3pp INVESTIGATING HUMANITIES year 9 uncorrected sample pages by cambridge_aused

INVESTIGATING HUMANITIES

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

FOR THE VICTORIAN CURRICULUM

Adrian De Fanti // Stephen Powell // Sharon Davis // Julie Bover // Kevin Gould // Michael Adcock Holly Burgmann // Alan Cizzio // Sammy Coburn // Brady Driscoll // Tisha Eggleston // Ben Hoban Bill Lewis // Despina Polatidis // Lyndon Pratt

Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press and Assessment © De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62416-9 • Ph 03 8671 1400

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U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

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Contents About the authors

xii

How to use this resource

Introduction: What do we need to know about and do when learning about First Nations Peoples?

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PART 1: History

Chapter 1: Overview: The early modern world – How did the world change between 1750 and 1945? 1.1 Setting the scene: An introduction to the modern world

5 11

1.2 What was the Industrial Revolution?

1.3 What were the consequences of the Industrial Revolution, the movement of people and European imperialism?

18 24 31 37

1.4 What significant ideas and developments in this period shaped society and politics? 1.5 What other significant events changed the world between 1900 and 1945?

1.6 End of investigation review: How did the world change between 1750 and 1945? INVESTIGATION 1: Australia (1750–1914)

Chapter 2: What were the consequences of British colonisation for Australia? 2.1 Setting the scene: Who owns the past?

2.2 What were the key events in Australian history between 1750 and 1914? 2.3 Was Australia a terra nullius in 1788?

2.4 Why did the British colonise Australia?

2.5 What was the impact of colonisation for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples?

2.6 Why did conflict occur between colonists and Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander People? 2.7 How did different migrant groups contribute to Australia in the 19th century?

2.8 How did the experiences of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people change over time? 2.9 What was it like to live and work in Australia in the 19th century? 2.10 How did women fight for political rights?

2.11 What factors caused the colonies to federate and what kind of national identity was emerging? 2.12 How did Federation happen?

2.13 Who belonged in the new nation? 2.14 What has been the impact of the Australian Constitution on First Nations Peoples? (Available in the Interactive Textbook)

41 44 46 53 58 63 69 75 80 86 91 97 103

2.15 Whose truth?

107 108

2.16 End of investigation review: What were the consequences of British colonisation for Australia?

112 Contents

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INVESTIGATION 2: Australians at war (1914–1945)

Chapter 3: Australians at war: What was the significance of World War I (1914–1918)? 3.1 Setting the scene: What was World War I like? 3.2 What were the key events in World War I?

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3.3 What were the long-term causes of World War I?

117 120 122 128 133 140 145 152 157 162 167 174 179

3.4 What were the short-term causes of World War I? 3.5 Why did Australians fight in World War I?

3.6 Where did Australians fight in World War I?

3.7 What was the significance of Gallipoli from both an Australian and a global perspective? 3.8 What was World War I like for First Nations servicemen and for Australian women? 3.9 What was the nature of trench warfare in World War I?

3.10 How did technological developments change the nature of warfare in World War I? 3.11 How did World War I end and what was the significance of the Treaty of Versailles? 3.12 What do historians say about the legacy of World War I? 3.13 End of investigation review: World War I

Go online to access this digital chapter

Chapter 4: What was the significance of World War II (1939–1945)? 4.1 Setting the scene: When did war come to Australia? 4.2 What were the key events in World War II?

4.3 What were the causes of World War II in Europe? Part I: The Treaty of Versailles

4.4 What were the causes of World War II in Europe? Part II: The rise of the Nazi Party 4.5 How did the German tactic of Blitzkrieg overwhelm Europe? 4.6 What were the key events of World War II?

4.7 Where did Australian troops fight in Europe and North Africa in World War II? 4.8 How did the war in the Pacific affect Australia? 4.9 Why was the city of Darwin bombed?

4.10 What is the significance of the Battle of Kokoda?

4.11 What were the effects of World War II on Australian society? 4.12 What was life in Australia like during the war?

4.13 What was the long-term impact of war on Australia?

4.14 Was the use of the atomic bomb to end the war justified?

4.15 What effect did World War II have on Australia’s international relationships?

4.16 End of investigation review: What was the significance of World War II (1939–1945)?

Contents

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Chapter 5: How did the Holocaust happen?

Go online to access this digital chapter

5.1 Setting the scene: How is the Holocaust remembered today? 5.2 What were the key events of the Holocaust? 5.3 What were the origins of the Holocaust? 5.4 How did antisemitism rise in Germany after WWI? 5.5 How did the Nazi Party persecute Jewish people after 1933?

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5.6 What was the significance of Australian concerns about attacks on European Jews? 5.7 How did World War II escalate the Holocaust?

5.8 What was it like in the Nazi concentration and death camps? 5.9 How did the Holocaust come to an end?

5.10 How did people rebuild their lives after the Holocaust?

5.11 End of investigation review: How did the Holocaust happen?

INVESTIGATION 3: Asia (1750–present)

Chapter 6: How did China transform from an imperial dynasty into a modern nation?

Go online to access this digital chapter

6.1 Setting the scene: Who killed the Guangxu Emperor? 6.2 What were the key events in China since 1750?

6.3 How had China developed by the time of the Qing dynasty? 6.4 How did women live in China under the Qing?

6.5 How did the Qing respond to European efforts to expand international trade in China? 6.6 How did the Qing attempt to deal with foreign challenges?

6.7 Why did the period from 1839 become known as the Century of Humiliation in China? 6.8 How did dissatisfaction with the Qing lead to rebellion and civil war? 6.9 How did the Qing attempt to reform the empire?

6.10 How did anger at foreign imperialism lead to violence at the turn of the century? 6.11 How and why did the Qing empire fall?

6.12 How did China become the People’s Republic of China?

6.13 How did Mao Zedong and Deng Xiaoping transform China? 6.14 How did China change during the 21st century?

6.15 End of investigation review: How did China transform from an imperial dynasty into a modern nation?

Contents

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Chapter 7: How did the British colony of India win independence? 7.1 Setting the scene: A jewel in the crown 7.2 What were the key events in India since 1750? 7.3 What was the legacy of the Mughal Empire? 7.4 How did the Mughal Empire decline? 7.5 How did British trade change India?

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7.6 How did British imperialism change India?

187 190 192 196 201 207 212 216 222 227 233 240

7.7 How did early independence movements emerge? 7.8 Why did Indians want complete independence?

7.9 What conflicts occurred over Indian independence?

7.10 What did the founders of the Republic of India create? 7.11 How did modern India develop?

7.12 End of investigation review: How did the British colony of India win independence?

Go online to access this digital chapter

Chapter 8: Indonesia: How did Indonesia emerge as a modern nation? Setting the scene: Why is Indonesia so important to Australia? 8.2 What were the key events in Indonesia’s history? 8.3 Why did the Dutch colonise Indonesia? 8.4 What was Dutch rule in Indonesia like? 8.5 How did Indonesia gain independence? 8.6 What was the significance of ‘Merdeka’? 8.7 What was the significance of Sukarno’s rule? 8.8 How was Indonesia led by Suharto? 8.9 What is Indonesia like today? 8.10 End of investigation review: How did Indonesia emerge as a modern nation? 8.1

Contents

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Chapter 9: Japan: How did Japan emerge from feudal isolation to become a global power? 9.1 9.2 9.3 9.4

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9.5

Setting the scene: Who was Genji? What were the key events in Japan after 1750? How had Japan developed by the time of the Tokugawa shogunate? How did the Tokugawa shogunate shape Japan’s political, cultural and social development? Why did Japan close itself off from the rest of the world? How and why did the Tokugawa shogunate end? How did the Meiji Restoration change Japan? How did the Meiji reforms spur the imperial aspirations of Japan? Part 1: 1890–1930 How did the Meiji reforms spur the imperial aspirations of Japan? Part 2: 1930–1941 What consequences followed Japan’s choice to instigate war in the Pacific? Part 1: Reaction to Pearl Harbor to 1945 What consequences followed Japan’s choice to instigate war in the Pacific? Part 2: The atomic bombing of Japan How did Japan change after the loss of the Pacific War? What did Japan do next? 1950s to today End of investigation review: How did Japan emerge from feudal isolation to become a global power?

Go online to access this digital chapter

9.6 9.7

9.8 9.9

9.10 9.11

9.12 9.13

9.14

Chapter 10: How did modern Vietnam come into existence?

Go online to access this digital chapter

10.1 Setting the scene: Why did a Buddhist monk make the ultimate sacrifice? 10.2 What are the key events in Vietnam’s history?

10.3 How did Vietnamese culture flourish in the 18th century? 10.4 What was the impact of the French invasion of Vietnam?

10.5 How did World War II shape Vietnam’s quest for independence? 10.6 How were the French expelled from Vietnam? 10.7 How did the Second Indochina War begin?

10.8 What was the experience of the Vietnamese people during the Second Indochina War? 10.9 How did the Second Indochina War end?

10.10 How did Vietnam transition towards independence? 10.11 How has modern Vietnam evolved from its past?

10.12 End of investigation review: How did modern Vietnam come into existence?

Contents

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PART 2: Geography

INVESTIGATION 1: Biomes and food security

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Chapter 11: What are biomes and how do they provide food security? 11.1 Setting the scene: The Amazon rainforest in crisis 11.2 What are biomes?

11.3 What factors impact the spatial distribution of biomes?

11.4 What biomes do we have in Australia and how are they used? 11.5 What is food security?

11.6 How do humans change biomes to produce food?

11.7 Case study: Battling food insecurity in the Philippines

11.8 What environmental factors influence crop production?

11.9 What economic and technological factors influence crop production?

254 254 257 252 267 273 280 285 289

Chapter 12: What are sustainable ways biomes can provide food security?

12.1 Setting the scene: Bringing back traditional farming and native foods at Black Duck Foods 12.2 How do Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples source food sustainably? 12.3 How can we assess the environmental sustainability of farming in Australia? 12.4 How can contemporary farming be environmentally sustainable? 12.5 Is farming economically and socially sustainable?

12.6 What are the environmental, economic and political constraints on the world’s food production? 12.7 How does climate change challenge food security?

12.8 What agricultural innovations can help improve global food security? 12.9 Fieldwork investigation: A local biome

12.10 End of investigation review: Biomes and food security

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295 298 303 308 314

318 324 329 336 338

Contents

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INVESTIGATION 2: Geographies of interconnection

Chapter 13: What makes us interconnected? 13.1 Setting the scene: ‘Devil’s gold and a selfie stick’ – How are we interconnected through the world of trade?

13.4 How have technological advancements made our world more interconnected?

342 345 350 355

13.5 How does the international trade of manufactured goods connect places like Australia and China?

361

13.2 What do the geographical concepts of place, space and interconnection mean?

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13.3 How have improvements in transport changed the way people live?

13.6 How do the impacts of interconnections through trade affect countries’ environmental sustainability? 368 13.7 Fieldwork: Investigating products and/or services that businesses sell to other places

375

Chapter 14: How have advancing interconnections impacted place and space? 14.1 Setting the scene: What are the impacts of overtourism in Santorini?

14.2 How does tourism contribute to global interconnectedness and impact on different places? 14.3 How does tourism impact Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples? 14.4 End of investigation review: Geographies of interconnection

Contents

378 381 378 392

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PART 3: Economics and Business

INVESTIGATION: How are households and businesses managed?

Chapter 15: How can households manage their finances? 398 401 405 408 412 415 418 421 425 428 429

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15.1 Setting the scene: How can households improve their material life? 15.2 What is the purpose of household budgeting?

15.3 How can a household minimise the risks to its finances? 15.4 What are some smart uses of wealth? 15.5 How do people avoid scams?

15.6 What legal and ethical issues relate to household finances? 15.7 What is superannuation?

15.8 What are the potential benefits for contributors to superannuation schemes?

15.9 What are the potential benefits for the nation from superannuation schemes? 15.10 Research task: Your 10-year financial plan

15.11 End of investigation review: How can households manage their finances?

Go online to access this digital chapter

Chapter 16: How do businesses stay competitive?

16.1 Setting the scene: Why do businesses need to stay competitive? 16.2 What is entrepreneurship?

16.3 What do businesses use marketing for?

16.4 What do businesses use public relations for? 16.5 What is human resource management? 16.6 What is the role of trade unions?

16.7 What is the role of employer associations? 16.8 What is enterprise bargaining?

16.9 Research task: Should membership of a trade union be compulsory? 16.10 End of investigation review: How do businesses stay competitive?

Contents

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PART 4: Civics and Citizenship

INVESTIGATION: What makes a good citizen?

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Chapter 17: How does Australia’s political system work? 17.1 Setting the scene: What makes a good citizen?

436 439 443 446 450 453 456 460 465 470 472

17.2 What is sovereignty?

17.3 What is a liberal democracy?

17.4 What is the Constitution of Australia?

17.5 What is the federal system of government in Australia? 17.6 How does Parliament make laws? 17.7 How do elections run?

17.8 How does a referendum work?

17.9 How do governments develop policies?

17.10 Research task: Should Australia be a constitutional monarchy or a republic? 17.11 End of investigation review: How does Australia’s political system work?

Chapter 18: How does Australia’s legal system work?

Go online to access this digital chapter

18.1 Setting the scene: What are the types of laws in Australia? 18.2 What is the role of federal courts?

18.3 How is the court system structured in Victoria? 18.4 How do courts in Victoria operate?

18.5 What is mediation and arbitration?

18.6 What are the rights of the accused and victims? 18.7 What are the rights of all individuals? 18.8 How are rights protected?

18.9 Research task: What limits should be placed on the freedom of the press? 18.10 End of investigation review: How does Australia’s legal system work?

Glossary Index Acknowledgements

475 488 498

Contents

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About the authors

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Dr Michael Adcock (he/him) (contributing author: History) is a History teacher who has taught junior classes in the government school system, and senior classes in the VCE and the IB in the private school system. He has also presented lectures to adult audiences, including the History Teachers’ Association of Victoria, the National Gallery of Victoria, the Lyceum Club and the Melbourne Club. He has led history and art tours for Academy Travel, Sydney, specialising in the history of Paris and the Russian Revolution, with visits to Moscow and St Petersburg. Michael has published books on the French Revolution with the HTAV and with Cambridge University Press.

Michael Adcock

Julie Bover (she/her) (co-author: Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Histories and Cultures) is a teacher and the co-founder of Goorlil Consulting with Sharon Davis. Julie has taught in early childhood and primary schools for over 10 years and has two degrees in education from the University of Canberra. She works hard to make schools and workplaces welcoming for everyone, especially First Nations students and LGBTIQA+ people. Julie also helps guide organisations that support gender diversity and fairness in schools. Together, Julie and Sharon use their knowledge and experiences to help make education better for all students.

Julie Bover

Holly Burgmann (she/her) (contributing author: Geography) is a Geography teacher with over 15 years’ experience teaching in NSW high schools. She has also worked in a number of NSW Environmental Education Centres where she developed programs and taught fieldwork excursions for K-12 students in Sydney’s natural and urban environments. She is passionate about getting students outside to conduct meaningful fieldwork and engage more deeply with the environments around them.

FPO

Holly Burgmann

Sharon Davis (they/them) (co-author: Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Histories and Cultures) is from the Bardi and Kija Peoples in the Kimberley, Western Australia. Sharon is the co-founder of Goorlil Consulting and passionate about making education better for everyone. Sharon has degrees in Education, including one from Oxford University in the UK, and has worked in important roles such as helping schools support Aboriginal students. They also work with national boards and groups to make schools safer and more inclusive for First Nations people. Together, Sharon and Julie use their knowledge and experiences to help make education better for all students.

Sharon Davis

Adrian De Fanti (he/him) (lead author: Geography) has taught Geography and Mathematics at secondary schools for over 15 years. In addition to his senior teaching lead, Adrian is his school’s timetabler and digital learning coach. Adrian has a particular interest in integrating technology into the Geography curriculum, including using Geographic Information Systems to analyse spatial data, tracking change over time using satellite imagery and collecting data in the field using geospatial technology. Adrian is also an active member of the Geography Teachers Association of Victoria, for which he regularly presents professional development sessions and revision lectures and writes a range of classroom resources.

Adrian De Fanti xii

About the authors

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Lyndon Pratt

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Lyndon Pratt (he/him) (contributing author: History) is an experienced teacher, specialising in Humanities and Literature. He has worked for seveal years at his current school, inspiring a love of the Humanities in students. Lyndon has written for the HTAV journal Agora on Australian history, and has experience teaching Humanities from Years 7 to 12. This includes Units 1 & 2 Modern History and Units 3 & 4 Australian History.

Brady Driscoll (she/her) (contributing author: History) is the Co-Head of Humanities at her current school. She has worked in Victorian schools for seven years and has experience teaching History, English and English language for Years 7–12. She has worked in curriculum development across multiple domains, and is passionate about History education. Brady won a scholarship for the Gandel Holocaust Studies Program for Australian Educators.

Brady Driscoll

Tisha Eggleston (she/her) (contributing author: History) is Head of History at her current school. She has been teaching for over 20 years in secondary schools in Australia and the United Kingdom. Tisha is an experienced teacher of History, English, Literature, English Language and Philosophy, working with curriculums including the General Certificate of Secondary Education in the UK, the Victorian and Australian Curriculums and the International Baccalaureate. She is dedicated to promoting the value of History for all students to foster critical thinking and empathy in our society.

Tisha Eggleston

Dr Kevin Gould (he/him) (lead author: Economics and Business and Civics and Citizenship) is an education management consultant, specialising in strategic planning and curriculum design. He is an advocate for a MAPLE Business Program in schools, whereby Business and Society studies are presented as an integrated alternative to STEM. Previously, Kevin was Foundation Principal of a senior secondary business college in Melbourne and Sydney. Prior to that, he was Head of the Business Department at the VCE top-ranked Taylors College at the time. His writings benefit from over 30 years of school teaching and university lecturing in Economics, Management, Business, Politics and Mathematics.

Kevin Gould

Ben Hoban (he/him) (contributing author: History) has been teaching history in government and independent secondary schools since 2009. He is passionate about history as a discipline, and is also an advocate for innovative learning and digital literacy as his school’s Leader of Digital Pedagogies. Ben is the co-author of Modern History Transformed Year 12 and lead author of Media Reframed First and Second Editions. Ben has been widely published in areas outside education including skateboarding and popular culture.

Ben Hoban

About the authors

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FPO

Bill Lewis

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Bill Lewis (he/him) (contributing author: History) is an experienced senior secondary History teacher in Victoria. He has contributed to textbooks, including being a coauthor of Cambridge’s Analysing Australian History: Power & Resistance, for the VCE Australian History curriculum. Bill is a frequent contributor to teacher and student lectures for the History Teachers Association of Victoria and written for their journal Agora. In 2017 he was recognised by the HTAV for outstanding contributions to the teaching and learning of history in Victoria.

Dr Stephen Powell (he/him) (lead author: History) has taught Year 7–12 History/ Humanities under the Australian Curriculum and the International Baccalaureate in Canberra for over a decade. Stephen holds a PhD in Modern History, and before entering teaching had a career in the public service, specialising in international negotiations. He has lived and worked in Victoria, Tasmania, the ACT, Samoa and the United States. Stephen won a scholarship for the Gandel Holocaust Studies Program for Australian Educators. His research and writing interests lie primarily in 20th-century history.

Stephen Powell

Adrienne Shelford (she/her) (cover illustrator) is a Maori-British illustrator and designer who strives to ensure all feel represented in her world of illustration. Graduating from Manchester School of Art, she began her career in textile design, and soon after set up her own small business. Since then, she has worked with clients globally, helping turn their ideas into reality and bringing diversity and inclusivity to their brands.

Adrienne Shelford

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About the authors

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How to use this resource Each part of the book begins with an overview including curriculum information.

Part 1

History

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

The QR code gives you instant access, via your phone, to videos addressing the overview content in more detail.

Watch the video for an introduction to History in Year 7 and the historical skills and concepts you will be working with.

Image: Rock painting of Wandjina by the Worrora People, located at Wunnumurra Gorge, Barnett River, Kimberley, Western Australia. This site is part of a continuous cultural and spiritual tradition that spans thousands of years, with the painting estimated to be over 4000 years old. The Wandjina are ancestral beings and rainmakers central to the Law and cultural responsibilities of the Worrora, Ngarinyin and Wunambal Peoples. The site is sacred and reflects an ongoing relationship between people, Country and ancestral beings.

Investigation openers include key information from the Victorian Curriculum v2.0 for the Humanities.

INVESTIGATION 2

CHAPTER 7

Ancient societies (10 000 bce – 600 ce)

How did ancient Rome change Europe and the Mediterranean world?

OVERVIEW

LESSON TITLE

[In this topic you will] … explore the rise and fall of ancient societies of Europe, Asia and Africa, their social and political organisation, significant individuals and groups, political and cultural ideas and their legacies. Source: VCAA, Victorian Curriculum V2.0, ‘History’, ‘Band description – Levels 7 and 8’

TOPIC OPTIONS

CURRICULUM GOALS

For this Investigation you must choose at least one of:

• How do we know about the past? • Why do societies change? • What makes a society? • What factors influence where

Chapter 3 – China

Chapter 4 – Egypt

Chapter 5 – Greece Chapter 6 – India

Chapter 7 – Rome

7.1

Setting the scene: What did Mount Vesuvius bury?

7.2

What were the key events in ancient Rome?

7.3

How and where did ancient Roman civilisation develop?

7.4

What social groups were there in ancient Rome?

7.5

What was daily life like in ancient Rome?

7.6

What were the significant beliefs, values and practices of the ancient Romans?

7.7

What were some of the major changes in society and their effects?

7.8

How did contact and conflict with other societies change ancient Rome?

7.9

What role did a significant individual like Julius Caesar play in ancient Rome?

7.10

Why is conserving the past so important?

7.11

End of topic assessment: How did ancient Rome change Europe and the Mediterranean world?

societies are established?

• How do people understand their world?

• What were the consequences of contact between societies?

• Why are there different

interpretations of the past?

Chapter titles are inquiry questions to drive your investigations. Each numbered chapter section is presented as a lesson, intended to cover a period of class time.

Source: VCAA, Victorian Curriculum V2.0,

‘History’, ‘Band description – Levels 7 and 8’

103

163

7.1

Chapters open with a Setting the scene story to get you thinking about the topic.

Setting the scene: What did Mount Vesuvius bury? Learning intention

In this lesson, we will learn about a major natural disaster that made it possible for people centuries later to learn about ancient Romans.

➜

Source 7.1.1 An illustration from 1866 ce that imagines Mount Vesuvius erupting.

➜

Source 7.1.4 A carbonised wooden cradle found in Pompeii. How could you use this primary source as evidence of what parents in ancient Pompeii had in common with parents today?

Amazing but true…

When building finished in 80 ce under Emperor Titus, the Colosseum was the largest amphitheatre ever. Over 50 000 spectators watched gladiator fights, mock sea battles, animal hunts, executions and dramas. How would you feel if you were living in ancient Rome and entered the Colosseum for the ﬁrst time?

Lesson 7.1 review Online quiz

Review questions

DOC

Research task

Go online to access the interactive lesson review and more!

Teachers can assign tasks and track results

7.1 Review questions

1 Recall when Mount Vesuvius erupted. 2 Summarise how the text describes the explosion of Mount Vesuvius. How powerful was the force of the eruption? 3 Describe how we know about the events of the eruption of Mount Vesivius today. What kinds of experts work to uncover what happened? 4 Explain whether the letter from Pliny the Younger is a primary or a secondary source. 5 Analyse how useful the letter from Pliny the Younger could be for historians trying to understand what it would have been like for people to experience this event.

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Each chapter section ends with a set of review questions, to check your recall of the material. An online auto-marked quiz is also available, as is a downloadable research task which can be used as extension material.

7.2

476 ce

What were the key events in ancient Rome?

c.200 ce

64 ce

In the last lesson, we looked at a story about the destruction of Pompeii by the eruption of Mount Vesuvius. In this lesson, we will learn about significant events during the rise, establishment and fall of ancient Rome.

49 bce

Julius Caesar becomes unpopular in Rome and his opponents start a civil war; Caesar wins and becomes the dictator of Rome

Lesson starter Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

KWL: Know, want to know, learned 1 What do you already know about Rome and how it began? Make a list of three things. 2 What would you like to find out about how civilisation in Rome began? Identify two things you want to know. 3 After working through this investigation, come back and identify one new thing that you have learned about the origins of ancient Rome.

27 bce

The Republic of Rome becomes the Roman Empire, now including Egypt. The first Emperor, Augustus, is the greatnephew of Julius Caesar

The ‘great fire’ of Rome. Emperor Nero blames the Christians, who are a new religious community

of Julius Caesar

Alaric the Goth sacks the city of Rome

Pompeii and Herculaneum are buried by the eruption of Mount Vesuvius Soon after, the Colosseum in Rome is opened

Rome becomes a republic, with senators to give advice to governments Rome expands by conquering more of the Italian peninsula

Gaius Julius Caesar is made Consul of Rome

A group of Roman senators murder Julius Caesar

58–51 bce Julius Caesar, a powerful consul and general, conquers Gaul (modern-day France) and tries to invade Britain but is forced to withdraw

264–146 bce

753 bce

Rome eventually defeats its greatest rival, after three wars against the African city-state of Carthage

Rome is founded by King Romulus, according to legend

Invasions result in Roman control over most of Greece and the Middle East

Emperor Constantine accepts Christianity as a religion. He brings centuries of Christians being persecuted to an end, and starts the process of Christianity becoming the official religion of the empire

Source 7.2.4 A gold solidus of Constantine, from roughly 313 ce

sack to invade and destroy a city barbarian someone from another place who spoke a diﬀerent language; for ancient Romans, a barbarian was any person who was not part of the Roman Empire

44 bce 59 bce 509 bce

410 ce

313 ce

79 ce 43 ce Emperor Claudius begins the Roman conquest of Britain

Source 7.2.2 A statue

The borders of the Roman Empire come under increased attacks by barbarian tribes. Civil wars weaken the empire

The Roman Empire is split into the eastern and western empires

➜

of Augustus

Learning intention

➜

History chapters include a second lesson per chapter featuring a timeline charting key events in the topic.

German chief Odoacer defeats Romulus, and the western Roman Empire ends

395 ce

➜ Source 7.2.3 A statue

Lesson 7.2 review Online quiz

Review questions

DOC

Research task

Go online to access the interactive lesson review and more!

Teachers can assign tasks and track results

7.2 Review questions republic a government where power is held by people’s representatives, not a king or queen senators politicians who have been elected to a senate founded when something new is created by a people, generally a city or place

1 Use the timeline to identify three challenges faced by ancient Romans. These could be natural disasters, major changes or attacks. 2 Explain the difference between a ‘republic’ and an ‘empire’ (clue: who is in charge?). Then use the timeline to identify how long Rome was a republic, and how long Rome was an empire.

consul the leader of Rome; during the Roman Republic, two consuls were elected into office every year

➜

Source 7.2.1 A statue of the myth of the founding of Rome, showing a she-wolf nursing Romulus and Remus

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How to use this resource

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Lessons start with student-friendly Learning intentions to guide you through your inquiry.

➜ Source 7.7.2 A

representation of the Roman senate, with senators wearing togas, painted in 1899 ce. In what ways does it look similar to a modern parliament?

Learning intention Having seen what the Romans built, what they believed and how they spent their days, in this lesson we will learn about how changes in power structures affected the people of Rome.

Lesson starter Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

See, think, wonder 1 See: Look closely at the Roman coin (Source 7.7.1). 2 Think: How does this compare with voting today? 3 Wonder: What is something that could go wrong with this style of voting?

Source 7.7.1 A Roman coin from 63 bce showing a citizen voting. Citizens carved the initials of their preferred candidate into a wax tablet and then dropped the tablet into a box.

Over the centuries, Rome was ruled first as a kingdom, then as a republic and later as an empire. There were major changes in the way Rome was ruled and how much say ordinary people had in those decisions.

In 509 bce, the last king of Rome was overthrown and a republic was created. For Romans, res publica (‘the public thing’) meant a type of government where the male citizens elected representatives to rule on their behalf. Two consuls ruled the republic together so that no one person would have sole rule over Rome

• Tribunes were elected by the plebeians’ assembly. They had the power to veto the Senate’s laws.

tribunes elected officials whose job was to protect the people’s rights

• There were multiple assemblies: for plebeians, the army and religious groups. These could be attended by all citizens of the group, and then decisions were taken by votes of representatives of the groups.

veto a legal power to stop or cancel an official action or decision

Consuls (2)

• The two consuls were the main decision makers. Both consuls had the right to veto the other’s decisions, and they were only elected to head the government for one year.

Senators (300–500)

• Two censors were chosen to conduct a regular census of the population (a head-count), and to investigate the private lives of citizens to make sure they were upholding Roman values.

Tribunes (10)

Assembly (all citizens of Rome vote)

• Senators were wealthy patricians who were appointed for life. They voted on what advice to give the consuls.

at any time. The consuls ruled with the assistance of a senate.

Source 7.7.3 The government of the Roman Republic. What feature did the most to keep the government balanced?

Amazing but true …

Amazing but true fact boxes provide additional engaging information to bring each topic to life.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Over time, the plebeians became angry at the power of the patricians. The plebeians protested, went on strike and refused to join the army, until gradually they gained more rights.

Glossary terms are bolded in the text, defined on the page and collated at the end of the textbook for easy reference.

➜

The Republic senate the group of politicians who had the most power to make laws in a government

First, they won the right to elect their own representatives, called tribunes, to represent their views. Around 450 bce, they won ‘the Law of the Twelve Tables’, which was a list of basic rights of all citizens. From the next century, one of the two consuls would have to be plebeian. By 287 bce, the plebeians had equality under Roman law. Their assemblies and their laws were part of the politics and government of Rome. Decisions about laws and military matters were shared in the republic:

➜

Most lessons begin with a lesson starter activity which can be used to break the ice in a new Humanities class.

7.7

What were some of the major changes in society and their effects?

Chapter 7: How did ancient Rome change Europe and the Mediterranean world?

Concepts and skills builder 7.5

The Forum

Using historical sources

The Forum was considered the heart of Rome. It was a large square where people gathered for a range of public activities. Events held at the Forum included elections, public meetings and speeches, criminal trials, gladiator matches (before the Colosseum was built), social gatherings, business dealings, religious ceremonies and markets.

Roman sports captured the imaginations of artists at the time and have continued to ever since. Examine Sources 7.5.5–7.5.7, then answer the questions that follow.

193

The senate house located at the Forum hosted political events. There was also a temple dedicated to Saturn, the god of agriculture. The Forum was also used as a treasury, which meant that Rome’s money was managed and kept there.

➜

Source 7.5.5 A detail of a mosaic showing gladiators fighting, c.320 ce

Source 7.5.6 Pollice Verso (‘With a turned thumb’) by Jean-Leon Gerome, 1872 ce ➜

Source 7.5.8 A reconstruction of what the Forum in ancient Rome might have looked like. Which part do you think Roman leaders would have used as their platform for public speeches?

Lesson 7.5 review Online quiz

Review questions

DOC

Research task

Go online to access the interactive lesson review and more!

Teachers can assign tasks and track results

7.5 Review questions

➜ Source 7.5.7 A mosaic from a villa in Sicily, from the fourth century ce, showing women playing sport with weights and a discus

1 Identify two types of Roman construction related to water. 2 Evaluate the evidence that remains today of water management in different territories of the empire, referring to sources in this chapter. 3 Explain the place of gladiators in Roman society. a Why did people enjoy watching gladiators? b Why did some people want to become gladiators? 4 Analyse how awesome building projects could have encouraged people to feel proud to be Roman, using examples.

1 In Source 7.5.5, which kind of gladiator is about to lose? Explain his fighting method. 2 Explain how the crowd showed the emperor whether they wanted the defeated gladiator to live, or to be condemned to death, based on Source 7.5.6. 3 How does Source 7.5.7 challenge the idea that ancient Roman sport was only for men? Historical concepts and skills: perspectives, using historical sources, communicating

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1.6

Analyse the following historical source, using the questions below.

Access the Interactive Textbook for a range of digital tools to help you review this topic, including: • Downloadable chapter summary • Scorcher timed competitive quiz.

Brain dump

What have you learnt about the ancient world? For this activity, copy the diagram and fill out by explaining your understanding. Aim for two points per topic.

Topic When was the ancient world? What were some of the earliest societies? What did some of the earliest societies have in common? How did humans migrate and develop? How did people come to the Australian continent? What were the key features of the earliest societies? How do historians and archaeologists investigate ancient societies?

What I have learned

Source 1.6.2 Burial chamber of Menna, the king’s scribe. Scene: threshing of grain, c.1422–1411 bce, ancient Egypt

a Who do you think created this source? b When was it created?

Additional online activities to test your knowledge of the topic are available in the Interactive Textbook.

c Who do you think the intended audience was for this painting?

d How did the domestication of animals (herding) and the cultivation of crops impact early civilisations in regions like Africa or Central Asia?

Practice questions 1

Additional sourcebased analysis questions provide extra opportunities to think more deeply about the information presented in the textbook.

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End of topic review: The ancient world – How did civilisation begin?

➜

The end of chapter activities contain a variety of concluding tasks to consolidate and extend your learning.

Cambridge Investigating Humanities for the Victorian Curriculum 7

➜

Concepts and skills builder activities employ key Humanities concepts from the Victorian Curriculum v2.0, and enable you to develop a range of skills while engaging with the topic.

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The white toga was a semi-circular, woollen cloth that was draped over the left shoulder and around the body. The wearer had to hold the toga in place with his left hand, which meant that he could only really use his right hand. Women in ancient Rome wore an equivalent garment known as a stola.

Identify and explain why the object in the image below was significant for our understanding of the past.

Response to chapter inquiry question: How did civilisation begin?

Write a paragraph in response to the question using all the key terms listed: • stratigraphy • excavation

• DNA testing

• domestication.

➜ Source 1.6.1 Visitors to the British Museum in

London inspect the Rosetta Stone.

Cambridge Investigating Humanities for the Victorian Curriculum 7

Chapter 1: Overview: The ancient world – How did civilisation begin?

The Interactive Textbook is an online version of the print text, with many additional features:

Audio and video

Research tasks

Scorcher challenge at the end of each chapter

Quiz at the end of each section/lesson

Review questions can be answered in the Interactive Textbook platform, and tracked using reporting tools.

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How to use this resource

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Introduction: What do we need to know about and do when learning about First Nations Peoples?

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Sharon Davis and Julie Bover

Student version: This document.

Teacher version: An extensive teacher resource is available in the Online Teaching Suite.

Video Introduction to students from Sharon and Julie

Starting your learning journey Humanities is about exploring the connections between people, places, cultures and histories. For Australians, it’s a chance to engage with the stories and cultures that shape our nation’s identity. By learning from various perspectives, we expand our understanding of the humanities, think critically, appreciate diverse experiences and work towards a more inclusive future.

Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples have cared for and maintained deep relationships with the lands and waters across this continent for over 65,000 years. Wherever we are in Australia, we are on Aboriginal and/or Torres Strait Islander land. Learning about First Nations histories and cultures helps all students understand who we are as a nation, and why truth-telling and respect matter in classrooms and beyond.

What is cultural safety?

Cultural safety ensures that people feel respected, valued and supported in their identity, culture and history. It

creates environments where individuals can confidently engage without fear of judgement, exclusion or discrimination.

Introduction: What do we need to know about and do when learning about First Nations Peoples?

cultural safety ensuring people feel secure, respected and supported in their cultural identity. This concept can only be validated by individuals from the culture experiencing it.

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What is cultural safety? Cultural safety ensures that people feel respected, valued and supported in their identity, culture and history. It creates environments where individuals can confidently engage without fear of judgement, exclusion or discrimination. This is especially important when engaging with Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people, whose cultures are the the longest continuing cultures on Earth.

challenging behaviours, practices and biases that may contribute to inequality. Cultural safety can only be decided by the people experiencing it. It is not something that schools or teachers can label on their own. It comes from listening, showing respect and taking responsibility.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

cultural safety ensuring people feel secure, respected and supported in their cultural identity. This concept can only be validated by individuals from the culture experiencing it

Cultural safety involves addressing power imbalances, systemic injustices and racism to create inclusive spaces where everyone belongs. It goes beyond recognising diversity by reflecting on and

As June Oscar AO, former Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Social Justice Commissioner, explains: ‘Cultural safety is about creating environments where Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples feel safe and secure in their identity, culture and community.’

Why do we need cultural safety? Since 1788, the arrival of the British, under the the legal fiction of terra nullius, has led to the violent dispossession of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples. Policies that removed children, restricted access to lands, denied language and culture, and silenced truth have caused long-lasting

harm. Racism, whether interpersonal, institutional or systemic, continues to affect many areas of life today. Cultural safety responds to these ongoing harms and offers a way forward by helping to create inclusive, just and respectful spaces.

➜

Image: Cultural safety ensures students from all backgrounds feel respected and valued

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What does cultural safety look like in the classroom? 3

Reflect on your actions and privilege • Practise critical self-reflection: Consider how your beliefs and actions might affect others. For example, ask: • Do I create space for everyone to contribute?

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Creating cultural safety in the classroom means making it a place where all students, especially those from Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander communities, feel respected, valued and able to express their identity without fear of judgement or discrimination. Here are some actions you, as students, can take to help foster cultural safety in your learning environment: 1

• Have I ignored or dismissed another view because it was different from mine?

Be an active listener

• Understand systems: Racism is not just personal – it can be embedded in policies and institutions. Notice when rules or systems treat people unfairly and think about your role in changing them.

• Listen without interrupting: When Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people share their stories and perspectives, listen deeply and respectfully. • Ask questions thoughtfully: If you are curious, ask in a way that respects boundaries. For example, 'Would you feel comfortable sharing more about that?' Some things may not be yours to know or ask.

Respect and learn about cultures

Challenge racism and stereotypes

• Acknowledge Country: Begin your day or class by showing respect for the Traditional Owners of the land you are on. This can be an Acknowledgement of Country or another respectful practice.

• Speak up: If you hear a harmful comment about someone’s culture or background, say something. For example, 'That comment might be hurtful. Can we talk about why?'

• Participate respectfully: Explore the significance of important dates like NAIDOC Week with an open mind and willingness to learn and reflect.

• Think critically about language: Use respectful and accurate terms when discussing Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander histories and cultures. Avoid stereotypes or deficit-focused language.

• Uplift First Nations voices: Celebrate the excellence and knowledge of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people in all areas of life including art, science, sport, activism, and education.

Activity: Reflect and respond

1 What does the phrase 'Wherever you are in Australia, you’re on Aboriginal and/or Torres Strait Islander land' mean to you? Think about what this tells us about the history of this place, and how we can show respect to First Nations Peoples today. 2 Why is cultural safety important in schools and communities? How does it help make spaces more respectful, fair, and welcoming for everyone? 3 Can you think of a time when you saw cultural safety being practised? What made it work well? Is there anything that could have made the experience even more respectful or inclusive?

Introduction: What do we need to know about and do when learning about First Nations Peoples?

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U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES Image: Photograph of a German A7V tank captured by Australian soldiers in 1918, near the end of World War I. World War I was the first ‘mechanised’ war, with new weapons like tanks developed due to changes brought about by the Industrial Revolution. In Year 9 History, we will explore a range of modern world topics, including Australians at War, covering the period from 1750 to 1945.

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Part 1

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

History

FPO <QR>

Watch the video for an introduction to History in Year 9 and the historical skills and concepts you will be working with

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CHAPTER 1

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Overview: The early modern world – How did the world change between 1750 and 1945?

LESSON TITLE 1.1

Setting the scene: An introduction to the modern world

1.2

What was the Industrial Revolution?

1.3

What were the consequences of the Industrial Revolution, the movement of people and European imperialism?

1.4

What significant ideas and developments in this period shaped society and politics?

1.5

What other significant events changed the world between 1900 and 1945?

1.6

End of investigation review: How did the world change between 1750 and 1945?

➜

Image: Hand coloured engraving from the Illustrated London News, 28 August 1852 titled ‘The “GREAT BRITAIN” steam-ship leaving Prince’s Pier, Liverpool, for Australia’ depicting the SS Great Britain. Courtesy of the Australian National Maritime Museum Collection.

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1.1

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Setting the scene: An introduction to the modern world Learning intention

In this lesson, you will look at the events of the mid-18th century that marked the beginning of the modern era. The pre-modern world began to change with the Age of Exploration in the late 1400s. However, the modern era truly began with the Industrial Revolution in 1750. This period saw new scientific and political ideas transform economies, governments and societies around the world. Several key moments around 1750

As we progress through this and the next few lessons, we will take a closer look at the Industrial Revolution. But first, let’s consider the world in which it emerged.

Source 1.1.2 Joseph Turner (British painter), The Fighting Temeraire tugged to her last berth to be broken up, 1838. This famous painting from 1839 shows the last remaining British navy sailing ship that fought in the Battle of Trafalgar being towed away for scrap by a steam-powered tugboat. ➜

➜

Source 1.1.1 The Battle of Trafalgar is a painting by British artist Clarkson Frederick Stanfield from 1836. It depicts the Battle of Trafalgar of 1805, a famous naval battle between British and combined French and Spanish sailing ships.

mark the shift from the pre-modern to the modern world.

Chapter 1: Overview: The early modern world – How did the world change between 1750 and 1945?

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U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Overview: The making of the modern world

UNITED KINGDOM

RUSSIAN EMPIRE

GERMANY

FRANCE ITALY SPAIN PORTUGAL

CHINESE EMPIRE

PERSIA

ARABIA

AFRICA

INDIA

JAPANESE EMPIRE

PHILIPPINES

EAST INDIES

INDIAN OCEAN

AUSTRALIA

Division of the world into colonies and colonisers circa 1900 British French Portuguese United States Dutch Italian German Japanese Belgian Russian Spanish Ottoman

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Nature of the Industrial Revolution

Living and working conditions

Key industries of the Industrial Revolution included cotton and steel production, and the development of steam engines revolutionised factories and railways. In the late 19th century, the development of the internal combustion engine led to the first cars and aeroplanes, as well as advances in industrial chemicals.

Workers in mines and factories faced unhealthy living conditions and unsafe working conditions. This led to the formation of trade unions and Factory Acts to regulate wages and conditions. In Australia, the Conciliation and Arbitration Commission was established in 1904 to resolve problems between unions and employers.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

GREENLAND

ESE E

NORTH AMERICA

ATLANTIC OCEAN

Convicts

Convicts were transported to penal colonies, such as the British colonies in eastern and western Australia.

MEXICO

WEST INDIES

PACIFIC OCEAN

Slavery

The trade in enslaved persons from Africa brought wealth to the countries controlling slavery. Over 12 million slaves were transported between the 15th and 19th centuries. Abolition movements led to the end of slavery throughout the 19th century.

SOUTH AMERICA

Activity: Historical overview

1 Identify two continents where Britain gained colonies during this period. 2 Explain the positive and negative impacts of imperial expansion.

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European imperialism Between the 15th and 19th centuries, Portugal, Spain, the Netherlands, Belgium, France, Britain and Germany all established far-flung empires, which carved up Asia, the Americas, Africa and the Pacific (see the map on this spread). The Ottoman (Turkish), Austro-Hungarian and Russian Empires dominated central and eastern Europe and much of the Middle East.

Source 1.1.3 An undated political cartoon showing European empires (Britain and Portugal) squabbling over new territories

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

➜

1779

1737

John Harrison invents the first accurate time-keeping device to be used at sea 1752 to measure American location scientist Benjamin Franklin experiments with lightning rods

1701

1698

Jethro Tull invents an efficient machine to sow seeds

Thomas Savery invents the first commercial steam engine

1764

1774

James Hargreaves invents the Spinning Jenny

James Watt joins forces with Matthew Boulton to open a factory making steam engines at Soho in Birmingham

Samuel Crompton further develops the Spinning Jenny with his Spinning Mule Thomas Pritchard designs the world’s first iron bridge, and it is built at Coalbrookdale by Abraham Darby

1785

Watt’s steam engine is first used to replace water power in a cotton mill

1784

Edmund Cartwright designs the first powered loom for weaving cloth

1762

1712

Thomas Newcomen improves the steam engine and designs the first steamdriven beam engine

The sandwich is invented, and named after its inventor, Sir John Montagu, the Fourth Earl of Sandwich

1771

Richard Arkwright opens a waterpowered mill at Cromford in Derbyshire

1782

In France, the Montgolfier brothers undertake experiments with the hot-air balloon

Source 1.1.4 A model of a steam engine from 1712

➜

Source 1.1.5 The first recorded piloted flight was made in a hot-air balloon built by the Montgolfier brothers on 21 November 1783

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Source 1.1.7 A tunnel on the world’s first intercity railway, the Liverpool-to-Manchester railway line. Constructed under the guidance of chief engineer George Stephenson (1781–1848), the building of the railway was a major civil engineering project.

➜ ➜

Source 1.1.6 Trevithick’s locomotive

The Great Exhibition is held in London. It is the ‘shopfront’ displaying the wonderful new products of the Industrial Revolution, and some six million people visit it

1829

1811–1816

George Stephenson designs his train The Rocket, which reaches a record speed of 46 km per hour

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

1801

1851

In the Luddite Riots, workers smash many new factory machines, fearing that they would put people out of work

1796

French inventor Joseph 1789 Edward Jenner Jacquard invents a loom A canal is built to demonstrates that uses hole-punched instruction cards to link the Thames vaccination weave detailed patterns and the Severn against smallpox River, creating 1801 an expanded Richard Trevithick builds waterway his first steam carriage

1795

The invention of canned The modern form food, massively of false teeth is helping the invented, bringing provisioning of much relief to the armies in the toothless field

1788

1804

Richard Trevithick designs the first steam locomotive

1816

A canal from Leeds to Liverpool is completed

1806

1825

1838

Isambard Kingdom Brunel starts his stellar career in building bridges, tunnels, railway lines and steamships, dominating the industrial scene until 1859

George Stephenson constructs a railway line from Stockton to Darlington, 40 km in length

The Liverpool-toManchester railway is extended to London, making it some 400 km in length

Global trade and exploration

Source 1.1.8 A painting of a British East India Company trading ship from 1815 ➜

Global trade and exploration, as well as geopolitical rivalries, were becoming central to shaping the modern world. A major example of trade and exploration at this time was the English East India Company (later the British East India Company). This company was formed in 1600, and by the mid-1700s it controlled half the world's trade and ruled over hundreds of millions of Indian people.

Activity: Historical overview

1 What can you tell from the information in the timeline about the rate of new inventions during the Industrial Revolution? 2 Outline the changes to people’s daily lives brought about by the Industrial Revolution. 3 Of all the inventions listed in the timeline, which one arguably had the greatest impact on changing the world?

Chapter 1: Overview: The early modern world – How did the world change between 1750 and 1945?

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Geopolitical rivalries

The Treaty of Madrid was signed between Spain and Portugal. It redefined the borders of colonial holdings in South America, showing how European powers were making decisions about

vast lands and resources on other continents. The Seven Years’ War resulted from years of land disputes between major European powers and their allies. As a result of this war, France lost its claims to land in North America and India, while Great Britain gained land in North America. The conflict sped up the decline of feudal powers and showed that modern nation-states were eager to expand their global influence.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

geopolitical rivalries competition among European powers for colonies, contributing to tensions leading up to World War I

Along with global trade and exploration, geopolitical rivalries played a key role in shaping the modern world. Two major events of the mid-1700s were the Treaty of Madrid in 1750 and the Seven Years’ War, which began in 1754.

colonial holdings territories controlled and governed by a foreign power or empire

➜

Source 1.1.9 French-style architecture in modern-day Canada recalls the region’s history as the French colony of

‘New France’, which was ceded to Britain at the end of the Seven Years’ War.

Go online to access the interactive lesson review and more!

Lesson 1.1 review Online quiz

Review questions

DOC

Research task

Teachers can assign tasks and track results

1.1 Review questions 1 Explain how Sources 1.1.1 and 1.1.2 show change over time. 2 Which two powerful European empires signed the Treaty of Madrid in 1750? 3 Which two powerful European empires fought in the Seven Years’ War between 1756 and 1763?

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1.2

What was the Industrial Revolution? Learning intention

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Last lesson, we explored the growth of European imperialism in the 18th century. In this lesson, you will examine a major change that helped shape the modern world: the Industrial Revolution.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

See, think, wonder

1 See: How would you describe the bridge in Source 1.2.1? How is it different to medieval bridges? 2 Think: What significant changes had to happen to allow this bridge to be built? 3 Wonder: What do you wonder? ➜

Source 1.2.1 The Iron Bridge in Shropshire, England, the world’s first bridge constructed of iron. Construction began in 1777 and it was opened to traffic in 1781.

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The birth of industry in Britain ➜

This period marked the shift from agrarian economies to industrialised ones, beginning in Britain.

Source 1.2.2

Significant inventions of the Industrial Revolution

Manufacturing

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U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Innovations in textile manufacturing, such as the spinning jenny and power loom, transformed fabric production. Work moved from small, rural workshops or homes to large, urban factories.

Source 1.2.3 Small-scale production of yarn

Source 1.2.4 A water-powered textile mill. This diagram shows how water power was used to drive factory machines. Water-powered mills had to be built in remote, steep valleys where rivers flowed strongly. However, production could be affected if drought caused rivers to dry up. From what you can see, what do you think working conditions were like in the textile mill? Who is operating the machinery? What skills were required to operate the machinery? ➜

spinning jenny a multi-spindle spinning frame that revolutionised weaving by allowing a worker to spin multiple threads of yarn at once

4. Power looms. These weave the individual threads into pieces of cloth.

3. Spinning machines. These turn the fibres into thread.

2. Carding and drawing machines. The raw cotton fibres are fed into these machines, which straignten and loosely twist them.

1. The large wheel is turned by running water from a river or stream, later replaced by rotary steam engines. A system of belts and shafts are turned by the wheel, providing power to the machines. 12 Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press and Assessment © De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62416-9 • Ph 03 8671 1400

Power Source 1.2.4 shows a textile mill powered by water. This greatly increased production compared to hand-powered machines (such as the original spinning jenny in Source 1.2.3). However, the most significant invention of the Industrial Revolution was steam power. Early inventors Thomas Savery, and then Thomas Newcomen and John Calley had used steam-powered pumps to remove water from mines.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Key

Iron and steel

Orkney Islands

Ship building Tin mining Pottery

Textiles

LANCASHIRE AND YORKSHIRE MILL TOWNS

Accrington Blackburn Preston

Coalfield

Population employed in industry Under 45%

Aberdeen

Burnley

Around 45% to 60%

Bradford Leeds Halifax

Over 60%

SCOTLAND Dundee Clydebank

Newcastle-under-Lyme Huddersfield Bolton Oldham St Helens Barnsley Salford Manchester Liverpool Stockport Widnes

Greenock Paisley

Glasgow Edinburgh New Lanark

North Sea

Newcastle Sunderland

Belfast

Dungannon

Darlington

ISLE OF MAN

Armagh

Irish Sea

IRELAND

York

Kingston upon Hull Grimsby

Liverpool Stockport

Dublin

Hartlepool

Stockton

Stoke-on-Trent

Broseley WALES

Stafford

Sheffield Cromford Nottingham

Norwich

Derby

Great Yarmouth

ENGLAND Coventry Birmingham Northampton

Merthyr Luton Tydfil Cheltenham Enfield Newport

Llanelli Swansea Cardiff

Bristol

Reading

Brighton

Southampton

Exeter

Plymouth 0

150

300 km

Broadstairs Gravesend Folkstone Dover

London

Hastings

Portsmouth

Torquay

English Channel

Falmouth

➜

Source 1.2.5 This map of Britain’s industrial economy circa 1800 shows that factories were built in areas where there were good supplies of coal and iron and near major ports. These ports allowed raw materials to be imported and finished goods to be exported to foreign markets. Chapter 1: Overview: The early modern world – How did the world change between 1750 and 1945?

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steam engine a key invention driving industrialisation and powering factories canal a long, thin stretch of water that is artificially made for boats to travel along

Transportation

roads could not handle the demand, so the first innovation was to develop a canal network, connecting Britain’s rivers and ports. This allowed barges, which could carry heavier loads than carts on roads, to get to and from manufacturing centres. The biggest transport innovation came with the realisation that the steam engine could also power vehicles. This led to the invention of steam locomotives, the expansion of railway networks and the development of steamships.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

railway a mode of overland transport enabling fast movement of goods and people, crucial to industrial and urban growth

Then, in 1769, James Watt patented a new type of steam engine that revolutionised mining and manufacturing. His steam engine provided more power and was not limited by water availability, allowing factories to produce goods faster and more efficiently.

As production in Britain increased, so did the need for better transport to move raw materials and finished goods. Existing

steamships steampowered vessels that revolutionised maritime trade by improving speed and reliability, connecting Europe to global markets

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Source 1.2.6 George Stephenson’s steam locomotive Rocket, designed in 1829. What features in this image are similar to modern trains?

Why Britain?

Several key factors explain why the Industrial Revolution began in Britain:

• Britain had abundant natural resources, including coal and iron, which were essential for powering and building machinery. Coal fuelled steam engines, while iron was used to construct factories, machines and railways. Britain’s colonies also provided raw materials like cotton and markets for British goods.

• In the 18th century, farming techniques improved, allowing Britain to produce more food. This reduced famine and led to population growth. A larger population meant more factory workers and greater demand for goods.

• Britain had a strong economy. Wealthy investors were willing to fund new industries, and banks, stock markets and a stable government supported economic growth.

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Britain was also at peace with other nations during this time, allowing businesses to expand and develop new technologies. Inventions like the spinning jenny made textiles easier and cheaper to produce, while the factory system allowed goods to be produced efficiently and in the one place.

factory system an organised method of production with structured working hours and division of tasks, central to industrialisation

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Concepts and skills builder 1.2 Using historical sources

During the 1830s and 1840s, Britain went through a railway boom as industry grew and people needed better transport. Parliament approved more and more railway lines, showing the excitement and confidence of the time. In the 1830s, early railways like the Liverpool and Manchester Railway (opened in 1830) proved that steam trains could be fast and reliable. The biggest growth came in the 1840s during ‘Railway Mania’ (1845–1847), when people invested huge amounts of money in railway projects, often without careful planning.

Length of railway approved by Parliament

5000 4500 4000 3500

Miles

3000 2500 2000 1500 1000 500

0 1830

1835

1840

1845

1850

1855

Year

➜

Source 1.2.7 Total mileage of railway construction sanctioned by Parliament in the 1830s and 1840s. Data from Neil Tonge, Industrialisation and Society, 1993, p. 162.

1 Describe this source. Where does the data come from? 2 What event may have caused the sudden increase in railway construction in 1833? 3 In which year was the largest increase in railway construction compared to the previous year (in number of miles, not percentage)? 4 Why do you think railway approvals were low between 1838–1841 but dramatically increased from 1845–1847? 5 Suggest a reason for the sharp drop in approvals after the peak in 1847. Historical concepts and skills: chronology, using historical sources

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Industrialisation spreads

Germany

resources, including coal, oil and timber, and a growing population of workers and consumers. The transcontinental railway connected mines, lumberyards and oil fields to cities and towns, allowing industries to expand. Inventions like the telegraph, telephone and assembly line helped modernise production, making the United States a global leader in industry.

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transcontinental railway a railway that crosses an entire continent, connecting distant regions

The Industrial Revolution quickly spread worldwide. European countries like Germany and France followed Britain’s lead in the late 19th century, while other regions industrialised at different times and in different ways.

unification the process of combining separate regions or states into one nation

Meiji Restoration a period of rapid modernisation in Japan that transformed politics, the economy and society

Germany’s industrialisation surged after unification in 1871. The country developed strong steel and chemical industries, using its rich coal and iron resources in the Ruhr Valley. Science and engineering scholars at German universities also contributed to technological innovation and economic growth through their research.

United States

By the late 19th century, the United States had become a major industrial power. The country had abundant natural

Japan

Japan began industrialising during the Meiji Restoration (1868–1912). The government modernised the economy by adopting Western technologies and practices. Japan developed industries like textiles and shipbuilding while expanding its railways and coal mining. This allowed Japan to compete with Western powers and become a major industrial and military force in Asia. Key

Current international boundaries

ASIA

Atlantic Ocean

1840s

1850s

1860s

1870s

1880s

EUROPE

Black Sea

ASIA Mediterranean Sea

200 400 km

➜

Source 1.2.8 The initial spread of the Industrial Revolution from Britain

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Source 1.2.9 The Tokyo Koishikawa Arsenal, established in 1871, allowed Japan to manufacture modern rifles.

India

Industrialisation in India was slower due to British colonial rule. The British built railways and factories, but much of the industry benefited Britain rather than local communities.

Before colonisation, India had one of the largest fabric industries in the world. Under British rule, however, raw cotton was exported to Britain instead of being processed in India, which caused the local fabric industry to collapse.

Impact of industrialisation The Industrial Revolution reshaped economies, societies and environments worldwide. It encouraged innovation but also worsened inequalities between

industrialised and non-industrialised regions. This transformation laid the foundation for the interconnected, industrialised world we live in today.

Lesson 1.2 review Online quiz

Review questions

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Research task

Go online to access the interactive lesson review and more!

Teachers can assign tasks and track results

1.2 Review questions

1 Explain the key factors that made Britain the starting point of the Industrial Revolution. 2 Explain how technological innovations like the spinning jenny transformed societies. 3 Compare the spread of industrialisation in Germany and Japan. How did their experiences differ?

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1.3

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

What were the consequences of the Industrial Revolution, the movement of people and European imperialism? Learning intention

Last lesson, we explored the causes of the Industrial Revolution. In this lesson, you will examine its consequences, as well as those of the movement of people and European imperialism that it drove.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

What makes you say that?

1 Look closely at every detail in this painting of the industrial town of Sheffield. Based on what you observe, how would you describe living conditions in Sheffield during the Industrial Revolution? 2 What specific details in the image support your view? Do you think the painting presents a positive or negative portrayal of life in Sheffield at the time? The monumental Town Hall is an expression of city pride

The city has numerous churches. Many religions preached the idea of social conscience.

Factory and fumance of the Sheffield Steel Works

The massive iron and glass railway station was built in 1870

A steam train pulls seven passenger carriages and a guard van

In this suburb, a large number of smaller mills have been established Workers relax in a yard where stone mill wheels are made

These rows of houses have been built to house workers who have to live near the mills

Despite the use of steam engines to pull heavy loads, horse power was still extensively used for smaller deliveries

England’s growing population, concentrated in industrial cities, created a massive increase in demand for coal for domestic heating

A woman labours to wash clothing in a tub

Well-to-do people, perhaps a mill owner and his family, enjoy a view over the city from a hilltop

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Source 1.3.1 View of Sheffield, the great steel-making town, c.1870

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The Industrial Revolution transformed manufacturing, laying the foundation for urbanisation and global industrialisation. The rise of factory systems reshaped work and society, signalling a departure from feudal and agrarian traditions.

The Industrial Revolution brought economic growth and technological progress, but it also widened social inequalities and caused environmental damage. These developments laid the foundations for the modern industrialised world, shaping how we produce, work and trade today.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

These changes reshaped social organisation. Many people moved to cities in search of factory jobs, and industrial towns grew rapidly. The factory system introduced structured working hours and a division of tasks to improve efficiency. However, it also led to harsh working conditions, child labour and limited workers’ rights.

Trade expanded dramatically during this period. Improved transportation technologies like railways, steamships and canals made it possible to transport goods faster and in greater quantities. This allowed manufacturers to sell their products internationally, helping Britain become a dominant economic power.

Urbanisation and the growth of industrial towns

urbanisation the movement of people from rural areas (such as farms or small towns) to towns and cities

Urbanisation and the expansion of industrial towns in Europe were key features of the Industrial Revolution. This period saw a major shift in population as people moved from rural areas to cities in search of work in the rapidly growing industries.

SCOTLAND

Distribution of North population in 1700 East Approximate population per square kilometre North 700 West Yorkshire 60–80 and the 40–60 Humber 20–40 Under 20

North West

East Midlands

West Midlands

East of England

Wales

Distribution of population in 1801 Approximate population per square kilometre Over 100 80–100 Yorkshire 60–80 and the 40–60 Humber 20–40 Under 20 East Midlands

North East

East of England

West Midlands

Wales

London South East

est South W

0 50 100 km

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Source 1.3.2 The distribution of population in Britain in 1700 and 1801, with present-day regional boundaries. The total population rose from just over 6 million in 1700 to about 10.5 million in 1801. Notice how the north-west region, sparsely populated in 1700, became one of the most densely populated areas in 1801, at least in its southern part, while its northern half remained less densely populated.

Chapter 1: Overview: The early modern world – How did the world change between 1750 and 1945?

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In the 18th century, it was a small market town. However, with the invention of the spinning jenny and power loom in the 19th century, it became the centre of Britain’s textile industry. The construction of the Bridgewater Canal in 1761 improved transportation, making it easier to import raw cotton and export textiles. By 1851, Manchester’s population had surged to over 300,000. The city’s rapid growth led to overcrowding, poor housing and public health crises. In response, city officials built sewer systems and developed a way to bring clean water from lakes to the city.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Urbanisation brought both opportunities and challenges. Industrial towns contributed to economic growth, but they also created significant social and environmental problems. Housing shortages meant many workers lived in overcrowded and unsanitary slums. Public health crises, such as cholera outbreaks, were common due to a lack of clean water. The growth of industrial towns also led to major social changes. The working class emerged as a distinct group, living near their workplaces. However, their lives were difficult – working long hours for low wages in unsafe conditions. These challenges led to movements for social and political change. Trade unions formed, and workers demanded better living and working conditions.

Manchester, England

The city of Manchester became a symbol of the Industrial Revolution.

Shanghai, China

Shanghai transformed from a modest trading town into one of China’s most important industrial and commercial centres. This transformation was possible because of its location at the mouth of the Yangtze River and the impact of European imperialism.

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Source 1.3.3 Manchester from Kersal Moor, with rustic figures and goats by William Wyld. What impacts on industrialisation can we see in this painting?

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The 1842 Treaty of Nanking, which ended the First Opium War, designated Shanghai as one of China’s treaty ports. This allowed foreign powers such as Britain, France and later Japan to control trade and influence its development.

First Opium War also known as the Anglo-Chinese War; a series of military conflicts between the British Empire and the Qing dynasty of China that took place from 1839 to 1842

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Foreign investment and technology drove industrial growth, particularly in textiles, shipbuilding and printing. By the late 19th century, Shanghai

had become a hub for both Chinese and international business. Its modern port enabled the export of silk, tea and ceramics, while foreign goods and technology were imported. Shanghai’s population grew rapidly, creating social challenges. Overcrowding, inequality and exploitation were common, especially among the working-class Chinese population.

Concepts and skills builder 1.3 Considering continuity and change

Think about the changes in Manchester, England, during the Industrial Revolution. What aspects changed, and what stayed the same? The following table outlines some of these changes and continuities. Aspect Population growth Industry and economy Social organisation Environment

Change Rapid urbanisation Shift to factory-based production Rise of working-class communities Increased pollution

Continuity Still dependent on local labour Continued reliance on textiles Inequality between classes Use of natural resources

1 Choose another town or city that experienced industrialisation. Make some notes about the changes and continuities in that place, using the table to help you. 2 Write a paragraph that evaluates whether the changes brought by industrialisation in your chosen place were more significant than the continuities (the things that stayed the same). Historical concepts and skills: continuity and change

National and international movement of people Between 1750 and 1913, new transport technologies such as canals, railways and steamships transformed Europe’s infrastructure. The development of railways was one of the most significant advancements. Early steam-powered locomotives, such as George Stephenson’s Rocket, enabled the rapid movement of goods and people. Rail networks

expanded across Europe, linking industrial towns, rural areas and ports. For example, Britain’s railway system grew from a few dozen miles in the 1820s to thousands of miles by the mid-19th century. Railways supported industrialisation by giving factories access to raw materials like coal and iron while efficiently transporting finished goods to markets.

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Source 1.3.4 The SS Great Western was a wooden-hulled paddlewheel steamship with four masts. It was the first steamship purposebuilt for crossing the Atlantic. Completed in 1838, she was the largest passenger ship in the world from 1837 to 1839.

Steamships brought similar advantages to maritime trade and transportation. Because they were powered by steam engines, they were faster and more reliable than wind-powered ships. Steamships connected European industrial powers to colonies and other nations, making it easier to export manufactured goods and import raw materials.

European imperialism

scramble for Africa the rapid colonisation and division of Africa by European powers between the 1880s and 1900

➜

Following the Industrial Revolution, European empires expanded significantly, gaining control over large territories in Africa, Asia and the Pacific. This era is often called the ‘Age of New Imperialism’. Earlier European colonialism had focused on trade and small coastal strongholds. However, in the 19th century, the focus shifted to direct territorial control and economic domination. The scramble for Africa (1880s–1900) illustrated this

shift, as Britain, France and Germany divided up the continent through diplomacy and military force. At the Berlin Conference (1884–1885), European powers formalised trade agreements and drew borders for the Congo region. Imperialism also created rivalries among European powers. Competition for colonies, especially in Africa and Asia, heightened tensions that contributed to World War I.

Source 1.3.5

The British Empire in 1897, marked in traditional pink/ red. What do the British territories in red on the map suggest about colonialism’s impact in the late 1800s? How might having so many colonies have helped Britain trade with the rest of the world? How might new inventions like steamships and railways have helped Britain control such a large empire?

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The destruction of Indigenous societies and cultures was another major consequence. Colonisers often forced Indigenous peoples to drastically change the way they lived. For example, in India, the British taxed Indian textiles heavily, leaving many hand-weavers in poverty. Christian missions tried to convert Indigenous populations and stop them from practising their own religions and customs. People who resisted imperial rule were often punished with violence, and many died or were severely injured. Colonial violence led to the deaths of many Elders who held language and cultural knowledge. As a result, some of this knowledge could not be passed on to future generations and was disrupted or lost.

‘civilising mission’ the ideological justification for imperialism, claiming Europeans had a duty to spread Christianity, education and industrialisation Social Darwinism a racial theory used to justify European dominance, portraying it as a natural outcome of superior civilisation

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Imperial ideologies also changed during this period. The idea of the ‘civilising mission’ emerged, where Europeans believed they had a duty to spread Christianity, Western education and industry to ‘less developed’ peoples. This belief was used to justify imperialism and was often based on racial theories like Social Darwinism, which suggested European civilisation was naturally superior.

Impact of colonisation on Indigenous Peoples

Imperialism had a major impact on colonised peoples. As European powers expanded their empires, they often took land from Indigenous populations. This disrupted traditional ways of life. When European settlers travelled to distant lands to colonise them, they brought diseases with them, including smallpox, measles and influenza. The Indigenous peoples of these colonies had never been exposed to these diseases before, so they had no immunity. This meant that most of the population died once they fell ill. Some experts suggest that these diseases killed up to 90 per cent of the Indigenous population in the Americas. First Nations communities in Australia also suffered devastating epidemics.

Many nations that were colonised continue to experience the long-term impacts of imperialism. These include structural inequality, cultural disruption, and economic dependence shaped by colonial systems. While colonisation introduced new infrastructure and expanded global trade, these changes overwhelmingly benefited the colonisers. For Indigenous and local communities, this often meant the forced transformation and suppression of their societies, cultures, and ways of life.

Lesson 1.3 review Online quiz

Review questions

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Research task

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Teachers can assign tasks and track results

1.3 Review questions

1 Explain how technological advancements like the steam engine contributed to urbanisation and the growth of industrial towns. 2 Explain what the ‘Age of New Imperialism’ was, giving examples. 3 Identify some of the consequences of European imperialism for colonised peoples.

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1.4

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What significant ideas and developments in this period shaped society and politics? Learning intention

Last lesson, we examined the consequences of the Industrial Revolution, the movement of people and European imperialism. In this lesson, you will explore some of the ideas and developments that emerged with these changes.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

Think, pair, share

Work through these questions in pairs, and share your responses with the class. 1 What is one way the Industrial Revolution changed how people lived and worked? 2 How might leaders inspire people to challenge existing political structures? 3 Why do you think inventions such as the train were created during this time?

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Enlightenment a philosophical movement in the 17th and 18th centuries that emphasised reason, individual rights and self-governance

Source 1.4.1 Early engraving of a train, 1825

The Enlightenment, or the Age of Reason, was a time of major changes in ideas during the 17th and 18th centuries. People began to focus more on reason, science and critical thinking instead of relying only on tradition and religion. Many Enlightenment thinkers believed that humans could use knowledge to make the world a better place.

Two important figures of this time were John Locke and Adam Smith. Locke believed in natural rights, which are rights like life, freedom and owning property. 24

He argued that governments should protect these rights and gain their power from the people. Adam Smith, on the other hand, focused on economics. In his famous book, The Wealth of Nations, he explained how free markets and individual effort could help economies grow.

The Enlightenment had a major impact on the world. It inspired revolutions, such as the American Revolution, and helped shape modern ideas about democracy and human rights. It also encouraged new discoveries in science and art.

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Significant ideas Democracy

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Democracy is the belief in government by the people, with elected representatives and majority rule. The Enlightenment’s emphasis on individual rights and reason inspired the growth of democracy. The American Revolution (1776) and French Revolution (1789) promoted democratic principles such as popular sovereignty and individual liberty. These ideas spread across Europe and beyond, challenging monarchies and advocating for governments that represented the people. However, the democratic push also exposed tensions. Many democracies excluded women and non-landowners, fuelling movements to extend voting rights to all citizens.

Europeans used the ‘civilising mission’ and ideas like Social Darwinism to justify their control over Africa, Asia and the Pacific. Colonised peoples were exploited and lost their lands and cultures. Meanwhile, European powers competed for colonies, increasing tensions in Europe and setting the stage for the wars of the early 20th century.

Capitalism

Imperialism

Imperialism is the policy of extending a nation’s power through colonisation or conquest. It became more widespread during this period, driven by industrialisation and nationalism.

Socialism emerged as a response to the inequalities of industrial capitalism. It is an economic system advocating public ownership and equal distribution of resources. Thinkers like Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels argued that the public should own the means of production (such as mines, farms, tools and factories), not business owners. Their Communist Manifesto (1848) called for workers to overthrow capitalist systems, Source 1.4.2 Portrait of Karl Marx (1818–1883). Can we see inspiring labour movements any impact of Karl Marx’s ideas and revolutions. Revolutionary in the world today? socialism gained traction in the 20th century, but less extreme versions influenced the development of welfare systems in industrialised nations. ➜

Capitalism is an economic system that prioritises private ownership, free markets and profit generation. It became dominant during the Industrial Revolution. Its widespread adoption was influenced by works like Adam Smith’s The Wealth of Nations (1776), which advocated for free markets and minimal government involvement in the economy. Industrial capitalism revolutionised production and trade, creating vast wealth. However, it also increased social inequalities. Factory systems and wage labour reshaped economic life, while the exploitation of workers led to harsh criticism and the rise of socialist alternatives.

Socialism

Anarchism

Anarchism is an ideology that rejects authority and promotes self-governing societies. It gained momentum in the 19th century as a response to capitalism and state control. Thinkers like PierreJoseph Proudhon and Mikhail Bakunin supported these ideas. Although anarchist movements were not often popular, they influenced strikes, uprisings and political assassinations.

Chapter 1: Overview: The early modern world – How did the world change between 1750 and 1945?

nationalism a political ideology that emphasises the interests, culture and identity of a specific nation

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Egalitarianism Egalitarianism is the belief in human equality. This idea supported many social movements during this period, such as the abolition of slavery, women’s suffrage (the right to vote) and workers’ rights. Egalitarian ideals were popular, but societies at the time depended on racism, sexism and classism. Because of this, they could not achieve true equality.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

suffrage the right to vote in political elections

Concepts and skills builder 1.4

Analysing the significance of ideas

Copy and complete the table below to provide evidence for the significance of each idea: democracy, capitalism, imperialism, socialism, anarchism and egalitarianism.

Idea

Impact on society/politics (provide examples)

Definition

Inspired revolutions (American, French); expanded suffrage

Democracy Capitalism

Nationalism ➜

➜

1 Which idea do you think had the most impact on peoples’ lives? Why? 2 Choose two opposing ideas from the list and explain how one idea could be understood as a response to the other idea. 3 Are any of these ideas still shaping the world today? Suggest examples. Historical concepts and skills: historical significance

The American Revolution

Intolerable Acts (1774) a series of punitive laws passed by Britain in response to the Boston Tea Party, including closing Boston Harbor and reducing the colonies’ ability to govern themselves

For most of the 18th century, America was a collection of 13 colonies under British rule. During this time, economic, political and ideological tensions grew between the Thirteen Colonies and Britain, leading to the American Revolution (1775–1783). One main cause of the revolution was economic dissatisfaction. Britain imposed taxes such as the Stamp Act (1765) and the Townshend Acts (1767). Colonists saw these taxes as unfair because they had no representation in the British

Parliament. Protesting under the slogan ‘No taxation without representation’, they opposed Britain’s control over colonial governance.

Thinkers like John Locke argued for natural rights – life, liberty and property – and questioned the power of monarchies. Revolutionary tensions escalated with key events such as the Boston Tea Party (1773) and Britain’s harsh Intolerable Acts (1774), ultimately leading to war.

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Source 1.4.3 John Trumbull’s Declaration of Independence shows the five-man drafting committee presenting their work to Congress. What kind of people are in the painting? Who is not represented?

The Declaration of Independence

The Declaration of Independence (1776), drafted by Thomas Jefferson and influenced by Enlightenment ideals, formally proclaimed the colonies’ right to self-rule. It declared:

We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness.

This statement expressed the colonists’ belief in equality and individual rights, justifying their break from British rule. However, these promises were not fully realised. White male property owners benefited the most, while women, enslaved people and Native Americans were excluded from full rights and freedoms.

The Constitution and the Bill of Rights

Following independence, the US Constitution (1787) established a federal

government with a system of checks and balances. Its preamble highlighted the new government’s aims:

We the People of the United States, in Order to form a more perfect Union, establish Justice, insure domestic Tranquillity, provide for the common defence, promote the general Welfare, and secure the Blessings of Liberty to ourselves and our Posterity➜

The Bill of Rights (1791) further protected individual freedoms, such as speech, religion and the press. For example, the First Amendment stated:

Declaration of Independence (1776) a document drafted by Thomas Jefferson and adopted by the Continental Congress, declaring the Thirteen Colonies independent from British rule

Bill of Rights (1791) the first 10 amendments to the US Constitution, guaranteeing individual freedoms such as speech, religion, the press, assembly and protection from government abuses

Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof; or abridging the freedom of speech, or of the press➜

These foundational documents ensured a legal framework for democracy, even as the ideals of liberty and equality remained unfulfilled for many.

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The French Revolution

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

The French Revolution of 1789 was a major event in which the French people fought for freedom and equality. They were unhappy with King Louis XVI’s unfair rule and high taxes. The revolution began with the storming of the Bastille prison on 14 July 1789. Key events included the Declaration of the Rights of Man, which promised liberty and equal rights, and the Reign of Terror, a period of intense violence. The revolution ended with the rise of Napoleon Bonaparte. Its main goals were to end the monarchy, reduce inequality and establish a fair government.

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Source 1.4.4 A painting from the time depicting a significant event in the French Revolution, which started due to civil unrest in 1789 – King Louis XVI of France being executed by guillotine in January 1793. What do you notice in this painting? The guillotine was meant to be a ‘humane’ way of efficiently killing the enemies of the revolution. Do you think this painting depicts a humane act?

The 1848 revolutions

The 1848 revolutions, often called the ‘Springtime of Nations’, were a series of uprisings across Europe. During this time, people under the control of monarchs grew frustrated with their rulers and their corrupt or incompetent governments. They demanded more freedoms, including the right to govern themselves and form

their own national identities. They also called for social justice. While the shortterm results were mixed, the revolutions had long-term effects that changed European politics.

Causes and context

The revolutions were triggered by widespread dissatisfaction with the political system. Absolutist monarchies dominated much of Europe, leaving little room for democracy. Economic hardship, unemployment and food shortages in the late 1840s made people even more frustrated. Inspired by the revolutionary ideals of the American and French Revolutions, middle-class liberals, workers and nationalists united to demand change.

Immediate consequences

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Source 1.4.5 Revolutionaries in Berlin in March 1848, waving the revolutionary flags. Berlin Palace is in the background.

Despite early successes in many regions, most of the 1848 revolutions were eventually crushed. Monarchs regained control, often using military force. However, the uprisings exposed weaknesses in the existing system and forced rulers to consider reforms.

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Although early attempts to unify countries failed, nationalist movements in Germany and Italy gained momentum, eventually leading to the creation of modern nation-states later in the 19th century. 3

Strengthening of conservatism: The defeat of the revolutions allowed conservative monarchies to regain power. However, to prevent future uprisings, they made small reforms to satisfy the middle class, such as expanding voting rights and allowing more press freedom.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

One example of change was in Germany and Austria. In the German Confederation, revolutionaries wanted to create a unified Germany. Although this did not happen immediately, the revolutions laid the groundwork for German unification in the 1870s under Otto von Bismarck. In Austria, demands for reform temporarily weakened the Habsburg monarchy, but the empire regained control by 1849. These events would have a profound effect on the actions of Germany in the early 20th century. The revolutions of 1848 forced European rulers to adapt their political systems. Even though many uprisings were crushed, they left lasting impacts on political institutions across the continent. 1

Expansion of political rights: In some areas, constitutions were introduced or revised after the revolutions, leading to modest reforms. Citizens gained more freedoms, and governments played a greater role in shaping society. In Austria, for example, the Habsburgs ended serfdom to keep rural populations happy.

Growth of nationalism: The revolutions reinforced the idea of national self-reliance.

Rise of socialism: The revolutions highlighted class differences and introduced socialist ideas into mainstream politics. In France, for example, socialist demands for workers’ rights and economic equality began to influence public policy.

Long-term consequences

While the 1848 revolutions largely failed in the short term, they transformed European politics. They showed the power of collective action and planted the seeds for future change. The revolutions also revealed the growing influence of the middle class, workers and nationalist movements. These groups would shape Europe’s political landscape for decades.

serfdom a feudal system in which peasants were tied to the land and required to work for their landlords

Imperialism and Asian politics In China, the Qing dynasty faced a series of crises that weakened its control. Internally, the Taiping Rebellion (1850–1864) was a massive uprising caused by religious and social unrest, leading to millions of deaths. Externally, China struggled against Western powers during the Opium Wars (1839–1842, 1856–1860). These conflicts arose from British efforts to secure better trade terms and the Qing’s attempts to limit opium imports. China’s defeats in these

wars led to unequal treaties, such as the Treaty of Nanking (1842), which gave Hong Kong to Britain and opened Chinese ports to foreign trade. British control of this region weakened China’s sovereignty and increased internal instability. Later, China attempted to modernise its military and economy through the Self-Strengthening Movement (1861–1895), but conservative resistance and external pressures limited its success.

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U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES ➜

Source 1.4.6 A scene from the Taiping Rebellion, 1850–1864

In India, British colonialism drastically changed political, social and economic structures. After the decline of the Mughal Empire, the British East India Company gained control over vast territories. However, it was not until 1857 that Britain came to rule India directly, after the Indian Rebellion. The rebellion was driven by two things: widespread dissatisfaction with British policies and frustration at

Go online to access the interactive lesson review and more!

the Western culture that Britain was imposing on the population. Under the British Raj (1858–1947), India became a key part of the global economy, supplying raw materials like cotton and acting as a market for British goods. Britain also built infrastructure, such as railways and telegraph lines, but these mostly benefited the colonisers rather than local populations.

Lesson 1.4 review Online quiz

Review questions

DOC

Research task

Teachers can assign tasks and track results

1.4 Review questions

1 Explain how Enlightenment ideas like liberty and natural rights influenced political changes during the American and French Revolutions? 2 Describe the key impacts of industrial capitalism on society. How did revolution emerge as a response? 3 What were the main goals of the 1848 revolutions? Explain how they influenced the political landscape of Europe despite their suppression.

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1.5

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

What other significant events changed the world between 1900 and 1945? Learning intention

Until now, the focus has been on the causes and consequences of the Industrial Revolution. In this lesson, you will explore significant world events from the first half of the 20th century.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

See, think, wonder

1 See: What do you notice about the image. How would you describe what is going on? 2 Think: What are the leaders around the table holding in their hands? How is the image symbolic of the build up to war? 3 Wonder: What message is the illustrator sending to their readers regarding how the leaders of nations were acting in the early years of the 20th century?

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Source 1.5.1 Illustration titled ‘No Limit’, from

the cover of the US magazine Puck, 1909, showing a high-stakes poker game between Uncle Sam (United States), Kaiser Wilhelm II (the German Emperor), Meiji (the Emperor of Japan), Armand Fallières (President of France) and Edward VII (King of Great Britain). The emperor of Japan is raising the bid by one battleship. The caption reads: ‘Japan: I see your cruisers and raise you a dreadnought!’

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Historical overview: The modern world and Australia New ideas

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

This period saw new ideas develop about human society that challenged traditional beliefs. New ideas included liberalism, modernism and socialism. These ideas helped shape major movements and events through the 18th to the early 20th century, including the revolution of industries, emancipation in the US, and the spread of greater voting rights. However, it was also a period that saw the rise of nationalism (one of the most powerful forces shaping the modern world) and imperialism. Both of which helped set the stage for World War I.

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Source 1.5.2 Gavrilo Princip was a member of a Serbian nationalistic organisation called the Black Hand. Princip assassinated Archduke Ferdinand and his wife, sparking World War I.

Liberalism

Liberalism encouraged business owners and intellectuals to demand a greater say in their government and the laws of their respective countries. Demands from women for the right to vote reflected a widespread belief in liberal ideas.

Modern warfare

The combination of imperialism and alliance systems, with technological advances, meant that war was able to be conducted on a global scale for the first time.

Socialism

Modernisation

From the mid-19th century, the desire of ordinary working people for improved conditions and greater involvement in industry and government reflected the socialist ideas that inspired the communist movement.

Japan modernised rapidly during this period and pushed for a greater role as an imperial power.

