Maintains tree cover Protects wildlife Stores carbon in trees *10-12.5 million hectares used globally for coffee production

Grows coffee with other crops and shade trees Improves soil health Reduces pesticide use

Conserves water and protects waterways

Drip irrigation

Dry processing

Uses water more efficiently Delivers water directly to plant roots

Avoids water use in processing Reduces wastewater pollution

How sustainable coffee initiatives help achieve The Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs): water 6 Clean and sanitation

12 Responsible consumption and production

13 Climate action

15 Life on land

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16.6

How can social justice in the coffee industry be improved? Success criteria

In this lesson, you will learn how social justice can be improved in the global coffee industry through strategies such as fair-trade certification, living wages, gender equity initiatives and the recognition of Indigenous knowledge.

❏ I can identify key social justice challenges in the coffee supply chain. ❏ I can explain how fair trade and ethical sourcing improve working conditions.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Learning intention

Starter activity

From inequality to fairness

Think back to Lesson 16.2 and answer the questions. 1.

Identify one social justice issue in the global coffee industry.

Explain who is most affected by this issue.

Why do social justice issues often occur at the production end of global supply chains?

Managing social justice challenges in the coffee industry

➜

Writing focus 16.6 Appositives

gender equality equal rights, opportunities and treatment for people of all genders

Fairtrade a certification that supports fair pay, safe work and sustainable farming conscious consumerism buying products in ways that support ethical, environmental and social responsibility

As global demand for coffee continues to grow, millions of people depend on the industry for their livelihoods. However, as explored in Lesson 16.2, the benefits of coffee production are unevenly distributed, with farmers and workers often facing low wages, unsafe working conditions and limited power within the supply chain.

Improving social justice in the coffee industry means ensuring that producers, workers and communities are treated fairly, paid adequately, and recognised for their knowledge and labour. Consumers around the world, including Australia, are now more conscious of the products they purchase and, through social media platforms (TikTok, Instagram) and streaming services (Netflix, YouTube), are more aware of global living and working standards. This lesson focuses on four key strategies: fair trade certification, living wages, gender equity initiatives and the recognition of Indigenous knowledge. Socially sustainable coffee production supports multiple United Nations SDGs, including:

• SDG 1: No poverty • SDG 5: Gender equality • SDG 8: Decent work and economic growth • SDG 10: Reduced inequalities • SDG 12: Responsible consumption and production.

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U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

hazardous child labour in some regions. • Families rely on children’s labour due to poverty and lack of alternatives.

• Coffee farming is linked to

Child labour and modern slavery in coffee production

cost of production. • Farmers often receive only 5 to 10% of the final retail price of coffee. • Farmers have limited access to healthcare, education and financial security.

• Many farmers earn less than the

bans on child labour, monitoring of farms and improved labour conditions across the coffee supply chain.

• Certification schemes require

Ethical sourcing standards and supply-chain auditing

accountability • Encourages safer working environments • Reduces exploitation by holding companies responsible

• Improves transparency and

enforces strict child labour standards. • Certification requires regular audits and farm monitoring.

• Rainforest Alliance certification

Fairtrade coffee were produced globally in 2023. • There are now around 592 Fairtrade coffee producer organisations worldwide and this is a draw card for many coffee consumers when buying coffee beans or engaging with a local cafe. For example, The Guardian (2024) reported that over 70% of UK adults people are making conscious consumerism choices to buy Fairtrade products such as bananas, tea or coffee each year. • Fairtrade farmers earn on average 20 to 30% more than non-certified farmers.

• 578,000 metric tonnes of

• Protects farmers from extreme

Fairtrade certification

Low wages and poor working conditions for coffee farmers and labourers volatility • Fairtrade guarantees a minimum price • Increases income stability and price for coffee and provides an therefore wellbeing additional “Fairtrade Premium” to • Allows investment in farmer cooperatives. healthcare, education and farm • Coffee is sold through direct, developments to improve quality long-term contracts with buyers. of life • Empowers farmers to be selfsufficient.

Evidence / Case study

Why this is effective

Response and how it works

Social justice problem (Lesson 16.2)

Table 16.6.1 Managing social justice challenges in the coffee industry

16.6 How can social justice in the coffee industry be improved?

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• Coffee beans are exported early in the supply chain. • Producing countries miss out on higher-value processing stages

Unequal distribution of value along the supply chain

often excluded from markets and decision-making. • Traditional farming knowledge is often undervalued.

• Indigenous communities are

Disadvantage of Indigenous farmers and traditional knowledge

labour in coffee production. • Women own less than 15% of coffee farms and earn lower incomes compared to men. • 2.4 billion women globally don’t have the same rights as men. That’s 30% of the world’s population. Women in coffee growing countries are disproportionately impacted by gender inequality.

• Women contribute up to 70% of

• Farmers are trained in business skills, quality improvement and market access to increase bargaining power.

Direct trade and capacitybuilding programs

traditional agroforestry methods and respect cultural landmanagement practices.

• Certification schemes support

Recognition of Indigenous knowledge and community-led production

• Strengthens local economies

of profits

• Increases farmers’ share

sustainable farming • Strengthens long-term community resilience

• Preserves cultural heritage • Supports environmentally

works with over 400,000 certified producers. • As of 2025, certified producers cover 1 million hectares across Latin America, East Africa and Asia

• Rainforest Alliance now

systems in Mexico and Guatemala show higher biodiversity. • FAO recognises Indigenous farming as key to sustainable agriculture.

• Indigenous shade-grown

supports women-led cooperatives • Closing the gender gap can increase farm yields by 20 to 30%. • Nespresso has developed a gender equality strategy for its Sustainability Quality Program that works with 75,000 coffee farmers in 12 countries.

• Improves household income and • Fairtrade Gender Strategy

Gender equity initiatives within certification programs

Gender inequality in coffeefarming communities food security • Increases productivity and • Programs, such as the farm resilience International Women Coffee Promotes social equality and • Alliance (IWCA) provide women empowerment with access to training, leadership roles, financial services and decision-making power within cooperatives.

Why this is effective

Response and how it works

Social justice problem (Lesson 16.2)

Evidence / Case study

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16.6 How can social justice in the coffee industry be improved?

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Together, these initiatives help ensure that coffee production is not only economically profitable, but also socially just and sustainable.

70%

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

% of coffee production workforce who are women (where value is added)

% of farms owned / operated by women (where value is realised)

20%

➜

Figure 16.6.5 Cafe owner and head roaster inspecting a fresh delivery of beans

Figure 16.6.4 The Fairtrade mark is the most recognised ethical label globally. Products bearing these marks meet the internationally agreed social, environmental and economic Fairtrade Standards ➜

➜

Figure 16.6.3 Two Colombian coffee farmers preparing beans to be transported from farm to wholesaler

Figure 16.6.2 Cafe owner inspecting beans at his partnership farm in Gitarama, Rwanda ➜

➜

Figure 16.6.1 Gender inequality in coffee production

➜

Figure 16.6.6 What can people do to ensure they make better consumer choices?

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Review 16.6 Knowledge and understanding

Online quiz

Thinking and working geographically

Students can access sample responses and results online

Teachers can go online to assign questions, view results, reports and more!

Knowledge and understanding

Identify one social justice issue faced by coffee farmers discussed in this lesson.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

1. 2.

Outline how Fairtrade certification aims to improve the lives of coffee farmers and their communities.

Describe one way ethical sourcing standards help reduce child labour or modern slavery in the coffee industry.

a. Describe how gender inequality affects coffee farming communities. b. Explain how gender equity initiatives address this issue.

Explain why Indigenous knowledge is important for improving both social justice and sustainability in coffee production.