1906

1844

1778

1858

First messages sent by Morse Code

British government begins the transportation of convicts to Botany Bay, NSW

Queen Victoria of the United Kingdom proclaimed ‘Empress of India’

1848 1807 Slave trade outlawed in Britain 32

Publication of The Communist Manifesto, London, UK

1871

1902

The unification of Germany

Australia gives women the right to vote and to stand for election

1901 1863 Emancipation proclamation leads to end of slavery in the US

Federation of Australian colonies as one country

First Moroccan Crisis

1905/06 The launch of the first Dreadnought battleship

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The uses of technology Technological advancements and wealth generated by the Industrial Revolution, combined with the development of European empires, alliances, nationalism and political tensions, meant that warfare would now be fought on a larger scale than any fought previously, and with deadly new mechanised weapons. The result was World War I. ➜

Source 1.5.3 Global conflict:

a depiction of a battle in August 1916 between Italian and Austro-Hungarian armies in World War I

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Australian involvement in World War I had a transformative eﬀect on the young nation. Loyal to the British Empire, over 400 000 Australian men enlisted in the Australian Imperial Force (AIF) and fought in campaigns in Turkey, the Middle East and Europe. The horrific experiences they endured gave birth to the Anzac legend, while the high casualty rate suﬀered by Australian forces and the devastating impact of the conscription debate at home transformed Australian society forever.

World War I

Over 20 million people died in World War I, several empires collapsed, and a Communist Party, the Bolsheviks, seized power in Russia in 1917.

Timeline of World War I

July–August 1914

November 1914

25 April 1915

European countries mobilise and declare war on each other

The 1st Australian Imperial Force, initially raised in August, is sent to Egypt to train

Australian and New Zealand (Anzac) forces land on the Gallipoli Peninsula

March 1916

Anzac forces transferred to the Western Front in France

July to November 1916

Australian forces take part in the Somme Offensive, particularly the battles of Pozières and Fromelles

1912/13

1919

Balkan Wars

Treaty of Versailles

Late November 1914

28 June 1914

1911

Second Moroccan Crisis

Archduke Franz Ferdinand assassinated in Sarajevo

Stalemate on the Western Front

December 1915

Allied forces evacuated from the Gallipoli Peninsula

25 April 1916

First Anzac Day commemorations held

Treaty of Versailles

The Treaty of Versailles formally ended the war between Germany and the Allied powers. Germany was required to disarm and pay significant reparations to other European countries.

Activity: Historical overview

1 What, in your opinion, were the biggest new ideas that originated at this time? 2 What kinds of forces do you think led to the British Empire colonising the continent we now call Australia? 3 Why might World War I be considered the most significant event that shaped the modern world?

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The interwar years

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U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

The years between the end of World War I and the start of World War II are today known as the interwar years. It was a time of relative peace; however, worldwide economic pressures from nations rebuilding after fighting a global war, combined with the Great Depression, enabled the rise of fascist and militaristic dictatorships in Germany, Italy and Japan.

Influenza pandemic

Communism

Following World War I the Spanish influenza pandemic killed between 20 and 30 million people.

The world's first communist revolution occurred in Russia in 1917. It was based on the idea that the means of production, such as property and businesses, should be nationalised and run on behalf of the people, rather than privately owned. Although intended to create a utopia, in Russia it led to the brutal dictatorship of Joseph Stalin.

Source 1.5.4 A flapper in the 1920s

Great Depression

The Wall Street Crash plunged most of the world into the Great Depression. At its height in 1932, unemployment in Australia reached 32 per cent. The uncertainty and unrest saw the rise of militaristic dictatorships in Italy, Germany and Japan.

Timeline of the interwar years

1917

Russian Revolution

1919

1923

1933

German revolution, and start of the Weimar Republic

Hyperinflation strikes in Germany

Adolf Hitler appointed Chancellor of Germany

1922

1918–20

Spanish flu pandemic kills millions worldwide

Source 1.5.5

Video: The interwar years

Benito Mussolini comes to power in Italy

1932

1929

Wall Street Crash

F.D. Roosevelt elected in the USA, and begins his New Deal

1936

The Berlin Olympics

1938

Germany invades Czechoslovakia

1935

Mussolini launches an Italian invasion of Abyssinia (Ethiopia), despite League of Nations protests

1937–38

The Rape of Nanjing

Roaring Twenties

The League of Nations

The world experienced prosperity in the 1920s. Distinct cultural features emerged, such as ‘flapper’ fashions, the development of jazz music, and the Art Deco style.

This organisation was formed in 1920 out of the ashes of World War I, after the Paris Peace Conference where the Treaty of Versailles was signed. It was the first international body dedicated to maintaining peace between nations and lasted until 1946, when it was replaced by the United Nations.

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U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

As part of the British Empire, Australia was forced to enter World War I once 'the motherland' declared war on Germany in 1914. The same thing happened in 1939, with Australia committing to another global war to support the British Empire and the Allies in their fight against Nazi Germany and the other Axis Powers. During and after the war, the world was shocked to learn of Nazi atrocities during the Holocaust. Many survivors emigrated to Australia, and even Melbourne. You will learn about their stories in Chapter 5.

Source 1.5.6 Unnamed Australian soldiers smiling after enlisting to fight in World War II ➜

ades kia

Australians at war

Fascism

World War II

Fascism was a political idea based on militaristic government, where democracy was replaced by authoritarianism, in countries such as Italy and Germany between the world wars. Fascists were extreme nationalists who governed through a combination of propaganda and fear.

World War II began in Europe but spread across the globe, resulting in the deaths of over 70 million people, including 6 million Jews as part of the Holocaust, an act of genocide by the Nazi government in Germany.

Timeline of World War II

27 May–4 June 1940

Evacuation of Dunkirk

January 1942

June 1941 Operation Barbarossa

German leaders devise the Holocaust

June 1942 Battle of Midway

August 1942– Feb 1943

Battle of Stalingrad

January 1945 Russian forces liberate Auschwitz

Two atomic bombs are dropped on Japan, forcing Japan to surrender

1939

World War II begins when Germany invades Poland, and Britain and France declare war on Germany

December 1941 Bombing of Pearl Harbor

February 1942 Fall of Singapore and bombing of Darwin

July–November 1942

Australian forces defeat the Japanese at Kokoda

August 1945

June 1944 D-Day

January 1945

Activity: Historical overview

Russian forces liberate Auschwitz

1 Explain the highs of the Roaring Twenties. 2 Explain the lows of the Great Depression. 3 How does Australia's involvement in two world wars show the influence of European imperialism from previous centuries?

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Concepts and skills builder 1.5 Asking historical questions

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

1 Using what you have learned in previous lessons, develop three questions about the years 1750–1900 that you would like to answer in your historical studies in Year 9. 2 Using what you have learned from working with the timeline in this lesson, develop three questions about the years 1900–1945 that you would like to answer in your historical studies in Year 9. Historical concepts and skills: causes and consequences, historical significance, historical questions

Go online to access these question sets, and more, in the Interactive Textbook.

Lesson 1.5 review Online quiz

Review questions

DOC

Research task

Teachers can assign tasks and track results

1.5 Review questions

1 Describe each of the significant Australian historical events mentioned in this lesson for the years: 1788 1901 1902. 2 Using the lesson text and your own knowledge, identify two new ideas from the 18th and 19th centuries that contributed to the outbreak of World War I.

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• • •

Source 1.5.7 An illustration of some of the ships of the First Fleet

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1.6

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

End of investigation review: How did the world change between 1750 and 1945? Access the Interactive Textbook for a range of digital tools to help you review this topic, including: • Downloadable chapter summary • Scorcher timed competitive quiz.

Brain dump

What have you learned about the modern world? Copy and complete the table to explain your understanding. Aim for two points per topic.

Topic What I have learned What was the modern world? What was the Industrial Revolution? What were the consequences of the Industrial Revolution? What significant ideas and developments during this period shaped society and politics? What other significant events changed the world between 1900 and 1945?

Practice questions 1

List the main causes of the Industrial Revolution beginning in Britain.

Explain how the Industrial Revolution led to urbanisation and the growth of industrial towns.

Choose one key technological innovation during the Industrial Revolution (e.g. the steam engine or spinning jenny). Explain how it transformed manufacturing and society.

Explain how innovations in transportation, such as railways and steamships, contributed to European imperialism during the 19th century.

Chapter 1: Overview: The early modern world – How did the world change between 1750 and 1945?

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Match each historical figure to their achievements:

a James Watt b George Stephenson

Invented the locomotive, transforming overland transportation and industrial trade. ii Critiqued capitalism and advocated for socialism, inspiring workers’ movements globally. iii Developed the steam engine, a key invention that powered factories and transportation.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

c Karl Marx

Extended response: Analyse one idea or ideology that emerged between 1750 and 1945 and explain how it shaped the way people live in the modern world. Write your answer as a paragraph.

Create a simple timeline that includes the following events: • The invention of the steam engine by James Watt (1769)

• The opening of the Iron Bridge in Shropshire (1781) • The outbreak of World War I (1914)

• The construction of the Bridgewater Canal (1761) • The opening of the Suez Canal (1869) • The Russian Revolution (1917)

• The publication of The Communist Manifesto by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels (1848) For each event, write a short description of its historical significance.

Explain how technological advancements from the Industrial Revolution led to World War I being known as the first ‘mechanised war’.

Using the lesson text and your own knowledge, identify two new ideas from the interwar period that contributed to the outbreak of World War II.

Response to chapter inquiry question: How did the world change between 1750 and 1945?

Write a paragraph in response to the question. Include the following key terms: • industrialisation • imperialism • movement

• nationalism • revolution

• democracy • capitalism • militarism • alliances • war.

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INVESTIGATION 1

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Australia (1750–1914) OVERVIEW

During this period, a globalised world took shape, as societies connected through ideas, trade, migration, technological advancements, colonisation, war and peace to bring us to the present day. [In this topic you will] … re-examine colonial Australia [as a way to enhance your understanding of the time period.]

Source: VCAA, Victorian Curriculum V2.0, ‘History’, ‘Band description – Levels 9 and 10’

TOPIC OPTIONS

CURRICULUM GOALS

Students can choose to study one of or both the Australia (1750–1914) and The globalising world (1945–present) investigation sub-strands.

• What shapes the modern world? • How have global developments

[Investigating Humanities 9 for the Victorian Curriculum option]

shaped Australia?

• How do individuals contribute to change?

Chapter 2 – Australia

Source: VCAA, Victorian Curriculum V2.0,

[Investigating Humanities 10 for the Victorian Curriculum options]

‘History’, ‘Band description – Levels 9 and 10’

Chapter 3 – Introduction to the globalising world Chapter 4 – Popular culture

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CHAPTER 2

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

What were the consequences of British colonisation for Australia? LESSON TITLE 2.1

Setting the scene: Who owns the past?

2.2

What were the key events in Australian history between 1750 and 1914?

2.3

Was Australia a terra nullius in 1788?

2.4

Why did the British colonise Australia?

2.5

What was the impact of colonisation for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples? Why did conflict occur between colonists and Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples? How did different migrant groups contribute to Australia in the 19th century?

2.6 2.7 2.8 2.9

How did the experiences of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people change over time? What was it like to live and work in Australia in the 19th century?

2.10

How did women fight for political rights?

2.11 2.12

What factors caused the colonies to federate and what kind of national identity was emerging? How did Federation happen?

2.13

Who belonged in the new nation?

2.14

What has been the impact of the Australian Constitution on First Nations Peoples? (Available in the Interactive Textbook) Whose truth?

2.15 2.16

End of investigation review: What were the consequences of British colonisation for Australia?

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Image: Detail of Wurundjeri Elder William Barak’s painting Aboriginal Ceremony with wallaby and emu, c. 1880–1890, State Library of Victoria

Warning: Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander students – please be aware that this content includes historical accounts of racist and harmful views held by white colonists during invasion. We are committed to cultural safety and encourage you to reach out for support if needed.

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2.1

Setting the scene: Who owns the past? Learning intention

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

In this lesson, you will learn the story of the Gweagal spears and examine why history is contested.

The return of Gweagal Spears On 23 April 2024, a ceremony took place in the Wren Library at Trinity College, Cambridge, United Kingdom. Four spears belonging to the Gweagal people of the Dharawal nation – taken by Captain James Cook and Joseph Banks on HMS Endeavour in 1770 – were returned to representatives of the Gweagal, from the La Perouse Aboriginal Community. These spears had been taken to the United Kingdom and housed in Trinity College’s Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology; returning them to their rightful owners is known as repatriation. They will eventually be displayed at a new visitor centre in Kamay. Noeleen Timbery, from the La Perouse Aboriginal Land Council, observed during the handback ceremony that the spears ‘are an important connection to our past, our traditions and cultural practices, and to our ancestors’.

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Source 2.1.1 An illustration by Sydney Parkinson, an artist who accompanied Joseph Banks on the First Fleet, of Gweagal warriors at Botany Bay/Kamay in 1770.

repatriation the return of people, artefacts or other objects to the country they originally come from

Chapter 2: What were the consequences of British colonisation for Australia?

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The story of the spears of land had already been established. Although treaties with North American First Nations were often not honoured, they did acknowledge their sovereignty and land rights. In April 1770, their journey took them to the east coast of what is now called Australia, where they landed at Kamay on 29 April 1770. Two Gweagal warriors confronted the intruders on the beach. From their perspective, their land was being invaded. Cook fired on them, wounding one in the leg and the warriors retreated.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

James Cook and his crew on HMS Endeavour left Great Britain in 1768 with instructions to observe the transit of Venus from the South Pacific. These measurements were important for navigation at sea. The Lords of the Admiralty also included secret instructions to search for what was, for Europeans, an undiscovered southern continent and ‘with the Consent of the Natives to take possession of the Convenient Situations in the Country in the Name of the King of Great Britain.’ In the Americas, the idea of negotiating consent with Indigenous peoples for the purchase or surrender

…as soon as we approached the rocks two of the men came down upon them, each armed with a lance [spear] of about 10 feet long and a short stick which he seemed to handle as if it was a machine to throw the lance. They called to us very loud in a harsh sounding language … shaking their lances and menacing, in all appearance resolved to dispute our landing to the utmost … They remained resolute [unmoving] so a musket [gun] was fired over them, the effect of which was that the youngest of the two dropped a bundle of lances on the rock at the instant in which he heard the report … A musket loaded with small shot was now fired at the eldest of the two who was about 40 yards from the boat; it struck him on the legs but he minded it very little, so another was immediately fired at him; on this he ran up to the house about 100 yards distant and soon returned with a shield…

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Source 2.1.2 An extract from the diary of Joseph Banks, the botanist who accompanied Capt. James Cook on the

Endeavour, about the encounter on the beach at Botany Bay where the Gweagal spears were taken.

colonisation the act of one country taking control of another country or land, often by force, for the purposes of settling people and benefiting economically

Cook and his party then entered the living space of the Gweagal people and took a number of artefacts, including around 40 spears, of which the four that were handed back are the only ones known to still exist. The Endeavour remained in Kamay for eight days before continuing its voyage up the east coast. In August, at an island off the Queensland coast that he named Possession Island, Cook – who saw the entire continent as freely available for colonisation – claimed the east coast of Australia for Great Britain in the name of King George III.

Thinking about the return of the Gweagal spears can encourage us to ask historical questions such as: • Why did this ceremony take place?

• Why was it important for the Gweagal people to have the spears returned to them?

• Why did the university library decide, after over 250 years, that it was no longer appropriate to keep the spears in their collection?

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History is contested trauma that continues to this day for many Indigenous Australians. Linda Burney, the Minister for Indigenous Australians when the spears were repatriated, said ‘Bringing our history back home provides an opportunity for Indigenous and nonIndigenous Australians, young and old, to build a greater understanding of our shared national story.’

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

It is important to remember that history is contested. There are different interpretations and debates about Australian history between 1750 and 1914. For many years the story of Australia in textbooks like this one began in 1770 with Captain Cook ‘discovering’ Australia. The event was portrayed as the beginning of the peaceful settling of an undiscovered country for the benefits of civilisation and the progress of the British Empire. For Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples – who had inhabited the continent for more than 60 000 years – the story is quite different; it is one of dispossession of land by an invading power, the deaths of their people from frontier conflict and introduced disease, and the beginning of

During this unit you will have the chance to develop your own understanding of the many perspectives of that story by asking historical questions, considering the evidence that events, perspectives and sources provide and constructing historical arguments to support your interpretations.

➜ Source 2.1.3 In 2020, a large

bronze statue was installed on the shores of Botany Bay to mark 250 years since the first encounter between the crew of the HMS Endeavour and the Gweagal people. The Eyes of the Land and the Sea, by artists Alison Page and Nik Lachajczak, is an abstract representation of either the ribs of a ship or the bones of a whale, reflecting the contested nature of the event.

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2.1 Review questions

1 Using Source 2.1.2, summarise the encounter between Cook’s men and the Gweagal people in your own words. 2 Discuss what the encounter on the beach suggests about initial contact between Europeans and Aboriginal people. 3 Explain why the return of the Gweagal spears was important for Gweagal people in the La Perouse Aboriginal Community.

Chapter 2: What were the consequences of British colonisation for Australia?

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2.2

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

What were the key events in Australian history between 1750 and 1914? Learning intention

In the previous lesson, we examined first contact. In this lesson, you will identify key events from 1750 to 1914.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

Think, pair, share

What makes an event historically significant? Consider the reasons why events would be chosen to be on a timeline. Why might some events be chosen over others? Brainstorm the factors you think contribute to historical significance.

1 Think: Individually, brainstorm responses and note them down in dot points. 2 Pair: Share your thoughts with a partner and see if you can come up with additional ones together. 3 Share: Discuss your findings with the class. 1835 1813 John Batman and John Pascoe

1750

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Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples had spread out over the continent of what is now Australia, forming approximately 600 nations, with over 250 language groups and 800 dialects.

Fawkner lead groups from Van Diemen’s Land to colonise an area at the north of Port Phillip Bay that will later become Melbourne.

Blaxland, Lawson and Wentworth cross the Blue Mountains, opening up the interior of New South Wales to colonisation. Bathurst is established in 1815.

Source 2.2.1 First Fleet

1788

1803

26 January – the First Fleet arrives at Sydney Cove.

The British establish colonies on Van Diemen’s Land (Tasmania). The Palawa people contest the invasion, with conflict intensifying by the 1820s.

1830

The culmination of the Black War in Van Diemen’s Land sees Governor George Arthur call for the implementation of the Black Line to try to capture and remove all Aboriginal Peoples from the island.

1822–1824

The Bathurst War between the Wiradjuri people and the British military.

1770

➜

Captain Cook’s voyage to the east coast of the Australian continent. On 22 August, he Source 2.2.2 James Cook claims possession of Australia claiming British possession of for the British crown. eastern Australia in 1770 44

1836

10 June – Massacre of at least 28 Wirrayaraay people at Myall Creek.

Circa 1833/1834

1838

First ‘Afghan’ cameleers are brought to South Australia.

The Convincing Ground Massacre by whalers in western Port Phillip marks the beginning of conflict between colonists and the Gunditjmara people that would become known as the Eumeralla Wars. ➜ Source 2.2.3 Intradyne, the leader of the Wiradjuri

people in their resistance against the British

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1863

1894

The first South Sea Islanders arrive in Queensland to work in the sugar and cotton industries.

Female suffrage is achieved in South Australia.

1914

1902 ➜

Source 2.2.5 Henry Parkes

Commonwealth Franchise Act provides universal male and female suffrage for non-Indigenous Australians.

1889

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U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

1868

24 October – Henry Parkes gives the Tenterfield Oration, promoting a federation of the colonies.

Great Britain declares war on Germany, leading Australia into war.

Pearling industry begins in the Torres Strait and then Broome, WA, including Malay, Timorese and Japanese divers.

Source 2.2.4 Eureka stockade

1907

1 January – Federation

1854

Eureka stockade

1850

1868

The Australian Colonies Government Act 1850

1863

9 January – convict transportation to Australia ends.

1891

Formation of the Australasian Shearers Union in Ballarat.

The failure of the Maritime and Shearer’s strikes leads to the formation of colonial labour parties, the forerunners of the Australian Labor Party.

Coranderrk Aboriginal Reserve is established in Victoria.

➜

1886

1856

1851

The Harvester Judgement establishes the principle of a basic wage.

1901

Source 2.2.7 Sunshine

Harvester poster

Beginning in Victoria, the introduction of the secret ballot and universal male suffrage.

Separation of Victoria from New South Wales; beginning of the gold rush

1839–1849

➜

Source 2.2.6 Shearers working in a woolshed

Aboriginal Protectorate in the Port Phillip District under George Augustus Robinson

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2.2 Review questions

1 Identify three events in the timeline that indicate conflict between Aboriginal people and colonists. 2 Explain the continuities and changes in government in Australia during this period, based on the events in the timeline. 3 Discuss the features that make an event significant. As you go through this chapter, consider whether other events should be included on the timeline. Are some events more significant than others? Justify your reasoning. Chapter 2: What were the consequences of British colonisation for Australia?

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2.3

Was Australia a terra nullius in 1788? Learning intention

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

In the previous lesson, we explored key historical events. In this lesson, you will investigate Aboriginal land use and terra nullius.

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Lesson starter Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

See, think, wonder

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

1 See: Describe the features of the map and anything you notice about it. Can you find the language spoken where you live? 2 Think: What does the map tell us about Australia prior to colonisation? 3 Wonder: What questions does the map raise for you about Indigenous people’s presence on the land before 1788?

➜ Source 2.3.1 A map of Indigenous Australia. This map attempts to represent

the language, social or nation groups of Indigenous Australia. It shows only the general locations of larger groupings of people, which may include clans, dialects or individual languages in a group. It used published resources from the eighteenth century to 1994 and is not intended to be exact, nor the boundaries fixed. It is not suitable for native title or other land claims. David R Horton (creator), © AIATSIS, 1996. No reproduction without permission. To purchase a print version visit: https://shop.aiatsis.gov.au. Chapter 2: What were the consequences of British colonisation for Australia?

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From Deep Time to 1750 Before the British invaded and colonised the continent – which they would name Australia – over 250 languages and more than 800 dialects were spoken by Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples in about 600 nations. Current research suggests that continuous Aboriginal cultures can be traced back at least 65 000 years, making them the longest surviving cultures and civilisation on Earth. Aboriginal Peoples’ spiritual beliefs are closely intertwined with their lands and traditional knowledges, often referred to in English as ‘the Dreaming/

cultural lore’. Specific stories vary between groups depending on the land, plants and animals of their Country. For example, the Kulin peoples of Melbourne say that the great eagle spirit Bunjil created humans and taught them how to survive and the laws to live by. This is one of many creation stories from across Australia. It is important to know that Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander cultures are diverse, with many different languages and creation stories that vary from nation to nation.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

the Dreaming an English word used to describe the knowledge, spiritual beliefs and cultural practices of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples that are bound together in systems of knowing and doing

Country a term used by First Nations people to describe the lands and waters of the area they live in and are connected to; it links the physical use of land for sustenance with spiritual beliefs

The importance of cultural lore Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples’ lore, cultures, spirituality, kinship systems, totems and Dreaming stories are foundational to the identity, continuity and resilience of their communities. These sacred and profound aspects of culture are living cultural truths, deeply connected to knowledge systems, histories and

spiritual relationships with Country. It is essential to recognise that these are not myths, fairy tales or fictional stories – they are integral to the worldviews and lived experiences of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples. Their significance must be approached with respect, understanding and honour.

FPO

➜

Source 2.3.3

Video: The story of Bunjil the Eagle, as narrated by Aunty Joy Murphy AO, Wurundjeri Woi Wurrung Elder, available at https:// cambridge. edu.au/ redirect/11426.

➜

Source 2.3.2 Rock art of Bunjil the eagle, located in Gariwerd (the Grampians) in Victoria.

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Land management and connection to Country inhabitants seem all dependent on each other for existence in Australia’. Many early explorers and colonists noted the park-like nature of the landscape, with grasslands dotted with trees, not realising that this was due to Aboriginal use of fire to manage their land. Historian Bill Gammage asserts that before colonisation Australia could be considered a managed estate. He wrote:

hydraulic engineering a branch of engineering that focuses on using and controlling water and other fluids, such as designing dams, canals, pipes and flood systems

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Before 1788, Aboriginal Peoples actively managed their Country in line with their spiritual beliefs and social organisation. The most common tool used was fire, but people also engaged in hydraulic engineering, harvested native grass seeds and tubers and quarried rock for stone tools. The explorer Major Thomas Mitchell noted in 1839 that ‘fire, grass, kangaroos and human

What plants and animals flourished were related to their management. As in Europe land was managed at a local level. Detailed local knowledge was crucial. Each family cared for its own land, and knew not merely which species fire or no fire might affect, but which individual plant and animal, and their totem and Dreaming links. They knew every yard intimately, and knew well the ground of neighbours and clansmen, sharing larger scale management or assuming responsibility for nearby ground if circumstances required.

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Source 2.3.4 Bill Gammage, The Biggest Estate on Earth, 2012, p. 3

An example of the creative and sophisticated ways in which Aboriginal Peoples managed land in Victoria can be seen on Gunditjmara Country at Budj Bim. This landscape is now a UNESCO World Heritage area for its cultural value. The Gunditjmara used hydraulic engineering to change the volcanic landscape so they could catch eels. They built stone traps to divert the river – a system that was used for over 6600 years. Along with using fire to manage grasslands in the Western District of Victoria, the Gunditjmara people created abundant food sources that supported a population of about 6000–10 000 people. A European reaction to their abilities is described in Source 2.3.5 in Concepts and Skills Builder 2.3.

Aboriginal groups saw themselves as custodians of their land, with a deep spiritual connection to it. This is in contrast with many Europeans, many of whom viewed land as a commodity to be bought and sold. The term often used to describe the Aboriginal view of ownership of Country is custodianship, which reflects a sense of holding the land in trust for future generations. The boundaries of different Aboriginal groups’ lands were respected, and to cross into another’s country required permission. For the Kulin nation around modern-day Melbourne, this was known as the ritual of Tanderrum, or freedom of the bush. This ceremony is the source of today’s ‘Welcome to Country’ ceremonies.

Chapter 2: What were the consequences of British colonisation for Australia?

custodianship the obligation for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people to care for Country on which they live, even if they are not Traditional Owners

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U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES ➜

Source 2.3.5 A painting by Eugen von Guérard, Crater of Mount Eccles (now known by its original name, Budj Bim), 1865. The open grasslands is an example of the use of fire to shape the landscape.

Concepts and skills builder 2.3 Using historical sources

The following extract is from the journals of George Augustus Robinson, who worked as the Chief Protector of Aborigines in the Port Phillip District (Victoria) from 1839 to 1849. It records his observations on being shown the hydraulic engineering in western Victoria. At the confluence [coming together] of this creek with the marsh observed an immense piece of ground trenched and banked, resembling the work of civilized man but which on inspection I found to be the work of the Aboriginal natives, purposely constructed for catching eels… These works must have been executed at great cost of labor to these rude people the only means of artificial power being the lever… To me it was new and particularly interesting and evinced [showed] great perseverance and industry on the part of the Aborigines…

➜

Source 2.3.6 Quoted in Ian D Clark (ed.), The Journals of George Augustus Robinson, Chief Protector, Port Phillip Aboriginal Protectorate, Volume 2, 1 October 1840 – 31 August 1841, Melbourne, Heritage Matters, 1998, p. 308. (Note: The term ‘Aborigines’ is historically racist and remains so today. It is used here for historical purposes only.)

1 Identify the words that Robinson used to describe the Gunditjmara people, and the words he used to describe other people. What does this tell you? 2 Describe how Robinson reacted to being showed the hydraulic engineering constructed by the Gunditjmara people. 3 Discuss what Robinson’s writings reveal about how colonists thought about Aboriginal people at the time. 4 Analyse what this source suggests about Aboriginal people’s management of the land. Historical skills and concepts: using historical sources 50

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Justifying terra nullius Warning: Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander students – please be aware that this content includes historical accounts of racist and harmful views held by white colonists during the invasion. suitability of Australia as a penal colony, he claimed ‘there are very few inhabitants’ and ‘they would speedily abandon the country to the newcomers’. These racist attitudes led the British to believe that Aboriginal Peoples did not have a social organisation and did not use the land productively. This became the justification for terra nullius – a Latin term meaning ‘land belonging to no one’ – which meant the land could be taken without having to purchase it or sign a treaty to gain the consent of the inhabitants. As a result, Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples did not receive any form of land rights or native title for nearly 200 years after colonisation began.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

The earliest European explorers, such as William Dampier, influenced attitudes about the nature of the people who inhabited the continent. In his account of his 1688 voyage to north-western Australia, he wrote of the Aboriginal people as being ‘the miserablest people in the world’, who ‘differ but little from brutes’. This was a typical attitude in Europe at the time, where many people were taught that only light-skinned people could be civilised, while those with darker skin were more like ‘brutes’ or animals. Almost a century later, when Joseph Banks – who had been the botanist on Captain Cook’s voyage in 1770 – testified before a parliamentary committee about the

treaty an agreement between nations; treaties are used to end wars, for trade and to formalise exchange of land native title the legal recognition of Indigenous people’s rights to land and water

➜

Source 2.3.7 Joseph Banks

Chapter 2: What were the consequences of British colonisation for Australia?

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Amazing but true...

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Terra nullius, or ‘land belonging to no one’, became the official British policy towards Australian land in 1835 when Governor Richard Bourke issued a proclamation to stop John Batman from trying to buy land from the Kulin people in what is now Melbourne.

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2.3 Review questions

1 Describe the distribution and diversity of Aboriginal language groups in Australia prior to 1788. 2 Explain how Aboriginal land management was influenced by people’s spiritual beliefs. Use Source 2.3.4 in your response. 3 Outline examples of how Aboriginal groups actively managed land. 4 In your own words, explain how the British used terra nullius to justify the colonisation of Australia.

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2.4

Why did the British colonise Australia? Learning intention

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

In the previous lesson, we examined terra nullius. In this lesson, you will explore why Britain colonised and expanded across Australia.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

What makes you say that?

1 What’s going on? What do you think is happening in the source? Describe the message of the painting. 2 What makes you say that? What are the specific elements that are included in or left out from the visual that make you say that? What is supporting your interpretation?

➜

Source 2.4.1 Algernon Talmage, The Founding of Australia. By Capt. Arthur Phillip R.N. Sydney Cove, Jan. 26th 1788, 1937.

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Did James Cook follow his orders? Cook and Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples during his voyage, but in taking possession of the east coast of Australia there was no negotiation with the Traditional Owners. Academic and Worimi man Professor John Maynard notes that:

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

In Lesson 2.1 it was noted that Cook was to take possession of territory should he find a new continent, ‘with the Consent of the Natives’ in his secret orders. As the encounter with the Gweagal on the beach demonstrated, there was contact between

…But clearly Cook did not open up any meaningful dialogue or discussion, nor did he gain any consent in claiming the entire east coast of the continent. As such he was in direct violation of his orders from the Crown. In fact, the evidence that can be gleaned from his own records clearly implies the opposite: as Cook sets down in his journal, ‘all [the Aboriginal people] seem’d to want was for us to be gone’. There was no welcome mat of consent rolled out.

➜

Source 2.4.2 John Maynard, ‘I’m Captain Cooked’: Aboriginal Perspectives on James Cook, 1770–2020, National

Library of Australia, 2018.

Concepts and skills builder 2.4 Analysing and comparing historical sources

1 Compare Source 2.4.2 with the wording of Cook’s orders: ‘with the Consent of the Natives to take possession of the Convenient Situations in the Country in the Name of the King of Great Britain’. What does Source 2.4.2 suggest about how successful Cook was in fulfilling his orders? 2 Use quotations from both sources to justify your response. Historical skills and concepts: using historical sources

Why did Britain send the First Fleet? As Britain’s prison population surged in the 18th century, they transported convicts to work as indentured labour in their American colonies. The American Revolution (1776–1783) meant the loss of these colonies, which became the United States of America. Joseph Banks, who accompanied Cook on the Endeavour, promoted Botany Bay as an ideal location. Additionally there was a desire to expand the strategic reach of the British Empire with a base in the South Pacific, driven especially by rivalry with the French.

In May 1787 the First Fleet of 11 ships departed Portsmouth, England and arrived at Botany Bay on 18 January 1788, under the command of the first Governor of New South Wales, Captain Arthur Phillip. Phillip did not find the conditions at Botany Bay suitable. He sailed the fleet north to Port Jackson, which he described as the ‘finest harbour in the world’, arriving there on 26 January 1788. He named the town he established there after British Home Secretary Lord Sydney (the minister who had sent him on his journey).

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It is important to remember that Port Jackson was not, in fact, terra nullius, but the lands of the Gadigal people of the Eora nation – the people who were the custodians and Traditional Owners. While Phillip did make efforts to establish friendly relations with the Eora, the arrival

of the First Fleet in 1788 marked the beginning of the British colonisation of Australia. Because the colonisation was made possible by armed forces, which took control of other people’s land, it may be defined as an invasion.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Arctic Ocean

Atlantic Ocean

Portsmouth

Canary Islands

Pacific Ocean

Equator

Pacific Ocean

Rio de Janeiro

Atlantic Ocean

Indian Ocean

Cape of Good Hope

Botany Bay

Southern Ocean

➜

Source 2.4.3 The route of the First Fleet, 1787–1788

Establishing and expanding colonies The early years of the Sydney colony faced several challenges, including the difficulty in becoming fully self-sufficient, as many convicts lacked the necessary skills and experience as farmers. The Sydney colony was followed by the establishment of a second colony in Risdon Cove in Van Diemen’s Land (what is now Hobart, Tasmania) in 1803. This colony was established on the lands of the Mouheneenner people and also served as a penal colony for the British Empire. In 1814 the British colonists in New South Wales crossed the Blue Mountains, opening up the interior to expansion. In 1829 the Governor of New South Wales, which lacked both the money and the personnel to effectively govern the rapidly expanding colony, tried to limit this growth by drawing a line on the map that became known as the ‘limits

of location’ (Source 2.4.4). Colonists who moved beyond these boundaries were called ‘squatters’. Neither the actions of the government nor those of the squatters respected the custodianship and ownership of the land by the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples who had inhabited these lands for generations. Other significant moments in establishing colonies across the continent included:

self-sufficient able to provide necessary food and materials for the colony without supply from Great Britain

squatter a colonist who breaks the law by using land without the authority or permission of the government

• 1824 – the establishment of a penal colony at Moreton Bay, near what would be named Brisbane

• 1829 – the establishment of the Swan River Colony in Western Australia • 1834 – the Henty family illegally established a settlement on the lands of the Gunditjmara people in what is now western Victoria

Chapter 2: What were the consequences of British colonisation for Australia?

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U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES ➜

Source 2.4.5 Portrait of Captain Arthur Phillip, 1786, Mitchell Library, State Library of NSW.

➜

Source 2.4.4 A map showing the Nineteen Counties, which defined the Limits of Location (outlined in black). Adapted from Stephen H. Roberts, The Squatting Age in Australia, 1835–1847, Melbourne, Melbourne University Press, 1964, frontispiece.

• 1835 – John Batman, representing a group from Van Diemen’s Land, tries to buy land around Port Phillip Bay via a ‘treaty’ with the Woi Wurrung people of the Kulin nation, establishing the basis for what will be called Melbourne • 1836 – the colony of South Australia is established as a free colony

• 1851 – Victoria separates from New South Wales to become its own colony • 1859 – Queensland separates from New South Wales.

Reasons for expansion

The expansion of British colonisation across the continent was influenced by several factors. Some of these included: • Perceived threats from the French: During the time of the French 56

Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars (1792–1815) Britain was frequently in conflict with France and concerns of French expansion drove the establishment of colonies in Van Diemen’s Land.

• Industrialisation in Britain: The growth of textile factories encouraged a demand for wool in Britain, and the introduction of the merino sheep (1797) led to a large pastoral industry to meet the demand. • Population pressures in Great Britain: The growing population of Great Britain and Ireland saw increased migration in the early 19th century, including free settlers to Australia. • European attitudes about land: Land was a source of status and wealth in Europe in the 18th century. Most land in Britain was held by the aristocracy but, due to the disregard of colonists for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples’ sovereignty and custodianship of Country, land was seen as readily available in Australia and land ownership was achievable for many colonists.

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Convict transportation half were able to read and write. They included political prisoners – for example, Irish nationalists from the 1798 and 1848 uprisings – as well as Canadians from the failed 1837 rebellions in Upper and Lower Canada.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Between 1788 and 1868, when transportation ceased, around 160 000 convicts were sent to Australia. Men outnumbered women, but from the beginning, female convicts were part of the transportation system. Although the convict system was at times brutal, it also provided many convicts with an opportunity to acquire land after gaining their freedom. The early decades of New South Wales were characterised by struggles between Emancipists (former convicts who had won their freedom) and Exclusives, who wanted to ensure that free settlers remained the colony’s elite. In 1840, transportation to the east coast of Australia ceased, and in 1853 it ended in Van Diemen’s Land, leaving only Western Australia as a convict colony until transportation ended there in 1868.

Source 2.4.6 Black-eyed Sue, and Sweet Poll of Plymouth, taking leave of their lovers who are going to Botany Bay. Published May 1794 ➜

Those transported had varied levels of education. Although most came from humble backgrounds, an estimated

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2.4 Review questions 1 2 3 4

Outline the reasons Great Britain sent the First Fleet to Australia. Summarise the spread of British colonies across the continent of Australia. Explain why the colonial government tried to establish the limits of location. Describe Source 2.4.6. How could a historian use it to explain the transportation of convicts from Britain to Australia? 5 Evaluate the most important drivers of colonisation in Australia? Justify your response.

Chapter 2: What were the consequences of British colonisation for Australia?

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2.5

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

What was the impact of colonisation for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples? Learning intention

In the previous lesson, we explored early colonisation. In this lesson, you will examine its impact on First Nations Peoples.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

See, think, wonder

1 See: Describe specific features of the picture. What do you see about the landscape and people? 2 Think: What can the picture tell us about the impacts of colonisation? 3 Wonder: What questions does the picture raise for you? What would you like to know more about? ➜

Source 2.5.1 A detail of the image ‘Collins Street, Melbourne in 1840’, in a lithograph by Edward Noyce and William Knight, State Library of Victoria.

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Invasion and impact – unlike British actions in North America. This pattern of invasion continued across Australia. Phillip’s relationship with the Eora nation was mixed. Historian Kate Fullagar wrote that he used both ‘diplomacy and bursts of brute force’. He gave gifts and said Aboriginal people should not be harmed, but also kidnapped Eora warriors like Bennelong to learn their language and customs. He also sent out violent retaliation parties. For example, after the warrior Pemulwuy killed a convict in 1790, Phillip ordered soldiers to bring back the heads of 10 Aboriginal men. Although this failed, it showed how colonial governments were willing to use extreme force.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

The arrival of the First Fleet in 1788 marked the beginning of colonisation and an invasion of land belonging to Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples. These were sovereign peoples, meaning they had their own laws, customs and deep connections to Country. The Uluru Statement from the Heart explains this as ‘the ancestral tie between the land, or “mother nature”, and the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples … This link is the basis of the ownership of the soil, or better, of sovereignty. It has never been ceded or extinguished’. Although Governor Phillip was ordered to build friendly relations, he was not allowed to make a treaty or buy land

The impacts of colonisation

Colonisation impacted Aboriginal Peoples through conflict, disease and displacement from their Country. However, it is important to note that they were not passive victims – they demonstrated agency by resisting the invasion of their lands and by finding ways to adapt while maintaining their culture, lore, language and custodianship of Country. Traditional estimates of Australia’s pre-invasion population suggested between 300 000 and 750 000 people. However, more recent research indicates that the population was likely much higher – somewhere between 1.2 million and perhaps as high as 3 million. By the time of Federation in 1901, there were an estimated 93 000 Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people in Australia. This represents a decline of at least 67 per cent of the pre-1788 population – and well over 90 per cent if the higher estimates are used.

The significant decline in population can be attributed to several factors:

• Disease: Aboriginal people had limited immunity to introduced diseases, such as smallpox and influenza. Early epidemics had devastating impacts on First Nations communities. • Violence: Aboriginal people were killed in frontier battles and massacres carried out by colonists. Frontier violence will be explored in greater depth in the next lesson.

sovereign holding political power or authority over a nation; Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples never ceded sovereignty over their lands during the process of colonisation

smallpox a highly infectious disease that was found in Europe, Asia and Africa prior to European empires colonising Australia and the Americas, where it spread rapidly; symptoms included fever, headache and a pustular (bumps) rash

• Loss of land: Colonisation led to the loss of Country, which meant exclusion from traditional hunting grounds and water sources. • Environmental change: Introduced animals such as sheep and cattle compacted the soil and destroyed native food sources such as the murrnong root, a staple in the Aboriginal diet.

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100 000. By the time of the colonisation of the Port Phillip District in 1834–1835, smallpox may already have travelled southwards through trading networks, and by 1851 – when Victoria separated from NSW and became its own colony – the recorded Aboriginal population was 2693.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

In Victoria – originally known as the Port Phillip District of New South Wales – the population decline followed a similar pattern. At least 20 000 Aboriginal people lived in what became Victoria before 1788, although historian Noel Butlin suggests that the number may have been closer to

➜ Source 2.5.2 A

depiction from 1793 of Governor Phillip and officers visiting an Eora woman suffering from smallpox during the 1789 epidemic, National Library of Australia

Concepts and skills builder 2.5

Investigating causes and consequences

The combined impacts of conflict, disease and dispossession additionally impacted the birth rate of Aboriginal people in the Port Phillip District. Read through the sources below and respond to the questions that follow. The first two sources are from Kulin leaders in the Port Phillip area in the 1840s and 1850s. The third source is from a contemporary historian. You see … all this mine, all along here Derrimut’s once, no matter now, me soon tumble down … Why me have lubra? Why me have piccaninny? You have all this place, no good have children, no good have lubra, me tumble down and die very soon now.

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Source 2.5.3 Derrimut, a Boonwurrung Elder, quoted in ‘Report of the Select Committee of the Legislative

Council on the Aborigines: Together with the Proceedings of Committee, Minutes of Evidence, and Appendices’, from the Victorian Colonial Legislative Council, 1858, p. 12. (Note: The terms ‘lubra’ (for an Aboriginal woman) and ‘piccaninny’ (for a black child) are racist and offensive and should not be used. They are included here for historical purposes only.)

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The Black lubras say now no good children, Blackfellow say no country now for them, very good we kill and no more come up Pickaninny. ➜

Source 2.5.4 Billibellary, a leader of the Wurundjeri people, quoted in Gary Presland, First People, Museum

Victoria Press, 2010, p. 91.

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U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

The high death toll from disease at Port Phillip does not mean government or settlers intended to kill Aborigines with disease (even if some found it convenient that the population was annihilated so rapidly). But nor does it mean that invaders were not culpable [without blame]. The link between disease and conquest was well understood… Europeans created the conditions in which diseases flourished [by concentrating the Aboriginal Peoples of Port Phillip into crowded and unsanitary reserves] and did almost nothing to ameliorate [make better] these.

Source 2.5.5 1835 by James Boyce (Black Inc. 2011)

1 Using Sources 2.5.3 and 2.5.4, identify evidence connecting dispossession of land by colonists and negative impacts on the Kulin nation. 2 Using all three sources, write a short paragraph to explain the causes and consequences of Aboriginal population decline in the Port Phillip district. 3 Use the internet to do some research on Derrimut and Billibellary. What was their role among their people of the Kulin Nation? How does this context help us understand the importance of their views? Historical skills and concepts: using historical sources

Cultural resistance and adaptation Historian Richard Broome has noted that it is important to remember that Aboriginal Peoples at colonisation ‘deserve to be represented as the culturally alive and complex humans they were’, rather than being relegated to the role of passive victims. At times this was demonstrated by their engagement in violent resistance to the invasion of their lands. However, they also showed curiosity about the newcomers and sought ways to navigate into white society. Bennelong’s decision to return to Governor Arthur Phillip’s household after his escape, and to live in Sydney, is one example. In the Port Phillip District,

Elders such as Billibellary and Derrimut advocated on behalf of their people. Aboriginal people worked for pastoralists and on the goldfields during the 1850s gold rush. Djadja Wurrung peoples on the goldfields in central Victoria performed corrobboree shows for miners, which provided a means to preserve cultural rituals that otherwise would not have been permitted on missions and reserves that sought to ‘Christianise and civilise’. The establishment of the Native Police force in Port Phillip in 1842 highlighted the complexity and challenges for Aboriginal people in trying to secure a place in colonial power structures.

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Aboriginal people, which may have contributed to Billibellary resigning from the force in 1845. George McCrae, a colonist on the Mornington Peninsula, observed of Boon Wurrung people working for him:

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

The force was formed with input from Billibellary and was drawn from the Kulin nation. While the Native Police offered opportunities for accessing status symbols such as a gun, uniform and horse, they were also used in areas like the Western District to fight other

We found the aborigines about us docile, tractable [easy to teach] and highly intelligent. Both the young men and women became efficient and willing station servants. The youths, always fearless riders and fond of horses, made good stock-keepers, and took great pride in their long heavy whips and spurs. The young women washed and ironed well, sewing and mending, also with great neatness. Men and women were perpetually honest.

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Source 2.5.6 Australian History in Seven Questions by John Hirst (Black Inc. 2014)

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Source 2.5.7 ST Gill, ‘Going to work’, c. 1855, National Library of Australia. ➜

However, Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples were rarely paid in money, more often in rations, tobacco or goods, and not at the same rates as European labour. While finding ways to engage with the colonial economy, as the 19th century progressed they found their lives increasingly controlled by legislation and were forced to live on missions and reserves. In the face of the devastation of disease and conflict, they sought to maintain culture and connection to Country.

Lesson 2.5 review Online quiz

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Research task

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2.5 Review questions

1 Identify the changes in population of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples between 1788 and 1901. 2 Describe the factors that contributed to those changes. 3 Explain how Aboriginal Peoples sought to adapt to colonisation. 4 Examine Sources 2.5.6 and 2.5.7. Using the sources, describe the qualities of Aboriginal workers in the pastoral industry.

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2.6

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Why did conflict occur between colonists and Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people? Learning intention

In the previous lesson, we examined the impacts of colonisation. In this lesson, you will explore frontier conflict and invasion debates.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

What makes you say that?

1 What do you think is happening in the source? What do you think the message of the illustration is? 2 What makes you say that? How would you support your opinion using the source? What elements of the visual support that?

➜ Source 2.6.1 Governor Arthur’s proclamation to the

Aboriginal Peoples of Van Diemen’s Land, Mitchell Library, State Library of New South Wales. Chapter 2: What were the consequences of British colonisation for Australia?

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U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES ➜

Source 2.6.2 Mounted Police and Blacks, by W. Walton after drawings by CG Mundy, depicting the Slaughterhouse Creek massacre of 26 January 1838, on the Liverpool Plains of New South Wales, Australian War Memorial

Conflict on the frontier

alienating being cut off from something

defile to damage or spoil the purity of something holy/ sacred

The word ‘frontier’ refers to a border – a line dividing two places. In the process of invasion and colonisation the term is often used to separate the settled lands of the coloniser from the territory occupied by Indigenous peoples. Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples prior to 1788 lived in complex societies bound by spiritual beliefs, kinship ties and the custodianship of land as Traditional Owners. They viewed the land as an integral part of their society.

By occupying the land and creating exclusive settler areas, the British were alienating the connection that Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples had to Country and directly harming their culture and society. Additionally, access to water sources was restricted, traditional food sources – such as the murrnong root, which was consumed by sheep and cattle – were lost, and sacred sites for the practice and transmission of lore were defiled by the presence of colonists.

Contact and violence

One of the most significant, and often unknown, aspects of early colonial history is the violence and conflict between Indigenous communities and the British colonisers who were slowly taking over their land. These conflicts have become known as the Frontier Wars. Over time, the British continued to expand and invade the traditional lands of First Nations Peoples. Disputes over land ownership led to confrontations between these groups, 64

often resulting in bloodshed. The conflict massively favoured the British colonisers, who possessed superior technology in the form of rifles and other weapons. Researchers in the mid-1990s began to investigate these incidents of violence. One historian, Ian D. Clark, described it as ‘unnecessary, indiscriminate killing of a number of human beings, as in barbarous warfare or persecution, or for revenge and plunder’.

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Clark and another researcher, Peter D. Gardner, identified some common characteristics of the violence inflicted upon First Nations Peoples. The characteristics of these massacres included:

• A code of silence in the aftermath made detection extremely difficult. • Witnesses, assassins and survivors sometimes acknowledged the massacre long after the event, once the fear of arrest or reprisal from the assassins was gone.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

• They usually took place in response to the killing of a white person by an Aboriginal person – often a male who had abducted and sexually abused an Aboriginal woman – or as a reaction to the alleged theft of colonial property such as livestock that had occupied Aboriginal hunting grounds.

• They took place in secret.

• They were planned rather than spontaneous events.

• Their purpose was to destroy or eradicate the victims or force them into submission.

• The assassins and the victims usually knew each other.

Across Australia, there are more than 430 recorded sites where verified massacres of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples by colonisers took place. Researchers have plotted these mass killings on a map to illustrate the extent of the violence against Indigenous communities (Source 2.6.3). To be included on the map as a massacre, the killing had to be of six or more individuals from a single community.

➜ Source 2.6.3 The University of Newcastle’s frontier massacres map shows how widespread

violence was against First Nations Peoples across the country, available at the following link https://cambridge.edu.au/redirect/11365.

The exact number of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples killed in the Frontier Wars is very difficult to calculate because of the lack of reliable data. Historian Henry Reynolds estimates that it runs into tens of thousands of victims. More recent research into the frontier

conflict in Queensland puts the figure at perhaps up to 60 000 in that colony alone. The Frontier Wars had a devastating effect on First Nations communities; they drove people from the lands they had lived on and managed for tens of thousands of years.

Concepts and skills builder 2.6

Discussing the interpretation of the colonisation of Australia as an invasion

History is often contested. In Australia, there have been ongoing debates over the past 30 years about the Frontier Wars and whether the arrival of the British should be described as an ‘invasion’. These debates are sometimes called the ‘history wars’ and also include arguments about celebrating Australia Day on 26 January. Carefully examine Sources 2.6.4 and 2.6.5, as well as the list of definitions, then answer the questions that follow. colonisation the act or process of sending people from one country to settle and govern another country, including establishing control over the Indigenous population invasion an occasion when an army or country uses force to enter and take control of another country settlement a place where people come to live, or the process of settling in such a place

• • •

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The following extract is from an article published in Spectator Australia by Luke Powell, titled ‘Australia was not invaded’: …Was Australia really ‘invaded’ as some experts suggest? In short, no. Here’s why. The goal of the First Fleet was to occupy a small colony, not invade a continent.

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U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

The central claim behind the ‘invasion’ argument is that British occupation was not a ‘settlement’. The question is then, did Britain plan an invasion or intentionally seek to occupy the whole country in 1788? …The intention was not to invade but to form strategic outposts and source [flax and timber] in a race with the French … It is therefore historically inaccurate to describe January 26, 1788, as an ‘invasion’ when its original intention was to occupy a small colony restricted to the coast of Australia.

Source 2.6.4 Luke Powell, ‘Australia was not invaded’, Spectator Australia, 18 January 2025

On the other side of the debate, the following extract is from an international law expert, Rowan Nicholson, on whether the term ‘invasion’ is appropriately applied to the colonisation of Australia under international law as understood during the 1700s and 1800s.

Should we remember January 26 1788 as ‘Invasion Day’?

The colonisation of Australia was an invasion from an Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander perspective.

But critics of the name ‘Invasion Day’ object that it emphasizes just one side of the story – that from a European perspective the British merely ‘settled’ land they did not think belonged to anyone, and there was no invasion in the strict legal sense. That is, similar to the way Germany invades Belgium in 1914. This objection is misplaced. The name ‘Invasion Day’ does not just reflect an Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander perspective. It also reflects the meaning of ‘invasion’ within a European system of law – international law as it operated in the 18th and 19th centuries …

[Nicholson provides some examples of how pre-1788 peoples of Australia passed the test to be considered sovereign – self-governing and in control of their local territory.] … the central meaning of the word ‘invasion’ in international law was the entry by force by one sovereign into the territory of another sovereign.

This happened on January 26 1788, when agents of the British government, including military officers and marines, entered the sovereign territory of the Gadigal people at Sydney Cove. It happened again and again over the following century, whenever British government forces entered the territory of another Aboriginal or Torres Strait Islander people to seize that territory… The name ‘Invasion Day’ cannot be dismissed as one-side or legally inaccurate. It might even be seen as a neutral description, in that it accords both with the views of colonised peoples and with a system of law accepted by the colonisers at the time.

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Source 2.6.5 Rowan Nicholson, ‘Yes, This Continent Was Invaded in 1788 – An International Law Expert Explains’,

The Conversation, 27 January 2020.

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U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

1 In your own words, summarise the objections to the use of the term ‘Invasion Day’ in Source 2.6.4. Compare this with the arguments in Source 2.6.5. 2 Consider what you learned in Lesson 2.3 about the connection of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples to Country. How does this information support the idea that they should be considered sovereign (selfgoverning.)? Justify your response with examples. 3 Explain why Powell (Source 2.6.4) does not consider the term ‘invasion’ justified. 4 Explain why Nicholson (Source 2.6.5) considers the use of the term ‘invasion’ justified under international law. 5 Why do you think the interpretation of the colonisation of Australia as invasion is controversial? Justify your response with reasons, including quotations from the sources and other evidence. Be prepared to share your thinking with the class. Historical skills and concepts: communicating, using historical sources

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Source 2.6.6 William Hodgkinson, Bulla, Queensland, 1861, National Library of Australia

Case study: The Eumeralla Wars As British colonisation spread into new areas, conflict occurred between colonists and Indigenous nations. Beginning with conflict around the Hawkesbury and Nepean Rivers in the Sydney region in the 1790s, frontier war took place across the continent. Some prominent examples include the Wiradjuri war on the Bathurst Plains, the Black War in Van Diemen’s Land from the mid-1820s until 1832 and conflict in Queensland from 1849 until the late 19th century.

In Victoria, there were numerous incidents of violence on the frontier, with one of the most notable examples being the Eumeralla Wars, the name given to ongoing conflict in the Western District around Portland between colonists and Gunditjmara people. They began in 1833 or 1834 when a beached whale became the focal point for conflict between whalers and Gunditjmara people who asserted their rights to the carcass for food.

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U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES ➜

Source 2.6.7 Samuel Calvert, Conflict on the Rufus, in South Australia, State Library of Victoria, 1866.

After initially being warded off with spears, the whalers returned with firearms and the ensuing massacre saw an estimated 60–200 Gunditjmara people killed, with only two survivors. The site of the massacre became known as the Convincing Ground.

Fighting between colonists and Gunditjmara people continued through the 1830s with hit-and-run raids on pastoral stations and the stealing of sheep as

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a form of economic warfare. In 1842, a Gunditjmara man named Tarrarer led an attack on Eumeralla Station, making off with over 1000 sheep – estimated to be worth more than $600 000 today. Eventually, the Port Phillip Native Police, made up of Aboriginal men from around Melbourne, were brought in to assist the colonists’ campaign, with the area ‘pacified’ at the huge cost of an estimated 6500 of the 7000 Gunditjmara people in the area.

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Review questions 2.6

1 Describe the sources of conflict between colonists and First Nations Peoples. 2 Outline in your own words the key features of massacres on the frontier. 3 a Compare how conflict is shown in Sources 2.6.2, 2.6.6 and 2.6.7. Identify similarities and differences between the sources. b How useful are these sources for understanding frontier violence? Discuss the strengths and limitations of the images as historical evidence. Support your response with specific examples. 4 Explain the consequences of the Eumeralla Wars for the Gunditjmara peoples.

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2.7

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

How did diﬀerent migrant groups contribute to Australia in the 19th century? Learning intention

In the previous lesson, we examined how free settlers and convicts arrived in Australia. In this lesson, you will explore the diverse contributions and experiences of 19th-century migrant groups.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

See, think, wonder

➜

1 See: What do you see? 2 Think: What do you think is going on the source? What elements of the sketch help support this interpretation? 3 Wonder: What are questions the source provokes for you? Source 2.7.1 ST Gill, ‘Might Makes Right’, Mitchell Library, State Library of New South Wales.

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Who made up the original colonists? the riot reflected a belief among many that the quarrels of the old world needed to be left behind. As an editorial in a Melbourne newspaper stated: ‘…if it would not be better to live together in brotherly unity than have the good name of the district sullied by such scenes.’

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Great Britain and Ireland provided most of the early colonists to Australia, both as convicts and free settlers. Of the approximately 160 000 convicts transported to Australia between 1788 and 1868, there were 40 000 Irish, including over 600 political prisoners involved in nationalists’ uprisings in Ireland. Most Irish migrants, both convict and free settler, were Roman Catholic, which contributed at times to sectarian tensions. These erupted in Melbourne in 1846 when Irish Catholics rioted against members of the Orange order, an anti-Catholic Protestant group. However, popular reaction against

sectarian strong attachment to a particular set of religious and/or ethnic beliefs that cause tensions with those in different groups

The movement of people out of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland represents one of the greatest mass migrations in history. While most emigrants went to the United States and Canada, Australia also received many (Source 2.7.2).

22 126 047 (total number of people to emigrate from the UK, 1815-1914)

Halifax

4 21 3 3 6 2 1 9

Quebec QUEBEC Boston New York

7 14 007 62%

Wellington

7 61

Cape Town

Durban

1 10.7% 9 96 2 35

Auckland Melbourne Sydney Adelaide Perth

Hobart

Source 2.7.2 Emigration patterns from the United Kingdom over the period 1815–1914, showing immigrants from the UK by numbers and as a percentage of the total number who left the UK. In total, some 22 126 047 people emigrated from the UK in this time.

➜

diaspora the dispersion and spread of a people from their homeland

Dunedin Christchurch

4000 km

triangular trade a term used to describe the trans-Atlantic trade between Europe, Africa and the Americas that enslaved millions of Africans

Amazing but true...

The First Fleet contained more racial diversity than is often assumed, with 11 black men of the African diaspora among the convicts. Enslaved as part of the triangular trade across the Atlantic Ocean, they had gained their freedom in the American Revolution and found transport to England as loyalists. Convicted of crimes in London, they found themselves bound in chains once more, being sent to Australia. 70

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European background group to come to Australia up to that point. Most Chinese miners were men from southern provinces in China and by 1858 they made up an estimated 20 per cent of the miners on the goldfields.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

The presence of the Chinese aroused hostility and racism from Europeanbackground miners. Their different language and religious customs and the belief that they were competing for gold all contributed to this hostility. This led to violence, with anti-Chinese riots at Buckland River, Victoria on 4 July 1857 and at Lambing Flat, New South Wales on 30 June 1861. In response, colonial officials tried to control Chinese immigration. The Victorian Government passed the Chinese Restriction Act in 1855, which imposed a £10 poll tax on Chinese miners. As a result, many Chinese travelled to the South Australian town of Robe and then trekked to the goldfields. After Lambing Flat, the New South Wales Government passed the Chinese Immigrants Regulation and Restriction Act in November 1861. These Acts were precursors to the White Australia policy that would be implemented after Federation.

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Source 2.7.3 Banner used at the Lambing Flat riots, reading ‘Roll up’ and ‘No Chinese’

How did the Gold Rush change migration?

The gold rushes of the 1850s had a significant impact on migration to Australia. Victoria was home to significant deposits of gold and the population increased from 77 345 in 1851 to 538 628 in 1861. Overall, the non-Indigenous population of Australia quadrupled between 1851 and 1871. Most migrants came from the United Kingdom but there were also migrants from Europe and North America. A significant group that arrived during this time were the Chinese – the largest non-

Chinese migrants have made many contributions to modern Australia. They have enriched Australian culture through their food, language and traditions – influence that can be seen in Chinatowns across major cities and the celebration of festivals like the Lunar New Year. Their involvement in business and community life continues to shape Australia today.

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What did different migrant groups contribute to Australia up to 1913?

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Although the United Kingdom remained the greatest source of migrants up to World War I, different groups made their own contributions to Australia during this period.

Afghan cameleers

The advent of the White Australia Policy after Federation and the mechanisation of transport saw many cameleers return to their home countries, but some continued to live in Australia. They provided essential transport and supply services across the remote interior, connecting outback settlements and supporting industries such as pastoralism and mining. Even as motor vehicles began to replace camels, many cameleers remained, helping to establish local businesses and maintain supply networks in isolated regions. Their expertise in navigating harsh desert environments left a lasting legacy in the development of transport routes and regional commerce.

Source 2.7.4 A mosque at Marree, in the outback of South Australia, c. 1884. The pool at the front was for worshippers to wash before entering the mosque. State Library of South Australia. ➜

Camels were brought into Australia to transport goods across the arid interiors of South Australia, Western Australia and the Northern Territory. To help with riding, driving and breeding the camels, thousands of cameleers arrived in Australia from 1838 onwards. They became known as Afghans or Ghans, even though they came from various parts of southern Asia and the Middle East, including modern-day Pakistan, Egypt and Turkey. They were vital in supporting the gold rushes of the 1890s in the interior of Western Australia, with many towns such as Coolgardie and Kalgoorlie having ‘Ghantowns’ – areas where cameleers lived and even built mosques. The cameleers were all men, and some found wives with local Aboriginal women.

Germans

German immigration to Australia began in 1838 when people left Prussia to escape religious persecution. People of German background became the largest nonBritish or Irish European group to migrate to Australia before the First World War. South Australia became a centre for the German community, with towns such as Hahndorf in the Adelaide Hills. The Germans played a key role in developing the Australian wine industry in regions like the Barossa Valley. By 1913 there were an estimated 100 000 German Australians, either as first-generation migrants or descendants of those who arrived in the 19th century. Their contributions to winemaking, farming and engineering have had a lasting impact on modern Australia, and the technical skills and entrepreneurial spirit they brought helped to modernise local industries. Socially, German migrants formed vibrant communities. They built churches, schools and cultural clubs that preserved the German language and traditions through festivals, food and community events.

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South Sea Islanders

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

The importation of people from the Melanesian islands began in August 1863, with the arrival of 67 men from modern-day Vanuatu to work on cotton plantations in Queensland. Between 1863 and 1904, over 62 000 South Sea Islanders came to Australia, often kidnapped or tricked through a process known as ‘blackbirding’, to work as long-term indentured servants in the sugar cane and cotton industries of Queensland. Plantation owners wanted cheap labour and racist ideas suggested that darker-skinned people were better suited to hard physical work in the tropics. Despite facing harsh working conditions, little rights and discrimination, many South Sea Islanders made homes in Queensland and even acquired land. Marriages occurred between South Sea Islanders and Aboriginal people, who shared experiences of discrimination and exploitation. Although the Queensland government tried to improve conditions and banned forced recruitment through Acts such as the Polynesian Labourers Act 1868 and the Pacific Labourers Act (Queensland) in 1880, these laws were not always well enforced.

As the century progressed, some white workers resented the Islanders for lowering wages and living standards. After Federation in 1901, Parliament passed the Pacific Island Labourers Act 1901, which ended the importation of South Sea Islander labour and required their deportation from 1906. Almost 7500 people were deported over two years, in what historian Marilyn Lake called a ‘radical act of racial expulsion’. Often, deportees were returned to islands other than their original home island or were so young when they arrived in Australia they had no memory of their home country. Around 2500 remained in Australia, forming the nucleus of the Australian South Sea Islander community today. Many of these individuals continued to work in the sugar cane industry and other agricultural sectors, helping to sustain and grow these industries. Over time, they built strong family networks and communities that supported local economies and contributed to the development of rural Queensland. The South Sea Islander community has had a rich cultural influence in Queensland, especially in coastal and rural areas. Their traditions of music, dance, oral storytelling and communal life have become part of the region’s cultural fabric.

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Source 2.7.5 South Sea Islanders, c. 1878, most likely at a sugar plantation in Queensland. John Oxley Library, State Library of Queensland.

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Concepts and skills builder 2.7 Using historical source to evaluate historical interpretations and debates Historians Marilyn Lake and Henry Reynolds reflect on how race-based exclusive migration policies developed towards the end of the 19th century, first in New South Wales and then federally in the Immigration Restriction Act 1901.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

…Faced with the arrival in Australia of small numbers of Japanese, Malays, Sikhs, East Indian labourers and Pacific Islanders during the 1890s, especially in the north of the continent, colonial governments resolved to extend the earlier ban on Chinese to people of ‘any coloured race’…

The Australian legislation [in New South Wales] of 1896, in dividing the world’s peoples between white and not-white, regardless of their standing as powers or status as British subjects, marked a radical new departure in international relations … White Australia was produced in a convergence of these … classification systems with the result that a vast range of diverse nationalities, ethnicities and religious groups … were lumped together in the ever-expanding category of ‘not-white’. The ideal of a white man’s country expressed this fusion of imperial and republican traditions of racial rule. The figure of the white man provided the common identity that underpinned Anglo-American rapprochement [improved relations] at the end of the 19th century.

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Source 2.7.6 Marilyn Lake and Henry Reynolds, Drawing the Global Colour Line, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2008, p. 144.

1 2 3 4

Identify what actions colonial governments had taken towards Chinese migrants during the gold rush. Using the source, explain how colonial governments extended these actions by the 1890s. Using the source, outline the goals of colonial immigration policy towards non-white immigrants prior to Federation in 1901. Explain how the authors interpret the meaning of the racially restrictive legislation in this period. What outcomes did it lead to? Justify your response with quotations from the source.

Historical skills and concepts: using historical sources

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2.7 Review questions

1 Describe the diversity of migrants to Australia during the 19th century. 2 Identify the reason for tensions between Irish migrants and those from other parts of Britain. 3 Use Source 2.7.3 and information from the text to explain how European miners reacted to the Chinese on the goldfields. 4 Both the Afghan cameleers and South Sea Islanders forged relations with local Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples. Suggest reasons why these relations would have developed.

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2.8

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

How did the experiences of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people change over time? Learning intention

In the previous lesson, we explored how different migrant groups contributed to colonial Australia. In this lesson, you will analyse how Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander experiences were shaped by government policies and cultural resilience.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

Think, pair, share

Consider the following extract, and then answer the questions that follow. Note that the extract contains racist language, included here for historical purposes only. 6 It shall be the duty of the Board– (1) To apportion, distribute, and apply, as they may think fit, all moneys granted by the Legislative Council for the benefit of Aborigines. (2) To distribute blankets, clothes, and other relief to the Aborigines, in the discretion of the Board. (3) To submit to the Governor any proposals or suggestions relating to the care, custody, or education of the children of Aboriginals. (4) To provide as far as practicable for the supply of medicines, medical attendance, rations, and shelter to sick, aged, and infirm Aboriginals. (5) To manage and regulate the use of all Reserves set apart for the benefit of the Aborigines. (6) To exercise a general supervision and care over all matters affecting the interests and welfare of the Aborigines, and to protect them against ill-treatment, imposition, and fraud.

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Source 2.8.1 An extract of the text of The Aborigines Protection Act 1886, Western Australia. Digitised by the

Australian Institute of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Studies.

1 With reference to Source 2.8.1, identify the language that shows the level of control exerted over the lives of Aboriginal Peoples in Western Australia. Suggest what this meant for their ability to control their own lives? 2 Discuss your findings with a partner. 3 Brainstorm possible impacts of this legislation on Aboriginal communities. Be prepared to discuss your insights with the class.

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U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES ➜

Source 2.8.2 A photo from circa 1902 of Aboriginal people at Coranderrk. William Barak is the central, standing,

bearded figure. Boomerangs, made by residents at Coranderrk for sale to the wider community, are prominently on display.

Demands for land rights

Peoples until the 1880s, when stricter controls were placed upon them.

In northern and central Australia, Aboriginal people were incorporated into the pastoral economy, with rations provided for work on the stations. These complex relations were partly an acknowledgement on the part of pastoralists of the need for their labour. Historians Tracey Banivanua Mar and Penelope Edmonds observed:

Given the effects of occupation on Indigenous people’s lives and economies, there were ameliorations [benefits] inherent in accommodating pastoralists. While camped and working on pastoral stations, Indigenous groups could more easily maintain connection to country and a semblance of autonomy, albeit radically altered.

Source 2.8.3 Tracey Banivanua Mar and Penelope Edmonds, ‘Indigenous and settler relations’, The Cambridge History of Australia, Vol. I, eds. Alison Bashford and Stuart Macintyre, Melbourne, Cambridge University Press, 2013, p. 360. ➜

The impacts of frontier conflict, displacement and disease had devastating impacts on the lives of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples, but did not diminish their desire for land rights and to maintain culture. A survey conducted by the Victorian Government placed their numbers in the colony at 1860. In 1859 in Victoria, a delegation of seven Aboriginal men, headed by Simon Wonga, made their case to Gavin Duffy, the Minister for Lands. They sought to be granted land that they could farm and be selfsufficient. Their request was granted several years later, with the foundation of Coranderrk Station as a reserve near Healesville in 1863. Another four reserves were established in Victoria at this time. Although these reserves provided a level of autonomy and an ability to maintain cultural traditions, over the following decades they came under increasing colonial control and interference. In New South Wales, a system of Aboriginal reserves initially provided an even greater level of independence for Aboriginal

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William Barak and Louisa Briggs: Two early fighters for Aboriginal rights

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Beruk, or William Barak, was the cousin of Simon Wonga and would go on to be a founding figure of Coranderrk and ngurngaeta (head man) of the Wurundjeri people. Born in 1824, he briefly served in the Native Police in 1844. He led the protests against the proposed closure of the station in the 1880s, forging links with Victorian politician Graham Berry. Additionally, he helped maintain culture through the creation of artworks and the encouragement of craft-making at Coranderrk, which preserved traditional skills while providing items for sale to the white community. Despite his efforts, half the reserve was reclaimed by the state government in 1893 and, in the years after his death in 1903, Coranderrk was wound down and formally closed in 1924. ➜

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Source 2.8.5 Louisa Briggs, with her grandson William, taken at Coranderrk, c. 1876–1877

Source 2.8.4 William Barak’s painting Aboriginal Ceremony with wallaby and emu, c. 1880–1890, State Library of Victoria

Louisa Briggs was the descendant of an Aboriginal mother, either Woiwurrung or Boonwurrung, and a convict sealer. She and her husband, John Briggs, worked on stations in central Victoria during the gold rush and moved to Coranderrk, where they came into conflict with the Board for Protection of Aborigines. She was a tireless campaigner for the rights of her family and the community at Coranderrk, ultimately being expelled due to her mixed-race background. She then moved to Maloga in NSW and was involved with the mission at Cummeragunga, another important site of cultural resistance. Although she was expelled from Cummeragunga as well due to her racial status, she eventually returned there before her death in 1925.

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Protection Acts and colonial control Queensland in 1897. These Acts worked to confine Aboriginal people to missions and reserves and restrict their movements, and their ability to work, marry or travel. The New South Wales Government passed the Aborigines Protection Act 1909, which gave the Aborigines Protection Board wide powers, including, in a 1915 amendment, to ‘assume full control and custody of the child of any aborigine, if after due inquiry it is satisfied that such a course is in the interest of the moral and physical welfare of such child…’ This laid the foundations in the colonial and state legislation of the late 19th and early 20th century for what would become known as the Stolen Generations.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Both William Barak and Louisa Briggs had to contend with the increased control exerted over Aboriginal people in the colonies. In 1869, Victoria passed the Aboriginal Protection Act, giving the Board for Protection extensive powers over the lives of Aboriginal people in the state. This was furthered by the 1886 amendments to the Act, which became known as the ‘HalfCaste Act’ – a term that nowadays would be seen as racist – to describe people of mixed racial heritage, such as Louisa Briggs. The Act permitted the government to remove children from Aboriginal families. Across Australia, other colonies passed or updated their legislation, such as Western Australia in 1886 and

Concepts and skills builder 2.8 Identifying historical significance

In September 1886, William Barak and other men from Coranderrk marched to Melbourne to present a petition to Duncan Gillies, the Premier of Victoria and Alfred Deakin, the Chief Secretary. The petition was in response to the increased control over Aboriginal lives in the 1886 amendments to the Aboriginal Protection Act. To the Chief Secretary Sir,

We wish to pass this [on] to ask for our wishes that is, could we get our freedom to go away Shearing and Harvesting and to come when we wish and also to go for the good of our Health when we need it, and we Aboriginals all wish and hope to have freedom not to be bound down by the Protection of the Board, or as it says in the Bill (Clause 5) But we should be free like the White Population there is only few Blacks now remaining in Victoria, we are all dying away now and we Blacks of Aboriginal blood, wish to have now freedom for all our lifetime, for the Population is small and the increase is slow. For Why does the Board seek in these latter days more stronger authority over us Aborigines than it has yet been…

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Source 2.8.6 The petition William Barak wrote and delivered opposing amendments to the Aboriginal Protection Act.

1 List the activities in the source that Barak believes should be done without requiring the permission of the Board. 2 What arguments does Barak set out in the source against the amendments to the Aboriginal Protection Act? 3 Analyse the significance of William Barak and Coranderrk Station for Aboriginal Victorians. Use evidence from the source and other information in the text to justify your ideas. Historical skills and concepts: using historical sources 78

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Continuity and change to remember that they demonstrated adaptability and resilience. They changed traditional ways of living to engage in farming, working on the goldfields and in the pastoral economy. In the face of adversity, they maintained continuities by practising custodianship of Country, passing on lore and preserving language wherever possible.

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U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples faced dramatic and often devastating changes from 1788 until 1913. They experienced invasion, displacement from Country, the impacts of frontier conflicts and massacres and, in the later 19th century, increased control over their lives by colonial, and later state, governments. Yet it is also important

Source 2.8.7 1889 sketch of the Coranderrk Aboriginal Station, in Victoria, Australia

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2.8 Review questions

1 Outline how the creation of Coranderrk Station was achieved. 2 Using Source 2.8.3, explain how the engagement of Aboriginal people in the pastoral economy of northern Australia helped maintain culture. 3 Describe the impacts of colonial Protection Acts on Aboriginal Peoples in the late 19th century. 4 Construct a mind map to outline changes and continuities for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people in Victoria due to government actions between 1859 and 1900. Include examples of government legislation, significant places and key individuals.

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2.9

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

What was it like to live and work in Australia in the 19th century? Learning intention

In the previous lesson, we examined Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander experiences under colonial rule. In this lesson, you will investigate how political reform, unionism and economic shifts shaped working life in 19th-century Australia.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

See, think, wonder

1 See: What can you observe about the details of this monument? 2 Think: What do you think the purpose of it is? Why was it erected? 3 Wonder: What else would you like to find out?

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Source 2.9.1 Close up of the top of the Eight-Hour Day monument in Melbourne. The words on the ring are ‘work – rest – recreation’.

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Source 2.9.2 Parliament of Victoria, opened in 1856

Life in Australia changed dramatically from the establishment of the first colonies through to Federation. The following sections highlight some of the most significant changes, including the introduction of self-government and democratic reforms, and changes for workers.

Self-government

The Australian colonies were originally ruled by a powerful governor, drawn from the British navy or army. This was because they began as penal colonies, with convicts and soldiers vastly outnumbering free settlers. In 1823, a Legislative Council was created for New South Wales, comprising both elected and appointed members, to advise the governor and pass laws for the colony. However, there were wealth and property qualifications for voting. In 1852 the British Parliament instructed the colonies to draft constitutions for self-government, establishing a lower

responsible government a system where ministers must maintain the support of the majority of the lower house to govern

house (the Legislative Assembly) and an upper house (the Legislative Council). This mirrored the Westminster system and introduced responsible government.

The rebellion at the Eureka Stockade in Ballarat in 1854, when miners protested the licence fees charged by the Victorian Government, was strongly influenced by Chartist reform ideas. These ideas led the Victorian Government to adopt the secret ballot in 1856 and universal male suffrage in 1857. Similar reforms were later adopted in other colonies, giving working men rights they had not enjoyed in Britain.

Chapter 2: What were the consequences of British colonisation for Australia?

Westminster system the term used to describe Britishstyle parliamentary democracy, named after Westminster Palace where Parliament meets in London

Chartism a political reform movement that began in England with the People’s Charter of 1838, seeking expanded voting rights and democratic reforms for workers secret ballot a voting method that ensures voters cast their ballots in secret rather than openly universal male suffrage the right of all adult males to vote, regardless of wealth or property

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‘A fair day’s work, for a fair day’s pay’ Stonemasons formed a union to demand better conditions, arguing that Australia’s heat justified an eight-hour day. They walked off the job at the University of Melbourne on 21 April 1856 and went on strike, eventually securing an eight-hour working day. Although this reform initially applied only to certain skilled labourers, it eventually became the standard working day. This is an early example of the labour movement in Australia, which would become influential in politics.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

The gold rush of the 1850s brought a wave of immigrants – many with Chartist ideals – as well as a great deal of gold. Melbourne was transformed during this time, with significant building works, such as Parliament House (Source 2.9.2), the public library (now the State Library of Victoria) and the University of Melbourne erected.

Eight hours to work, Eight hours to play,

Eight hours to sleep, Eight bob a day.

A fair day’s work,

For a fair day’s pay.

Source 2.9.4 A popular workers’ rhyme of the 19th century. A ‘bob’ was a shilling in the old British currency system. ➜

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Source 2.9.3 Illustration of a banner celebrating the anniversary of the Eight-Hour Day, created in 1873, collection of State Library of Victoria.

A workingman’s paradise?

egalitarianism the idea that all people should have the same rights and opportunities

Following the gold rushes, many travellers and overseas commentators described Australia as a ‘paradise for the working man’. Egalitarianism was an important ideal – the idea that, in contrast to the class divisions of Britain, every (white) man was equal to each other. This was captured in the popular phrase of the day that ‘Jack’s as good as his master’. There was some truth to these characterisations. Between 1860 and 1890 Australia enjoyed the highest per capita incomes

in the world. Colonial cities not only had wealthy merchants and pastoralists, but also a large middle class of tradesmen, shopkeepers and white-collar workers. However, prosperity was not universal. Economic conditions fluctuated widely; key industries such as wool, wheat and minerals experienced seasonal ups and downs, and many workers relied on unpredictable work in construction, real estate or public projects like railways and telegraph lines.

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The rise of trade unions

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Workers in seasonal industries, such as shearing, began forming trade unions – groups that negotiated collectively with employers. The Amalgamated Shearers’ Union of Australasia, formed in 1887, was one of the first such organisations and later became the forerunner of the Australian Workers’ Union established in 1894. Shearers attempted to pressure pastoral stations to become ‘closed shops’ that employed only unionised labour. Unions hoped that through the collective action of members, they could ensure benefits were enjoyed by all workers, with pastoral stations forced to provide a consistent standard of wages and conditions for all. This proposal was resisted, and similar tensions arose in other industries, such as shipping and mining, where employers used non-union workers to undermine union power. These disputes highlighted the growing divide between ‘capital’ (business and property owners) and ‘labour’ (workers).

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Source 2.9.5 This cartoon by Livingstone Hopkins, titled ‘The Labour Crisis’, appeared in The Bulletin on 16 August 1890 at the start of the Maritime Strike in Melbourne. Its caption reads: ‘Capital: “See here, my man, one of us must either go back or else lie down and let the other walk over him. Now which of us shall it be?” (And that is now the question.)’

Concepts and skills builder 2.9 Analysing perspectives in primary sources

Unionism came to the Australian bushman as a religion. It came, bringing salvation from years of tyranny. It had in it that feeling of mateship which he understood already, and which always characterised the action of one ‘white man’ to another. Unionism extended the idea, so a man’s character was gauged by whether he stood true to Union rules or ‘scabbed’ it on his fellows. The man who never went back on his Union is honoured today as no other is honoured or respected. The man who fell once may be forgiven, but he is not fully trusted. The lowest term of reproach is to call a man a ‘scab’.

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Source 2.9.6 WG Spence, Australia’s Awakening: Thirty Years in the Life of an Australian Agitator, Worker Trustees, Sydney, 1909, p. 48.

1 Identify the benefits of unionism to Australian workers, according to Spence. 2 Describe the character of a ‘union man’ according to Spence. 3 Analyse the language used in the source. What groups of people are included in the benefits of unionism and what groups are excluded? Justify your response with evidence from the source. Historical skills and concepts: using historical sources

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The Depression of the 1890s The period between the gold rushes of the 1850s and 1890 were a period of growth and prosperity for the Australian colonies. As historian John Hirst observed:

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U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

It was in this period [the 1870s] that Australia’s standard of living overtook that of Britain and became the highest in the world. The measure for standard of living is rather crude: gross domestic product per head. That does not indicate how income is distributed within a society, or how standards differ across society. Fortunately there are other measures that allow us to say confidently that Australian workers at that time had the highest living standards in the world, achieved in part, by political pressure brought by the workers themselves.

Source 2.9.7 John Hirst, Australian History in 7 Questions, Collingwood, Black Inc, 2014, p. 81.

However, factors such as a property boom in Melbourne that encouraged unsustainable borrowing and changes in international conditions would bring this period to an end.

During the 1890s, the world entered a period of economic decline. Factories closed, companies went bankrupt and unemployment spiked. The Australian economy shrank by 30 per cent between 1891 and 1895. Employers tried to break the power of the unions at this time by only hiring non-union workers. Union members referred to these non-union workers as ‘scabs’, a term still used today for anyone who undermines collective

action. Several strikes occurred during this period – including the 1890 Maritime Strike and the Great Shearers’ Strike of 1891 – but they did not gain widespread public support. This lack of support contributed to the union movement establishing its own political parties, beginning with the NSW Labour Electoral League in 1891, which eventually became the foundation of the Australian Labor Party after Federation. The ideas that influenced the formation of early labour parties were outlined in a manifesto published by the NSW Labour Defence Committee during the 1890 strikes:

Fellow-workers, – The time has come when a supreme struggle must be fought in defence of the principle of trade unionism. The issue in this conflict is not just the granting of a special concession to one group of workers, but the defence of the right of labour to unite in a common cause.

These ideas were expressed in a poem published in The Bulletin in 1891:

Then keep your heads, I say, my boys; your comrades in the town

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Source 2.9.8 William Kidston, ‘The ballot is the thing’, The Bulletin, 11 April 1891, p. 10. Note that ‘George the Fourth’ is a reference to an obscure 1825 conspiracy law that was used to jail strike leaders in Queensland.

Will help you yet to win a vote and put your tyrants down. Throw your old guns aside, my boys; the ballot is a thing

They did not have to reckon with when George the Fourth was king. The ballot is the thing, my boys, the ballot is the thing Will show these men how long it is since George the Fourth was King.

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The NSW Electoral League won 35 seats in the 1891 election, and a short-lived Labour government formed in Queensland in 1899. Although the 1890s strikes did not achieve their immediate aims, they led to the creation of the Australian Labor Party – a significant development in Australian political history.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

➜ Source 2.9.9 ‘The Labor Crisis – The riot in George

Street, Sydney’, David Syme &Co., 1890, State Library of Victoria. This newspaper illustration shows police dispersing workers who were trying to block wool from reaching the wharf in Sydney during the 1890 strikes.

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2.9 Review questions

1 Identify the political reforms that gave working men greater rights in Australia. 2 Explain how the idea of egalitarianism influenced early union movements like the Stonemasons. 3 Explain why the union movement decided to form political parties in the colonies during the 1890s. Use Source 2.9.8 and other evidence from the chapter to support your response. 4 Compare Sources 2.9.5 and 2.9.10. What do these visuals show about divisions in Australian society in the 1890s? Justify your response with specific examples from each image. 5 Summarise the continuities and changes in the experiences of working men in Australia between 1851 and 1899. Use examples from the chapter to support your response.

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2.10

How did women fight for political rights? Learning intention

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

In the previous lesson, we explored how the labour movement influenced politics and workers’ rights. In this lesson, you will examine the campaigns and individuals who fought for women’s political equality.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

What makes you say that?

1 What do you think is happening in the source? What is the message of the cartoon? 2 What makes you say that? How would you support your opinion using evidence from the visual elements?

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Source 2.10.1 ‘The Political Situation in South Australia’, published in The Bulletin, 1 September 1894. The woman is holding a pair of trousers labelled ‘Seat in parliament’. The caption reads: Fallen Man: ‘Ours, my dear, by all means!’

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The beginning of campaigns for women’s suffrage first group to campaign for women’s votes. It was quickly followed by similar organisations in South Australia and New South Wales. Organisations such as the Women’s Christian Temperance Union (WCTU) would also play an important role, as did writings by women such as Louisa Lawson, who launched the magazine Dawn in 1888. This magazine combined household management tips with political advocacy for women. Suffragists used methods such as writing, petitions, public meetings and lobbying members of parliament. Gradually, their campaigns began to gain support from both women and liberal-minded men.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

While white men had achieved universal male suffrage in all the colonies by the late 1800s (at least for the lower house), women could not vote at all. Women also faced other issues such as legal discrimination and lack of rights – for example, they had no custody rights over their own children, could be abandoned by their husbands, earned lower wages compared to men and, in many colonies, the age of consent was only 12 or 13 years. Women realised that to achieve change they needed a political voice and that gaining the vote would be the key. In 1884, the Victorian Women’s Suffrage Society was formed – the

suffragist a campaigner for women’s suffrage (the right to vote)

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Source 2.10.2 Womanhood Suffrage League of New South Wales, 1902

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Who were the key figures in the movement? Table 2.10.1 outlines some of the prominent women who helped organise petitions, write letters and pressure politicians for female suffrage. Table 2.10.1 Key figures in the Australian women’s suffrage movement

Catherine Helen Spence (1825–1910): A South Australian who became the first woman in the modern world to stand at an election, contesting the 1897 South Australian election. Although she did not win, her efforts were crucial in advancing women’s political rights.

Source 2.10.3

Mary Lee

Henrietta Dugdale (1827–1918): A Victorian suffragist who was the first president of the Victorian Women’s Suffrage Society and an author.

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U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Mary Lee (1821–1909): An Irish immigrant to Adelaide, South Australia, in 1879, she threw herself into the campaign for female suffrage and was one of the key leaders of the debate in that colony.

Source 2.10.4

Catherine Helen Spence

Rose Scott (1847–1925): A founder of the Womanhood Suffrage League of New South Wales in 1891, she also helped organise women’s labour unions such as the Tailoresses’ Union of NSW in 1901.

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Source 2.10.5

Henrietta Dugdale

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Source 2.10.6

Rose Scott

Louisa Lawson (1848– 1920): A writer, printer and advocate for women’s rights who founded the magazine Dawn in 1888.

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Source 2.10.7 Louisa

Lawson

Vida Goldstein (1869– 1949): A Victorian who became actively involved in the campaign for women’s suffrage. In 1899 she became the general secretary of the United Council for Women’s Suffrage, working tirelessly to secure the vote for women.

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Source 2.10.8 Vida

Goldstein

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How was suffrage for women achieved in the colonies?

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Despite the work of suffrage and other organisations, many men still believed that women did not want the responsibility of voting. In 1891, Victorian Premier James Munro promised to introduce a bill into the Victorian Legislative Assembly if he could be shown evidence that the desire for a vote was widespread among women. With the organisational skills of the Victorian WCTU and the Victorian Suffrage Society, 30 000 signatures were collected. Suffragists such as Henrietta Dugdale and Vida Goldstein, along with many other women, travelled door-to-door and by train across Melbourne and regional Victoria to gather support. The signatures were all pasted together to form what became known as the ‘Monster Petition’, which stretched over 260 metres and was rolled onto a cardboard spindle. It required four attendants to carry it into the Victoria Parliament. It remains the largest petition ever presented to that Parliament. Although the lower house passed a bill to grant women franchise, the conservative upper house blocked it. Victorian women did not win the vote at state elections until 1908.

The issue of women’s suffrage also sparked debates at the Constitutional Conventions, where a new constitution

Source 2.10.9 The 1891 ‘Monster Petition’ with the signatures of 30 000 Victorian women. ➜

Similar petitions in Queensland and South Australia gathered 11 000 signatures each. In South Australia the breakthrough finally came. A vote was held in December 1894, and after fierce debate the bill passed, giving women – including Aboriginal women – not only the vote but also the right to stand for Parliament. South Australia became the first place in the world to grant women full political equality. Western Australia followed in 1899.

was drafted for the proposed federation of the colonies. South Australia insisted that their women would retain the franchise; however, not all colonies allowed women to vote, so different rules applied in various parts of the new country. Section 41 of the Constitution resolved this by allowing anyone with the right to vote in state elections to vote in federal elections. The broader question of voting rights for all Australian women would only be resolved after Federation.

Chapter 2: What were the consequences of British colonisation for Australia?

franchise the right to vote

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Concepts and skills builder 2.10 Analysing perspectives, beliefs and values From a letter written by Queen Victoria, objecting to the idea of women’s suffrage:

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U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

I am most anxious to enlist everyone who can speak or write to join in checking this mad, wicked folly of ‘Women’s Rights’, with all its attendant horrors, on which her poor feeble sex is bent, forgetting every sense of womanly feeling and propriety … Were woman to unsex themselves by claiming equality with men, they would become the most hateful, heathen and disgusting of beings and would surely perish without male protection.

Source 2.10.11 Queen Victoria, letter to Sir Theodore

Martin, 1870

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Source 2.10.10 The front cover of Vida Goldstein’s journal The Australian Women’s Sphere, October 1900.

1 Describe the argument made by Vida Goldstein in Source 2.10.10 on why women should be enfranchised. 2 Examine the portrayals of Aboriginal and Chinese people in Source 2.10.10. What do these portrayals show about the types of arguments used to support women’s suffrage? 3 Outline Queen Victoria’s reasons in Source 2.10.11 for why women should not vote. 4 Discuss what these sources tell us about the varied perspectives on women’s suffrage at the time. Historical skills and concepts: using historical sources

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After Federation the Constitution, this meant the states could also allow them to vote in federal elections. In practice, however, this right was rarely exercised.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Following Federation, the Commonwealth Franchise Act was passed in 1902, allowing white women to vote in national elections. The 1902 Commonwealth Franchise Act made Australian women the first in the world to be able to both vote and stand for election to their national parliament. (Something South Australian women had achieved at the colonial level in 1894.) The Act was also exclusive and discriminatory, reflecting the prevailing ideal of a White Australia. Although the Act enfranchised people over 21, it included the words:

No aboriginal native of Australia, Asia, Africa, or the Islands of the Pacific except New Zealand shall be entitled to have his name placed on an Electoral Roll unless so entitled under section forty-one of the Constitution.

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Source 2.10.12 Clause 4, Commonwealth Franchise

Source 2.10.13 Edith Cowan was elected to the Western Australian Legislative Assembly in 1921 and was the first woman elected to any Australian Parliament. What does it still say about attitudes of the time that it took 19 years for a woman to be elected to parliament in Australia? ➜

Act 1902

Some colonies, such as Victoria, New South Wales and South Australia, had laws that allowed Aboriginal men to vote before Federation. Under Section 41 of

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2.10 Review questions

1 List reasons why women wanted the vote in Australia in the 19th century. 2 Describe the different methods used by women to argue for the vote. 3 Create a timeline of key events in women’s suffrage in Australia between 1880 and 1902. Include at least five events. 4 Explain how the issue of South Australian and West Australian women having the vote was resolved in the creation of the Australian Constitution. 5 Using Source 2.10.12 and other evidence, evaluate the extent to which the Commonwealth Franchise Act 1902 represented egalitarian ideas.

Chapter 2: What were the consequences of British colonisation for Australia?

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2.11

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

What factors caused the colonies to federate and what kind of national identity was emerging? Learning intention

In the previous lesson, we explored how women fought for political equality. In this lesson, you will examine how a distinct national identity formed and contributed to Federation.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

Think, pair, share

Carefully examine Source 2.11.1 and complete the following questions:

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1 Think: Spend two minutes individually considering what this source tells us about Australia in the late 19th century. Who is shown in the painting and what are they doing? Why do you think Tom Roberts chose this scene? 2 Pair: Share your ideas with a partner. Can you add anything to your initial notes? 3 Share: What does this painting suggest about Australian identity? What are its limitations? Discuss your ideas with the class. Source 2.11.1 Tom Roberts, Shearing the rams, 1890, National Gallery of Victoria.

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By the end of the 19th century, the Australian colonies began to see themselves – and the world – differently. Technological advances made communication and transportation between Australia and the rest of the world much easier. A growing sense of Australian national identity

developed across the continent, although many white settlers also feared that this new society would be taken over by foreign powers or overwhelmed by immigration from Asia. These influences pushed the colonies closer together and eventually led to Federation.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Growth of a national identity Nationalist writing and cultural developments helped to create a new sense of what it meant to be ‘Australian’. An increasing number of white colonists were born in Australia. In 1871, the Australian Natives Association was formed; membership was restricted to white men born in the colonies. Although it was set up partly to provide insurance for its members, the Association became a strong advocate for Federation.

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In addition, writing and art emerged as important ways to express an Australian identity. The Bulletin magazine, founded in 1880, featured writers such as Henry Lawson and Banjo Paterson, whose

stories and poetry celebrated Australian themes. However, The Bulletin also promoted a vision of Australia that was influenced by racist beliefs – for example, the magazine sometimes used the slogan ‘Australia for the white man’. In art, the Heidelberg school emerged in the late 19th century, producing landscape paintings that celebrated Australia’s unique scenery. Artists such as Tom Roberts, Arthur Streeton and Jane Sutherland captured the beauty of the land, further helping to promote nationalist feelings. As historian John Hirst asserts, the newly federated nation was born ‘in a festival of poetry’.

Source 2.11.2 Arthur Streeton’s Golden Summer, Eaglemont, 1889, depicting the sun-bleached countryside of an

Australian summer, National Gallery of Australia.

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Factors that contributed to Federation constitution – which are discussed in the following lesson. Some of the factors contributing to Federation included: • Defence concerns: An 1889 report by a British officer (the Edwards Report) found that the colonies’ defence forces were weak and recommended a federated defence system.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

The colonies had been self-governing since the mid-1800s, after achieving responsible government. As the end of the 19th century approached, many influential people began discussing the unification of the colonies into a federation. In 1889 the Premier of New South Wales, Henry Parkes, made a famous speech called the Tenterfield Oration, which called for the colonies to federate. This led to Constitutional Conventions – meetings between the colonies to agree on a

• Racial anxiety: The influx of Chinese immigrants during the gold rush sparked fears about race and the need to protect Australia as a settlercolonial outpost of the British ‘race’. Federation was seen as a way to control immigration and preserve a ‘White Australia’.

• Economic reasons: Federation was viewed as a means to remove trade barriers between colonies and to improve Australia’s ability to trade with other countries.

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Source 2.11.3 Henry Parkes, 1887, often called

the ‘Father of Federation’, State Library of New South Wales.

• Emerging national identity: Along with artistic expressions and literature, the formation of ‘Australian’ cricket teams to play England and the adoption of native flora and fauna as national symbols helped to build a sense of nationhood.

Debates about Federation

free trade the principle that goods can be imported without being taxed protectionism the use of tariffs or other barriers to trade to protect local industries tariffs taxes and duties applied to imported goods

Getting the six colonies to agree on a new federation was challenging. Each colony had its own concerns, and the colonial premiers had to listen to local public opinion. Some debates centred on free trade versus protectionism – Victoria used tariffs to protect its industries, while New South Wales favoured free trade. Smaller states such as Western Australia and Tasmania were worried that the larger colonies (Victoria and New South Wales) would overpower them in the proposed House of Representatives. 94

These concerns were partly addressed in the Constitution by giving each state an equal number of senators in the Senate. Additionally, any change to the Constitution required a double majority – a majority of voters overall and a majority of states in favour. Finally, the issue of whether Sydney or Melbourne would be the capital was resolved by creating a new capital territory within New South Wales, with Melbourne serving as the capital until Canberra was established.

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Concepts and skills builder 2.11 ➜

Understanding chronology

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Access the webpage in Source 2.11.4, and use it to complete the following questions: 1 Construct an annotated timeline of the key steps towards Federation. 2 Using the timeline and other evidence in this chapter, outline the continuities and changes in government in Australia and the colonies/states before and after Federation. Consider how government was structured, who participated in the political process, and the relationship with Great Britain.

Source 2.11.4

‘Federation’, Parliamentary Education Office website

Historical skills and concepts: using historical sources

What was the role of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples in Federation?

Source 2.11.5 Over 100 000 people attending the official proclamation in Sydney of Federation and the swearing in of Edmund Barton as Prime Minister by the Governor General, 1 January 1901, State Library of New South Wales. ➜

The process of Federation did not involve any Aboriginal or Torres Strait Islander Peoples. The original Constitution only mentions them twice – in Section 127, which excluded them from being counted in the census; and in Section 51, subsection xxvi, where the federal government was given the power to make laws concerning race, but specifically excluded from doing so for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples. They were considered the responsibility of the states, who controlled their lives under protection and welfare boards. There was a widespread belief among white Australians that they were a dying race, and that the states were in the best position to manage this decline. The population of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people in 1901 was counted at 93 000, although some states did not fully count their populations or excluded

those of mixed descent. Historian Richard Broome reflects that:

By 1900 most settler Australians held derogatory views towards Aboriginal Australians, which were a mixture of ignorance, indifference, fanciful racial theories, a belief in white superiority, and the need to rationalise the continued dispossession of Aboriginal land. In this vein, settler Australians shaped their Constitution, which failed to count Aboriginal people with other Australians, and passed immigration laws that excluded people of colour and expelled Pacific Islanders from Queensland in 1906. The settlers’ national dreaming was of a white Australia.

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Source 2.11.6 Richard Broome, Aboriginal Australians: A History since 1800, Sydney, Allen & Unwin, 2019, p. 108.

Chapter 2: What were the consequences of British colonisation for Australia?

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Federation and national identity However, periodicals like The Bulletin celebrated the bush and promoted a more confident Australian nationalism. Australia’s new coat of arms, originally granted by King Edward VII in 1908 and updated by King George V in 1912, included the symbols of the states on the shield. It also featured distinctively Australian elements, including a kangaroo and emu flanking the shield, and a background of golden wattle.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Federation was both a celebration of Australian identity and an expression of loyalty to the British Empire. When His Royal Highness, the Duke of York and Cornwall (later King George V), opened the first parliament in Melbourne in May 1901, the city’s streets were decorated with eight ceremonial arches, many of which honoured the royal family. The national anthem was God Save the King, and Queen Victoria’s birthday, 24 May, was celebrated as Empire Day from 1905.

➜ Source 2.11.7 The coat of arms of the Commonwealth of Australia, granted by King George V in 1912.

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2.11 Review questions

1 Identify two examples of how an emerging Australian identity was expressed in the late 19th century. 2 Outline the factors that led the colonies to seek federation. Which do you think were most important? Which were less important? Give reasons for your choices. 3 Explain the concerns that smaller colonies had about Federation. 4 Discuss how Australia was developing a distinct identity among its settler population, and how people still saw themselves as British subjects. What examples from the lesson support each view?

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2.12

How did Federation happen? Learning intention

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

In the previous lesson, we investigated the emergence of national identity and reasons for Federation. In this lesson, you will analyse the steps, people and processes that led to Australia’s Constitution.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

See, think, wonder

1 See: Describe specific features of the cartoon – note the dates and how people are dressed. 2 Think: What do you think the cartoon suggests about how white Australians in the colonies felt about changes since colonisation? 3 Wonder: What questions does the cartoon raise for you? What would you like to know more about?

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Source 2.12.1 Phil May, ‘The Same Old Tune (And a Bad One at That)’, in The Bulletin, 21 January 1888.

Chapter 2: What were the consequences of British colonisation for Australia?

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What were the steps to Federation? The ANA began as a ‘friendly society’, a contributory insurance scheme where members paid in to be eligible for benefits. From its beginning it was dedicated to an Australian identity. However, its membership was restricted to Australian-born white men – despite its name, Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples were excluded. The ANA organised the conference at Corowa and actively promoted Federation. The Corowa conference is sometimes known as a ‘People’s Conference’ because it was not organised directly by colonial politicians, although some of them did participate.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

In 1891, representatives from colonial parliaments met at a Federal Convention in Sydney to draft a Constitution. This momentum stalled during the depression and inter‐colonial strikes of the early 1890s, while old rivalries – such as the debate over free trade versus protection – continued. As a result, the colonial parliaments did not confirm the draft Constitution. The movement was revived by the Australian Natives’ Association (ANA). In 1893, another conference was held, symbolically at Corowa on the banks of the Murray River – the border between Victoria’s protectionist policies and New South Wales’ free trade policies.

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Source 2.12.2 A certificate of membership in the Australian Natives’ Association from 1910

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Who were some of the key figures in promoting Federation? In addition to Henry Parkes – who died in 1896 and did not live to see Federation – the movement had many prominent

supporters among politicians from different colonies. Some key figures are shown below.

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U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

A leading supporter for Federation in New South Wales, Barton attended the first convention in 1891. He was a rival of George Reid in NSW politics, briefly serving as opposition leader when Reid was premier. He campaigned vigorously for Federation, famously declaring ‘a nation for a continent and a continent for a nation.’ He was later appointed as Australia’s first prime minister at Federation.

Source 2.12.3 Edmund Barton

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Source 2.12.4 Alfred Deakin

A prominent Victorian politician and supporter of protectionist policies, Deakin was a member of both the Australian Natives’ Association and the Imperial Federation League. After refusing cabinet positions in Victoria post-1890, he dedicated himself to promoting Federation. In 1900 he travelled to London with Barton and Charles Kingston to secure the safe passage of the Federation Bill through the British parliament. Deakin described himself as ‘an independent Australian Briton’ and became Australia’s second prime minister when Barton joined the High Court.

The West Australian politician and premier, Forrest supported Federation while trying to secure the best deal for West Australia. As the leader of one of the smallest states by population, he strongly advocated for equal representation for each state in the Senate. West Australia was the last colony to vote for Federation in 1900.

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Source 2.12.5 John Forrest

A Queensland lawyer and politician, Griffith served as both premier of Queensland and, from 1893, as its Chief Justice. He was the main author of the 1891 draft constitution and later became Australia’s first Chief Justice in 1903.

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Source 2.12.6 Samuel Griffith

Premier of South Australia for much of the 1890s, Kingston was a strong supporter of Federation. He travelled with Deakin and Barton to London in 1900 and was a vigorous protectionist. Kingston served in the cabinet of the Barton government until 1903.

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Source 2.12.7 Charles Kingston

Premier of NSW for much of the 1890s, Reid also supported Federation. However, during the first referendum campaign in Sydney he did not give his full support – earning him the nickname ‘Yes-No Reid’. A strong free-trader, he later became the first Leader of the Opposition after Federation and served as the fourth Prime Minister.

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Source 2.12.8 George Reid

Chapter 2: What were the consequences of British colonisation for Australia?

referendum (plural: referenda) a vote to decide whether or not to change part of the Constitution

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The 1897–1898 Constitutional Conventions and referenda

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

In response to a People’s Convention at Bathurst in 1896, the colonial legislatures convened an Australasian Federal Convention in Adelaide in March 1897. Follow-up conventions in Sydney (August 1897) and Melbourne (March 1898) produced a draft constitution to be approved through referenda in each colony.

1898 Referendum

Four colonies – Tasmania, New South Wales, South Australia and Victoria – held referenda in 1898. Although all voted ‘Yes’, NSW did not reach the required 80 000 votes as set by the enabling legislation, so the vote failed there. In early 1899 the premiers met to amend the draft constitution in order to improve its chances of success.

1899 Referendum

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In 1899, five of the six colonies held referenda, with all voting ‘Yes’. Western Australia was the only colony that had not yet voted in favour of Federation, as Premier John Forrest held out for a better deal. The gold mining areas around Kalgoorlie and Coolgardie in the east had attracted migrants from the eastern colonies who were strong supporters of Federation, in contrast to longerestablished colonists who held concerns about what it would mean for them. In the end, with the residents of the Eastern Goldfields threatening to form a separate colony to join with Australia, Forrest held a referendum in July 1899 in which nearly 70 per cent of West Australians voted ‘Yes’, allowing the colony to join as one of the founding six states.

Source 2.12.9 A ribbon promoting a ‘Yes’ vote in the 1899

Federation referendum

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Concepts and skills builder 2.12 Analysing values and attitudes

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

We come into existence because we believe there exists a necessity for such a journal as we purpose to be – a national newspaper. We belong not to party-politics nor religion. Protection nor free trade shall have no place in our columns. Australia – the land of our birth is the star that shall guide us, and the advancement of all that tends to her welfare is our high aim…

But we have a very much higher ambition than to be merely the chronicler of branch news, and a record of sayings and doings of this or that member of the A.N.A. On all affairs pertaining to the well-being of Australia, we will make ourselves heard, and that with no uncertain sound. Our country is just now stepping across the threshold of nationhood, and it behoves us to see to it that no irretrievable mistakes are made – mistakes for which Australians of a future generation would have to pay the penalty; therefore, as the necessity arises, we will not be slow to condemn or praise.

We belong to no province in particular. The welfare of Australia as a whole, and not the parish politics of any one part, is the matter which shall have our deepest concern. We are not Victorian or South Australian in our proclivities; neither do we incline towards New South Wales. We are Australians, and the interests of the commonwealth shall be striven for with singleness of aim… We trust to receive the support of all Australians whether members of the A.N.A. or otherwise; and first, last, and always our aim will be to: ‘Advance Australia’.

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Source 2.12.10 Extract from an editorial from the first edition of the journal of the Australian Natives Association, The Advance Australia, published on 26 January 1897

1 Identify three short quotations from the source that indicate that the ANA promoted the interests of Australia. 2 Explain what the source suggests about the attitudes of people in the colonies towards Federation. 3 List the colonies mentioned in the source. What does this reveal about the geographic focus of the ANA, and why might this be a limitation for its activities? Historical skills and concepts: using historical sources

The Constitution

The Australian Constitution drew inspiration from the British parliamentary system – the basis for colonial Legislative Assemblies and Councils – as well as from the United States. Instead of calling the lower house the ‘House of Commons’, it adopted the American term ‘House of Representatives’, where representation

was based on population so that more populous states received more seats. The elected Senate was also designed to mirror the American model by giving each state equal representation. This arrangement was intended to address the concerns of smaller states that might otherwise be overpowered by Victoria and New South Wales.

Chapter 2: What were the consequences of British colonisation for Australia?

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peacefully and democratically. It involved widespread debate and the active participation of ordinary voters. Although the new nation remained tied to the British Empire, most Australians were proud of this achievement and shared Deakin’s sentiment that they were ‘independent Australian Britons’. However, as the next lesson will discuss, not everyone was included in the new nation – especially Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Other issues included compensating states for the loss of tariff revenue, an important income source for colonial governments. The ‘Braddon Clause’ was a compromise whereby the federal government took over the power to enforce tariffs on imported goods, with 75 per cent of the revenue returned to the states for the first 10 years of Federation. The formation of an Australian nation from the six colonies was achieved

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2.12 Review questions

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1 Describe who could be a member of the Australian Natives Association. 2 Explain what role the ANA played in helping achieve Federation. 3 Examine the key figures promoting Federation and outline the similarities and differences between them. 4 Outline the features of the Constitution that were designed to protect smaller states. 5 Using Source 2.12.9, identify the symbols and slogans used to promote Federation.

Source 2.12.11 Federation celebrations in Sydney

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2.13

Who belonged in the new nation? Learning intention

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

In the previous lesson, we examined how Federation was achieved. In this lesson, you will investigate how early laws defined who was included or excluded from the new nation.

Warning: Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander students – please be aware that this content includes historical accounts of racist and harmful views held by white colonists during invasion.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

What makes you say that?

1 What’s going on? Describe what you think is happening in the cartoon. What is its message? 2 What do see that makes you say that? What specific elements of the cartoon support your interpretation?

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Source 2.13.1 A cartoon by Phil May in The Bulletin, March 1888

Chapter 2: What were the consequences of British colonisation for Australia?

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U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES ➜

Source 2.13.2 Tom Roberts, The Opening of the First Parliament of the Commonwealth of Australia by His Royal Highness the Duke of Cornwall and York, 9 May 1901.

Establishing the new nation

social laboratory the idea that Australia was one of the first countries to experiment with socially progressive ideas such as women’s suffrage, minimum wages and pensions workingman’s paradise the view that Australia provided good working conditions and benefits through the work of unions, the Labor Party and government legislation

The first day of January 1901 marked the creation of the Commonwealth of Australia, as the newly federated nation was called. However, work remained to form a government. Elections were held at the end of March and on 9 May the first parliament convened in the Royal Exhibition Building in Melbourne – the temporary capital until the establishment of Canberra after World War 1. Edmund Barton, leader of the Protectionist Party, became the first prime minister.

The ceremony was a grand affair, presided over by the Duke of York (the future King George V) and captured by the

artist Tom Roberts in his painting of the event (Source 2.13.2), which now hangs in Parliament House, Canberra. The first members of parliament were all men. At the time, the new nation had a population of just under 3.8 million – 98 per cent of British and Irish descent – while the estimated Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander population was 93 000. The laws passed by 1914 played a significant role in determining the character of the new nation. Questions remained: Who would be included in the new nation? Who would be excluded? And how would they govern?

The social laboratory

By 1914 many pieces of legislation had been passed that were considered progressive and ground-breaking – earning Australia a reputation as both a social laboratory and a workingman’s paradise. One contributing factor was the formation of the Australian Labor Party

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(ALP). Universal suffrage meant there were no wealth or property qualifications for adults to vote or stand for parliament – giving working-class citizens a greater say. The presence of the ALP also helped push forward legislation concerning working conditions and welfare, such as those outlined in Table 2.13.1.

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Table 2.13.1 Key legislative and judicial decisions that contributed to the social laboratory

Gave all white men and women over the age of 21 the right to vote and stand for parliament. Excluded most Aboriginal people.

1904 Conciliation and Arbitration Act

Established a court to settle disputes between white workers and employers. Workers needed to be represented by a union.

1907 Harvester Judgement

A decision by Justice Higgins in the Arbitration Court that established the principle of a basic wage. It excluded agricultural and domestic workers, and women – effectively restricting it to white men.

1908 Old Age and Invalid Pension Act

Provided means-tested pensions for white women over 60 and men over 65, as well as pensions for white people unable to work due to infirmity.

1912 Maternal Allowance Act

Provided a payment of £5 for women – married or single – who had given birth, to help cover medical expenses. Only white women were eligible.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

1902 Franchise Act

Concepts and skills builder 2.13 Evaluating significance

Read the following source and respond to the questions that follow.

From the very first days of Federation, Australia’s white women were accorded a stake in the nation’s destiny. Unlike their sisters in almost every other country in the world, they could vote for their representatives in the new federal parliament. A significant number of Australian women took their responsibilities as voting citizens seriously. They saw the vote as an opportunity to shape the future of the new nation in a way that would improve the lot of women as well as benefit society as a whole.

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Source 2.13.3 Raelene Frances, ‘Women in White Australia’, in Glorious Days: Australia 1913, Stuart Macintyre, Peter Stanley and Tom Griffiths (eds.), Canberra, National Museum Australia Press, 2013, p. 98.

1 Identify two quotations from the source that suggest women’s political rights in the new nation were significant. 2 What examples of legislation described in this lesson do you think both improved the lives of women and benefited society. 3 Explain why women’s rights could be seen as part of Australia’s ‘social laboratory’ after Federation. Historical concepts and skills: communicating, historical significance, using historical sources

Chapter 2: What were the consequences of British colonisation for Australia?

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A White Australia?

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

One of the features of the new nation was a commitment to a White Australia. Racial anxieties – one of the factors that contributed to Federation (see Lesson 2.11) – led to early legislation such as the Immigration Restriction Act 1901, which gave immigration officials wide-ranging powers to prevent non-white immigrants from entering the country. One infamous element of this policy was the dictation test, which required potential immigrants to write a 50-word passage dictated by an official, in any European language – a nearly impossible task if the wrong language was chosen (e.g. by asking an Italian to write something dictated in Swedish). This Act was soon followed by the Pacific Island Labourer’s Act 1901, which aimed to deport South Sea Islanders in Queensland who had been brought in as indentured labour for the cotton and sugar industries. Introduced by Prime Minister Edmund Barton as a ‘splendid new year’s gift to the nation’, by 1908 approximately 7500 South Sea Islanders had been deported. Together, these Acts formed the basis of what became known as the White Australia policy, which would be maintained until the 1960s.

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Source 2.13.4 A poster promoting the play ‘White Australia, or, the empty north’, 1909, Troedel & Co. lithographers, State Library of Victoria

The status of Indigenous Australians Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people were denied many of the benefits of the new nation. In the Constitution, Section 51 (xxvi) gave the power to make laws for Aboriginal people to the states, and Section 127 excluded them from the census. Even when not explicitly excluded from legislation – for example, in acts granting access to government services – the devolution of power to the states meant that state welfare boards controlled

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their lives. Their wages were often held in state-administered trusts and many Indigenous workers never received the pay they were due.

Additionally, early acts of legislation such as the Franchise Act 1902 and the Maternal Allowance Act 1912 explicitly excluded Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people. At the state level, they continued to be governed by paternalistic laws administered by protection boards.

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They were denied award wages, and children – particularly those of mixed-race families – could be removed by the state. For example, the Aborigines Protection Act 1909 in New South Wales laid the foundation for the widespread removal of children from their families. Not everyone agreed with these measures. During debates on the Franchise Act, Senator Richard O’Connor remarked:

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

it would be a monstrous thing, an unheard of piece of savagery on our part, to treat the aboriginals, whose land we were occupying, in such a manner as to deprive them absolutely of any right to vote in their own country, simply on the ground of their colour, and because they were aboriginals.

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Source 2.13.5 Richard O’Connor, 10 April 1902, quoted in the Senate Hansard. (Note: The term ‘savagery’ originates from ‘savage’ – a term that was used derogatorily during colonial expansion to refer to Indigenous peoples as ‘primitive’ or ‘uncivilised’. It is historically racist and remains so today, regardless of how it is used.)

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2.13 Review questions

1 Classify the Acts in Table 2.13.1 as part of either the ‘social laboratory’ or the ‘working man’s paradise’ vision of Australia. Justify your choices. 2 Describe the actions taken by the Commonwealth government to create the White Australia Policy after 1901. 3 Examine Source 2.13.4. Identify parts of the image that reflect white Australian fears of invasion by China during this period. 4 Analyse how gaining the right to vote benefited white women in the new nation. Use Source 2.13.3 and other evidence to support your answer. 5 Explain how the status of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples was affected by legislation after Federation.

2.14

What has been the impact of the Australian Constitution on First Nations Peoples?

This section is available in the Interactive Textbook. Chapter 2: What were the consequences of British colonisation for Australia?

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2.15

Whose truth? Learning intention

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

In the previous lesson, we explored how legislation shaped inclusion and exclusion after Federation. In this lesson, you will consider how history is contested and the role of truth telling in national identity.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

See, think, wonder

1 See: Describe what you notice about the images? 2 Think: What do these images have in common? 3 Wonder: What do you think these images are about?

➜

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Source 2.15.1 Protest sign for First Nations rights

Source 2.15.2 Protest display calling for truth telling

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Ways of thinking about Australia’s history largely ignored or silenced, leading to an incomplete and unbalanced view of Australia’s history – a history that has long been taught in schools and universities as the ‘truth’. Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people remember history from the perspective of their ancestors. At the time of colonisation, First Nations Peoples experienced the event as an invasion that denied them the right to live freely on the land they had occupied for tens of thousands of years. Since then, every aspect of their lives has changed. Invasion disrupted family connections, traditional laws and customs, land ownership and rules for leadership and decision-making. Invasion was devastating for First Nations Peoples and remains a key reason why some experience disadvantage today.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

In the study of history, historians use primary and secondary sources to investigate historical events. Primary sources are created at the time of an event, and secondary sources are created afterwards. One thing both types of sources share is that they help us understand different people’s perspectives. Often, sources even provide insight into why people made the decisions they did.

In Australia, historical events have mostly been recorded and studied by non-Indigenous people. Until the 1970s, Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander accounts of history were not recorded, and First Nations Peoples’ narratives were often not considered primary or secondary sources by historians. The process of colonisation in Australia involved frontier violence, the forced removal of First Nations children from their Country and families, and assimilation policies that aimed to absorb Indigenous people into white society and erase Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander cultures. As a result, most historical accounts about Australia were written by colonisers. Indigenous voices were

First Nations communities have been calling for truth telling and truth listening for many years. Victorian Aboriginal leaders like Aunty Eleanor Bourke have emphasised the importance of telling both sides of history. As she says, ‘The truth must be told, and not just our side of the truth but the colonisers’ side, and how we’ve survived despite it all’.

truth telling the First Peoples’ Assembly of Victoria defines truth telling as ‘a process of openly sharing historical truths after periods of conflict to allow societies to move forward in a more inclusive way, based on justice and human rights.’ truth listening paying attention to the authentic stories of Australia’s history by listening to First Nations people in order to work towards a fairer country

Truth telling and colonial statues Truth telling and truth listening involve reexamining how we honour colonial figures. In Australia, some statues have been vandalised during protests supporting Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander rights. For many Aboriginal people, these statues symbolise the injustices of colonisation – dispossession and violence. These events have sparked debates about how historical figures should be remembered. Some suggest removing

the statues, adding plaques with more truthful historical context, or even creating new monuments honouring Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander leaders. Similar discussions are taking place in other countries with colonial histories. Reconciliation efforts involve dialogue between Indigenous leaders and local governments to determine the fate of controversial statues and to promote healing.

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There is also a growing focus on education that teaches the full history of these figures, including their negative impacts on First Nations people.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Vandalised statues highlight the tensions over whose truth is told and emphasise the need to value Indigenous perspectives. These debates have prompted nationwide discussions about how best to represent Australia’s history in public spaces.

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Source 2.15.3 Statue of Captain Cook in Sydney’s Hyde Park, graffitied with the slogan ‘No pride in genocide’ during a protest calling for truth telling about the impacts of colonisation on Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples.

Concepts and skills builder 2.15 Critically analysing perspectives

Analyse the following quotes to identify the perspectives, then complete the task below.

Colonial commemorations are attacks on Aboriginal peoples, and on Country, inhibiting the potential for truth-telling and the ability to produce the more honest and mature story that the nation of so-called Australia desperately needs.

➜

Source 2.15.4 Bronwyn Carlson and Terri Farrelly, Monumental Disruptions: Aboriginal People and Colonial Commemorations in So-Called Australia, Canberra: Aboriginal Studies Press, 2023.

These monuments have maligned and marginalised First Nations’ Peoples from the first day they were erected. And they stand, after all, on land whose sovereignty was never surrendered.

➜

Source 2.15.5 Bruce Scates, ‘Monumental Errors: How Australia Can Fix Its Racist Colonial Statues, The Conversation, 28 August 2017.

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You don’t rewrite history by pulling down statues. History is what it is. We should preserve our past even when it’s not perfect. ➜

Source 2.15.6 John Howard, City Hub, Opinion piece

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

The question of whether colonial statues must fall or remain is not a matter of history alone. It is part of the process of reckoning with the ongoing injustices of settler colonialism in the present.

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Source 2.15.7 Reuben Rose-Redwood and Will Patrick, ‘Finding a Place for Statues of Settler Colonialism: Historical Monuments and the Enduring Legacy of Injustice in Australia’, Geographical Research, vol 58, no 3, 2020, pp. 262–272.

Write a short essay (300–500 words) discussing how the debate over colonial statues illustrates the contestability of history. Use the quotes provided and your own analysis to support your points. Use the following questions to inform your essay response:

• Why do people have different interpretations of the same historical events? • How do personal and cultural backgrounds influence people’s understanding of history? • What role does truth telling and truth listening play in addressing contested histories and promoting reconciliation?

Historical concepts and skills: communicating, using historical sources

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2.15 Review questions 1 2 3 4 5

What is truth telling and why is it important in Australian history? Explain why some Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people view colonial statues as harmful? Explain how colonisation affected the lives of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples. Describe different viewpoints about whether colonial statues should remain or be removed. Explain how truth telling and truth listening can help promote reconciliation in Australia today.

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2.16

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

End of investigation review: What were the consequences of British colonisation for Australia? Access the Interactive Textbook for a range of digital tools to help you review this topic, including:

• Downloadable chapter summary • Scorcher timed competitive quiz.

Brain dump

What have you learned about Australian history between 1750 and 1914? Copy and complete the table to explain your understanding. Aim for two points per topic.

Topic What I have learned Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples’ beliefs and political organisation before 1788 British motivations and justifications for colonising Australia in 1788 Impacts of invasion and colonisation on Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples The contributions of different migrant groups to Australia Changes and continuities for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples between 1788 and 1901 The campaign for women’s suffrage Workers’ rights and the development of unions Federation of Australia Who was included and excluded in the new nation

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Making thinking visible I used to think ... Now I understand ... This visible thinking exercise asks you to track what you knew about Australian history before this topic and what you now know.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Using the sentence stems provided, write about what you thought before and what you now understand. 1

2 3

I used to think that Aboriginal society prior to 1788 was …

Now I think that Aboriginal society prior to 1788 was …

I used to think that Federation was …

Now I think that Federation was …

A simple explanation for colonisation is …

A better explanation for colonisation is …

Practice questions 1

Describe Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples’ custodianship of Country before 1788.

Outline the reasons the British used to justify their invasion and colonisation of Australia.

Explain the contribution of one migrant group to Australia in the 19th century.

Analyse the reasons the colonies pursued federation before 1901.

Explain the changes and continuities experienced by different groups after Federation.

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Response to chapter inquiry question: What were the consequences of British colonisation for Australia? Write a paragraph in response to the inquiry question. Include the following key terms: • invasion

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

• frontier conflict • pastoralism

• immigration • democracy.

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INVESTIGATION 2

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Australians at war (1914–1945)

OVERVIEW

During this period, a globalised world took shape, as societies connected through ideas, trade, migration, technological advancements, colonisation, war and peace to bring us to the present day.

Source: VCAA, Victorian Curriculum V2.0, ‘History’, ‘Band description – Levels 9 and 10’

TOPIC OPTIONS

CURRICULUM GOALS

This investigation is presented across three separate chapters so students can learn about Australians at war in chronological (the World Wars) and thematic order (the Holocaust).

• What shapes the modern world? • How have global developments

[Investigating Humanities 9 for the Victorian Curriculum option] Chapter 3 – World War I

shaped Australia?

• What are the causes and consequences of war?

• How do individuals contribute to change?

Chapter 4 – World War II

Source: VCAA, Victorian Curriculum V2.0,

Chapter 5 – The Holocaust

‘History’, ‘Band description – Levels 9 and 10’

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CHAPTER 3

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Australians at war: What was the significance of World War I (1914–1918)?

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LESSON TITLE 3.1

Setting the scene: What was World War I like?

3.2

What were the key events in World War I?

3.3

What were the long-term causes of World War I?

3.4

What were the short-term causes of World War I?

3.5

Why did Australians ﬁght in World War I?

3.6

Where did Australians ﬁght in World War I?

3.7

What was the signiﬁcance of Gallipoli from both an Australian and a global perspective?

3.8

What was World War I like for First Nations servicemen and for Australian women?

3.9

What was the nature of trench warfare in World War I?

3.10

How did technological developments change the nature of warfare in World War I?

3.11

How did World War I end and what was the signiﬁcance of the Treaty of Versailles?

3.12

What do historians say about the legacy of World War I?

3.13

End of investigation review: What was the signiﬁcance of World War I (1914–1918)?

Image: ‘The Landing’, by the painter George Lambert, depicts Anzacs advancing on 25 April 1915.

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3.1

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Setting the scene: What was World War I like? Learning intention

In this lesson, you will investigate images from the time we are studying, to appreciate the experiences of the people of the past. ➜

Source 3.1.1 An Australian soldier picks flowers from the battlefield in Palestine, 1918. Photograph by official

Australian war photographer Frank Hurley.

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A war to remember red poppies as symbols of remembrance? Do you think the soldier knew he was being photographed? What might he have been thinking about while he picked the flowers? Those who lost their lives are collectively known as ‘the fallen’.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

World War I, or the Great War (1914–1918), as it was then called, is remembered for its huge scale of destruction: 100 nations fought in 40 countries across four continents, involving some 70 million people. Towns, cities, farms and factories were destroyed. Around 16 million people died during the war, of which 9.5 million deaths were directly due to military conflict. An estimated 20 million were wounded. From Australia, a newly created nation of 4.9 million people, over 419 000 men enlisted, of whom more than half were casualties of war: 156 000 were wounded or taken prisoner, and over 60 000 died.

enlist to enrol in the armed forces

casualty a person who is killed in war, wounded, missing or taken prisoner of war

Have you ever seen a similar image from World War I? Have you heard about

They shall grow not old, as we that are left grow old: Age shall not weary them, nor the years condemn. At the going down of the sun and in the morning We will remember them.

➜

The war was also experienced on a personal level by ordinary people far from home. The Australian soldier picking flowers in Source 3.1.1 appears to be experiencing a quiet, personal moment.

They went with songs to the battle, they were young, Straight of limb, true of eye, steady and aglow. They were staunch to the end against odds uncounted: They fell with their faces to the foe.

Source 3.1.2 Part of Laurence Binyon’s ‘For the

Fallen’ poem, published in the London Times, September 1914

➜

Source 3.1.3 The Shrine of Remembrance, Melbourne, built in 1934 as a memorial to World War I. Have you seen a ceremony here, on Anzac Day or Remembrance Day, including a reading of ‘For the Fallen’?

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‘They shall not grow old’ Source 3.1.4

Video: View the trailer for They Shall Not Grow Old. The complete documentary (1 hr 35) is available on Clickview and other streaming services.

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U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Jackson took the jumpy footage and created a unique documentary. He corrected the speed where the handle-turner had made mistakes and used a computer program to add natural colour. For sound, he hired lip-readers to identify what the soldiers were saying and actors to record their voices. He also included interviews with former soldiers and added realistic sound effects. The result, called They Shall Not Grow Old, amazed audiences.

➜

One hundred years after the war, awardwinning director Peter Jackson (of The Lord of the Rings fame) was given special access to hundreds of hours of grainy silent film footage from World War I. In 1914–1918, movie cameras still had to be wound by hand, and no good quality footage could be achieved in low light, such as at dawn or dusk when attacks usually occurred. The film was in black and white, and silent.

Source 3.1.5 Soldiers of the Australian First Division marching to the front line, Belgium, October 1917.

Photograph by Frank Hurley. What might they have been thinking? What might they have said to each other as they marched towards the danger zone?

Lesson 3.1 review Online quiz

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3.1 Review questions 1 2 3 4

Identify what ‘the fallen’ means. Explain how you can use photographs and moving images from World War I as evidence. Explain at least three perspectives about World War I as shown by They Shall Not Grow Old. Develop a list of questions that you want to ask about World War I.

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3.2

What were the key events in World War I? Learning intention

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

In this lesson, you will investigate the significant events in the war.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

Truth or fiction?

1 In pairs, brainstorm three things that come to mind when you think of WWI. 2 Share your ideas with the class. Are any of them ‘fictions’?

➜ Source 3.2.2 British recruiting

➜

poster from 1915. This poster depicts a group of infantry departing by train. The image captures the excitement some people felt at the outbreak of war

April

Source 3.2.1 Two French soldiers

search the muddy battlefields in the first Batle of Ypres, October 1914

5–10 September

28 June

Assassination of Austrian Archduke Franz Ferdinand triggers a chain reaction of responses by European powers

1914

120

The French throw back advancing German forces in the Battle of the Marne. Both sides dig in using trenches.

August

October– November

Germany invades Belgium, then enters France

First Battle of Ypres, Belgium

January

Germans use gas for the first time; Australian troops arrive in Egypt for training

1915

The Allies commence hostilities at Gallipoli, the first major involvement of Australian soldiers

April–May

Second Battle of Ypres

May

Italy declares war on Austriahungary

January Allied forces withdraw from Gallipoli

1916

February–September

Major German campaign of submarine attacks on merchant shipping

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Source 3.2.3 Australian troops wearing gas masks at Ypres, Belgium, on the Western Front in 1917

Spring Germany makes a major offensive to try to break through Allied defences

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

October A charge by Australian Light Horsemen helps capture Beersheba, Palestine

November Following the Allies’ gains in the Hundred Days Offensive, Germany signs an Armistice

July–November Battle of the Somme, France and Belgium; Australians begin to participate in assaults on German trenches, starting at Fromelles

February (to December) Battle of Verdun

April United States enters the war; tanks are first used

March Russia pulls out of the war, allowing more German troops to attack the Western Front

July– November Third Battle of Ypres

1918

February Germans start policy of unrestricted submarine warfare 1917

July Australian General John Monash leads American and British troops in a move away from trench warfare, at Le Hamel, France

Source 3.2.4 Eight-inch British howitzers fire an artillery barrage during the Battle of the Somme in August 1916

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ed raw li

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March Australian troops arrive in France on the Western Front

Lesson 3.2 review Online quiz

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3.2 Review questions 1 2 3 4

Identify the countries where Australians were involved in major battles, according to the timeline. Explain, using the timeline, how difficult achieving victory during World War I was. State which of the battles from the timeline you had already heard about. Where did you hear about them? Based on what you have read so far, list some questions you have about World War I. You can use some of these question stems to help you. Who …? Why …? When …? How many …? What if …?

•

Come back to these questions as you finish each section of the chapter. Which questions can you answer now? Would you change any questions based on your new knowledge?

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3.3

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

What were the long-term causes of World War I? Learning intention

In this lesson, you will learn about the factors that built up over decades and that made war more likely to break out in 1914.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

See, think, wonder

➜

1 See: How are the countries represented in the cartoon? 2 Think: What does it make you think? 3 Wonder: What do you wonder?

Source 3.3.1 A cartoon of Europe as a group of angry dogs, London, 1914

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When war broke out in 1914, Europeans who had been paying attention to longterm factors were not surprised. Rivalries between nations had developed over

decades, creating warning signs of conflict ahead. These issues created dangerously dry ‘gunpowder’, waiting for a spark to light the fire of war.

The M-A-I-N causes of World War I

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Historians have debated which long-term causes of World War I were the most significant. In simple terms, there are four ‘MAIN’ long-term causes. Table 3.3.1 The ‘MAIN’ long-term causes of WWI

Long-term cause Militarism Alliances

Imperialism

Nationalism

Meaning The belief that a nation should maintain a strong military (army and navy) and be prepared to use it to defend or promote its interests. Mutually beneficial agreements between two or more countries, including promises to give each other military support if one of them is attacked. The practice of expanding a nation’s power and influence by taking over lands as colonies, and ruling an empire for the benefit of the home nation. The belief that people should identify with and be loyal to their nation, support its interests, and even risk their lives for it.

Militarism

The soldier and the army, not parliamentary majorities and decisions, have welded the German Empire together. I put my trust in the army.

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Source 3.3.2 Kaiser Wilhelm II, leader of Germany, in a speech on 18 April 1891

Militarism led to an ‘arms race’ between the great powers of Europe. Over the 20 years at the end of the 19th century, many of the European nations dramatically increased the sizes of their armed forces by doubling their defence spending, then they doubled this spending again in the first two decades of the 20th century. No major power wanted to be left behind, so they invested in new technologies made possible by the Industrial Revolution, including steel, electricity, new explosives, motorised vehicles and early aeroplanes. In 1904, out of concern that Italian, Japanese and German navies were

developing bigger battleships with giant guns, the British government decided to develop a fleet of their own monster battleships. To ‘rule the waves’, these ships were equipped with more powerful engines to out-pace an enemy and armed with giant guns of 12 inches in diameter, capable of sinking ships. The first of these floating fortresses was the HMS Dreadnought (meaning ‘fear nothing’). It would inspire a new type of battleship: the dreadnought.

The naval arms race convinced the Australian government to establish its own navy, to respond to German threats in the Pacific region. A small Royal Australian Navy fleet was ready by 1913.

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U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

All the world is building ships of the greatest power, training officers and men, creating arsenals, and laying broad and deep the foundations of future permanent naval development and expansion … we are witnessing this year increases of expenditure by the Continental [European] Powers beyond all previous experience. The world is arming as it has never armed before.

➜

Source 3.3.4 Winston Churchill, British First Lord of the Admiralty (navy), memorandum to the Cabinet, December 1913

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Source 3.3.3 The giant guns on HMS Dreadnought, the revolutionary monster battleship, c.1906

Alliances

Between the 1870s and the 1910s, European governments signed multiple treaties, alliances and promises of aid with each other. These agreements required countries to defend their allies if a war started. This meant that if two countries went to war, it could rapidly escalate into a regional conflict.

nation agreed to come to the others’ aid if they were threatened. By 1914, they were joined by the Ottoman Empire (Türkiye plus the Middle East) and Bulgaria. On the other side, a ‘Triple Entente’ (French for ‘understanding’) developed between France, Russia and Britain between 1894 and 1907. They agreed to consult each other if any of them was threatened. By 1914, they would become ‘the Allies’, joined by Serbia and Britain’s empire, including Canada, New Zealand and Australia.

On one side, the Central Powers of Germany and Austria-Hungary had formed a secret ‘Triple Alliance’ with Italy by 1892. They were concerned about possible attacks from Russia or France, and each

AustriaHungary

1882

187

Serbia

Germany

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124

Aid Treaty Alliance

1894

188

Bulgaria

Italy

Triple Entente Triple Alliance The Balkans

Russia

France

190

The Ottoman Empire

Britain

Source 3.3.5 A concept map of pre-WWI alliances

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U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES ➜

Source 3.3.6 A cartoon depicting a ‘threatening situation’, in an American newspaper in December 1912: Serbia, Austria, Russia, Germany, France and England. How could this be used as evidence that people predicted that the alliances would cause war?

Concepts and skills builder 3.3 Analysing continuity and change

NORWAY

SWEDEN

Allied Powers Central Powers Neutral

IRELAND

DENMARK

GREAT BRITIAN

NETHERLANDS

RUSSIAN EMPIRE

GERMAN EMPIRE

POLAND

BELGIUM

LUXEMBOURG

FRANCE

400 km

AUSTRIAHUNGARY

SWITZERLAND

ITALY Joined 1915

SERBIA

ROMANIA Joined 1915

BULGARIA Joined 1915

SPAIN

PORTUGAL

MOROCCO

➜

1 Identify the countries that formed the Central Powers, or ‘Triple Alliance’. 2 Explain which Allied countries were to the west of the German Empire, forming the Western Front, and which countries were to the east of the German Empire, forming the Eastern Front. 3 In 1915, the Allies convinced Italy to leave the Triple Alliance and join them. Use the map to explain why this may have made a difference to the war. 4 Compare this map with the current borders of Europe and discuss the similarities and differences.

Key

GREECE OTTOMAN Joined 1917 EMPIRE

MONTENEGRO

ALGERIA

TUNISIA

ALBANIA

Source 3.3.7 WWI alliances

Historical concepts and skills: continuity and change, using historical sources

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Imperialism The great powers of Europe had for centuries expanded their empires across Africa and Asia. When a great power ruled a colony, they had a source of cheap labour, valuable resources and prestige. This practice of imperialism put them in competition with each other.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

By the 20th century, the only way that a great power could expand their empire further was to take the colonies of another empire. In the Agadir Crisis (1911), Germany wanted more access to north Africa for trade and challenged France’s right to station French soldiers in Morocco. The Germans sailed a gunboat into the Moroccan port of Agadir as a show of force. Eventually, the crisis was resolved by negotiations, which included allowing Germany to take over some French territory in Cameroon. Was the Agadir Crisis a ‘false alarm’, or a warning sign?

➜

Source 3.3.8 A 1914 map, showing how European empires had claimed colonies during the ‘scramble for Africa’: British (pink), French (green), German (orange), Portuguese (purple) and Italian (brown). How could this be used as evidence that imperialism created competition?

Imperialism also increased the number of men available to fight. During World War I, 4.9 million soldiers from Britain were joined by over 2.5 million men from around the British Empire. This included 1.4 million from the British colony of India, and large numbers from Canada, Australia, South Africa and New Zealand.

Source 3.3.9 The German battleship ‘Panther’, which sailed into Agadir harbour in Morocco in 1911, as a challenge to the French Empire. This

technique of showing powerful ships without shooting was known as ‘gunboat diplomacy’.

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Nationalism

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Nationalism developed throughout the 19th century in Europe as modern nation states joined together and replaced smaller kingdoms: for example, Italy in 1861 and Germany in 1871. Nationalists believed that their country or ‘race’ was different and superior to other people. This belief went beyond ‘patriotism’, which is a love of your homeland. Nationalism could be used to justify violent actions against perceived threats.

Source 3.3.10 A 1908 French cartoon showing the Austrian emperor (left) and Serbian king (centre) ripping territory away from the Ottoman sultan (right). What does this show about imperialism and nationalism? ➜

Nationalism also inspired people without their own nation to fight for independence. The Balkan states of south-eastern Europe had been colonised and controlled by the Ottoman Empire, based in Türkiye. As the Ottoman Empire weakened, things began to change, and in 1878, the Balkan state of Serbia won its independence. However, Austria-Hungary soon started to extend its influence in the new country. Serbia promoted the idea of ‘Slavic’ nationalism in the Balkan states, and joined with Bulgaria, Greece and Montenegro to form the Balkan League. In 1913, the League defeated the Ottoman Empire, ending Ottoman rule in the region. Serbia also wanted to liberate the Slavic

people of Bosnia from Austria-Hungary and unite them in a new nation of ‘Greater Serbia’. Serbian nationalist groups developed secret networks of spies and terrorists to work towards these goals.

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3.3 Review questions

1 List the four main causes of World War I. 2 Explain who was part of the Triple Alliance and the Triple Entente, and identify what they promised to do. 3 Explain how imperialism made war more likely, by completing the following sentences: a European empires controlled large territories because … b European empires controlled large territories, but … c European empires controlled large territories, so … 4 Discuss how nationalist feelings can lead to conflict. Include an example from this lesson.

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3.4

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

What were the short-term causes of World War I? Learning intention

Having learned about the long-term causes of the war, in this lesson you will learn about the short-term factors that led to the outbreak of the war.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kickstart this lesson.

Think, puzzle, explore

1 Think: Why do you think an assassination could start a war? 2 Puzzle: What questions do you have about how this led to armed conflict? 3 Explore: How can you find out more about this event and its consequences?

➜ Source 3.4.1 The assassination of the

Austrian Archduke Franz Ferdinand, as depicted by an artist in a popular magazine at the time

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The shot that changed the world commit a violent act of protest – such as a bombing or a shooting – against the Austrian authorities. Princip’s opportunity came when Grand-Duke Franz Ferdinand, heir to the throne of Austria-Hungary, made an official visit to the Bosnian city of Sarajevo, to visit the Austrian imperial army and meet local officials. The Duke and his wife Sophie, Duchess of Hohenberg, would drive in procession through the town; the route was published in advance. Princip and his team of six young men intended to kill the Austrian royals. They joined the crowds along the main road, Appel Quay, each one hiding a weapon in his coat.

assassination the murder of a public figure for political purposes

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

One Sunday in the summer of 1914 in Bosnia, a 19-year-old student shot dead a prince and his wife in the middle of a public street. The assassination of 28 June 1914 became known as ‘the shot that changed the world’.

If there is ever another war in Europe, it will probably come out of some damned foolish thing in the Balkans.

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Source 3.4.2 A quote attributed to German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck, 1888

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Source 3.4.3 Gavrilo Princip, the Serbian nationalist who assassinated Franz Ferdinand and his wife Sophie. What impressions do you get of his character?

Gavrilo Princip was a Bosnian with Serbian nationality. He was a nationalist, who hated the way his country was ruled by the rich Austro-Hungarian Empire. Since the age of 16, he had belonged to a revolutionary group called Young Bosnia that wanted to free Bosnia from arrogant foreigners and join Serbia in a new nation of southern Slavs, or ‘Yugoslavs’. They had help from a nationalist/terrorist group called the Black Hand, secretly run by Serbian army officers. The Young Bosnians decided to

The royal couple arrived in Sarajevo at 10 am on 28 June 1914, in a six-car motorcade. They were easy targets, being driven in a car with the hood down and with minimal security. But for Princip and his friends, everything went horribly wrong. One man tossed a handgrenade towards the Duke’s car, but it missed and hit the next car, injuring a number of people. The remaining cars sped away, the police closed in and the attack descended into chaos. One Young Bosnian threw himself off a bridge into the river to try to escape, but in summer the river is very shallow. He was caught and beaten up by the crowd and then arrested. Meanwhile, Princip, stunned and confused, wandered the streets wondering what to do next. The attack appeared to have failed. At around 10:45 am, he was passing a sandwich shop (Schiller’s Delicatessen), when, by tragic coincidence, he unexpectedly walked straight into the path of the Duke’s official car. The Duke had recovered from the shock, given a speech at a reception, and ordered his driver to take him to the hospital to visit the people who had been

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injured by the grenade blast. The driver took a wrong turn, into the very street where Princip stood, still holding his pistol. The driver stopped to turn around, but Princip simply raised his weapon and shot the Duke and his wife at point-blank range.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Princip was immediately arrested. The imperial Austrian authorities reacted furiously to the assassination, blaming Serbia, and within a month, declared war

on Serbia. This was the final ‘spark’ that ignited the start of World War I. In total, Austrian courts found 16 people guilty of murder and treason for their part in the plot, and sentenced them to long prison terms or to death. Princip, being under 20 years old, could not be executed, but he was condemned to prison, where he became ill with tuberculosis and died in 1918.

Source 3.4.5 The car in which the royal couple were killed, on display in the Military Museum in Vienna, Austria ➜

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Source 3.4.4 Franz Ferdinand’s blood-stained uniform, on display in the Military Museum in Vienna, Austria

Concepts and skills builder 3.4 Communicating

1 Identify why Franz Ferdinand was assassinated. 2 Explain how the factor of luck or chance affected the event. 3 Summarise the significance of the event, using the following sentence starters: In 1914, Franz Ferdinand, [who he was] visited … [where] … because … [why he did it] … which was a turning point because … [why it matters]. In 1914, Gavrilo Princip, [who he was] … [did what] … because … [why he did it] … which was a turning point because … [why it matters]. 4 What if the assassination had been unsuccessful? Might war not have started in 1914, or would another incident have sparked the conflict? Discuss the extent to which you think history could have been different. Justify your response.

Historical concepts and skills: communicating, historical significance

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A chain reaction

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U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

The European continent was at peace on the morning of Sunday 28 June 1914, when Archduke Franz Ferdinand and his wife Sophie Chotek arrived at Sarajevo railway station. Thirty-seven days later, it was at war. The conflict that began that summer mobilized 65 million troops, claimed three empires, 20 million military and civilian deaths, and 21 million wounded. Source 3.4.6 Christopher Clark, The Sleepwalkers: How Europe Went to War 1914, 2013, Penguin, p. xxi.

One event alone cannot explain how the major powers of Europe suddenly became involved in such a destructive war. The assassination at Sarajevo should instead be seen as the start of a chain reaction. Table 3.4.1 Timeline of key events

28 June 5 July 23 July

25 July 26 July 28 July 29 July 30 July 31 July

1 August 3 August 4 August 6 August 7 August

17 August

Austria states that Princip was linked to the Serbian nationalist movement. Germany promises a ‘blank cheque’ to Austria under the Triple Alliance: it would support whatever Austria decided to do against Serbia. Austria sends an impossibly strict ultimatum (demands made under threat) and gives Serbia 48 hours to accept. The demands include that Austrian police must be allowed into Serbia to arrest conspirators. Serbia accepts Austria’s terms, except the demand to allow Austrian police into Serbia. Britain calls for international peace talks. France, Russia and Italy agree. Germany refuses. Austria-Hungary suddenly declares war on Serbia. Britain again calls for international peace talks, but Russia starts to mobilise its own troops. In response, the Germans start to mobilise. The Austrian army starts to bombard the Serbian capital, Belgrade. Russia moves into full mobilisation of its army. The German Kaiser Wilhelm exchanges telegrams with his cousin, the Russian Tsar Nicholas, to try to prevent all-out war, but they both have alliances to honour (Russia with Serbia and Germany with Austria). Germany declares war on Russia. Under the Triple Entente, France and Belgium mobilise their armies. Germany declares war on France and invades Belgium, a neutral country. Britain delivers an ultimatum for German forces to leave Belgium, to which Germany does not reply. Britain declares war Germany, on behalf of the British Empire (including Australia, Canada, India, New Zealand and South Africa). Austria-Hungary declares war on Russia. The British Expeditionary Army sails for France, to support the French on Germany’s Western Front. Russia invades Germany, in East Prussia, marking the start of the Eastern Front.

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U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES ➜

Source 3.4.7 Tsar Nicholas II of Russia visits his cousin in Germany, Kaiser Wilhelm II, in 1913. Both men were first cousins of King George V of Britain. What factors meant that being close relatives did not prevent them going to war against each other?

Lesson 3.4 review

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3.4 Review questions

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1 2 3 4

Identify when each of the following nations entered the war: Austria, Germany, Russia and Britain. Explain how Australia came to be at war. Explain why the killing of Franz Ferdinand is seen as a ‘spark’ or turning point. Analyse the link between the short-term causes of war and the long-term causes, by discussing at least one event from June to August 1914 that demonstrated each of the MAIN long-term causes in action.

Source 3.4.8 Members of the French army reserve leave the Gare du Nord train station in Paris, to sign up for the

war, 1914

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3.5

Why did Australians fight in World War I? Learning intention

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

We have seen how war broke out. In this lesson, you will learn about the reasons Australians had for getting involved.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

See, think, wonder

1 See: What sort of people are being called to the frontline? 2 Think: What does it make you think? 3 Wonder: What do you wonder?

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Source 3.5.1 An Australian poster showing an Australian soldier on the frontline, blowing a bugle to call for more recruits. Painted c.1918, by famous artist Norman Lindsay.

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In July 1914, Andrew Fisher, soon to become Australian Prime Minister, said that ‘Australians will stand beside our own to help and defend her to our last man and our last shilling’. By ‘our own’, he meant Britain.

In August 1914, recruitment offices opened around Australia and volunteers rushed to enlist. By the end of the year, the Australian Imperial Force had more than 52 000 volunteers. In 1915, an additional 165 000 men enlisted.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

For king and country patriotism a feeling of love and support for one’s country or homeland

A key reason that many men gave for enlisting was patriotism. They were loyal to the British Empire, and proud to have the opportunity to help to defend the interests of what they often called ‘The Old Country’ or ‘The Mother Country’.

They signed up to fight under the flag of the British Union Jack and under the command of British generals. The phrase ‘for king and country’ captured their conviction: they wanted to fight for King George V, and for their country.

Amazing but true...

The British King George V was from a family originally from Germany, and he was the first cousin of the German king on whom he declared war, Kaiser Wilhelm II.

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Source 3.5.2 Large crowds farewell newly enlisted soldiers in Bourke Street, Melbourne at the start of the war. What effect might marches like this have had on the Australian public?

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U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES Source 3.5.4 Private Archie Barwick from Tasmania enlisted as a 24-year-old with no military experience in August 1914. He thought the war would be a great adventure. He survived being wounded three times during his four years of action at Gallipoli and on the Western Front. ➜

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Source 3.5.3 General Harold Pompey Elliott, living in Melbourne and aged 36 at the outbreak of the war, was one of the minority of experienced soldiers: he had already served in the Boer War (1900–1902), and he saw wartime service as his moral duty.

Another reason to enlist was that the war seemed to offer a great adventure to a young person, who typically had never travelled far from their hometown, but was now offered a free trip to Europe. Troops who enlisted in 1914 wanted to join up in time to see some ‘action’ – people were saying that the war could be over by Christmas.

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Source 3.5.6

Watch this short video about Jim’s wartime service. How did he get to the war, and what sort of experience did he have?

Source 3.5.5 The 14-year-old Private Jim Martin, who lied about his age to enlist ➜

Recruits initially had to be 21 years old, or at least 18 with their parents’ permission, above average height, and to pass physical fitness tests. However, some keen boys lied about their age to enlist. The ‘boy-soldier’ Private Jim Martin, for example, from Hawthorn, had just left school and started to work on a farm in 1915. Aged 14 years and 3 months, Jim convinced his mother to write a letter of permission and then tricked the recruiting officer into believing that he

FPO

was 18. He was soon on a ship bound for Gallipoli. Tragically, Jim is believed to be the youngest Australian to have died on active service for Australia.

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Recruitment propaganda including public marches, speeches, songs and postcards. A key form of advertising, or propaganda, was posters. Propaganda posters combined images, slogans and colours either to depict the enemy as dangerous and evil, or to depict military service as attractive.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

propaganda information used to promote a political cause or point of view, often misleading

As the war progressed, Australian newspapers published daily lists of the heavy casualties, which showed the reality: the war would not be over quickly, and it was more dangerous than glamorous. New enlistments began declining. The government used various methods to encourage men to enlist, Table 3.5.1 Types of propaganda

Technique Name calling Glittering generalities Transfer Testimonial Bandwagon Shaming

Effect Give the opposition a bad name (stereotypes) Broad and vague slogans or catchphrases (e.g. honour, glory, freedom)

Use revered symbols to stir emotions and win appeal (e.g. a flag) Associate a respected person with a cause (e.g. celebrity endorsement) Point to a crowd to follow / create the impression of widespread support Pressure people to join in to avoid embarrassment or disgrace (guilt trip)

Source 3.5.7 An early British recruitment poster, depicting a future father being asked by his daughter what he did in the Great War. How might this poster have influenced a young British man, even if he was not yet a father?

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Concepts and skills builder 3.5

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Using historical sources

➜

Source 3.5.10 A recruitment poster from

Source 3.5.9 A 1915 poster depicting an Australian soldier at Gallipoli ➜

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Source 3.5.8 A recruitment poster drawn by Australian artist Norman Lindsay, depicting a monster with a German helmet

Source 3.5.11 A 1917 poster showing the

first Australian to win a Victoria Cross for bravery, Albert Jacka. Before the war, he had been a famous boxer.

Queensland

1 Identify the likely target audience of each poster. (Who could see themselves in the picture or feel like it was talking to them?) 2 Source 3.5.8 is unusual because it has no words. Describe what you think its message is. 3 Explain the techniques used in Sources 3.5.9 and 3.5.11. 4 Discuss which propaganda techniques you think would have been the most effective in increasing the number of volunteers for service. Use these posters as examples. Historical concepts and skills: using historical sources

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First Nations enlistment When the casualties mounted and volunteering decreased, some First Nations people were officially allowed to enlist. This applied from October 1917 to men with one parent of ‘European’ origin. There were about 93 000 First Nations Australians people in 1901, and an estimated 1000 served in the war. They showed loyalty to their country; despite the racism they faced. Was it because the army offered them their first ever experience of equal treatment, with the same wages and conditions as white soldiers? Some wanted to prove through their courage overseas that they deserved equality back home.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

At the outbreak of war, Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people faced racism and discrimination. They were not counted in the census of people in Australia, were subject to special restrictions and laws, and were not allowed to volunteer to join the army. The armed services were only open to men ‘substantially of European origin or descent’. However, like underage boys, some First Nations men found a way to enlist anyway: either they hid their racial identity or found a recruitment officer who ignored the rules.

Proposed conscription

conscription compulsory enlistment in national service, usually military service

In 1916, the Australian Prime Minister and leader of the Labor Party, Billy Hughes, was concerned that the high casualty rates and falling enlistment would make it difficult for Australia to send enough soldiers to support Britain. He proposed a new method: conscription. Britain had already introduced conscription, New Zealand was doing the same, and Canada would soon follow. However, the idea of forcing young men to join the military was hotly debated across Australia.

Hughes’s fellow government ministers insisted that conscription should only be introduced if the majority of Australians voted in favour of it. A referendum was organised for October 1916. The vote was whether to introduce compulsory military training for Australian men to serve overseas. It would mean that the volunteers at the front would be reinforced by men who had no choice.

Amazing but true...

The conscription vote was technically a plebiscite (opinion poll), because the word ‘referendum’ means a vote to change the constitution, but most people called it a referendum anyway.

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Source 3.5.12 Soldiers address a crowd during a conscription rally in Collins Street, Melbourne. What reasons might some soldiers have had for supporting the ‘Yes’ vote? What reasons might some soldiers have had for supporting the ‘No’ vote?

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Rallies and campaigns revealed divisions in Australian society. The ‘Yes’ case was led by Prime Minister Hughes, joined by business and media leaders, the Protestant church and the federal opposition (Liberal Party). The ‘No’ case

was led by trade unions and other Labor Party members, anti-war groups and many members of the Catholic church (especially because Catholic Ireland was fighting for independence from the British Empire).

Table 3.5.2 Arguments for and against conscription

Arguments raised against conscription The war benefited rich factory owners who made profits, while workers suffered. To force men to fight and kill was a violation of their democratic rights; it should be a choice. Official estimates of the reinforcements needed were questionable. Conscription would take away workers’ rights, which had been hard won. Mothers should protect their families from the tragedy of war.

On 28 October 1916, the ‘No’ case won, by 51 to 49 per cent. Conscription would not be introduced. The campaign had split the Labor Party, and Billy Hughes walked out to form a new party, although he remained the prime minister. In 1917, the year of Australia’s worst casualty rates, new enlistments were down on the previous year, at around

45 000 men. Hughes again proposed conscription. This time, he asked Australians to approve a system that would only apply to single men, widowers and divorcees without children. Another round of divisive campaigns took place, until in December 1917, the ‘No’ vote won again, this time by 54 per cent to 46 per cent.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Arguments raised in favour of conscription The war was a noble fight for the values of the British Empire. Military service and sacrifice should be shared evenly; it should be a duty. There was no other way to guarantee the AIF the reinforcements it needed. To oppose conscription was to be a traitor, helping the brutal German enemy. It was a woman’s natural role to give her men (husbands and sons) to the nation.

Lesson 3.5 review Online quiz

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Teachers can assign tasks and track results

3.5 Review questions

1 Identify two main reasons why men enlisted in the armed forces during World War I. 2 Explain the rules that applied to men who wanted to enlist. 3 Explain how governments promoted military service, by completing the following sentences: a Propaganda posters encouraged enlistment because … b Propaganda posters encouraged enlistment, but … c Propaganda posters encouraged enlistment, therefore … 4 Discuss what the arguments about conscription revealed about Australian society and attitudes to the war.

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3.6

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Where did Australians fight in World War I? Learning intention

Having learned why Australians enlisted, in this lesson you will learn about where they fought.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

Claim, support, question

1 Claim: Based on this source and what you have learned about why men enlisted, what do you think the soldiers may have been saying to each other at the time? 2 Support: What evidence or reasoning can you provide to support your claim? 3 Question: What questions do you have about your claim? How would you interrogate it to determine how accurate it is?

➜ Source 3.6.1 Men of the 53rd Battalion

waiting in a trench before the attack at Fromelles, France, July 1916. According to photographer Charles Lorking, ‘Only three of the men shown here came out of the action alive, and those three were wounded.’

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Zealand troops sailed to Egypt from Albany in Western Australia. They formed a new force known as the Australian and New Zealand Army Corps (ANZAC). After four months of training for six days per week, the troops were excited to hear in April 1915 that they were to see combat at last, in the Dardanelles Strait, Türkiye.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

The first action involving Australians was a British naval operation, which recaptured the island of New Guinea from Germany in September 1914. Seven Australians died in this operation, becoming the first Australian casualties of the war. The first major deployment was in November 1914, when 20 000 Australian troops and 10 000 New

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Source 3.6.2 Australian troops on parade near the pyramids, Egypt. How could this image be used as evidence that, even though they were fighting under British command, these soldiers were proud of their Australian identity?

Gallipoli

Before sunrise on 25 April 1915, 16 000 Anzacs landed at a sandy cove on the Gallipoli peninsula. The Gallipoli campaign met almost every condition for a military disaster. The Turkish troops were already dug in, they commanded the high ground with machine guns, and they

were motivated to defend their homeland against foreign invaders. Allied infantry, by contrast, were exposed on the beach, with limited supplies. The troops spent eight months living and fighting on the rocky hillsides.

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infantry soldiers who march or fight on foot

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Source 3.6.3 Bringing supplies ashore at Gallipoli. What does this show about the challenges of the terrain?

Concepts and skills builder 3.6 Analysing perspectives

Sergeant Archie Barwick first saw action with his fellow Australians at Gallipoli.

… it did seem funny to hear the bullets cutting into the scrub alongside of us as we went along, but no one seemed afraid, & we were laughing & joking as we went along … I never felt the slightest fear the first day or two, it was when we began to realize that bullets hurt when they hit you, that we knew what fear was. The first time that fear came to me was on the 3rd day, when we were in a perfect hell of bullets, & men were being killed all round me that I felt frightened, & I am not ashamed to say that, I had a terrible fight with myself that day, one part of me wanted to run away & leave the rest of my mates to face it, & the other part said no, we would stop & see it out at any cost rather than show the white feather, this sort of thing went on for about an hour & a bayonet charge settled the argument for me, I was fairly right after that.

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Source 3.6.4 Archie Barwick’s Gallipoli diary, 1915

1 Identify how Barwick and his friends behaved in the first two days of action, and what changed by the third day. 2 Explain what the ‘white feather’ might represent and how it related to Archie’s perspective. 3 Discuss why a soldier may have kept a diary and whom he may have expected to read it. 4 Analyse what Barwick’s diary shows about how the battlefront affected individuals’ perspectives about the war. Historical concepts and skills: using historical sources

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The Western Front Australia’s major involvement in World War I was on the Western Front in Europe. Between 1916 and 1918, five Australian divisions (20 000 men each) were

committed to this narrow strip of trenches that ran 760 km from the English Channel to the Swiss border.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

English Channel

Baltic Sea

Atlantic Ocean

Bay of Biscay

Caspian Sea

Black Sea

Mediterranean Sea

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Source 3.6.5 Map of the major fronts and battles of World War I including key battles of the Western Front (inset)

Despite numerous efforts to break the lines, the Western Front was a devastating war of attrition. In total, 295 000 Australians fought alongside over 15 million soldiers from other Allied nations on the Western Front, particularly the British and French, facing approximately 13 million German soldiers. From July to November 1916, the Allies mounted a major offensive known as the Battle of the Somme. The attacks were slowed down by sticky mud, and after over 500 000 German casualties and 600 000 Allied casualties, the Allies had only gained perhaps 12 km of ground. Key Australian involvements were: • Fromelles: a disastrous attempt to divert Germans from the main Allied

offensive, 19–20 July 1916, in which Australian and British forces were ordered ‘over the top’ of their trenches to run through hundreds of metres of open ground in daylight towards machine guns. The 5500 Australian casualties, including 2000 deaths, was the greatest loss by a single Australian division in a 24-hour period.

war of attrition a military strategy of trying to wear down the enemy to the point of collapse through continuous losses in personnel, resources and equipment

• Pozières: Australian troops successfully defended the strategic village of Pozières against nearconstant German bombardment, between 23 July and 7 August 1916. In less than seven weeks of fighting around Pozières, the AIF suffered 23 000 casualties.

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They looked like men who had been in Hell … drawn and haggard and so dazed that they appeared to be walking in a dream and their eyes looked glassy and starey.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

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Source 3.6.6 An observer of the survivors of Pozières, quoted in Charles Bean’s official history (The Australian Imperial Force in France: 1916. Vol. III, p. 599).

• Heavy losses in 1917 at the Third Battle of Ypres, in thick mud while attempting to capture the town of Passchendaele in Belgium in October. • The recapture of Villers-Bretonneux during the German Spring Offensive in a coordinated night attack on 25 April 1918.

Source 3.6.7 Stretcher bearers cross the mud after the Battle of Ypres, Belgium, in October 1917, the worst month of the war for Australians. Photograph by Frank Hurley. ➜

Other notable Australian involvements on the Western Front were:

• A new strategy of rolling warfare, shifting away from trench warfare, under the Australian general Sir John Monash, near Hamel in July 1918, gaining 2 km in a matter of hours.

Sinai and Palestine

The third major Australian operation was against Ottoman forces in Egypt and Palestine from March 1917 to October 1918. Through sandy desert on 31 October 1917, 40 000 Allied troops targeted the fort of Beersheba. The Australian Fourth Light Horse Regiment

Go online to access the interactive lesson review and more!

charged at the fort, with horses at full gallop and using bayonets (knives on the end of their rifles) as swords. The Allies gained Beersheba. The ‘charge of the Light Horse Brigade’ is regarded as the last great cavalry charge in history.

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3.6 Review questions 1 2 3 4

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Identify the disadvantages of the Allies’ positions at Gallipoli. Describe the conditions that soldiers experienced on the Western Front. Explain how Australians on the Western Front experienced a ‘war of attrition’, using specific examples. Other than Gallipoli, explain where Australians battled Ottoman (Turkish) forces, and in what conditions.

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3.7

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

What was the significance of Gallipoli from both an Australian and a global perspective? Learning intention

Having seen the main locations where Australians fought, in this lesson you will learn about their first involvement, at Gallipoli.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

See, think, wonder

1 See: How are the landed troops shown in the painting trying to advance and what makes it difficult? 2 Think: What does it make you think? 3 Wonder: What do you wonder?

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Source 3.7.1 ‘The Landing’, by the painter George Lambert, depicts Anzacs advancing on 25 April 1915. Lambert was appointed as an official war artist in 1917 and made his first visit to Gallipoli in 1919.

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Australia enters the war Mediterranean Sea. It was regarded as the first ‘test’ of soldiers from the former British colonies of Australia and New Zealand. This ‘test’ also became known as a ‘baptism of blood’. When Anzac troops landed before dawn on 25 April 1915, they found that they had arrived 1 km away from their planned landing place and faced much steeper cliffs than they had expected. Heavily armed Turkish forces held the higher ground, making every attempt to advance exhausting and dangerous.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

At Gallipoli, the Anzacs were supporting the British navy in its campaign against the Ottoman Empire, to open up the Dardanelles Strait and create a supply line between Russia and the

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Source 3.7.2 Australian soldiers on board the British destroyer HMS Beagle sailing to Gallipoli for the landing on 25 April 1915. How could you use this as evidence of how soldiers were feeling before their first engagement with the enemy?

By the first evening, the two Anzac commanders, William Bridges and William Birdwood, had decided the attack was futile and recommended a retreat, but the British general, Sir Ian Hamilton, overruled them. What followed was eight difficult months, during which the troops made a series of bold attempts to break through the Turkish defences.

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Source 3.7.3 A 1915 map created to show the public the Dardanelles operation. Anzac Cove is marked by a dark semi-circle. From the collection of the State Library of New South Wales.

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hand-to-hand fighting. The Australians won, but lost 2000 soldiers, while the Turks lost 7000. The tree at Lone Pine was destroyed, but soldiers collected its pinecones, and many ‘Lone Pine’ trees have since been grown at war memorials and at schools across Australia.

Victoria Cross the highest British award for valour, only awarded when, in the presence of the enemy, the person displays the most conspicuous courage/a daring or preeminent act of valour or selfsacrifice/extreme devotion to duty

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Nine Australians were awarded a Victoria Cross medal for their service at Gallipoli, including seven for actions performed during just three days of intensive fighting to gain the position known as Lone Pine, on 6–9 August 1915. In this battle, soldiers charged at Turkish trenches and used bayonets in Table 3.7.1 Key events at Gallipoli

May

Multiple scouting expeditions and attacks are carried out across Helles and the heights of Chunuk Bair. June French and British attempts fail to break through Turkish positions at Krithia and Helles. July No. 3 Australian General Hospital is set up on the island of Lemnos. August British and Australian reinforcements arrive and Allies’ offensives capture some positions, but make little overall progress. October Senior commanders discuss options for withdrawal from Gallipoli. December A three-week evacuation of Allied forces begins.

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Source 3.7.4 An artist’s depiction of the 1st Australian Infantry Brigade attacking Turkish trenches at Lone Pine, August 1915. Why do you think the Australians added white patches to their uniforms before launching their attack?

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Source 3.7.5 Hospital ships were overwhelmed by the wounded from Gallipoli, so Australian nurses and medical staff set up a hospital on the nearby island of Lemnos. How could this photograph be used as evidence of their working conditions?

The Allied effort

The Gallipoli campaign was the first major amphibious attack in modern warfare. Allied commanders coordinated forces from six different parts of the world, on sea and on land. Australians were a relatively small proportion of this effort but were recognised as highly useful soldiers.