How effective are certification schemes (such as Fairtrade or Rainforest Alliance) in improving social justice in the global coffee industry?

Thinking and working geographically

Working with geographical concepts: Sustainability 1.

Explain how consumers in Australia are connected to social justice outcomes for coffee farmers in the Global South. In your answer, refer to:

• Fairtrade or ethical certification • conscious consumerism • the global coffee supply chain • long-term social sustainability.

Fieldwork investigation: Fairtrade treasure hunt 2.

Visit your local supermarket (or complete a virtual supermarket investigation if required).

sustainability The concept of sustainability is about the capacity of the environment to continue to support our lives and the lives of other living creatures into the future.

a. Locate and record at least three Fairtrade or ethically certified products (e.g. coffee, chocolate, bananas). b. Complete the table:

Product

Certification label

Country of origin

Price

Aisle location

c. Answer these questions based on your investigation. i. Where are Fairtrade products located in the store? ii. Are they easy to find or harder to locate than non-certified products? iii. Are they grouped together or spread across different aisles? iv. Which types of products are most commonly Fairtrade certified? v. How do the prices of Fairtrade products compare to non-certified alternatives? vi. What does this suggest about access to ethical consumer choices?

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16.7 How can the coffee economy be made fairer and more resilient?

16.7

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How can the coffee economy be made fairer and more resilient? Success criteria

In this lesson, you will learn how the global coffee economy can be made fairer and more resilient.

❏ I can explain why price volatility creates economic insecurity for coffee farmers. ❏ I can describe strategies that reduce risk and improve income stability.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Learning intention

Starter activity

From volatility to stability

Think back to Lesson 16.3 and Figure 16.3.1, and answer the questions. 1.

Outline one way coffee price volatility affects smallholder farmers.

Describe why TNCs are less affected by price changes than farmers.

Propose one strategy that could reduce farmers’ economic risk.

Making the coffee economy fairer and more resilient

Writing focus 16.7 Appositives ➜

As explored in Lesson 16.3, coffee is one of the world’s most valuable traded agricultural commodities, yet nearly 50 per cent of coffee farmers live below the international poverty line. While global coffee prices fluctuate sharply over time, smallholder farmers, who produce 70 to 80 per cent of the world’s coffee, often have little control over the prices they receive. This creates economic insecurity (shown in Figure 16.7.1), making it difficult for farmers to plan, invest or adapt to challenges such as climate change. A fairer and more reliable coffee industry needs strategies that help farmers cope with changing prices, earn income in different ways, and have more power in the global market. Economically sustainable coffee production supports multiple United Nations SDGs, including:

• SDG 1: No poverty • SDG 8: Decent work and economic growth • SDG 9: Industry, innovation and infrastructure • SDG 12: Responsible consumption and production.

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“When prices crash, we still have to pay workers and feed our families.” – Farmer, Peru

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Realistic and fair prices for coffee farmers are a non-negotiable for the future of coffee.

Too many farmers are facing terrible choices of scraping by, going a little further into debt or just walking away from farming altogether.

plan for needed Price security means farmers can better ably. investments – including producing sustain

Coffee prices have reached record highs, with the price of robusta coffee skyrocketing by 70% over the past year.

➜

Figure 16.7.1 Challenges facing coffee farmers according to the Fair Trade International

➜

Figure 16.7.2 In Nicaragua, sacks of coffee arrive from the fields, ready to begin processing

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While certification schemes like Fairtrade and Rainforest Alliance are often associated with environmental protection (Lesson 16.5) and social justice (Lesson 16.6), they also play a key role in economic sustainability. By making prices more stable and improving access to markets, certification schemes help farmers earn income in different ways and cope with future challenges. Figures 16.7.3 and 16.7.4 show the current scale of Fairtrade coffee across the industry.

Figure 16.7.3 Fairtrade coffee nature and spatial patterns 35

Amount sold on Fairtrade terms (%)

33%

26%

35%

24%

2020

2021

2022

2023

Year

➜

Figure 16.7.4 The proportion of total production volume sold as Fairtrade

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• Specialty and single-origin coffee

• Increases farmers’ share of

• Farmers grow additional crops • Many farmers rely on coffee as their (e.g. fruit, nuts, spices) or engage in processing and local only source of income. value-adding. Crop failure or price drops can push • families into poverty. Local value-adding and cooperative processing

Limited access to value-added stages of the supply chain

global prices. • TNCs, like Nespresso and Starbucks, dominate buying and marketing.

• Farmers have little influence over

Weak bargaining power of smallholder farmers

unprocessed (green). • Producing countries miss out on roasting, branding and retail profits.

• Coffee beans are often exported

and Rainforest Alliance improve access to markets, and clarity on price and standards.

• Programs such as Fairtrade

Certification schemes and producer cooperatives

package coffee locally through cooperatives.

• Farmers process, roast or

farmers to sell bananas, avocado or timber alongside coffee. • Diversified farms show higher long-term stability.

Income diversification

Overdependence on coffee as a single income source

stable demand • Builds long-term economic resilience

• Encourages better prices and

over 400,000 producers across 50 countries. • Certification is increasingly demanded by consumers and retailers.

• Rainforest Alliance works with

• Improves access to global

markets

markets pay higher prices. • Cooperatives in Latin America and Africa have improved farmer incomes.

final profits • Creates local jobs • Strengthens local economies

• Agroforestry systems allow

volatile commodity • Improves household income security • Increases resilience to climate and market shocks

trade arrangements provide minimum prices or fixed-price contracts, reducing exposure to price.

• Reduces reliance on one

• Certification schemes and direct

example, since the current Fairtrade Minimum Price went into effect in 2011, the Fairtrade Minimum Price has been above the global market price 52% of the time. • TNCs use long-term contracts to stabilise costs.

and risk • Allows farmers to plan, invest and afford necessities for a good standard of living

over time. • Prices can range from below US$0.50 to over $3 per pound. • Farmers invest months of labour before knowing the final price.

• Coffee prices fluctuate sharply

• Improves income predictability • Fairtrade guarantees a minimum price plus a premium; for • Reduces financial stress

Price stabilisation through minimum pricing and long-term contracts

Price volatility and income insecurity for smallholder farmers

Evidence / Case Study

Why this is effective

Response and how it works

Economic problem (Lesson 16.3)

Table 16.7.1 Managing economic challenges in the coffee industry

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16.7 How can the coffee economy be made fairer and more resilient?

Review 16.7 Online quiz

Knowledge and understanding

Students can access sample responses and results online

Thinking and working geographically

577

Teachers can go online to assign questions, view results, reports and more!

Knowledge and understanding

Identify one reason why coffee farmers experience economic insecurity. Describe what is meant by price volatility in the global coffee market. Explain how minimum pricing or long-term contracts help farmers manage changing coffee prices. How can a coffee farmer undertake income diversification so that they are more resilient to climate or market shocks? Explain why farmers have less bargaining power than TNCs in the coffee supply chain. Justify which strategy you think is most effective at making the coffee economy fairer.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

1. 2. 3.

Thinking and working geographically

Working with geographical concepts: Sustainability 1.

2. 3.

Identify one economic problem facing smallholder coffee farmers and explain why it threatens economic sustainability. Describe one strategy used to improve economic sustainability in the coffee industry. Consumers in many countries are increasingly willing to pay more for ethically sourced coffee. Explain how this trend could make the coffee economy more resilient and fairer in the future.

Role-play: Safeguarding the future of a coffee farm

sustainability The concept of sustainability is about the capacity of the environment to continue to support our lives and the lives of other living creatures into the future.