While Gallipoli had no significant impact on the war, both sides suffered huge losses. Total Allied casualties were estimated at over 141 000 (of whom 44 150 were killed). The Turkish

defenders lost over 251 000 men, of whom approximately 86 700 were killed. The first lists of Australian deaths and casualties were published in newspapers on 3 May 1915, which started a pattern of Australians nervously scanning the paper, to find relatives or neighbours. Of a total of 26 111 Australian casualties, there were 8141 deaths. From October to December 1915, more than one-third of Australian deaths (359) were due to disease.

Allied troops at Gallipoli

Allied casualties at Gallipoli

Britain and Ireland

India

France

Britain and Ireland

India

France

Australia

New Zealand

Newfoundland

Australia

New Zealand

Newfoundland

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Source 3.7.6 Statistics for the Gallipoli campaign

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Concepts and skills builder 3.7

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Using historical sources

Source 3.7.8 Anzacs with their hand-made dugout and tin can toilet. Lack of hygiene meant disease spread quickly. ➜

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Source 3.7.7 A Gallipoli trench, occupied by soldiers

from Northern Ireland

Source 3.7.10 To look safely over a trench, soldiers made their own periscopes from spare wood and broken mirrors. ➜

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Source 3.7.9 Australian soldiers recycling old tins to

make grenades, at the Anzac Cove ‘bomb factory’

1 Explain what the environment was like at Gallipoli, with examples from the sources. 2 Explain how soldiers had to improvise at Gallipoli, with examples from the sources. 3 Discuss how the presence of a photographer might have affected soldiers’ behaviour, with examples from the sources. 4 Summarise the experiences of the Anzacs at Gallipoli, using the following sentence starters: In April 1915, the Anzacs, [who they were] arrived … [where] … because … [why they did it] … which was significant because [why it matters]. At Gallipoli, the Anzacs … [had to do what] … because … [why they had to do it] … which shows [why it matters]. Historical concepts and skills: historical significance, using historical sources

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Withdrawal After months of stalemate and tragedy, the Allies withdrew from Gallipoli. The withdrawal was a rare success. Over three

weeks in December, thousands of soldiers left the beaches under the cover of night, without the Turkish soldiers realising.

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U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

On the Allied side, Gallipoli was regarded as a mistake and a disaster. Britain’s First Lord of the Admiralty (head of the navy), Winston Churchill, had been overly optimistic about the campaign’s success, and the failure damaged his reputation. He resigned from his position and spent several months as a soldier in the British Army. Churchill later became famous as Britain’s prime minister during World War II.

Source 3.7.11 Withdrawing Anzacs left behind them ‘drip rifles’. The

perforated can (above) dripped water into the second can (below), which gradually filled up, and eventually pulled on a string to trigger the gun. This created the illusion that soldiers were still defending their positions. stalemate a situation in which neither side can take an action or make progress (originally from chess)

On the Ottoman side, Türkiye celebrated the departure of the invaders. The Turkish field commander Mustafa Kemal Atatürk became a national hero. Eight years later, he became the popular first president of the new Republic of Türkiye.

There is no difference between the Johnnies [slang for British] and the Mehmets [slang for Muslims] to us where they lie side by side here in this country of ours … You, the mothers who sent their sons from faraway countries, wipe away your tears; your sons are now lying in our bosom and are in peace. After having lost their lives on this land they have become our sons as well.

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Source 3.7.12 A saying attributed to Atatürk, on the Kemal Atatürk Memorial, Anzac Parade, Canberra

The Anzac legend

From May 1915, Australian newspapers praised the courage of the Anzacs at Gallipoli. While some articles emphasised that Australians were just one part of a broader Allied effort, many made it sound like there was something different and better about the Australian ‘colonials’.

Here was a tough proposition to tackle in the darkness, but those colonials were practical above all else and went about it in a practical way. They stopped a few minutes to pull themselves together, get rid of their packs, and charge their rifle magazines. Then this race of athletes proceeded to scale the cliff without responding to the enemy’s fire.

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Source 3.7.13 Ellis Ashmead-Bartlett, a British war journalist, in the Sydney Morning Herald, 8 May 1915, p. 13.

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In September 1915, the young journalist Keith Murdoch, who would later establish Australia’s largest media company, visited Gallipoli for four days. He sent an 8000word report back to Prime Minister Andrew Fisher, in which he criticised the British commanders for wasting lives, and had high praise for the qualities of the Anzacs.

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U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

It is stirring to see them, magnificent manhood, swinging their fine limbs as they walk about Anzac [Cove]. They have the noble faces of men who have endured. Oh, if you could picture Anzac as I have seen it, you would find that to be an Australian is the greatest privilege the world has to offer. Source 3.7.14 Keith Murdoch, ‘The Gallipoli Letter’, 23 September 1915.

The ‘Anzac Legend’ developed over the years through histories, stories and Anzac Day services, to become the character qualities of endurance, courage, ingenuity, good humour and mateship. Historians debate why the Anzac legend has become so influential.

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Source 3.7.15 Actors Mel Gibson and Mark Lee portray Anzac mates in the 1981 film, Gallipoli, which combines adventure, war, romance and tragedy.

In the myth of Anzac, military achievements are exalted above civilian ones; events overseas are given priority over Australian developments; slow and patient nation-building is eclipsed by the bloody drama of battle; action is exalted above contemplation. The key premise of the Anzac legend is that nations and men are made in war. It is an idea that had currency a hundred years ago. Is it not now time for Australia to cast it aside?

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Source 3.7.16 Henry Reynolds and Marilyn Lake, What’s Wrong with Anzac?: The Militarisation of Australian History, New South, 2010, p. 173.

Lesson 3.7 review Online quiz

Review questions

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Research task

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3.7 Review questions 1 2 3 4

Describe what made Gallipoli so challenging for the invading forces. Explain why Gallipoli was significant for Australian forces. Explain why the Gallipoli campaign ended in both failure and success for the Anzacs. Explain how the Anzac legend developed, by completing the following sentences: a The Anzac legend developed because … b The Anzac legend developed, but … c The Anzac legend developed, so …

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3.8

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What was World War I like for First Nations servicemen and for Australian women? Learning intention

Having studied some of the key battles involving Australians, in this lesson you will learn what the war was like for two social groups: First Nations men, and women.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

See, think, wonder

1 See: Look at the photograph and its caption. What do you see? 2 Think: What does it make you think? 3 Wonder: What do you wonder?

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Source 3.8.1 First Nations servicemen and women were left out of official memorials for many decades. It was not until 2018 that the Australian War Memorial included a memorial specifically for them, in an artistic wall and fire pit in its gardens, called ‘For Our Country’.

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First Nations soldiers

Kamilaroi man, from Mudgee, New South Wales, was twice rejected as ‘unfit’ because of his skin colour, but he tried again at a different recruitment office and was accepted. He served in 1918 with the First Light Horse Regiment in Egypt.

Source 3.8.3 Alfred Lovett, a Gunditjmara man, was one of five brothers from Lake Condah Aboriginal Mission in western Victoria who served on the Western Front. On their return, the mission land was broken up for returned soldiers to farm, but the Lovetts were denied any of the land.

Source 3.8.4 Frederick Prentice from Powells Creek, NT, was able to enlist because he pretended he was Maori, not Aboriginal. Prentice won a Military Medal for his courage in July 1916 at Pozières, France, and was promoted to the rank of Corporal. ➜

Source 3.8.2 William Chatfield, a

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U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Approximately 1000 Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander soldiers fought in World War I. First, they had to overcome prejudice and be accepted by a recruiting officer. If they achieved this, they received equal pay and conditions, often for the first time in their lives, and made major contributions.

Daniel Cooper, a Yorta Yorta man who had grown up on the governmentcontrolled Cummeragunja station on the Murray River, was not asked what his racial background was when he enlisted in July 1915. Dan served in Egypt and on the Western Front, and was ultimately killed in action at Passchendaele in 1917. Later, his father, William Cooper, became a leader in the campaign for civil rights for First Nations Peoples and pointed to his son’s sacrifice when he called for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander equality.

Source 3.8.5 William Cooper (1861–1941), whose son Daniel was killed in action in World War I, argued that wartime service showed why Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people deserved equal rights.

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Concepts and skills builder 3.8

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Analysing continuity and change

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Source 3.8.6 This is the Yininmadyemi ‘Thou Didst Let Fall’ memorial, created by Aboriginal artist Tony Albert. Located in Hyde Park, Sydney, it was unveiled in 2015 to honour Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander service men and women who served in the Australian Defence Force. The memorial also recognises the racism many Aboriginal veterans experienced after returning from war, including being denied the recognition and support given to nonIndigenous soldiers. The title comes from a Wiradjuri phrase passed down to Albert by his grandfather.

1 Identify how the sculpture shows the same message as its title. 2 Sydney did not have a memorial to First Nations service until this one was created in 2015. Explain what this shows. 3 The memorial was designed by First Nations artist Tony Albert, whose grandfather, Eddie Albert, served in World War II. Discuss why it is important for First Nations people to be involved in the development of such memorials. 4 Compare the message of this memorial in a major city park with the way one of the First Nations soldiers mentioned above was treated. What has changed over time? Historical concepts and skills: continuity and change

Women in the war

During World War I, women were not permitted to join the military. Society expected them to stay at home and support their brothers, fathers or partners who had enlisted. However, many women found ways to involve themselves. 154

On the ‘home front’, Australian women’s lives were changed by the distant war. Some had to take on the responsibilities of the male members of their family or community who were away at war. Others supported war-related organisations.

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to wounded Australian soldiers who were missing home.

I feel that now I have the opportunity that I ought to go, still I am not as keen as when I applied. Nurses are badly needed Goodness knows and someone must do it. … Anyhow you write Mum, and say just what you want me to do … I want to do the right thing.

While there were narrow views about gender roles, one demanding job that was considered ‘appropriate’ for women was nursing. More than 2800 Australian women volunteered for the Australian Army Nursing Service. They had to have at least three years of nursing experience and be single or widowed. Despite their expertise, they were often looked down on by male hospital staff, who had only received several weeks of training. However, the ‘sisters’ were a welcome moral support

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U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Volunteers with the Red Cross did various jobs, including packaging ‘comfort parcels’ to send warm clothes and treats to soldiers, and responding to families’ requests for information about their missing loved ones. Women organised soldier comfort funds and charities that raised money for soldiers’ wellbeing. Some women campaigned for more men to enlist to defend the British Empire, while others campaigned against the war, saying it was unjustified slaughter.

Source 3.8.7 Nurse Evelyn Davies, writing to her

mother in Healesville on 27 April 1915. Davies served in military hospitals overseas from 1915 to 1919. What does this show about the decision to sign up for nursing duty?

Some nurses worked in the relative safety of hospitals, but others were dangerously near the fighting, on hospital ships and in field hospitals, or even onboard trains. This meant they could treat wounded soldiers very soon after they came off the battlefield. Twenty-five Australian nurses died on active service.

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Source 3.8.8 Part of the No. 1 Australian General Hospital in the former Heliopolis Palace Hotel, Egypt, where nurses were kept busy by the constant arrival of sick and wounded soldiers from Gallipoli in 1915

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the injured from Gallipoli in canvas medical tents. She found her work in hospitals in northern France physically and emotionally exhausting, due to the overwhelming casualties from the Western Front.

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U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Nurse Catherine (Kit) McNaughton from Geelong served with the Australian Army Nursing Service for the entire war. She helped to set up the field hospital on the island of Lemnos, where she and her fellow nurses treated

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Source 3.8.9 Sister Catherine (Kit) McNaughton (right) on Lemnos Island, near Gallipoli

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3.8 Review questions 1 2 3 4

156

Explain why Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people may have been motivated to enlist. Identify an example of a First Nations soldier who experienced prejudice. Describe some of the conditions that made wartime service challenging for women. Explain why the main wartime role available to women was nursing, by completing the following sentences: a Women were encouraged to join the nursing service because … b Women were encouraged to join the nursing service, but … c Women were encouraged to join the nursing service, so …

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3.9

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

What was the nature of trench warfare in World War I? Learning intention

Having learned about people’s experiences in World War I, in this lesson you will learn how trench warfare developed.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

Think, puzzle, explore

1 Think: Why do you think armies decided to dig rows of trenches? 2 Puzzle: What questions do you have about how this was done and how it affected the battlefront? 3 Explore: How can you find out more about trench warfare?

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Shortly after the outbreak of war, opposing armies dug defensive positions called trenches, and settled down to a long fight. Watch the video, then answer the questions.

Source 3.9.2

A video on trench warfare from the Auckland War Memorial Museum (01:44)

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Source 3.9.1 A German company of gunners in their trench, c.1916. What different jobs can you see the

soldiers doing?

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THE LANDSCAPE OF DEATH: TRENCH WARFARE IN WORLD WAR I

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

The development of trench warfare forced all the powers into a deadly process of trying to defeat the enemy by killing as many soldiers as possible, using as many existing and new weapons as possible; this was called a war of attrition. The landscape of death, shown here by a modern artist, was often referred to as ‘Hell on Earth’.

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Women played important roles on the Western Front. This included being nurses at medical posts or as drivers of lorries. They were often dangerously close to the firing line.

The rapid development of artillery – especially the increasing range of shells and the size of their explosions – meant that artillery barrages could continue for days, pulverising the enemy’s trenches and the troops within them.

Source 3.9.3 An artist’s representation of trench warfare in World War I

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U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

The deep, sticky mud of the Western Front was not just dirty but dangerous. It was so deep that it could suck a person down to their death in the same way as quicksand does in desert environments.

No man’s land

The lack of laundry and bathing facilities meant that soldiers’ uniforms were always infested with biting lice, causing constant misery and discomfort.

The armies lost almost as many men to illness as to fighting: the trenches were infested with rats, which carried diseases and fed off the dead bodies lying out in no man’s land.

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• Sapping: short trenches were dug approximately three metres into the ground to create a two-metre-wide passageway, reinforcing the sides with wooden beams

• Tunnelling: underground passages connected trenches, and allowed troops to go under no man’s land, either to rescue the wounded or to surprise attack the enemy. • Sandbagging: where ground was not good for digging, soldiers built aboveground trenches by creating walls of sandbags.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

no man’s land the contested strip of land between enemy trenches, often covered in explosive mines and barbed wire

In total, nearly 2500 km of trenches would be dug along the Western Front. Trenches were an old military solution to a new problem: infantry needed safe places to hide when the enemy fired high-powered artillery. Trench building was physically tiring work. It involved:

Source 3.9.3 shows what was involved in trench warfare, including the three different zones of action (no man’s land, the frontline and the supporting line).

Concepts and skills builder 3.9

Understanding historical perspectives

1 Using Source 3.9.3, identify what you can see personnel doing in the different zones of action (e.g. no man’s land, the frontline and the supporting line). 2 Find at least three different forms of equipment or technology that are being used. Explain what each of them enabled soldiers to do. 3 Discuss the perspective of a soldier going ‘over the top’ in an infantry charge. What might they be thinking? Who else in the scene are they depending on to help them succeed? 4 Select one person in the image who you think is highly exposed to enemy fire. Explain why their job put them at high risk, and how they might try to keep safe. Historical concepts and skills: using historical sources

In the frontline trench, soldiers had many tasks. Observers constantly watched enemy movements, snipers took shots when they had the chance, and small teams carried out night-time raids across no man’s land. In major attacks, whole units were ordered to go ‘over the top’ and charge. Behind the frontline trench was a support trench, followed by a reserve trench, where troops could retreat if they were suddenly attacked. Communication trenches allowed men and supplies to move safely. Where possible, soldiers were rostered to spend no more than six days in the frontline before resting behind the lines.

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Portable wooden decking, known as ‘duckboard,’ was placed over muddy areas, but soldiers’ boots were often still wet and covered in mud. This led to a painful skin condition called ‘trench foot.’ Soldiers used small cavities dug into the trench walls to dry off, eat their rations, sleep, clean their weapons, and store explosives. From 1915, both sides sometimes used poisonous gas as a weapon to choke, blind, and confuse enemy soldiers. To protect themselves, soldiers wore gas masks.

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U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES ➜

Source 3.9.4 A cross-section of a trench, showing sandbags, wooden beams and a cavity for rest or protection. The soldier steps up onto a ‘fire-step’ to shoot.

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Many soldiers found the constant danger and discomfort so overwhelming that they suffered extreme anxiety, panic attacks and tremors, and sometimes lost the ability to speak. At the time, this condition was called ‘shell shock’ and was believed to be caused by repeated explosions affecting the brain. Today, it is recognised as post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), which requires long-term medical treatment.

Source 3.9.5 Observation balloons gave valuable early warning

about enemy troop movements, but they were easy to shoot down.

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3.9 Review questions 1 2 3 4

Describe how trenches were built. Identify some of the key roles in a frontline trench. Explain the physical impacts of trench warfare. Explain the psychological impacts of trench warfare.

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3.10

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

How did technological developments change the nature of warfare in World War I? Learning intention

Having learned about the nature of trench warfare, in this lesson you will learn how new technologies changed the way the war was fought.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

See, think, wonder

1 See: Look at the photograph and its caption. What do you see? 2 Think: What does it make you think? 3 Wonder: What do you wonder?

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Source 3.10.1 A typical German ‘howitzer’ cannon, nicknamed Big Bertha. These massive guns could fire a large high-explosive shell 43-centimetres wide to a maximum range of 9000 metres.

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Industrial weapons The rapid-fire machine gun, first invented by Richard Gatling in the 1860s, was improved during World War I. These weapons could fire up to 1000 bullets per minute, making machine-gun operators crucial to the outcome of battles.

artillery long-range weapons that require a crew to launch them (big guns and mortars)

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Industrial steel manufacturing allowed for the development of more powerful heavy artillery than ever before. Around 75 per cent of deaths and injuries in World War I were caused by cannon shells, which were fired over long distances into enemy lines. Artillery bombardments on the Western Front were so intense that they shook the ground and left soldiers dazed. If a high-powered shell hit a soldier directly, they were blown to pieces. If it exploded nearby, it could throw up so much dirt that men could be buried alive.

Men dragged their bodies from under the tossing waves of earth. That most awful sound, the muffled voice of a man buried under three feet of dirt, was [often] heard like a ventriloquist, far away – ‘Dig me out, dig me out!’ They were almost invariably dead by the time they were [dug out].

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Source 3.10.3 German machine-gunners protect their advancing troops during an offensive. What different roles do you see the soldiers taking to support their ‘gunner’?

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Source 3.10.2 Australian soldier WH Downing, To the Last Ridge, 1998, p. 82

Concepts and skills builder 3.10 Continuity and change

A distinctive feature of World War I was the tank. British inventor Lieutenant-Colonel Swinton observed the moving metal tracks of bulldozers and applied the same idea to an armoured vehicle. His machine could move across rough and muddy terrain, and machine-gun fire bounced off its armour. The tanks were about 8 metres long and weighed 28 tonnes. In contrast, troop-carrying trucks used at the time were only half as long, weighed around 4 to 5 tonnes, and had four wheels.

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Source 3.10.4 A row of British Mark IV tanks in action. Each tank had a crew of eight: driver, commander, two gearsmen, two gunners and two loaders.

The first tanks (Mark I, introduced in 1916) used bus engines that were too weak to drive such a heavy vehicle through thick mud. However, by 1917, stronger Mark IV tanks were in widespread use, striking fear into the enemy.

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1 Identify how tanks were different from the other war vehicles that armies had been using. 2 Explain the advantages that tanks gave to an army. 3 Explain which side of the war introduced tanks first, and why the other side might then have wanted to develop their own tanks. 4 Discuss what continued to be the same for armies even after they started using tanks, using evidence from Source 3.10.4.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Historical concepts and skills: continuity and change, using historical sources

Amazing but true...

The original name for a tank was ‘landship’. However, this sounded like a new weapon (which it was) and risked attracting the attention of German spies. So, the new machines were instead called ‘water tanks’, allowing them to arrive on the battlefront as a complete surprise.

World War I also introduced a new type of combat with the use of aeroplanes. At the start of the war, slow-moving or stationary gas-filled balloons were mostly used for surveillance. However, both sides soon built factories to produce fast, lightweight

fighter planes with two or three wings. These planes were flown by either a solo pilot or a pilot with a machine gunner. Overall, British and French aircraft were more successful in aerial ‘dogfights’ during the war.

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Source 3.10.5 Australian pilots prepare their ‘Sopwith Camel’ planes for combat in northern France. What was the strategic advantage of the new technology of flight?

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Photography which had to be carried into position and mounted on a tripod. A thick glass plate was inserted, exposed to light, and then removed to be developed by hand in a bath of chemicals. To avoid blurry pictures, photographers mostly took static shots well behind the frontlines, asking soldiers to stay still for the camera.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Have you noticed how many sources in this chapter are photographs? By World War I, photography had been in use for over half a century.

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Source 3.10.6 Members of the Australian Flying Corps Photographic Section in Palestine, developing aerial photographs taken from aeroplanes to locate Ottoman positions in 1917.

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Professional photographers were recruited to capture images of troops in action. However, their equipment was heavy and slow. Typically, they used a large metal camera in a wooden box,

Source 3.10.7 Frank Hurley in 1914

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Source 3.10.8 Wounded Australians after the Battle of Menin Road, Belgium, September 1917. Photograph by

Frank Hurley.

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seem. Official war photographer Frank Hurley found that no single shot could fully capture the human drama of war. To overcome this, he combined the best parts of multiple photos to create a single ‘composite’ image. He believed this was the best way to show people at home what the war was really like. However, Australia’s official war historian, Charles Bean (1879–1968), criticised these images as ‘fake’. In the end, Hurley was allowed to produce a small number of composite images for public exhibitions.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

In 1917, the Australian Imperial Force hired James Francis (Frank) Hurley (1885–1962) as an official war photographer. Hurley had taught himself how to use the latest camera technology and is regarded by many as Australia’s greatest photographer. Before becoming a war photographer, he was famous for capturing dramatic still and moving images of polar exploration during two expeditions to Antarctica with Douglas Mawson and Ernest Shackleton. Some of Australia’s most famous images of World War I are not what they

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Source 3.10.10 ‘Over the Top’ shows Australian infantry advancing under enemy fire, supported by bomber planes. Frank Hurley created this composite image from several photographs from the Battle of Zonnebeke in Belgium.

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Source 3.10.9 Stretcher bearers cross the mud after the Battle of Ypres, Belgium, in October 1917, the worst month of the war for Australians. Photograph by Frank Hurley.

Lesson 3.10 review Online quiz

Review questions

DOC

Research task

Teachers can assign tasks and track results

Go online to access the interactive lesson review and more!

3.10 Review questions

1 Identify four new technologies that were used in World War I. 2 Describe how the introduction of tanks affected the battlefront. 3 Explain the role of photography during the war, by completing the following sentences: a People wanted photography to record wartime events because … b People wanted photography to record wartime events, but … c People wanted photography to record wartime events, so …

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3.11

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How did World War I end and what was the significance of the Treaty of Versailles? Learning intention

We have seen how conflict developed into a world war. In this lesson, you will learn how the war came to an end.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

See, think, wonder

Look at Source 3.11.1. Choose one or two faces that interest you. 1 See: What sort of person are they? 2 Think: What is their story? 3 Wonder: How did they experience the war? ➜

Source 3.11.1 A crowd gathers in central Paris, France, on 11 November 1918. Similar celebrations took place

in many cities of the victorious nations as peace was declared.

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Armistice

After the German army’s failed Spring Offensive, on 29 September 1918, generals Erich Ludendorff and Paul von Hindenburg told Kaiser Wilhelm II that they had been pushed back to their final line of defence on the Western Front. With no hope left, they advised that Germany should surrender.

Meanwhile, conditions worsened for the German people. The Allies’ naval blockade prevented food imports, causing widespread starvation. Then, in late October, when German naval commanders ordered the navy to launch a suicidal attack on the Allied fleet, the sailors refused. Their mutiny quickly grew into a nationwide uprising.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

armistice a truce, or agreement by opposing sides to stop fighting for a certain amount of time

Fighting came to an end at exactly 11 a.m. on the eleventh day of the eleventh month of 1918. It was not yet a formal peace treaty, but an armistice. Since then, 11 November has been known as ‘Armistice Day’, or ‘Remembrance Day’.

mutiny a rebellion by soldiers or sailors against their senior officers

Although Germany had not fought on the Eastern Front since Russia left the war in November 1917 due to its communist revolution, the Western Front had become much harder with the entry of the United States into the war in April 1917. The other Central Powers also saw no chance of success: Bulgaria surrendered on 29 September, Türkiye on 30 October, and Austria on 3 November.

On 9 November 1918, the uprising forced Kaiser Wilhelm II to abdicate (step down). He fled to the Netherlands, and power in Germany passed to elected politicians.

Before dawn on 11 November, German representatives in France signed an armistice aboard a train carriage in the Forest of Compiègne, north of Paris. It was not a peace treaty but an agreement to stop fighting at 11 o’clock that morning. Germany also had to leave all occupied lands and hand over large amounts of valuable equipment. The war was over.

Low-res

<hi-res not received>

November 1918. How does this show the emotions that the Armistice caused among people on the ‘home front’?

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Source 3.11.3 American soldiers of the 64th Infantry Regiment, 7th Division in Jaulny, northeastern France, 11 November 1918 ➜

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Source 3.11.2 A crowd gathers in central London, England, on 11

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The Treaty of Versailles The Treaty of Versailles was created during months of discussion at the Paris Peace Conference, which aimed to redraw international borders and reshape international relations. The conference also established the League of Nations to help prevent future wars.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

The Armistice brought the shooting to an end, but it was only a temporary cease fire. The war officially continued until actual peace treaties with each one of the defeated Central Powers were signed.

Germany was excluded from the negotiations in Paris. The treaty was written by the ‘Big Four’ – Britain, the United States, France and Italy. Although they had different priorities, they all agreed that Germany should be forced to accept full responsibility for the war and all the damage it caused.

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Source 3.11.4 German representatives sign the Treaty of Versailles on 28 June 1919, watched by the leaders of the victorious Allies (Wilson of the United States, Clemenceau of France, and Lloyd George of Britain in the centre) and a thousand invited spectators, in the Hall of Mirrors in the Palace of Versailles.

In May, Germany received the 440-article treaty and protested that its terms would leave the country poor and weak. However, every one of Germany’s suggested changes was rejected. In midJune, the Allies gave Germany five days to accept the treaty unchanged or face invasion. Eventually, Germany accepted this ultimatum, known as a ‘diktat’, although some German officials resigned in protest.

The Allied and Associated Governments affirm and Germany accepts the responsibility of Germany and her Allies for causing all the loss and damage to which the Allied and Associated Governments and their nationals have been subjected as a consequence of the war imposed upon them by the aggression of Germany and her allies.

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Source 3.11.5 The controversial ‘War Guilt Clause’, article 231 of the Treaty of Versailles.

On 28 June 1919, German representatives signed the Treaty of Versailles. The date marked exactly five years since the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria. The signing took place in the same room where Germany had forced France to sign a

humiliating peace treaty in 1871, after the last major European war.

The treaty took away 68 000 km2 of German territory and all of its colonies. It also gave Poland a ‘corridor’ to the sea through former German land and placed 8 million German-speaking people under the control of other countries.

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Source 3.11.6 German aircraft being dismantled, c.1919. The Treaty of Versailles required Germany to abolish

its air force and send scrap metal to France. It also forced Germany to reduce its army to 100 000 and hand over tanks, machine guns and telephones to the Allies.

The ‘war guilt’ clause forced Germany to accept full blame for World War I and to pay massive reparations (compensation) to the Allied powers – equivalent to about $440 billion in today’s money. German taxpayers had to make payments in instalments until 1984 to cover war pensions for British soldiers and the reconstruction of French roads and factories. EUROPE 1920-1938

U.K.

400 km

LITHUANIA

EAST PRUSSIA (GERMANY)

NETHERLAND The Hague

BELGIUM

Paris Versailles

Berlin GERMANY Bonn Weimar

LUXEMBOURG

FRANCE

Munich

Lausanne Geneva SWITZERLAND ITALY Genoa

LATVIA

SWEDEN

DENMARK

400 km

Warsaw

POLAND

USSR

Prague

Vienna

AUSTRIA

Trieste

CZECHOSLOVAKIA Budapest HUNGARY

Begrade YUGOSLAVIA

ROMANIA

Buchanest BULGARIA

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Source 3.11.7 The Treaty of Versailles gave German territory to France, Belgium, Denmark and Poland. Austria and Hungary were separated, and some of their territory became Czechoslovakia and the new state of Yugoslavia.

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Concepts and skills builder 3.11

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U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Using historical sources

Source 3.11.8 ‘Peace Terms’, a cartoon in a British newspaper, c. June 1919

1 Identify the content: who is holding the spoon and what was their role in the peace terms? 2 Explain the origin of the source: where was it made and what was happening at the time? Which side were its audience on (the newspaper readers)? 3 Explain the purpose of the source: what is its message? What emotions might it evoke? 4 Discuss what makes this cartoon a valuable source for historians, and what it does not help us to understand (its limitations). Historical concepts and skills: using historical sources

Historical perspectives

Many argue that the seeds of World War II were sown in Versailles. The treaty humiliated Germany, and its harsh terms contributed to economic chaos in the early 1920s and political instability in the 1930s, which led to the rise of the National Socialist (Nazi) Party. Nazi leader Adolf Hitler promised to defy the treaty by rebuilding Germany’s army and reclaiming lost territory. At the time, not everyone saw the treaty as especially harsh. For example,

the Allies did not occupy Germany’s main cities or those of other Central Powers. It was also common for victorious nations to punish the defeated. In 1871, Germany had forced France to pay reparations and give up Alsace and Lorraine – territory that France reclaimed through the Treaty of Versailles. However, it was clear that Germany would be humiliated by the treaty’s terms and face many decades of economic hardship.

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Repatriation General Sir John Monash was put in charge of repatriating Australians from the Western Front and Egypt. Most troops were first brought to England, where they began education and re-training programs while they waited for a voyage home. Many had to wait months because there was a worldwide shortage of ships. The process of repatriation took 10 months.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

demobilised taken out of active military service at the end of a war

When the war finally ended, soldiers, sailors, airmen and nurses wanted to return home as soon as possible. Around 65 million men had been mobilised during the war, and from the end of 1918, most had to be demobilised to reduce armies to their peacetime sizes and be repatriated. Among them, over 160 000 Australians were overseas, waiting to be ‘demobbed’ and become ‘repats’.

repatriated returned to one’s home country

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Source 3.11.9 A group of patients outside No. 2 Australian Auxiliary Hospital, London. How could this be used as evidence of the extra challenges that some soldiers faced when they returned to civilian life?

Amazing but true...

Of the 136 000 ‘waler’ horses Australia sent to World War I, only one was repatriated: ‘Sandy’, who was ridden by Major General Sir William Bridges. The rest died in action or were left overseas.

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Source 3.11.10 Cars carrying wounded soldiers from the wharf, on the return of a hospital ship to Sydney Harbour, 1919

The Repatriation Department (known today as the Department of Veterans Affairs) helped wounded veterans get medical support and tried to match unemployed veterans with jobs. There were some attempts to help veterans settle on farmland (‘soldier settlement schemes’), with limited success.

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Source 3.11.11 Some veterans had to build a postwar life with wounds from shrapnel (sharp pieces of metal from exploding shells). Plastic surgery improved during the war, but in some cases the terrible impact of war remained highly visible.

Lesson 3.11 review Online quiz

Review questions

DOC

Research task

Go online to access the interactive lesson review and more!

Teachers can assign tasks and track results

3.11 Review questions

1 Identify the difference between an armistice and a peace treaty. 2 Explain how the Treaty of Versailles was developed. 3 Explain the effects of the Treaty of Versailles, by completing the following sentences: a Germany agreed to sign the Treaty of Versailles because … b Germany agreed to sign the Treaty of Versailles, but … c Germany agreed to sign the Treaty of Versailles, so … 4 Discuss the challenges of repatriating war veterans.

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3.12

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What do historians say about the legacy of World War I? Learning intention

Having learned about the events of World War I, in this lesson you will learn about its legacy.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

Listen, think, wonder

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Source 3.12.2

Eric Bogle singing ‘And the Band Played Waltzing Matilda’

Listen to the song and answer the following questions. 1 Listen: What do you hear? 2 Think: What does it make you think? What does the singer say was the legacy of war? 3 Wonder: What do you wonder? ➜

Source 3.12.1 Australian folk singer Eric Bogle sings ‘And the Band Played Waltzing Matilda’, about Australians who returned wounded from Gallipoli.

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A turning point Historians agree that World War I was a turning point in world history. By the end of the war, four empires had collapsed – the Austro-Hungarian, German, Ottoman and Russian empires – and nine new nations were created in Europe. The United States emerged as a world power and would go on to have a major influence on the 20th century.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Germany and its allies for starting the war. From the 1920s to the 1940s, some historians argued that all major nations were responsible, as their militarism and alliances had created the conditions for war by the early 20th century. After World War II, German historian Fritz Fischer revived the idea that Imperial Germany had deliberately provoked a major European war. More recently, historians have tended to support the idea of collective responsibility. In the words of British historian Christopher Clark, every nation failed to read the signs and went ‘sleepwalking’ into the deadly conflict.

Historians have contributed to many museums and books to record and analyse the war. One major debate is over why the war happened in the first place. Early historians supported the ‘War Guilt Clause’ of the Treaty of Versailles, which blamed

Australia’s significance

World War I was Australia’s first international conflict since becoming a federated nation. Nearly 10 per cent of the population enlisted, and there were over 216 000 casualties, including more than 60 000 deaths. In Australia, there was a major effort to honour and recognise those who served. The government hired Charles Bean, who had been an official war correspondent, to write an official history of Australia’s involvement in the war. They also accepted his suggestion to build a large Australian War Memorial in Canberra. Bean’s official history took 23 years to complete and totalled 4 million words.

Some historians are concerned about how Australian governments have promoted the country’s involvement in World War I. One concern is that focusing on wartime achievements as the ‘birth’ of modern Australia ignores the fact that Australia had already achieved a peaceful federation and advanced rights for workers and women before its people were ‘tested’ in war.

Australia’s role in World War I must be seen as part of a much larger British imperial effort. …

To all this, Australia, with its small economy, navy and air force, made little contribution. Even the value of the raw materials that it could contribute to the imperial war effort was diminished by the lack of shipping to transport them to Europe. To single out any one army, or indeed any one of these multiple variables, as the factor that ‘won’ World War I is to ignore the immense complexity and scale on which this war was fought.

What these men did nothing can alter now. The good and the bad, the greatness and smallness of their story will stand. Whatever of glory it contains nothing now can lessen. It rises, as it will always rise, above the mists of ages, a monument to great-hearted men; and, for their nation, a possession for ever.

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Source 3.12.3 C.E.W. Bean, The AIF in France During the Allied Offensive, 1918. The Official History of Australia in the War of 1914–18 (12 vols), 1942, Angus and Robertson, Sydney, vol. 6, p. 1096.

Source 3.12.4 Joan Beaumont, Broken Nation:

Australians in the Great War, 2013, Allen & Unwin, Sydney, p. 518.

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War memorials

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Even before World War I veterans returned home, federal, state, and local governments began building memorials ‘to the fallen.’ Australian war memorials range from small statues in towns listing the names of local soldiers who died, to grand arches and columns, and large buildings that also serve as museums.

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Source 3.12.6 A regional memorial: the ‘arch of victory’, Ballarat, with an avenue of trees.

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Source 3.12.5 A local memorial: the names of soldiers on a memorial column in Daylesford.

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Source 3.12.8 A national memorial: Australians who died in foreign wars are listed on the ‘Roll of Honour’ walls of the Australian War Memorial, which opened in Canberra in 1941. ➜

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Source 3.12.7 A state memorial: the Shrine of Remembrance, Melbourne, opened in 1934. A ‘shrine’ means a sacred place. Why is a war memorial claimed to be sacred?

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Concepts and skills builder 3.12 Identify the purpose of the tomb of the unknown soldier. Explain the context: how long after the end of World War I did this happen? Discuss what this ceremony shows about the significance of the war to Australia. Search for the transcript of Prime Minister Paul Keating’s ‘Remembrance Day 1993: commemorative address’ speech, available on the Australian War Memorial website. Select the lines that you find interesting or inspiring, and explain why.

Source 3.12.9

Watch this 10-minute video about the entombment of the ‘unknown soldier’ at the Australian War Memorial, November 1993.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

1 2 3 4

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Historical significance

Historical concepts and skills: historical significance

Anzac Day

Since 1916, 25 April, the anniversary of the Gallipoli landing, has been a day of remembrance. In the 1920s, it became a public holiday in all Australian states and territories, known as Anzac Day. Unlike Remembrance Day (also called Armistice Day) on 11 November, which Australia shares with most former Allied nations, Anzac Day is unique to Australia and New Zealand.

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On Anzac Day, Australians have time off work and school to reflect. Opinions about the day have changed over time. In the 1960s and 1970s, Australians were divided over the Vietnam War and Anzac Day was losing popularity. Later, support for Anzac Day grew and more people attended marches and ceremonies. Over time, the day has come to recognise all Australians who have served in the armed

forces, not just the original Anzacs. They are said to embody the ‘Anzac Spirit’, which is often described as endurance, courage, ingenuity, good humour and mateship – qualities shown by the first Anzacs in 1915.

Anzac Day appears to have strong public support but some question its relevance to modern Australia. Pacifists ask why military service is seen as such an important part of Australian identity. Historians argue that the so-called Anzac qualities were also displayed by soldiers from other nations in World War I. There have also been debates about protests on Anzac Day. Should anti-war groups, such as Palestinian rights activists, be allowed to protest on this day or is Anzac Day a ‘sacred’ occasion where protests should not be held?

pacifist a person who opposes or resists all war and militarism, a peace activist

Source 3.2.10 At remembrance ceremonies you might see veterans or their relatives wearing medals earned

during service

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Source 3.12.10 Thousands of Australians and New Zealanders travel to Gallipoli for Anzac Day. In 1985, the Turkish government officially renamed the beach ‘Anzac Cove’.

Go online to access the interactive lesson review and more!

Lesson 3.12 review Online quiz

Review questions

DOC

Research task

Teachers can assign tasks and track results

3.12 Review questions

1 Describe the different views of historians about the origin of World War I. 2 Explain two views about the significance of World War I to Australia’s development as a nation. 3 Explain the significance of Anzac Day by completing the following sentences: a Anzac Day is held every year because … b Anzac Day is held every year, but … c Anzac Day is held every year, so …

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3.13

End of investigation review: World War I

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Access the Interactive Textbook for a range of digital tools to help you review this topic, including: • Downloadable chapter summary • Scorcher timed competitive quiz.

Brain dump

What have you learned about World War I? Copy and complete the table to explain your understanding. Aim for two points per topic.

Topic Long-term causes of the war Short-term causes of the war Why Australians went to war Gallipoli The Western Front Trench warfare First Nations servicemen Women during the war Peace and the Treaty of Versailles

What I have learned

Making thinking visible I used to think... Now I think...

This visible thinking exercise asks you to track what you knew about World War I before this topic and what you know now. Using the sentence stems provided, write about what you thought before and what you now understand. 1

a I used to think that World War I was … b Now I think that World War I was …

a I used to think that soldiers … b Now I think that soldiers …

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a A simple explanation is that because of World War I, Australia … b A better explanation is that because of World War I, Australia …

Practice questions Identify four factors that may be described as the reasons that World War I started, and briefly define each factor.

Match each cause on the left with its consequence on the right.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Causes European countries signed alliances.

Consequences An Austrian ultimatum triggered a chain of events that resulted in world war. Many young men enlisted to serve in the war. Minimal progress, or a stalemate, eventuated.

Empires claimed territory as colonies. Serbian nationalists assassinated Archduke Franz Ferdinand. Australians felt a duty to defend ‘king and country’. Government propaganda made war seem attractive. Both sides dug trenches on the Western Front.

Nations were obliged to enter the war to defend their allies. Imperialism made countries suspicious of each other and prepared to fight each other. There was an unprecedented amount of death and destruction. Communities gathered to remember the dead and show respect. People enlisted without knowing the real risks.

Industrial factories were used to develop weapons. The Allies forced Germany to accept the war guilt clause. War memorials were built across Australia.

Some politicians vowed revenge.

Analyse Source 3.13.1 as a historical source, using the questions below. a

Which period in World War I is the photograph from?

What was the significance of the event?

What does the artefact show us about people’s experiences?

Apply your understanding of causes and consequences to select the two pairs of causes and consequences Source 3.13.1 Allied troops in Türkiye, 1915 from the table above that you found the most interesting to learn about. Explain why you chose each of these pairs.

Evaluate the impact of the debate around conscription in Australia during World War I. What were the arguments for and against conscription, and what do they reveal about Australian society at the time?

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Response to chapter inquiry question: What was the significance of World War I (1914–1918)? Write a paragraph in response to the inquiry question. Include the following key terms: • alliances • enlist • casualty

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

• patriotism

• propaganda • artillery

• infantry

• Armistice.

Extension

The Simpson Prize is a national competition for Australian students that focuses on Australians’ experiences in World War I. Look up the student entry requirements and either respond to the current topic and sources or find and respond to those from a previous year. Use the following link to help you: https://cambridge.edu.au/ redirect/11425.

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CHAPTER 4

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Australians at war: What was the significance of World War II (1939–1945)?

LESSON TITLE 4.1

Setting the scene: When did war come to Australia?

4.2

What were the key events in World War II?

4.3

What were the causes of World War II in Europe? Part I: The Treaty of Versailles

4.4

What were the causes of World War II in Europe? Part II: The rise of the Nazi Party

4.5

How did the German tactic of Blitzkrieg overwhelm Europe?

4.6

What were the key events of World War II?

4.7

Where did Australian troops fight in Europe and North Africa in World War II?

4.8

How did the war in the Pacific affect Australia?

4.9

Why was the city of Darwin bombed?

4.10

What is the significance of the Battle of Kokoda?

4.11

What were the effects of World War II on Australian society?

4.12

What was life in Australia like during the war?

4.13

What was the long-term impact of war on Australia?

4.14

Was the use of the atomic bomb to end the war justified?

4.15

What effect did World War II have on Australia’s international relationships?

4.16

End of investigation review: What was the significance of World War II (1939–1945)?

This digital chapter can be accessed via Cambridge GO

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Image: Watercolour painting of servicemen from Australia, France and Britain relaxing at London’s Waterloo Station during WWII, by Helen McKie, 1940.

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CHAPTER 5

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

How did the Holocaust happen?

LESSON TITLE 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 5.6

5.7 5.8 5.9 5.10 5.11

Setting the scene: How is the Holocaust remembered today? What were the key events of the Holocaust? What were the origins of the Holocaust? How did antisemitism rise in Germany after WWI? How did the Holocaust develop after 1933? What was the significance of Australian concerns about attacks on European Jews? How did World War II escalate the Holocaust? What was it like in the Nazi concentration and death camps? How did the Holocaust come to an end? How did people rebuild their lives after the Holocaust? End of investigation review: How did the Holocaust happen?

This digital chapter can be accessed via Cambridge GO

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Image: Holocaust survivor Leon Greenman shows the number tattooed on him by his Nazi captors while in one of six concentration camps during World War II. Many Jewish prisoners were tattooed with a number to identify and dehumanise them.

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INVESTIGATION 3

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Asia (1750–present) OVERVIEW

[In this topic you will] … learn about at least one Asian society from 1750 to the present, including its relationship with European powers, contributions in the world wars and movements of independence over the 20th century.

Source: VCAA, Victorian Curriculum V2.0, ‘History’, ‘Band description – Levels 9 and 10’

TOPIC OPTIONS

CURRICULUM GOALS

Students must study at least one of the following:

• What shapes the modern world? • How have global developments

Chapter 6 – China Chapter 7 – India

Chapter 8 – Indonesia Chapter 9 – Japan

shaped Australia?

• What are the causes and consequences of war?

• How do individuals contribute to change?

Chapter 10 – Vietnam

Source: VCAA, Victorian Curriculum V2.0,

‘History’, ‘Band description – Levels 9 and 10’

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CHAPTER 6

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

How did China transform from an imperial dynasty to a modern nation?

LESSON TITLE 6.1

Setting the scene: Who killed the Guangxu Emperor?

6.2

What were the of key events in China since 1750?

6.3

How had China developed by the time of the Qing dynasty?

6.4

How did women live in China under the Qing?

6.5

How did the Qing respond to European efforts to expand international trade in China?

6.6

How did the Qing attempt to deal with foreign challenges?

6.7

Why did the period from 1839 become known as the Century of Humiliation in China?

6.8

How did dissatisfaction with the Qing lead to rebellion and civil war?

6.9

How did the Qing attempt to reform the empire?

6.10

How did anger at foreign imperialism lead to violence at the turn of the century?

6.11

How and why did the Qing empire fall?

6.12

How did China become the People’s Republic of China?

6.13

How did Mao Zedong and Deng Xiaoping transform China?

6.14

How did China change during the 21st century?

6.15

End of investigation review: How did China transform from an imperial dynasty to a modern nation?

This digital chapter can be accessed via Cambridge GO

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Image: Mao Zedong, President of the Chinese Communist Party (CCP), pictured addressing adoring crowds during the Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution in 1967

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CHAPTER 7

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How did the British colony of India win independence? LESSON TITLE 7.1

Setting the scene: A jewel in the crown

7.2

What were the key events in India since 1750?

7.3

What was the legacy of the Mughal Empire?

7.4

How did the Mughal Empire decline?

7.5

How did British trade change India?

7.6

How did British imperialism change India?

7.7

How did early independence movements emerge?

7.8

Why did Indians want complete independence?

7.9

What conflicts occurred over Indian independence?

7.10

What did the founders of the Republic of India create?

7.11

How did modern India develop?

7.12

End of investigation review: How did the British colony of India win independence?

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Image: Akbar II, one of the last Mughal emperors of India (1806–1837), holds court while seated on his jewel-encrusted peacock throne.

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7.1

Setting the scene: A jewel in the crown Learning intention

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

In this lesson, you will learn how one of the world’s largest and most valuable diamonds, which belonged to an Indian prince, became part of the British crown jewels.

An Indian jewel in a British crown This crown was first worn by Queen Mary, wife of British King George V, for their coronation in 1911. It was later worn by Queen Elizabeth, who became known as the ‘Queen Mother’. The crown was laid on top of her coffin at her funeral in 2002. There are 2800 diamonds on the crown, but the main jewel in the crown is one of the largest ever known diamonds. It came from India. Persian for ‘Mountain of Light’, the Koh-i-Noor is 100 times bigger than an average engagement ring diamond! This extremely rare and famous gem has been part of the British crown jewels since the mid-19th century. The Koh-i-Noor was first displayed to the British public in 1851 at the Great Exhibition of the Works of Industry of All Nations. The exhibition was a project of Queen Victoria’s husband Prince Albert, and was held in a specially built cast iron and glass Crystal Palace in London’s Hyde Park.

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Source 7.1.1 The crown of the British queen consort, in 1919. The crown The exhibition space was larger than contains 2200 diamonds, with the famous Indian Koh-i-Noor diamond as Buckingham Palace and welcomed 6 its centrepiece. million visitors over five months. Inside the empire a large group Crystal Palace, 13 000 exhibits showcased London as the centre of a mighty empire – of countries under ruling colonies in India, Australia, Canada and southern Africa. the control of one

In the section on the British colony of India, the Koh-i-Noor diamond was the main attraction. Advertisements claimed that the diamond was worth £1–2 million, as much as all the other Crystal Palace exhibits combined.

Chapter 7: How did the British colony of India win independence?

central government or emperor colony a country or region that is under the control of another country or power

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U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES ➜

Source 7.1.2 A drawing of the Indian exhibit at the Crystal Palace exhibition, London, 1851. How did it show the riches of India?

At the time, India was known as the ‘jewel in the crown’ of the British Empire. More than 200 million Indian people and their rulers, often called maharajahs, were under British rule. The lands of India – now the separate countries of India, Pakistan, Bangladesh and Sri Lanka – provided raw materials to fuel Britain’s Industrial

Revolution, including cotton and tea. Precious stones were also shipped to London, and like ancient Roman emperors, the British royal family wore them to display their power and wealth. Some of these treasures became part of the crown jewels.

Treasure or loot?

The Koh-i-Noor had been the most valuable object in all of India for many years. But was it right for the diamond to become the property of the British royal family?

Legally, the royal family did own the diamond. In March 1849, the Maharajah

188

of the Punjab – a wealthy kingdom in the far north of India – signed the Treaty of Lahore, handing control of his kingdom to Britain. As part of the deal, he also gave the gem to Queen Victoria’s officers as a kind of tribute, in exchange for Britain bringing peace and progress to his people.

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him until he agreed to hand over the Koh-i-Noor. The Shah kept its location secret until the maharajah starved him, locked him in a cage and tortured his son. Eventually, the Shah gave in and revealed where the diamond was hidden. So, Punjab had gained the Koh-i-Noor through force and threats. Then again, it was probably originally from India – mined nearly 2000 km south – and taken by force when a previous shah had invaded India in the 1730s.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Morally, though, the situation is debatable. The maharajah, Dulip Singh, was just 11 years old when he signed the treaty. The public signing ceremony was designed to intimidate him, and the treaty was described as an ‘act of submission’ – in other words, surrender. If the boy prince was pressured into signing, can we really regard this as a gift freely given? The Koh-i-Noor was one of many treasures taken from India over generations. The British-run East India Company often seized precious items from defeated Indian rulers and sent them to Britain – either for the royal treasury or personal collections. These treasures were also called loot, meaning private property taken from an enemy in war. The British even stole the word itself: ‘loot’ comes from the Hindi word luˉ t, meaning ‘to rob’. Looting made Indians poorer and humiliated, while it made the British richer. The Koh-i-Noor was loot, even if a treaty said it was a legal gift. Many people have called for it to be returned to India. But was the Koh-i-Noor fairly owned by India in the first place? The previous maharajah of Punjab, Ranjit Singh, took the diamond from Shah Shuja Durrani of Afghanistan. In 1813, the Shah fled from Afghanistan, bringing the diamond with him. He was invited to Punjab, but when he arrived, the maharajah imprisoned

Having been prized and seized and moved across borders so many times, strange stories seem to follow the Kohi-Noor diamond. Is it cursed? In history, many of its owners were poisoned, assassinated or defeated. The British ship HMS Medea, which carried the Koh-iNoor to England in 1850, was struck by both a cholera outbreak and a storm. After the Crystal Palace exhibition, the theme of a giant cursed diamond became popular in Victorian novels. Should queen consorts wear a crown containing looted jewels that some say are cursed? Today, the Koh-i-Noor has an estimated value of $220–630 million, and there are ongoing calls to return the diamond – along with demands for Britain to compensate other victims of its rule in India.

Lesson 7.1 review Online quiz

Review questions

DOC

East India Company a trading company that was given the right by the British Government to control India and all trade in its spices, tea and other valuable items

Research task

Go online to access the interactive lesson review and more!

Teachers can assign tasks and track results

7.1 Review questions

1 Define ‘loot’. 2 Discuss whether you think the British royal family is justified in claiming that they own the Koh-i-Noor diamond. 3 Explain what the story of this gem shows about Indian history. 4 What else would you like to explore about the history of India? List your ideas.

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7.2

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

What were the key events in India since 1750? Learning intention

In this lesson, you will investigate the significant events in the history of India since 1750.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

Turning points

1857

1757

The Battle of Plassey ends in victory for Robert Clive and the British East India Company

The Indian Rebellion (or Mutiny) – a war for independence

1773

1737

The Indian National Congress is formed, calling for Indian representation

The Delhi Durbar marks the move of the capital from Calcutta to Delhi

Source 7.2.1 Mohandas K Gandhi in later life ➜

1 In pairs, brainstorm three historical events you have heard of that may have shaped modern India. 2 Share your ideas with the class. 1911 1885

1915

Mohandas K Gandhi begins a non-violent resistance movement against British rule

1858

1905

1914

The British Raj period begins

Protests against the Partition of Bengal, which separated Hindu and Muslim communities

Over 1 million Indian soldiers serve in the British Army in World War I

The East India Company establishes government-like control and appoints a governor-general

The Maratha confederacy lays siege to Delhi, marking the decline of the Mughal Empire

➜

Source 7.2.2 Statue of the

1862, depicting Queen Victoria. From the British Raj period.

Hindu god Ganesha, c.1000 CE

190

Source 7.2.4 The Siege of Delhi, part of the Indian Rebellion of 1857. Indian rebels advance on British forces. ➜

➜

Source 7.2.3 A one mohur coin from

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Source 7.2.6 India recently

➜

overtook China as the world’s largest nation.

2023 1996

1948

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

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Source 7.2.5 Jawaharlal Nehru, the first Prime Minister of independent India

India’s population reaches 1.425 billion, making it the world’s most populous nation

1939

The Hindu nationalist Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) becomes India’s largest political party

Jawaharlal Nehru becomes the first Prime Minister of independent India

Over 2.5 million Indian soldiers serve in the British Army in World War II

2014

1930

1947

1974

India becomes an independent republic and Partition begins, separating India and Pakistan

India detonates its first nuclear device

Narendra Modi of the BJP becomes Prime Minister

Civil disobedience against salt taxes and British laws spread

Lesson 7.2 review Online quiz

Review questions

DOC

Research task

Go online to access the interactive lesson review and more!

Teachers can assign tasks and track results

7.2 Review questions

1 Use the timeline to list some of the well-known individuals who lived in India. Outline what each person did. 2 Research and write about one of the significant events shown on the timeline. Describe the causes of this event and its consequences. 3 Based on what you have read so far, brainstorm a list of questions about India since 1750. You can use some of these question stems to help you.

• Who …? • Why …? • When …?

• How many …? • What if …?

Come back to these questions as you finish each section of the chapter. Which questions can you answer now? Would you change any questions based on your new knowledge?

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7.3

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

What was the legacy of the Mughal Empire? Learning intention

In this lesson, you will learn about the legacy of the Mughal Empire, which only declined in the 18th century.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

See, think, wonder

1 See: Is the building familiar to you? 2 Think: What does it make you think? 3 Wonder: Who built this four centuries ago? What motivated them to build it? ➜

Source 7.3.1 The Taj Mahal today. It was constructed in 1631–1648 as a memorial to the Mughal emperor Shah Jahan’s third wife, based on Persian, Indian and Islamic building styles.

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Wealth and power Like other emperors, the Mughals ruled vast territories from a capital city. They had several capitals but eventually centred their rule on Delhi. They appointed princes, or nawabs, to govern ‘princely states’ and provinces. By the 17th century, the Mughals controlled a vast empire similar in size to modern India, stretching from the Himalayas and great deserts in the north to the tropical south. By the 18th century, their population had grown to around 160 million people, more than 20 per cent of the world’s population.

Persian the people, language and culture from the civilisation in the region now known as Iran

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Between the 16th and 18th centuries, the Mughals built a powerful and wealthy empire across India. The first Mughal emperor, Babur, invaded India in 1526 from his home in Central Asia – a region that was then part of the Persian Empire and is now called Uzbekistan. He established a dynasty of Mughal rulers, who brought their Muslim religion and Persian culture to India.

y ala

Indu s

The Mughal Empire became rich through trade. At the time, one-quarter of the world’s traded goods were produced in India. Other countries eagerly bought Indian gems and jewels, high-quality cotton Gre KASHMIR at H and silk textiles and spices Indu im s m u l grown by local farmers. In KANGRA Jhe Beas Sutlej Ra 1583, British Queen Elizabeth ng e I sent merchants to India to Ganges KUMAUN Brahmaputr a ˉ establish trading relations. BALUCHISTAN These English merchants DOAB ˉ ˉ RAJPUTANA AYODHYA ˉ carried a letter of introduction ASSAM COOCH SINDH from the queen, in which she MARWAR ˉ BIHAR Gan ge BUNDELHAND called the Mughal emperor BENGAL ˉ BIHAR MEWAR ˉ ˉ MALWA JHARKHAND ˉ AHMAD SHAHI Akbar ‘the most invincible, and KUTCH ˉ GONDWANA GUJARAT most mighty prince’ and asked Narmada ˉ ˉ ˉ KATHIAWAR nadi him to help set up ‘mutual and ˉ QHANDESH ORISSA ˉ BERAR friendly’ trade between their ˉ ˉ ˉ NIZAM SHAHI Bay of God two empires, 7000 km apart. a a

Ma ha

Amazing but true...

Kr i s

Kaveri

h na

QUTH ˉ ˉ SHAHI

Key

500 km

CEYLON

Mughal Empire 1526-1707

Extent of Mughal Empire in 1530 Expansion of Mughal Empire to 1605 Expansion of Mughal Empire to 1707 Mughal expansion into Bābur’s Afghan Kingdom Boundary of Suri Empire Routes of Mughal expansion campaigns

Source 7.3.2 A map of the expansion of the Mughal empire. In which directions did the empire expand? ➜

A recent estimate of the richest people who have ever lived identified the 16th-century emperor Akbar I as the fourth richest person of all time. No one who has lived since then has equalled his wealth!

ˉ ˉ ADIL SHAHI ˉ ˉ MARATHA

Arabian Sea

Bengal

i var

DECCAN

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U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES Source 7.3.3 A painting of a durbar or audience with a Mughal emperor. The closer you sat to the royal family, the higher you were in the hierarchy. Why are most people looking in the same direction? ➜

durbar a court or audience with an Indian prince, such as a Mughal emperor

Concepts and skills builder 7.3

Analysing a painting

Source 7.3.4 A painting of a local prince’s durbar in western India, 1750

➜

1 2 3 4

Identify how people were arranged at a durbar to show their respect. Explain how the artist has shown that members of the local royal family have a special status. Discuss whether the purpose of this source seems to be to record an event or to symbolise something. Analyse how the image could be used as evidence that not just the emperor, but also local princes, were highly respected.

Historical concepts and skills: using historical sources

194

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Source 7.3.5 A Mughal dagger from the 17th century. Why would anyone want a handle made from gold, gems and glass?

Source 7.3.6 Kidangamparambu Temple, in Kerala. The Mughals allowed Hindu places of worship like this to be built and expanded. What does this show about the Muslim rulers?

Although the Mughal emperors were Muslim, most of their Indian subjects were Hindu. Hindus worship multiple gods and goddesses, honour Brahma, the creator, and believe that after death they will be reincarnated to live again in a new form. They follow the principles of karma (your actions determine your fate in your next life) and dharma (your duty to your community). The Mughals adopted some of the practices of Hindu worship, making the Indian form of Islam unique.

Hindus and Sikhs could be employed as government officials, though the most senior positions were reserved for Muslims. Non-Muslims also had to pay special taxes.

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U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Mughal culture

Mughal emperors and princes used their great wealth to commission magnificent art and architecture, blending Persian and Indian styles. Their buildings were both colossal and intricately decorated, as seen in the Taj Mahal and beyond.

Lesson 7.3 review Online quiz

Review questions

DOC

Research task

Sikh a believer of a religion based on the worship of one god, founded in Punjab, northern India, in the 16th century

Go online to access the interactive lesson review and more!

Teachers can assign tasks and track results

7.3 Review questions

1 Identify the culture and religion that Mughal emperors brought with them to India. 2 Explain the main ways that the Mughal Empire expanded its territory. 3 Explain how power worked across the Mughal Empire, by completing the following sentences: a The emperor was wealthy and powerful because … b The emperor was wealthy and powerful, but … c The emperor was wealthy and powerful, so … 4 Select one image in this lesson and analyse what it shows about Mughal culture.

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7.4

How did the Mughal Empire decline? Learning intention

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Having learned about the growth of the wealth and power of the Mughal Empire, in this lesson you will learn about its decline.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

Step in, step out, step back

1 Step in: Select a person in the image. What do you think this person might feel? 2 Step out: What would you like to learn to understand this person’s perspective better? 3 Step back: What do you notice about your own perspective and what it takes to take somebody else’s? ➜

Source 7.4.1 The Mughal emperor Shah Alam, after being defeated in battle in 1765, hands a scroll to Robert Clive to transfer tax-collecting rights to the British East India Company. By British artist Benjamin West, who never went to India.

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Powerful princes

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

In the 18th century, the mighty Mughal Empire was in decline. While there was still an emperor in a palace in Delhi, he struggled to keep his empire united. Rulers of many Indian provinces began to break away and seek their own independent wealth and power. Nawabs (princes) whose families had once sworn loyalty to the Mughal emperor now challenged the right of the emperor to rule their people.

The Hindu kingdom of Maharashtra won its independence in the early 18th century and posed a major challenge to Mughal rule. Maratha warrior leaders waged wars to create their own confederacy of kingdoms across much of central India between 1720 and 1761. As the Marathas gained territory, they increased their wealth by charging people taxes, and in turn the Mughal territory and ability to raise taxes shrank.

Source 7.4.2 Baji Rao I, ruler, or peshwa, of the Maratha confederacy (1720–1740). What sort of leader does this painting suggest he was? ➜

The most famous Maratha leader was Bajo Rao I, who defeated Mughal governors and even raided the Mughal capital of Delhi in 1737.

Concepts and skills builder 7.4 Identifying historical perspectives

We arrived at Delhi … after forced marches of 40 miles each. … We wanted to burn the capital to ashes but on second thought we saw no good in destroying the mighty city and ruining the imperial throne at Delhi. Moreover the emperor and Khan Dauran [the general of the army] desired to make peace with us, but the Moghuls would not agree to it.

independence the condition of self-government or sovereignty of a country or state

… If the terms of peace are favourable we shall accept them. Otherwise we shall not conclude any peace. We have annexed the territory about Delhi. The territory about Sonpat and Panpat beyond the Jamna still remains with the Moghuls. We shall plunder and capture it soon and see that the Moghuls will be starved.

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Source 7.4.3 A letter from Baji Rao I to his brother Chimanji Appa, 5 April 1737

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1 Identify what Baji Rao planned to do to the Mughal capital city of Delhi. 2 Explain why he changed his mind. 3 Discuss the perspective of the letter, including the tone that the letter takes. Is it concerned, confident, careful, determined? What does this show about the Maratha army at the time? 4 Explain how the letter could be used as evidence that the Mughal empire was losing power.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Historical concepts and skills: using historical sources Other provinces that successfully fought for their independence from Mughal rule include the Sikh Empire (Punjab), Awabh in the north, Hyderabad in central India and Bengal in the east.

➜

Source 7.4.4 Akbar II, one of the last Mughal emperors (1806–1837), holds a durbar while seated on his jewelencrusted peacock throne. How does this painting show that the emperor still commanded authority and respect, despite the decline of his empire?

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Foreign powers

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

A major threat to the Mughal Empire came from far away. European powers competed to access the rich global trade in Asian goods, including tea, cotton, silk and spices. European trading companies developed settlements in India to organise the purchase and shipping of these valuable goods. The foreign powers often signed treaties not with the emperor but with the rulers of local provinces, which reduced the emperor’s influence.

Source 7.4.5 A market stall in Goa, an Indian province that was ruled by Portugal until the 1960s. ➜

The first European power to establish a colony in India was Portugal. From 1530, ‘Portuguese India’ was a network of busy ports, centred on Goa on the west coast. The ports were crucial to the vast international trade in spices, and Christian missionaries came to India to spread their religion. Portuguese sailors and merchants settled in Goa, married locals and established a unique community that blended European and Indian culture. They spoke Portuguese and worshipped in Christian churches. Some people today still identify as Goan rather than Indian.

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Source 7.4.6 The cathedral of Bom Jesus in Goa, built by Portuguese colonists in 1605. What does this suggest about how Portugal tried to inﬂuence Indian people’s beliefs?

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of Pondicherry, while the Dutch East India Company (1602–1799) developed bases across what is now Indonesia, Sri Lanka (then Ceylon) and several trading ports along the Indian coasts.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Between 1618 and 1668, the British East India Company set up bases at strategic ports across India and developed the huge city of Calcutta (now Kolkata) as its headquarters. The French East India Company (1666–1769) established the city

➜

Source 7.4.7 Maps of India from 1765 and 1805, showing a decrease in the territory ruled by the Maratha (or Mahratta) Confederacy (yellow), and an increase in the territory ruled by the British East India Company (pink).

Go online to access the interactive lesson review and more!

Lesson 7.4 review Online quiz

Review questions

DOC

Research task

Teachers can assign tasks and track results

7.4 Review questions 1 2 3 4

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Identify three reasons why the Mughal Empire declined. Explain the effects of the growth of the Maratha Confederacy. Discuss how European powers developed their interests in India. Analyse what kinds of sources are useful to help us understand this period in history, using examples from this lesson.

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7.5

How did British trade change India?

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Learning intention

Having learned how the Mughal Empire declined, in this lesson you will learn about the expansion of British India – through a trading company and then a colonial government.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

See, think, wonder

1 See: Look at the image and its caption. What do you see? 2 Think: What does it make you think? 3 Wonder: What do you wonder?

➜

Source 7.5.1 East India House, London, built in 1729. The East India Company governed over 200 million Indian people from an office building that was only five windows wide.

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The British role in India expanded through the efforts of a private company that was as powerful as a government. When the British East India Company arrived, India was producing around one-quarter of the world’s economy, as much as all

of Europe. Two centuries later, when the British left, India’s share of the global economy was only 3 per cent. According to Indian writer Shashi Tharoor, ‘The reason was simple: India was governed for the benefit of Britain’.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

British East India Company In 1600, the London-based British East India Company was given a monopoly by Queen Elizabeth I over trade with Asia and the right to set up its own military to defend its ships. The Company established trading bases at Surat in the north-east, Madras (now Chennai) in the south-east and Bombay (now Mumbai) on the west coast. In 1670, King Charles II granted the Company the right to claim territory and sign treaties. Even though it was a private company, this meant it could effectively act as a colonial government. The Company developed the huge city of Calcutta (now Kolkata) as its Indian headquarters, and trade flourished. The Company used its army’s more advanced weapons to defeat nawabs, princes and emperors in numerous battles – ruling almost all of India south of Delhi by the end of the 18th century.

Historians criticise the Company for its treatment of non-British people. It traded in African slaves, grew the drug opium in India and sold it to China, and allowed its employees to become rich by looting palaces and treasuries.

East India Company officials, particularly Robert Clive, forced defeated nawabs and emperors to sign treaties allowing British officials to collect taxes for the Company’s profit. Robert Clive was not employed by the British Government, but as the Company’s representative, he became the first governor of Bengal. After victory at the Battle of Plassey (1757), Clive shipped the entire contents of the Bengal treasury – worth perhaps half a billion dollars today – along the river Ganges on 100 boats to the Company’s private treasury in Fort William.

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Source 7.5.2 Fort William, the East India Company’s port in Bengal. How did the fort represent British power

and authority?

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Amazing but true...

Hero or villain?

By 1800, the British East India Company had a private army of over 200 000 soldiers, twice the size of the British Army!

Clive was a British soldier and administrator who became extremely wealthy during his time in India. Clive led the army of the East India Company and served as the governor of Bengal on two occasions. He was known as ‘Clive of India’. While historians recognise his achievements in setting up British India, many criticise him for looting and for crimes against humanity, including the terrible Bengal Famine.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

After two decades in India, Robert Clive returned to England with a fortune of over £180 000 (the equivalent of over A$60 million today). Many people criticised him for gaining such personal wealth. Worse, the Company failed to care for the people under its rule when crops failed, leading to the deaths of 7–10 million people in the Bengal Famine of 1770 – one of history’s greatest humanitarian disasters.

Source 7.5.3 The statue honouring ‘Clive of India’ in front of government buildings in London. Why might some people argue that the statue should be taken down? ➜

In 1772, the British parliament investigated the East India Company’s actions and questioned Clive about how he had gained such an enormous fortune while the Indian people starved. Clive defended his actions and promoted the idea of young British men working in India to bring a fortune home. In fact, he said, ‘I stand astonished at my own moderation’! However, two years later, Clive committed suicide. ➜

Source 7.5.4 Powis Castle in Wales, which Robert Clive’s family purchased with the fortune brought back from India, is now a museum that showcases the many treasures Clive brought back from India. Should the Indian objects and artworks on display be regarded as priceless museum artefacts, or as loot that should be returned to India?

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Concepts and skills builder 7.5 Analysing historical interpretations

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

It was not the British government that seized India at the end of the eighteenth century, but a dangerously unregulated private company headquartered in one small office, five windows wide, in London, and managed in India by an unstable sociopath – Clive.

In many ways the EIC was a model of corporate efficiency: 100 years into its history, it had only 35 permanent employees in its head office. Nevertheless, that skeleton staff executed a corporate coup unparalleled in history: the military conquest, subjugation and plunder of vast tracts of southern Asia. It almost certainly remains the supreme act of corporate violence in world history. For all the power wielded today by the world’s largest corporations – whether ExxonMobil, Walmart or Google – they are tame beasts compared with the ravaging territorial appetites of the militarised East India Company.

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Source 7.5.5 Historian and travel writer William Dalrymple, ‘The East India Company: The Original Corporate Raiders’, The Guardian, 4 March 2015. Dalrymple also wrote the book The Anarchy: How a Corporation Replaced the Mughal Empire, 1756–1803.

1 Identify at least five adjectives that Dalrymple uses to describe the company and Robert Clive. What do they show? 2 The Company governed over 200 million Indian people. Considering that, explain why its London headquarters was remarkable. 3 Look up the meaning of sociopath. Explain why Clive might be described as one. 4 Dalrymple has written more than 10 books about Indian history. He is from a wealthy Scottish landowning family and has chosen to live mostly in India since 1984. Discuss what perspectives he might bring to his subject. Historical concepts and skills: using historical sources

In 1773, the British parliament passed the Regulating Act, which forced the British East India Company to create a system of administration more like a formal government, under a governorgeneral. Warren Hastings became the first British Governor-General (1774–1785). Hastings set up alliances with regional nawabs, but he also waged several wars, and his efforts to fund them through taxation and looting led to him being put

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on trial in London for mismanagement and corruption.

After a seven-year trial, the charges against Hastings were dismissed, but the case revealed deep divisions within the British parliament over British rule in India. Many believed more should be done to recognise the rights of Indian people. In 1802, English replaced Persian as the official language of India.

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The Indian ‘Mutiny’ A turning point that led the British Government to end the administrative functions of the East India Company was the Indian Rebellion, originally known as the Indian Mutiny. It began when Indian soldiers, called sepoys, revolted against their British officers.

sepoy a professional Indian soldier paid by the East India Company and later the Raj

Brahmins Priestly, academic class

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U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

The Rebellion started in 1857 when Kshatriyas the British introduced the Enfield rifle, Rulers, administrators, warriors which soldiers were ordered to load by biting open a cartridge. The Vaishyas cartridge appeared to be greased Artisans, tradesmen, farmers, merchants with animal fat, which if pork was forbidden to Muslims, and if beef was forbidden Shudras Manual laborers to Hindus. Breaking these religious rules would cause them Dalits to lose their status Street cleaners, menial tasks in the warrior caste. When 85 soldiers Source 7.5.6 A simplified version of the caste system. How high were warriors? refused to follow orders, they were sentenced to 10 years in jail. better pay and conditions, some because Their comrades freed them and started they suspected the British of trying to a riot in Delhi, killing Europeans. force them to become Christians, and others because they wanted to restore The violence did not begin as an the Mughal emperor to the throne. The organised uprising, but other Indians Rebellion lasted for 14 months. joined in – some because they wanted

caste a fixed social group in a hierarchy – in India, your social position was decided by the caste into which you were born

It is well known to all that in this age the people of Hindustan [northern India], both Hindus and Muslims, are being ruined under the tyranny and oppression of the infidel and the treacherous English.

It is therefore the bounden duty of all the wealthy people of India, especially of those who have any sort of connection with any of the Muslim royal families and are considered the pastors and masters of their people, to stake their lives and property for the well-being of the public … to extirpate [exterminate] the infidels residing in the eastern part of the country, and to liberate and protect the poor helpless people now groaning under their iron rule.

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Source 7.5.7 Bahadur Shah-Azamgarh, grandson of the last Mughal emperor, published in the Delhi Gazette newspaper, 29 September 1857

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Source 7.5.8 A painting depicting ‘blowing [sepoy rebels] from a gun’. In this punishment, the victim was tied to the end of a cannon, which was then fired, shattering their body. What did that show about British rule?

Terrible atrocities were committed. In London, newspapers focused on massacres of British women and children. However, many more Indians suffered, with around 50 000 sepoys and 100 000

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civilians killed. The rebellion was only defeated with the help of loyal Sikhs from the north and Gurkhas from Nepal. British forces banished the last Mughal emperor to Burma, and his sons were killed.

Lesson 7.5 review Online quiz

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Research task

Teachers can assign tasks and track results

7.5 Review questions

1 Describe how the East India Company operated. 2 Explain the link between ‘loot’ and the East India Company. 3 Summarise the Indian Rebellion, by completing two detailed sentences, using the following starters: In 1847, Indian sepoys … [did what] … because … [why they did it] … and then [the outcome]. In 1848, the British Government … [did what] … because … [why they did it] … and then [the outcome]. 4 Analyse why people in favour of independence justified the use of violence to achieve their ends. Use examples from this lesson.

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7.6

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

How did British imperialism change India? Learning intention

Having learned how the East India Company dominated India, you will now learn about the period in which Britain became the colonial government of India.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

See, think, wonder

1 See: Look at the image and its caption. What do you see? 2 Think: What does it make you think? 3 Wonder: What do you wonder?

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Source 7.6.1 The proclamation ceremony announcing that Queen Victoria had taken a new title, ‘Empress of India’, Delhi, 1877. The queen was not present because she never visited India in person.

Low-res

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At the end of the Indian Mutiny or Rebellion, the Government of India Act removed the East India Company and placed the British Government in direct control of India. The period known as the British Raj had begun.

The British Raj She pledged to show more respect for local customs, allow Indian princes to continue ruling 400 provinces (as long as they obeyed the Viceroy), and not force anyone to convert to Christianity. However, she also warned that no further rebellions would be tolerated.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

The word ‘raj’ comes from Hindi, meaning king or ruler, and was adopted by the British. In her official proclamation, read publicly in Delhi on 1 November 1858 by the governor-general (Viceroy), Lord Canning, Queen Victoria promised to change the way Britain ruled India.

We deeply lament the evils and misery which have been brought upon India by the acts of ambitious men, who have deceived their countrymen by false reports, and led them into open rebellion. Our power has been shown by the suppression of that rebellion in the field; we desire to show our mercy by pardoning the offences of those who have been thus misled, but who desire to return to the path of duty.

S ulaima nR ang

Amritsar a w y l i Ra

Moulmein d P u n jau r ive y sR du New Delhi alle s V lway u d i a n R Agra li Hydrahad a v A ra

Karachi

Him

Ea st In

R an

Dador

ala

Kathmandu

dia

n P eninsula Rail way

sul

ange Vindya s R Railway Jabalpur Kolkata (Calcutta) a Satpura n Range i Nagpur Pen dian n I t Eas ts Gha n r Mumbai (Bombay) ste G Ea Pe nins reat I ula Hyderabad ian nd ailway R

hats ern G West

Gooty

Bellary

as Ra ilw

Bangalore

Calicut

Chennai (Madras) Key

Madr

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500 km

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The Raj was based on the concept of ‘civilising’ a population whom the British regarded as ‘backward’. They planned to increase efforts to improve the health and welfare of their Indian subjects, mainly by building a network of railways, roads and telegraphs, dams and canals for water supply, as well as a civil service and schools based on the British model.

Colombo

Opened railway Railway under construction Intended railway IIndus River Steam Flotilla Cotton districts Coal districts

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Source 7.6.2 Queen Victoria, proclamation to the princes, chiefs and people of India, 1 November 1858

Source 7.6.3 A modern map, based on an

1865 British map, showing the development of railways in India up to 1865. What districts are shown on the map, and what does this reveal about the British priority for railway development?

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In 1874, the East India Company officially closed, and in 1877 Queen Victoria added the name ‘Empress of India’ to her titles. She made it fashionable in Britain to appreciate Indian culture.

secure a good job. The railways, civil service and law courts remain in place today, under Indian control. The Raj was funded by Indian taxes, with a quarter of Indian tax revenue sent to Britain. While British rule after the East India Company improved infrastructure and administration, major famines still occurred in 1866, 1877 and 1897.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Amazing but true...

From 1887 until her death in 1901, Queen Victoria’s favourite servant was a man from India, Abul Karim. He taught her how to speak Urdu and encouraged her passion for all things Indian.

Source 7.6.4 The High Court of Calcutta (now Kolkata) was built in 1872, 100 years after the city became the capital of British India. What does this imposing British-era building show? ➜

Under the Raj, a Council of India in London set imperial policies. Each council member had at least a decade of experience in India. The Viceroy lived in India, and British men were employed to run the civil service, an army, a police force and law courts. Civil service employment was open to Indians, giving them an incentive to learn English to

Concepts and skills builder 7.6 Analysing historical interpretations

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1 Identify the date the photograph was taken: how long had the British Raj been in place? 2 Explain what you think the photographer’s purpose was in capturing this scene. 3 Discuss how different audiences, both pro- and anti-British, might interpret this image differently. 4 Suggest what other sources or information you would need to consult to have a full understanding of the event.

Source 7.6.5 An Indian servant serves tea to a Memsahib, c.1910.

Historical concepts and skills: using historical sources

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Lifestyles under the Raj • E.M. Forster (A Passage to India) worked as an assistant to a provincial prince. English literature about the Raj often focused on the challenges of British women coping with India’s heat, humidity and cultural differences. Non-white servants and employees were expected to show respect by using the Persian titles Sahib for the man of the house and Memsahib for the lady of the house.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Although the Raj ruled a population of around 300 million, a relatively small number of British people went to India to work for the civil service At any given time, there were as few as 1000 British officers in the civil service and 60 000–80 000 British soldiers in the army. British expatriates and their families – often called ‘Britishers’ by locals – lived much more privileged lives than the people they tended to call ‘Hindoos’ or ‘natives’. There was widespread racism.

expatriate a person who is living (temporarily) outside of their home country

There was widespread fascination across the British Empire with the exotic tales of expatriate life in India. Some of Britain’s most famous writers had lived in British India: • Rudyard Kipling (The Jungle Book) grew up in India

• George Orwell (Nineteen Eighty-Four) was born in India and served in the colonial police force

British leisure activities in India included the grass-based field sports of cricket, hockey and polo, which became more popular under the Raj. Polo allowed mounted soldiers to improve their horse-riding skills while playing a competitive game. Indian cricket and hockey teams gradually developed, and later in the 20th century, India made them national sports and became world champions.

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Source 7.6.6 The Hyderabad polo team, without their horses. What does this show about the social aspects of the new version of the ancient Indian sport of polo?

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Source 7.6.7 Women ‘pickers’ on a tea plantation owned

by Scottish-born Thomas Lipton, in Ceylon (now Sri Lanka), British India, c.1900.

Source 7.6.8 The Nizam of Hyderabad bows before British King George V and Queen Mary at the Delhi durbar held in their honour, 1911. At the time, the Nizam was said to be the richest man in the world, thanks to his province’s diamond mines. Why would he show homage to the British monarch? ➜

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U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

The British held durbars to demonstrate the power of the empire. The last durbar was in 1911, to mark the move of the capital from Calcutta to Delhi.

Lesson 7.6 review Online quiz

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Research task

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Teachers can assign tasks and track results

7.6 Review questions 1 2 3 4

Identify what changed when the East India Company ceased to rule India. Outline the promises Queen Victoria made about how the British Raj would rule India. Describe two practices brought to India by the British that continue today. Select and discuss two examples from this lesson that show British rulers adopted aspects of Indian culture. Explain why.

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7.7

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

How did early independence movements emerge? Learning intention

Having learned about the transition from East India Company rule to the British Raj, in this lesson you will explore the early movements for India’s independence from Britain.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

Parts, purposes, complexities

1 Parts: Read the source caption and look at the photograph. What are its pieces or components? 2 Purposes: What do you think each of these parts does? 3 Complexities: How is it complicated? ➜

Source 7.7.1 When it opened in 1887, this railway station was called Victoria Terminus, in honour of Queen Victoria. It was later renamed Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj Terminus, after the 17th-century founder of the Maratha Empire, and Bombay was renamed Mumbai.

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People who believed that the British Empire was a ‘civilising’ force pointed to new railways, telegraphs and increased access to education. However, many Indians – who knew that their civilisation had been highly advanced before British rule – found this attitude offensive and began forming political movements for independence.

activist a person who campaigns actively to achieve social or political change

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Activists argued that Indians were not getting a fair share of the

benefits of the British Empire. Statistics confirm this: between 1750 and 1950, improvements in sanitation and healthcare doubled the average British life expectancy to around 69 years, while income grew fourfold to $11 000 per person. However, in India, life expectancy barely increased – rising from 28 to 35 years – and income fell below $1000 per person.

Indian voices in Britain

In the 1890s, some voices were raised in Britain in support of reform in the Raj. A number of privileged Indian men, educated at British universities, migrated to Britain and used their knowledge of British law and culture to argue for greater rights for Indians. One of the most famous figures was Dadabhai Naoroji, who became the first person from outside the British Isles to be elected to the British Parliament. He

was highly critical of the Raj. In 1895, he told the British Parliament that most Indians were ‘worse off than the slaves’ had been in America and that while Britain was profiting from India, the ‘evil system’ provided no benefit to the Indian people. Plantations were growing tea and cotton for export to Britain, but most Indians were not getting healthier or richer. Later, he returned to India and led the Indian National Congress in its call for swaraj – self-rule or independence. By contrast, another Indian MP in Westminster, Sir Macherjee M Bhownaggree, saw the British Raj as beneficial. Unlike Naoroji, he did not criticise British rule in principle but called for more to be done to help Indians suffering from poverty and famine. He remained in England for the rest of his life.

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Source 7.7.2 Dadabhai Naoroji, sometimes called the

‘Unofficial Ambassador of India’, served as a British MP for three years. How does this portrait suggest that Naoroji adopted British manners to make his voice heard?

Some Indian activists in Britain took a more radical approach. At India House, a boarding house for Indian students in London, Shyamji Krishna Varma hoped to pressure politicians and gain public support for independence. However, some residents supported armed revolution. In 1909, 26-year-old student Madan Lal Dhingra assassinated Sir Curzon Wyllie, an aide to the Secretary of State for India. The murder shocked the British public, as a senior official was killed on English soil. Dhingra was executed after a short trial, where he gave a passionate speech.

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The government quickly shut down India House and issued arrest warrants for its members. Madan Lal Dhingra was honoured on an Indian postage stamp in 1992 which suggests that he is remembered fondly for his actions.

Concepts and skills builder 7.7 Analysing causes and consequences

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

I hold the English people responsible for the murder of 80 millions of Indian people in the last fifty years, and they are also responsible for taking away £100 000 000 every year from India to this country. … And the Englishman who goes out to India and gets, say, £100 a month, that simply means that he passes a sentence of death on a thousand of my poor countrymen, because these thousand people could easily live on this £100, which the Englishman spends mostly on his frivolities and pleasures.

Just as the Germans have no right to occupy this country, so the English people have no right to occupy India, and it is perfectly justifiable on our part to kill the Englishman who is polluting our sacred land.

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Source 7.7.3 Madan Lal Dhingra’s statement to the London court that tried him for murdering Sir Curzon Wyllie, July 1909.

1 2 3 4

Identify what Dhingra said the English people had caused/were responsible for. Describe what Dhingra claimed was the consequence of Englishmen working in India. State who Dhingra compared the English in India to. Explain how he thought this justified his action. Evaluate whether Dhingra should be celebrated as a ‘freedom fighter’, condemned as a ‘terrorist’, or remembered in some other way.

Historical concepts and skills: causes and consequences, using historical sources

Indian-based political movements Two key political organisations developed in India – first with British support, but later as the leading voices for independence.

Partition the division of British India into two independent countries, India and Pakistan

In 1885, a group of Western-educated Indian nationalists formed the Indian National Congress (INC). The INC included British, Hindu, Sikh and Muslim members and became a major political party. It campaigned for political, economic and human rights for Indians and later for independence from Britain. The INC’s second session in 1886 was led by Dadabhai Naoroji, who later served in the British Parliament. Other key Congress leaders in the 20th century – Muhammad Ali Jinnah, Jawaharlal Nehru

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and Mohandas Gandhi – were educated in London as lawyers before returning to lead the independence movement.

Pro-independence ideas gained further support when the policies of the British Raj caused suffering and division. In 1905, the Viceroy of India, Lord Curzon, ordered the Partition of Bengal splitting its 50 million people into two separate provinces: East Bengal was to have a Muslim majority, and West Bengal was to be mainly Hindu, but was merged with Assam, where Bengalis were a minority. Bengali Hindus strongly opposed the partition, seeing it as an attack on their homeland, and large protests broke out.

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Source 7.7.4 The birth of the major political movement for independence, the Indian National Congress, in 1885.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

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The Congress Party opposed the Partition of Bengal. Protesters organised a boycott of British products and founded the Swadeshi movement, which promoted self-sufficiency, especially by replacing British textiles with Indian-made cloth. More extreme party members led mass demonstrations, spoke of armed revolution and even planned assassinations, such as the one Dhingra committed in London. This made it difficult for moderates to keep the Congress Party united. Due to the unrest, the Partition of Bengal was cancelled in 1911.

Source 7.7.5 The flag of the All-India Muslim League. How does it compare with the current ﬂag of the nation of Pakistan? ➜

In 1906, the All-India Muslim League was formed, initially to protect Muslims’ rights and promote peace and cooperation between Hindus and Muslims. Most League members saw benefits in the idea of a Muslim-majority West Bengal.

Muhammad Ali Jinnah left the Congress Party to join the League. Over time, he and other League members became increasingly concerned that an independent India would be dominated by Hindus. They developed the idea of a separate state for Muslims, which eventually became the nation of Pakistan. Jinnah would go on to become Pakistan’s first leader.

Lesson 7.7 review Online quiz

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Research task

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Teachers can assign tasks and track results

7.7 Review questions 1 2 3 4

Describe what Indian activists did in Britain to promote Indian rights and independence. Explain the link between British education and Indian activism. Identify two political movements that emerged in India. Outline the ideas that each represented. Summarise the perspectives on the Partition of Bengal, by completing two detailed sentences, using the following starters: In 1905, the British Viceroy … [did what] … because … [why they did it] … and then [the outcome]. After 1905, protesters … [did what] … because … [why they did it] … and then [the outcome].

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7.8

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Why did Indians want complete independence? Learning intention

Having seen how Indian activists argued for greater rights and freedoms, in this lesson you will learn how movements emerged that called for a more radical complete independence from Britain.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

See, think, wonder

1 See: Look at the photograph and its caption. What do you see? 2 Think: What does it make you think? 3 Wonder: What do you wonder? ➜

Source 7.8.1 Workers on strike, lying in front of their workshop gate to prevent entry, December 1930. The workers supported Mahatma Gandhi’s call for non-violent protests to help end British rule.

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The philosophy of non-violence

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Mohandas Gandhi (known as Mahatma, or ‘great soul’) returned to India in 1915 after 20 years of activism for Indian rights in South Africa, which made him a person of suspicion to the British. Gandhi promoted a philosophy of satyagraha (truth and nonviolent resistance), swadeshi (economic self-sufficiency) and ahimsa (doing no harm to living beings). His followers spun and wove their own cloth and refused to buy imported textiles made in British factories from Indian cotton.

Gandhi stopped wearing Westernstyle clothes and adopted the loincloth worn by Hindu holy men. He was often seen spinning yarn by hand, even while giving speeches. Gandhi said, ‘my life is

Source 7.8.2 Mohandas Gandhi (1869–1948) at his spinning wheel. Gandhi was a lawyer and activist who became the spiritual leader of the Indian independence movement. He earned his law degree in England, then spent two decades in South Africa, where he fought for racial equality, before returning to India. His philosophy of simple living and non-violence inspired a huge following, and to this day, he remains one of the most widely recognised people in history. ➜

Gandhi and his wife of 62 years, Kasturba, became inspirational leaders by setting an example of a simple and principled life, inspiring large crowds at rallies and influencing political leaders. Their commitment to non-violent methods attracted admirers from around the world and highlighted the violence of British authorities.

my message,’ and told people that the way to overcome British rule was through non-cooperation with British law and nonviolent protest.

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Source 7.8.3 Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru, who would later become Prime Minister of India, with Gandhi Chapter 7: How did the British colony of India win independence?

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Concepts and skills builder 7.8 Analysing a primary source

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

There are two ways of countering injustice. One way is to smash the head of the man who perpetrates injustice and to get your own head smashed in the process. All strong people in the world adopt this course. Everywhere wars are fought and millions of people are killed. The consequence is not the progress of a nation but its decline. … But through the other method of combating injustice, we alone suffer the consequences of our mistakes, and the other side is wholly spared. This other method is satyagraha. One who resorts to it does not have to break another’s head; he may merely have his own head broken. He has to be prepared to die himself suffering all the pain.

… If you make laws to keep us suppressed in a wrongful manner and without taking us into confidence … We will never obey them. Award us for it what punishment you like, we will put up with it.

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Source 7.8.4 Mohandas Gandhi, On Civil Disobedience, July 1916.

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Identify the method Gandhi claims strong people use to counter injustice, and its result. Explain Gandhi’s method and what those who use it must be prepared to do. Summarise what Gandhi says the Indian people will do if they are suppressed by laws. Discuss how Gandhi’s tone and intention made his philosophy of civil disobedience challenging for British authorities.

Historical concepts and skills: using historical sources

India and World War I

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Source 7.8.5 Sikh cavalry troopers of the British Indian Army are welcomed to Marseille, France in September 1914. What did their service demonstrate to the empire?

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When World War I broke out in 1914, Britain called for volunteers from across its Empire to serve in the imperial armed forces. Over 1.2 million Indian soldiers answered the call, more than the combined total of troops from Australia, New Zealand, Canada and South Africa. Indian Hindus, Muslims and Sikhs served under British command in key battles, including Gallipoli, the Western Front, Palestine and Iraq. India also contributed £146 million ($14 billion today). Records of casualties are unclear, but it appears that more Indians were killed in action than Australians.

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The Congress Party and the Muslim League believed that India’s support for the British war effort could help gain support for Indian independence. This seemed to be the case when, in 1917, the British Government announced its intention to work towards self-government for India.

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To accept Indian soldiers, the British army had to cancel its ‘colour bar’ policy, which had previously allowed only white men to fight in its forces. However, prejudice against people of colour did not end. Indian soldiers were paid less than British, Australian and other troops, had to use separate facilities, and were not promoted to positions of command.

The policy of His Majesty’s Government, with which the Government of India are in complete accord, is that of the increasing association of Indians in every branch of the administration and the gradual development of self-governing institutions with a view to the progressive realisation of responsible Government in India as an integral part of the British Empire.

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Source 7.8.6 The Montagu-Chelmsford Declaration, 20 August 1917, by Secretary of State for India, Edwin Montagu

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They have decided that substantial steps in this direction should be taken as soon as possible. … progress in this policy can only be achieved by successive stages.

Source 7.8.7 Women forming a human chain during a demonstration, July 1930. How could this photograph be

used as evidence of the sort of people who supported Gandhi's campaigns?

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sedition the crime of inciting people to rebel against the authority of a state

In 1920, the Congress Party declared Gandhi their leader. He called for noncooperation with British authorities, but when some followers attacked police, he was arrested for sedition and spent two years in prison (1922–1924). Further prison terms followed: in 1930, he spent over eight months in jail for breaking British laws against collecting salt to avoid paying British salt taxes. Twice in 1933, he was only released when he began a hunger strike that could have led to his death. Gandhi’s spinning wheel became such a powerful symbol of independence that it was eventually placed at the centre of the Congress Party flag, and later, the national flag of India.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

dominion a country with control of its internal affairs but remaining loyal to and part of the British Empire

These hopes were shattered in 1919. Britain did not include any Indians in the Treaty of Versailles negotiations about the future of colonies, and the British Raj passed the Rowlatt Acts, which allowed authorities to arrest and detain anyone suspected of being an Indian independence activist without trial. The law sparked widespread protests. Gandhi launched a campaign of satyagraha (nonviolent civil disobedience), but British soldiers fired on a crowd of around 10 000 unarmed people, killing several hundred. This event, known as the Jallianwala Bagh Massacre (Punjab, April 1919), suggested that the British were not serious about granting India greater independence.

Purna Swaraj: Complete independence In 1929, Lord Irwin, the Viceroy of India, publicly declared that Britain intended to grant India dominion status in the future. While this was welcomed in India, it received a negative reaction in

Britain. Irwin later told Nehru, Gandhi and others that this change would not happen soon. In response, in 1930, the Congress Party upgraded its demand to full independence, or Purna Swaraj.

We believe that it is the inalienable right of the Indian people, as of any other people, to have freedom and to enjoy the fruits of their toil and have the necessities of life, so that they may have full opportunities of growth. We believe also that if any government deprives a people of these rights and oppresses them the people have a further right to alter it or to abolish it. The British government in India has not only deprived the Indian people of their freedom but has based itself on the exploitation of the masses, and has ruined India economically, politically, culturally, and spiritually. We believe, therefore, that India must sever the British connection and attain Purna Swaraj or complete independence. … the most effective way of gaining our freedom is not through violence. We will therefore prepare ourselves by withdrawing, so far as we can, all voluntary association from the British Government, and will prepare for civil disobedience, including nonpayment of taxes. We are convinced that if we can but withdraw our voluntary help and stop payment of taxes without doing violence, even under provocation, the end of this inhuman rule is assured.

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Source 7.8.8 Declaration, Indian National Congress, 26 January 1930

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Source 7.8.9 A police officer violently disperses Gandhi’s followers as they harvest salt for their own use in 1930, as a protest against the British Raj’s salt tax.

In 1935, the British Parliament passed the Government of India Act, which appeared to be a step towards independence. Its key provisions included separating Burma from India, creating 11 provinces with their own elected Legislative Assemblies, and eventually – if the princely states agreed – establishing a federal legislature for India as a whole. However, until then, the British would remain in control of the central government, and issues related to defence

and religion would stay under the authority of the British Viceroy. The Congress Party condemned the Government of India Act as a ‘slave constitution’ because it did not grant Purna Swaraj. However, they participated in the provincial elections of 1937 and won 70 per cent of the vote. This high level of support showed that the Congress Party could claim to represent India as a whole.

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Teachers can assign tasks and track results

7.8 Review questions

1 Describe Mahatma Gandhi’s philosophy. 2 Explain what Gandhi meant by, ‘my life is my message’. 3 Explain how World War I affected India by completing the following sentences:

a India made a major commitment to the war because … b India made a major commitment to the war, but … c India made a major commitment to the war, therefore … 4 Define Purna Swaraj. Analyse how this differs from what Britain offered India in 1935.

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7.9

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What conflicts occurred over Indian independence? Learning intention

Having seen how the movement for independence developed, in this lesson you will learn about the conflicts that occurred during the move to create an independent nation of India in the 1940s.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

See, think, wonder

1 See: Look at the photograph and its caption. What do you see? 2 Think: What does it make you think? 3 Wonder: What do you wonder? ➜

Source 7.9.1 British and Indian police officers fire tear gas to disperse a crowd during five days of riots between Hindus and Muslims, Calcutta, August 1946

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India and World War II positions and organised a campaign of civil disobedience. Although Congress leaders opposed Nazi Germany, they argued that India should only make sacrifices for the war effort if it was guaranteed independence in return.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

When Britain declared war on Germany in September 1939, the Viceroy, Lord Linlithgow, announced that India was also at war without consulting any elected Indian officials. In protest, Congress Party representatives resigned from their

The Congress considers the declaration by the British Government of India as a belligerent country, without any reference to the people of India, and the exploitation of India’s resources in this War, as an affront to them, which no self-respecting and freedom-loving people can accept or tolerate. … The Congress hereby declares again that nothing short of complete independence can be accepted by the people of India. Indian freedom cannot exist within the orbit of imperialism … India’s constitution must be based on independence, democracy and national unity, and the Congress repudiate attempts to divide India or to split up her nationhood.

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Source 7.9.2 Indian National Congress, resolution, March 18, 1940

Many Indians enlisted, playing a crucial role in the British Empire’s war effort. By March 1942, Japan had invaded Burma on India’s eastern border, and British minister Stafford Cripps travelled

to India with an offer: Britain would hold elections and grant India dominion status after the war in exchange for greater Indian support for the British war effort. The Congress Party rejected the deal.

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Source 7.9.3 Sikh and Punjabi soldiers from the 7th Indian Infantry Brigade during a map reading lesson at an Indian Reinforcement camp, Egypt, circa August 1940. What might have motivated these soldiers to enlist?

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Gandhi declared it was time to ‘Do or Die,’ but he and other Congress leaders were immediately imprisoned, leaving the protests less coordinated than previous satyagraha campaigns. Alongside strikes and boycotts, some protesters used explosives to sabotage railways and telegraph lines, and police stations were destroyed. The Viceroy deployed thousands of troops to crush the protests, resulting in the deaths of around a thousand protestors.

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In August 1942, Gandhi launched a new campaign of non-violent noncooperation, known as the Quit India movement, calling for Britain to immediately quit its rule over India. The movement was not supported by the Muslim League or other political organisations, but the protests became so widespread that the Viceroy called it the greatest challenge to British authority since the 1857 Rebellion.

Concepts and skills builder 7.9 Analysing historical significance

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Source 7.9.4 Police use tear gas to disperse a large crowd that had gathered at Gowalia Tank Maidan, Bombay

(Mumbai), to hear Gandhi speak in August 1942

1 Identify the origin of the photograph: what significant event was happening at the time? 2 Explain what you think the photographer’s purpose was in capturing this scene. 3 Discuss how different audiences – both pro-British and pro-independence – might interpret this image differently. 4 Suggest what other sources or information you would need to consult to have a full understanding of the significance of the event. Historical concepts and skills: historical significance, using historical sources

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Germany. Eventually, the Allies sent over 1 million tonnes of grain as aid, but not before between 1 and 3 million people died of starvation. Over 2.5 million Indian troops served in Allied campaigns across Europe, the Middle East, North Africa and South-East Asia. India’s contribution to the defeat of Germany, Italy and Japan came at the cost of 87 000 deaths, with a similar number wounded or taken as prisoners of war. Additionally, 14 million Indian workers supplied raw materials, food and weapons. Britain borrowed around $3 billion from its colonies, including $1 billion from India. Despite this, Churchill argued that Indian people were not yet educated or united enough to govern themselves.

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In 1943, a serious famine broke out in Bengal when crops failed and food supplies ran out. While the British war cabinet focused on the war effort – Japan had occupied Burma and bombed Calcutta, and troops urgently needed food and materials grown in India – civilians were starving to death in eastern India. It was a major humanitarian disaster. Historians debate whether Winston Churchill and other British leaders ignored Bengal because of their racist attitudes towards Indians. The British war cabinet had two main reasons for not shipping in food aid: they feared Japanese submarines would sink grain shipments, and they prioritised food and supplies for the massive D-Day landings to defeat

Partition ideas

During World War II, the All-India Muslim League made it clear that it saw Partition – as had previously been attempted in Bengal – as the best way to protect the interests of Muslim communities. Muhammed Ali Jinnah stopped calling for Hindu–Muslim unity and instead called for separate nations.

Hindus and Muslims belong to two different religious philosophies, social customs, literature … It is quite clear that Hindus and Muslims derive their inspiration from different sources of history. They have different epics, different heroes and different episodes. … To yoke together two such nations under a single state, one as a numerical minority and the other as a majority must lead to growing discontent and final destruction of any fabric that may be so built up for the government of such a state.

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Source 7.9.5 Muhammed Ali Jinnah, speech to the All-India Muslim League conference, March 1940.

At a meeting in Lahore, the League passed a resolution calling for a separate homeland or independent states in areas where Muslims were the majority, specifically in the northwestern and eastern zones of British India. This became known as the Pakistan Resolution, as it ultimately led to the creation of Pakistan (‘Land of the Pure’). Before the war, the Muslim League had won less than 10 per cent of Muslim votes. However, Jinnah’s strong advocacy for a separate Muslim nation led the League to win around 75 per cent of Muslim votes in the first elections held after the war.

By August 1946, Jinnah feared that Muslim concerns were being ignored as the British cabinet discussed India’s future. He declared that Muslims would not accept ‘anything less than the immediate establishment of an independent and fully sovereign State of Pakistan’. He warned that the only options were ‘either a divided India or a destroyed India’ and called for

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Source 7.9.6 Part of the huge crowd at the Muslim League Direct Action Day in Calcutta, 26 August 1946. What might it have felt like to be in the crowd?

Direct Action Day, a protest that escalated into widespread religious violence. Around 15 000 people were killed before British troops restored order. The Direct Action Day riots made it clear that civil war was a real possibility.

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Recognising this, in June 1947, the Congress Party voted 153 to 29 in favour of Partition. Gandhi opposed the decision, but many saw separate nations as the most realistic path to independence.

Lesson 7.9 review Online quiz

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7.9 Review questions 1 2 3 4

Describe India’s contribution to World War II. Identify why some Indian nationalists opposed involvement in World War II. Outline how they did this. Explain the cause of the Bengal Famine. Explain how the Partition of India emerged as an idea, by completing the following sentences: a The All-India Muslim League supported Partition because … b The All-India Muslim League supported Partition, but … c The All-India Muslim League supported Partition, therefore … 5 Analyse the advantages and disadvantages of Partition as a solution to India’s challenges.

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7.10

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What did the founders of the Republic of India create? Learning intention

Having learned about the conflicts between ideas and groups of people over the future of India, you will now examine the creation of the new Republic of India and how it was separated from Pakistan.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

See, think, wonder

1 See: Look at the photograph and its caption. What do you see? 2 Think: What does it make you think? 3 Wonder: What do you wonder? ➜

Source 7.10.1 A family carry their possessions across the newly defined border between India and Pakistan, October 1947. These were some of the approximately 14.5 million people displaced by Partition.

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A new nation the last Viceroy of India, who remained as Governor-General for a year and encouraged the princely states to join the new nation of India. Jawaharlal Nehru was appointed India’s first Prime Minister and began his term with a grand speech in English about India’s destiny. Muhammad Ali Jinnah became Pakistan’s GovernorGeneral, with Liaquat Ali Khan as its first Prime Minister.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

In July 1947, the British Parliament passed the Indian Independence Act, to establish ‘two independent dominions’ – India and Pakistan. The two nations were to come into being on 15 August 1947, when Britain would officially withdraw, and the title ‘Emperor of India’ would be removed from King George VI’s list of titles. The declaration of independence was officially made by Lord Mountbatten,

Long years ago, we made a tryst [rendezvous] with destiny; and now the time comes when we shall redeem our pledge, not wholly or in full measure, but very substantially. At the stroke of the midnight hour, when the world sleeps, India will awake to life and freedom. A moment comes, which comes but rarely in history, when we step out from the old to the new – when an age ends, and when the soul of a nation, long suppressed, finds utterance. … We end today a period of ill fortune and India discovers herself again. … The service of India means the service of the millions who suffer. It means the ending of poverty and ignorance and disease and inequality of opportunity.

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Source 7.10.2 Jawaharlal Nehru, ‘Tryst with Destiny’ speech, August 1947.

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Source 7.10.3 Jawaharlal Nehru, India’s first Prime Minister (1947–1964), with India’s new flag in 1947. The flag has an orange (saffron) stripe for Hindus, a green stripe for Muslims, and a white stripe for other religions. Why does the design feature a spinning wheel at its centre?

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Partition The Radcliffe Line dramatically changed many people’s lives. Around 330 million people now lived in India, 30 million in West Pakistan, and 30 million in East Pakistan. The borders drawn on the map did not take local realities into account.

Source 7.10.4

Watch this footage of people migrating during Partition. What does this show about the personal effects of these political decisions?

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Partition resulted in the largest migration in history caused by a political decision. In total, 14.5 million people crossed the new borders to live in a region where they would be part of the majority religion: over 7.2 million Muslims needed new homes in Pakistan, and nearly 7.3 million Hindus and Sikhs needed new homes in India.

FPO ➜

The achievement of an independent state of India was soon overshadowed by the crisis caused by Partition. The task of drawing the new borders between mostly Hindu India and mostly Muslim Pakistan was given to a committee in London, led by senior lawyer Cyril Radcliffe. Radcliffe had never been to India and only had old maps and census data to work with. In just a few weeks, his team drew the Radcliffe Line, which divided Punjab to create West Pakistan and Bengal to create East Pakistan (which later became Bangladesh in 1971).

Kashmir

WEST Punjab PAKISTAN

Kalat (annexed by Pakistan in 1948)

Gwadar (annexed by Pakistan in 1958)

Sikkim (merged with India in 1975)

INDIA

Bengal

Junagadh (annexed by India in 1948)

Daman and Diu (annexed by India in 1961)

Dadra and Nager Haveli (annexed by India in 1948)

Key

Hyderabad (annexed by India in 1948)

Goa (annexed by India in 1961)

Puducherry (ceded to India in 1854)

500 km

East Pakistan (Bangladesh as of 1971) India

Pakistan

Partitioned provinces Large princely states not acceding to either country upon independence Radcliffe Line Movement of Hindu and Sikh refugees Movement of Muslim refugees Inter-communal conflicts

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Source 7.10.5 A map of the Partition of India, showing where people became refugees and had to move to

new homes.

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The chaos of so many people moving in opposite directions also led to widespread violence. Refugees travelling on overcrowded trains and in walking convoys were attacked by armed gangs. Many were stabbed, burned alive,

kidnapped, raped, or had their property stolen. Records are unclear, but it is estimated that around a million people died or went missing during Partition – the very plan that was supposed to prevent inter-religious violence.

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Concepts and skills builder 7.10 Analysing causes and consequences

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Source 7.10.6 Trains carrying refugees during partition migrations, 17 October 1947

1 Describe the scene at the railway station. 2 Identify evidence that the numbers of people migrating overwhelmed the transport system. 3 Imagine you were a reporter on the scene: a How would you explain what caused this scene? b To understand more, what questions would you ask people on the trains about their journey? c What do you expect people would have told you? Historical concepts and skills: causes and consequences, using historical sources

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rioting crowds and visited Muslim refugees. In January 1948, he began a ‘fast to the death’ to protest the hostility between India and Pakistan, which he said threatened the religious unity of Hindus, Muslims and Sikhs. On 30 January 1948, aged 78, Gandhi was assassinated by a Hindu nationalist as he walked to his afternoon prayer. Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru announced on radio: ‘The father of the nation is no more. Now that the light has gone out of our lives, I do not quite know what to tell you and how to say it. Our beloved leader is no more.’

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There was also conflict over which lands should be included within the Partition borders. In northern India, Muslim residents of the princely state of Kashmir opposed the maharaja’s decision to join the Indian union, leading to battles between Indian and Pakistani soldiers. In July 1949, a temporary border was agreed upon to partition Kashmir between India and Pakistan, with a final decision to be made later. Today, the border remains in place and continues at times to give rise to tensions. Mahatma Gandhi was dismayed by the displacement and violence caused by Partition. He spoke publicly to calm

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Source 7.10.7 The funeral pyre of Indian political and spiritual leader Mahatma Gandhi, Delhi, 1948. Police can be seen trying to keep back thousands of people.

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Constitution India then created a special assembly to draft a constitution as its foundation document. By November 1949, the constitution – for ‘India, that is Bharat’, referring to both its common name and an ancient Sanskrit name for the land – was complete.

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We, the people of India, having solemnly resolved to constitute India into a Sovereign Democratic Republic and to secure to all its citizens: JUSTICE, social, economic and political; LIBERTY of thought, expression, belief, faith and worship; EQUALITY of status and of opportunity; and to promote among them all FRATERNITY assuring the dignity of the individual and the unity of the Nation; … do hereby adopt, enact and give to ourselves this constitution.

Source 7.10.8 Constitution of India, 6 November 1949.

The constitution, published in the 22 officially recognised languages of India, drew on the following concepts from around the world to make India the world’s biggest democracy. Table 7.10.1 Political concepts that informed India’s democracy

Origin Britain

France United States Ireland Australia / Canada Soviet Union

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Concept A Westminster parliamentary government with two houses of parliament and a prime minister A republic (no monarchy) with principles of liberty, equality and fraternity A bill of fundamental human rights A president elected by parliaments Sharing of powers between state and federal governments A central commission to plan the economy

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7.10 Review questions 1 2 3 4 5

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Describe how the map of India was changed by Partition. Identify the impacts of Partition. Select one fact or source about Partition and analyse what it reveals about the events. Explain the key features of India’s constitution. Analyse the significance of where the concepts in India’s constitution came from. Cambridge Investigating Humanities for the Victorian Curriculum 9

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7.11

How did modern India develop? Learning intention

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

We have seen how the creation of the Republic of India caused enormous changes. In this lesson, you will learn about aspects of India’s development since independence.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

See, think, wonder

1 See: Look at the photograph and its caption. What do you see? 2 Think: What does it make you think? 3 Wonder: What do you wonder?

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Source 7.11.1 Crowds celebrate Independence Day, New Delhi, 15 August 2024. India’s flag has remained unchanged since independence in 1947.

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Economic development She was only the second woman in history to lead a modern nation (after Sirimavo Bandaranaike, Prime Minister of Ceylon, now Sri Lanka). Gandhi pledged to reduce poverty and centralised power within the national government. Known as the Iron Lady for her strong will, she sometimes shut down opposition by imposing states of emergency, during which she ruled by decree.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

After independence, Indian governments prioritised modernising the economy. At the time, the population was around 340 million, with an average life expectancy of 42 years, and the per capita share of Gross Domestic Product (GDP) was around $1320 (purchasing power parity). By comparison, people in Britain and Australia had a life expectancy of around 69 years, and their per capita GDP was over $15 000.

Economic development was guided by a series of Five-Year Plans, following the socialist model of central economic planning used in the Soviet Union and China. Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru introduced the first Five-Year Plan in 1951, which focused on agriculture and primary industries, followed by a second plan in 1956, which set targets for manufacturing and the public sector. For the first 70 years after independence, India’s economy remained centrally planned.

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In 1966, Nehru’s daughter, Indira Gandhi, was elected Prime Minister.

Gandhi’s government aimed to promote self-reliance, as the Swadeshi movement had once called for. A ‘Green Revolution’ introduced more productive grain crops and fertilisers, allowing India to become self-sufficient in grain and eventually a net exporter. However, the new techniques also caused environmental damage. By 1972, 25 years after independence, India’s average life expectancy had increased to around 50 years, and GDP per capita had risen to $1540. Gandhi credited this to state-controlled development. In 1977, she changed the constitution to define India as a Sovereign Socialist Secular Democratic Republic.

Source 7.11.2 Indian labourers plant rice in the state of Punjab. How does this image demonstrate continuity with

the past?

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GDP (PPP) per capita

GDP per capita of India in 1990 International Dollars from 1820 to 2015 Period British rule Republic of India

2010

2000

1990

1980

1970

1960

1950

1940

1930

1920

1910

1900

1890

1880

1870

1860

1850

1840

1830

1820

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6500 6000 5500 5000 4500 4000 3500 3000 2500 2000 1500 1000 500 0

Year

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Source 7.11.3 Economic growth in India. What trends do you notice over the past 200 years?

Despite having the world’s fifth-largest economy, India remains classified by the United Nations as a developing country. In India’s cities, there are huge disparities

between wealthy, well-educated families and those living in deep poverty. Many people live in informal settlements, or slums, with limited access to water and electricity.

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Source 7.11.4 A slum in Delhi in the 1990s, where people are gathering waste to try to earn money from recycling. What evidence can you see of this activity?

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International relations

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Source 7.11.5 Prime Minister Indira Gandhi meets U.S. President Richard Nixon in Washington in November 1971. What does this suggest changed about India’s status since independence?

India joined the Non-Aligned Movement (NAM), which represented developing countries (also called the Third World or Global South). The movement claimed to be independent of both the

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Under Indira Gandhi, India took a strong stance in international relations. She ordered the military to push back Chinese forces during a Himalayan border conflict (1967), gained Soviet support to defeat Pakistan in a short war in 1971 (which led to the creation of Bangladesh), and ignored international pressure to reject nuclear weapons, overseeing India’s first successful nuclear test in 1974.

Source 7.11.6 Workers outside an Indian nuclear

power plant.

West (led by the United States) and the East (led by the Soviet Union) during the Cold War, and to give a voice to smaller and weaker countries.

Concepts and skills builder 7.11 Identifying historical perspectives

[A] major theme of the non‐aligned is development. We are largely poor and technologically backward. Even the handful of the rich amongst us are not technologically self‐reliant. Most of us have become free from colonial rule only in the last 35 years. Our national freedom is new, our national unities need to be consolidated. Freedom itself releases long‐pent‐up hopes and yearning for rights.

… To help developing countries is not mere largesse [charity]. It will directly benefit the industrialized because development in Asia, Africa and Latin America, and the enlargement of their incomes by removing obstacles to their export, will absorb industrial goods and machinery from advanced countries, stimulate economic activity and ease their unemployment problem. What better investment can the North make in its own future than by turning today’s deprived of the South into tomorrow’s consumers?

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Source 7.11.7 Prime Minister Indira Gandhi, report of the Non-Aligned Movement to the United Nations, September 1983.

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Identify on whose behalf Prime Minister Gandhi is speaking. Explain her intended audiences: who is she addressing directly, and who might she also want to listen? Describe Gandhi’s perspective on international relations. Summarise Gandhi’s arguments about how the industrialised ‘North’ benefits from helping developing countries.

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Historical concepts and skills: using historical sources

Diversity

India’s diversity has long been part of its national identity and strength. Many languages, ethnicities and religions have co-existed on the subcontinent for centuries, and after independence, the constitution protected people’s rights to express their differences. However, tensions have sometimes arisen between the Hindu majority and Sikh and Muslim minorities. Although Mahatma Gandhi had advocated multiculturalism, Partition created separate nations, leaving Muslims as a minority within independent India. Today, around 14 per cent of Indians (200 million people) are Muslim, while 80 per cent (1.1 billion) are Hindu.

Nissi

Nepali

Assamese Ao Khasi Manipuri Mizo Bengali

Hindi

Gujarati Bhili

Odia

Marathi

Telugu

Konkani

Kannada

Tamil Malayalam

Bengali

500 km

Source 7.11.8 A map of the official languages of India, not including the hundreds of local dialects. How many can you count? What does this show?

Source 7.11.9 A Sikh family bathe in the Sarovar (the holy water tank) in Amritsar, India. The Golden Temple, repaired after the 1984 ➜

From 2004 to 2014, Manmohan Singh, a Sikh, served as India’s Prime Minister for the Congress Party, focusing on economic growth and improving health and education in rural areas. In 2009, he signed India into the BRICS coalition (Brazil, Russia, India, China, South Africa), which pushed for reforms to the Westerndominated international system.

Punjabi

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The Sikh religion makes up only 2 per cent of India’s population, but with 24 million Sikhs, some have called for an independent Sikh homeland, Khalistan. In June 1984, Indira Gandhi ordered a raid on the Sikh’s holiest site, the Golden Temple complex, resulting in the deaths of many activists and damaging the temple. In revenge, two of the Sikh bodyguards assigned to protect the prime minister assassinated her.

Ladakhi Kashmiri

government raid, can be seen in the background.

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Source 7.11.10 Riot police fail to stop a Hindu mob from destroying a 16th-century Mughal Empire Mosque in Ayodhya in 1992. Why might followers of one religion try to destroy the buildings of another?

Hindu nationalism, which defines India narrowly as a Hindu country, has emerged as a key challenge to the country’s diversity. In 1996, it also became a major political force when the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) became the largest political party in India. In 2014, the BJP’s Narendra Modi became prime minister. Modi calls India ‘Bharat’, the Hindi name for the country, and has introduced policies that have raised concerns among Indian Muslims. In

2019, his government cancelled the right of the Muslim-majority region of Kashmir to govern itself, a right that had been in place since 1954. He also introduced an easier path to citizenship for Hindu, Parsi, Sikh, Buddhist, Jain and Christian immigrants, but not for Muslims. Additionally, Modi approved the construction of a $200 million temple to the Hindu god Lord Ram in Ayodhya, on the site of a 16th-century Muslim mosque that was destroyed during Hindu riots in 1992.

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Source 7.11.11 Narendra Modi’s coalition wins a third consecutive election in 2024, but with a reduced majority. What is the signiﬁcance of his party choosing orange (saffron) as their symbol?

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Culture Bollywood films are known for their energetic song and dance scenes, and many stories are based on Indian history and mythology. Indian culture has also been shared with the world through migration. According to official records, there are around 32 million Indian-born people living across 210 countries, making up the world’s largest diaspora. Seeking jobs, opportunities or a new life, Indian people have migrated in particularly large numbers to the United States, the United Arab Emirates, Britain, Canada, Germany and Saudi Arabia.

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Cricket is regarded as India’s national sport. Across the country, informal cricket matches are regularly played, needing only a short strip of flat earth, a piece of wood and a ball. In test, one-day and Twenty-20 formats, the Indian team has achieved enormous success. Since 2008, the Indian Premier League has become the richest cricket tournament in the world, attracting international players. The Indian film industry, known as ‘Bollywood’, has grown to compete with Hollywood in the United States. India produces over 1000 films each year, attracting more than 3 billion viewers.

diaspora people who have spread or been dispersed from their land of origin

In recent years, Indian immigration to Australia has increased, especially in New South Wales and Victoria, making Indians the largest group of new migrants each year. Indian families now make up about 10 per cent of Australia’s foreignborn population and 3 per cent of the total population.

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Source 7.11.12 Virat Kohli, regarded as the best

Source 7.11.13 Young Bollywood dancers in Federation Square, Melbourne, 2018. ➜

batter in the world, hits a six during India’s victory in the 2024 Men’s T20 Cricket World Cup. How does India’s success in cricket relate to its history?

Lesson 7.11 review Online quiz

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7.11 Review questions 1 2 3 4

Describe how economic development was planned in India. Identify the groups India joined in international relations. Explain a challenge that has emerged to Indian diversity. Select one fact or source about India’s modern culture and analyse what it reveals.

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7.12

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End of investigation review: How did the British colony of India win independence? Access the Interactive Textbook for a range of digital tools to help you review this topic, including:

• Downloadable chapter summary • Scorcher timed competitive quiz.

Brain dump

What have you learned about India? Copy and complete the table to explain your understanding. Aim for two points per topic.

Topic The Mughal Empire British trade British imperialism Early independence movements Purna Swaraj World Wars I and II Partition Modern Indian development

What I have learned

Making thinking visible I used to think ...

Now I understand ...

This visible thinking exercise asks you to track what you knew about India before this topic and what you know now. Using the sentence stems provided, write about what you thought before and what you now understand. 1

a I used to think that India was … b Now I think that India was …

a I used to think that the British Empire … b Now I think that the British Empire …

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a A simple explanation is that India… b A better explanation is that India …

Practice questions Identify two empires that ruled India and when their periods of rule occurred. What were the similarities between the two imperial powers?

Explain the causes and consequences of key events in Indian history, by matching the cause on the left with its correct consequence on the right.

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Causes The Mughal Empire declined

The British East India Company was given a monopoly over trade with India Sepoys started a ‘Mutiny’ or Rebellion against British officers The Indian National Congress Party was established

Mohandas / Mahatma Gandhi led a non-violent protest movement Muhammed Ali Jinnah stopped calling for HinduMuslim unity, and began to promote separation Indian leaders admired socialism Government troops raided the Sikh’s Golden Temple

The Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) became the largest political party

Apply your understanding of causes and consequences to select the two pairs of causes and consequences from the table above that you found the most interesting to learn about. Explain why you chose them.

Analyse Source 7.12.1, using the questions below.

Consequences Company rule was ended and India became a colony under the British Raj Indian leaders were arrested but gained respect and influence The Maratha Empire and foreign powers increased in power Five-Year Plans were designed to guide economic development British traders gained powers similar to a government in India An organised movement for political rights and independence began Partition between India and Pakistan Hindu nationalism became a feature of Indian politics Indira Gandhi was assassinated

a When was this source created, in the context of Indian history?

b Who inspired the design, and why were they significant? c What ideas or values relating to Indian independence does the artefact represent? d Explain what the source shows about Indian history.

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Source 7.12.1 Gandhi’s proposed flag for India, 1921

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Evaluate the impact of Mohandas K Gandhi, or another significant individual. How did they contribute to Indian independence, and why are they remembered by historians?

Write a letter: Imagine you are a young person living during Partition, in October 1947. Your family has decided to leave your home and cross the new ‘Radcliffe Line’ to where you will be in the majority religion: either a Hindu family moving to India or a Muslim family moving to Pakistan. Write a letter of farewell to your school friends, explaining:

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• what is happening in your country • why your family is moving • how this makes you feel

• your hopes and concerns for the future

• how you think people will remember this event in history.

Response to chapter inquiry question: How did the British colony of India win independence?

Write a paragraph in response to the inquiry question. Include the following key terms: • colony

• empire

• East India Company • Raj

• Partition • activist

• independence. ➜

Source 7.12.2 Victoria Memorial, Kolkata (completed 1921), is a marble monument to Queen Victoria. At the time of its construction, Culcutta (now Kolkata) was the capital of the British Raj.

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CHAPTER 8

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How did Indonesia emerge as a modern nation?

LESSON TITLE 8.1

Setting the scene: Why is Indonesia so important to Australia?

8.2

What were the key events in Indonesia’s history?

8.3

Why did the Dutch colonise Indonesia?

8.4

What was Dutch rule in Indonesia like?

8.5

How did Indonesia gain independence?

8.6

What was the significance of ‘Merdeka’?

8.7

What was the significance of Sukarno’s rule?

8.8

How was Indonesia led by Suharto?

8.9

What is Indonesia like today?

8.10

End of investigation review: How did Indonesia emerge as a modern nation?

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Image: This is a photo of pro-independence graffiti a train car in Bekasi, a city in Java, Indonesia in 1946. Messages like the one on this train car against the rule of Dutch colonists were common across Indonesia at the time.

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CHAPTER 9

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How did Japan emerge from feudal isolation to become a global power?

LESSON TITLE 9.1

Setting the scene: Who was Genji?

9.2

What were key events in Japan after 1750?

9.3

How had Japan developed by the time of the Tokugawa shogunate?

9.4

How did the Tokugawa shogunate shape Japan’s political, cultural and social development?

9.5

Why did Japan close itself off from the rest of the world?

9.6

How and why did the Tokugawa shogunate end?

9.7

How did the Meiji Restoration change Japan?

9.8

How did the Meiji reforms spur the imperial aspirations of Japan? Part 1: 1890–1930

9.9

How did the Meiji reforms spur the imperial aspirations of Japan? Part 2: 1930–1941

9.10

What consequences followed Japan’s choice to instigate war in the Pacific? Part 1: Reaction to Pearl Harbor to 1945

9.11

What consequences followed Japan’s choice to instigate war in the Pacific? Part 2: The atomic bombing of Japan

9.12

How did Japan change after the loss of the Pacific War?

9.13

What did Japan do next? 1950s to today

9.14

End of investigation review: How did Japan emerge from feudal isolation to become a global power?

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Image: The death of the samurai: a man poses in samurai armour, c. 1890

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CHAPTER 10

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How did modern Vietnam come into existence? LESSON TITLE 10.1

Setting the scene: Why did a Buddhist monk make the ultimate sacrifice?

10.2

What were the key events in Vietnam’s history?

10.3

How did Vietnamese culture flourish in the 18th century?

10.4

What was the impact of the French invasion of Vietnam?

10.5

How did World War II shape Vietnam’s quest for independence?

10.6

How were the French expelled from Vietnam?

10.7

How did the Second Indochina War begin?

10.8

What was the experience of the Vietnamese people during the Second Indochina War?

10.9

How did the Second Indochina War end?

10.10

How did Vietnam transition towards independence?

10.11

How has modern Vietnam evolved from its past?

10.12

End of investigation review: How did modern Vietnam come into existence?

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Image: South Vietnamese Police Officer Nguyen Ngoc Loan executes Viet Cong Captain Nguyen Van Lem on a Saigon street on

February 1, 1968, during the opening stages of the Tet Offensive during the Vietnam War, or Second Indochina War.

Low-res

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U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES Image: Aerial view of an intersecting motorway in Bristol, United Kingdom. In Investigation 1, you will learn about the different

biome types around the world, and in Investigation 2, you will study the ways that geography interconnects us all.

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Part 2

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Geography

FPO <QR1101>

Watch the video for an introduction to Geography in Year 9 and the geographical skills and concepts you will be working with

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INVESTIGATION 1

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Biomes and food security

OVERVIEW

Biomes and food security examines the characteristics of the world’s biomes and their production of biomass, which is the source of the world’s food. Students develop an understanding of the factors that influence food production (from climate to agricultural innovations) and of the impacts of food production and its methods on environments. Students then examine the environmental, economic and social sustainability of current farming methods in Australia. They evaluate if and how world food production can be increased to the level needed to feed future populations sustainably, and whether this would ensure food security. Source: VCAA, Victorian Curriculum V2.0, ‘Geography’, ‘Band description – Levels 9 and 10’

CURRICULUM GOALS

• What might limit our ability to sustainably feed the world’s population in the future?

Source: VCAA, Victorian Curriculum V2.0, ‘Geography’, ‘Band description – Levels 9 and 10’

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CHAPTER 11

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What are biomes and how do they provide food security?

LESSON TITLE 11.1

Setting the scene: The Amazon rainforest in crisis

11.2

What are biomes?

11.3

What factors impact the spatial distribution of biomes?

11.4

What biomes do we have in Australia and how are they used?

11.5

What is food security?

11.6

How do humans change biomes to produce food?

11.7

Case study: Battling food insecurity in the Philippines

11.8

What environmental factors inﬂuence crop production?

11.9

What economic and technological factors inﬂuence crop production?

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11.1

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Setting the scene: The Amazon rainforest in crisis biodiverse having a large variety of plant and animal life in a place

Learning intention

biome a large, naturally formed community of plants and animals found in a place

The Amazon rainforest is one of the most biodiverse places on Earth. This biome is home to pink river dolphins, piranhas, anacondas, jaguars, sloths, toucans and the cacao plant (the source of chocolate). One in 10 of the world’s animals live in the Amazon rainforest, and many Amazonian plant and animal species are still unknown to us.

This lesson is an introduction to the concept of biomes and some of the challenges they face.

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Figure 11.1.1 The Amazon rainforest is one of the most biodiverse regions in the world.

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adaptation the process of change where an organism becomes better suited to its environment

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The Amazon rainforest is in the northern region of South America (see Figure 11.1.3) and is classified as a tropical rainforest biome. Biomes are communities of plants and animals that have naturally adapted to a region. The high biodiversity in this biome is due to its warm temperatures, high rainfall (see Figure 11.1.4) and an extraordinary network of 1100 tributaries that transport water through the region. These natural characteristics support life within the rainforest but also benefit us. The Amazon provides food, rainfall, oxygen, materials and medicine.

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Figure 11.1.2 A three-toed sloth. Its toes are actually claws, which is an adaptation that helps it live in trees.

VENEZUELA

GUYANA SURINAME FRENCH GUIANA

COLUMBIA

Pacific Ocean

tributary a small river that feeds its water into a bigger river

ECUADOR

PERU

BRAZIL

BOLIVIA

Key

Amazon Biome Amazon Basin

PARAGUAY

URAGUAY

ARGENTINA

Atlantic Ocean

CHILE

Falkland Islands 0

1000 km

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Figure 11.1.3 Geographic location of Brazil and the Amazon rainforest biome

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Manaus, Brazil

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Average monthly temperature (°C)

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Monthly precipitation (mm)

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tob er

Se pte mb er

Au gu st

Jul y

Jun e

Ma y

Feb rua

Jan ua

Ap ril

rch

Average monthly temperature (°C)

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Figure 11.1.4 Climate graph of the Amazon rainforest biome. The black bars represent total monthly rainfall and the orange line represents average monthly temperature.

agriculture the process of growing crops and raising animals for human use and as food

deforestation clearing a large area of trees livestock animals used for work, food or produce

The Amazon rainforest biome is in serious trouble. In August 2024, there were over 65 000 fire hotspots in the Amazon, making it the worst year for fires since 2005. A total of 13.4 million acres of land was burned – an area larger than entire countries, such as Costa Rica or Denmark. Most of the fires were started by humans to clear trees, a process known as deforestation. The cleared land

is then used for agriculture, including growing crops and grazing livestock. Deforestation has also reduced the amount of water in the region, drying out the land and increasing the risk of fires. Although fires have occurred before, the humid climate usually prevents them from spreading too far. However, Brazil is now experiencing its worst drought in history, making the situation worse.

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Figure 11.1.5 Global Forest Watch map illustrating the number of wildfires across South America in 2024, showing a high concentration in Brazil. The coloured dots indicate high confidence fire alerts, between July and September 2024.

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Figure 11.1.6 Aerial view of an area of Amazon rainforest deforested by illegal fire in the municipality of Labrea, Amazonas State, Brazil. Photograph taken on 20 August 2024.

Figure 11.1.7 A soy plantation, running alongside rainforest,

in the Amazon

Deforestation could turn much of the Amazon rainforest into a dry, grassy landscape, with serious impacts on biodiversity. How can we use biomes in a way that protects the planet while also providing food for a growing population? This chapter will explore the importance of biomes and how we are altering them to achieve food security.

Lesson 11.1 review Online quiz

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11.1 Review questions

1 Referring to Figures 11.1.5–7, copy and complete the following see, think, wonder table. See What do you see, observe or notice in this image?

Think Why do you think this environment is in trouble?

Wonder What does it make you wonder about the Amazon rainforest biome?

Figure 11.1.5 Figure 11.1.6 Figure 11.1.7

2 With a partner, discuss the challenges facing the Amazon rainforest.

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11.2

What are biomes? Learning intention

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We’ve looked at an example of a tropical rainforest biome through the story of the Amazon rainforest. This lesson introduces the world’s biomes and how they can be classified.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

Think, pair, share

1 Think: Imagine you are asked to take a photo of your favourite natural environment and bring it to class. Take a few notes: What landscape would you choose? What would be the main features of your photo? How would it feel to be in that place? What might threaten its future? 2 Pair: Compare your notes with the person next to you. What similarities and differences do you notice? 3 Share: Prepare to share your answers with the class. Try to explain your partner’s reasons for their choice, then swap.

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Figure 11.2.1 Every place on Earth is part of a unique biome, each with its own living and non-living things. What is your favourite type of environment?

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Figure 11.2.2 The Earth’s biomes include A) temperate forests, B) boreal forest and C) sea ice biomes, among many others.

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What is a biome? When you look out your window, are you more likely to see a magpie in a gum tree or a moose or polar bear? Most of the plants and animals near your home are indigenous to your region, meaning they naturally exist in your local environment. A biome is a geographic region identified by the plants and animals that naturally live there. The

word bios comes from Greek and means ‘life’, highlighting that each biome is defined by the unique collection of life it supports. As shown in Figure 11.2.2, biomes vary in the types of plants and animals that grow and live there. Observing the indigenous plant and animal life in a region is a good starting point when identifying a biome.

What are the different biomes? As seen in Table 11.2.1, there are two main types of biomes: terrestrial (land) biomes and aquatic biomes. These can be further classified into more specific biomes based on the different plant and animal species found in each region. A biome is often named after a key characteristic of its environment,

such as its dominant vegetation. For example, the tundra biome gets its name from the Finnish word tundra, meaning ‘treeless plain’. Can you guess which type of vegetation dominates the grasslands biome? What do you think might be the main characteristic of the ice biome?

indigenous naturally existing in a specific place savanna flat grasslands with scattered trees and shrubs

biomass organic material that comes from plants and animals

Table 11.2.1 The main biome classifications, each of which can be further classified into more specific biomes

Terrestrial biomes Aquatic biomes Tropical rainforest Freshwater Temperate forest Marine Desert Tundra Taiga (boreal forest) Grassland Savanna/tropical grassland The ice biome can be terrestrial in the form of ice sheets and glaciers, or aquatic in the form of sea ice.

Some biomes like tropical rainforests are full of plants and animals, while others, like deserts and ice sheets, have very little life. The amount of living matter, or biomass, in a biome

affects how much food, fibre and plant-based materials it can produce. Biomes with the highest biomass have the greatest capacity to produce food for humans.

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Concepts and skills builder 11.2 Analysing photographs Photographs are useful tools in geography. They help illustrate and describe physical and human features, compare places around the world and show how places change over time. Photographs are classified based on their viewpoint or position. They can be taken from the ground, from the air or from space. Geographers use three main types of photographs:

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• ground-level photographs – taken from the ground. • aerial photographs – usually taken from a plane or, more recently, drone • satellite imagery – taken from a satellite.

Classify the ground-level photographs in Figure 11.2.3 (A–D) into one of the biomes mentioned in Table 11.2.1. What biome characteristics can you see in each image? Use Google Earth to find a satellite image of one of these biomes. A

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Figure 11.2.3 Identify which biomes are shown in these images.

Geographical concepts and skills: environment, interconnection, place, space

Go online to access the interactive lesson review and more!

Lesson 11.2 review Online quiz

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11.2 Review questions 1 Define biome and provide three examples. 2 Use examples to explain how some biomes are named based on their geographic characteristics. 3 Using biomes A–D in Figure 11.2.3, explain the features of and differences between the three biomes. 256

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11.3

What factors impact the spatial distribution of biomes?

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Learning intention

In this lesson, you will learn how to describe spatial distribution. As explored earlier, biomes are identified by their plant and animal species, but several key factors influence where each biome is located. This lesson examines how climate, latitude and elevation affect the location of different biomes.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

Where are different biomes located?

Figure 11.3.1 shows where 10 different biomes are located around the world. Latitude, the imaginary horizontal lines that run north or south of the Earth’s equator, impacts the location of biomes. 150W

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Tropic of Cancer

Key

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Tropical rainforest

Equator

Temperate forest Desert

15S

Tropic of Capricorn

Tundra

30S

Taiga

Grassland

Savanna / Tropical grassland Freshwater Marine Ice

45S

10 000 km

60S

90W

60W

30W

30E

60E

90E

120E

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Figure 11.3.1 The spatial distribution of global biomes

1 2 3 4 5

What biomes are located at a latitude of 0°, known as the equator? What biomes are located above 60° north of the equator? What biome is located above 60° south of the equator? What aquatic biomes are shown on this map (as opposed to terrestrial biomes)? Besides latitude, suggest a factor that might influence the type of biome found in a location.

150E

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Climate type of weather expected at different times of the year. Do you remember from earlier lessons that the Amazon rainforest has a distinctly warm and wet climate, as shown in its climate graph (see Figure 11.1.4)? Precipitation and temperature strongly influence the type of biome found in a particular location (see Figure 11.3.2).

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precipitation liquid or frozen water that forms in the atmosphere and falls to Earth (e.g. rain, snow)

Climate refers to the average weather conditions of a place over a long period (usually 30 years). Weather conditions are factors that change daily, such as temperature, wind and precipitation. By calculating the average daily weather conditions over 30 years, we can determine a place’s climate and predict the 150W

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ust

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J ul y

Ma y J un e

Ap ril

rch

rua

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ua Jan

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Monthly precipitation (mm)

Cairo, Egypt

Average monthly temperature (°C)

temperate climates are so favourable that most people worldwide live in them. On the other hand, if your region receives less than 25 cm of rain per year, it is likely a desert biome (see Figure 11.3.3). These dry conditions create a challenging climate for life to adapt to and support fewer plants and animals, making deserts much less productive biomes.

If you live in a region with four distinct seasons but without extreme temperatures or rainfall, you may be in a temperate climate. A common biome in this climate is the temperate forest biome. With mild temperatures and over 140 cm of annual rainfall, many species of plants and animals thrive, making it a highly productive biome. In fact,

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Figure 11.3.2 A choropleth map showing the global distribution of annual average temperature

Figure 11.3.3

Climate graph for a desert biome. The black bars represent total monthly rainfall and the orange line represents average monthly temperature.

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Latitude consistently warm. Combined with high rainfall, this direct sunlight makes tropical rainforests the most abundant biome. They are home to approximately 50 per cent of all life, even though they cover only 2 per cent of Earth’s surface. In contrast, polar ice biomes, found between 65° and 90° latitude, receive far less sunlight. As a result, they are much colder and cannot support an abundance of life.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Latitude measures how far a place is from the equator (0°). It is shown by imaginary horizontal lines running north and south of the equator. Latitude plays a major role in shaping biomes and is closely interconnected with climate, as it affects temperature and sunlight levels. The tropics, located between 23.5° north and south of the equator, receive direct sunlight all year round. This makes the tropical rainforest biome

400

Tropical rainforest

Annual precipitation (cm)

300

rest

info

te ra pera

Tem

200

Temperate seasonal forest

100

Boreal forest

d Tun

–10

Woodland/ shrubland assland/ Temperate gr cold desert

0 10 20 Average annual temperature (°C)

Tropical seasonal forest/ savanna

Subtropical desert

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Figure 11.3.4 A graph showing how precipitation and temperature relate to the type of biome. For example, woodland biomes have a temperature range of –2°C to 22°C and annual precipitation of between 10 and 120 cm.

Figure 11.3.5 Tropical rainforests are a rich and diverse biome

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Elevation Elevation refers to how high land is above or below sea level. Low elevation biomes include coastal estuaries, where rivers meet the sea, and marine biomes, which exist below sea level.

How much colder would you expect a 4000-metre-high mountain peak to be compared to sea level?

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

As elevation increases, temperatures drop because the atmosphere becomes thinner and holds less heat. On average, the temperature decreases by 6–7°C for every 1000-metre increase in elevation.

Figure 11.3.6 Hikers make their way through a grasslands biome in Peru, with the Andes’ alpine biome in view.

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If you walked from the base of a 4000-metre mountain to its peak, you would pass through several biomes. In the Andes of central Peru, for example, you would start in a tropical rainforest, then move through mossy forests, woodlands and grasslands (steppes) before reaching the cold, treeless alpine biome, which begins where snow starts to form. GUYANA Georgertown SURINAME Paramaribo FRENCH GUIANA Cayenne

Caracas VENEZUELA

Bogota COLOMBIA

Quito ECUADOR

PERU

BRAZIL

Lima

La Paz BOLIVIA Sucre

PARAGUAY Asuncion

Pacific Ocean

Santiago

Buenos Aires

CHILE

URUGUAY Montevideo

ARGENTINA

Atlantic Ocean

Key

7000 m 6000 4000 3000 2000 1000 500 200 0 -100 m

Key

Falkland Islands

2000 km

Alpine (mountain grassland) Deserts Mediterranean scrub Savanna Temperate broadleaf forest Temperate grassland Tropical moist forest

➜

Figure 11.3.7 (Left) Elevation map of South America compared with (Right) a biome map of the same area. The Andes mountain range is the region of highest elevation, shown in dark brown (left). It corresponds with the alpine biome shown in light green (right). The Andes is indeed primarily a cold, treeless alpine biome.

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Concepts and skills builder 11.3 Describing spatial distribution using the PQE method Spatial distribution refers to the arrangement of things across an area or the Earth. When describing a pattern using a choropleth map (such as Figure 11.3.2), geographers use the PQE method:

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

• pattern – give a general overview of the distribution • quantification – provide specific evidence to demonstrate the pattern • exception – identify some examples that don’t fit the pattern.

Referring to Figure 11.3.2, answer the following questions, writing at least one sentence for each, to describe the global distribution of desert biomes. 1 Pattern a In which world regions are deserts found? b Are deserts mostly towards the coast or inland? c At which latitudes are deserts mainly found? 2 Quantification (use Figure 11.3.2 to estimate the following) a How much of the world’s landmass is covered by deserts? b How much of Australia is covered by desert? c How much of Africa is covered by desert? 3 Exception a Are there any deserts located in areas far away from other deserts? Geographical concepts and skills: environment, interconnection, place, space

Lesson 11.3 review Online quiz

Review questions

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Research task

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11.3 Review questions 1 2 3 4

Identify four characteristics that determine the distribution of biomes. Explain the difference between climate and weather. Using the PQE method, describe the spatial distribution of biomes in South America using Figure 11.3.7. Explain why higher elevations experience colder temperatures.

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11.4

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

What biomes do we have in Australia and how are they used? Learning intention

We’ve looked at the global distribution of biomes. This lesson explores the different biomes found across the Australian continent and explains how humans rely on and use these biomes.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

Analysing a crop grown in particular biomes in Australia 1 2 3 4

Have you ever seen a bright yellow landscape like this before? What do you think is growing here? Is it natural or have humans changed the biome? This is a canola crop, which grows in woodlands and scrub biomes. Western Australia is the country’s main canola-growing state, producing over 50 per cent of the nation’s 4 million tonnes of canola each year. What do you think this crop is used for?

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Figure 11.4.1 Vibrant yellow flowers transform the landscape during springtime in the Victorian Goldfields.

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• tropical forests • alpine. The largest biome in Australia is the desert, which covers about 70 per cent of the continent and extends across five states and territories. These regions are hot and dry, with low vegetation cover and productivity. The smallest biome in Australia is the alpine biome, found in high-elevation areas that become Australia’s snowfields during winter in parts of Victoria and New South Wales. In which of Australia’s unique biomes do you live?

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

The Australian continent is over 7.7 million km2 and spans over 30 degrees of latitude, from the tropics in the north to the mid-latitudes in the south (see Figure 11.4.2). As a result, Australia has a diverse range of biomes, each with its own unique climate, vegetation, and wildlife. The seven main terrestrial biomes found in Australia are: • deserts

• tropical grasslands

• woodlands and scrub • temperate forests

• temperate grasslands

Darwin

Tropic of Capricorn

Key

Perth

Adelaide

Brisbane

Sydney Canberra

Melbourne

1000 km

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Figure 11.4.2 Map of Australia’s terrestrial biomes

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Woodlands and scrub Tropical grasslands Tropical forests Temperate grasslands Temperate forest Deserts Alpine

t Dividing Ra Grea nge

AUSTRALIA

Figure 11.4.3 A desert landscape at opal mining town, White Cliffs in New South Wales.

Hobart

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How are biomes used? crop yield the amount of produce grown per area of land

that can be produced on a piece of land, known as crop yield. In Australia, over half of the country’s total land area is used for agriculture. Figure 11.4.4 shows that a large portion of land is used for animal grazing on native vegetation. The figure also highlights land used for grazing on modified pastures and for cropping. Figure 11.4.5 shows Australia’s main agricultural products. The country produces large numbers of cattle, sheep and poultry. Cropland in Australia is used to grow wheat, barley and canola, while the horticulture industry (fruit and vegetable farming) produces significant amounts of grapes and potatoes. What other products do we get from Australia’s biomes?

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

pasture grassed land suitable for grazing animals

Many of our basic needs are met through the plants we grow and the animals we raise. Biomass provides the world’s food, fibre and plant-based industrial materials. Our food comes from vegetable and cereal crops (such as rice, wheat and barley), as well as dairy, poultry and meat from animals. Clothing and shelter can also come from plants and animals. Fibre is the thread from plants or animals used to make products such as cloth and rope. Cotton is a plant fibre, while wool is an animal fibre. For at least 65 000 years, Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples have practised agriculture, working to create a consistent food and fibre supply. Over time, humans have altered biomes to increase the amount of food and fibre

Area of agricultural uses

Darwin

Grazing native vegetation

Katherine

Grazing modified 45.18 pastures Cropping including 28.34 crop/pasture rotation Horticulture 0.50

Kununurra

Cairns

Broome

Townsville

Mackay

Alice Springs

Longreach

Gladstone

Bundaberg

Carnavon

Orange

Port Lincoln

Adelaide

Albany

500 km

50 100 150 200 250 300 Million hectares

Brisbane Lismore Key

Kalgoorlie

Perth Bunbury

286.69

Wagga Wagga

Sydney Canberra

Ballarat Bega Mount Gambier Melbourne Warrnambool Geelong Launceston Hobart

Grazing native vegetation Grazing modified pastures Cropping

Horticulture * Other uses

Wheat–sheep

Note: * Exaggerated to improve visibility. Sources: Wheat-sheep zone – Australian Agricultural and Grazing Industries Survey, 2016, ABARES; Catchment scale land use of Australia – update December 2023, ABARES; ABS Agricultural Commodities, Australia, 2020–21 (cat 7121)

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Figure 11.4.4 Map of agricultural land in Australia

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Livestock Gross value of production

Crops Gross value of production

Horticulture Gross value of production

Cattle and calves Sheep and lambs Milk (ML)

Barley

Grapes for wine Almonds

Canola

Potatoes

Poultry

Sugar cane

Wheat

Pigs

Cotton 2

12 14

200

400

600

800 1,000

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U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Apples Grapes for other uses

Figure 11.4.5 Australia’s agricultural industry produces livestock, crops and horticulture products sourced from productive biomes.

Concepts and skills builder 11.4

Using geospatial technologies: ARC GIS Global Biomes

Geospatial technologies include any software or hardware that interacts with real-world locations. The Global Positioning System (GPS), Google Earth, geographic information systems (GIS) and satellite images are the most commonly used spatial technologies for visualising, manipulating, analysing, displaying and recording spatial data. Spatial technologies are useful in geography because they allow us to map, analyse and understand the world in new ways. They help geographers observe and interpret the Earth’s surface, making it easier to study and solve real-world problems.

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Figure 11.4.6 ArcGIS Global Biomes is a useful geospatial technology available online.

Follow the instructions below to explore an example of a geospatial technology tool.

1 Search for ‘ArcGIS Global Biomes’ in a search engine. 2 Make sure ‘Global Biomes’ is unticked, then experiment with changing the base maps for the world map. What features does each base map show? 3 Add the ‘Global Biomes’ layer to the map. Explore the locations of different biomes within Australia. To view the legend, click on the icon with three lines in the top left of the screen. Alternatively, you can click on a biome to see its name. What spatial patterns can you identify for a particular biome?

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U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

4 Use the ‘Area’ tool by clicking on ‘Measure’ (the triangle icon in the top left) and then choosing ‘Area’. You can then measure the area that a particular biome covers. a Change the base map to the ‘Charted Territory Map’ and use the Area tool to measure the coverage of a particular biome in another country of your choice. 5 a Zoom in on an area of interest in Australia. In turn, switch between viewing the ‘Global Biome’, ‘Annual Temp’ and ‘Total Annual Precipitation’ at that location. What patterns can you see? b Repeat this process in another part of the world. What patterns do you see? c Compare the patterns you observed in the two locations. What does this tell you about the relationship between temperature, precipitation and biomes? Geographical concepts and skills: environment, interconnection, place, space

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Lesson 11.4 review Online quiz

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Research task

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11.4 Review questions

1 a Recall the name of the largest biome in Australia. b State how much of Australia it covers. c Describe the characteristics of this biome. 2 Using Figure 11.4.2, list the four main biomes found in Victoria. 3 Describe the ways that people use biomes to harvest resources and produce things that we can use in our everyday lives. 4 Copy and complete the table below by answering the following questions. a Predict how valuable the agricultural products in the table are to the Australian economy by ranking them from most valuable (1) to least valuable (8). b Using Figure 11.4.5, identify the gross value of production (in millions of dollars) for each of the agricultural products to complete the table. (Note: Read the axis labels carefully as they vary between graphs). c Compare your predictions in part a with your findings in part b. What surprised you? Product Cattle/calves Sheep/lambs Milk Wheat Canola Cotton Grapes for wine Apples

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Prediction

Approximate value ($m)

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11.5

What is food security? Learning intention

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

This lesson explores the concept of food security at a global scale. It examines reasons why some regions have more or less access to food and introduces some of the challenges in feeding the growing population.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

Analysing a case study: Foodbank

Foodbank is the largest hunger relief charity in Australia. Search for the Foodbank website and research the following: 1 What is Foodbank? 2 What do they do in Australia? List specific projects or events. 3 Why do they do what they do? Provide statistics. 4 How many people do they support? 5 How do they get the resources to support people in need? 6 What other stakeholders do they work with?

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Figure 11.5.1 Foodbank distributing eight tonnes of fresh produce at a pop-up event in an Australia regional centre.

Low-res

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According to the World Food Summit, food security is achieved ‘when all people at all times have access to sufficient, safe, nutritious food to maintain a healthy and active life’. Food security is one of the reasons why biomes are so important. The world’s most productive biomes generally have the best capacity to

inequality unequal distribution of resources, resulting in some people having more than others

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U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

undernourished having insufficient energy (calorie) intake from food or other substances, resulting in poor health and wellbeing

produce food due to factors such as warmer temperatures and moderately high rainfall. Access to safe and nutritious food helps people maintain a healthy and active lifestyle, giving them food security. Unfortunately, there are inequalities in food security around the world, and as a result, hundreds of millions of people are undernourished.

acute food insecurity a situation where people do not have enough food to survive or maintain their way of life, no matter the cause, context or length of time

economic shocks random, unpredictable events that have a major impact on the economy

Figure 11.5.2 The global distribution of food insecurity

When we examine food security on a global scale, as shown in Figure 11.5.2, we find that people in some countries have a higher risk of food insecurity. Sub-Saharan Africa has the most countries with high levels of food insecurity. Countries such as the

268

Democratic Republic of Congo, Nigeria and Sudan face severe food security issues, with over 20 million people in these nations experiencing acute food insecurity. This is due to factors such as conflict, extreme weather and economic shocks.

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Determining who has access to nutritious food is not simple. Even in food-secure countries like Australia, some people go hungry. For example, over 122 000 people in Australia are homeless, and food insecurity is increasing due to the rising cost of living. In Australian metropolitan areas, 30 per cent of people experience food stress, while in regional areas, this increases to 37 per cent. On the other hand, in food-insecure countries like Zambia, some people – such as wealthy families, government officials or expatriates – have no trouble accessing food.

development the standard of living and quality of life of people in a place soil degradation a decline in soil condition due to improper use or poor management desertification the process by which fertile land turns into desert, typically because of drought, deforestation or poor farming practices

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Two dominant biomes in Africa are desert and savannah. While deserts are not major food-producing regions, the savannah biome supports many plants and animals used for food and fibre, such as grains, corn, coffee and beans. However, these regions are very poor and have low levels of development, which makes accessing enough nutritious food difficult for many people. Additionally, much of sub-Saharan Africa experiences harsh climates, including extreme heat, droughts and irregular rainfall, which can significantly reduce crop yields. Soil degradation and desertification further limit agricultural productivity in many sub-Saharan African countries.

Tropic of Cancer

Arabian Sea

Equator

Atlantic Ocean

Key

Indian Ocean

Alpine (mountain grasslands) Deserts Mediterranean scrub Savannas Dry broadleaf forests Tropical moist forests

Tropic of Capricorn

1000 km

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Figure 11.5.3 Map of Africa’s biomes

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Concepts and skills builder 11.5 Reading scatter graphs Scatter graphs help geographers examine whether there is a relationship between two phenomena. For example, we can use a scatter graph to explore whether the number of hours of sunlight a tomato plant receives affects how many tomatoes it produces. Tomato experiment: Positive relationship

Tomatoes per plant

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

20 15 10 5 0

4 5 3 Hours exposed to sunlight

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Figure 11.5.4 A scatter graph plotting the association between exposure to sunlight and tomato yield

To read a scatter graph, imagine or draw a line running through the middle of the data points on the graph. This is called the ‘line of best fit’.

Positive correlation

No correlation

Negative correlation

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Figure 11.5.5 The ability to apply a line of best fit indicates correlation. The slope of the line reflects the strength of the correlation, and the direction of the line shows whether it is positive or negative.

• A strong correlation occurs when the data points are close to the line of best fit. • A weak correlation occurs when the data points are far from the line of best fit. • A positive correlation occurs when an increase in the x-axis variable is matched by an increase in the y-axis variable (the line of best fit slopes from bottom left to top right). • A negative correlation occurs when an increase in the x-axis variable is matched by a decrease in the y-axis variable (the line of best fit slopes from top left to bottom right).

Even if a strong correlation exists, we should not assume one variable causes changes in the other. Other factors may also influence the relationship. For example, while a strong positive correlation may exist between sunlight hours and tomato production, other factors such as temperature and soil quality could also play a role.

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U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES Source: Our World in Data, based on International Labor Organization data (via the World Bank) and historical sources; Bolt and van Zanden, Maddison Project database, 2023.

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Figure 11.5.6 The relationship between gross domestic product (GDP) per capita and calorie supply (which can be an indication of food security). You can find this as an interactive map online.

1 Use the data in Figure 11.5.6 to answer the following questions. a What is the GDP and calorie supply of Democratic Republic of Congo? b What is the GDP and calorie supply of Australia? c Describe the relationship between GDP per capita and calorie supply. d Are there any countries that do not fit the pattern described in part c? Suggest a possible reason for this exception.

gross domestic product (GDP) the total value of goods and services produced by a country in one year calorie supply the daily per capita supply of calories is measured in kilocalories per person per day

Geographical concepts and skills: environment, interconnection, place, space

Population growth, access and conflict The United Nations projects that the world’s population will reach 8.5 billion by 2030, 9.7 billion by 2050 and 10.9 billion by 2100. To accommodate the growing number of mouths to feed, we cannot simply rely on current farming methods. That would require more land, which is under threat by competing land uses,

and release more greenhouse emissions, which would accelerate climate change.

However, feeding more people is not just about producing more food. We already produce enough food for everyone, yet one in nine people go hungry, and one-third suffer from malnutrition.

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U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES Source: Our World in Data website

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Figure 11.5.7 Despite the population growth rate slowing down, by 2100 the world’s population is projected to reach over 10 billion people.

poverty cycle the continuation of poverty, often from one generation to another due to the impact of many factors

A major barrier to food security is access to nutritious food.

harder for them to participate in society and break out of the poverty cycle.

Some reasons that people struggle to access food include:

Food insecurity can also result from conflict. During conflicts, people struggle to access food because war and riots displace farmers, destroy agricultural land and disrupt transport routes. In the Russia-Ukraine War, starvation has been used as a war tactic, with government forces blocking humanitarian aid organisations from providing food and medical care.

• lack of resources (such as money or transport) • high food prices

• geographical isolation

• lack of knowledge about nutrition.

When people cannot access nutritious food, their health declines, making it

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Lesson 11.5 review Online quiz

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Research task

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11.5 Review questions

1 According to the World Food Summit, what three elements are required to achieve food security? 2 Using Figure 11.5.2 and the PQE format (explained in Concepts and skills builder 11.3), describe the global distribution of food insecurity. 3 Outline a challenge in achieving access to nutritious food. 4 Explain how conflict can be both a cause and consequence of food insecurity. 272

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11.6

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How do humans change biomes to produce food? Learning intention

This lesson explores various modern methods of food production used to improve food security, and the way these can impact biomes.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

What did you last eat?

1 Think back to your last meal. What did you eat? 2 List some of the steps taken to produce those foods. 3 Humans alter biomes in many ways to produce the food we eat. What might be the environmental impact of producing these foods? ➜

Figure 11.6.1 Many steps are involved from growing food on a farm to getting it to the shops for you to buy. What steps are involved in producing a punnet of strawberries? What about a sandwich?

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Humans have been altering biomes for thousands of years. These changes have provided many benefits, such as food production and access to natural resources. This has allowed civilisations to grow and people to live longer. However, these activities have also caused significant environmental damage, as shown in Figure 11.6.2.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Monoculture farming, where just one species of plant is grown over a vast area

Trees and vegetation is cleared to make space for crops or livestock

Figure 11.6.2 Some ways humans alter biomes through intensive farming methods ➜

Fertilisers and pesticides used to improve productivity and quality

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U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES Live export of animals

Transportation of goods vast distances using refrigerated transport methods

Large machinery used to cultivate crops or plough the land

Large-scale irrigation channels move fresh water away from its natural path to be stored and used on farms

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Vegetation clearing

Figure 11.6.3 National forest being cut and burned for palm oil production in Sumatra ➜

contributing to climate change. Vegetation clearing also affects the health of rivers and coastal ecosystems. Without plant roots to stabilise the soil, soil erosion increases, and more sediment, nutrients and pollutants run off into coastal waters.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Vegetation is often cleared from biomes to grow crops and graze livestock. This destroys animal habitats, disrupts food webs and reduces biodiversity. In Australia, over 1900 plant and animal species are threatened or at risk of extinction. Native vegetation is removed by cutting or burning in many countries to make space for crops (as discussed in Lesson 11.1). When plants are burned, carbon stored in the vegetation and soil is released into the atmosphere,

Irrigation

soil erosion the movement of soil particles from one place to another by wind or water

aquifer underground layers of rock that hold and store water

water table the boundary between water-saturated ground and unsaturated ground

Growing food in some biomes is challenging because there is not enough rainfall to support certain crops. In these cases, water is taken from rivers, lakes or underground aquifers and supplied to farms through irrigation. Large-scale irrigation diverts freshwater from its natural path to be stored and used for farming. Irrigation plays a key role in food production by increasing crop yields in dry regions. The Murray–Darling Basin, for example, uses 70 per cent of Australia’s irrigated water. Even though it receives only 6 per cent of the country’s annual rainfall, it produces 40 per cent of our food

and 93 per cent of our cotton (see the irrigation map in Figure 11.6.5).

However, irrigation may not be sustainable in the long term. Overwatering can lead to waterlogging, which deprives plant roots of oxygen and damages crops. Irrigation can also cause salinity problems by raising the water table and bringing salty groundwater closer to the surface. When the water evaporates, salt is left behind in the soil (see Figure 11.6.4). As soil salinity increases, plant growth declines, crop yields drop, and farmland becomes less productive.

Shortly after clearing and irrigation

Evaporation and the seeping of irrigation concentrates saline groundwater at the surface of the soil. Before clearing The system is balanced and most rainwater is used in the spot where it falls.

Later after clearing and irrigation What would have been protective plant cover is destroyed by the accumulation of salt at the surface of the soil. This leaves the land open to erosion.

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Figure 11.6.4 The salinity process

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U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES Charleville

Roma

Toowoomba

QLD

Cunnamulla

Brisbane

St George Goondiwindi Moree

NSW

Bourke

Narrabri

Tamworth

Broken Hill

Dubbo

Ivanhoe

Forbes

Renmark

Adelaide

Murray Bridge

Wentworth Mildura

Sydney

Wagga Wagga

Swan Hill

Deniliquin Echuca

Pinnaroo

Orange Cowra

Canberra

Albury

Horsham

Shepparton Shepparton Mooroopna Bendigo Seymour

VIC

Melbourne

Key

Capital city Main town

Main rivers

State border

TAS 0

150

Irrigation districts Murray–Darling Basin

300 km

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Figure 11.6.5 The Murray–Darling Basin

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Agricultural chemicals nutrients sprayed on plants to help them grow more. However, plants do not absorb all the nutrients from fertilisers. The leftover nutrients seep into the soil or wash into rivers, eventually reaching the ocean. This can lead to algae blooms on the ocean’s surface, which block sunlight from reaching underwater and stop marine organisms from absorbing oxygen. When the algae die, they sink to the ocean floor and decompose, using up large amounts of oxygen. This leaves very little oxygen for other marine life. On a large scale, this creates marine dead zones, where very few organisms can survive (see Figure 11.6.6).

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Pesticides are chemicals used to control pests and diseases in crops. They help protect our food supply, but because they are sprayed across entire fields instead of targeting specific pests, only about 5 per cent of pesticides are effective. One-third of our food supply requires bees for pollination, but the repeated use of pesticides can kill these pollinators, reducing crop yield in the long term. Overuse of pesticides can also be toxic to humans and animals. For example, monocrotophos, one of the world’s most dangerous pesticides, is still used in some countries like India because it is cheap.

algae bloom when colonies of algae grow uncontrollably, harming people and wildlife

Many farms around the world use chemical fertilisers, which are liquid

➜

Figure 11.6.6 The process that causes marine dead zones can be triggered by fertilisers washing into waterways.

➜

marine dead zone an area of reduced oxygen in the water, causing organisms to die

Figure 11.6.7 Boats surrounded by algae in a in a bay in Qingdao, China’s eastern Shandong province.

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Concepts and skills builder 11.6 Reading a divided bar graph A divided bar graph is a horizontal bar divided into segments to show proportion. Each segment represents a percentage of the whole. Area 29% land 149 million km2

71% ocean 361 million km2

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Earth’s surface

Habitable land

Agricultural land 18% from meat and dairy Food caloric supply for global consumption

19% barren land 28 million km2

71% habitable land 104 million km2

Land surface

50% agriculture 51 million km2

77% livestock 40 million km2

37% forests 39 million km2

23% crops minus feed 11 million km2

11% shrub 12 million km2

10% glaciers 15m km2 1% freshwater 1.5m km2 1% urban 1.5m km2

82% from plant-based food

Food protein supply for global consumption

63% from plantbased food

37% from meat and dairy

Source: Hannah Ritchie and Maz Roser, ‘Land Use’, Our World in Data website, 2019.

➜

Figure 11.6.8 Divided bar graph showing surface area of land used for food production

Use the divided bar graph in Figure 11.6.8 to answer the following questions. 1 Recall how much of the world’s land surface is habitable land. 2 Recall what makes up the 29 per cent of the world’s inhabitable land. 3 How much of the world’s habitable land is use for agriculture? How much is used for livestock compared to crops? 4 Apart from agriculture, what else makes up the world’s habitable land, and in what percentage? 5 Where do most of the calories and proteins for global consumption come from? 6 Discuss what you find fascinating or surprising from this bar graph. Geographical concepts and skills: environment, interconnection, place, space

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11.6 Review questions 1 2 3 4

Explain how vegetation removal affects the natural and human environment. Describe how excessive irrigation in agriculture can degrade biomes. Outline two negative impacts of using pesticides. Describe how marine dead zones are created.

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11.7

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Case study: Battling food insecurity in the Philippines Learning intention

This lesson investigates the Philippines as a case study, exploring the biomes that produce food and the challenges the country faces in feeding its population.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

Researching the Philippines

The Philippines is a developing country facing serious challenges with food security and feeding its population. Fortunately, many NGOs, including the World Food Programme (WFP), are working to address these issues through various food programs. 1 2

Search for the World Food Programme’s country brief for the Philippines. Explore the information and take notes on: a the problems of food insecurity in the country b the actions being taken by the WFP to address these problems.

➜

Figure 11.7.1 School students in Maguindanao province, the Philippines, eating lunch

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The Philippines is a country in SouthEast Asia, located in the western Pacific Ocean. It is an archipelago made up of over 7000 islands. The landscape is very mountainous, with narrow coastal lowlands. The Philippines is just 13° north of the equator, so it is dominated by a single biome: tropical rainforest. With its tropical and maritime climate, the country experiences high temperatures, high humidity and abundant rainfall. The tropical forests are rich in biodiversity and support many endemic species, such as the Philippine tarsier (see Figure 11.7.2) and kagwang (flying lemur).

Taiwan

CHINA

200 km

Luzon Strait

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Babuyan Islands

South China Sea

Aparri

Philippine Sea

Baguio

LUZON Angeles Quezon City Manila

Batangos

Legaspi

Mindoro

Samar

Panay

Palawan

➜

Negros

MALAYSIA

Celebes Sea

INDONESIA

➜

Most people live near farmland, and 41 per cent of the country’s land is used for agriculture (18.2 per cent arable land, 17.8 per cent permanent crops and 5 per cent permanent pasture). More than half the population lives in rural areas, and over a third of them are poor. Agriculture is the main source of income for many rural families, and most rely on subsistence farming and fishing to survive.

Puerto Princesa

Leyte Bacolod Cebu City Surigao

Butuan Cagayan Iligan Sulu Sea de Oro MINDANAO Davao Zamboanga Mount Apo Basilan Jolo Island

Figure 11.7.2 Philippine tarsiers, which live only in tropical rainforest biomes, have become endangered because of land clearing for agriculture.

The Philippines has a population of over 118 million people, making it the 13th most populous country in the world. It also has a very high population density, with over 397 people per square kilometre (compared to Australia’s three people per square kilometre). Unfortunately, the Philippines struggles with poverty and food insecurity.