You are part of a smallholder coffee cooperative in a coffee-growing country. Your community depends heavily on coffee income, but several problems have occurred at the same time. Your task is to work together to protect your future. In groups of four or five, each group member takes one role:

• Coffee farmer responsible for production and workers • Cooperative leader negotiates prices and plans long-term strategies • Coffee buyer/exporter offers to buy coffee at a certain price • Certification advisor explains Fairtrade / Rainforest Alliance options • (Optional) Climate advisor advises on diversification and risk reduction Your group must respond to all three challenges: Challenge 1: Heatwave

A severe heatwave has reduced your coffee yield by 30 per cent this season. Challenge 2: Pest outbreak

A pest has spread quickly across nearby farms, increasing production costs. Challenge 3: Lowball offer

A coffee buyer offers a very low price today, arguing that global prices are unstable. As a group:

a. Decide what immediate actions will you take to survive this season. b. Decide which long-term strategies you will use to protect your income in the future. Choose from:

• minimum pricing / certification • income diversification

• cooperative processing • long-term contracts.

c. Decide how you will negotiate with the buyer to improve fairness. Present your ideas to the class.

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16.8

Why do different stakeholders disagree about how coffee should be managed? Success criteria

In this lesson, you will learn why different stakeholders in the coffee industry have different priorities, and why this leads to disagreement about how coffee should be managed.

❏ I can identify key stakeholders in the global coffee industry. ❏ I can explain why different stakeholders want different outcomes. ❏ I can describe why conflict is inevitable in managing coffee production and trade.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Learning intention

Starter activity Let’s get real

Let’s get real: a specialty coffee in Australia should sit between $7 and $8.50. That’s not price-gouging. That’s a sustainable, fair price reflecting the real cost of producing high-quality coffee in a high-cost economy.

Do you agree or disagree with this statement? Why?

Who do you think benefits if coffee prices increase?

Who might be negatively affected by higher coffee prices?

Introduction

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Writing focus 16.8 Conjunctions

Managing the global coffee industry is complex because it involves many different stakeholders, each with different goals, responsibilities and pressures. A stakeholder is any person or group that has an interest in, or is affected by, how coffee is produced, traded and sold. In the coffee industry, stakeholders operate at different stages of the supply chain and at different scales, from local farms to global corporations. Because their priorities are not the same, conflict and disagreement are inevitable.

Key stakeholders in the coffee industry

These are some of the major stakeholder groups involved in decisions about coffee production and management:

• Farmers: Grow coffee beans, often as smallholder farmers; face climate change, •

pests, rising costs and unstable prices; want fair, predictable incomes to support their families Cafe owners: Buy coffee beans and sell coffee to consumers; face rising costs (rent, wages, energy, beans); want prices that allow them to survive without losing customers

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• Consumers: Buy coffee daily, often in cafes; affected by cost-of-living pressures; •

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•

want ethical products that are consistent and high quality, but also affordable prices Corporations: Purchase coffee at large scale; want reliable supply, consistent quality and stable prices; use certifications and contracts to manage risk and reputation Governments: Concerned with jobs, exports, imports and trade stability; balance consumer affordability with ethical sourcing; use regulation, standards and trade agreements NGOs: Advocate for fairness, sustainability and human rights; push for higher labour, environmental and price standards; aim to reduce exploitation, even if costs increase

•

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Figure 16.8.1 One of the busiest Starbuck shops in the world, in the heart of London

Why conflict is inevitable

Disagreement exists in how the coffee industry should be managed and protected from future trends, because stakeholders operate at different points in the supply chain, experience different risks and pressures, and have unequal power to influence prices and decisions. The concept of fairness also looks and would be defined differently among the stakeholders. For example, a price increase may help farmers and cafes, but the same increase may frustrate consumers. Corporations may worry about losing customers and NGOs may argue prices still aren’t fair enough. These competing priorities mean that there is no single “perfect” way to manage the coffee industry. As you examine Figure 16.8.2, think carefully about whose perspective you agree with most and whose you disagree with.

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Coffee industry stakeholder perspectives: Different opinions on coffee management

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Café owner:

Coffee prices must increase in order to preserve quality, retain skilled staff, and keep independent cafés alive. If they don’t, quality will suffer and café owners may be forced to cut corners. Small businesses are often under attack in the media and received insufficient backing from the government. Without public support, cafés will struggle to remain viable.

Coffee farmer:

Coffee farming has become increasingly unpredictable. Extreme weather events put extra pressure on crops. At the same time, volatile global coffee prices make it difficult for farmers to predict their earnings at harvest. Months of labour can be invested without any assurance of receiving a fair or stable return, and in some seasons the income generated does not even cover production costs, let alone sustain a household. As these risks intensify, many farming families are reconsidering the future of coffee and weighing up a shift to alternative crops that offer more reliable and secure income prospects.

NGO worker [PREVIOUSLY: NGO worker – Fairtrade]

NGO workers from organisations like Fairtrade are meant to protect farmers, workers and the environment from exploitation and long-term harm, conscious of coffee productions which undermine human wellbeing and degrade natural ecosystems. They strive for stronger industry standards to ensure fair pricing, safe working conditions and environmentally sustainable farming practices. Certification systems such as Fairtrade are seen as mechanisms that help guarantee fair payment to farmers, enable community investment in services like education and healthcare, and safeguard the environment for future generations.

Coffee consumer:

Consumers often recognise that coffee farmers are facing difficult conditions, yet many notice that prices at local cafés continue to rise. With rent, groceries and fuel already placing pressure on household budgets, higher coffee prices can feel like an additional financial burden. For some, this contributes to broader cost-of-living stress, even if they would like to support farmers and small cafés.

Australian Government Coffee supports jobs, trade and economic stability both in Australia and overseas. Australia relies on imported coffee to meet consumer demand, while also supporting small but growing local coffee producers through exports and specialty markets. The government’s role is to ensure trade remains stable, affordable and fair, while encouraging sustainable farming practices through standards, trade agreements and certification schemes. Through regulation, international cooperation and responsible sourcing, governments can support farmers, businesses and consumers alike.

Large coffee companies [PREVIOUSLY: Starbucks Corporation]

Representatives from large coffee companies like Starbucks emphasise the need for a consistent supply of high-quality coffee that aligns with what consumers are willing to pay. They operate within highly competitive markets and must keep retail prices at levels that remain accessible to customers. Rising costs can reduce consumer demand, which in turn affects farmers, cafés and workers throughout the supply chain. From this perspective, the industry is best supported through market-based approaches, certification schemes and collaborative partnerships designed to strengthen farmer livelihoods while ensuring the overall viability of the coffee sector.

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Figure 16.8.2 Stakeholder perspectives and opinions on how the coffee industry should be managed

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16.8 Why do different stakeholders disagree about how coffee should be managed?

Review 16.8 Knowledge and understanding

Online quiz

Thinking and working geographically

Students can access sample responses and results online

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Teachers can go online to assign questions, view results, reports and more!

Knowledge and understanding

Define “stakeholder”.

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1. 2.

Outline why conflict and disagreements between stakeholders is inevitable.

Describe one main goal of coffee farmers and one main goal of coffee consumers.

Compare the priorities of NGOs and large corporations in how coffee should be managed.

Explain who you think has the most power in the global coffee industry.

Use Figure 16.8.2 and the information in this lesson complete the table:

Stakeholder

What they want

What they worry about Why they disagree with one other stakeholder

Farmers

Consumers

Cafe owners

Corporations

Governments

NGOs

Thinking and working geographically

Working with geographical concepts: Interconnection 1.