Iloilo Guimaras

VISAYAS

Figure 11.7.3 Map of the Philippines

archipelago an area that contains a chain or group of islands scattered in lakes, rivers, or the ocean endemic native to a particular region population density the number of people living in a specific area, usually measured per square kilometre arable land used to produce cereal and root crops, rather than for raising livestock subsistence farming a type of farming where farmers grow food only for themselves and their families, not for sale

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Food insecurity in the Philippines and financial services. Their low incomes mean they cannot always afford enough nutritious food. Wealth in the Philippines is also distributed unequally. The richest 1 per cent of the population earns 17 per cent of the country’s total income, while the bottom 50 per cent share just 14 per cent. The poorest people, who rely on agriculture for income and food, are also the most vulnerable to natural disasters such as earthquakes and typhoons, which make food insecurity worse (see Figure 11.7.4). Rising food and energy costs have further impacted the country’s poorest regions, making it even harder for people to access food and other essentials.

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Food insecurity affects 44.7 per cent of the population, making it the worst in South-East Asia. One in 10 households experience food insecurity, and 29 per cent of children suffer from stunted growth. The main causes of food insecurity are poverty and uneven wealth distribution.

In 2023, 10.9 per cent of Filipino families (around 2.99 million households) did not have enough income to meet their basic food and non-food needs. Poverty is much more common in rural areas (36 per cent) compared to urban areas (13 per cent). Many rural farmers have limited access to markets, education, infrastructure, employment, healthcare

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Figure 11.7.4 Flooded rice fields in Cagayan province, Philippines, in November 2024. This photograph was taken following typhoons that resulted in crop losses costing at least US$131 million.

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Responding to food insecurity With a rapidly growing population and increasing demand for food, more land in the Philippines has been cleared for agriculture. Between 2001 and 2022, the country lost 1.42 million hectares of tree cover, a 7.6 per cent decrease. This deforestation contributed to 848 million

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metric tons of carbon dioxide emissions. Some of the main crops grown in the Philippines include rice, corn, coconut and sugarcane. However, these agricultural products are high-volume, low-value and highly perishable, which leads to a lot of food waste in the supply chain.

Volume of production of major agri-fishery commodities, 2023 Crops

2023

19,756.4 20,059.6 Palay White corn 2,116.7 2,037.4 Yellow corn 6,088.9 6,367.6 9,013.3 9,019.0 Banana 14,931.2 14,892.6 Coconut 2,914.4 2,944.3 Pineapple 712.6 786.0 Mango Sugarcane 23,455.4 21,649.1 2,560.0 2,556.2 Cassava 29.96 30.02 Coffee 10.45 10.76 Cacao 415.7 378.8 Rubber Abaca 67.82 67.10

Growth rate (%)

Hog Goat Dairy Chicken Chicken egg

1.5 6.0 4.6 0.1 0.3 1.0 10.3 7.7 0.1 0.2 3.0 8.9 1.1

1,737.1 70.4 30.3 1,866.6 708.5

1,793.9 70.1 28.9 1,946.9 731.4

3.3 0.4 4.7 4.3 3.2

Fishing and aquaculture 2022 2023 Growth rate (%)

303.9 Tilapia 390.1 Bangus 1,545.0 Seaweeds 53.7 Shrimp 34.0 Tiger prawns

307.9 355.4 1,626.2 61.3 27.4

1.3 8.9 5.3 14.1 19.4

Source: PSA

➜

2022

Livestock and poultry 2022 2023 Growth rate (%)

Figure 11.7.5 Volume of

production of agricultural or fishery products in the Philippines (in ‘000 metric tonnes)

Environmental implications Unsustainable farming practices have serious negative effects on the biophysical environment. Deforestation for agriculture in the Philippines causes wildlife habitat loss. When rainforest biomes are cleared, many species lose access to food, shelter and water. The Philippine tarsier, for example, could become extinct within the next two decades due to habitat destruction. The conversion of rainforest into farmland also has other environmental impacts:

• Soil erosion: Removing forests, including their root systems, increases soil erosion, leading to poor soil quality and low crop productivity. • Slash-and-burn farming: Chopping down forests, burning the vegetation,

then planting crops releases large amounts of carbon into the atmosphere.

• Chemical pollution: Intensive farming relies on inorganic fertilisers and pesticides, which can cause eutrophication and soil acidification. In the Loo Valley in Benguet Province, excessive fertiliser use has lowered the soil’s pH to 4.4, making it too acidic for healthy plant growth.

• Intensification of livestock and poultry farming: The growing demand for meat has led to poor animal waste management and overgrazing. Pollution from pig and poultry farms in Laguna Lake has caused serious eutrophication problems.

Chapter 11: What are biomes and how do they provide food security?

eutrophication when a body of water gets too many nutrients, especially phosphorus and nitrogen, often leading to excessive algae growth

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Concepts and skills builder 11.7 Interpreting flow diagrams Flow diagrams are useful in geography because they provide a visual representation of processes, movements and relationships, making complex information easier to understand.

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Using Figure 11.7.6, describe the processes shown in the diagram by writing a series of steps that explain how eutrophication affects marine ecosystems.

Eutrophication process

Blocked sunlight

Fertiliser

Runoff

Algae

Fish suffocate

Leaching

Algae dies

➜

Figure 11.7.6 Eutrophication is caused by an excessive nutrient load, such as from agricultural runoff. It is a significant environmental problem.

Geographical concepts and skills: environment, interconnection, place, space

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11.7 Review questions

1 Describe the geographic characteristics of the Philippines. 2 Outline the causes of food insecurity in the Philippines. 3 Using Figure 11.7.5, list the top five crop commodities produced in the Philippines in 2023. Define any crops you are not familiar with. 4 Describe the term ‘slash and burn’ and explain why this practice is harmful to the environment. 5 Explain how the need to produce more food for the Philippines’ growing population has caused additional environmental impacts.

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11.8

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What environmental factors influence crop production? Learning intention

This lesson will explore how climate, topography and soil are the main environmental factors that affect crop production in biomes around the world.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

Analysing climate zones and how they influence crop production

There are many climate zones around the world. Each climate zone has similar weather patterns, temperatures and rainfall throughout the year. Australia has a range of climate zones. Use the map in Figure 11.8.1 to answer the following questions: Can you find the climate zone you live in? What other climate zones are found in Australia? How do you think different climates affect what can grow in a location? Which climate zone do you think is best for agriculture and why?

• • • •

Equatorial Tropical Subtropical Desert Grasslands Temperate

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Climate is just one of many environmental factors that impact crop production.

Key

1000 km

Figure 11.8.1 Australia’s climate zones

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Climate cold can freeze plant cells, preventing water and nutrients from flowing through the plant, while extreme heat can burn crops. Temperate climates also provide moderate rainfall and are less likely to experience harsh, dry winds that can dehydrate and damage crops. However, climate change is making droughts more frequent, longer and more severe. Read more about the impact of climate change in Lesson 12.7.

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As discussed in Lesson 11.3, climate refers to the average weather conditions of a place over a long period. Temperate biomes, such as those on the south-east coast of Australia (see Figure 11.8.1), are often considered ideal for growing crops. This is because temperate climates provide long hours of sunlight during spring and summer, which many crops need to fully develop. These climates are not too cold or too hot. Extreme

Topography

microclimate the climate of a very small area that is different from the surrounding climate

topography the shape of the land’s surface, which includes landforms such as hills, plateaus and valleys

aspect the direction a slope faces terracing cutting sloped land into flat platforms for farming

Within large climate regions, there are smaller areas with their own conditions, known as microclimates. Topography plays a key role in determining microclimate distribution. Valleys are prone to frost, which can kill crops like wheat and canola, because cold air sinks and warm air rises overnight. The direction a farm faces, known as its aspect, can also affect crop growth. For example, an east-facing slope receives the gentler morning sun, while a west-facing slope gets the hotter, harsher afternoon sun. In Australia, the sun is to the north, so a south-facing slope is cooler and more exposed to damaging winds from the Southern Ocean.

Topography also affects soil moisture content, which is important for plant growth. Areas of higher elevation struggle to retain water because gravity causes it to run off quickly before it can be absorbed. Steep slopes also tend to have less soil because flowing water carries it downhill, leaving only bare rock behind.

Despite these challenges, farming communities across the world have found ways to increase crop yield on sloped land. The art of terracing is an old one and involves cutting a series of steps into the side of a slope (see Figure 11.8.2). This method has been used for generations by Hmong farmers in Vietnam and is still widely practised today.

➜

Figure 11.8.2 Rice terraces on hilly slopes in Mu Cang Chai, Yen Bai, Vietnam, a tropical moist forest biome. The steps help slow water as it flows downhill, improving soil moisture content and reducing erosion.

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Soil Healthy soil is vital for plant growth and crop yield. Soil is the top layer of the Earth and consists of minerals, water, air and humus (decayed plant and animal matter). Healthy soil increases plant yield by providing the right balance of nutrients, minerals, air, water and microbes, helping them grow strong and resist disease. In fact, one teaspoon of healthy soil contains more microbes than there are humans on Earth. Figure 11.8.3 outlines how soil supports plant health.

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humus the organic part of soil that is formed when microorganisms break down plant material

How soil supports plant health

• Air pockets give roots space to grow and provide them with oxygen. • Humus acts like a sponge, holding water to keep the soil moist and reducing erosion by improving soil structure.

• Microorganisms break down organic matter, detoxify the soil and kill disease-causing organisms. • Nitrogen helps plants convert the Sun’s energy into food.

• Phosphorus helps transfer energy from sunlight to plants and encourages plant growth.

➜

Figure 11.8.3 The benefits of healthy soil in improving crop yield

Concepts and skills builder 11.8 Interpreting climate graphs

A climate graph (or climatogram) is a graph that shows the average monthly temperature (in degrees Celsius) as a line graph and the average monthly precipitation (in millimetres) as a column graph for a particular location. For example, the climate graph for Hanoi shows that August has the highest rainfall, with 300 mm, while June, July and August are the hottest months, with an average temperature of 29°C.

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Hanoi, Vietnam

300

250

200

150

100

Average monthly temperature (°C)

Monthly precipitation (mm)

No vem be r De cem be r

tob er

Se pte mb er

Au gu st

Jul y

Jun e

Ma y

Ap ril

rch

Feb rua

Jan ua

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Monthly precipitation (mm)

350

Average monthly temperature (°C)

➜

Figure 11.8.4 Climate graph of Hanoi, Vietnam, showing its average monthly temperatures and rainfall

Climate graphs help geographers identify patterns and trends in a location’s climate, such as seasonal variations and annual temperature and rainfall extremes. Many online tools allow users to analyse climate graphs from different biomes.

1 Go to climatecharts.net, and choose two locations from different climate zones. Answer the following questions for each location: a Which month has the highest temperature? How hot is it? b Which month has the lowest temperature? How cold is it? c What is the annual temperature range (subtract the lowest temperature from the highest temperature)? d Which season has the most rainfall? How much rainfall is received during that season? e Is the rainfall pattern evenly or unevenly distributed throughout the year? 2 Using the data from Question 1 and other examples from climatecharts.net, compare the climate of Hanoi with another location in the world. Consider precipitation, average monthly temperature and seasonal variations. 3 Suggest which of the locations you looked at would be more suitable for growing crops. Justify your answer. Geographical concepts and skills: environment, interconnection, place, space

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11.8 Review questions

1 Summarise the features of a tropical climate and explain why temperate climates are good for growing a range of crops. 2 Describe how topography affects soil moisture content and erosion on a steep slope. 3 Explain how aspect can affect crop yields in Australia.

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11.9

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What economic and technological factors influence crop production? Learning intention

The environmental factors covered in Lesson 11.8 are not the only things that affect crop production and food security. Economic and technological factors also play a role, influencing crop production in both positive and negative ways. This lesson will explore these factors.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

Discussing food miles

‘Food miles’ refers to the distance food travels from where it is grown to where it is eaten. The further food travels, the more greenhouse gases are produced by the boats, trucks and other vehicles used to transport it. A typical Melbourne shopping basket has travelled an astonishing 70 000 km – almost two trips around the world! Transport is just one of many factors that affect food production. What other processes help get food from farms to your plate? ➜

Figure 11.9.1 Tomatoes on sale in a Coles Supermarket in Melbourne’s CBD. How far do you think the tomatoes have travelled to get here?

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Economic factors Industrialised agriculture requires more money than subsistence farming. So, what are you really paying for when you buy a tomato or a banana? Transport, labour, market forces and capital are all major economic factors affecting crop production in biomes worldwide.

Labour Even with modern technology, agriculture still relies on people to do much of the physical work – this is known as ‘labour’. Skilled workers are needed who understand the environmental factors that improve crop yields. However, agricultural jobs are declining (see Figure 11.9.2), and more young Australians are moving to cities instead of continuing family farms. The average age of Australian farm owners has risen from 40 to 55 in just 25 years. Encouraging young people to consider farming as a career is essential for maintaining food production in the future.

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industrialised agriculture also known as intensive agriculture involves largescale, intensive production of crops and animals, often involving technology and chemicals.

Transport

Some of the fresh food in your fridge may have travelled thousands of kilometres using refrigerated transport, which uses a lot of energy and fuel. Farms closer to cities can grow more perishable foods because they only need to travel short distances to markets. More rural farms often grow crops that can handle longdistance transport costs.

Australian jobs are increasingly in the services sectors Industry share of workforce

80%

Services

60%

40%

Agriculture

Manufacturing

20%

Construction

Mining 0% 1890 1900

1910

1920

1930

1940

1950

1960

1970

1980

1990

2000

2010

2020

➜

Figure 11.9.2 Just 2.2 per cent of Australians are employed in agriculture. Services sector jobs are increasing and agricultural jobs are declining. This decline in employment will impact food production in Australia.

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Concepts and skills builder 11.9 Using line graphs to analyse change over time

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

A line graph (also called a line plot or line chart) connects individual data points with lines. The graphs in Figure 11.9.2 show how different industries’ share of the workforce has changed over time. Each line represents a different industry: services, manufacturing, mining, construction and agriculture. The y-axis shows the percentage of the Australian workforce in each industry. The x-axis shows the years from 1890 to 2020. For example, the mining industry (yellow line) peaked at 4 per cent in 1900 but has remained relatively stable between 1 per cent and 4 per cent since 1890. Other industries show much greater changes over time. Use Figure 11.9.2 to answer the following questions:

1 What percentage of the workforce was employed in agriculture in 1890, 1990 and 2020? 2 Describe the general shape of the agricultural workforce line graph, referring to specific dates. Why do you think this change has occurred? 3 What percentage of the workforce was employed in services in 1890, 1990 and 2020? 4 Describe the general shape of the services workforce line graph, referring to specific dates. Why do you think this change has occurred? 5 How do you predict these graphs will look in 2030? Explain your answer. Geographical concepts and skills: change, environment, place, space

market forces economic factors that affect the price, demand and availability of a product

Market

The price of farm produce is determined by market forces. This puts pressure on farmers to sell crops when prices are high, even if they are not ready for harvest. This can affect crop quality. For example, a potato farmer may spray chemicals to kill the plants and harden the potatoes’ skin, allowing them to be harvested at the most profitable time instead of waiting for them to mature naturally.

Figure 11.9.3 Farmers are sometimes forced to sell their milk to processors very cheaply due to market forces. How can we support dairy farmers through the products we buy? ➜

Market forces can also negatively impact industries like dairy farming. In Australia, dairy farmers sell their milk to processing companies, which set the price they are willing to pay. The milk is then sold to supermarkets before reaching consumers. Sometimes, farmers are forced to sell their milk at very low prices due to market forces.

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Capital fossil fuels natural fuels, such as coal or gas, made from the remains of living organisms

Modern farms rely on expensive machinery, increasing their dependence on fossil fuels and interconnected the price of food and fibre with the price of oil. The cost of farm equipment, fertilisers and pesticides is high, and farmers must consider whether crop prices justify large-scale planting. If selling prices are too low, farmers may reduce the amount they grow to avoid financial losses.

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Technological factors Agriculture has changed significantly over time, with modern technology transforming agricultural processes, as summarised in Table 11.9.1. Table 11.9.1 Features of the four agricultural revolutions

First agricultural revolution (around 12 000 years ago)

Second agricultural revolution (1500–1850) Third agricultural revolution (1950 – late 1960s)

Fourth agricultural revolution (now)

• Settlements rather than hunter-gatherer societies • Development of farms and subsistence agriculture • Excess produce sold to gain a small profit • Farms for business rather than only subsistence • Increased productivity, from low crop yields to high crop yields • Introduction of advanced machinery and chemical fertilisers • High productivity innovations, such as modern irrigation systems, pesticides and synthetic fertilisers. • Rise of bioengineering (genetically modified foods) • Genetic engineering of high-yield and hybrid crops that are less • • •

susceptible to disease and climate Digital revolution, often referred to as ‘AgTech’ or ‘Agricultural 4.0’ Advancements and cutting-edge technologies, such as precision agriculture, automation and robotics Efforts to enhance food security, increase productivity and address challenges like climate change

➜

Figure 11.9.4 A farmer begins the planting process for their crops. A GPS guided computer system actually drives the tractor to insure precision to the rows. This allows the farmer to look out the back window of the tractor making sure the planting is going as planned.

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Today, the Fourth Agricultural Revolution uses precision farming to reduce the negative effects of intensive industrial agriculture. Precision farming relies on drones, sensors and GPS to lower labour costs and reduce water, pesticide and fertiliser use. For example, GPS-guided

tractors can operate without human drivers, and soil sensors measure pH, nutrient levels and moisture, helping farmers decide where to plant crops and how much fertiliser to apply. These advancements are helping farmers grow more food while reducing environmental impacts. IOT

Big data

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

precision farming uses modern datadriven technologies to collect real-time data on conditions in crop fields

Automation

Mass production

Steam engine

Electrical energy

Yield monitoring

Agriculture 2.0

Pesticide

FERTILIZER

Animal power

Agriculture 4.0

Guidance system

Variable rate application

Autonomous farming Trustworthy food supply Ubiquitous agriculture sensing

Fertiliser

Tractor

Academic and industrial groups formed for precision agriculture

Green revolution

1784 First mechanical loom

Intelligence

Agriculture 3.0

Mechanisation

Agriculture 1.0

Industry 4.0

Electronics

Electricity

Manual work

Industry 3.0

Industry 2.0

Water power

Industry 1.0

Indigenous tools

Information technology

1870 1950 First assembly line

1969 First programmable logic controller

1992

Industry 4.0 in agriculture

2011 2017 Industry 4.0 concept

2030

2050

➜

Figure 11.9.5 The four agricultural revolutions have changed how food is produced over time.

Lesson 11.9 review Online quiz

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11.9 Review questions 1 2 3 4

Describe how capital and transport can impact crop production. Use examples in your answer. Explain why labour shortages are a challenge for farms in Australia today. Explain how market forces impact farmers. Justify what phase of the agricultural revolution we are currently in. Refer to Figure 11.9.5 in your response.

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CHAPTER 12

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What are sustainable ways biomes can provide food security?

LESSON TITLE 12.1

Setting the scene: Bringing back traditional farming and native foods at Black Duck Foods

12.2

How do Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples source food sustainably?

12.3

How can we assess the environmental sustainability of farming in Australia?

12.4

How can contemporary farming be environmentally sustainable?

12.5

Is farming economically and socially sustainable?

12.6

What are the environmental, economic and political constraints on the world’s food production?

12.7

How does climate change challenge food security?

12.8

What agricultural innovations can help improve global food security?

12.9

Fieldwork investigation: A local biome

12.10

End of investigation review: Biomes and food security

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12.1

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Setting the scene: Bringing back traditional farming and native foods at Black Duck Foods Learning intention

This lesson explores how we can feed the world’s population sustainably, using a case study of a modern business that applies traditional farming techniques to produce native foods. Imagine a way of farming that provides nutritious food, improves the natural environment and connects us with ancient Aboriginal cultural practices. Imagine eating the same foods that people ate tens of thousands of years ago. Black Duck Foods, an Indigenous social enterprise, is making this idea a reality.

On the banks of the Wallagaraugh River, on Bidawal Country in the southern part of the Yuin Nation in far east Gippsland (Victoria), Yumburra Farm is reviving traditional Indigenous farming. The farm is located in a temperate broadleaf and mixed forests biome, a typical Australian bushland landscape.

social enterprise businesses guided by a social purpose to benefit the public, community and environment

Meru

Latji Latji

Tati Tati

Ngargad

Wadi Wadi

Wemba Wemba Baraba Baraba

Wergaia

Bindjali

Yorta Yorta

Ngurraiillam

Jardwadjali

Dja Dja Wurrung

Taungurung

Waywurru

Yaitmathang

Djab Wurrung

Buandig

Gunditjmara

Woi Wurrung

Gurnai/Kurnai

Bidawal

Djargurd Wurrong

Gulidjan Giraiwurung Gadubanud

Indian Ocean

Ngarigo

Wathaurong

Tasman Sea

Boon Wurrung

Bass Strait 0

200 km

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Figure 12.1.1 Map of Victorian Aboriginal cultural groups. Can you find the Bidawal on the border of Victoria and New South Wales?

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little water and do not require chemical fertilisers or pesticides, which can harm people and the environment. The farm also uses cultural burning (also known as fire-stick farming) to regenerate the land, improving soil health and the overall ecosystem. Black Duck Foods proudly advertise that their foods contain more protein than others in the industry. Since they are perennials, they also help store carbon, and they require no fertilisers, herbicides or irrigation.

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cultural burning a Traditional Aboriginal land management practice to enhance the health of Country

Black Duck Foods was founded by Bruce Pascoe, an Aboriginal author of the best-selling book Dark Emu, which explores how Aboriginal Peoples practised agriculture in ancient times rather than just living as ‘hunter-gatherers’, as people have been encouraged to believe. Black Duck Foods focuses on growing and harvesting native bush foods such as murnong (yam daisies), lily species, quandong fruits and grasses like kangaroo grass, dancing grass and spear grass. For First Nations Peoples, food is deeply spiritual. It connects them to Country, to Elders and to Ancestors.

perennials crops or plants that grow back every year, unlike annuals, which die after one season and need replanting

At Yumburra Farm, native grasses are harvested and the seeds are turned into flour, using both traditional and modern techniques. These farming methods are highly sustainable, as they use very

Chris Andrew, General Manager of Black Duck Foods, says: ‘Traditional fire and land management practices can rebuild resilient landscapes and enable us to better manage a changing climate. It sustained Indigenous Australians for tens of thousands of years. It’s time to bring it back.’

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Figure 12.1.2 Products sold by Black Duck Foods include a mitchell and button grass

seed blend.

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Low-res

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(AW1205): this image is still to come

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Figure 12.1.3 Yuin man Terry Hayes works in the orchard and garden on Yumburra Farm in Wallagaraugh. His team are planting and cultivating various native plants for food production, including murnong, a native Australian yam, which was a staple food and cultivated plant of Aboriginal Peoples for thousands of years.

Black Duck Foods is working to revive and promote traditional agriculture, bringing it back into Australia’s diet. This enterprise is helping to continue Aboriginal knowledges while also creating jobs for Aboriginal people and sharing traditional knowledge of Country with the wider

community. Black Duck Foods states on their website that their native food ‘… creates wholesome meals that protect Mother Earth and you!’ With traditional farming and native foods on the rise, keep an eye out for native seeds, flours and other bush foods at your local markets or shops!

Lesson 12.1 review Online quiz

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12.1 Review questions

1 Connect: How has this lesson connected to something you already knew about? 2 Extend: What new ideas or perspectives have you gained that extended your thinking in new directions? 3 Challenge: What is challenging or confusing? What do you wonder about?

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12.2

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How do Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples source food sustainably? Learning intention

This lesson explores how the Traditional Custodians of Australia sourced food throughout history, focusing on tubers, cereals and meat.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

See, think, wonder

It has often been portrayed that before colonisation, First Nations Peoples only ‘hunted and gathered’ their food. However, over time, more and more evidence has shown that this is not the case. In fact, people had sophisticated farming and agricultural techniques. Figure 12.2.1 provides insight into some of these traditional practices. Answer the following questions using the figure:

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Figure 12.2.1 Wathaurong women dig for murnong at Indented Head. Drawn by non-Indigenous man John Helder Wedge in 1835.

1 See: What type of source is this? What items are the people carrying in the image? What could these be used for? 2 Think: How old is the image? Interpret the writing at the bottom of the source (as best as you can). 3 Wonder: What is a yam? Do we eat anything like this today?

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Did you know that Australia has the longest known history of agriculture in the world? In fact, there is evidence that Aboriginal people were baking bread 65 000 years ago – 50 000 years before the Egyptians! Australia’s biomes were first altered to grow tubers and cereals, as well as to harvest meat, fruit and vegetables. The farming and storage methods used by Aboriginal Peoples allowed the landscape to sustain them for thousands of years.

Figure 12.2.2 A yam tuber

Tubers

Some plant species have edible tubers, which are thick-skinned structures made of stems or roots that grow underground. The native murnong (or yam daisy) is a tuber that grows in southern and eastern Australia, including Tasmania. Before colonisation, it was a staple food for many people in these regions and is said to be eight times as nutritious as potatoes. Tubers such as murnong were so valued by Aboriginal Peoples that they altered biomes to increase their yield and distribution. This was done through

methods such as fire-stick farming and terracing. Fire-stick farming involved selecting areas with the best soil and burning the vegetation to clear space for planting. The ash from the burned vegetation provided valuable nutrients, improving the soil. Specific tools were then used to till the soil. Terracing was used on sloping clay soils, allowing crops to grow on steeper land. These methods returned nutrients to the soil, reduced erosion and helped the soil and plants absorb rainwater.

till dig or loosen the soil to prepare it for planting

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Figure 12.2.3 Prior to colonisation, and in some places today, fire-stick farming is used in some regions to clear land for farming. It involved cool burns that promoted the recycling of nutrients. In this image, George Milpurrurru starts a fire to clean the bush in Arnhem Land, Northern Territory. Milpurrurru was raised on Ganalbingu (Yolngu) land, and was an acclaimed artist known for his bark paintings.

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Cereals In some places, before colonisation, cereals such as panicum (wild millet) and kangaroo grass were vital to the Aboriginal Peoples’ diet and economy. As Figure 12.2.4 shows, Australia’s grain belt was much larger under the management of Aboriginal Peoples and covered land that today is not used for crops. In northern Australia, wild rice was grown in crocodile-infested waters.

Seed domestication, irrigation, storage and trade ensured a nutritious and reliable cereal supply. Seeds become domesticated when humans get involved in the growing process by selecting seeds to save and replant the following year. Usually, the seeds chosen have desirable traits, such as good size, taste and yield.

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domestication the process of growing and adapting wild plants or animals to suit human needs

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Figure 12.2.4 The Aboriginal grain belt of Australia, compared to the contemporary grain belt

Key

Ancient First Peoples’ grain belt Contemporary grain belt Where the ancient First Peoples and contemporary grain belts overlap Region along the Darling River where European explorer Hamilton Hume noted, in the 1820s, that First Nations Peoples gathered grain from wild oats and made an edible paste by grinding it

1000 km

Source: Bruce Pascoe, Dark Emu, 2018, p. 28.

Meat

Prior to colonisation, animal (game) farming provided a great supply of protein. Herding and harvesting were common methods used to secure this food source. For example, brush fences were built to channel kangaroos and emus into a limited area, while nets were stretched from one riverbank to another to catch fish as they swam past. These methods were sustainable because once the animals were trapped, people could select which ones to kill, releasing the young and female animals to ensure future populations. 300

Fish were another important source of protein and were farmed using impressive feats of river engineering. The enormous fish traps along the Darling River in Brewarrina, shown in Figure 12.2.5, may be the oldest humanmade structures on Earth. These traps worked by herding fish into humanmade rock pools that had openings that allowed fish to swim in and out. When fish were needed, people would block the openings to the pools with rocks, trapping the adult fish inside.

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Figure 12.2.5 The Brewarrina fish traps (Baiame’s Ngunnhu) along the Baaka (Darling River) in New South Wales are one of the oldest known human-made structures in the world. Aboriginal Peoples built this complex system of stone weirs and pools to catch fish and care for Country. While archaeologists have found it difficult to date the traps exactly, Aboriginal oral histories tell us they have been there for thousands of generations. In 2005, the fish traps were officially recognised by being added to Australia’s National Heritage List.

Figure 12.2.6

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A diagram illustrating how the fish traps worked. (top) Initially, the fish could swim back out of the traps. However, (bottom) when food was required, the traps would be closed off with rocks, trapping the fish.

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This method was sustainable, as smaller fish could still get out around the rocks, trapping only the adult fish and only when needed. Could a deeper understanding of Aboriginal Peoples’ farming practices and

use of native varieties help us expand the distribution and types of food growing once again? There is still so much to learn and explore, and the potential benefits to be gained from this knowledge go far beyond feeding ourselves.

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Concepts and skills builder 12.2 Annotating photographs

Photographs are an excellent way to capture the details and features of a place. However, photographs do not always highlight all the relevant aspects or characteristics. Annotating a photograph can help the viewer to understand features that might be important to a geographer. These features might include descriptions of the landscape, such as the vegetation, soil type, water movement or connection to the land – things that may not be obvious in the photo alone. Annotations are more than just labels; they should include brief descriptions and observations. Follow these steps to annotate the photograph in Figure 12.2.5:

1 Identify the place’s geographic characteristics. Include both natural and human features, as well as living and non-living elements. 2 Draw lines from your descriptions to the relevant parts of the photograph. This can be done by hand or using computer software. 3 Add a title at the top that highlights the location and significance of your annotated photograph. Geographical concepts and skills: environment, interconnection, place, space

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Lesson 12.2 review Online quiz

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12.2 Review questions

1 Identify what may be the oldest known human-made structures on Earth. Explain their use. 2 List the agricultural methods used to increase the distribution and yield of murnong. 3 Choose one agricultural or hunting method (e.g. fire-stick farming, fish traps) and explain how it is a sustainable method of farming. 4 Using Figure 12.2.4, compare the Aboriginal grain belt with the contemporary grain belt. In your answer, calculate the approximate percentage coverage of each and discuss the differences.

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12.3

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How can we assess the environmental sustainability of farming in Australia? Learning intention

This lesson will investigate the environmental sustainability of farming in Australia by examining how its impacts can be measured and assessed.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

Soil and sustainability

Wendell Berry is an American novelist, poet, environmental activist and farmer. Consider the quote from him below, then answer the questions that follow.

The soil is the great connector of lives, the source and destination of all. Without proper care for it we can have no community, because without proper care for it we can have no life.

1 Interpret what the quote says about the importance of soil. 2 Suggest some reasons soil should be managed sustainably in agriculture. 3 Explain what would happen if we destroyed the world’s fertile soils. ➜

Figure 12.3.1 Soil management is an important area of sustainability

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compaction the compression of soil particles into a smaller volume, reducing the amount of air and water the soil can hold

Environmental sustainability means looking after the planet so that natural resources like water, air and wildlife stay healthy for future generations. It’s about making smart choices that don’t harm the environment.

Assessing environmental sustainability The environmental sustainability of farming can be assessed by investigating its impact on things soil, air, water and the surrounding ecosystems.

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soil acidification when acids, often from acid rain or excessive use of chemical fertilisers, build up in the soil, making it harder for plants to grow

What is environmental sustainability?

leaching the process of water carrying dissolved substances or small particles through soil or rock

soil fertility the ability of soil to support plant growth by providing essential nutrients and suitable chemical, physical and biological conditions for plants to grow

Table 12.3.1 Measures of environmental sustainability

Soil health

Water management Carbon footprint

Measure soil erosion, compaction, infertility, pollution, soil acidification, waterlogging, increasing salinity (salt) depletion of water resources, over-irrigation, nutrient and chemical leaching, altering water flows, run-off pollution (pH, phosphate, bacteria) increased carbon dioxide release through soil disturbances, use of fertilisers, livestock emissions, deforestation, monocropping, transport

Soil health

Intensive farming often involves mechanical tillage and heavy farm equipment, which can compact the soil and increase erosion, reducing soil fertility. When topsoil is lost, soil fertility is lost. Tilling also breaks up the soil’s natural structure, killing important bacteria and fungi, making it more vulnerable to erosion. ➜

Figure 12.3.2 Soil compaction can be a measure of unsustainable farming practices because it can lead to erosion, resulting in less soil nutrients.

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Water management

waterlogging when soil becomes saturated with water because more water enters than the soil can drain pathogen an organism that causes disease, such as viruses, bacteria, fungi and parasites

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Intensive farming can put pressure on local water sources like dams and rivers, changing natural water flow patterns. This can reduce the amount of water available to ecosystems and communities, especially in drought-affected areas. Over-irrigation can lead to waterlogging, which harms vegetation and increases salt in the soil. Waterlogging prevents

plant roots from filtering out salt, leading to salt build-up in plant shoots, reducing growth or even killing the plants. Farming can also affect water quality. Pesticides and fertilisers can seep into groundwater or run off into rivers and creeks, polluting them. Even manure from livestock can impact water quality if not properly managed, adding harmful pathogens and nutrients to local waterways.

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Figure 12.3.3 Waterlogging can increase salinity levels in the soil, as seen on a farm in Khipro taluka, Pakistan. When the water evaporated, salt was left on the ground, making it unsuitable for growing crops.

Carbon footprint

In Australia, agriculture accounts for around 18 per cent of total climate pollution, coming from a range of farming activities (see Figure 12.3.4). Nitrogen fertilisers are widely used to help crops grow, but they release nitrous oxide, a greenhouse gas 300 times more potent than carbon dioxide. Growing the same crop repeatedly (monocropping) can degrade soil and reduce its ability

to store carbon. Livestock farming, particularly cows and sheep, produces high levels of methane during digestion (see Figure 12.3.5). Methane is an even more powerful greenhouse gas than carbon dioxide. Manure used on farms can also release methane and nitrous oxide. Finally, transporting crops and livestock to market adds more carbon dioxide to the industry’s overall carbon footprint.

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climate pollution the release of harmful substances, primarily greenhouse gases like carbon dioxide and methane, into the atmosphere, contributing to global climate change

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40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5

Beef grazing

Methane

Beef feedlot

Dairy

Sheep

Nitrous oxide

Other livestock

2021

2005

1990

2021

2005

1990

2021

2005

1990

2021

1990 2005

2005 2021

1990

2021

2005

Mt (CO2e)

1990

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Figure 12.3.4 The sources and sinks of greenhouse gas emissions in the Australian red meat and livestock industry

Crops

Carbon dioxide

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Figure 12.3.5 Australia’s agricultural emissions. ‘Mt (CO2e)’ stands for metric tons of carbon dioxide equivalent. This is a way to measure the impact of different greenhouse gases (e.g. methane, nitrous oxide and carbon dioxide) in terms of the amount of carbon dioxide (CO2) that would cause the same amount of global warming. The higher the amount, the worse it is for our planet.

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Concepts and skills builder 12.3 Fieldwork: Soil compaction

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Geography fieldwork involves going outside to explore and investigate the environment to learn how places and people interact. It allows you to study Geography in the real world instead of just reading about it in a book or learning in the classroom. This activity demonstrates a simple method for measuring soil compaction, which is one way to assess the soil health of a farm. You can do this fieldwork activity on your school grounds to explore the concept and practise the skill.

What you need • Knitting needle or chopstick (to use as a soil probe) • Ruler (to measure depth)

What you do 1 Insert the knitting needle or chopstick vertically into the soil. 2 Push down until you feel resistance (indicating compacted soil or an obstruction). 3 Use the ruler to measure the depth from the soil surface to the point of resistance (in millimetres). 4 Repeat the process in three different locations to compare results. 5 Record your results in a table like the one below. Location 1 2 3

Depth (mm)

Comments

6 Which location had the most compacted soil? Why do you think that is?

Connect to agriculture

7 What agricultural equipment or activities can cause soil compaction? 8 What are the impacts of soil compaction?

Geographical concepts and skills: environment, interconnection, place, space

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12.3 Review questions 1 2 3 4 5

How can intensive agriculture impact the soil negatively? How does waterlogging occur, and what are its impacts? List the sources and sinks of carbon dioxide (CO2) in the Australian red meat and livestock industry. Using Figure 12.3.5, explain the main sources of Australia’s agricultural emissions in 2021. Outline the primary and secondary fieldwork techniques you could use to assess the environmental sustainability of a local farm. Chapter 12: What are sustainable ways biomes can provide food security?

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12.4

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How can contemporary farming be environmentally sustainable? Learning intention

This lesson introduces a range of environmentally sustainable contemporary farming practices.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

Principles of regenerative agriculture

The diagram highlights the key principles of an environmentally sustainable type of farming called regenerative agriculture. This approach to farming focuses on restoring and improving soil health, increasing biodiversity and enhancing ecosystem resilience while producing food sustainably. For each of the six principles, outline one positive outcome of applying this in farming. Minimise soil disturbance

Maximise crop diversity

Integrate livestock

Maintain living root year-round

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Figure 12.4.1 Features of regenerative agriculture, an example of sustainable practice

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Understand Context of your farm operation

Keep the soil covered

Figure 12.4.2 A regenerative farm will integrate livestock with crops

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As seen in the previous lesson, agriculture has a significant impact on the environment through the processes used to produce our food. This means that changing farming practices can help repair environmental damage and

address challenges like climate change and biodiversity loss. This lesson explores ways farmers can use environmentally sustainable practices, including conservation agriculture, regenerative agriculture and biodynamic agriculture.

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Conservation agriculture Conservation agriculture is a farming system that follows three key environmentally sustainable principles: minimising soil disturbance (no till),

maintaining a permanent soil cover (either crop residues or cover crops) and planting diverse species (see Figure 12.4.3).

crop residue natural waste materials from agriculture, such as stalks, stubble, leaves and seed pods

Minimum soil disturbance (no till) – reducing ploughing to protect soil structure and prevent erosion.

cover crop plants grown to cover the soil rather than to be harvested

Permanent soil cover – using crop residues or cover crops to protect the soil when no crops are growing, add organic matter, improve soil structure and recycle nutrients.

Diverse plant species – growing a variety of crops in rotation or associations involving at least three different crops.

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Figure 12.4.3 The three principles of conservation agriculture

These techniques have shown great success. In Zambia, maize grown outside the tree canopy produced an average of just 1.9 tonnes per hectare, while maize grown under a canopy of Faidherbia albida (African acacia) trees using agroforestry and

conservation agriculture methods produced 4.7 tonnes per hectare (see Figure 12.4.4). Conservation agriculture improves biodiversity and supports natural processes that enhance soil quality and water efficiency, leading to higher crop yields.

Chapter 12: What are sustainable ways biomes can provide food security?

agroforestry a land management system that integrates trees and shrubs with crops or livestock to enhance biodiversity, soil fertility and productivity

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Crop covers like these protect the soil when no crop is growing, add organic matter to improve soil structure and help recycle nutrients.

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Vachellia tortilis (African acacia) trees are a type of crop cover grown among maize crops.

The maize crop benefits from having the African acacia nearby.

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Figure 12.4.4 An African acacia grows among a maize crop, bringing many benefits to the soil. This is a feature of agroforestry, which is sometimes used in conservation agriculture.

Bare soil

Soil with cover crops

Cooler soil surface temperatures

Decreased soil erosion and runoff

Increased soil surface temperature

Increased soil erosion and runoff

Decreased soil water infiltration

Decreased soil biological activity

Decreased soil biomass

Increased soil biomass

Improved soil water infiltration

Increased soil biological activity

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Figure 12.4.5 Soil quality is improved through crop covers, a feature of conservation agriculture.

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Regenerative agriculture Regenerative agriculture is an older farming method that is becoming popular again because it improves crop yields while helping to combat

climate change, soil degradation and biodiversity loss. Some methods used in regenerative agriculture are listed in Table 12.4.1.

Table 12.4.1 Methods used in regenerative agriculture

Description Rotating crops between fields

Benefits Prevents the soil from becoming depleted in a particular nutrient from overuse by a single crop (see Figure 12.4.6) Crops grown only to be cut Farmers choose crops that improve soil health Provides land cover, which absorbs carbon, down and returned to the soil Grown during the off-season reduces erosion and increases soil moisture Feeds microbes that break down to improve soil between cash crops into humus crops or as part of crop rotation Planting a variety of crops Increases soil and plant health, makes farms together more resistant to disease and pests, and increases natural pest control Planting native trees Reduces evaporation and wind damage Increases biodiversity by creating habitat around fields for predator birds and other animals that control pests Absorbs carbon from the atmosphere to help combat climate change

Green manure

• •

Polyculture

•

Native windbreaks

•

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Method Crop rotation

•

• • • • • • • •

Figure 12.4.6 This diagram shows a crop rotation cycle. It starts with pods like peas and beans to enrich the soil, followed by root vegetables that take little from it. Fruiting plants and then greens come next, as they are heavy feeders. Finally, pods are replanted to restore nutrients, restarting the cycle.

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Figure 12.4.7 A pea crop (left) and an oat crop (right). Growing peas and oats together in one field (polycropping) helps reduce weed spread, and their roots break up the soil, allowing air, moisture and nutrients in. Peas take nitrogen from the air and add it to the soil. Peas and oats can be grown before or after nitrogen-hungry crops like corn.

Crop rotation field advantages

120

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82.9

bushels/acre

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60 40

33.7

39.7

30.2

20 0

Soybeans (Blacklands)

Corn (Blacklands)

Soybeans (Piedmont)

Following same crop

Corn (Piedmont)

Sorghum (Piedmont)

Following different crop

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Figure 12.4.8 Graph showing the benefits of crop rotation, using data from North Carolina, United States. Crop yield increased for all grain types when crop rotation was used. (A ‘bushel’ is a unit of measurement used mainly in agriculture to measure the volume of dry goods like grains, fruits and vegetables. In Australia, kilograms and tonnes are more commonly used.)

Biodynamic agriculture

Biodynamic farming is a natural and sustainable way of growing food. It treats the farm as a single living system, where everything it needs (such as compost and animal feed) is produced on-site. Biodynamic farms often grow a mix of crops and raise animals to keep the environment balanced. This method avoids

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synthetic chemicals and fertilisers, instead using compost to improve soil health. Farmers plan planting and harvesting based on the lunar calendar, believing this benefits soil and plant growth. Biodynamic farming also includes cover cropping, crop rotation and special herbal and mineral compost mixtures to improve crop health.

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Concepts and skills builder 12.4 Analysing graphs: Percentage change Percentage change is useful when analysing and comparing graphs or data over time. Follow these steps to calculate percentage change:

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1 Find the difference (increase) between the two numbers you are comparing. Increase = New Number – Original Number 2 Divide the increase by the original number and multiply by 100. % increase = Increase ÷ Original Number × 100

If the result is positive, it is a percentage increase. If negative, it is a percentage decrease. Using Figure 12.4.8, answer the following questions:

1 What do the blue columns represent? 2 What do the pink columns represent? 3 Calculate the percentage change in soybean yield (Blacklands) when following the same crop versus following a different crop. 4 Calculate the percentage change in corn yield (Piedmont) when following the same crop versus following a different crop. 5 What is the overall message of this column graph? Geographical concepts and skills: environment, interconnection, place, space

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12.4 Review questions

1 Why is conservation agriculture a better approach to farming than traditional intensive methods? Give examples. 2 How do polyculture methods and natural windbreaks improve the environment? 3 Explain how crop rotation works and describe its benefits using Figures 12.4.6 and 12.4.8. 4 Copy and complete the following table to evaluate the advantages and disadvantages of each of the three sustainable forms of agriculture. Advantages

Disadvantages

Conservation agriculture Regenerative agriculture Biodynamic agriculture

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12.5

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Is farming economically and socially sustainable? Learning intention

This lesson explores the sustainability of farming for supporting people and the economy.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

Declining agricultural workforce

Figure 12.5.1 shows the percentage of Australia’s workforce employed in agriculture. Over the past decade, this share has gradually declined from just under 2.5 per cent to less than 2.0 per cent.

3.0

Percentage

2.5 2.0 1.5

Feb-2024

Aug-2023

Feb-2023

Aug-2022

Feb-2022

Aug-2021

Feb-2021

Aug-2020

Feb-2020

Aug-2019

Feb-2019

Aug-2018

Feb-2018

Aug-2017

Feb-2017

Aug-2016

Feb-2016

Aug-2015

Feb-2015

Aug-2014

Feb-2014

1.0

➜

Figure 12.5.1 The percentage share of the Australian workforce in agriculture, February 2014 to February 2024

1 Suggest some factors explaining the decline in the agricultural workforce over this period. 2 Do you think the decline in the agricultural workforce in Australian is good or bad? State reasons for your answer.

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Economic sustainability programs to support farmers, such as the Grains Research and Development Corporation (GRDC), which finances research into improving agricultural practices, pest management and crop resilience. In the 2024 federal budget, $519.1 million was allocated to help regional and rural communities prepare for future droughts and manage climate risks through the Future Drought Fund. Additionally, the Farm Household Allowance (FHA) program provides financial assistance to commercial farmers and their partners experiencing hardship.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Economic sustainability refers to whether agriculture can remain viable in the long term despite changing economic conditions. Farmers face many challenges, including market volatility, high input costs, debt levels and climate change pressures, which they must manage to stay sustainable.

Farms that diversify their crops or livestock can spread risk and improve income stability. For example, if a farm relies on a single crop and it is destroyed by a natural disaster or disease, recovery can be difficult. However, if the farm produces multiple crops, the risk is spread, making it more economically sustainable. Farming techniques used in conservation, regenerative and biodynamic agriculture improve soil health and reduce reliance on fertilisers, lowering costs over time and improving sustainability. Efficient use of water, soil and energy resources is also crucial for the long-term success of farming businesses. Government policies, subsidies and regulations can significantly impact the economic sustainability of farms. The Australian Government funds various

Sustaining food production and agriculture also requires a reliable workforce. According to the International Labour Organization, around 50 per cent of workers in developing countries are employed in agriculture, whereas in developed nations, just over 4 per cent of workers are in the sector. In wealthier, more educated countries, fewer people choose agricultural jobs as they prefer employment in services. In Australia, the proportion of the workforce in agriculture has gradually declined over the past decade, as shown in Figure 12.5.1.

market volatility uncertain and occasionally abrupt changes in prices for farming outputs input what is brought into a farm or farming system (e.g. water, machinery, chemicals)

debt the total amount owing from past borrowing diversify the practice of producing a variety of crops or animals, or both, on one farm subsidies benefits given to an individual, business, or organisation, usually by the government. It can be direct (such as cash payments) or indirect (such as tax breaks).

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Figure 12.5.2 Regenerative agriculture can have environmental benefits that, in turn, improve economic sustainability.

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Social sustainability

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Figure 12.5.3 The National Centre for Farmer Health is one organisation that supports farmers and helps improve the social sustainability of agriculture, they offer AgriSafe clinics, education toolkits and peer support programs.

work environment and strengthens local economies. Engaging local communities in farming decisions and supporting groups such as women, Indigenous peoples and other marginalised farmers improves social equity and inclusion. Women earn one-third of on-farm income, yet many do not receive training in key farm management skills. Programs like NSW Farmers’ Empowering Women in Farming Businesses provide tools and networks to help women develop their farming and decision-making skills.

Social sustainability refers to a society’s ability to maintain and improve social wellbeing over time. In farming, this means supporting farmers and rural communities now and in the future. One way to promote social sustainability is by ensuring fair wages, safe working conditions and job benefits for farm workers. This creates a positive

Farming also comes with unique challenges, including financial stress and isolation, which contribute to higher rates of mental health issues among farmers. Addressing mental health in rural areas is essential for the industry to grow and thrive.

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Figure 12.5.4 Women in Australia earn one-third of all farm income. To support social sustainability, they need more opportunities to develop farm management skills.

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Concepts and skills builder 12.5 Constructing a pie graph A pie chart is a type of graph that represents data as a circle, with each slice showing a proportion of the whole. Follow these steps to create a pie chart using the data in Figure 12.5.6, which shows the highest level of education attained by agricultural workers in 2021. You will need a compass, protractor and calculator.

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U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

1 Identify the percentages. Each category’s percentage is already provided in Figure 12.5.6. 2 Calculate degrees. Draw a circle % of % of using a compass. Since a circle is agricultural Australian 360°, 1 per cent will be equal to 3.6°. workforce workforce Therefore, you can calculate the Postgraduate Degree 2 9 angle for each percentage using: Graduate Diploma/ Degrees = Percentage × 3.6. 1 3 Graduate Certificate 3 Create the pie chart. Use a Bachelor Degree 12 23 protractor to measure and draw each segment. Label them clearly Advanced Diploma/ 9 11 Diploma and shade them in different colours if desired. Certificate 24 23 Once you have created your pie chart for No recognised non-school 49 29 agricultural workers, repeat the steps for qualification the entire Australian workforce (second Source: ABS 2021a column). Then, write a few sentences Figure 12.5.6 ABS data showing the highest educational attainment comparing the education levels of of the agricultural workforce compared with the entire Australian agricultural workers with the broader workforce in 2021. Australian workforce. Geographical concepts and skills: environment, interconnection, place, space

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12.5 Review questions 1 2 3 4

Describe the challenges that farmers face in achieving financial sustainability. Explain how farmers are supported financially and socially. Explain why developed countries have fewer people employed in agriculture. How are women represented in agriculture? What is needed to support women in the industry?

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12.6

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What are the environmental, economic and political constraints on the world’s food production? Learning intention

This lesson explores the various limitations in feeding the world’s population, including environmental, economic and political factors.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

Connect, extend, challenge

1 Connect: What does this photo remind you of? Does it connect to anything you’ve already learned in this chapter? 2 Extend: How does this photo expand your thinking about food production? What new ideas does it give you about the constraints on the world’s food production? 3 Challenge: What challenges or questions does this photo raise for you? ➜

Figure 12.6.1 Land degradation is a serious environmental constraint on the world’s food production, with more

than 40 per cent of the Earth’s land suffering from degradation.

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It is the year 2050, and the global population has reached 9.8 billion people. The demand for food has increased, yet the land available for farming has declined. Can we meet the growing demand to feed the world’s population?

Environmental constraints irrigation, particularly in dry and semi-dry biomes. In North Africa, countries such as Algeria and Libya are highly vulnerable to drought, limiting their water supply and impacting food production. Similarly, in the Middle East, nations such as Saudi Arabia, Yemen and Iraq experience severe water shortages due to hot temperatures, low rainfall and political conflicts that affect water management.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Land degradation refers to a decline in land quality and productivity, often caused by human activities and environmental factors. According to the United Nations, over 40 per cent of the Earth’s total land area is degraded, meaning it has lost some or all of its natural productivity due to human impact. Land degradation has worsened during the twentieth and twenty-first centuries due to farming and livestock production (over-cultivation, overgrazing and land clearing), urbanisation, deforestation and extreme weather events such as droughts. By 2050, up to 90 per cent of the Earth’s land could be degraded, making it a serious threat to biomes and global food security. Water scarcity refers to a lack of sufficient water or limited access to safe water supplies. Many food crops rely on

Water scarcity reduces the amount of water available for irrigation, leading to lower crop yields. It also degrades soil quality, making it more prone to erosion and nutrient loss, which further weakens crop growth. Dry conditions can also cause plants to experience stress, making them more vulnerable to pests and diseases. For example, dry root rot is a disease that affects chickpea crops more frequently during drought periods.

over-cultivation growing crops repeatedly on the same land without allowing time for the soil to recover its natural nutrients overgrazing when too many animals (such as cows, sheep, or goats) graze in one area for too long, damaging the land

urbanisation the movement of people from rural areas (such as farms or small towns) to towns and cities

Key

2040 water stress projections by country Low Low to medium Medium to high High Extremely high

5000 km

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Figure 12.6.2 Water stress projections by country shows water scarcity as an environmental constraint.

However, the biggest environmental threat to global food production is climate change. Rising temperatures, shifting rainfall

patterns, extreme weather events and rising sea levels all impact food production (this will be covered in the next lesson).

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Economic constraints Poverty and low wages affect food production. Farmers living in poverty often lack access to essential resources such as quality seeds, fertilisers and farming equipment, leading to lower crop yields and poorer-quality produce. Poverty also limits investment in new agricultural technologies, such as advanced irrigation systems, hightech machinery or sustainable farming methods. Many farmers also struggle with high levels of debt and have difficulty accessing markets, leading to food waste, low incomes and ongoing financial hardship. A lack of education can also be a challenge. Farmers with limited training may not be familiar with modern or sustainable farming techniques,

making their methods less efficient and productive. In developing countries, poor infrastructure and a lack of transport can prevent farmers from reaching markets, limiting their ability to sell their produce. Local farmers may also struggle to compete with cheaper imported goods. Additionally, while some economic policies support food production, others – such as heavy taxes, tariffs or regulations – can make it harder for small-scale farmers to succeed. In 2024, Ghana’s parliament approved tax exemptions on essential agricultural inputs and machinery in an effort to support local farming communities.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

poverty when people or communities lack the financial resources and essentials needed for a minimum standard of living tax exemption a situation where certain goods or activities are tax-free

displacement the forced movement of people from one place to another

Political constraints

Geopolitical conflict can seriously impact food production. Conflict and war can destroy crops and livestock, force people from their land, and disrupt trade and supply chains. According to the Global Report on Food Crises, conflicts pushed over 117 million people into acute food insecurity in 2023. Geopolitical conflict makes trade and travel routes unsafe,

forces people and livestock to relocate and damages vital farming infrastructure. As of 2024, the conflict in Ukraine has caused more than $56.4 billion in environmental damage, including the contamination of air, water and soil, and has led to a significant decrease in grain exports.

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Figure 12.6.3 A Ukrainian fighter protects a burning wheat field as Russian troops shell farms to prevent local farmers from harvesting grain. Photo taken in 2022, in Polohy district, Zaporizhzhia Region, southeastern Ukraine. Since the war started, crops have been destroyed, travel routes have become unsafe and 30 per cent of Ukraine’s land has been contaminated with landmines and unexploded weapons.

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trade barrier a law or policy that restricts international trade (e.g. tariﬀs and quotas)

Trade helps feed the population, raising food security

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Trade barriers are political factors that constrain international trade. One common type is a tariff, which is a tax placed on imported goods. Tariffs increase the price of foreign goods, making local products more competitive. While open trade allows food to move to where it is needed, trade barriers can reduce the availability of food on global markets, increasing prices and limiting access.

...but tariffs raise food prices, reducing affordability and reducing food security. S

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Figure 12.6.4 Tariffs can be an economic

constraint because they raise prices, making food less affordable food for consumers.

Key

Non-cropped Wheat Sunflower Rapeseed Maize Other

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Key

Wheat Sunflower Rapeseed Maize Other

93 039 (12%)

400 km

235 678 (31%)

216 779 (28%) 167 959 (22%)

52 993 (7%)

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Figure 12.6.5

Geographic distribution of four major crops: wheat, maize, sunﬂower, and rapeseed in Ukraine, the ‘breadbasket’ of Europe. The pie charts show the proportion of each crop in different regions. Due to the war, Ukraine’s grain exports have dropped significantly, raising major food security concerns.

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Concepts and skills builder 12.6 Geographical thinking, using data and information

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Geographers collect, analyse and present data to answer questions and draw conclusions. This data often has a spatial component in the form of a map, a satellite image, a geotagged photo or a digital interactive map known as a Geographic Information System (GIS). Geographical data is used to compare different environments, determine why environments change, assess the impacts of these changes and evaluate how changes are managed.

During the war in Ukraine, ground-based data collection became impossible, so satellite-based imagery was used to gather geographical information quickly and reliably. Did you know that NASA has used satellite data sources (MAXAR and Planet SkySat) to count the millions of artillery craters across the frontline battlefields in Ukraine? The data shows that 1.2 million craters fell within 81 000 agricultural fields in the Ukraine! This level of damage to fields had a significant impact on food production.

1 Using Figure 12.6.6, estimate how many fields had more than 840 craters. 2 Estimate what percentage of the map was impacted by craters. 3 Describe the distribution of craters in these fields. Refer to data in your answer. Use geographic terms such as ‘density’ and ‘distribution’ in your answer. 4 Aside from craters, what other useful information could satellite imagery and GIS provide to help improve food security during wartime?

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Figure 12.6.6 Satellite image showing the frontline battlefields of Horliivka, Velyska Novosilka and Vuhledar in Ukraine in 2022. This GIS data shows the craters found in the fields.

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Figure 12.6.7 Ukrainian soldiers of the 117th Brigade fire artillery in the direction of Russian enemies in Pokrovsk, Ukraine, on 17 February 2025.

Geographical concepts and skills: environment, interconnection, place, space

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12.6 Review questions 1 2 3 4

Explain why land degradation is a significant environmental constraint in feeding the world’s population. Using Figure 12.6.2 and an atlas or online map, list five countries most at risk of water stress in 2040. Explain how poverty impacts the production of food. Describe how geopolitical conflict can be a constraint on food production. Refer to Figures 12.6.3, 12.6.4 and 12.6.6 to support your answer.

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12.7

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How does climate change challenge food security? Learning intention

This lesson investigates how climate change affects food production and access.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

Parts, connections, perspectives

Figure 12.7.1 presents graphic information about climate change. We can analyse the parts of the graph, how they connect to our topic of food security and how different perspectives might shape interpretation.

1.5

Global annual temperature increase (relative to 1850 - 19 average)

1.48 °C

1.2

°C

0.9

0.6

0.3

1970

1980

1990

2000

2010

2020 2023

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Figure 12.7.1 Global annual temperature increase

1 Parts: What parts of the graph are most important to understand the data? Identify key features such as variables, trends and time periods. 2 Connections: How do temperature changes relate to food production? Explain the connections between different parts of the graph and what this means for global food production. 3 Perspectives: How might different people interpret this graph differently? Consider perspectives such as scientists, policymakers and farming communities affected by climate change

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while changes in rainfall patterns will cause drought in some areas and flooding in others, affecting soil health, erosion and water availability. Warmer temperatures may also allow pests and diseases to spread more widely, destroying crops. Rising sea levels will threaten coastal farmland, leading to a loss of arable land.

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Climate change refers to long-term shifts in temperatures and weather patterns, mainly caused by burning fossil fuels (such as coal, oil and gas), which release heat-trapping gases. Climate change is expected to have major effects on food security in several ways (see Figure 12.7.2). Rising temperatures will reduce crop yields due to heat stress,

Impacts of climate change Rising temperatures Warming oceans Declining crop yields Altered growing seasons Increased pest and disease outbreaks Changing precipitation patterns Melting glaciers Rising sea levels Increased evapotranspiration and water losses Increased extreme weather events Ocean acidification

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Figure 12.7.2 Impacts of climate change

Temperature increases

Plants and animals can adapt to small changes in climate, such as shifts in rainfall, soil moisture and temperature. However, each species has limits, and when these are exceeded, quality and yield decline, and diseases spread. For example, during the 2018 European heatwave, crop losses were the worst since World War II. In 2023, wildfires in Greece burned 98 per cent of their olive trees and destroyed valuable agricultural machinery. Animals also suffer from extreme heat. The milk yield of a dairy cow can drop by up to 40 per cent during an extreme heatwave. As Figure 12.7.3 shows, climate change will not affect all regions equally. Some short-term impacts may even be positive. For instance, a 1°C to 3°C

temperature rise may improve some crop yields in temperate regions but will put too much stress on cereal crops in tropical and dry areas. Despite a few benefits, experts agree that the threats to food security from a 1°C to 3°C increase outweigh the advantages. For example, rising bushfire risks will damage crops and livestock. A temperature rise above 3°C is expected to cause widespread negative effects worldwide.

Beyond lower yields, food quality will also decline. About 70 per cent of Australia’s wine regions may experience poorer red wine quality due to earlier ripening. Diseases will also spread. In oceans, heat reduces oxygen levels and increases algae blooms, leading to diseases in aquatic life, such as bass and salmon.

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Key Percentage change of agricultural yields

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+25 +10 +5 0 –5 –15 –25

No data

5000 km

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Figure 12.7.3 Projected impact of climate change on agricultural yields

Key

Number of days

100

110

122

400 km

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Figure 12.7.4 The European heatwave in 2023. This choropleth map shows the number of days between June and September 2023

with ‘very strong heat stress’.

Changed rainfall patterns

Rising temperatures affect the water cycle and lead to more extreme weather. More water evaporates from the land, increasing moisture in the air while making land drier for longer periods. This increases the risk of bushfires and drought. When rain does occur, it is often in the form of severe storms and floods.

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Irrigated farming areas, such as the rice-growing fields along the Murrumbidgee River in the MurrayDarling Basin, face increased evaporation, reducing available surface water for farms. Rain-fed agricultural areas, such as sub-Saharan Africa, are also at high risk of food insecurity due to declining rainfall.

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DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF THE CONGO

ANGOLA ZAMBIA

TANZANIA

MALAWI

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ZIMBABWE

MADAGASCAR

MOZAMBIQUE

BOTSWANA

NAMBIA

ESWATINI

Indian Ocean

LESOTHO

Atlantic Ocean

SOUTH AFRICA

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Key

Root zone soil moisture percentile

Figure 12.7.5 Soil moisture conditions at the root zone, showing water availability for crops in southern Africa in March 2024. The root zone soil moisture shows the moisture content of the top 100 cm of soil compared to historical conditions. The darker regions show the driest soil areas in 2024.

400 km

>30

In 2024, an El Niño-driven drought in southern Africa scorched crops and threatened food security for millions. Meanwhile, extreme flooding in northern NSW in 2022 destroyed sugar cane crops, causing losses worth hundreds of millions of dollars. Climate change is shifting precipitation patterns worldwide, impacting food production.

El Niño a climate pattern that causes unusual warming of surface waters in the eastern tropical Pacific Ocean, often resulting in extreme weather events such as floods and droughts

Key

4000 km

Forecast El Nino impact on crop yields Negative

Positive

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Figure 12.7.6 El Niño’s impact on global crop yields in 2023–2024. Too much rain in some places and not enough in others is making it harder to grow food.

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Without a doubt, climate change is the greatest threat to global food security. These are just some of the ways it worsens food insecurity. The crisis is especially severe in vulnerable regions like Africa and

South-East Asia, where poverty and limited resources already create challenges. Climate change is expected to increase malnutrition by reducing the quality and availability of food while driving up prices.

Concepts and skills builder 12.7

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Changing the scale

The concept of scale helps us examine issues at different levels. A small-scale map gives a broad overview, while a large-scale map provides more detail. To study global food security, we use a small-scale map. To focus on food security in a specific city or country, we use a larger-scale map.

The geographic concept of scale focuses on the way that we look at different phenomena at different spatial levels. Looking at things on a small-scale map can give us the big overall picture. Looking at large-scale maps can help us see more specific detail and understand an issue in more depth. To understand the distribution of food security at a global scale, we need to use a smaller, less detailed scale. To zoom into food security at a more local scale such as a city or country, we need to use a larger, more detailed scale. 1 2 3 4

Which map has a larger scale: a map of your school or a map of Australia? Which figure in this chapter has the largest scale? Describe what this map shows. Which figure in this chapter has the smallest scale? Describe what this map shows. Choose one map from this chapter and describe its scale. Analyse how effective the map scale is at achieving its purpose.

Geographical concepts and skills: environment, interconnection, place, space

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12.7 Review questions

1 Copy and complete the following table to outline the impacts of climate change on food security. Environmental changes Temperature increase Changed rainfall patterns

Impacts on food

2 Outline what caused crops to be scorched in southern Africa in 2024. Define any key geographic terms involved. 3 Explain whether climate change impacts all regions equally. Use examples from the choropleth map in Figure 12.7.4 to support your answer. 4 Referring to Figures 12.7.3, 12.7.5 and 12.7.6, describe how the impacts of climate change affect people in vulnerable regions like Africa and South-East Asia.

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12.8

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What agricultural innovations can help improve global food security? Learning intention

This lesson explores some new and innovative ideas, such as robots, artificial intelligence and biotechnology, that can help us produce food for a growing population.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

Innovations as solutions

Innovation and technology, by itself, cannot solve all environmental problems. However, they are essential tools in providing solutions to global challenges. – Achim Steiner

1 To what extent do you agree or disagree with this quote? 2 Provide an example of how technology can or cannot solve environmental problems. Refer to the farming issues you have learned about in previous lessons.

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Figure 12.8.1 Solving environmental problems takes innovation, but is that enough?

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By 2100, the world’s population is expected to reach around 11 billion people (see Figure 12.8.2). To feed everyone, we cannot rely only on current farming methods. New agricultural innovations can make farming more efficient, productive and better for the planet. Projection United nations Institute for health metrics and evaluation International institute for applied systems analysis

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

UN 95% confidence interval

Population (billions)

0 1950

1980

2010

2040

2070

2100

➜

Figure 12.8.2 Graph showing three different population forecasts from three organisations: the United Nations, the Institute for Health Metrics and Evaluation, and the International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis. A confidence level shows how likely a prediction is to be accurate. A 95% confidence level means there is a 5% chance of being wrong. To feed the world’s growing population, we need to use new and innovative ideas and technologies.

Can robots and AI solve our food problems?

artificial intelligence the development of computer systems to perform tasks that normally require human intelligence

The use of robotics and artificial intelligence is a modern innovation that automates agricultural tasks and greatly improves efficiency. Field robotics and AI can detect and monitor pests and diseases on crops, perform weeding, irrigation and crop monitoring, and assist with harvesting. The FarmDroid FD20 is an example of this technology increasingly used in Australia. It is a solar-powered, driverless robot that

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weeds and seeds farms using GPS. It can operate 24 hours a day in sunny conditions, covering about 6 hectares daily. Robots and AI offer many benefits, including increased efficiency and productivity, greater precision and consistency, and lower labour costs. However, disadvantages include the high cost of developing or purchasing the technology, as well as ongoing maintenance and repair expenses.

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Agricultural robot revenue and shipments, world market: 2018–2025

$100 000

800 000

$90 000

700 000

$80 000 600 000

$50 000

400 000

(Units)

500 000

$60 000

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($ millions)

$70 000

$40 000

300 000

$30 000

200 000

$20 000

100 000

$10 000 $

2018

2019

2020

2021

2022

2023

2024

2025

➜

Figure 12.8.3 Projected increase in revenue and shipments of agricultural robots worldwide from 2018 to 2025

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Figure 12.8.4 Examples of ways that smart farms are transforming the industry through precision agriculture

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Can biotechnology help global food security? Biotechnology uses biological systems and living organisms to develop products and improve crops in quality and nutrition. Biotechnology can use genetic modification to make crops resistant to insect damage, tolerant to herbicides and resistant to plant viruses. Crops such as cotton and maize have been genetically modified to resist certain insects, reducing crop loss and increasing the amount available for sale and consumption.

In Australia, commercial farms have used biotechnology to genetically modify canola, making it herbicide tolerant. This allows herbicides to kill weeds on canola farms without harming the crop, as the modified canola can break down the herbicide chemicals. Australia has also successfully used biotechnology to produce insect-resistant and herbicidetolerant cotton.

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genetic modification a process that uses laboratory-based technologies to alter the DNA makeup of an organism

Genetic modification has improved their nutritional value by altering the amino acid composition of plant proteins. Similarly, genetically modified soybeans have been developed with healthier oils to replace less healthy ones.

Genetic modification can also be used to increase the nutritional value of crops. For example, cassava and rice are staple foods for millions of people worldwide, but their protein content is low.

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Figure 12.8.5 The locations where biotech crops are grown around the world. Biotechnology innovations can help to increase production of crops and can make our world more food secure.

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Can eating insects be the solution?

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In countries such as Thailand and Cambodia in South-East Asia, insects are commonly eaten. They are rich in high-quality protein, vitamins and amino acids. Insects also require far less space than other protein sources, such as cattle for beef, and produce fewer greenhouse gases than livestock. The United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization is working with countries worldwide to learn more about insects and how they could be farmed in the future for both human consumption and animal feed.

Can we eat greenhouse gases?

A Finnish company called Solar Foods has recently created a protein powder made from air. It looks like flour and contains 50 per cent protein, 5–10 per cent fat and 20–25 per cent carbohydrates. Called Solein, it is made by extracting carbon dioxide from the air using carbon-capture technology and combining it with water, nutrients and vitamins. Solein is currently produced using 100 per cent renewable solar energy.

The company’s short-term goal is to sell Solein globally and produce 2 million meals each year. In the long term, it aims to help feed a global population of 9 billion by 2050, with an estimated revenue of US$500 billion.

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Figure 12.8.6 A family selling crickets at Angkor, Cambodia. Farming insects uses much less land and produces fewer greenhouse gases than raising livestock.

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lin a

Sp iru

Ins

Pu ls

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ea t

tut sub st i

ltu red m

lk Mi

Eg gs

Fis h

ltry Po u

Po rk

Sh ee p

Solein

Me at

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Be ef

Land use (m2/kg protein)

Production of Solein requires zero arable land

200 180 160 140 120 100 80 60 40 20 0

Solein has a minimal water footprint

56 994 L/kg

Sheep

48 688 L/kg

Pork

39 998 L /kg

Poultry

16 830 L/kg

48–348 L /kg

Solein

20 000

10 000

30 000

40 000

50 000

uli

Sp ir

cts

lse

red

Ins e

me a

ltu

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at su

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itu t

Mi lk

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Sh e

Solein has minimal greenhouse gas emission levels

250 225 200 175 150 125 100 75 50 25 0

Greenhouse gas emissions (kg CO2 –eq/kg protein

Water use (L/kg protein)

Beef

Source: Based on Hanna Tuomisto, ‘Global Food Production Emissions Find Remedy in Solein – the

World’s Purest Protein’, Solar Foods website, 2019

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Figure 12.8.7 How Solein’s environmental impact compares to other crops

Concepts and skills builder 12.8 Using a SWOT analysis

A SWOT analysis is a useful tool in Geography because it helps analyse and evaluate different aspects of geographical issues or responses. It breaks down complex topics into Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities and Threats, making more structured and critical thinking. Often, a box structure is used to organise the analysis. S O

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Here’s what each element of SWOT means, with examples related to farming: S = Strengths The good things about a place, project or situation. Example: The farm has fertile soil, plenty of water or uses advanced equipment to grow crops eﬃciently.

• •

W = Weaknesses The problems or challenges that make things harder. Example: The farm is in an area with poor road access, making it hard to transport crops to markets.

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O = Opportunities Chances to improve or make things better in the future. Example: The farm could start using solar-powered irrigation to save money and be more eco-friendly or grow high-demand crops like organic vegetables.

• •

T = Threats Dangers or risks that might cause problems. Example: The farm might face droughts due to climate change, or pests could damage the crops.

• •

Complete a SWOT analysis for one example of innovation or technology from the lesson. Use the table style shown on the previous page. Geographical concepts and skills: environment, interconnection, place, space

Lesson 12.8 review Online quiz

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Research task

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Teachers can assign tasks and track results

12.8 Review questions

1 Explain how robots and AI can improve agricultural output. 2 a Describe how biotechnology has been used in Australia to modify foods. b Explain how food has improved as a result. 3 Using an atlas and Figure 12.8.5, copy and complete the table to identify the genetically modified foods being grown around the world. Continent

Country

Crops produced through biotechnology

Asia

Africa

Europe

South America North Ameria 4 What is Solein? Explain the environmental benefits of producing Solein as a food source, referring to Figure 12.8.7.

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12.9

Fieldwork investigation: A local biome Learning intention

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In this lesson, you will have the opportunity to design a fieldwork investigation to explore a local example of biomes and food security.

Fieldwork lies at the heart of Geography studies. It allows you to explore concepts learned in the classroom by applying them in the real world. Fieldwork is an engaging process that involves: • Developing a background understanding about an issue

• Creating a research question to investigate the issue in the real world • Forming a hypothesis (a possible answer to your question) • Conducting research

• Analysing your results to test your hypothesis

• Evaluating what you have learned, what worked and what didn’t, and considering any further questions that have emerged.

To explore the ideas in this chapter, you may choose to conduct fieldwork at a farm in your local or regional area. The following structure will guide your study.

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Figure 12.9.2 Primary fieldwork techniques help you gather firsthand geographic information to support your investigation. ➜

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Figure 12.9.1 Water quality testing is a primary fieldwork technique that helps assess the environmental impacts of farming activities.

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Section Title and introduction

Explanation Examples An evaluation of the ways farming impacts the Choose a suitable topic and title for your natural environment investigation. Include the scope and A comparison of soil health on two different farms location of your investigation. Write a brief An investigation into new technology and innovation introduction outlining the main aspects of at a chosen farm your investigation. An evaluation of the success of regenerative agricultural methods at a chosen farm Geographic characteristics of your chosen farm and a Background Research background information about map of your study area information your chosen topic and location/s. This will Regional information such as biome and land cover provide context for your study. What are the present and future challenges for foodResearch question Write a research question that you will producing farms, and how are they being addressed on answer using the data you collect. You may your chosen farm? include one main question and several More specific sub-questions could include: sub-questions. How is species diversity loss being managed at this farm? What is this farm doing to reduce the impacts of climate change? How is climate change impacting this farm? How is this farm addressing soil degradation? Example: Regenerative farming techniques have Hypothesis A hypothesis is a clear statement that improved crop yields and environmental sustainability can be tested. Write it before collecting at Days Walk Farm. your data. Photos and field sketches Primary data Primary data is data you collect yourself Vegetation identification and abundance collection in the field. Consider the types of primary using quadrats data you will need to collect to answer Observations of processes such as erosion your research question. Consider the Assessment of water quality (e.g. pH, turbidity, equipment and preparation required. temperature, nutrient levels) Interviews with farmers, local community groups, environmental groups and other relevant organisations Water quality data collected by Melbourne Water Secondary data Secondary data is data that other people Climate data from the Bureau of Meteorology collection have collected that you can use as part of Websites of local environment groups your investigation. Undertake research to find suitable sources of information that you can apply to your topic. Presenting and Graphs (pie, line, bar) and maps (choropleth, Summarise your findings using clear, easyanalysing your thematic, political) to-read visual formats. Annotated photos and field sketches data Data summary tables Whether your hypothesis was supported or disproven Discussion, Use your primary and secondary data to A clear answer to your research question conclusion and answer your research question. Summarise Strengths and weaknesses of your data collection evaluation your main findings and evaluate your methods and how they could be improved investigation. References Include a bibliography listing any AGT Breeding. (2024). Victoria Field Crop Variety Guide 2024, sources used. accessed 8 August 2024, https://cdn.agtbreeding.com.au/ docs/general/Variety-Booklets/Victoria-Field-Crop-VarietyGuide-2024_web.pdf

• • • •

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• • • •

•

ű ű ű ű

• • • • • • • • • • • • • •

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12.10

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End of investigation review: Biomes and food security Access the Interactive Textbook for a range of digital tools to help you review this topic, including:

• Downloadable chapter summary • Scorcher timed competitive quiz.

Making thinking visible

Apply the 3-2-1 Routine to summarise your findings from this investigation. 1

Recall three main points or ideas from the investigation.

Identify two interesting or surprising facts related to the investigation.

State one question that you still have or something you want to learn more about.

Extended response questions

Biomes are Earth’s lifelines – each one a delicate masterpiece of biodiversity and sustainability. Protect them, and we protect our own future.

Use the information presented in Chapter 11 to discuss the quote above. In your response: • Outline the variety of biomes around the world

• Describe the factors that impact the spatial distribution of biomes

• Explain how humans use biomes in a variety of ways, using specific examples • Conclude with a statement on the importance of biomes.

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Solving geographical problems Choose one of the impacts of climate change outlined in Chapter 12 that affects food security. Design your own strategy to manage this impact. Consider whether your strategy will: • Assess and monitor the change • Reverse or adapt to the change

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• Provide an artificial solution

• Involve an Indigenous perspective

• Indirectly respond to the impact by raising awareness.

Swap your response with a classmate and evaluate each other’s work using a range of suitable criteria.

Research task

Choose one type of environmentally sustainable agricultural practice discussed in Chapter 12, or another of your own choice. Examples include regenerative agriculture, conservation agriculture or biodynamic agriculture. Prepare a case study relating to a specific place. Undertake research using a variety of sources and media in the following areas: • Background information, including location and geographic characteristics

• A summary of the factors (natural or human) that led to the need for more sustainable agricultural practices

• A detailed description of the environmentally sustainable agriculture practice, including relevant photographs and/or maps • An explanation of the impacts or results of using the environmentally sustainable agriculture practice • An evaluation of the success or potential success of this agricultural technique. Present your findings in a report that includes relevant maps, data and statistics.

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INVESTIGATION 2

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Geographies of interconnection

OVERVIEW

Geographies of interconnection illustrates how places and people are interconnected through travel, communication technologies and trade. Students consider examples of how people and businesses are connected to other people, services and information throughout the world. They examine interconnections through trade, and the impacts of these interconnections on places and environments, with a particular emphasis on North-East Asia. They assess the impacts of the interconnections produced by people’s travel, recreational and cultural choices. Students consider the impacts of global interconnectedness on the spread of fashions, pandemics and financial disasters. Source: VCAA, Victorian Curriculum V2.0, ‘Geography’, ‘Band description – Levels 9 and 10’

CURRICULUM GOALS

• How may the world be too interconnected?

Source: VCAA, Victorian Curriculum V2.0, ‘Geography’, ‘Band description – Levels 9 and 10’

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CHAPTER 13

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What makes us interconnected?

LESSON TITLE 13.1

Setting the scene: ‘Devil’s gold and a selfie stick’ – How are we interconnected through the world of trade?

13.2

What do the geographical concepts of place, space and interconnection mean?

13.3

How have improvements in transport changed the way people live?

13.4

How have technological advancements made our world more interconnected?

13.5

How does the international trade of manufactured goods connect places like Australia and China?

13.6

How do the impacts of interconnections through trade affect countries’ environmental sustainability?

13.7

Fieldwork: Investigating products and/or services that businesses sell to other places

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13.1

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Setting the scene: ‘Devil’s gold and a selfie stick’ – How are we interconnected through the world of trade? Learning intention

This lesson is an introduction to exploring how trade in goods and services connects people in different places on different scales and how the choices of producers and consumers affect the sustainability of places.

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Figure 13.1.1 Sulphur miners working in the Kawah Ijen volcano

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man – one of the 300 sulphur miners of East Java. Once the rock is mined, it is mostly traded to China and SouthEast Asia, where the sulphur is used to make many products, including fertilisers, pesticides, paper, makeup and shampoo. It is even used to bleach sugar so it appears white. These products are then traded globally, including to Australia.

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In the early hours of the morning, an Indonesian man from Banyuwangi, East Java, prepares for work. Dressed in torn clothing, he wraps a wet rag around his mouth and places a long piece of cane – connecting two baskets – across his deformed back. As the cane presses against the open wounds on his shoulders, he begins the 3200-metre hike to the top of the Kawah Ijen volcano. At this time of night the volcano illuminates the sky with blue vapour – the result of combusting sulphuric gases. Then he starts his 800-metre descent into the crater. He will make one or two trips tonight, working long hours in a place so hot it can dissolve teeth. He will earn approximately A$5 for his harvest: sulphite rock, otherwise known as ‘devil’s gold’. Whether we know it or not, there is a connection between us and this

Interconnections can occur between people and places not only through trade but also through transportation, communication technology and travel. Trade is not the only way we can be connected to the sulphur miner in Banyuwangi. In the last 10 years, the volcano itself has become a tourist destination for people who are curious to see the miners at work and experience the volcano’s natural beauty.

subduction a process where one tectonic plate moves under another tectonic plate and sinks into the mantle

PHILIPPINES

Kalimantan

South China Sea

Mount Kerinci (3805 m)

INDONESIA

Jakarta

Indian Ocean

Sumatra

Mount Krakatoa (813 m)

MALAYSIA

AUSTRALIA

Java Sea

Jakarta

Java

Mount Merapi (2930 m)

Indian Ocean

Mount Bromo Mount Mount Ijen Mount Batur Mount (2329 m) Tambora (2799 m) (1717 m) Rinjani (3726 m) (2850 m) Bali Mount Mount Lombok Sumbawa Semeru Savu Sea Agung (3676 m) Key (3031 m) City Volcano 0 50 100 200 km

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Figure 13.1.2 An important natural characteristic of Indonesia is its volcanoes, which are formed due to the subduction zones between the Eurasian plate and the Indo-Australian plate. This map shows the location of 10 volcanoes that also serve as tourist attractions for hikers, including Mt Ijen, where sulphur is mined.

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dangerous job. This danger is increased by the thousands of tourists who, holding selfie sticks, swarm the miners to get a photo. They create a new hazard for the exhausted workers. Tourists also face risks, such as passing out from the volcanic heat and trauma from gas explosions, some of which have hospitalised visitors.

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Interconnections have impacts that can change places and people. In this instance, tourism can be more lucrative than mining, and some savvy miners have become tour guides, coffee shop owners and homestay operators. The newly established tourism industry fills miners with hope that their children will not have to work in the mines – a job that reduces one’s lifespan to an average of 50 years. The area has become a tourist region, with festivals and a cycling competition called Tour de Banyuwangi Ijen. In 2018, 4.8 million tourists visited the region, compared to fewer than 1 million in 2010. For those who cannot transition into the tourism industry, mining remains a

Go online to access the interactive lesson review and more!

It is clear that the interconnections between people and the Kawah Ijen volcano provide benefits from a local to a global scale. It is also clear that these interconnections need to be managed better so they are less exploitative and remain sustainable into the future.

Lesson 13.1 review Online quiz

Review questions

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Research task

Teachers can assign tasks and track results

Compass points

Propose one idea that could make the interconnections between tourists, miners and the volcano more sustainable. Swap your idea with a partner and evaluate it using the following criteria:

1 E = Excited What excites you about this idea or proposition? What’s the upside? 2 W = Worrisome What do you find worrisome about this idea or proposition? What’s the downside? 3 N = Need to know What else do you need to know or find out about this idea or proposition? What additional information would help you to evaluate it? 4 S = Stance or suggestion for moving forward What is your current stance or opinion on the idea or proposition? How might you move forward in your evaluation?

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13.2

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What do the geographical concepts of place, space and interconnection mean? Learning intention

In this lesson you will be introduced to the geographical concepts of place, space and interconnection as they relate to human geography and the study of people’s lives and activities.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

See, think, wonder

Consider the tourists and the waiters in Figure 13.2.1.

1 See: What do you notice going on in the image? 2 Think: How is each group of people interconnecting with this place? 3 Wonder: What meaning might Seminyak have for both these groups of people?

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Figure 13.2.1 Tourists relaxing in La Plancha Beach Club, Seminyak, Bali. The employees serving them are mostly residents of local villages.