Explain how one change in coffee pricing demonstrates the concept of interconnection between different stakeholders in the coffee industry. In your answer, refer to:

• at least three stakeholders • both positive and negative impacts • how decisions in one place affect others elsewhere.

interconnection The concept of interconnection emphasises that no object of geographical study can be viewed in isolation.

Stakeholder conflict in the news 2.

a. Read the article: “Australians drinking more instant coffee as cost of living pressures mount for customers and cafes”: https://cambridge.edu.au/redirect/11900

b. Create three key summaries that connect to this lesson title.

a. Using Google News and working in pairs or groups, search for one article related to coffee and conflict. Suggested search terms:

• coffee prices farmers consumers • fair trade coffee debate • coffee price rise cafe Australia • coffee farmers climate prices • ethical coffee cost-of-living.

b. For your article, write a four- or five-sentence reflection using the prompt: “This article shows that managing the coffee industry is challenging because …”

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16.9

What does the future hold for coffee in a changing world? Success criteria

In this lesson, you will learn how the global coffee industry may change in the future due to technology, changing consumer choices and climate change.

❏ I can identify key future trends shaping the coffee industry. ❏ I can explain how technology and consumer behaviour may change how coffee is produced and consumed. ❏ I can predict what the coffee industry might look like by 2050.

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Learning intention

Starter activity Give one get one! 1.

Complete the table using your knowledge of the impacts of coffee production and strategies to manage sustainability.

Environmental impact

Social impact

Economic impact

Strategy to manage

Introduction

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Writing focus 16.9 Conjunctions

The coffee industry has always changed in response to new challenges and opportunities. In the past, coffee spread through colonisation, global trade and industrial farming. Today, coffee is entering a new phase shaped by climate change, rapid technological development, and changing consumer preferences. Rather than asking “if” coffee will change, geographers ask, “How will coffee adapt in a changing world?” This lesson explores three key future directions and trends that are likely to shape how coffee is grown, produced and consumed by 2050.

Future direction 1: Technology-driven coffee

Technology is expected to play a major role in the future of coffee production and consumption. Technology is increasingly changing how coffee is grown, processed and consumed. Farmers now use AI and data systems to predict weather, monitor soil conditions and detect pests, helping them adapt to climate change. Automation (Figure 16.9.1) and robotics are also being introduced for harvesting, sorting and roasting coffee beans (Figures 16.9.2 and 16.9.3), improving efficiency and reducing labour shortages. For consumers, smart coffee machines allow personalised brewing

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Figure 16.9.1 Robotic arm serving a glass of iced coffee to a customer in cafe, highlighting automation in the service industry

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at home, while online shopping and subscription services connect buyers directly to producers. These changes matter because technology can reduce waste, improve efficiency and support more sustainable farming. However, access to technology is uneven, with large farms more able to afford advanced systems than smallholder farmers, which may increase inequality in the coffee industry.

Figure 16.9.2 Robotic cafe worker

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Figure 16.9.3 Combine harvester working on a coffee farm in Brazil

2050 snapshot Coffee production is more automated and data-driven, but farmers without access to technology may struggle to compete.

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Future direction 2: Changing consumer choices and coffee culture

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Changing consumer behaviour, particularly among Gen Z, is reshaping how and where coffee is consumed. Many young consumers are moving towards home brewing (Figure 16.9.4) and creating “home cafe” experiences, driven by rising cafe prices, convenience and social media trends. Coffee is increasingly customised, with growing popularity of alternatives such as matcha (Figure 16.9.5), chai and mushroom coffee, as well as a wide range of plant-based milks including oat, almond, soy and macadamia. At the same time, cafes are shifting away from being everyday routines and instead becoming experience-based spaces (Figure 16.9.6), offering specialty drinks, unique flavours and visually appealing presentations designed to attract customers and go viral online. These changes matter because they alter where coffee is consumed (at home rather than in cafes), influence global demand for specific beans and styles, and create new opportunities for specialty and single-origin coffee within the global market.

Figure 16.9.4 A French press coffee maker at home

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Figure 16.9.5 A cup of matcha latte with latte art on top

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16.9 What does the future hold for coffee in a changing world?

Figure 16.9.6 Cafes are now places of work, especially since the COVID-19 pandemic.

2050 snapshot Coffee is less about routine and more about identity, creativity and experience, with cafes acting as social hubs rather than as everyday stops.

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Future direction 3: Climate change and adaptation

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Climate change is one of the most serious threats to the future of coffee production because coffee plants are highly sensitive to temperature and rainfall. Studies estimate that by 2050, up to 50 per cent of current land suitable for coffee growing could be lost due to rising temperatures and changing rainfall patterns. Warmer conditions are also increasing the spread of pests and diseases, such as coffee leaf rust (Figure 16.9.7), while extreme weather events like droughts and heatwaves are becoming more frequent and damaging yields. In response, coffee production is shifting to higher altitudes, where cooler temperatures allow coffee plants to survive, and farmers are investing in climate-resilient coffee varieties. Many producers are also adopting shadegrown and agroforestry systems, which can reduce temperatures on farms, improve soil health and protect biodiversity. These changes matter because coffee is strongly place-dependent, meaning environmental change directly affects where it can be grown. As climate change reshapes coffee landscapes, it also transforms land use, farmer livelihoods and global trade, and in some regions, farmers may be forced Figure 16.9.7 Ripened coffee beans and a sick leaf with coffee rust, Costa Rica to abandon coffee altogether.

Figure 16.9.9 An organic coffee farm in the high mountains of the Chiriqui highlands, Panama ➜

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Figure 16.9.8 Aerial view of a coffee plantation on the dry banks of the Rio Grande River in Brazil, during drought

2050 snapshot

Coffee becomes harder to grow, more expensive and more valuable, increasing pressure to farm sustainably or risk losing production.

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16.9 What does the future hold for coffee in a changing world?

Review 16.9 Online quiz

Knowledge and understanding

Teachers can go online to assign questions, view results, reports and more!

Students can access sample responses and results online

Thinking and working geographically

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Knowledge and understanding

Identify two future trends that are likely to change the coffee industry.

Describe one way technology may change coffee production or consumption.

Explain why consumer choices are shifting towards home brewing and customisation.

Outline one challenge climate change creates for coffee farmers.

Explain why coffee may become more expensive by 2050.

Describe one way the coffee industry might adapt to future challenges.

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Thinking and working geographically

Working with geographical concepts: Change 1.

Identify one future trend that may affect the coffee industry and describe its impact.

Describe how changing consumer behaviour may affect cafes in the future.

Explain how technology and climate change together may reshape the global coffee industry by 2050.

change The concept of change is about explaining geographical phenomena by investigating how they have developed over time.

A 2050 cafe! 4.

In pairs, imagine the year 2050. Choose one of the following roles:

• Coffee farmer • Cafe owner • Coffee consumer

• Technology company • Environmental organisation.

Create a short profile that explains:

• how coffee is produced or consumed in 2050 • one major challenge this stakeholder faces • one adaptation or solution they use.

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You may present this as a news headline from 2050 or an accompanying article.

Figure 16.9.10 Café owner ready for work

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Chapter review

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Access the Interactive Textbook for a range of digital tools to help you review this chapter and build confidence. • Auto-marked questions for fast feedback and fun practice • Self-assessment tools to track your progress, review answers (if enabled by the teacher), and flag questions for extra help • Downloadable worksheets for class or homework revision

Summary

Summary notes

Download chapter summary

What have you learned about how coffee impacts people, places and environments?

For this activity, copy the table and fill it out by explaining your understanding. Aim for two points per topic.