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Which key geographic concepts will be used in this investigation? are distributed on Earth’s surface. To understand spaces, geographers: • identify the distribution patterns of certain features • investigate why these patterns have occurred

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People throughout the world are connected to places and to each other in many ways. The networks that connect us are growing rapidly through constant developments in transportation and in information and communication technologies. This chapter introduces the phenomenon of globalisation. It explores how and why we are connected to people and places from a local to a global scale and the impacts of these connections on environments and societies. Throughout the chapters in this investigation, there will be a focus on developing your understanding of place, scale and interconnection.

What is the geographic concept of place?

Places are physical locations. They can range in scale from a booth at a café to an entire country. However, from a geographic perspective, places also hold meaning for people. The meaning a place has is different for everybody, depending on the type of connection a person has with that place.

Geographers distinguish places based on their unique geographic characteristics. • Physical characteristics might include landforms, vegetation, roads and buildings. • Intangible characteristics are more difficult to observe and relate to how different people experience and value a place (e.g. a feeling of familiarity, spirituality or security).

What is the geographic concept of space? The concept of space relates to how human‑made and natural features

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• explore how these patterns have changed

• understand how these spaces are used and the impacts of these patterns and changes for people and the environment.

What is the geographic concept of interconnection?

Interconnection involves the links between places and the influences that people have on the characteristics of places. People are interconnected with places in the ways that they create, change and manage them. Advances in technology have enabled people to connect with places on a variety of scales. For example, a raw material might be harvested in a local area, then transported to another country to be processed and turned into a product, which is sold online all over the world. Although this investigation focuses on place, scale and interconnection, these concepts are part of a group of seven interrelated key ideas that help us think geographically.

How do our perceptions of places and how we use them change over time? As we age, the places that we use and the way we perceive certain places can change as our needs and interests change. For example, the places where you played as a young child (such as the local playground) may not be the places where you socialise today. Moreover, the ways people connect with each other have been changing over time as technology plays an increasing role in our lives.

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The role of globalisation in the interconnections of people, places and spaces technologies have fuelled globalisation. This phenomenon is driven by improvements in technology, communication and transportation, which make it easier for people, goods, services and ideas to move across borders.

circumnavigation sailing or travelling all the way around something goods items for sale that can be moved homogenisation the process of changing something so that all its parts or features become the same or very similar

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The first circumnavigation of Earth occurred when a fleet of ships led by Portuguese explorer Ferdinand Magellan sailed west from Spain in 1519 and returned from the east in 1522 after crossing the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian oceans. The departing fleet consisted of 270 men on five ships. However, after mutiny, murders, illness and shipwrecks, only 18 men on one ship returned.

Globalisation refers to the process by which businesses, cultures and economies around the world become interconnected and interdependent. Today, circumnavigating Earth is simpler and much less dangerous. Moreover, rapid changes in technology mean that we continue to push the boundaries of travel. In 2019, the first non-stop flight from New York to Sydney, called ‘Project Sunrise’, carried 40 passengers across 15 time zones in just 19 hours to become the longest commercial flight ever. Meanwhile, in Texas, the Starship spacecraft – designed to take people as far as Mars – began its orbital test flights. Advances in transportation and in information and communication

Key aspects of globalisation include:

Economic integration: Countries engage in international trade and investment, leading to a global marketplace.

Cultural exchange: Different cultures influence each other, spreading languages, traditions and lifestyles.

Technological connectivity: The internet and other technologies connect people globally, facilitating communication and information sharing.

Political cooperation: Nations work together on global issues like climate change, security and health.

Globalisation has both positive and negative effects. It can lead to economic growth, cultural diversity and innovation, but it can also cause job displacement, cultural homogenisation and environmental challenges.

The role of globalisation in travel and trade Globalisation has had an enormous impact on how and why we are connected to places, goods and each other. It has also influenced the scale of interconnections. While people have always travelled and traded, there has never been as much trade and travel over such long distances. Figure 13.2.3 highlights the large scale of movement occurring in the air.

Not only has technology allowed the greater movement of people and goods, but it has also allowed ideas, cultures and knowledge to cross countries without the need for physical travel. While nothing (yet) can replace the full immersive experience of travelling to a different place, tools such as Google Earth let us see what a place is like from above via satellite images or from street view.

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Figure 13.2.2 The website Plane Finder shows the location of every plane in the air in real time.

In terms of communication, people are now closer than ever before. When the First Fleet arrived in Australia, letters to loved ones took over eight months to arrive. Today, we can catch up instantly with family and friends on the other side of the world using video calls or messaging tools, often via social media.

Gross domestic product (GDP) is the total monetary value of all goods and services produced and sold within a country during a specific time period, typically one year. According to the Statista website, in 2024 the world’s combined GDP was US$110 064 920 000 000 – over one hundred and ten trillion dollars!

Table 13.2.1 Ranking of the top 15 countries by gross domestic product (GDP)

Country

GDP (nominal, 2023) 1 United States $27 720 700 000 000 2 China $17 794 800 000 000 3 Germany $4 525 700 000 000 4 Japan $4 204 490 000 000 5 India $3 567 550 000 000 6 United Kingdom $3 380 850 000 000 7 France $3 051 830 000 000 8 Italy $2 300 940 000 000 9 Brazil $2 173 670 000 000 10 Canada $2 142 470 000 000 11 Russia $2 021 420 000 000 12 Mexico $1 789 110 000 000 13 Australia $1 728 060 000 000 14 South Korea $1 712 790 000 000 15 Spain $1 620 090 000 000

GDP GDP Population GDP per (abbrev.) growth (2023) capita $27.721 trillion 2.89% 343 477 335 $80 706 $17.795 trillion 5.25% 1 422 584 933 $12 509 $4.526 trillion -0.27% 84 548 231 $53 528 $4.204 trillion 1.68% 124 370 947 $33 806 $3.568 trillion 8.15% 1 438 069 596 $2 481 $3.381 trillion 0.34% 68 682 962 $49 224 $3.052 trillion 0.94% 66 438 822 $45 934 $2.301 trillion 0.70% 59 499 453 $38 672 $2.174 trillion 2.91% 211 140 729 $10 295 $2.142 trillion 1.25% 39 299 105 $54 517 $2.021 trillion 3.60% 145 440 500 $13 899 $1.789 trillion 3.20% 129 739 759 $13 790 $1.728 trillion 3.44% 26 451 124 $65 330 $1.713 trillion 1.36% 51 748 739 $33 098 $1.620 trillion 2.68% 47 911 579 $33 814

Share of world GDP 26.11% 16.76% 4.26% 3.96% 3.36% 3.18% 2.87% 2.17% 2.05% 2.02% 1.90% 1.69% 1.63% 1.61% 1.53%

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Concepts and skills builder 13.2 Interpreting data In this activity we will research a range of data about global trade using the McKinsey Global Institute website.

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1 Navigate to the McKinsey webpage: ‘What are the most important trade corridors?’. a Identify the nations exporting the most products. b Identify the nations importing the most products. 2 Navigate to the McKinsey webpage: ‘Which products are supplied by a small number of economies?’. a Which nation exports the most electric vehicles? b What is the economic value of exports to that country’s economy per year? c Which country exports the most crude oil per year? d What share of total imports around the world does the country that produces the most laptops have? e Identify the product categories in which Australia leads global exports. Explain whether any of these results surprised you or not. 3 Using Table 13.2.1: a Name the world regions that contain countries with the largest GDP. b State whether there is an association between countries with high GDPs and the amount of trade (imports and exports). c Suggest a reason for the association described in b. Geographical concepts and skills: interconnection, place, space

Lesson 13.2 review Online quiz

Review questions

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Research task

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Teachers can assign tasks and track results

13.2 Review questions

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1 2 3 4

Explain the geographic concepts of ‘place’ and ‘space’. Define ‘globalisation’. Identify advancements in two areas that have fuelled globalisation. Describe the relationship between global exports and GDP.

Figure 13.2.3 We live in an increasingly globalised world

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13.3

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How have improvements in transport changed the way people live? Learning intention

Previously, we reviewed the key geographic concepts for this investigation. In this lesson, we will look at the ways that technological advancements in travel have made the world even more interconnected.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

Think, pair, share

Living in Australia in the twenty-first century, most people are fortunate to have access to a range of modern transport methods to move people or goods from one place to another. With a partner, spend a few minutes discussing the scenarios below. In each scenario, when something goes wrong we realise how much we rely on transport networks. For each, think about the situation, discuss with a partner how you might act, and prepare to share your thoughts with the class. 1 On your way to your first job interview in the city, there is a train strike. 2 You live in a regional town and are going on a holiday you have looked forward to for a long time. The local airport has cancelled all flights due to extremely windy conditions. You will miss your flight to a capital city and a connecting international flight. 3 Extreme rain from a cyclone has caused local rivers to flood, cutting off roads and your small town from the outside world.

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Figure 13.3.1 A 4×4 vehicle submerged while trying to cross a flooded road

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How transport networks connect people to services enhance market accessibility, allowing businesses to reach larger markets and a wider customer base. They enable the smooth functioning of global supply chains, ensuring the timely delivery of goods and minimising inventory costs. Reliable transportation reduces trade barriers (e.g. customs delays and logistical bottlenecks), promoting international trade and fostering economic integration. Investments in transport infrastructure stimulate economic growth by attracting investments, creating jobs and enhancing productivity.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Transport networks are essential systems that help move goods, services and people, connecting various regions and enabling economic activities. These networks include roads, railways, airways and seaports, which together form the backbone of global trade.

Global trade networks

Transport networks play a pivotal role in global trade by connecting producers, suppliers and consumers across different regions. Efficient transport systems

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Figure 13.3.2 A screenshot of the website shipmap.org. Explore the website to see the world’s major shipping routes, ports and types of ships and goods being transported.

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Figure 13.3.3 A visualisation of the transport of imported shipping containers from Port Melbourne to destinations across Australia by rail

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U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES Trade within Australia

In Australia, transport networks are crucial for connecting remote areas with urban centres, facilitating the movement of raw materials, finished goods and services. The freight and logistics industry accounts for approximately 8.6 per cent of Australia’s GDP. Efficient transport systems support domestic economic activities by enabling the movement of goods by road, rail, air and coastal shipping. Australia’s major ports, airports and other transport terminals (that use more than one form of transportation) serve as critical intersections in the freight system. Government initiatives such as the National Freight and Supply Chain Strategy aim to increase the productivity and efficiency of Australia’s freight networks. These networks are vital for maintaining Australia’s economic prosperity and quality of life.

Figure 13.3.5 A visualisation of the transport of exported shipping containers from destinations across Australia by road to the major shipping port at Port Melbourne ➜

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Figure 13.3.4 A visualisation of the transport of imported shipping containers from Port Melbourne to destinations across Australia by road

Transport networks and online shopping in Australia

In Australia, transport networks are changing the way we access retail services. Australia Post has shifted from primarily delivering letters to becoming a courier service that supports the rise in online shopping.

New technologies such as drones will also play a greater part in providing convenient online shopping services. While drone delivery is more fuel-efficient than other forms of transport, laws regarding airspace above private property may limit the scale of this service. Some new technologies that could reduce travel time for people and services in the near future include self-driving trucks, trains that reach speeds of 400 km per hour using magnetic levitation technology and hybrid cargo airships.

How a lack of transport networks limits access to services As we have seen, transport networks are vital for connecting people to basic services such as food, water and healthcare to maintain a good quality of life. However, transport networks can be hindered by a region’s physical geography. 352

For example, Papua New Guinea is in the south-west Pacific. Its coastal areas have beaches and coral reefs, while inland there are active volcanoes, dense rainforests (including the Kokoda Trail) and steep topography, as shown in Figure 13.3.6.

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There are only 22 000 km of road in Papua New Guinea, and half of that is unsealed. Figure 13.3.7 shows the distribution and types of roads and trails. People in the highlands are cut off from the rest of the country – and the world – for six months of the year because of the risk of landslides. This limits access to services, jobs and trade.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Sixty-one per cent of the population in this area have no access to safe water and 55 per cent have no access to modern sanitation. This results in poor health, diseases, malnutrition and stunted growth, as well as fewer business and tourism opportunities. It also makes recovery from disasters such as landslides more difficult.

0°

4000 3000

–2°

2000 1000

–4°

–6°

–8°

400 km

–10°

130°

132°

134°

136°

138°

140°

142°

144°

146°

148°

150°

152°

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Figure 13.3.6 Elevation map of Papua New Guinea. Note that the western half of the island is Papua, a province of Indonesia, and the eastern half is the independent nation of Papua New Guinea.

New Ireland Kavieng

Lorengau

Manus

Vanimo

Wewak

EAST Kokopo NEW BRITAIN

Sandaun

EAST SEPIK

Buka

WEST NEW BRITAIN

Mount Hagen Madang

Kimbe

ENGA Jiwaka Madang Wabag Kundiawa Tari Goroka Western Mendi Highlands Lae Southern Chimbu Eastern Highlands Highlands Morobe GULF WESTERN Kerema Hela

BOUGAINVILLE

Popondetta

Key

Oro

Daru

Milne Bay

Port Moresby Kwikila Central 0

Alotau

Primary road Secondary road Tertiary/trail

200 km

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Figure 13.3.7 Roads in Papua New Guinea

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Concepts and skills builder 13.3 Interpreting transport networks Study Figure 13.3.6.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

1 Describe how elevation varies across Papua New Guinea. For example, which areas have a high or low elevation? 2 Describe the distribution of roads in PNG. For example, which parts of the country have a lot of roads and which are lacking roads? In your answer, try to distinguish between primary, secondary and tertiary roads. Study Figure 13.3.7. 3 Based on your answers to Questions 1 and 2, discuss whether there is an association between road networks and elevation. In other words, do areas with high or low elevations have more or less roads or is there no apparent link between these features? Geographical concepts and skills: interconnection, place, space

Lesson 13.3 review

Go online to access the interactive lesson review and more!

Online quiz

Review questions

DOC

Research task

Teachers can assign tasks and track results

13.3 Review questions

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1 Identify whether rail or road transportation is more important to Australia’s economy. 2 Identify transport technologies from this topic that help perform the following tasks (note that many of the technologies discussed fit into more than one category): a connects people to a service b connects people to information c connects people to other people. 3 Outline some of the impacts that can result from having a poor transportation system. 4 Describe how the physical geography of a place can impact people’s access to services. Refer to the highlands region of Papua New Guinea in your answer.

Figure 13.3.8 The slopes of a mountain range in Papua New Guinea’s highlands

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13.4

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How have technological advancements made our world more interconnected? Learning intention

We have looked at how better transport networks improve people’s lives. In this lesson, we will consider how other technological advancements have made the world more interconnected.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

Think, pair, share

Today, through technology, you could have more friends on the other side of the world than in your local area.

1 Think: Think about the number of friends you have online (including via social media and online gaming) and where they live. How does this compare to the number of face-to-face connections you have in your life? 2 Pair: With a partner, discuss whether modern communication technologies have removed distance as a constraint on your interactions with others. 3 Share: Has the world ‘shrunk’ due to these technologies? Discuss with your partner and prepare to share your thoughts with the class. ➜

Figure 13.4.1 A large percentage of teens play and/or watch games online.

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Online gaming today it may be a portal to an online community. Platforms such as Steam, the PlayStation Network, Xbox Live, Discord, Twitch and YouTube connect people on an international scale.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

More teens are connecting with each other online, which can change how people feel about and use places. Whereas in the past a teenager’s bedroom was a place to retreat from the world,

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Figure 13.4.2 A teenager listening to records in her bedroom in 1971 and a modern teenager gaming online in their room, using multiple devices at the same time

Online gaming by Australian teens

A February 2024 report from Australia’s eSafety Commissioner titled ‘Levelling up to stay safe: Young people’s experiences navigating the joys and risks of online gaming’ sheds light on the gaming habits of Australian teenagers. The survey of nearly 2000 young people aged 8–17 revealed that in 2023, 89 per cent had played online games, with 66 per cent

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playing for more than six hours per week. Seventy-nine per cent had played with others online, including 40 per cent who played with people they did not already know offline. Overall, young Australians feel that online gaming is a positive experience. The following figures show key survey results that suggest how Australian teens use online gaming technology to stay interconnected.

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Minecraft 53% Roblox 50%

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Figure 1: Online games played by young people (by 10% or more of the young people surveyed)

Figure 13.4.3 Games commonly

played by Australians aged 8–17 years. How many of these games have you played? Since this report has been released, do you think any new games would be on this list?

Fortnite 46%

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Mario Kart / Super Smash Bros 40% Among Us 33%

Call of Duty 27% FIFA 24%

Grand Theft Auto 22% Pokemon Go 18%

Lego video games 16% Fall Guys 14%

Rocket League 13%

Clash of the Clans or Clash Royale 12% The Sims 11% NBA 2K 10%

Q. From the following list, pick all the video games you have played in the past year, even if you only played them once or twice. / In the past year have you played any other video games online that are not on the list? / List all of the other games you can remember playing in the past year, even if you only played them once or twice. Base: 1,799 gamers aged 8–17

Source: eSafety Commissioner, ‘Levelling up to stay safe: Young people’s experiences navigating the joys and risks of online gaming’, report, February 2024, p. 17.

Figure 2: Playing online games with others or alone

With other people who are playing online/ who are just in the game at the same time as me

79%

On my own (without other players in the game)

69%

With other people who are in the same room as me (in real life)

61%

Q. In the past year, how have you played video games online? Base: 1,799 gamers aged 8–17

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Source: eSafety Commissioner, ‘Levelling up to stay safe: Young people’s experiences navigating the joys and risks of online gaming’, report, February 2024, p. 18. Figure 13.4.4 Percentages of young people who game with others (online or in person) and alone.

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Figure 3: Relationship to people with whom they play online games Friends or other people I already know in real life

75%

Brothers or sisters

58% 43%

Parents

42%

78% (family)

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Other people in my family

91% (people they knew)

Source: eSafety Commissioner, ‘Levelling up to stay safe: Young people’s experiences navigating the joys and risks of online gaming’, report, February 2024, p. 19.

40%

I don’t want to say

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People I didn’t already know in real life

Figure 13.4.5

Relationships between young people and those they game with. What percentage of Australian teen gamers play with people online they have not met in person?

Q. In the past year, have you played video games online with any of the following? Base: 1,799 gamers aged 8–17

45%

Get better at solving problems

39%

Think faster

34%

Feel less lonely

29%

Get to know my friends better

29%

Make new friends

20%

Feel like i belong to a community

19%

Get on with or work better with others

14%

Feel more confident

27%

With my mental health (How i think and feel)

20%

Get better at controlling my feelings

12%

In other ways not listed

No, playing video games hasn’t helped me

58% (social connections)

Get better at using digital technology

41% (emotional benefits)

46%

I don’t want to say

I don’t know or I’m not sure

Q. Has playing video games online helped you in any of these ways or not? Base: 1,799 gamers aged 8–17

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Source: eSafety Commissioner, ‘Levelling up to stay safe: Young people’s experiences navigating the joys and risks of online gaming’, report, February 2024, p. 28. Figure 13.4.6 Young peoples’ perceived benefits of gaming. What percentage of Australian teens said they played online games to stay connected with existing friends? What percentage said they played online to meet new friends?

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Learn something new

76% (skill development)

Figure 6: Perceived benefits of gaming Playing video games online has helped me …

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Concepts and skills builder 13.4 Creating a survey Conduct a survey to measure the use of online gaming and/or social media between different age groups and the impact of these activities on people’s sense of connectedness and community.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

You may want to interview people from your class and another age group, such as your parents. Your survey may investigate different aspects of online gaming and/or social media, such as daily usage, how connected or disconnected users feel, what types of games or social media people use, or where they play online games or use social media. Summarise your results and discuss them as a class. Geographical concepts and skills: interconnection Impacts of online gaming on interconnections between people

Figure 13.4.6 shows that 58 per cent of 8–17-year-olds in Australia use online gaming to stay socially connected. The results suggest that playing online games

with friends can strengthen friendships and sometimes help people make new friends. On the other hand, the survey also reveals that 11 per cent of online gamers did not think gaming helped their lives or were unsure of its benefits.

How technology has made it possible for places to provide global business services

Since the internet went global in the 1980s, it has rapidly improved in speed and reliability. Telecommunications such as telephone lines and wireless signals have been integrated with sophisticated technology and software, making it possible for many people to work more locally (even from home, especially since the COVID-19 pandemic) and for businesses to operate globally. One example of how businesses have been freed to be more global in their processes can be seen in the outsourcing of customer service to overseas call centres.

Call centres in India

When a company hires another company to operate part of its business overseas, this is called offshore outsourcing. Some Australian businesses outsource customer service and telemarketing to organisations in other countries. India is a popular choice because of its time zone (or the willingness of workers to work through the night), cheap labour and large Englishspeaking population. India is currently investing in the largest rural fibre-optic roll-out ever, which will connect 600 000 rural villages to broadband internet. This enterprise could lead to customer service and telemarketing work moving to rural regions in the future.

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Inequality in connectivity may be too expensive for some families or individuals to access) or on a national scale (e.g. the cost of building infrastructure for remote areas may be considered too high). However, internet access is growing worldwide and more people are being connected.

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Information and communication technology has transformed how we connect to services, information and each other. However, not everyone experiences the same level of connectivity. Barriers can be economic on a household scale (e.g. the internet

Source: Our World in Data, 2025

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Figure 13.4.7 This chart highlights the total number of users of various communication technologies worldwide. Which device do you think the majority of people use to connect to the internet?

Go online to access the interactive lesson review and more!

Lesson 13.4 review Online quiz

Review questions

DOC

Research task

Teachers can assign tasks and track results

13.4 Review questions

1 Recall the percentage of young Australians who told the eSafety Commissioner they use social media to enhance or develop friendships. 2 Define offshore outsourcing. 3 Recall what makes India a good place for customer services and telemarketing. 4 Discuss the positive and negative impacts of online gaming and/or social media. Refer to the data in this lesson and your own experiences in your answer. 5 ‘The way that people use places can change over time.’ To what extent do you agree or disagree with this statement? Use the evidence presented in this lesson to justify your answer.

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13.5

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How does the international trade of manufactured goods connect places like Australia and China? Learning intention

We have looked at how technological advancements have made the world increasingly interconnected. In this lesson, we will consider how trade connects the economies and peoples of Australia and China.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

See, think, wonder

1 See: How often have you seen people ‘tapping’ to make a purchase, like in the image? 2 Think: Do we take modern technology for granted? Do you ever think about the global supply chain required to make a smart phone? 3 Wonder: Discuss the pros and cons of buying locally compared to buying globally made products. In your opinion, which is better?

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Figure 13.5.1 A ‘tap-and-go’ purchase using a smartphone.

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Global interconnections at a range of scales Globalisation has not only influenced how we perceive and use places; it has also created connections between people and places all over the world, whether we are aware of them or not. Many of these connections have been formed through trade. Trade simply refers to the buying and selling of goods and services. Goods are items that can be sold and moved, while services involve doing work or performing tasks for others.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

if you have dinner at a local family-owned restaurant, you may be engaging in localscale trade. The food you eat may have been transported from another state or even overseas, meaning it was traded nationally or internationally. If you pay for this meal using a smart phone, which is made using a vast network of materials and labour from across the globe, you are part of a global network of trade. In this lesson, we will explore how places and people are interconnected with other places through trade in goods and services at different scales.

Goods and services are traded at all scales, and we are constantly participating in different scales of trade. For example,

Concepts and skills builder 13.5 Working with scale

Scale refers to the size or extent of something. In Geography, we can determine distances between places on a map or the size of an area by reading the scale. Examples of what we call ‘map scale’ can be found in Figure 13.5.2. Statement scale / word scale / written: 2 cm = 4 km

Representative fraction:

Kilometres

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1:250 000 or 1 250 000 Linear / Bar scale:

Figure 13.5.2 Examples of scales found on maps, otherwise known as

‘map scales’.

Another version of scale is ‘observational scale’. The most commonly used observational scales are identified in Table 13.5.1.

Table 13.5.1 Examples of observational scales

Local scale Regional scale

National scale International scale Global scale

A local area, such as a street, school or town Regions are areas that share the same or similar geographic characteristics. Smaller regions may include a few towns or suburbs (e.g. the Yarra Valley or East Gippsland). Larger regions may include a group of countries (e.g. South-East Asia). Encompassing a whole country Including two or more countries, but not most of the world Includes most of the world

Refer to the map of Indonesia in Figure 13.1.2. 1 What is the observational scale shown? 2 What is the relative location (i.e. distance and direction) of Mount Ijen from Indonesia’s capital city, Jakarta? Use the scale on the map to calculate the distance. Geographical concepts and skills: scale

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Investigating how and why places are interconnected globally through trade in goods and services The symbol of globalisation: Apple’s iPhone Apple is a multinational corporation (MNC) – a company that has facilities in more than one country. It usually has one headquarters where the operations of the business in other countries are organised. Apple’s headquarters are in Cupertino, California, USA. As of 2025, an average of half a million iPhones are manufactured every day in Zhengzhou, central China, by a company called Foxconn.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Before his death in 2011, Apple cofounder Steve Jobs expressed his hope that the iPhone would be made entirely in the United States. However, this has not been the case. In fact, the iPhone is a symbol of globalisation, as it takes many countries to make and trade one iPhone.

Meanwhile, in the Tiwi Islands of the Northern Territory, Acacia mangium tree plantations are felled to make woodchips. These woodchips are then sold to Japan and China, where they are turned into paper and fabric, which is then sold back to us at a higher price.

Global interactions such as these occur all over the world for many different products. So why doesn’t the United States make the entire iPhone and why do we produce so little of our own paper? What is the purpose of global trade?

An iPhone’s creation begins with the manufacturing of its components, which are made by over 200 suppliers such as Intel, Samsung and Sony in many countries, including the United States, Japan, Korea and Taiwan. Only a handful of these components are identified in Figure 13.5.4. Apple then buys these components from the manufacturers and sells them to Foxconn.

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Figure 13.5.3 Apple co-founder Steve Jobs, pictured in 2003. Jobs led Apple during its greatest period of innovation, including the release of the iPhone in 2007.

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Geographers refer to this as the international division of labour, as each country may specialise in manufacturing certain goods or services that contribute to making a final product. For example, to

ST Microelectronics makes the accelerometers and gyroscope

Dialog Semiconductor makes the power management components

Micron makes the flash memory

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

California, USA Apple’s headquarters are in California. This is where the iPhone is designed, and then the company sends out orders for parts to multiple companies all over the globe.

make one product, the parts may be made in different countries, based on each country’s speciality. Then the parts are transported to a place that specialises in assembling and packaging products.

Texas Instruments makes the touchscreen controller

ITA

TA IW AN

USA

Samsung makes memory and applications processor

SOUTH KOREA

Cirus Logic makes the audio controller

AN JAP

Murata makes the Bluetooth and Wi-Fi components

GERMANY

Infineon makes the phone network components

Shenzhen, China iPhones are assembled in China by Taiwanese manufacturer Foxconn

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Figure 13.5.4 The iPhone supply chain

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While in customs, Foxconn sells the completed iPhones to Apple, which resells them to its affiliates around the world. iPhones exported from China are taken by truck to the nearby Zhengzhou airport. Figures 13.5.5 and 13.5.6 are satellite maps with the same scale, showing how the airport has grown to transport the increasing number of iPhones. These products were once shipped by sea, but it has become cheaper to use planes, as a single wide-body Boeing 747 can carry 150 000 iPhones.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

At the Foxconn factories, the iPhone is assembled via an intricate 400-step process across 94 production lines. Large-scale product assembly and cheap labour (US$1.90 an hour – a rate the United States cannot match) are two services that this place specialises in. The Chinese Government has invested millions into building infrastructure to create this type of specialisation and provide jobs in a poor region that was struggling to offer work. The phones are then packaged and transported to trucks, which take them to a customs facility.

Figure 13.5.5

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Satellite map of Zhengzhou International Airport, China, 2009, approximately one year since Foxconn factories began manufacturing iPhones

Figure 13.5.6 Satellite map of Zhengzhou International Airport, China, 2019. Describe the land change over time between Figures 13.5.5 and 13.5.6. Why has this change occurred?

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From Zhengzhou, various freight carriers, such as FedEx, fly the phones to hubs around the world, where they are then transported by different means to Apple affiliate stores. From there, the product can be bought by us, the customers.

Figure 13.5.7 Mr Badsha Bulbul, the first customer in line to receive his new iPhone Pro at the Australian release of the iPhone 15 and Apple Watch models at the Apple Store on 22 September 2023 in Sydney, Australia.

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The social impacts on places that make products As we have seen, companies can move manufacturing to places that offer cheap labour. While this international division of labour increases the profits of multinational corporations, it also has significant, sometimes devastating, social impacts on the places where the products are made.

Life at Foxconn, Zhengzhou, China

Foxconn in Zhengzhou is one of the main manufacturers of iPhones. The 3.5‑km2 area was once used for agriculture, but was purchased by the government in

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Figure 13.5.8 Foxconn factory employees hard at work on 4 September 2021 in Zhengzhou City, Henan Province, China

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2010 and converted into a gated industrial and residential zone often referred to as ‘Foxconn City’. Some work is seasonal. It is busiest in summer, when up to 350 000 people are hired to produce new iPhones before their global release in autumn. Conditions at Foxconn are believed to be fairly standard for the Chinese manufacturing industry. Table 13.5.2 outlines what life looks like for the makers of your smartphone.

Notably, in 2025 the United States implemented policies designed to shift manufacturing work away from China. By placing high tariffs on goods coming from China, the United States makes it more expensive to produce goods in China, which encourages companies like Apple to look elsewhere for cheaper options. Countries like India, Vietnam and Mexico are likely candidates.

It takes time to develop the facilities required for such large-scale production, so the change will not be quick. However, it does raise questions about what will happen to the people in Zhengzhou and China’s other manufacturing hubs as companies take their business elsewhere.

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Table 13.5.2 Living and working conditions for Foxconn workers in Zhengzhou, China

The people

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

The work

The factory attracts mostly 16–30-year-olds from Henan province. People migrate to Foxconn City because it is close enough to their villages to allow visits to their families. Liu (a Foxconn employee) said, ‘You get Sundays off and you can go home and visit your family. That’s the perk’.* People working in factories further away only see their families during Chinese New Year and National Day. Many children are raised by their grandparents while their parents work at the factories. Production line work can be monotonous, as each employee usually only has one task – for instance, wiping an iPhone screen or soldering a component. Though the work may not be diﬃcult, one employee stated, ‘You do the same thing every day. It never ends. After a while you get annoyed at the thing you are doing. You don’t even notice it at first … Eventually, I felt annoyed to the core of my heart. Like I had no purpose’.

Managers have been known to humiliate workers if mistakes are made – for example, by making the worker write a formal letter of apology to read to fellow workers. The wages Workers typically earn A$585 a month, which is below the estimated living wage of A$857. However, workers are attracted to the job because of the overtime available. Some work 60 hours of overtime a week – equating to 14-hour days, seven days a week – earning up to A$900 per month. Much of this money is sent back to support their families, as young Chinese people are expected to economically support their elders. The accommodation Most workers live in the 10-storey residential buildings in Foxconn City. Eight people share a room and sleep in bunk beds. Rent is A$23.60 per month.

living wage an income high enough to support a normal standard of living

The gated city has many usual businesses, run by migrants from Henan or other parts of China, including restaurants, karaoke lounges, sports clubs, internet cafés and clubs.

Note: All employee quotes are from Harrison Jacobs, Inside ‘iPhone City’: The Massive Chinese Factory Town Where Half of the World’s iPhones are Produced, 2018.

Lesson 13.5 review Online quiz

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Research task

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13.5 Review questions

1 Define the following terms: trade goods services multinational corporation international division of labour. 2 State how much an iPhone employee in Zhengzhou gets paid per hour. Suggest why the United States could not compete with that wage. 3 Explain how the iPhone is an example of specialisation and the international division of labour. 4 Suggest the main cause of the labour conditions at Foxconn.

• • • • •

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13.6

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How do the impacts of interconnections through trade affect countries’ environmental sustainability? Learning intention

We have looked at how trade connects the economies and demographics of Australia and China. In this lesson, we will examine how global trade aﬀects environmental sustainability.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

Think, pair, share

Navigate to the McKinsey Global Institute webpage ‘Global trade explorer’ and explore the data.

1 Think: Identify when Australia’s top trading partner changed. 2 Pair: With a partner, discuss and propose reasons for the change. (Hint: Think about Figure 13.6.1.) 3 Share: Prepare to discuss your ideas with the class.

➜

Figure 13.6.1 An iron ore mine in Western Australia.

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The environmental impacts on the places that produce raw materials As we have learned, the production of goods is often a global‑scale process. In this process:

production (where goods are made) and goods consumption (where goods are bought, used and discarded).

• A variety of parts may be made in different places around the world.

What are raw materials?

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Raw materials are the basic materials used to make products. Examples include water, vegetables, wood, oil, coal and metals. The stacked bar graph in Figure 13.6.2 shows the largest producers of raw materials by volume. Australia ranks fourth in the world. Our status as a raw materials producer has had significant impacts on our society and economy. Some of these impacts are outlined below.

• These parts are transported to a central location to be assembled and packaged. • The finished products are then distributed across the world to consumer markets. In this lesson we will examine the environmental impacts of goods

4500 4000

Million metric tonnes

3500 3000 2500 2000 1500 1000 500

Mineral fuels

Iron, ferro-alloys

Non-ferrous metals

Precious metals

Poland

Kuwait

Venezuela

Norway

Qatar

UAE

Germany

Mexico

Kazakhstan

South Africa

Iran

Brazil

Canada

Indonesia

Saudi Arabia

India

Australia

Russia

United States

China

Industrial minerals

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Figure 13.6.2 The 20 biggest producers of raw materials (in million metric tons). What type of raw materials does

Australia produce? In what ways is Australia’s production of raw materials similar to and different from that of other countries in the graph?

Australia’s mining boom

In 2003, a mining boom began – Australia’s largest since the 1850s gold rush. This boom was a result of rapid demand for raw materials from Asian countries to meet the needs of their

expanding manufacturing industries. In a short time, prices for iron ore increased from $20 a tonne to a peak of $170 a tonne. The impacts of Australia’s mining boom affected many Australians, as outlined in Table 13.6.1.

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Table 13.6.1 Impacts of Australia’s mining boom

Workers

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Many employees were well-paid. For example, truck drivers in the mines could earn $150 000 a year. Property owners House prices in the Pilbara mining region increased from $200 000 to over $1 000 000 as many people moved to the region for work, which increased housing demand. Multinational corporations Revenue increased by sevenfold from selling products at higher prices, creating and Australian mining huge profits for companies and their shareholders. companies Australia’s society Migration to Australia increased, energising the economy as new residents required goods and services, which stimulated businesses. Australia’s economy At its peak, mining made up 8.5 per cent of Australia’s GDP. During the global financial crisis, while many countries were hard‑hit with rising unemployment, Australia’s employment remained strong, allowing the government to support the public and maintain our standard of living. Agricultural, tourism and During the boom, the Australian dollar became strong, making our produce manufacturing industries expensive. Local manufacturing had to pay high prices for Australian raw materials, while agricultural and tourism industries suffered as the strong exchange rate made our country expensive for foreigners to buy from or visit.

The mining boom peaked in 2012 and then slowed temporarily. Although employment levels are slowly increasing again, this new wave of mining activity aims to use more robotics and automation (programming machines to perform tasks).

This means more workers will be needed in city offices to oversee machines rather than on the ground in the mines, which may reduce the economic benefits for regional communities that previously benefited from the boom.

Unemployment

6.5

Without the mining boom

6.0

5.5

5.0

4.5

4.0

Unemployment rate

3.5

2000

2005

2010

2015

2020

2025

3.5

➜

Figure 13.6.3 Australia’s actual unemployment rate compared to the estimated unemployment rate if the mining boom did not occur. Describe the impact that the mining boom had on the employment rate from 2000 to 2013. Refer to the data in your answer.

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Environmental impacts on countries that supply raw materials As raw materials become scarcer, we would need to start extracting them from more difficult locations, which can be dangerous and expensive. For example, natural gas is now mined through hydraulic fracturing (fracking), which can create 300 million litres of toxic wastewater per well. Oil is being extracted from tar sands in the deep ocean, requiring a lot of energy to process. This dangerous process led to the oil spill in the Gulf of Mexico in 2010, which killed 11 workers and thousands of animals. Following the spill, half of the surviving dolphins were found to be extremely sick from lung and adrenal disorders linked to oil exposure.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

As raw materials become less available, societies and environments are increasingly affected. Table 13.6.2 shows how long some raw materials are predicted to last. Note that this data is from 2007 and may have changed; however, from these estimates, which are very conservative, all of the resources listed in the table except aluminium will be used up in the next 350 years. Importantly, the figures do not take into account the development of new technologies, which are likely to further increase the rate of use of these remaining resources, causing them to run out even faster.

Table 13.6.2 Common uses of key raw materials and how long until they run out

Raw material

Some of its common uses

Years from 2025 until completely used up 20

Indium

LCDs

Silver

Jewellery, catalytic converters – i.e. a device that 18 reduces the toxic gases and pollutants that come out of a car’s tailpipe

Antimony

Batteries, increasing metals’ durability and decreasing friction

Tin

Cans, preventing other metals’ corrosion

Lead

Pipes, batteries

Gold

Jewellery, dentistry

Uranium

Power stations, nuclear weapons

Zinc

Galvanises metals and used as alloys in a lot of products like plastics and cosmetics

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Table 13.6.2 Continued

Some of its common uses

Copper

Wires, coins, plumbing

Years from 2025 until completely used up 50

Nickel

Batteries, turbine blades

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Raw material

Tantalum

Mobiles, camera lenses

105

Chromium

Chrome plating, paint

132

Phosphorus

Fertiliser, animal feed

334

Platinum

Jewellery, catalysts, fuel cells for cars

349

Aluminium

Foil, aeroplane parts

1016

Source: Adapted from Armin Reller from the University of Augsburg and Tom Graedel from Yale University, 2007.

Concepts and skills builder 13.6 Interpretation activity

1 Study Table 13.6.1 and identify two areas that benefitted and two that suffered from Australia’s mining boom. Study Table 13.6.2.

2 Which raw material are we expected to use up globally first? 3 Choose one of these materials to investigate further. Can it be recycled, and if so, how and where is it recycled? Geographical concepts and skills: interconnection, place, space

Protests against environmental impacts of raw material extraction There is potential for new technologies to extract, recycle or even replace popular raw materials. For example, some countries are replacing coal with renewable energy.

Mining raw materials impacts the environment by reducing water supplies 372

and changing biomes. This, in turn, harms the livelihoods of rural communities where mining occurs. Mining companies often draw water from nearby rivers and aquifers, while run-off from the mines pollutes local water and soil with metals such as mercury and lead. This reduces the water and soil available for communities and their commercial or subsistence farming.

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supplied water to 180 000 people and irrigated over 5000 hectares of farmland. In Australia, environmentally minded people protest frequently, especially when mining companies try to open new ventures. However, federal and state governments have traditionally approved such mining initiatives in the name of economic growth, despite protests from citizens, lobby groups and political parties such as the Greens.

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Such pollution has led to protests around the world. In Peru in 2017, people from the town of Cerro de Pasco marched 240 km to Lima to highlight that 2070 of their children had dangerously high levels of lead in their blood. In 2019, thousands of people from Çanakkale in north-west Turkey protested against deforestation for a new gold mine and the heap-leaching process used to separate gold from ore. There was concern that the process would leak cyanide into the local dam, which

Environmental impacts on places that receive waste As our wealth increases, our desire and expectation to own more goods increases. Ultimately, we want new things and cannot simply store everything we purchase. As a consequence, we throw many old goods away to make room for the new. The scale of this behaviour is shocking. Hazardous

waste from products such as batteries, cosmetics and electronics is increasing. In fact, human-made chemical production has increased by 40 000 per cent in just 40 years. One million plastic bottles are bought every minute.

Australians used 3.5 million tonnes of plastics in 2018 to 2019 of which around 60% was imported

One million tonnes of Australia’s annual plastic consumption is single-use plastic

3.5

MILLION TONNES

................................... .... .... ...........

........................................ .......... Australia is missing out on an estimated $419 million of economic value each year by not recovering all PET and HDPE

........................................ ..........

84% of plastic used is sent to landfill and only 13% is recycled

84%

Australia uses around 70 billion pieces of soft ‘scrunchable’ plastics, such as food wrappers, each year

CK S NA

................................... .... .... ...........

By 2050, it is estimated that plastic in the oceans will outweigh fish

................................... .... .... ...........

........................................ ..........

➜

In Australia approximately 130 000 tonnes of plastic leaks into the marine environment each year

Our use of plastic is increasing, and across the world will double by 2040

Figure 13.6.4 ‘National Plastics Plan’, Department of Agriculture, Water and the Environment, 2021

Until 2018, Australia exported half of its plastic waste, mostly to China. In 2018, China restricted the amount of waste it accepts. Since then, Australia has exported plastic waste to South-East Asian countries, which have also placed restrictions because of environmental and social issues related to processing plastic. Chapter 13: What makes us interconnected?

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What are the impacts of plastic pollution? Most plastics are sold to villages where people melt them down to create other products. This process uses large amounts of water and energy. Much of the plastic is dumped and ends up in the ocean, while some is burned, polluting the air and water with toxic chemicals.

Repair café The first repair café started in Amsterdam, Netherlands, in 2009. People who have goods that need repair can attend the café, where they are matched with individuals who have the skills to fix them. The idea is that those bringing in their goods will gain skills and knowledge. This reduces the amount of goods thrown into landfill and stops people from having to purchase a replacement, saving them money. Social benefits include a sense of community, goodwill for those who attend the café and free education. Drawbacks include that, for some, the repair café may not be as convenient as buying a new product and there is no guarantee that their item can be fixed.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Responses: Waste to energy and repair cafés

claims its technology is advanced enough to reduce this risk, although there is also the risk that this practice encourages the production of more plastic.

Waste to energy

Sweden made headlines when it announced that it was running out of plastic. In fact, it now makes A$100 million a year from accepting plastic from other countries. Plastic is burned on an industrial scale to create heat and electricity. Many see this as better than sending it to landfill. However, because plastic is made from low-grade oil, burning it emits carbon dioxide. When a similar plant was proposed in Sydney, many were concerned about the toxic chemicals that could be released. Sweden

Amazing but true …

For many years, Dromana College in Victoria had been working with new plastic to teach design principles to students. With growing awareness of how destructive single-use plastic can be to our environment, it became apparent that the school’s use of plastic was outdated. To address this issue, the school procured machines that allow it to recycle existing plastic instead of using new plastic. The goal of Dromana College is to transform its waste into functional objects such as outdoor seating, signage and building materials. With involvement from students, the school has introduced a new waste-management system that collects single-use plastic to recycle. By working towards a closed-loop waste system, the school aims to provide students with the space and context to develop ideas that will move the school towards more sustainable practices.

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Lesson 13.6 review Online quiz

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Research task

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13.6 Review questions 1 2 3 4

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List three examples of raw materials. Recall when Australia’s most recent mining boom reached its peak. Suggest whether unemployment in Australia would have been higher or lower without the mining boom. Compare the responses to plastic waste management outlined in this topic. Which response is most sustainable? Justify your choice by comparing the benefits and challenges of both. Cambridge Investigating Humanities for the Victorian Curriculum 9

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13.7

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Fieldwork: Investigating products and/or services that businesses sell to other places Learning intention

In this lesson you will have the opportunity to investigate – by collecting both quantitative and qualitative data – the products and/or services that businesses sell to other places. Fieldwork is an essential part of studying geography. It lets you investigate many of the concepts learned in class while working in the real world. It also gives you the chance to apply your knowledge to answer a research question about issues in your local area. In this investigation

your aim is to detail the international division of labour that goes into producing a chosen product, including where the materials come from, where production occurs and who buys the product. The following structure will help form the basis of your study.

➜

Figure 13.7.1 We all use products that are part of a complex web of international trade and labour. What will you choose to investigate?

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Section Explanation Examples The global chain of single-origin coffee pods Title and introduction Choose a suitable topic and title for your From lithium to lithium-ion batteries investigation. It should include the scope and location How is it possible to pay only $5 for a t-shirt? of your investigation.

• • •

• Volume and value of international trade in your

product at each stage (e.g. tonnes of green coffee beans exported from Colombia) Overview of shipping corridors or air-freight routes linking each production stage To what extent do consumer preferences in Australia shape the final roasting and packaging locations for single-origin coffee? Why is it not possible for Australia to refine its own lithium and produce all of its own batteries onshore? Australia produces more lithium than it can refine in its own facilities The cost of labour is the main contributor to the price of a clothing item Interviews with local businesses and households Fieldwork to gather details on prices

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Background information

Write a brief introduction outlining the main aspects of your study including an outline of the product you will be investigating. Research some background information about your chosen topic and region. This will provide context for your study.

•

Write a research question that you intend to answer using the data you collect. You may prefer to write one overall research question and multiple sub-questions.

•

Hypothesis

A hypothesis is a clear and concise statement that can be tested. It should be written before you collect your primary data.

• •

Primary data collection

Primary data is data you collect yourself in the field specifically for your investigation. Consider the types of primary data you need and the equipment and preparation required. Secondary data is data that others have collected, which you can use in your investigation. Research to find suitable sources of information for your topic. Summarise your findings in visual formats that are easy to read and understand.

• •

Research question

Secondary data collection

Presenting and analysing your data

Discussion, conclusion and evaluation

References

•

Use your primary and secondary data to answer your research question. Provide a concise summary of your major findings. Evaluate the success of your data collection and overall investigation.

• Company annual reports detailing component origins • FAO coffee-sector reports • Different types of graphs (pie, line, bar) and maps (choropleth, thematic, political) • Annotated photos and field sketches • Summary tables • The extent to which your hypothesis has been supported or disproven • An answer to your research question • The positive and negatives of your data collection

Include a bibliography of any sources used.

•

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and how it can be improved Food and Agriculture Organization, 2025, ‘Markets and Trade - Coffee’, FAO, accessed 28 April 2025, https://www.fao.org/markets-and-trade/ commodities-overview/beverages/coffee/en

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CHAPTER 14

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How have advancing interconnections impacted place and space?

LESSON TITLE 14.1

Setting the scene: What are the impacts of overtourism in Santorini?

14.2

How does tourism contribute to global interconnectedness and impact on different places?

14.3

How does tourism impact Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples?

14.4

End of investigation review: Geographies of interconnection

Image: A notice that a resident of Barcelona, Spain, placed on their balcony in 2024, highlighting the problem of overtourism in popular European cities

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14.1

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Setting the scene: What are the impacts of overtourism in Santorini? Learning intention

This lesson introduces what happens when a place becomes too popular and how this aﬀects the environment and the people living there. Santorini is a beautiful island in Greece, attracting about 3.4 million visitors each year. Famous for its stunning sunsets, white buildings and clear blue waters, tourists arrive by ferry, cruise ship and

plane. During peak season, the island can see up to 17 000 cruise ship passengers in a single day. However, its popularity has led to big problems like overcrowding and strain on local resources.

➜

Figure 14.1.1 Santorini island, Greece. The town of Oia is pictured, with its traditional white houses and churches with blue domes overlooking the Aegean Sea.

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Santorini became famous because of its unique scenery and the rise of social media. People love to share photos of the island’s blue-domed churches and amazing views on Instagram. This has attracted millions of visitors each year. Additionally, many cruise ships stop at Santorini, bringing thousands of tourists every day.

➜

Figure 14.1.2 (Top) Three cruise ships near Santorini, December 2023. (Bottom) Tourists perch wherever they can to catch a view of the sunset from Santorini.

Tourism can be great for the economy, bringing in money and creating jobs. However, it also brings many challenges. For example, the large number of tourists in Santorini puts a lot of pressure on the island’s infrastructure. Managing all the waste becomes difficult,

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introduced several measures. In 2018, they began limiting the number of cruise ship passengers to 8000 per day to reduce overcrowding. They also use a digital system to schedule cruise ship arrivals at different times to avoid peak congestion. Additionally, efforts are being made to promote sustainable tourism. This includes encouraging tourists to visit during less busy times and explore less crowded areas of the island through marketing campaigns and incentives for off-peak travel. Stricter rules on new buildings have been proposed to preserve the island’s charm and prevent overdevelopment, although enforcing these rules can be challenging.

➜

Figure 14.1.3 The landscape of Santorini has been forever changed by increasing numbers of tourists to the island

which leads to pollution and damage to the natural environment. With so many people visiting, there is a high demand for water, which can lead to shortages. Socially, the influx of tourists means that local residents must deal with crowded streets and public spaces. Their daily lives are often disrupted by the noise and traffic caused by so many visitors. The island’s cultural heritage is also at risk, as traditional ways of life are overshadowed by the demands of mass tourism. Economically, while tourism brings in money, it also creates inequalities. The cost of living has gone up, making it hard for locals to afford housing and other necessities. To manage the problems caused by too many tourists, Santorini has

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Santorini’s mayor, Nikos Zorzos, has emphasised the importance of managing visitor flows so that both residents and tourists can enjoy their time on the island. He also pointed out that unregulated overbuilding is a major threat to the island’s sustainability.

Santorini’s experience with overtourism shows how global connections can impact local places. While tourism has brought economic benefits, it has also strained the island’s resources and affected the quality of life for residents. Effective management strategies are crucial to balance the needs of tourists and locals, ensuring that Santorini remains a beautiful and sustainable destination for future generations.

Lesson 14.1 review Online quiz

Review questions

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Research task

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14.1 Review questions Think, pair, share ‘Should tourism be banned in Santorini?’ Consider both the positive and negative impacts of tourism on the island. Pair up with a partner to discuss your reflections. Share your discussion with the class.

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14.2

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How does tourism contribute to global interconnectedness and impact on diﬀerent places? Learning intention

We have previously looked at how overtourism has aﬀected the island of Santorini, in Greece. In this lesson, you will consider the impacts of tourism on a range of places around the world.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

See, think, wonder

Access the video from British news channel ITN (Figure 14.2.1), then answer the questions that follow.

1 See: Describe the events shown in the news footage. Why were Spaniards protesting? Who are the ‘winners’ and who are the ‘losers’ in the situation in Mallorca, Spain? 2 Think: What does the video suggest the causes of the crisis were? How does this compare to what you have learned about Santorini in Greece? How does the video suggest that authorities in places like Barcelona in Spain or Santorini are fighting back? 3 Wonder: How widespread does the clip suggest the protest sentiment was? Do you think this video is evidence that there are tensions globally between tourists and residents of various places? List some reasons for the rapid growth in tourist numbers at the time. ➜

Figure 14.2.1 In July 2024, thousands of residents of Mallorca (Majorca), Spain, took to the streets to protest against overtourism. Watch the video here:

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Figure 14.2.2 International travel is a favourite pastime of many young Australians.

The global growth of tourism and its likely eﬀects on the future of places Tourism is one of the fastest-growing sectors in the world. Before the COVID-19 pandemic, the growth of the global travel and tourism sector consistently outpaced that of the global economy for nine consecutive years. In 2023, travel and tourism’s direct contribution to global GDP was approximately $9.9 trillion,

or 9.1 per cent. In 2024, there were approximately 1.4 billion international tourist arrivals worldwide. This marked an 11 per cent increase over 2023 and brought international tourism back to nearly pre-pandemic levels. These numbers highlight the significant role tourism plays in the global economy.

Economic impacts of tourism The jobs provided by tourism support local, regional and national economies. About 3 per cent of people worldwide work directly in the tourism industry. However, the industry has a much broader reach, as it supports the jobs of 10 per cent of people worldwide. Figure 14.2.3 demonstrates the direct, indirect and induced impacts of cruise ship tourism. It can provide much-needed income in places that otherwise have few resources to trade, such as Macau, where 44 per cent of its income comes from tourism,

382

particularly from people drawn to the region’s casinos.

However, as we have already seen, there are a range of negative impacts of tourism. Economically, these include underemployment or unemployment for parts of the year in places where tourism is seasonal. Moreover, the cost of housing, goods and services can increase in order to make money from tourists, which puts financial pressure on locals who cannot afford the price increase.

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Induced impact Direct impact

Indirect impact

Purchases made by passengers, crew and cruise lines from the regions travelled from and travelled to

Purchases made by restaurants, hotels and other services on the cruise ship

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Payments made by merchants to their suppliers to provide services for passengers and crew on the cruise ship Wages paid by hotels, restaurants and other service suppliers to staff and other related labourers

The employees of the cruise lines and their suppliers also purchase consumer goods including in the areas of food, clothing and healthcare

➜

Figure 14.2.3 Direct, indirect and induced impacts of cruise ship tourism

Environmental impacts of tourism Tourism can impact environments in a positive way by providing financial investment in improved water quality, pollution reduction and infrastructure. It can also encourage governments to protect natural environments and heritage areas.

On the other hand, tourism can put a large amount of stress on places, particularly fragile environments such as coral reefs, deserts, mountains and

coasts that are not able to cope with large numbers of people and their waste. The consequences of this can be degradation of habitats and loss of wildlife, and increases in pollution and soil erosion. If the environment becomes too damaged over time, the place may also lose its appeal to tourists, who may no longer wish to go there. Moreover, transport alone contributes to climate change by emitting enormous amounts of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere.

Social impacts of tourism

Travel can enrich people’s lives. Tourists and locals both have an opportunity to learn about each other’s culture and language, which can help overcome prejudices and stereotypes. It can also show travellers that there is no one way to live and help broaden their perspectives. However, there are also negative social risks, such as increased crime

and damage to the natural and human environments. Conflict may also occur between tourists and locals over resources. In some places, tourists can use up to 16 times as much water as locals. Moreover, locals are sometimes forced out of their homes to make way for tourist developments.

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GREENLAND

FRANCE

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

UNITED STATES

GHANA

ZANZIBAR

2500

5000 km

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Figure 14.2.4 Impacts of tourism around the world

Impact of tourism around the world Greenland Greenland is the world’s largest island after Australia, and is largely covered by a permanent ice sheet – the only one outside Antarctica. Greenland’s ice is melting due to climate change, which has increased the average winter temperature by almost 6°C. Tourism to Greenland has doubled in six years. ‘Climate change tourism’ is attracting people who say they want to visit Greenland before the landscape changes and the polar bears that live there become extinct. Travelling by ship or plane to Greenland emits carbon, so some argue it is exacerbating climate change; however, others see it as an opportunity for the tourism industry to grow. United States National parks such as Yosemite and Yellowstone have helped protect the natural environment and native animals of the United States, as well as allowing tourists to enjoy nature-based tourism

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activities. However, the natural beauty of the United States also suffers from the impact of social media. For example, Horseshoe Bend near the Grand Canyon National Park became Instagram-famous and now attracts crowds of up to 2 million people annually – well beyond what the fragile desert environment can handle. The sudden popularity of the area also means that infrastructure is not in place to deal with the increase in visitors. As one local said, ‘It was just a local place for family outings … But with the invention of the cellphone, things changed overnight’ (Bill Diak, local, quoted in Charlotte Simmonds et al., Crisis in Our National Parks: How Tourists are Loving Nature to Death, 2018). France Paris is the most popular tourist destination in the world. The 50 million tourists each year impact local residents, who feel overwhelmed by the crowds.

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experiencing extreme water shortages. Zanzibar was also affected by a cholera outbreak in 2010 that killed three locals. This outbreak was connected to contaminated groundwater from hotel sewage.

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Singapore ‘Bleisure travel’ refers to combining travel for business with leisure activities. Singapore attracts international business people from the manufacturing, finance and real estate industries. For leisure, these people can also enjoy shopping, sampling a variety of cuisines, seeing cultural sights and enjoying the luxuries of high-end hotels. Bleisure travel is a quickly growing industry and has the benefit of attracting people to places that they may not have otherwise visited.

Cambodia ‘Voluntourism’ refers to tourists who perform volunteer work while being away from home. In Cambodia, tourists volunteer at orphanages as a way of doing good. However, according to a 2020 report from the Cambodian Children’s Trust, 80 per cent of these children are not orphans. They have been recruited from their villages by people who tell their parents that this is a great opportunity for their children to get an education and meet Westerners. These children grow up with a loss of their culture and identity. Their relationships with tourists only last a few weeks, which can result in a warped sense of connection that is not based on any substantial, ongoing bond. Abuse and mistreatment have also been reported. The outcome for these children is often grim, with many suffering mental health issues into adulthood.

CAMBODIA

SINGAPORE

BALI, INDONESIA

AUSTRALIA

NEW ZEALAND

Tourism also affects the affordability of accommodation for locals, as residents are put out of their rental apartments by landlords who can make more money renting them using apps such as Airbnb. Some locals argue that the scale of tourism makes the city feel more like a theme park than an urban living environment.

Ghana Ghana is experiencing strong growth in tourism. Ghana has a tragic history, as many people taken as slaves to the United States came from Ghana. The Year of Return is a marketing strategy designed to attract African Americans to visit Ghana as tourists. While tourist growth is positive, there is a risk that multinational businesses will invest in Ghana’s tourism industry and outcompete locally run businesses.

Zanzibar Hotels in Zanzibar hire security guards to protect the hotel’s water pipes from locals who are

Bali, Indonesia Tourism makes up 80 per cent of Bali’s income. The popularity of this island makes it far wealthier than some other Indonesian islands where agriculture is the primary industry. Though pollution has been a problem, the group One Island One Voice holds an annual event called Bali’s Biggest Clean Up. This event is supported by tourists and businesses, including multinational corporations that have a vested interest in keeping the island clean. Australia People around the world are becoming wealthier. The increased affluence in China has had a strong impact on international travel, including to Australia. Chinese tourists represent the largest percentage of international travellers to Australia, yet only 1.8 per cent of Chinese people travel here. Australia is expected to benefit from increasing numbers of Chinese tourists as more people in China become able to afford travel. New Zealand New Zealand is a popular destination for wilderness tourism. ‘Wilderness’ refers to land that has not been developed and has very little human impact. People attracted to wilderness tourism are often seeking the comfort of nature and hoping to escape the busyness of everyday life. However, there can be safety risks associated with this type of tourism. In 2019, tourists visiting White Island volcano lost their lives when the volcano erupted. Although the volcanic activity was being monitored, geographers are still developing their ability to accurately predict the timing of natural disasters such as this.

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Concepts and skills builder 14.2 Creating a poster advertising a small Australian town Most Australians live near the coast in big cities and towns. Only about 12 per cent live in small country towns far from the city. There are 1614 small towns in Australia with fewer than 5000 people, and more than 1000 of these have fewer than 1000 residents. Sadly, over 80 per cent of these small towns aren’t growing and are even shrinking in population and business.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Even with these problems, these small towns are important for farming, mining and tourism. They are home to over 1.1 million people. Many of these towns have old buildings and places that could help bring new life to the area. To make a town attractive to visitors, it first needs to be a great place for the people who live there. By improving facilities, infrastructure and services, the quality of life for locals improves, and tourists are more likely to visit and spend money. Tourism can help keep these towns alive and thriving.

1 Research a small Australian town and create a poster showing the positive and negative economic, social and environmental impacts of tourism. Suggestions of places include: • Places that attract visitors for activities such as attending festivals, visiting art galleries and attending cultural and historical experiences • Towns that feature something ‘Big’ such as the ‘Big Banana’ in Coﬀs Harbour, NSW • Goldmining towns such as Ballarat, Victoria or Devenport, Tasmania • Overtourism in Denmark, Western Australia. 2 Present your posters to the class and discuss your findings. Geographical concepts and skills: space, place, interconnection

Go online to access the interactive lesson review and more!

Lesson 14.2 review Online quiz

Review questions

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Research task

Teachers can assign tasks and track results

14.2 Review questions 1 2 3 4 5

Recall how many international tourists there were globally in 2024. Identify whether tourism is a growing industry. Provide one statistic from the text to support your answer. List one direct and one indirect impact of tourism. Define the terms ‘voluntourism’, ‘bleisure tourism’, ‘climate change tourism’ and ‘wilderness tourism’. Summarise the information that you have read about tourism in this lesson by copying and completing this table. Positive impacts

Negative impacts

Example

Economic impacts Social impacts Environmental impacts

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14.3

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How does tourism impact Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples? Learning intention

We have previously looked at the impacts of tourism on a range of places around the world. In this lesson, you will research the impacts of tourism on First Nations Peoples and their Country and place.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

See, think, wonder

1 See: What do you notice in these images? 2 Think: What was the purpose of these images? Do you think potential tourists thought they would be visiting modern cities or ‘the bush’? 3 Wonder: Have advertising campaigns for tourism to Australia changed much over the last 120 years?

Figure 14.3.1 Travel posters advertising Australia from around 1900 ➜

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The positive and negative impacts of tourism for First Nations Peoples 3

Truth telling and relationship building: When led by Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples, tourism can create opportunities for non-Indigenous visitors to engage with truth telling about the impacts of colonisation. These experiences can challenge stereotypes, deepen understanding, and support meaningful relationship building grounded in respect, responsibility and justice rather than surface level reconciliation.

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Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples have the oldest continuing cultures in the world. For 60 000 years, First Nations Peoples have managed the lands and waters of their Country or place in a reciprocal and spiritual relationship with the land. In the 250 years since colonisation by the British, many of the lands of the Traditional Owners across the Australian continent have been transformed. However, certain places – such as national parks – have protected the land from development.

Tourism can have both positive and negative impacts for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples. Through the National Indigenous Australians Agency (NIAA), the Federal Government offers First Nations tourism operators financial assistance in the form of grants to help develop their business opportunities.

Positive impacts 1

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Economic benefits: Tourism can provide significant economic opportunities for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander communities through employment, business ownership and the sale of arts and crafts.

Cultural authority and continuity: When Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples choose to share their culture, stories and knowledge with visitors, it can be a powerful expression of sovereignty. Rather than 'preserving' culture for others, First Nations tourism offers a platform to assert cultural authority, maintain intergenerational knowledge systems, and challenge dominant colonial narratives about history and belonging on this continent.

Negative impacts 1

Cultural harm: When tourism is not guided by community leadership and consent, it can lead to the misrepresentation or exploitation of cultural practices. Sacred traditions and sites may be used without permission or understanding, reducing deep cultural knowledge to a commodity.

Environmental harm: The increase in visitors to culturally significant lands and waters can contribute to pollution, erosion, and disruption to ecosystems that are central to cultural responsibilities and spiritual connection to Country.

Community disruption: Tourism can alter the rhythms of local life, impacting how communities practise culture, care for kin and Country, and pass on knowledge. Without care and cultural governance, these disruptions can cause social stress and weaken community control.

While tourism can offer many opportunities for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples, it is crucial that it is managed in a way that respects and supports their cultures and communities.

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Concepts and skills builder 14.3 Researching the management strategies of national parks

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1 Research the impacts of tourism on a national park in Australia of your choice. For example, Gariwerd or Uluru–Kata Tjuta National Park (you can read a bit about each park in this lesson). 2 Analyse the management plan of your chosen park and identify key strategies employed to protect environmental and cultural sites as well as encourage tourism. 3 Describe how management plans incorporate cultural and scientific knowledge. 4 Discuss the findings and explore how tourism can be managed to respect and preserve the heritage of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples. 5 Discuss how these strategies can be applied to other interconnected global issues. Geographical concepts and skills: space, place, interconnection

The impacts of national park tourism on First Nations Peoples Gariwerd (the Grampians)

Many national park authorities collaborate respectfully with Traditional Owners to manage the land. For instance, in December 2021 Parks Victoria introduced the ‘Greater Gariwerd Landscape Management Plan’. Gariwerd, also known as the Grampians National Park, boasts the highest concentration

of Aboriginal rock art in Victoria and nearly a third of the state’s plant species, offering vital habitats for endangered animals. The plan was developed in partnership with the Barengi Gadjin Land Council Aboriginal Corporation, Gunditj Mirring Traditional Owners Aboriginal Corporation and Eastern Maar Aboriginal Corporation.

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Figure 14.3.2 Gariwerd (the Grampians National Park), which is co-managed between Parks Victoria and Traditional Owners

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Figure 14.3.3: Ngamadjidj Shelter, also know as Cave of Ghosts, is one of the five Aboriginal art sites open to the public in Gariwerd.

With over a million visitors annually, the plan aims to foster healing and restoration of Country, encourage sustainable tourism and recreation and balance diverse perspectives on landscape use and protection. The plan envisions a 15-year strategy to better acknowledge and preserve the extraordinary cultural landscape within the national park and surrounding areas. It invites the broader community to learn about the cultural landscape and seeks to protect and enhance the valuable natural and cultural attributes of the Gariwerd landscape – a living cultural heritage that Traditional Owners have nurtured for tens of thousands of years.

Uluru–Kata Tjuta National Park

Uluru–Kata Tjuta National Park is one of Australia’s most iconic and culturally significant landmarks. Located in the Northern Territory, it encompasses two major geological formations: Uluru (previously also known as Ayers Rock) and Kata Tjuta (previously known as the Olgas). The park is recognised for its profound natural beauty and deep cultural heritage.

The park is of immense importance to the Anangu People, the Traditional Owners of the land. They have lived in the area for 390

at least 30 000 years. Uluru and Kata Tjuta are central to their spiritual beliefs and are considered sacred sites. The Tjukurpa (Dreamtime) stories explain the creation of these formations and guide the Anangu’s way of life, laws and moral codes. The Anangu are responsible for the protection and management of these ancestral lands, ensuring that their cultural practices and knowledge are preserved. Uluru–Kata Tjuta National Park is renowned for its spectacular geological formations, rare plants and animals. Uluru, a massive sandstone monolith, and Kata Tjuta, a group of large, domed rock formations, are both stunning examples of natural beauty. The park’s unique landscape provides habitats for various species, some of which are found nowhere else in the world.

The park is listed as a UNESCO World Heritage site for both its natural and cultural values. It was first added to the list in 1987 for its outstanding natural beauty and geological formations. In 1994, UNESCO also recognised the park’s cultural landscape, highlighting the unique relationship between the Aṉangu People and their environment. This dual listing underscores the park’s global significance and the need to protect its heritage.

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Figure 14.3.4 (Top) The iconic landform of Uluru, also known as Ayers Rock. (Bottom) A national park ranger erects a notice for a permanent ban on climbing Uluru, at Uluru–Kata Tjuta National Park in the Northern Territory on 25 October 2019.

Lesson 14.3 review Online quiz

Review questions

DOC

Research task

Go online to access the interactive lesson review and more!

Teachers can assign tasks and track results

14.3 Review questions 1 2 3 4

Identify how the text describes the relationship between the land and First Nations Peoples for 60 000 years. Describe some of the potential benefits of tourism for First Nations Peoples. Describe some of the potential drawbacks of tourism for First Nations Peoples. Explain the significance of the dual UNESCO World Heritage listing categories for Uluru–Kata Tjuta National Park. 5 Explain the benefits of Australia’s national parks being co-managed between government authorities and Traditional Owners.

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14.4

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End of investigation review: Geographies of interconnection Access the Interactive Textbook for a range of digital tools to help you review this topic, including:

• Downloadable chapter summary • Scorcher timed competitive quiz.

Making thinking visible

In this investigation, we have read many case studies on the impacts of trade on the environment and society. Take on one of the following roles: a multinational corporation, a worker, the environment, a government or a consumer. Consider global trade from your chosen perspective by completing the following prompts: 1 2 3

I am thinking of global trade from the point of view of a … I think … [describe global trade from your viewpoint]. (Be an actor – take on the character of your viewpoint.) A question I have from this viewpoint is … (Ask a question from this viewpoint.)

Wrap up: What new ideas do you have about the topic that you didn’t have before? What new questions do you have?

Extended response questions

Consider the following statement from geographer and author Jared Diamond: ‘The biggest problems facing the world today are not at all beyond our control, rather they are all of our own making, and entirely in our power to deal with’. To what extent do you agree with this statement? Use examples from this investigation to support your answer.

Figure 14.4.1 Anti-tourism graffiti in Barcelona which has, ironically, become a photo spot for tourists. ➜

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Solving geographical problems Consider one of the challenges discussed in this investigation – for example, lack of transport networks in Papua New Guinea, plastic pollution or reduction in raw material availability. Create a strategy that can overcome or reduce the negative impacts of this challenge. Consider the following questions to guide you: • What are the main causes of this challenge?

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• How does your strategy address these causes? • How could your strategy be implemented and what resources do you need? • What difficulties might you face when implementing your strategy? • How can you overcome these difficulties?

Research tasks 1

Choose a multinational corporation to investigate. Suggestions include McDonald’s, Rip Curl, Rebel, Amazon, Nestlé, Coca-Cola, Boeing, L’Oréal or BP. Address the following: a Where is its headquarters?

b How much is the company worth?

c How much revenue (income) did it earn in the last financial year? d How much does the average employee earn?

e Where does the company manufacture its goods? (Include places that supply the parts and assemble the products. You may wish to annotate a map to show this.)

f In which countries does it sell its goods?

g What are the environmental and social impacts associated with this company’s operations?

Research your own connection to places around the world. Create a list of your possessions. For each item, write down where it comes from. Discuss your results in a paragraph.

We have looked at the ways that travel connects people and places around the world. How do trends in music and fashion, pandemics or financial crises spread globally? Choose one of these topics to research, and create a short report that includes the following: • Title of your investigation

• 300-word overview of your topic

• Annotated maps showing the global spread related to your topic • Quotes from at least two experts on the topic • Photos with captions • A brief summary of your findings.

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U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES Image: Management skills are important, both in the world of business and in the home. In Year 9 Economics and Business, you will look

closely at management skills.

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Part 3

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Economics and Business

FPO <QR>

Watch the video for an introduction to Economics and Business in Year 9 and the skills and concepts you will be working with

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INVESTIGATION

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How are households and businesses managed? OVERVIEW

[This text addresses the curriculum content and learning framework used for investigating the management of households and businesses.

CURRICULUM CONTENT

The VCAA prescribes the following curriculum:

• Students focus on consumer and financial risks and rewards. They look at factors influencing major consumer financial decisions, and the Australian system of superannuation and its importance to living standards. • Students look at how businesses create and maintain competitive advantage and the importance of entrepreneurship, marketing and public relations strategies in these contexts. Source: VCAA, Victorian Curriculum V2.0, ‘Economics and Business’, ‘Band description – Levels 9 and 10’

LEARNING FRAMEWORK

This text provides students with lessons related to the above question and curriculum content, using an investigative learning framework.

The learning framework is presented in two chapters covering the following investigations: How can households manage their finances? (Chapter 15), including:

• How do consumers manage financial risks and rewards? • How does superannuation support individual and national material wellbeing? How do businesses stay competitive? (Chapter 16), including:

• How does enterprise contribute to business success? • What is the system of industrial relations used in Australia? At the end of each chapter there is an opportunity for a student to write a paragraph about their investigation. 396 Uncorrected 3rd sample pages • Cambridge University Press and Assessment © De Fanti, et al 2025 • 978-1-009-62416-9 • Ph 03 8671 1400

CHAPTER 15

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How can households manage their finances?

LESSON TITLE 15.1

Setting the scene: How can households improve their material life?

15.2

What is the purpose of household budgeting?

15.3

How can a household minimise the risks to its finances?

15.4

What are some smart uses of wealth?

15.5

How do people avoid scams?

15.6

What legal and ethical issues relate to household finances?

15.7

What is superannuation?

15.8

What are the potential benefits for contributors to superannuation schemes?

15.9

What are the potential benefits for the nation from superannuation schemes?

15.10

Research task: Your 10-year financial plan

15.11

End of investigation review: How can households manage their finances?

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15.1

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Setting the scene: How can households improve their material life? Learning intention

In this lesson, you will look at some ways that households can improve their material life. Imagine you’ve just moved out of home for the first time. You have a part-time job, rent to pay, groceries to buy and bills arriving in your inbox. You want to save for a holiday, but your money always seems to disappear before the end of the month. Now, think about a different household – maybe your own family. Who decides what gets bought each week? How does your household manage money

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savings that part of disposable income left after spending on necessities and other expenses

to afford essentials, fun activities and unexpected expenses?

Managing a household is like running a small business. Every decision – from what food to buy to how much electricity to use – affects financial stability. Some families seem to manage their money well, always having savings for emergencies or future plans, while others struggle to make ends meet. What makes the difference?

Figure 15.1.1 Making smart financial decisions early can make life much easier in the long term.

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U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES Figure 15.1.3 Shopping locally keeps money in the local community, supporting local families.

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Figure 15.1.2 Unexpected expenses, like car repairs, can be a significant problem if they are not planned for in advance.

The importance of household management A well-managed household uses money wisely, balancing income, spending and saving. This means planning for bills, groceries and entertainment while also setting aside money for unexpected costs like car repairs or medical expenses. Good financial habits allow a household to grow wealth over time, improving the wellbeing of household members.

on the community and environment. This might include making the decision to shop locally, donate to charities or choose ecofriendly products. Just like a business needs good management to succeed, a household benefits from smart decision-making. In this chapter, you’ll explore how to improve your material life by making practical financial choices, setting goals and using strategies to build a stable and successful household.

But managing a household isn’t just about personal finances. Many households also consider their impact

income cash and government transfers received by a household member wealth the assets owned by a household

Household material wellbeing Most households want to improve their material wellbeing – getting and using goods and services they want. Future lessons cover strategies for achieving this. These strategies include budgeting, minimising financial risks, using wealth smartly and avoiding scams.

These strategies focus on the near future. For the long‑term future, superannuation is crucial for household wellbeing.

How materially well members of a household live depends on its income and

expenses. Some households have two incomes, but if they have children much of their income goes on child care, child minding, clothing and food.

Besides income, the cost of living is also important. For example, if costs of household items such as supermarket prices, rents and medical costs grow faster than income, households can buy fewer goods and services. We say that their real income is lower because they can now buy fewer goods and services with their actual income.

Chapter 15: How can households manage their finances?

real income the money a person, business or government earns over a set period, adjusted for inflation to show what it can actually buy

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The Victorian Curriculum lists a range of skills that you will need to develop. To help you practice and integrate these skills in Economics and Business, we have developed the Q-CAFÉ method of investigation. There are opportunities to apply this method throughout the lessons, as well as in a final research task (Lesson 15.10).

Q-CAFÉ method of investigation

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Q Questions are formed to investigate an issue, problem, or system. This leads to a definition of the problem. C

Collect and compare data and information relevant to the problem.

Analyse and interpret data. Describe relationships using graphs, models or in writing. These relationships may be association, cause-and-effect, or trend.

Findings and conclusions from the investigation are identified and summarised. Data sources are checked for authenticity.

Evaluate your findings against a chosen standard regarding benefits (advantages) and costs (disadvantages). Express your findings clearly and convincingly in the research report.

Note that the research task is designed to be completed over the duration of the unit, rather than in the final few weeks. Be sure to get started as soon as possible!

Go online to access the interactive lesson review and more!

Lesson 15.1 review Online quiz

Review questions

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Research task

Teachers can assign tasks and track results

15.1 Review questions

1 State how managing a household is similar to running a small business. 2 Outline some ways a household can improve its financial stability. 3 Think about your own household. List some of the financial decisions you notice being made regularly. Who makes them, and why? 4 Suggest what you would prioritise if you were managing your own household budget for the first time. 5 Outline the Q-CAFÉ method of investigation and the reasons for using it.

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15.2

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What is the purpose of household budgeting? Learning intention

In this lesson, you will learn about managing a household’s finances using a budget and its components.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

Household budget pie chart

1 Examine the blank pie chart divided into sections for different household expenses. 2 Fill in the chart with your estimates of how a household might divide its budget. Vary the sector sizes as needed. 3 Compare your chart with those of your classmates and discuss why you prioritised different expenses.

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Financial objectives vision the longterm ideal state for an organisation (such as a household)

• Being civic-minded means avoiding harm to others’ wellbeing, such as reducing contributions to global warming (being socially responsible). In the medium term, the household works towards goals that help achieve its longterm vision. Strategies to reach these goals may include paying off a mortgage and building wealth.

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goals the mediumterm objectives for achieving a vision

A household’s financial objectives consist of a long-term vision (7–10 years), medium-term goals (3–5 years), and yearly budget targets. All households aim to maximise their happiness from consuming goods and services. Figure 15.2.1 illustrates the connection between these financial objectives.

target a shortterm measurable objective for achieving a goal

best material life the highest material wellbeing a person can achieve from consuming goods and services

material wellbeing happiness in life derived from using or consuming goods and services

The financial vision of the household in Figure 15.2.1 over 10 years is to use its finances to enable its members to live their best material life. The general strategies to achieve this include being economic and being civic-minded.

• Being economic means maximising material wellbeing by making the most of available resources.

build wealth obtain more material assets over time, such as a house, motor vehicle, shares and cash

cashflow budget a plan for future expected income, spending and saving

Best material life (Seven years ahead)

VISION

Build wealth (Three years ahead)

GOALS

Save $1000 (In a year)

TARGETS

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consumption spending the money people spend on goods and services for their daily needs and wants

Each year, the household should set detailed budget targets that contribute to its future goals. For example, a target may be to save a certain amount over the year to build maximum wealth. Achieving this target requires strategies for earning more income and/or reducing consumption spending.

Figure 15.2.1 The objectives of a household over time

Annual budgets

A household’s cashflow budget is a plan for expected income, spending, and saving. It is a planning tool that helps balance cashflows and meet financial commitments while reducing wasteful spending and avoiding excessive debt. A budget also helps households save for future goals. The main parts of a household budget are:

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• Disposable income (Y – T)

− Income (Y): Cash received from wages, salaries, rent, interest, profits, dividends and government payments (e.g. pensions, unemployment benefits). − Income tax (T): Tax paid on income, deducted by employers for the Commonwealth government and adjusted at the end of the financial year.

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• Spending (C)

• Savings (S)

− Discretionary expenses: Optional spending, such as on entertainment, travel and furniture.

Budgeting helps match income and spending according to a plan. This enables savings targets to be met and prevents overspending.

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− Non-discretionary expenses: Essential costs, such as rent, mortgage payments, food and utilities.

− Money set aside for future use, such as for emergencies or investments.

Table 15.2.1 Example of a household budget

Cash in ($) Gross income (Y) Less income tax (T)

80 000 20 000

Disposable income (Y – T)

60 000

Cash out ($) Non-discretionary spending Discretionary spending Spending (C) Bank deposits Other investments Savings (S) Outlays (C + S)

45 000 5 000 50 000 8 000 2 000 10 000 60 000

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Figure 15.2.2 Maintaining a household cashflow budget ensures you can cover financial needs, avoid debt and save for future expenses.

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Concepts and skills builder 15.2 Budgeting for saving Consider the following stimulus and apply the Q-CAFÉ method of investigation (outlined at the end of Lesson 15.1) by answering the questions that follow.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Sara is a compulsive buyer. She cannot resist new trends and tech. She often finds herself running out of money before her next payday. She has not built any savings or wealth, and her credit card is always ‘maxed out’. She would eventually like to buy a house, but she isn’t sure how she could ever save enough for a deposit.

Q Why should a household budget its future finances?

C Search online for a more detailed household budget than the one in Table 15.2.1. A What can a person do for income if they lose their job?

F Find out the average level of household savings today. How has this changed over the last 10 years? E What do you think is a good level of annual savings for you? Will this allow you to save for a house deposit in 10 years?

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Explain the meaning of cashflow budgeting. Explain the meaning of household income. Distinguish between a household’s vision, goals and targets. Explain the connection between (Y – T) and (C – S).

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15.3

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

How can a household minimise the risks to its finances? Learning intention

The previous lesson considered a household’s financial objectives and annual budgeting. In this lesson, you will learn about some ways a household can minimise the risks to its finances.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

Types of insurance 1 2 3 4

Divide into small groups. Each group will be assigned a type of insurance (e.g., health, car, home, life). Define your assigned type of insurance and give examples of what it covers. Share your definitions and examples with the class.

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Risks to household budgets A household’s financial risks relate to its budget, wealth and the health of its members. These risks include: 1

Larger spending than budgeted for due to unforeseen events, such as sudden breakdowns of equipment or floods, can use up planned savings.

Income below expectations

Lower savings may also mean less interest earned, depending on where the money is kept. Too much borrowing

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

A household may expect a certain income each year, but income-earners can lose their jobs for reasons such as business closures.

debt the total amount owing from past borrowing insurance a financial protection plan that helps cover losses or damage caused by unexpected events Medicare a government program that helps cover medical costs for everyone

A household may borrow more than it can afford to repay.

Overspending

Excessive use of credit cards and short-term loans can lead to high debt.

Household spending may not always be closely monitored, leading to higher expenses than planned.

risk potential damage or loss from an event that could occur borrow to take a loan from someone credit card a card that allows purchases on credit to be repaid later

To reduce this risk, people can seek jobs in large, growing industries.

To avoid this, households should:

To manage this risk, households can compare actual spending with their budget every month.

• stick to their budget.

Low savings

• avoid short-term loans.

Lower income than expected and overspending can mean lower savings than planned for the year.

• keep rent and mortgage payments below one-third of their gross income.

• use credit cards wisely by paying them off monthly.

Risks to wealth

Over time, people build wealth by owning assets such as houses, household items and cars. Wealth is usually gained through inheritance, regular savings and buying durable goods. Losing these assets means losing past efforts to earn and save money.

• Third-party insurance: Covers damage to other people’s vehicles and property; included in car registration.

To protect their wealth, households should take out insurance

• House and contents insurance: Covers losses from theft, fire and floods.

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• Car insurance: Covers damage to a person’s own car.

Figure 15.3.1 Overspending, particularly using credit

cards, is a risk to your financial stability.

Risks to health

Managing a household’s finances also includes reducing health-related financial risks. • Private health insurance: Depending on type, covers hospital stays and additional medical costs. 406

• Medicare: A government-funded system, paid for through income tax, that covers part of doctor’s fees. Bulk billing may cover the full cost.

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Concepts and skills builder 15.3 Managing daily finances Consider the following stimulus and apply the Q-CAFÉ method of investigation by answering the questions that follow. Nick has opened two accounts with a bank – a transaction account and a savings account. Both accounts are online.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Nick has arranged for his income from work to be deposited into the savings account. This account earns a much higher monthly interest rate than the four big banks offer. Regular amounts are transferred from the savings account to the transaction account. These are arranged to maximise the interest received in the savings account.