Terms

What I have learned

International Coffee Organization (ICO) Forced labour

Price volatility Agroforestry

Sustainable Development Goals (SDG’s) Fairtrade

Conscious consumerism Fairtrade

Stakeholder

Fixed pricing

Visible thinking routine Circle of viewpoints

This exercise helps you see and explore multiple perspectives. It helps you understand that different people can have different kinds of connections to the same thing, and that these different connections influence what people see and think about a particular issue. 1.

Choose one stakeholder viewpoint:

• Smallholder coffee farmer (Global South) • Plantation worker • Transnational corporation (e.g. Nestlé, Starbucks) • Cafe owner in Australia • Coffee consumer • NGO (e.g. Fairtrade) • Government

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Respond to the prompts in four to six sentences. From the perspective of ____________, coffee is important because … However, the biggest challenge we face is … We believe coffee should be managed by …

Repeat steps 1 and 2 using a different stakeholder viewpoint.

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Questions

Scorcher quiz

Access a fast, fun, competitive quiz that puts your understanding to the test.

Quick questions

The following activities offer various ways to demonstrate your understanding of the chapter. 1.

A farming system that grows coffee together with trees and other crops is called _______.

Certification schemes like Fairtrade aim to stop exploitation by guaranteeing a ______ price for coffee.

Why do many coffee farmers remain in poverty despite high global demand? A. They receive only a small share of the retail profits. B. They sell directly to consumers. C. They are paid in US dollars. D. A large percentage of the coffee being produced is unusable.

Which strategy best reduces biodiversity loss on coffee farms? A. Sun-grown farming B. Expanding plantation size C. Shade-grown farming D. Increasing chemical pesticides

Which stakeholder group benefits most from value-added stages such as roasting and branding? A. Smallholder farmers B. Pickers and labourers C. Transnational corporations D. Environmental NGOs

Identify two environmental impacts of large-scale coffee production.

Identify one sustainable farming strategy.

Why are smallholder farmers more economically vulnerable than large corporations?

How do coffee shops like the one in Figure 16.10.1 show the economic importance of coffee to local businesses in Vietnam?

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Figure 16.10.1 A coffee shop in Hanoi, Vietnam

Writing focus

The following activities allow you to practise your writing skills.

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Writing focus 16.10 Single paragraph response model

Answering questions in paragraphs

You can use this as a model when writing your own answers to the questions that follow.

Question: Explain how sustainable farming strategies can reduce the environmental impacts of coffee production. (10 marks)

Model answer: Topic sentence: the first sentence of the paragraph; directly answers the question Explain: clarify, define and describe

Elaborate: additional information, interconnections Linking sentence: reconnects with language of the question the topic

Sustainable farming strategies help reduce the environmental impacts of coffee production by changign how coffee is grown and processed so that ecosystems are protected. Shade-grown coffee reduces environmental harm because the native trees prevent deforestation that would otherwise occur when land is cleared for sungrown monocultures. By using tree cover, shadegrown systems help store carbon, protect habitats and support ecosystems. Agroforestry reduces environmental damage by growing coffee alongside other trees and crops, which increases biodiversity. More diverse farming systems naturally control pests, improve soil health and make farms more resilient. Shade-grown farms can support twice as many bird species as sun-grown farms, while agroforestry can increase biodiversity by 30 to 50%. In countries like Costa Rica, farmers using shade trees and mixedcrop agroforestry have improved soil fertility and protected surrounding forests. This shows how sustainable practices can reverse the environmental damage caused by large-scale monoculture coffee.

Explain: clarify, define and describe

Elaborate: additional information, interconnections

Evidence: specific, relevant evidence to support your arguments

Examples: provide credibility and illustrate the argument

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Structured-response questions Question 1

(20 marks)

a. Outline two environmental impacts of large-scale coffee production. b. Using an example from this chapter, describe how coffee production has shaped life in one place. c. Explain how sustainable farming strategies can reduce the environmental impacts of coffee production.

(10 marks)

Question 2

(20 marks)

(4 marks)

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(6 marks)

Marking criteria for each question can be found in the Interactive Textbook. Refer to these criteria when planning and writing your responses.

a. Outline the origin and evolution of coffee production in Vietnam. b. Describe how coffee price volatility affects smallholder farmers differently from how it affects transnational corporations. c. Explain why social justice issues often occur at the producer end of the global coffee supply chain.

(4 marks)

(6 marks)

(10 marks)

Extended-response questions Question 1

(20 marks)

“Coffee is economically valuable, but not economically fair”.

Discuss this statement using evidence from the global coffee supply chain. Question 2

(20 marks)

Explain how the global coffee industry has sustainably responded to two challenges.

Teachers, access the Online Teaching Suite for digital resources and tools that support review, assessment and reporting, including:

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Glossary

Glossary biodiversity hotspot regions with high biodiversity and large numbers of endemic species that are often threatened with extinction biogas a renewable fuel that is created from organic matter such as food scraps or waste on farms biophysical feature a natural physical element of an environment that can be biotic (living) or abiotic (non-living) features (soil, climate, topography) biourbanism an urban planning model with a focus on nature and the idea of the city is a whole ecosystem black water waste water from toilets and kitchen sinks, which is heavily polluted, but can be treated and reused for farming, industry or even drinking (after strict purification) blue water the fresh water stored in rivers, dams and aquifers; the main water supply, so it must be protected from overuse bore a hole drilled into the ground to access underground water resources brownfield site previously developed land used for industrial purposes where there were factories or office buildings that may have been abandoned or carry a risk of pollution cadastral map a map that displays property boundaries, roads land parcels and lot numbers; used for legal and administrative purposes, such as land ownership, planning and land management census an official count of every person in a specific country or region along with detailed information about their household and characteristics central business district (CBD) a central area for businesses in a town or city certification scheme a system that checks and labels products to show they have been produced in a responsible and ethical way change The concept of change is about explaining geographical phenomena by investigating how they have developed over time.

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absolute location the latitude and longitude of a location, also known as coordinates access the right or ability to enter, look at or use something accessibility the practice of making resources and facilities available and affordable for all people to use affordability the ability to pay for a service or attendance of a facility; for example, going to the doctor or purchasing a home agricultural economy an economy that depends on farming to produce food and other goods, provide jobs and support trade, but is vulnerable to climate and price changes agroforestry a farming method that combines trees with crops or animals to improve environmental and economic sustainability aquaculture system the farming or growing of aquatic animals and plants in a controlled environment aquifer a collection of groundwater that forms through infiltration arabica high-quality coffee bean grown at higher elevations arid extremely dry, especially from lack of rainfall asset property or something that can be exchanged for monetary value or cash (e.g. house or car) atmospheric hazard a natural hazard that occurs mainly due to processes in the atmosphere, such as cyclones, bushfires and severe thunderstorms Bean Belt the tropical region between the Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic of Capricorn suitable for coffee cultivation bioaccumulation the process where toxic substances (such as plastics, chemicals or metals) build up in an organism over time; a small fish might eat microplastics, and a bigger fish eats the smaller fish, and the plastic builds up in the body biodiversity the number and types of plants and animals that exist in an area

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Glossary

cultural enclave a geographic area where a specific cultural, ethnic or immigrant group lives together maintaining their cultural practices within a larger community data centre the physical location housing IT infrastructure, such as servers, storage and network equipment, to power applications debt bondage when someone is forced to work to repay an excessive debt deforestation the permanent removal of trees and forests to use the land for other purposes delta a landform that forms at the mouth of a river, where it meets the sea or a lake demographic the structure of populations and the different groups within them, determined by factors such as age and gender deposition the process by which eroded materials are laid down in a new location desalination plant where salt and other minerals are removed from water desertification the process where fertile land becomes dry and barren due to drought, deforestation and/or poor farming practices developed country a nation that has a strong economy, good healthcare, reliable services and a high standard of living for most people (e.g. Australia) developing country a nation that is still improving its economy and services with many of its people not having access to education, healthcare and clean water (e.g. Chad) development economic, social and political changes that improve the wellbeing of people digital divide the problem of some members of society not having the opportunity, access or knowledge to use technology and the internet that others have distance the amount of space between two places divergent boundary where two tectonic plates move away from each other, creating new oceanic crust as magma rises from the mantle to fill the gap

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characteristics the unique natural and human features of a place circumnavigation sailing or travelling all the way around something climate the typical weather patterns experienced in a place over time, including temperature, rainfall and wind climate change a long-term shift in Earth’s average weather patterns and temperatures climate graph a graph that shows the average monthly temperature and rainfall of a place climate sensitive being strongly affected by changes in temperature, rainfall, or extreme weather events coastal flood flooding that happens when seawater flows onto dry coastal land, usually because of very high tides, rising sea levels, or powerful storm surges coffee house a social space where people gather to drink coffee, exchange ideas and interact colonisation the action or process where settlers moved and established control over the Indigenous people of an area condensation the process by which water vapour in the atmosphere cools and changes into liquid water conscious consumerism buying products in ways that support ethical, environmental and social responsibility consumption the use of resources to fulfill present needs and desires contour interval the difference in height between contour lines on a map contour line a line on a map that indicates altitude convectional rainfall rain caused by hot air rising quickly from the heated ground and forming storm clouds convergent plate boundary where two plates collide, and immense pressure forces the crust to crumple and rise Country traditional lands that are culturally important to Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples and include water, air, plants, animals, and the stories and ancestors connected to that place

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Glossary

durable the ability to survive and withstand changes such as pressure or damage ecological sustainability using natural resources in ways that protect the environment and ensure it can support life for future generations economic activity an action or process involved in producing, buying and selling products and services economic insecurity the anxiety and risk associated with potential financial hardship, stemming from threats like job loss, income volatility or unexpected expenses economic reform changes made by a government to improve how an economy works, often aiming to increase growth, reduce poverty, improve living standards, and make industries more efficient and competitive economic water scarcity when there’s water in a place, but people can’t access it because they don’t have the money, pipes or technology ecosystem a geographic area where living organisms (plants, animals and other microorganisms) interact with each other and their non-living environment (such as weather and landscapes) to form a community of life ecosystem service an essential benefit humans receive from healthy, functioning ecosystems elevation the height of a place above the level of the sea embankment a raised wall or mound of earth or concrete built to block, control or hold back water, such as along a river or around wetlands emigrant a person who leaves their country of origin to live in another country endemic species that are particular to one region and cannot be found in other regions; they are vulnerable to external changes such as deforestation or human habitation and extinction enhanced greenhouse effect the unnatural warming of Earth caused by excess human-released greenhouse gases that trap too much heat in the atmosphere

environment The concept of environment is about the significance of the environment in human life, and the important interrelationships between humans and the environment. environmental conservation protection of habitats through sustainable practices, which aim to maintain or preserve existing species and the biodiversity of ecosystems environmental sustainability the practice of managing resources and environments in a way that meets the needs of current generations without compromising or impacting the ability to meet the needs of future generations ephemeral something that happens only for a short time equatorial Pacific a region of the Pacific Ocean that is close to the equator, known for its role in pushing trade winds and warm waters to the west, and pushing cold water to the east equitable fair and just; it takes into account and seeks to address existing inequalities between social groups erosion the process by which soil, rocks and other surface materials are carried away by the actions of water, wind or ice evaporation the process of a liquid changing to a gas, especially by heating facility a physical location or structure providing the space or equipment for activities such as schools, hospitals, parks, libraries and sports centres Fairtrade a certification that supports fair pay, safe work and sustainable farming fast fashion a contemporary fashion industry model characterised by inexpensive clothing produced rapidly to capture current trends, often prioritising speed and cost over ethical and environmental considerations favela a densely populated, low-income urban area in Brazilian cities, where people build homes without formal planning or legal ownership of the land feedback loop a cycle where the outcome of a process affects how that same process continues – either increasing (positive loop) or reducing (negative loop) its effects

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Glossary

globalisation the process by which countries become more connected through trade, travel and instantaneous communication goods items for sale that can be moved Great Acceleration a term used to describe the rapid and widespread increase in human activity, which began around the mid-twentieth century, and its impact on Earth’s natural systems; often associated with the Anthropocene epoch, a proposed geological era marked by significant human influence on Earth’s ecosystems and climate; encompasses social, economic and environmental changes that have occurred on a global scale since the 1950s greenfield site previously undeveloped land; usually located on the fringes of cities and could have been used for farming greenhouse gas gas in the air that traps heat from the Sun and keeps Earth warm (e.g. carbon dioxide) grey water water from showers, baths and washing machines, which can be cleaned and reused for gardens or flushing toilets, helping save blue water habitat the natural environment where a plant or animal lives and grows, providing food, water and shelter in a space the organism needs to survive high-density living a lot of apartments to house many people within a small area, often multistorey buildings homogenisation the process of changing something so that all its parts or features become the same or very similar hydrological hazard a natural hazard that occurs mainly due to changes in the hydrosphere where there is too much water (causing floods) or too little water (causing drought) ice cap a thick layer of ice that permanently covers an area of land immigration the process where a person moves from one country to live permanently in another import dependence reliance on overseas producers to meet domestic demand

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fertility rate the average number of children born to each woman flash flood a sudden and severe flood flood plain a flat, wide area of land found on either side of a river, formed by flooding over many years, as the river drops mud, sand and silt onto the land food insecurity the condition of not having access to sufficient food, or food of an adequate quality, to meet one’s basic needs forced labour any work or service that people are forced to do against their will, usually under threat of punishment fresh water water with less than 0.5 per cent of dissolved salts frontal rainfall rain that forms when warm air is pushed up over cold air where air masses meet garment worker an individual who sews, manufactures or finishes clothing, often facing poor working conditions such as low wages, long hours and unsafe environments gender equality equal rights, opportunities and treatment for people of all genders geographical barrier a natural feature like a mountain, river, desert or oceans, or long distances or poor roads, that make it hard for people, animals or plants to move, communicate or share resources glacier a large mass of ice that moves slowly; a frozen river of ice that forms when snow accumulates and is compacted global city a city with significant economic, political and cultural influence in the world, as it acts as a major centre for finance, trade and exchange global phenomenon a widespread event or occurrence that affects or is observable in many parts of the world global trade network the systems of transport, ports, shipping routes and digital technologies that connect producers and consumers worldwide global warming a rise in Earth’s average temperature due to the atmosphere’s inability to release heat because of the growth of greenhouse gas emissions

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Indian Ocean Dipole a climate driver that involves the movement and location of warmer and colder waters along the equator in the Indian Ocean inequality the unequal spread of wealth or resources, opportunities or treatment of people infiltration the process where surface water soaks into the soil and becomes groundwater informal settlement densely packed housing made of scrap materials in locations where residents do not have legal ownership of the land infrastructure the basic physical features and facilities that are public or private; this can include roads, railways and water supply intangible something that exists but cannot be seen or held interconnection The concept of interconnection emphasises that no object of geographical study can be viewed in isolation. interdependent a situation where two or more people, groups, things or systems rely on each other and are mutually connected internal migration the movement of people from one place to another within a country international migration the temporary or permanent movement of people between countries isobar a line on a map marking places of equal air pressure jetstream a narrow band of very fastmoving air high in the atmosphere; helps guide weather systems around the world and can shift during events like El Niño, affecting rainfall and temperatures king tide an unusually high tide that happens when the Sun, Moon and Earth line up, increasing tidal height and sometimes causing minor coastal flooding lagoon a shallow body of water separated from the sea or a larger lake by sand, coral or a narrow strip of land landform a feature of a landscape, such as a mountain or valley

landlocked a country that has no border with the ocean, but is surrounded by other countries landscape area of land that has particular features, either natural or human-made life expectancy the average number of years a person is expected to live, calculated from birth literacy the ability to read and write literacy rate proportion of the population aged over 15 years old that can read and write looting the act of stealing goods, often by force, during a social or political crisis, such as war, natural disaster or riot low-density housing housing consisting of detached, single-family homes or individual lots of land with lots of space; few high rise buildings, or people per unit of land marginalised people who experience poorer treatment, are isolated by others, and have more trouble accessing basic services and opportunities market share percentage of a total market’s sales that is supplied by one company marsh ground near a lake, a river or the sea that often floods and is always wet megacity a very large city with a population of 10 million or more megalitre a metric unit of capacity equal to a million litres; symbol ML meteorologist a scientist who studies the processes that cause particular weather conditions mortality rate the average number of deaths in a population over a certain time, usually shown per 1,000 or 100,000 people each year municipality a town or district with a local government natural increase the number of births exceeds the number of deaths in a population; populations grow due to people having more children natural resource a material or substance found in a natural environment that is used by humans; might be renewable, such as water, or non-renewable, such as coal, oil and metals

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place The concept of place is about the significance of places and what they are like. pollination the transfer of pollen from flowers by pollinators such as bees, butterflies, birds; essential for plant reproduction, the production of seeds and creation of crops porous something that has many small holes so liquid or air can pass through, especially slowly precipitation water that falls from the clouds towards the ground, especially as rain or snow pressure pattern the layout and movement of high- and low-pressure systems shown on a weather map price volatility the degree to which a product’s price fluctuates over time, measuring rapid or large price swings (high volatility) versus slow, stable movements (low volatility) production the process of making or growing goods to be sold profit revenue minus costs pull factor a reason people move to an area push factor a reason people move away from an area pyroclastic flow a fast-moving current of hot gas, ash and volcanic debris qualitative non-numerical information that is descriptive and open-ended, often subjective and based on people’s perceptions, experiences and opinions quantitative numerical data based on objective and factual information range of scales the varying frames of reference used for viewing and analysing the world in spatial terms, commonly describes as local, national, regional and global reconciliation strengthening relationships between Indigenous and non-Indigenous Australians through a process of acknowledging history and truth-telling, while encouraging equality and unity as Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples and cultures are treated with dignity and respect

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nutrient cycling the process where essential nutrients such as carbon, nitrogen and phosphorus move between living and non-living things in the ecosystem objective a perspective that is not influenced by personal feelings or opinions, but uses facts and data to make a judgement off-peak travel travel that occurs during less popular times of the year organic waste material that can be broken down from living organisms, such as food scraps, paper and garden waste origin the point or place where something begins, arises or is derived orographic rainfall rain that forms when moist air is forced up over mountains and cools overtourism when there are too many tourists visiting a destination, which leads to many negative impacts on the local infrastructure, environment and residents within the community passive letting things happen without taking action or being directly involved pedestrian a person who is walking rather than travelling in a vehicle per capita consumption average consumption per person perception the way something is viewed or understood by someone perennial something that happens repeatedly or all the time pesticide any substance or mixture designed to kill, repel or control pests like insects, weeds, fungi, rodents or microbes PFOA (perfluorooctanoic acid) an artificial “forever chemical” used to make products non-stick and waterproof, which persists in the environment and the human body phenomena an event or situation that is observed to exist or has happened physical water scarcity when there isn’t enough water in a place for all the people, animals, plants and the environment that need it

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reforestation the process of replanting an area with trees refugee a person who has been forced to leave their country to escape war, political danger or natural disasters regeneration the process of renewing or restoring the growth of ecosystems and organisms by removing invasive weeds and allowing native plants to regrow naturally regulation law or rule relative location an area that is identified in relation to other places, landmarks or points of reference resilient able to overcome challenges or recover quickly from changes or difficult conditions resource anything that people need or use (e.g. water, metals, oil and gas and trees) riparian vegetation the plants and trees that grow along riverbanks, streams and waterways, helping to reduce erosion, slow floodwaters and improve water quality riverine flooding when rivers, streams and creeks overflow and spread across surrounding floodplains robusta hardy coffee bean with higher caffeine content run-off water that is not absorbed by the land and flows from high areas to low areas rural-to-urban migration moving from regional or remote areas to urban areas such as cities sacred site a place within the landscape that has deep spiritual or cultural significance salinity the amount of salt in soil or water; high salinity means there is too much salt for most plants and animals to survive sanitation maintaining hygiene to prevent disease and promote health by providing services and facilities that remove human waste, garbage and wastewater satellite image a picture or data of Earth’s surface captured from space by an orbiting satellite

scale the relation between the real size of something and its size on a map, model or diagram scale The concept of scale highlights how geographical challenges can be managed across a range of scales, from local to global. self-determination having the freedom and power to make decisions about one’s own life and future, including the ability to maintain and develop culture, language and identity service an activity or action that provides direct aid or benefit to people; includes healthcare, education (teachers), public transport, waste collection and emergency assistance (police, fire, ambulance) slum a heavily populated urban area, characterised by poor housing and few basic services such as clean water, sanitation, electricity and adequate infrastructure smallholder farm a small-scale agricultural operation smallholder farmer a farmer who grows crops or raises animals on a small area of land, often less than a few hectares, and usually relies on family labour social cohesion the unity or connection between people based on a sense of belonging within a society or shared values socialist republic a state or nation with a socialist economic and political structure; sharing ownership of production and facilities among the population, with the aim all people have access to basics such as food, housing and healthcare soil erosion the wearing away and removal of the top layer of soil by wind, water or human activity space The concept of space is the significance of location and spatial distribution, and the ways people organise and manage the spaces where they live. spatial distribution the way natural and human features are spread out and organised in a geographic area

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Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) 17 global goals created by the United Nations to improve people’s lives while protecting the planet; aim to reduce poverty and inequality, protect the environment, and ensure economic growth that can be sustained into the future sustainable tourism a type of travel that considers the current and future environmental, economic and social impacts of tourism to ensure that the industry benefits all stakeholders involved: the tourists, local communities and environment synoptic chart a map that shows the weather conditions on the Earth’s surface at a specific moment in time tangible an object that can physically be seen and held tax payment mandatory payment collected by local, state or national government from individuals or companies to cover the costs of essential government services and facilities tectonic plate a section of Earth’s crust that moves relative to other sections temperature the quantitative short-term measurement of warmth or coldness in degrees that are present in the environment terroir the combination of climate, soil and location that influences how a crop grows and tastes thematic map a map designed to show geographic trends and patterns over time, using visual techniques like colour, shading, symbols, dots and connecting lines third-wave coffee a movement in coffee culture that treats coffee as an artisanal product, emphasising where it is grown, how it is produced, the skill of the barista, and the unique flavour characteristics of different regions topographic map a large-scale map that shows the surface of the Earth in detail, including natural terrain and human landmarks

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spatial pattern the arrangement and distribution of a phenomenon across space specialty coffee high-quality coffee that is carefully grown, processed and roasted, often with a focus on flavour, traceability, ethical production and sustainability rather than mass production squatter settlement an area where people have built homes on land they do not legally own or have permission to use stability the prevalence of crime, terror, civil/social unrest, military conflict stewardship management of environments and places where it is responsibly cared for with the aim of preserving it for future generations storm surge a sudden rise in sea level caused by strong winds and low air pressure during a storm, pushing seawater inland and flooding coastal areas subduction the geological process where one tectonic plate slides underneath another at a convergent boundary, sinking into Earth’s mantle subjective a perspective that is based on or influenced by personal feelings, experiences or opinions suburban a residential community located on the edges of cities, often family-based suburbs, where people live in larger low density houses, with more space supply chain the sequence of processes involved in producing and distributing a product from raw materials to consumer surface water water available on the surface of Earth in rivers and lakes sustainability The concept of sustainability is about the capacity of the environment to continue to support our lives and the lives of other living creatures into the future. sustainable development growing an economy to meet the needs of a current generation without compromising the ability for future generations to meet their own needs

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topography the shape of the land trade winds permanent winds that travel from east to west along Earth’s tropical regions near the equator transnational corporation (TNC) a large company that operates and has assets in multiple countries, with a headquarters in a home country transpiration the process of losing water through the surface or skin of a body or a plant upwelling the process by which winds push warm surface water away, allowing colder, nutrient‑rich water from deep in the ocean to rise to the surface urban consolidation the development of new apartments and other buildings in areas that already exist as part of the city; often involves building upwards, rather than outwards urban growth the increase in the population that lives in city areas urban planning the process of planning the layout and infrastructure of a place urban sprawl where a city’s buildings and houses spread into areas outside its main centre, often taking over rural land urban village a mixed community within a city that has housing, employment, facilities along with stores and cafes that are influenced by the social and cultural groups within the suburb utilities water, electricity and gas supplies used in households

variable a number, amount or situation that can change volcanic soil soil formed from volcanic ash and lava that is rich in minerals, drains well and supports healthy plant growth, making it ideal for crops such as coffee water scarcity the lack of sufficient clean, safe fresh water to meet the demands of a region water table boundary between groundwater supplies and the drier soil above weather the conditions in the air above Earth such as wind, rain or temperature, especially at a particular time over a particular area weathering the breaking down of rock and surface materials that have been exposed to the natural processes of weather, chemical reactions, and actions of plants and animals wetland ecosystem an area where the land is covered by water either all year or for part of the year, creating a habitat where plants, animals and insects live in and around shallow water Wollemi pine one of the world’s oldest and rarest trees, a critically endangered “living fossil” dating back to the time of the dinosaurs world city a global city that is highly connected and influential in global economics, politics and culture

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Selected answers to skills chapters’ activity questions Chapter 3

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Now you try! 3.1 1. a. legend b. Title c. Scale d. Orientation e. Border f. Source

2. a. It would be hard to know what each symbol represents b. You wouldn’t know what place the map represents c. It would be hard to know the distance between places on the map or how large an area is d. You wouldn’t know the direction of places or landforms e. You wouldn’t know where the map starts and ends f. You wouldn’t know how reliable the source is.

Now you try! 3.2a 1. AR0213 2. AR0014 3. AR0310 4. AR0314 5. AR0414

Now you try! 3.2b 1. GR028133 2. GR045145 3. GR037147 4. GR023126 5. GR003138

Now you try! 3.3 1. 50m 2. 350m 3. 450m 4. 450-500m 5. 250-300m

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Now you try! 3.4a m

1:250,000

1cm = 2,500m

1cm = 2.5km

1:30,000

1cm = 300m

1cm = 0.3km

1:1,000,000

1cm = 10,000m

1cm = 10km

1: 400,000

1cm = 4,000m

1cm = 4km

1: 2,000,000

1cm = 20,000m

1cm = 20km

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Now you try! 3.4b

1. 10,000m 2. 6km 3. 9,000m 4. 9km 5. 54,000m

Chapter 6

Now you try! 6.1

1. a. Ground b. Aerial oblique c. Aerial vertical d. Satellite 2. Skyline and the side of buildings suggest it is an aerial oblique 3. C and D both show roads from above and could be used depending on how far you need to travel 4. A and B show the character of the town and would be suitable for a tourist brochure or website

Now you try! 6.2

1. Figure 6.2.3 Cadastral map 2. Farmland, floodplain, forest, town, beach, ocean 3. Areas close to the CBD and close to the coast have low housing affordability. Housing affordability increases as you move away from the coast. 4. Poland borders Germany, Czech Republic, Slovakia, Ukraine, Belarus, Lithuania, and Russia. 5. Greece has the most islands shown on this map. Fun fact: Sweden has more islands than any other country, but not all are shown on this map. 6. Czech republic, Slovakia, Hungary, Belarus, Serbia 7. Iceland

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Now you try! 6.3a

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1. 1,600,000 2. 900,000 3. 900,000 4. 65 years and older – 1,500,000, 0-14 years – 550,000 5. Ageing population and declining birth rates mean more people are entering older age groups and fewer children are being born.

Now you try! 6.3b

1. Canberra 2. Sydney 3. 272 sqm per capita 4. Sydney may have less green space per capita due to higher population and building density.

Now you try! 6.4

1. 2.3% - 1,364,886 2. 8.1% - 4,806,772 3. Italy – 16.8%, Mali – 57.5% 4. 17.4% – 4,259,276 5. Mali – the wide base indicates a rapid growth in population 6. Italy – shown by the high peak of the population pyramid 7. Italy is experiencing an ageing population and may not have a large enough workforce to cater to growing health needs of the population. Mali’s concave side shows challenges relating to mortality and healthcare.

Chapter 11

Now you try! 11.1 1. climate 2. weather 3. climate 4. climate 5. weather 6. climate

Now you try! 11.2a

1. March – 15degrees Celsius, 30 degrees celsius, 27.5 degrees Celsius 2. April – 5mm, November – 10mm, December – 18mm 3. July 4. June 5. 2 degrees Celsius 6. 25 degrees Celsius 7. 133mm

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Now you try! 11.2b

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1. June, July, August 2. Northern 3. Spring 4. 2 5. Temperate locations in the southern hemisphere

Now you try! 11.3a

1. 1008 hPa 2. 1012 hPa 3. 1016 – 1020 hPa 4. 1012 – 1016 hPa 5. 8 hPa 6. Numbers are increasing towards the centre of the pressure system

Now you try! 11.3b

1. 1019 hPa – East of Tasmania 2. 3 3. 1 4. Rain is located at low pressure systems. This can be seen by the diagonal lines and low pressure systems in northern Western Australia and the Northern Territory

Now you try! 11.4a

1. South-easterly 5-6km/hr 2. South-westerly 5-6km/hr 3. South-westerly or south-south-westerly 4. South-easterly 5. Southerly or south-south-westerly

Now you try! 11.4b

1. Insert image of cold front 2. Insert image of warm front 3. Warm fronts bring prolonged rain at a lower intensity, where as cold front bring highintensity rain for a shorter period 4. East 5. South-west

Chapter 14

Now you try! 14.1a

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Now you try! 14.1b

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1. xxx 2. xxx 3. xxx 4. xxx 5. xxx 6. xxx

Now you try! 14.2 1. xxx 2. xxx 3. a. Xxx b. Xxx c. xxx

Now you try! 14.3a 1. 29% 2. 20% 3. 8% 4. 59 246t

Now you try! 14.3b

1. 50% 2. 28.6% decrease 3. Out-of-home consumption 4. covid-19 may have reduced the number of people eating out of home during 2019

Now you try! 14.4 1.

Point

Primary

Secondary

Tertiary

20%

40%

80%

10%

50%

25%

40%

30%

10%

70%

20%

10%

80%

90%

Total = 100% ✓

2. F – Majority of the population is employed in the tertiary sector 3. B – Majority of the population is employed in primary industries

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