The bank provides a debit card, which Nick has linked to the transaction account. There are no fees for using the card to pay for purchases, even for goods from overseas, or withdraw amounts from any ATM. Q Is Nick’s financial strategy a good one? C

Collect data from two banks (a big four bank and a smaller bank) regarding adopting this strategy.

A Compare the interest rates and fees associated with this strategy for the two banks. F

What are your findings?

Which bank offers the better deal in your opinion?

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Explain the meaning of risk for a household. Explain the meaning of insurance. List the four kinds of insurance mentioned in this lesson and explain what each one covers. Describe the expenses Medicare covers and indicate how the system works. Explain what happens if savings are below budget.

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15.4

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

What are some smart uses of wealth? Learning intention

The previous lesson looked at the financial risks a household can face and the possible use of insurance to protect against these risks. In this lesson, you will learn some smart ways to use your wealth.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

Financial goal setting

1 Think about some financial goals a household might have (e.g. saving for a holiday, buying a car or house, or paying off debt). 2 Write down your own examples of short-term and long-term financial objectives. 3 Share your objectives with the class and discuss why setting financial objectives helps you use your wealth wisely.

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Whatever amount of wealth you start with as a household, the smart objective is to build it over time. Building wealth through a home, shares, a car, white goods and so on enables you and your family to enjoy better material wellbeing.

To build wealth, it is recommended to apply the following four strategies. These strategies will help you to reduce your consumption spending, while maximising the benefit you gain from your savings.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Strategy 1 – Avoid wasteful spending Wasteful spending happens when people buy something on impulse or due to short-term emotions. This can be avoided with a carefully planned budget and the

discipline to stick to it. If spending in one month exceeds your plan, you may need to cut back the following month to stay on track.

Strategy 2 – Look for price discounts Planned spending can stretch further by taking advantage of discounts, earning loyalty points and using special offers.

Consider supermarket shopping. Some items, like tea, biscuits and chocolate, go on sale regularly. When these items are on special (e.g. half-price), buying extra can help you avoid paying full price later.

Using a store loyalty card can earn points towards future purchases. Some stores also offer gifts, such as knives or cooking utensils, for regular shoppers.

Using a credit card for purchases can earn points towards vouchers and gifts from your bank. However, be sure to pay off the balance each month to avoid interest charges.

Strategy 3 – Maximise interest from savings and investments Savings can be used to fund incomegenerating activities (investments).

A smart financial strategy is to make smart investments. A good investment earns the highest return with the least risk.

Savings can be kept at home as cash, but no interest is received. It is smarter to lend the money to a bank (deposit it) to earn interest. Bank deposits are one of the lowest-risk investments.

wasteful spending purchasing something you do not really need or want due to impulse or emotion discount a reduction in the price of an item

investments savings used to buy assets that generate income or increase in value, such as property or shares

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Figure 15.4.1 Buying shares can be a good investment. Make sure you research your investments and choose

low-risk shares to minimise losses.

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Other ways to invest savings include: • buying shares in businesses, e.g. Rio Tinto shares • buying gold, silver or other precious metals • buying an entire business, e.g. a laundrette

Whatever the investment, the basic rule is to seek income growth with minimal risk. Investments are long-term, so it is unwise to take on too much financial risk in the short term, as this could lead to bankruptcy.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

• buying collector items

Each investment carries a different level of risk. Shares, for example, are a riskier investment than gold.

• buying property.

mortgage lending insurance a required insurance if your home loan is more than 80 per cent of the property’s value sunk cost money spent that cannot be recovered, such as rent

equity the value of the property that you actually own – the market value minus any money still owed on the mortgage

Strategy 4 – Buy a house as soon as possible Start saving early and as much as possible to buy your own home. Aim to save 20 per cent of your desired property’s value to avoid extra costs such as mortgage lending insurance.

Owning a home means you avoid paying rent, which is a ‘sunk cost’. Instead, your money goes towards an asset that usually gains in value over time. A general rule is that house prices double about every 10 years.

Additionally, if you sell your home after owning it for more than a year, the sale price is not taxed. Some people will start with a smaller, cheaper house, and then use the equity they build in that home to help finance the purchase of a larger, more expensive house. By the time they are ready for retirement, they can sell their house and use the money to both buy a smaller property and add a tax-free lump sum to their superannuation, from which they can draw a pension in retirement.

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Figure 15.4.2 Rent is an example of a ‘sunk cost’.

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Concepts and skills builder 15.4 Using wealth wisely Consider the following stimulus and apply the Q-CAFÉ method of investigation by answering the questions that follow.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

George wants to buy a house in the next 10 years. He knows that he has to save each year in order to build a deposit of 20 per cent of the price. This would allow him to get a bank mortgage without paying insurance for the lender on that mortgage. He already has $10 000 saved, but he is wondering how he can get more out of his money while he continues to save. His annual salary, after tax, is $80 000.

Q Why is it important to use your wealth wisely? C

Search online for two other smart ways to use your wealth.

A Assuming George is putting 20 per cent of his income annually into savings, calculate how long it would take him to save 20 per cent of $500 000 for a deposit on an apartment. F

What are some ways to maximise disposable income?

If George gets a credit card, how could this affect his borrowing capacity?

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Explain the meaning of an investment. Explain what it means to use wealth wisely. Explain, with an example, what is a ‘sunk cost’. List three examples of what you consider to be wasteful spending. Describe a rewards system used by a major supermarket.

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15.5

How do people avoid scams?

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Learning intention The previous lesson looked at the smart use of wealth. In this lesson, you will learn about financial scams and how to avoid them.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

Scam awareness

1 Think about a scam you have heard of or experienced. 2 Research the scam and identify the warning signs and how you might avoid it. 3 As a class, discuss the various types of financial scams and their characteristics.

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Scams involve the risk of losing money and other assets. Victims can lose significant amounts. Avoiding scams is an important strategy in managing household finances. Some ways to avoid scams and reduce the risk of financial loss include:

• If a phone call, email or text asks for money or personal details and pressures you to act immediately, ignore and delete it.

• Be aware of common scams, such as phone scams, phishing emails and fake online shopping deals.

• Use unique passwords and two-factor authentication when logging in to accounts.

• Never share your personal details, such as banking details or passwords.

• Keep anti-virus software up to date.

• Store personal and financial information securely.

Stay informed about the latest scams and be on the lookout for them. Read the following case studies and think about how you would respond.

scam (financial) deceiving people to give their money to a fake scheme phishing an online message designed to trick you into giving out personal information two-factor identification a security process requiring two forms of identification (e.g. a password and a code)

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

government agency, hang up and call the official number to verify the caller.

• If you receive a suspicious phone call claiming to be from your bank or a

Case Study A

Buying goods online

Jane sees an email about a leading fashion store heavily discounting items of clothing in a preChristmas sale. The email looks legitimate, with the store’s logo and product images. Excited by the bargains, she orders $200 worth of clothes. But it was a scam. Jane’s mistake was believing that something too good to be true was real. This should have

alerted her to the possibility of a scam. Then she should have checked the email address of the sender to ensure it was from the company. Even then, she should have visited the store’s official website to verify the sale. As an online shopper, Jane should also keep up to date with scam alerts on social media and trusted websites.

If Jane paid with a credit card, she may be able to dispute the charge, but there is no guarantee she will get her money back.

Case Study B

Investing in a project

Building savings is not easy, and some people try to take advantage of this by convincing others to invest in fake schemes.

Geoff heard about the growth in cryptocurrencies like Bitcoin. One day, he received a phone call from the United States, offering a ‘oncein-a-lifetime’ opportunity to invest some money in a project that was guaranteed to double his money in a year. The caller claimed the investment was low-risk and that Geoff could sell at any time. Geoff was asked to transfer $2000 using his credit card to a foreign bank account. He did.

Geoff’s mistake was trusting an unknown caller and sending money without verifying the investment. He should have been suspicious of an offer that promised easy money. Moreover, he should have sought advice from a licensed Australian financial adviser (listed by the Australian Financial Complaints Authority (AFCA)) and been checking Scamwatch – a website provided by the Australian Competition and Consumer Commission (ACCC) – for scam advice.

Chapter 15: How can households manage their finances?

crypto-currency a digital currency created using blockchain technology Australian Financial Complaints Authority (AFCA) an authority that resolves financial disputes and provides details of licensed financial advisers

Australian Competition and Consumer Commission (ACCC) an authority that regulates competitive and fair trading, and protects consumer rights

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Concepts and skills builder 15.5 Identifying scams Consider the following stimulus and apply the Q-CAFÉ method of investigation by answering the questions that follow.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Alex, who has recently started receiving income from a job, receives an urgent email from his bank claiming suspicious activity on their account. The email pressures Alex to click a link and verify personal details immediately. Despite its professional look, small errors in the email and a strange URL leave Alex feeling uneasy.

Q What are the basic strategies a household can use to avoid scams?

C Use the ACCC website to collect information about five common scams currently circulating. A What do most scams have in common? F Summarise your findings.

E What do you think is the likelihood of being scammed financially?

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Common signs of a scam

Watch out for these common signs of a scam!

• You feel pressured to act quickly.

• It is an amazing opportunity to make or save money.

• They ask you to pay in an unusual or specific way.

• Someone you haven’t met needs your help – and money.

• They ask you to set up new accounts or PayID.

• The message contains links or attachments.

Visit the Scamwatch website for more details.

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Explain the meaning of cyber security. Define phishing, giving an example. Describe three of the latest scams you learned about while completing this lesson. Outline how you will avoid scams in the future, based on this lesson?

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15.6

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

What legal and ethical issues relate to household finances? Learning intention

The previous lesson looked at the financial scams that a household could face and how to avoid them. In this lesson, you will learn about the legal and ethical issues related to a household’s finances.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

Legal and ethical issues for households

1 Form groups of 3–5 and discuss one of the following ethical dilemmas related to a household’s finances: a not reporting income from a side job b getting financial advice from a friend c borrowing money from a family member or close friend d buying counterfeit products e purchasing cheaper unoﬃcial tickets for a performance f investing in a stock that engages in questionable ethical practices. 2 Your group discussion should include the legal and ethical implications of the scenario. 3 Present your scenario and your group’s main discussion points to the class.

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Legal responsibilities • Submit annual tax returns and pay the correct amount of tax, including claiming allowable deductions

• Obtain income through legal means (e.g. not stealing or engaging in illegal work)

• Honour consumer commitments, such as repaying credit card debt (ideally within each month).

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

When managing household finances, various legal responsibilities must be followed, including:

• Fulfil the terms of any contract entered into, such as a house lease, mortgage or car loan

Householders should also be aware of their legal rights regarding wills and trusts from which they may inherit assets.

Ethical implications

legal relating to laws and regulations that must be followed

ethical relating to moral principles about what is right and fair sustainable using resources in a way that does not exhaust them and ensures continued activity

In addition to following financial laws, individuals should also use their finances in an ethical way. Ethical financial decisions involve honesty, fairness and responsibility, as well as supporting socially responsible businesses.

• Making honest financial decisions to build trust in the household

For managing household finances, ethical considerations include:

• Using credit responsibly to prevent financial hardship for the household

• Spending responsibly – keeping spending within income limits

• Avoiding high-risk speculation, such as gambling

• Fairly sharing resources and products among household members

• Spending and investing in sustainable businesses.

• Saving adequately for emergencies and retirement, and choosing ethical investments • Avoiding leaving unpaid debts for future generations

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Figure 15.6.1 Organic cotton is eco-friendly because it significantly reduces the amount of toxins used in production and decreases water pollution compared to conventional cotton. If it’s within budget, choosing an organic cotton T-shirt over a regular cotton one is an example of supporting sustainable business practices.

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Concepts and skills builder 15.6 Spending ethically Consider the following stimulus and apply the Q-CAFÉ method of investigation by answering the questions that follow.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Chun worries about the future and the impact climate change is having on the world. He tries to make smart purchasing decisions that will minimise CO2 emissions and damage to the environment. For example, he walks or bikes when he can, and does not own a car. He also tries to buy local, and minimise his use of plastics. It is diﬃcult, and not always possible, to avoid buying products that harm the environment, but he tries his best. Q

Why should you consider ethics when making spending decisions?

Research online to find information about the causes of climate change.

List three ways your spending contributes to these causes of climate change.

If you stopped spending in that way, how else could you meet your needs?

Would your lifestyle be negatively affected by these changes?

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Identify the difference between legal and ethical considerations. Explain the meaning of income tax. Explain what a sustainable business is. List three ethical issues when spending on goods and services.

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15.7

What is superannuation?

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Learning intention The previous lesson considered the ethical and legal issues regarding household finances. In this lesson, you will learn about saving for your future lifestyle with superannuation.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

Superannuation: Know, want to know, learn

1 Know: Write down three things that you know about superannuation. 2 Want to know: Write down two things you would like to learn about superannuation. 3 Learn: Come back to these questions at the end of this lesson. Did you find answers to your questions?

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The superannuation system in Australia helps people save and build funds during their working life. This enables them to support themselves financially in retirement.

• Employees may choose their fund, or their money is deposited into the default fund of their employer. • Employees may make voluntary contributions as a ‘salary sacrifice’ to reduce their taxable income.

superannuation savings put aside to provide a pension in retirement sustainable growth economic growth that can continue using renewable resources with limited environmental damage fair economy a system where all people share fairly in the goods and services produced

• Superannuation funds are managed by specialist businesses that invest contributions on behalf of members. In return, members pay a management fee.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Superannuation provides significant benefits for both individuals and the broader Australian population. It helps individuals achieve financial independence in retirement and contributes to sustainable growth and a fairer economy.

12 per cent of an employee’s ordinary time income.

The key aspects of the superannuation system are:

• Most employers must contribute a Superannuation Guarantee of

• Generally, members can choose their fund and investment strategy.

salary sacrifice part of an employee’s salary that is given up in return for employerprovided benefits, reducing taxable income

Regulation

The government regulates the superannuation system to ensure compliance and fairness. Superannuation funds are ‘preserved’, meaning they cannot be withdrawn until the person has reached the preservation age (55–60 years) and retired, or if they experience severe financial hardship or permanent disability.

Superannuation Guarantee the amount employers must pay into employee superannuation accounts by law

Additional contributions to superannuation funds are capped at $30 000 for concessional tax rates and $120 000 for normal tax rates. A concessional tax rate applies to superannuation contributions and earnings, allowing the fund to grow faster.

preserved funds funds put into a superannuation account that cannot be withdrawn until retirement

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capped contributions limits set by the government on the amount that can be contributed to superannuation each year

Figure 15.7.1 Keeping track of your superannuation allows you to plan for the future.

concessional tax rate a lower tax rate applied to certain incomes, including superannuation contributions

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Self-managed superannuation funds (SMSF) Individuals can set up their own super fund, known as a ‘self-managed super fund’ (SMSF), to manage their investments. An SMSF offers greater control but comes with increased responsibility for accounting and reporting.

Concepts and skills builder 15.7 Maximising superannuation

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

self-managed super fund a superannuation fund established by an individual instead of a large public fund; allows the individual to choose how their funds are invested

Consider the following stimulus and apply the Q-CAFÉ method of investigation by answering the questions that follow. Tahni carefully watches her superannuation total as it grows with the Superannuation Guarantee. She wants to make sure her employer is depositing the right amount at the right time. She knows she will still be renting when she retires, so it is important to her that she maximises her superannuation pension in retirement.

Q Why contribute to a superannuation fund?

C Search online for data about the level of superannuation funds held in Australia and how they are used. A Identify a company whose shares are purchased by superannuation funds and that engages in socially responsible activities. F Compare the advantages of a SMSF and a public superannuation fund such as Cbus Super E

Would you invest your savings for retirement into an ethical super fund if its earnings performance was below that of other funds?

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15.7 Review questions

1 Explain what the concessional tax rate for superannuation contributions is. 2 Suggest why superannuation funds are ‘preserved’. 3 A young person has chosen a ‘growth’ strategy for their superannuation fund and an older person is pursuing a ‘balanced strategy’. Explain why they have selected different strategies. 4 Identify the amount of superannuation you will need to receive a comfortable pension in retirement.

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15.8

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

What are the potential benefits for contributors to superannuation schemes? Learning intention

The previous lesson considered what superannuation is. In this lesson, you will learn about how individual contributors benefit from superannuation.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

Superannuation in Australia

1 Create a flowchart to explain how superannuation works in Australia. 2 Include key elements such as employer contributions, employee contributions and investment growth.

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Figure 15.8.1 Superannuation is often referred to as a ‘nest egg’, that you sit on and that provides you with financial support in the future. Ethical super funds may also allow you to feel rewarded for the positive impact your money has before you access it.

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voluntary contribution additional money, beyond the Superannuation Guarantee, that people can contribute to their superannuation fund

provides, the forced savings by law, the returns generated through investment of those savings and the insurances provided.

Financial security People who work must, by law, have a portion of their salary (currently 12 per cent) contributed to their superannuation fund. This is known as the Superannuation Guarantee. People can also make voluntary contributions above this amount.

independence. Superannuation funds can be used as a pension to cover living expenses in retirement, helping individuals maintain a decent material living.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

pension (from superannuation) a regular payment from a person’s superannuation fund in retirement, designed to last many years

In general, building a superannuation ‘nest egg’ allows a person to enjoy a higher material wellbeing in retirement. This is due to the financial security it

compound interest a 5 per cent interest on a lump sum in a year is a simple interest. But if the interest earned is added to the lump sum, then 5 per cent of that amount will be greater than the first year and so on. Interest earned is growing because the lump sum grows. ordinary income the salary paid for contracted hours, excluding overtime and other additional payments

growth portfolio investments focused on highreturn shares, carrying greater risk but potentially higher rewards balanced risk portfolio a mix of low-, mediumand high-risk investments, offering stable returns

The main benefit of superannuation for individuals is financial security and

If a person’s superannuation fund is large enough, they may not need to rely on a government pension. If their superannuation savings are insufficient, the government pension can provide additional support.

Forced saving

Another benefit of superannuation is that it enforces long-term savings. These savings earn interest over time, growing the fund. In addition, annual interest is earned on previously accumulated interest – this is known as ‘compound interest’. This compounding applies for all additional contributions. As a general rule, an investment doubles every 10

years if the interest rate is seven per cent per year.

Income deposited into superannuation is taxed at a lower rate than ordinary income, and interest earned is also taxed at a concessional tax rate. These tax savings further increase the size of superannuation savings over time.

Good investment returns

Superannuation savings are managed by specialist fund managers who invest the money to generate returns. Because they manage large sums contributed by many people, they can spread risk across different investments. Contributors can usually choose how their funds are invested. A ‘growth’investment portfolio offers higher returns but comes with greater

risk, making it ideal for long-term investments. A ‘balanced risk’ portfolio provides more stability with lower potential returns, suitable for shorter investment periods. Individuals can also make voluntary contributions beyond their employer’s Superannuation Guarantee payments. These additional contributions help grow superannuation savings faster.

Insurances

Superannuation funds offer up to three types of insurance: • life cover – a lump sum is paid if you die

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• TPD cover – a lump sum is paid in the case of total and permanent disability preventing you from working • income protection – a regular payment is provided during a prolonged illness.

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Figure 15.8.2 As your superannuation grows, it may be useful to seek independent advice on investment choices. For example, a ‘balanced risk’ portfolio offers lower returns but reduces the risk of major losses.

Concepts and skills builder 15.8 Planning for retirement

Consider the following stimulus and apply the Q-CAFÉ method of investigation by answering the questions that follow.

Linh has just gotten her first full-time job after completing university, with an annual income of $100 000 plus $12 000 paid into super. She knows that, assuming prices stay the same, her super balance will double every 10 years with 7 per cent annual growth. Over 40 years, this would bring her super balance to about $2.5 million. This should earn her an annual interest of over $100 000 – her starting salary.

Q What are the benefits of superannuation for individuals?

C Search online for estimates of the amount that a person retiring needs to have saved in superannuation to earn a pension that provides a decent material living. A Calculate how much a single aged pensioner can receive from the government over a year.

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F If a person has $1 million in superannuation, how much private pension can they receive over 20 years? E Why not take a government aged pension and supplement it with a private pension from your superannuation fund?

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Economics and Business concepts and skills: communicating, concluding and decision-making, evaluating, interpreting and analysing data and information, investigating

The beginnings of compulsory superannuation in Australia 1992 – The Superannuation Guarantee (SG) is introduced, requiring employers to make a contribution to a super fund on their employees’ behalf. The rate is initially set as 3 per cent, or 4 per cent for employers with an annual payroll above $1 million. 1993 – The World Bank endorses Australia’s ‘three pillar’ retirement system as world’s best practice. The pillars are compulsory superannuation, the aged pension provided by government and voluntary retirement savings.

Go online to access the interactive lesson review and more!

1999 – Self-managed superannuation funds (SMSFs) are established, allowing small businesses and the self-employed to manage their own superannuation accounts. 2003 – The superannuation of divorcing or separating spouses can be split by agreement or court order.

2005 – Employees can select their super fund for the payment of Superannuation Guarantee contributions.

Lesson 15.8 review Online quiz

Review questions

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Research task

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Explain the meaning of forced savings. Explain the meaning of financial security. Conduct some research to identify how much the Superannuation Guarantee is today. Besides a superannuation pension, identify what other income a retired person can receive.

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15.9

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What are the potential benefits for the nation from superannuation schemes? Learning intention

The previous lesson considered the benefits of superannuation for an individual contributor. In this lesson, you will learn how the Australian nation benefits from its superannuation system.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

Superannuation schemes around the world

1 Pick a country you are interested in and research their superannuation scheme. 2 Make a pros and cons list for their scheme; what are some of the benefits and drawbacks of their system? 3 Similarly, make a pros and cons list for Australia’s superannuation scheme. 4 Compare the two schemes and explain which one you think is better.

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The superannuation system in Australia provides sustainable support to older generations in retirement and reduces the need for government aged pensions.

Benefits Supports retirees Australia’s superannuation system encourages people to build their superannuation. This is expected to reduce the growth in government-funded aged pension payments, reducing strain on the government’s budget and taxation.

growth and higher employment. Overall, this helps improve material wellbeing for Australians.

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economic growth an increase in the nation’s production of goods and services and the national income

It also helps the economy grow over time and reduces inequality in material wellbeing. However, there are challenges to these benefits in the future.

Australian stock market the Australian Stock Exchange, where company shares are traded national income the total income paid to the owners of resources (including labour) used in producing goods and services in the nation

Fosters economic growth

The Australian superannuation system holds trillions of dollars in savings. This money is available to lend for major Australian projects, such as infrastructure, and supports economic

The substantial growth in superannuation funds has also contributed to the expansion of the Australian stock market and the financial sector.

Decreases inequality in material wellbeing

Superannuation supports a fairer sharing of the national income. This is because it ensures a minimum level of funds saved to be enjoyed by all in their retirement.

Challenges

Australia’s population is ageing. The number of older people is increasing, making up a larger percentage of the total population. This may require employers to contribute more to superannuation,

which could lead to higher prices and changes in real income. There will also be greater pressure on government finances as more people become eligible for the aged pension.

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Figure 15.9.1 Australia’s ageing population means greater pressure on government-funded pensions and likely increases in the age at which most people can retire and access the pension and their superannuation. Making voluntary contributions to superannuation may help address this issue.

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Another challenge for the future of superannuation is the return on investments, particularly in the stock market. Additionally, there is a risk that income inequality could increase.

Lower-wage earners may not accumulate enough superannuation or earn enough compound interest over time. More tax concessions may be needed to address this issue.

income inequality differences in the sharing of national income among people

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Concepts and skills builder 15.9 Investing in the nation

Consider the following stimulus and apply the Q-CAFÉ method of investigation by answering the questions that follow.

Mia sees a news story on social media about how mandatory employer contributions boost investments in major infrastructure projects. She had always thought of her super account as forced savings, and is curious to know more about the benefits of Australia’s superannuation scheme.

How does the nation benefit from a strong superannuation system?

Search online for details about employer superannuation requirements. Which workers receive payments and when?

When can a person withdraw and use their superannuation funds?

Find an example of a major national project funded by superannuation investments.

In your opinion, does superannuation help reduce income inequality?

Economics and Business concepts and skills: communicating, concluding and decision-making, evaluating, interpreting and analysing data and information, investigating

Lesson 15.9 review Online quiz

Review questions

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Research task

Go online to access the interactive lesson review and more!

Teachers can assign tasks and track results

15.9 Review questions 1 2 3 4

Explain the meaning of economic growth. Explain the meaning of income inequality. Explain how superannuation funds earn interest and grow. Distinguish a government-funded aged pension and a pension from a superannuation fund.

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15.10

Research task: Your 10-year financial plan

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This research task is designed to be completed over multiple weeks, as you complete the chapter. It should not be left until the end. By completing this research task, you will have the opportunity to consolidate the ideas learned through this chapter, and demonstrate your understanding of Economics and Business concepts and skills.

Research topic: Your 10-year financial plan

Investigate and evaluate the research question and develop your response using the following questions to guide you. You should follow the Q-CAFÉ method of investigation, as described in the box at the end of Lesson 15.1. You will also prepare a report of your investigation.

Q T his task considers the income side of your forward budget. What do you expect will be your annual income over the next 10 years? C

C ollect information relating to the activities you plan to do to earn income over the next 10 years. Specify your chosen occupation, study years required and other years not working full-time (e.g. travelling, starting a family).

A Estimate your income and expenses for each year. a Use incomes that are paid in this current year for all estimates. (see ABS data) b Use prices for this current year for all expenses. F

Summarise your findings. Compare your annual income figures with annual expense estimates.

Evaluate what savings you can reasonably accumulate over the 10 years. If your savings are low, or your expenses are greater than your income, what could you do?

The report

Your teacher will tell you how you should present your report (written, oral, multimedia). However, your report should use the Q-CAFE headings and include: • An indication of your future employment and expected income • Evidence of income for similar jobs

• Estimates of future income and expenses

• Your possible budget for each year over the 10 years

• Savings estimates, and strategies to deal with failing to achieve the budgeted amount of savings.

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15.11

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End of investigation review: How can households manage their finances? Access the Interactive Textbook for a range of digital tools to help you review this topic, including:

• Downloadable chapter summary • Scorcher timed competitive quiz.

Brain dump

What have you learned about managing household finances? Copy and complete the table to explain your understanding. Aim for two points per topic.

What is the purpose of household budgeting? How can a household minimise risks to its finances? What are some smart uses of wealth? How can you avoid scams? What legal responsibilities do you have as a householder? What ethical responsibilities do you have as a householder? What is superannuation? How does superannuation benefit the individual? How does superannuation benefit the nation?

Making thinking visible

Apply the 3-2-1 Routine to summarise your findings from this investigation. 1

Recall three main points or ideas from the topic.

Identify two interesting or surprising facts related to the topic.

State one question that you still have, or something you want to learn more about.

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Practice questions 1 Distinguish between discretionary and non-discretionary spending 2 Explain how savings can be used to build wealth. 3 Distinguish between the risk of overspending and the risk of too much borrowing for a household. 4 Outline some ways that a household can fail to stick to its budget.

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5 Explain whether it is wise to buy twice as much of a product that is half-price today. Is that always the case? 6 Summarise two current scams, and suggest how they can be avoided.

7 Describe two legal responsibilities of households in the management of their finances. 8 Explain the meaning of capped contributions to superannuation accounts. 9 Distinguish between a growth and balanced risk portfolio.

10 Consider the following statement:

Without Australia’s superannuation scheme, peoples’ material wellbeing would be lower, especially for older people. State the extent to which you agree or disagree with this statement. Justify your response.

Response to chapter inquiry question: How can households manage their finances?

Write a paragraph in response to the inquiry question. Include the following key terms: • budgeting • saving

• investing • risk

• scams • ethics

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• material wellbeing.

Figure 15.11.1 How does saving build wealth?

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CHAPTER 16

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How do businesses stay competitive?

LESSON TITLE 16.1

Setting the scene: How do businesses stay competitive?

16.2

What is entrepreneurship?

16.3

What do businesses use marketing for?

16.4

What do businesses use public relations for?

16.5

What is human resource management?

16.6

What is the role of trade unions?

16.7

What is the role of employer associations?

16.8

What is enterprise bargaining?

16.9

Research task: Should membership of a trade union be compulsory?

16.10

End of investigation review: How do businesses stay competitive?

This digital chapter can be accessed via Cambridge GO

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U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES Image: Citizens voting in elections for candidates is a key part of Australian democracy

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Part 4

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Civics and Citizenship

FPO

Watch the video for an introduction to Civics and Citizenship in Year 9 and the skills and concepts you will be working with

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INVESTIGATION

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What makes a good citizen? OVERVIEW

This text addresses the curriculum content and learning framework used for investigating the characteristics of a good citizen.

CURRICULUM CONTENT

The VCAA prescribes the following curriculum:

Students consider how human rights are protected in Australia and the importance of democracy and justice in Australian society.

Source: VCAA, Victorian Curriculum V2.0, ‘Civics and Citizenship’, ‘Band description – Levels 9 and 10’

LEARNING FRAMEWORK

This text provides students with lessons related to the above question and curriculum content, using an investigative learning framework.

The learning framework is presented in two chapters covering the following investigations: How does Australia’s political system work? (Chapter 17), including:

• What are the components of a liberal democracy? • How are laws made in Australia?

How does Australia’s legal system work? (Chapter 18), including:

• What are the law courts in Victoria and Australia? • How are people’s rights protected in Australia? At the end of each chapter there is an opportunity for a student to write a paragraph about their investigation.

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CHAPTER 17

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How does Australia’s political system work?

LESSON TITLE 17.1

Setting the scene: What makes a good citizen?

17.2

What is sovereignty?

17.3

What is a liberal democracy?

17.4

What is the Constitution of Australia?

17.5

What is the federal system of government in Australia?

17.6

How does Parliament make laws?

17.7

How do elections run?

17.8

How does a referendum work?

17.9

How do governments develop policies?

17.10

Research task: Should Australia be a constitutional monarchy or a republic?

17.11

End of investigation review: How does Australia’s political system work?

Note Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander readers please note this chapter includes an image of a deceased person.

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17.1

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Setting the scene: What makes a good citizen? Learning intention

democracy a system of government whereby power is ultimately with all the people equally equal freedom everyone has the same chance of exercising a right

What is a citizen?

A citizen of a nation is someone who was born there or is a migrant and has acquired citizenship. As a member of a democracy, this person enjoys the rights provided and carries out the required obligations or responsibilities.

There are two general principles underlying the rights of a person in a democracy:

• Everyone has equal freedom to exercise their rights and is treated as equal under the Constitution and the laws of the land.

• Everyone has fair opportunities to participate in dealings with each other in society.

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Constitution a formal written document that details the structure of government, the processes for making laws, protecting rights and changing the Constitution

This lesson introduces the ways Australians can be good citizens by taking part in Australia’s political and legal systems.

Figure 17.1.1 Volunteers pick up rubbish from their row boat as they make their way down a river as part of Clean

Up Australia Day.

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A good citizen upholds the rights derived from these two principles for themselves and for others. Some ways to do this are listed below.

Take part in civic affairs, through • voting in elections for future Members of Parliaments and local councils

Care for the environment, by • using sustainable practices • promoting recycling • reducing waste • protecting natural resources.

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• promoting fair opportunities for all to participate in society.

• paying taxes

• serving on juries when requested

• watching the actions of Members of Parliament to ensure they are in the best interests of the people.

Obey the law, by • respecting the legal system

• running for office to help set laws

• seeking peaceful resolution of conflict

• opposing injustice including discrimination, corruption and unfair inequality.

• supporting the Constitution

• supporting democratic principles and practices.

Respect the rights of others, by • respecting the rights, freedoms, beliefs and views of others

Seek peace and fairness, through • promoting a fairer society

Defend the nation’s freedoms, by • defending a nation’s freedoms and democratic way of life. Contribute to society’s development, by • keeping up with current events, history and government policy

• embracing diversity in people

• adopting ethical standards in participating in society

• promoting equality of rights and freedoms

• participating in economic growth and technological change.

Australia is a representative democracy in which everyone over 18 years has the responsibility to vote and elect representatives to Parliament. These representatives decide the laws of the nation. The Constitution of Australia provides the basis for elections

representative democracy a democracy in which people choose their government by electing representatives political party an organisation seeking to establish its view of the ideal society by being elected as parliamentary representatives

The political system

Some knowledge about the political and legal systems is necessary for a person to be a good citizen. To help you achieve this through this investigation, Chapter 17 focuses on the political system, while Chapter 18 is about the legal system.

fair opportunity all individuals have the chance to participate equitably in society’s political, social and economic systems without facing discrimination; some may require support to participate fully

liberal democracy a representative democracy that also upholds liberal principles of rights, freedoms and opportunities

and law-making federally, while State Constitutions do so for their respective States. Political parties underlie this representative process – each with an agreed platform of policies. Parties put forward candidates for election and, if elected, almost always vote together in Parliament.

Australia is also a liberal democracy. In addition to being a representative democracy, it is a nation that provides and protects individual freedoms and the opportunities to take part in society.

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The Victorian Curriculum lists a range of skills that you will need to develop. To help you practice and integrate these skills in Civics and Citizenship, we have developed the QUED method of investigation. There are opportunities to apply this method throughout the lessons, as well as in a final research task (Lesson 17.11).

QUED method of investigation

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Q Questions are formed to investigate a political, legal or civic issue.

U Undertake the collection and analysis of a range of information. E

Evaluate the quality and breadth of information relevant to the issue.

Evaluate how the principles of justice are achieved through the legal system.

Evaluate the political power of actors involved with an issue and their connections with institutions. Evaluate the effectiveness of democratic decision-making.

Evaluate the methods and strategies of civic participation in relation to an issue.

D Decide, recommend and justify changes regarding the issue.

Deliver your response to the issue using the most effective method of communication.

Note that the research task is designed to be completed over the duration of the unit, rather than in the final few weeks. Be sure to get started as soon as possible!

Go online to access the interactive lesson review and more!

Lesson 17.1 review Online quiz

Review questions

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Research task

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17.1 Review questions 1 2 3 4 5

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Explain the meaning of equal freedom. Distinguish between representative democracy and liberal democracy. Explain the meaning of fair opportunities. How many of the ways to be a good citizen listed on the previous page do you do? Outline the QUED method of investigation and the reasons for using it.

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17.2

What is sovereignty? Learning intention

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In the previous lesson, we learned about being a good citizen by taking part in Australia’s political system. In this lesson, you will learn about what makes Australia a sovereign state.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

Think, pair, share

How did different nations around the world – each with their own political borders, systems of government and other important functions – come to exist? 1 Think: Write down your response to the above question. Consider Australia as well as other countries. 2 Pair: Discuss your response with a partner. Did they have a different answer from you? 3 Share: Prepare to share your responses with the class.

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What is sovereignty? Sovereignty refers to the power of a nation’s governing authority. There are two factors that provide evidence of a sovereign nation: 2

Revolution In some nations there have been uprisings against the existing ruling power. For example, the French Revolution led to a Republic replacing the monarchy.

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• the ability of the governing body to rule the people of a land

examples include the Russian invasion of Crimea and Ukraine and wars in the Middle East, which continue to change land borders.

• recognition by other nations as the authority that rules the nation.

sovereignty the independent authority or power of the rulers of a nation to govern its people in a defined territory, as well as the power to deal with other nations

self-determination the ability of a national government to freely make its own decisions about its future United Nations an international organisation founded in 1945, currently made up of 193 member nations and guided by the purposes and principles in its founding Charter

This sovereignty gives the people of a nation the right to self-determination; that is, the right to decide their future as a nation.

The people of a nation may adopt a Constitution that details how the rulers are to govern. For example, the United States adopted its Constitution after a revolution forced the British colonial power out. The Constitution of Australia also replaced British rule, but peacefully.

At the United Nations Convention on the Rights and Duties of States in 1933 at Montevideo, it was decided that a sovereign state has four characteristics: • a permanent population • a defined territory • a government

• the capacity to enter into relations with other states.

How does a nation become a sovereign state?

War/invasion

Over the centuries, nations have invaded and conquered others. Examples include the Viking, Dane, Roman and Norman invasions of the British Isles, as well as the colonisation of nations by Britain, France, Spain, The Netherlands and Portugal. Recent

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Global recognition

Regardless of how a nation’s rulers came to power – war, revolution and/ or Constitution – global recognition is required for sovereignty. Without this, there could be no treaties, trade agreements, or membership of international organisations or blocs.

Currently there are 193 nations that are members of the United Nations and are recognised as sovereign powers. How did these nations become sovereign states?

The rulers of a state have obtained sovereignty in the past in the following ways:

Adopting a national Constitution

Australia is a sovereign state

At the time of the British landing in what is now Australia, around 250 diverse Indigenous groups inhabited the region. Each community maintained its own governance, led by respected Elders and guided by traditional laws. However, their societal organisation did not mirror global models of centralised government or internationally recognised sovereignty, so there was no Indigenous sovereignty of all Australia.

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The British established a convict settlement by invading the lands of the various Aboriginal nations. Private settlement was also encouraged, which pushed the Indigenous peoples further inland from the coast.

Australia (a defined territory) is a sovereign state today, ruled by a Canberrabased federal government, because: • internally, there is a Constitution that details the processes for electing a representative federal government that rules our independent nation

referendum (plural: referenda) a vote to decide whether or not to change part of the Constitution Royal Assent when the GovernorGeneral signs a Bill to make it a new law Governor-General the Australian representative of King Charles III when he is not in Australia, as defined by the Constitution of Australia

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In 1850 the British Parliament allowed the Australian colonies to establish their own constitutions. Between 1854 and 1856, the colonies of New South Wales, Victoria, Tasmania and South Australia began to be governed under their Constitutions. Queensland separated from NSW in 1859 and became a Constitutional Colony in 1867. Western Australia began to be governed under a Constitution in 1890. In the same year, the premiers of the colonies agreed to write a federal Constitution.

to as ‘British subjects’ for many years. It was not until the Australia Act of 1986 that Australia became totally independent of Britain.

The colonies approved, through colonial referenda, a Federation with a Constitution. British Royal Assent was granted in July 1900 and the colonies became States of the Commonwealth of Australia on 1 January 1901. However, Australia was still considered part of the British Empire and people were referred

• externally, there is global recognition of this government through international agreements and membership of the United Nations. The Head of State (Sovereign) is King Charles III, who is also the King of the United Kingdom and some other nations. However, because his home is in England, he is represented in Australia by a Governor-General. Since Australia is a federation of former British colonies, the Monarch of each State is also King Charles III, and is represented by each State’s Governor.

Monarch the king or queen of a nation, who is the Head of State; for Australia, this is King Charles III Governor the representative of King Charles III, in his absence, for a State of Australia, under that State’s Constitution.

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Figure 17.2.1 Australia’s Governor-General David Hurley

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Concepts and skills builder 17.2 Understanding sovereignty Consider the following stimulus and apply the QUED method of investigation (outlined at the end of Lesson 17.1) by answering the questions that follow.

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The Montevideo Convention is a critical legal document that provides a clear definition of a sovereign state (‘statehood’). Adopted in Montevideo, Uruguay, the convention outlines four essential qualifications for statehood: ‘(a) a permanent population; (b) a defined territory; (c) government; (d) the capacity to enter into relations with the other states’.

Source: Convention on Rights and Duties of States, adopted by the Seventh International Conference of American States, signed at Montevideo, 26 December 1933

Q Can a nation without geographical boundaries be a sovereign state?

U Search online for information about the meaning of national sovereignty. E Are Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander nations sovereign states?

D What is your opinion about the meaning of First Nations sovereignty?

Civics and Citizenship concepts and skills: communicating, evaluating democratic institutions and systems, investigating contemporary civics and citizenship issues, participating in civic processes

Go online to access the interactive lesson review and more!

Lesson 17.2 review Online quiz

Review questions

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Research task

Teachers can assign tasks and track results

17.2 Review questions 1 2 3 4 5

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What is a sovereign state? How is a sovereign state formed? Explain who has the power to rule in the sovereign state of Australia. Outline the powers and responsibilities of the King in ruling Australia. Keeping in mind that 26 January was the founding day of the colony of New South Wales, discuss whether Australia Day should be moved to 1 January, which was the first day of the Federation of Australia.

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17.3

What is a liberal democracy? Learning intention

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

The previous lesson looked at what makes a nation a sovereign state. In this lesson, you will learn about Australia as a liberal democracy, with its representative government together with its individual freedoms and equal opportunities to participate in society.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

Political parties in Australia

1 Choose a political party in Australia and research some of their main policies. 2 Outline what you think are some benefits of having many different political parties in a country.

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Figure 17.3.1 Parliament House, Canberra

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Representative democracy • division of the country into smaller areas (electorates) to be represented • all people having an equal vote • all people having a right to vote in the election of representatives • majority rule.

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Democracy refers to the system of governance in which power is with all the people. This is the opposite of an absolute monarch or a dictator who has the sole power to govern a society. A liberal democracy is a representative democracy that respects and protects the rights, freedoms and opportunities of its people. A democracy in which all people have equal votes may be:

electoral system the way representatives are elected to Parliament

rule of law a nation is governed through laws that are made and enforced equally constitutional monarchy a liberal democracy governed in accordance with a Constitution which includes a Monarch with limited or no power to govern

In Australia, our representative democracy has an electoral system in which the House of Representatives has:

• direct – where all the people directly take part in deciding laws and policies by voting for them

• 150 electorates, each with a seat in Parliament

• representative – where the people elect representatives to make these decisions on their behalf.

• compulsory registration to vote and voting

Over centuries, representative democracy (the rule of the many) has replaced absolute monarchy (the rule by one) around the world. Today, in many nations, laws are decided by the people’s representatives. This is distinct from rule by a monarch together with a ruling class or elite looking after their own property interests. A representative democracy operates according to the following principles:

• elections every three years or less

• each person’s vote counts as one

• a simple majority (after preferences if necessary) decides an electorate’s representative.

In the Senate (the States’ House), there are 12 Senators representing each State, two representing the ACT and two representing the Northern Territory – a total of 76 Senators. Each senator is elected for six years by proportional representation (not simple majority).

• regular elections

More than representative

If a representative democracy is also a liberal democracy, it operates with societal values that underpin the electoral system including: • freedom to stand for election as a representative • freedom to enrol to vote and to actually vote

• equality of votes – each person’s vote counts as one vote only.

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A liberal democracy upholds the rule of law and provides equal protection of each person’s rights, freedoms and opportunities. The government of Australia’s liberal democracy operates within the Constitution of Australia. The key feature of government is that Parliament makes federal laws. Under the Constitution, a monarchy and two Houses form Parliament. Australia, therefore, is a liberal democracy governed by a constitutional monarchy.

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Constitutional monarchy (realms), including the United Kingdom of England, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland. King Charles III lives in England. Thus, representatives are appointed in other nations to stand in for the King when he is absent, for example, the GovernorGeneral in Australia (and Governors in each State).

Westminster model the British system of government

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Australia’s system of governance copies the English Westminster model of constitutional monarchy. This is a system of parliamentary government operating according to a Constitution, with a monarch as Head of State. The Monarch in Australia is currently King Charles III. He is a shared Monarch by 14 other nations

Concepts and skills builder 17.3 Investigating liberal democracy

Consider the following stimulus and apply the QUED method of investigation by answering the questions that follow.

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Q What are the key features of a liberal democracy? U Search online for information about liberal democracy, both in Australia and in other nations. E Find examples of unequal legal treatment involving finance, gender and ethnicity in Australia.

Figure 17.3.2 Queen Victoria addressing British

Parliament in the late 19th century

D Would you recommend a Bill of Rights so rights can be protected in Australia?

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17.3 Review questions 1 2 3 4

Explain the meaning of democracy. Distinguish between a representative democracy and a liberal democracy. Can a democratic government pass a law that restricts people’s freedoms? Give two examples. Explain the meaning of a constitutional monarchy.

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17.4

What is the Constitution of Australia? Learning intention

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

The previous lesson introduced Australia as a liberal democracy in the form of a constitutional monarchy. In this lesson, you will learn about the basic features of the Constitution of Australia, which is the basis of our democracy.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

Think, pair, share

1 Think: What do you already know about the Constitution of Australia? In a few minutes, list anything that comes to mind. 2 Pair: Swap your notes with a partner. Was there anything that surprised you? 3 Share: Prepare to share your answers with the class.

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While Britain colonised Australia in the past, the Australia Act of 1986 effectively ended the ability of the British Parliament or Government to make laws for Australia or its States. The United Kingdom is now a foreign power to Australia and its States.

The Constitution of Australia became law when it received British Royal Assent on 9 July 1900. Australia came into existence on 1 January 1901 as a federation of former colonies. The States (formerly colonies) kept their powers except for those common powers given to the new federal parliament.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Principles behind the Constitution According to the Australian Constitution Centre, the principles underlying the Constitution are:

federalism – division of power between the federal government and state/territory governments

a parliamentary representative democracy – voting for people to represent our views in Parliament

the rule of law – people cannot be punished or have their rights affected except in accordance with a law, and only after a breach of the law has been established in a court

nationhood – establishing a new nation identified by our national emblems, such as the coat of arms, the Australian flag, the national anthem and our capital city, Canberra

defining some rights – freedom of religion, non-discrimination between States, trial by jury, free trade between the States and freedom to acquire property.

The Judiciary – judicial power is with the High Court of Australia and other established courts

Finance and trade

The States – remaining powers

New States

Miscellaneous

Alteration of the Constitution – referendum.

power is divided among three institutions – Legislature (Parliament), Executive (government) and Judiciary (the court system)

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Figure 17.4.1 The six principles behind the Australian Constitution

Chapters of the Constitution The Constitution of Australia contains eight chapters, as follows: 1

The Parliament – its Houses have legislative powers

The Executive Government – executive power is with the GovernorGeneral (for the King) acting on the advice of the Federal Executive Council

Chapter 17: How does Australia’s political system work?

Federal Executive Council the group of Ministers who present Bills passed by both Houses of Parliament to the Governor-General for Royal Assent into Acts

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Two key parts of the Constitution are the separation of power and the federal system of government. The separation

Separation of power Traditionally, there are three internal arms of a sovereign government – Legislature, Executive and Judiciary. These arms make laws, take action and judge whether the laws are being followed. The responsibility for each arm is with different institutions, and their powers are separate.

In Australia, the Legislature is Parliament. The Australian Government, with its Ministers who head various departments, is the Executive. The court system is the Judiciary and the High Court is the highest court and the final court of appeal.

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U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

the Executive the government of a nation that rules within the law; does not have the power to make laws (which is the role of Parliament) or to enforce the laws (which is the role of the Judiciary)

of power is explained below. The federal system of government is explained in Lesson 17.5.

Figure 17.4.2 Legislature, Cabinet Ministers and court system

Concepts and skills builder 17.4 Evaluating our political system

Consider the following stimuli and apply the QUED method of investigation by answering the questions that follow.

Before Federation in 1901, Australia did not exist as a nation – it was a collection of six British colonies. When the colonies agreed to federate (unite) to form the Commonwealth of Australia, they needed a set of rules for how the new nation should work. They needed a Constitution.

The Australian Constitution was drafted at a series of meetings attended by representatives from these colonies. Most of these representatives were members of the colonial parliaments; for example, Edmund Barton (who later became Australia’s first Prime Minister) and Henry Parkes both came from the New South Wales Parliament, Andrew Inglis Clarke was a member of the Tasmanian Parliament and Alfred Deakin came from the Victorian Parliament. After the Constitution was drafted, a referendum – a vote of the people – was held in each colony between June 1899 and July 1900 to approve the document.

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Figure 17.4.3 The Imperial Federation in Australia, 1890. Australian statesmen meet in Melbourne, to discuss a federation of the six Australian colonies, New South Wales, Queensland, South Australia, Tasmania, Victoria and Western Australia, published in The Graphic, 12 April 1890.

Q What makes Australia’s federal system better than a unitary system?

U Search online for information about Australia’s federal Constitution. Distinguish a federal system from a unitary system. E

What are the advantages and disadvantages of Australia’s federal political system?

D Decide whether a unitary political system, in which state parliaments are eliminated, should be introduced.

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17.4 Review questions

1 Explain the meaning of federalism. 2 Define legislature, and outline what it looks like in Australia. 3 Explain why powers (a) to make laws, (b) to have laws enacted, and (c) to make judgments on the effects of laws are given to different bodies under the Constitution. 4 What does the rule of law mean? 5 Suggest why the Constitution specified that trade between the States be free. Chapter 17: How does Australia’s political system work?

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17.5

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

What is the federal system of government in Australia? Learning intention

The previous lesson explained key aspects of the Constitution of Australia. In this lesson, you will learn how the federal system of government is structured in accordance with the Constitution.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

Federal government bingo 1 Copy the Bingo card

• Begin by copying the bingo card onto a piece of paper.

Make sure your card has the same layout as the one below.

2 Ask your classmates

• Walk around the room and ask your classmates if they can answer any of the questions • •

written in each box on your bingo card. For example, ‘Do you know the name of the current Prime Minister?’ When a classmate answers a question correctly, write their name in that box. Remember: You can only use each classmate’s name once on your card.

3 Get three in a row

• Your goal is to fill three boxes in a row (this can be horizontal, vertical or diagonal). • When you complete a row, shout ‘Bingo!’ immediately. • Your teacher will then check your card to make sure that each classmate’s answer matches the question in the box where their name is written.

Knows the name of the current Prime Minister

Can name a State Premier

Has visited Canberra

____________________

Knows the number of states and territories in Australia

Can name a current Senator

FREE

____________________

Can name a federal Minister

Knows the capital city of their state Can name a state in Australia

____________________

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(ACT) and the Northern Territory (NT). These are non-State areas governed by the Australian Government, although local Legislative Assemblies or governments are given authority to govern their areas. However, the Australian Government can overrule local decisions. Australia also includes other Territories besides the ACT and NT; for example, the Australian Antarctic Territory. These other Territories are not represented in Parliament.

This shared system of government is different from a unitary government, such as in the United Kingdom, where one overall government is responsible for all national and local areas.

Federal responsibilities specified in the Constitution include defence, international trade, taxation, public borrowing, post and telecommunications, currency, migration and pensions. Australia’s Parliament makes laws in these common and specified areas of responsibility.

residual powers the responsibilities of the state governments, excluding the specified areas for the federal government

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Australia has a federal system of government. The Constitution details how this system works. The six States of Australia govern themselves except for common responsibilities specified in the Constitution. Common responsibilities, such as defence, are managed by the Australian Government. The States retain the responsibilities that have not been specified – these are referred to as the ‘residual powers’ of the States.

In Australia, there are also Territories, including the Australian Capital Territory

Monarchy

A Head of State is necessary to endorse Bills passed by both Houses of Parliament and to represent the nation internationally. This role can be undertaken by someone with power to govern or can be simply symbolic and ceremonial.

Figure 17.5.1 Australia’s Head of State, King Charles III, after being crowned during his coronation ceremony in Westminster Abbey on 6 May 2023 in London, England. The crown is the symbol of a monarch.

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Australia’s Head of State is the Monarch, King Charles III, whose role is symbolic and ceremonial. He has no power to govern Australians. His representative, the Governor-General, carries out the same symbolic and ceremonial role in his absence.

Houses of Parliament

Today, a national society of over 26 million people occupies Australia. They conduct their business through a government operating under an agreed Constitution.

The Constitution outlines the form of representative democracy (rule by the many) used to govern Australia. According to the Constitution, Australia is governed by a Parliament that comprises: • the Monarch, or his representative the Governor-General (Head of State)

• the Senate – the States’ House (equivalent to the British House of Lords)

• the House of Representatives (equivalent to the British House of Commons).

New laws require a majority vote in both the Senate and the House of Representatives in order to be enacted. They are then given Royal Assent by the Governor-General, as the representative of the Monarch.

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The Governor-General and Monarch have no power in the lawmaking process; their roles are

King of Australia (Represented by the Governor-General) Senate (States’ House) House of Representatives (People’s House)

• symbolic (embodying the citizens of Australia and representing the history of British rule) • ceremonial (e.g. opening Parliament, attending functions) • parliamentary representation (e.g. signing assent to new laws).

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Figure 17.5.2 Components of the Parliament of

Thus, it is the two Houses of Parliament – and not the Monarch – that make laws and rule in Australia.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Australia

Concepts and skills builder 17.5 Evaluating the Budget

Consider the following stimulus and apply the QUED method of investigation by answering the questions that follow.

In its 2024–25 Budget, the Australian federal government is spending $112.7 billion on health and $126.4 billion over 2024–25 to 2027–28 in recurrent school funding.

As part of its spending on health, there is a commitment to invest in aged care ($2.2 billion), strengthen Medicare ($2.8 billion), deliver cheaper medicines ($4.3 billion) and invest in a fit and healthy Australia ($1.3 billion). Q Develop a possible question for an investigation connected to Australia’s federal system of government. U Search online for information about the responsibilities of the federal and state governments.

E The States have the responsibility for Education and Health. So, why does the federal government pay billions for Education and Health? D Recommend two actions the Victorian Government could take to improve Education or Health in Victoria.

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Explain the meaning of a federal system of government. Describe the components of Parliament. Outline the role of the Monarch. What alternatives are there to having a king without law-making powers? Compare and contrast the roles of the Senate and the House of Representatives.

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17.6

How does Parliament make laws? Learning intention

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

The previous lesson explained the federal system of government. In this lesson, you will learn how national laws are made by the Commonwealth Parliament in accordance with the Constitution.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson. See, think, wonder

1 See: What do you notice both chambers of Parliament have in common? 2 Think: Why do you think each chamber is laid out in this way? Have you seen where government and opposition Ministers sit during question time? Where do you think the photographer was positioned when taking these images? 3 Wonder: When discussing important matters such as creating new laws, do you think the layout of each chamber helps to ensure a ‘robust’ debate takes place? How is this healthy for a democracy?

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Figure 17.6.1 (Right) Inside the House of Representatives and (Left) inside the Senate in Parliament House, Canberra

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Parliament makes laws The federal parliament of the Commonwealth of Australia has the authority to make laws in areas specified by the Constitution. The Parliament comprises:

Since 1986, the Monarch has no power to decide, amend or reject proposed laws. The King acts on the advice of the Federal Executive Council and gives Royal Assent to laws approved by majorities in both Houses of Parliament.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

• the Monarch (King Charles III, or his representative the Governor-General)

• the House of Representatives (the Lower House, which is downstairs).

• the Senate (the Upper House, named this because it is upstairs)

Federal Executive Council

Cabinet group of senior government ministers, chosen by the prime minister, who meet regularly to set policy and coordinate the work of their portfolios

The Federal Executive Council is made up of current Ministers from various government departments, such as Defence. They present Bills passed in both Houses of Parliament to the Governor-General for Royal Assent, making them new laws.

The senior Ministers form a Cabinet, which meets regularly to decide which proposed laws to put to Parliament. Cabinet consists of about 20 senior Ministers, including the Prime Minister.

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Figure 17.6.2 Graphic sourced from the Parliamentary Education Office (peo.gov.au)

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Ministers introduce Bills (proposed laws) into the House of Representatives. If approved by a majority after three readings, the Bill moves to the Senate for approval. Once both Houses approve the Bill, it is presented to the GovernorGeneral at the Federal Executive Council for his signature (Royal Assent). The Bill then becomes an Act (a law).

Bill a proposed law presented to Parliament for approval Act (of Parliament) when a Bill is given Royal Assent, it becomes an Act

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Each Minister is responsible for a Portfolio, which covers areas such as Defence, Foreign Affairs, Treasury, Trade and Tourism, Employment and Workplace Relations, Health and Aged Care, and Education. Each Portfolio is a government department staffed by public servants who support the relevant Minister.

Portfolio the area or department for which a Minister is responsible, such as Education

Concepts and skills builder 17.6 Participating in democracy

Consider the following stimulus and apply the QUED method of investigation by answering the questions that follow. In recent years, an average of about 200 Bills have been introduced into Parliament each year. Of these, roughly 95 per cent originated in the House of Representatives. Approximately 70 per cent of all Bills introduced into Parliament eventually became Acts. The consideration of legislation occupied about 55 per cent of the House’s time. Q What is the connection between you and the passing of a law?

U Search online for how an ordinary citizen can contribute to Parliament. E Can one citizen make a difference to law-making in Parliament? How? D How can Members of Parliament better represent their constituents?

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17.6 Review questions 1 2 3 4

Explain what the Federal Executive Council does. Explain how a federal law is made. How can a government-proposed law be denied in Parliament? Is the King needed to convert a Bill into a law (an Act)?

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17.7

How do elections run? Learning intention

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

The previous lesson considered law-making by Parliament. In this lesson, you will learn about elections for Members of Parliament as representatives of the people.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

Think, pair, share

1 Think: Have you ever been to a polling place on an election day? 2 Pair: What do you already know about how elections are run? Discuss your thoughts with a partner. 3 Share: Prepare to share your ideas with the class.

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Figure 17.7.1 Campaign volunteers hand out ‘how to vote’ cards in the seat of Mulgrave on 26 November 2022 in Melbourne, Australia.

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Figure 17.7.2 Election officials busy counting votes after polling has closed on an election day.

Electing representatives

A liberal democracy exists with a representative government elected and operating in the interests of all the people. It also exists when the representative government protects the rights, freedoms and opportunities of each citizen. A good citizen understands the processes for maintaining representative government in Australia. This understanding includes knowing: • the voting system for electing Members to Parliament

• how to be a candidate for election

• how elections are called and a new Parliament is established

candidates in order of preference. The winner is the candidate who gets 50 per cent plus one vote at the first count. If no candidate achieves this, the votes for the candidate with the lowest votes are redistributed according to their second preferences. This process continues until a candidate obtains 50 per cent plus one vote (a simple majority). For the 76 seats in the Senate (the States’ House), a system of proportional representation is used to elect Senators. In theory, this means that a group or individual with 30 per cent of the votes gets 30 per cent of the seats.

• how to deal with your representative.

Candidates for elections

Voting

A candidate is eligible to stand for election to the Federal Senate or House of Representatives if they are:

Voting at elections is compulsory in Australia for citizens aged 18 years and over. Federal elections are held every three years or sooner. For the 150 seats in the House of Representatives, a preferential voting system applies. This means voters list

• 18 years of age or older • an Australian citizen, and • an elector entitled to vote at a House of Representatives election or qualified to become one. Chapter 17: How does Australia’s political system work?

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Some people are disqualified from standing for elections by Section 44 of the Constitution. This includes: • a citizen or subject of a foreign power • a person serving a prison sentence for 12 months or more • an undischarged bankrupt or insolvent

Every Member of the House of Representatives comes from a region with about 150 000 people. The boundaries of the region are defined by the Australian Electoral Commission. Usually, the Member representing the region maintains an office there.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

• a person holding an office of profit under the Crown (e.g. a public servant)

Your local representative

• a permanent member of the Australian Defence Force.

Calling elections

The Governor-General, on the advice of the Prime Minister, ends (prorogues) the current session of Parliament. All business before the Houses stops and they no longer meet. The Houses are then dissolved and Members lose their appointments. An election is called.

Ministers continue in office during the election period as caretakers. The Speaker continues as Speaker for administrative purposes until a new Speaker is chosen in the next Parliament. The new Parliament commences after the election results are determined.

Do you know the name of your local Member? This is the person who represents you and others in your region in Parliament. Typically, your local Member: • helps people with difficulties such as issues with taxes, immigration or pensions

• speaks with community groups, including support groups and sporting clubs

• visits schools and talks to students and teachers

• works on committees to gather views from community organisations and lobby groups that want to present their opinions to Parliament.

Concepts and skills builder 17.7 Ensuring genuine election of representatives

Consider the following stimulus and apply the QUED method of investigation by answering the questions that follow. Liberal democracies are characterised by:

• respect for human rights • enabling the exercise of fundamental freedoms and opportunities • holding of regular and genuine elections of representatives.

Elections delegate citizen power to representatives, legitimise the government and control the government of the time.

Q Develop a research question on the topic of whether voting should remain compulsory in Australia? U Search online for information on compulsory voting. 458

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E Evaluate the arguments for and against compulsory voting. D Should Australia keep compulsory voting or change to a voluntary system? Give reasons to justify your decision.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

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17.7 Review questions

1 Explain the meaning of preferential voting. Give an example. 2 Explain the meaning of proportional representation. Refer to the Senate in Australia. 3 Analyse Table 17.7.1. Over the last 40 years, has there been a connection between the election winner and the economic conditions of unemployment, inflation and the minimum interest rate? Justify your response. Table 17.7.1 Federal election results and economic conditions

Election

Winner

1983# 1984 1987 1990 1993 1996# 1998 2001 2004 2007# 2010 2013# 2016 2019 2022# 2025

ALP ALP ALP ALP ALP Coalition Coalition Coalition Coalition ALP ALP Coalition Coalition Coalition ALP ALP

Unemployment rate (monthly %) 10.5 8.7 7.9 5.6 11.4 8.9 7.0 6.6 4.9 4.2 5.0 5.8 5.7 5.2 4.0 4.0

Inflation rate (annual % change) 11.4 2.5 9.3 8.7 1.2 3.8 0.7 3.1 2.3 2.9 2.9 2.2 1.0 1.6 6.1 2.5

Interest rate (RBA min %)

17.5 5.75 7.5 5.0 4.5 5.25 6.75 4.5 2.5 1.75 1.0 0.35 4.1

Source: ABS Statistical data; Note: #Change of government

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17.8

How does a referendum work? Learning intention

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

The previous lesson looked at elections in Australia. In this lesson, you will learn how sections of the Constitution may be changed by referendum.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

Discussing referenda

A referendum is a vote or plebiscite to change a part of the Constitution. There have been 45 referenda to change the Constitution of Australia since Federation on 1 January 1901. Most have failed, with only eight being successful. 1 Write down any past referenda in Australian political history that you can think of. 2 In 2–3 sentences, explain what the referendum was about and the result of the vote. 3 Identify which way you would have voted, and explain why.

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Amending the Constitution A ‘double majority’ is required for a referendum to pass. This means, both of the following are needed: • nationally, a YES vote from 50 per cent plus one of the voters (including people living in the States and Territories)

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

The Constitution is an important document. It holds society together with details on how to govern and make laws for Australia. It enables the rule of law to be the basis of our society. Therefore, any changes or alterations to the Constitution require the support of most Australian citizens.

• in each State, a YES vote from 50 per cent plus one of the people in at least four States.

Examples of past referenda In 1967, voters were asked:

• to give the Commonwealth Parliament the power to make special laws for Indigenous Australians; and

• to count full-blooded Aboriginal people as part of the national population (previously the Constitution excluded them under Section 127).

The referendum was successful, with a 91 per cent national vote and majorities in all six States. This led to enhanced voting rights for Indigenous people. By 1983,

voting in Australian elections became compulsory for all First Nations people.

This successful referendum also gave the Commonwealth Parliament the power to pass laws regarding Indigenous Australians that take precedence over State laws, especially concerning discrimination. In 1999 a referendum for Australia to become a Republic – replacing the Monarch with a President and adding a Preamble to the Constitution – failed. The President would have been appointed by a two-thirds majority of Members of both Houses of Parliament. Only 45 per cent voted YES nationally and no State had a YES majority. Australia remained a constitutional monarchy. The referendum of 2023 also failed. This referendum was to change the Constitution by creating a body called the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Voice, which would make representations to federal parliament and the Executive Council on matters relating to Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples. It failed with only a 40 per cent YES vote nationally and no State majority. Most people wondered why a similar advisory body could not exist without changing the Constitution.

double majority requires both a majority of voters nationally and a majority of the six States to vote YES to proposed changes in the Constitution republic a representative government headed by a President rather than a Monarch Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Voice an Indigenous voice to Parliament that gives Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples a say on laws and policies that affect them; it forms part of a request (the Uluru Statement from the Heart) for voice, treaty and truth

Figure 17.8.1 Yorta Yorta and Wiradjuri man Bill Onus, President of the Victorian Aborigines’ Advancement League, standing with supporters of the YES campaign on 29 May 1967.

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Figure 17.8.2 Malcolm Turnbull, chairman of the Australian Republican Movement (ARM), holds a press conference in Sydney’s Hyde Park on 5 November 1999 on the eve of Australia’s referendum on becoming a Republic. The referendum was unsuccessful. Turnbull would go on to become a Liberal Prime Minister of Australia.

➜

Figure 17.8.3 Posters representing both sides of the 2023 Indigenous Voice referendum campaign. Ultimately, the NO vote was successful.

Procedure for a referendum 1

An amendment to the Constitution is put to Parliament. It must be passed by a majority of Members in the House of Representatives and then in the Senate.

The proposed amendment is then put to the people in a national vote.

All Australian citizens aged 18 years and over must vote – voting is compulsory.

To succeed, a double majority of voters is necessary (the majority of people, and the majority of states).

If the double majority is achieved, the amendment is sent to the Executive Council and the Governor-General gives Royal Assent.

➜

Figure 17.8.4 The six stages of changing the Australian Constitution

Source: Parliamentary Education Office 462

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Concepts and skills builder 17.8 Analysing a referendum Consider the following stimulus and apply the QUED method of investigation by answering the questions that follow. 2023 Australian Indigenous Voice referendum Darwin

Brisbane and surrounds

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Townsville

Newcastle

Perth

Sydney

Adelaide

Melbourne

% 50 55 60 65 70 75

➜

Yes No

Hobart

Canberra

Jervis Bay

Figure 17.8.5 Outcome of the 2023 Australian Voice Referendum, by electorate

Q What was the purpose of the 2023 referendum on an Indigenous Voice to Parliament and why was it rejected?

U S earch online for information about the intended purpose of the Indigenous Voice to Parliament and the results of the 2023 Referendum. E What argument do you think dominated the views of the NO voters?

D Suggest a way to solve the problem that the referendum aimed to address? How would you communicate your chosen policy?

Civics and Citizenship concepts and skills: communicating, evaluating democratic institutions and systems, investigating contemporary civics and citizenship issues, participating in civic processes

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Go online to access the interactive lesson review and more!

Lesson 17.8 review Online quiz

Review questions

DOC

Research task

Teachers can assign tasks and track results

17.8 Review questions Explain what would change if Australia became a Republic. Explain what a Voice for Indigenous nations means. Propose why there have not been more referenda since Federation. Identify at least two issues you would like to see referenda on in Australia.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

1 2 3 4

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17.9

How do governments develop policies? Learning intention

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The previous lesson considered referenda to change parts of the Constitution. In this lesson, you will learn about how an elected government forms and implements its policies and puts them into law.

Lesson starter

Complete the following activity to kick-start this lesson.

Party policies line-up

1 Your teacher is going to read a number of statements that you will have to respond to by moving along a ‘continuum’ from Agree to Disagree, where the middle of the line is Neutral. Make sure the classroom is set up so that you can move around freely. 2 Consider each statement and then move to the correct location on the continuum that reflects your opinion. Australia should have a three-day weekend. School cafeterias should only serve pizza and chips. Social media should be banned for anyone under the age of 12. Primary-aged children should be allowed a maximum of two hours’ screen time per day. There should be no more cage eggs. 3 With a partner, discuss how you each went in the activity. Was there a pattern to your responses?

• • • • •

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A party’s platform is the basis of government policy policy an agreed guideline for taking action

How are current government policies formulated? A policy is shaped mainly by the government as a result of the platform of the political party in power. When a government introduces a new law, it is based on the platform (policies) of the party or parties in government. The major influence on policy is the views of the political party in government at the time. So, what are the differences in the policies of the main political parties? These differences are found in each party’s platform.

coalition of centre-right parties, though not Far Right supporters. They represent city people (Liberal Party) and regional people (National Party).

Liberal Party The Liberal Party had its origins in the unification of liberal-oriented parties by Robert Menzies in 1944. It is a centre-right party with liberal policies that relate to the rights, freedoms and responsibilities of individuals. A key policy is for minimal government involvement. Its policy emphasis is on individual and private enterprise, with equality of opportunity for all. Liberal Party Policies include:

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

platform the set of policies of a political party that guide its actions when in government

Policy is a guideline for action. The set of policies of a political party for advancing society to an ideal state is its platform.

Australian Labor Party (ALP)

The origins of the ALP lie in the industrial issues faced by trade unions a century ago. When unions struggled to achieve their members’ wishes, they established a political party to represent them in federal parliament in 1901.

social democracy an ideal society seeking collective wellbeing through democratic means

Today, the ALP advocates left-ofcentre policies, though not as far left as socialism or communism. Its policies are consistent with social democracy – political, economic and social policies that involve representative democracy and societal development.

The ALP’s economic policy aims to maximise the nation’s wellbeing. This involves total income growth, fairer opportunities to participate in employment and a fairer sharing of income and wealth. The ALP’s political policies include seeking a balance of powers among different levels of government through consultation, and its social policies promote an inclusive society where diversity is respected.

The Coalition The Liberal and National Parties operate together as a Coalition. They form a

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• Limited government – only involving areas the private sector cannot manage, with private financial support where there is a clear public benefit

• A competitive economy as the best way to build wealth and wellbeing • Ensuring all children have the opportunity to develop their capabilities

• Ensuring all people have the opportunity to succeed in society

• Fostering long-term security for all in work, life and defence • Recognising that quality of living depends on location and culture

• Foreign and trade policies based on international competitiveness, a strong national defence and international relationships and alliances.

National Party

The National Party originated as the Country Party (later the National Country Party) in 1921, and became the National Party in 1982. It is a right-wing party particularly focused on the interests of country or regional people.

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Influences on policies Besides the platform of the Party in government, other factors influence the laws proposed by a federal government. These include cost, interest groups, media, Parliament, international views and the diversity of the population.

The media, including social media, is another influence. For example, when inflation and the cost of living rise, media reports on the issue can lead to the government introducing laws to help citizens with higher living costs.

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

When considering whether to introduce a new law, the government considers the cost of implementing it, as well as the current economic conditions. The annual Budget also needs to take into account competing priorities. For example, allocating more tax dollars to education will mean less money available for other areas of government spending.

to draw the government’s attention to people in poverty.

Interest groups also influence government policy. Many groups lobby the government through consultants and documents, to ensure that Members of Parliament are aware of issues important to them. The Australian Council of Social Services, for example, lobbies

Additional influences on government policy include the policies of other parties presented in Parliament during discussions of a Bill, especially when the government does not have a majority in the Senate and must negotiate with other parties or Independents to get Bills passed.

Policies regarding defence are shaped by arrangements with our allies. Examples include the provision of Australian bases for US submarines in Western Australia and US troops in the Northern Territory.

➜

Figure 17.9.1 The way stories are presented in the Australian media can influence the development of political policies.

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Implementation of policy substantially add to the public debt. For example, the ALP-introduced National Disability Insurance Scheme Act, which passed in 2023, was amended in October 2024 because of the financial burden it was placing on public debt.

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A political party’s policy is implemented in Parliament through new laws. For this to happen the party needs to be in government – that is, have a majority in the House of Representatives. If not in government, they can use the reading stages of a Bill to argue for changes. If the government does not have a Senate majority, they need to negotiate changes to proposed Bills in order to get them passed. The financial implications of a new policy, once it becomes law, may

When a policy is enacted and becomes law, the government usually develops an education and advertising program to prepare people for its implementation.

Concepts and skills builder 17.9 Determining your political alignment

Consider the following stimulus and apply the QUED method of investigation by answering the questions that follow. Main ideas of liberalism

• Individual rights and liberty • Limited government • Free markets and free trade • The rule of law • Democracy

Main ideas of collectivism

• Strong welfare state to support all citizens • Progressive taxation to fund public services • Mixed economy (private enterprise and state intervention) • Social justice and reduced inequality • Democracy

Q Which type of society would you prefer to live in: a collective society or a liberal society?

U U ndertake an investigation of the ALP and Liberal platforms to identify their ideal societies. Note their main policies for achieving their ideal. E Evaluate the differences between the two parties’ approaches to an ideal society. D Decide which party’s ideal society and platform you prefer. Justify your choice.

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Figure 17.9.2 Prime Minister Anthony Albanese – and his son Nathan – cast their ballots in the general election beside his partner Jodie Haydon at a polling station for the 2025 Federal Election.

Lesson 17.9 review Online quiz

Review questions

DOC

Research task

Go online to access the interactive lesson review and more!

Teachers can assign tasks and track results

17.9 Review questions 1 2 3 4

Explain the meaning of a political party. Explain the meaning of a political party’s platform. Distinguish between the ideal societies of the Labor Party and the Liberal Party. Referring to Table 17.9.1, identify the party or parties in government for the most years since World War II.

Table 17.9.1 Parties in Government in Australia Since WWII

Period Oct 1941 – Dec 1949 Dec 1949 – Dec 1972

Dec 1972 – Nov 1975 Nov 1975 – Mar 1983 Mar 1983 – Mar 1996 Mar 1996 – Dec 2007 Dec 2007 – Sep 2013 Sep 2013 – May 2022 May 2022 –

Years in Power Party 8 ALP 23 Coalition 3 7.5 13 11.5 6 8.5 3

ALP Coalition ALP Coalition ALP Coalition ALP

Prime Ministers John Curtin, Frank Forde, Ben Chifley Robert Menzies, Harold Holt, John McEwen, John Gorton, Willaim McMahon Gough Whitlam Malcolm Fraser Bob Hawke, Paul Keating John Howard Kevin Rudd, Julia Gillard Tony Abbot, Malcolm Turnbull, Scott Morrison Anthony Albanese

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17.10

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Research task: Should Australia be a constitutional monarchy or a republic? This research task is designed to be completed over multiple weeks, as you complete the chapter. It should not be left until the end. By completing this research task, you will have the opportunity to consolidate the ideas learned through this chapter, and demonstrate your understanding of Civics and Citizenship concepts and skills.

Research question: Should Australia be a constitutional monarchy or a republic?

Investigate and evaluate the research question and develop your response using the following questions to guide you. You should follow the QUED method of investigation, as described in the box at the end of Lesson 17.1. You will also prepare a report of your investigation.

➜ Figure 17.10.1 The late Queen

Elizabeth II and King Charles III of the United Kingdom – examples of constitutional monarchs.

➜ Figure 17.10.2 Former President

Abraham Lincoln of the United States of America – an example of a leader of a Republic system of government. 470

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he issue under investigation is whether it would be better to change from T a constitutional monarchy to a constitutional republic, or not. Think about why someone might want to change this, and write down your ideas. What questions do you have?

U Investigate the difference between a constitutional monarchy and a constitutional republic system of government. a What are the main differences between the two?

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

b What are the main arguments for and against each system?

Evaluate the arguments for and against the different systems. a Is the argument valid?

b Which points are most important to you?

Decide on your opinion: is it better to change or not to change? a Justify your opinion using your research.

b Consider practical issues like cost and how the government would work differently. c Decide how to communicate your view to convince others.

The report

Your teacher will tell you how you should present your report (written, oral, multimedia). However, your report should include:

• A statement of the issue, including the question you are addressing

• Explanations of what a constitutional monarchy and a constitutional republic system are, distinguishing them by highlighting their differences • Arguments for and against a constitutional monarchy

• Arguments for and against a constitutional republic

➜

Figure 17.10.2 King Charles and Queen Camilla walking down the steps of the Sydney Opera House on their first royal tour of Australia

• An evaluation of whether all arguments are valid, then a ranking of valid arguments in terms of their importance, in your opinion • A recommendation to change or not change.

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17.11

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End of investigation review: How does Australia’s political system work? Access the Interactive Textbook for a range of digital tools to help you review this topic, including: • Downloadable chapter summary • Scorcher timed competitive quiz.

Brain dump

What have you learned about how Australia’s political system works? Copy and complete the table to explain your understanding. Aim for two points per topic.

What is sovereignty? What is a liberal democracy? What is the Constitution of Australia? What is Australia’s system of government? How does Parliament make laws? How do elections run? How does a referendum work? What has been the impact of the Australian Constitution on First Nations Peoples? What alternative legal pathways exist for First Nations rights? How do governments develop policies?

Making thinking visible

Apply the 3-2-1 Routine to summarise your findings from this chapter. 1

Recall three main points or ideas from the chapter.

Identify two interesting or surprising facts related to the chapter.

State one question that you still have or something you want to learn more about.

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Practice questions Is a Constitution necessary for a democracy?

What is the role of a Head of State? What are the main differences between a Monarch and a President who are Heads of State?

How can an ordinary citizen influence the platform of a political party?

Evaluate how alternative legal pathways, such as treaties or international declarations, might offer a different route to achieving justice for First Nations Peoples compared to constitutional change.

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Identify the potential benefits and limitations of using referenda to address historical discrimination against First Nations Peoples.

Response to chapter inquiry question: How does Australia’s political system work?

Write a paragraph in response to the inquiry question. Include the following key terms: • liberal democracy • representatives • Constitution • Parliament • elections. ➜

Figure 17.11.1 An aerial view of Parliament House in Canberra

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CHAPTER 18

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How does Australia’s legal system work?

LESSON TITLE 18.1

Setting the scene: What are the types of laws in Australia?

18.2

What is the role of federal courts?

18.3

How is the court system structured in Victoria?

18.4

How do courts in Victoria operate?

18.5

What is mediation and arbitration?

18.6

What are the rights of the accused and victims?

18.7

What are the rights of all individuals?

18.8

How are rights protected?

18.9

Research task: What limits should be placed on the freedom of the press?

18.10

End of investigation review: How does Australia’s legal system work?

This digital chapter can be accessed via Cambridge GO

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Glossary History

to the US Constitution, guaranteeing individual freedoms such as speech, religion, the press, assembly and protection from government abuses

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

abdicate when a monarch decides to give up their throne and title

Bill of Rights (1791) the first 10 amendments

activist a person who campaigns actively to achieve social or political change

annex to take possession of an area

of land or a country, usually by force or without permission

Anschluss the term given to the political and

geographic union of Germany and Austria in 1938

the Blitz intense bombing attack on London by German planes in 1940

Blitzkrieg (‘lightning war’) a media term for

a coordinated military attack involving heavy aerial bombing followed by a rapidly moving and highly mobile force of tanks and infantry

prejudice against Jewish people

blockade a situation in which a country or place is surrounded by soldiers or ships to stop people or goods from going in or out

appeasement giving in to the demands of an

bureaucracy

antisemitism hatred, discrimination or

aggressive nation to avoid conflict

archipelago a group of islands aristocracy

a class of people holding high social rank and privilege, typically by noble birth and often owning large amounts of land

armistice a truce, or agreement by

a system of government where unelected officials carry out the main functions

bushido the Japanese warrior code of conduct

bystander someone who is present during

an event but does not take part or intervene

opposing sides to stop fighting for a certain amount of time

canal a long, thin stretch of water that is

artillery

caste a fixed social group in a hierarchy – in

long-range weapons that require a crew to launch them (big guns and mortars)

assassination

the murder of a public figure for political purposes

atomic bomb a bomb that derives its

artificially made for boats to travel along

India, your social position was decided by the caste into which you were born

casualty a person who is killed in war, wounded, missing or taken prisoner of war

destructive power from the rapid release of nuclear energy – the atomic bomb was developed by the top secret US-based Manhattan Project between 1939 and 1945

Catholic missionaries members of the

bakufu the military government led by the

cede surrendering of land to another country

shogun that ruled Japan from 1192 to 1868

censor the removal, limiting or control of

Beer Hall Putsch violent attempt, begun

information before it is shared with the public, usually to protect security, prevent panic or influence opinions

in a beer hall, to overthrow the German Government

French Catholic Church sent around the non-Christian world in the 17th century to convert populations to Christianity

Glossary

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Chinese Communist Party a political party founded on the ideas of Karl Marx that aimed to create a classless society with shared ownership of property and production; today, it remains China’s ruling party

Declaration of Independence (1776) a

‘civilising mission’ the ideological justification

service at the end of a war

for imperialism, claiming Europeans had a duty to spread Christianity, education and industrialisation

diaspora people who have spread or been dispersed from their land of origin

document drafted by Thomas Jefferson and adopted by the Continental Congress, declaring the Thirteen Colonies independent from British rule

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

demobilised taken out of active military

clan a group descended from a common

ancestor and sharing the same name

diplomacy the practice of negotiating between representatives of different countries

cooking and baking

dissent showing a strongly different opinion on a particular question, especially an official policy or plan

colonial holdings territories controlled and

dominion a country with control of its

cloves the dried bud of a flower used in

governed by a foreign power or empire

colonisation the act or process of sending people from one country to settle and govern another country, including establishing control over the Indigenous population

colony a country or region that is under the

control of another country or power

concentration camp

prison where political prisoners or members of persecuted minorities are deliberately imprisoned in a relatively small area with inadequate facilities, sometimes so that they can provide forced labour

concessions districts leased or controlled by

foreign powers

concubine a woman taken as an extra or second-class wife by a wealthy man

conscription compulsory enlistment in national service, usually military service consul an official appointed by a

government to represent its interests in a foreign city

courtier a person who attends the court of a king or emperor

daimyo a feudal Japanese lord, equivalent

to a medieval European duke or earl

death march forced march of prisoners of war, where those who die are left to lie where they fall

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internal affairs but remaining loyal to and part of the British Empire

dowry money and property provided by a woman’s family upon her marriage

durbar a court or audience with an Indian

prince, such as a Mughal emperor

dynasty

a succession of rulers from the same family

East India Company

a trading company that was given the right by the British Government to control India and all trade in its spices, tea and other valuable items

edict an announcement of a new rule or law

Einsatzgruppen (‘deployment group’) units

of the Security Police and the SD (the SS intelligence service) that acted as mobile killing units during the invasion of Poland and Russia

empire a large group of countries under the control of one central government or emperor Enlightenment a philosophical movement in

the 17th and 18th centuries that emphasised reason, individual rights and self-governance

enlist to enrol in the armed forces eugenics a pseudoscience (since

discredited) that aimed to ‘improve’ a population by preventing people seen as ‘physically inferior’ from having children, sometimes through forced sterilisation or murder

Glossary

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eunuch male palace official or servant who had been castrated so they could not father children

expatriate a person who is living (temporarily) outside of their home country

hyperinflation

when the prices of goods and services rise by more than 50 per cent every month

imperial related to an empire or emperor/empress

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factory system an organised method of production with structured working hours and division of tasks, central to industrialisation

hydraulic engineering a branch of engineering that focuses on using and controlling water and other fluids, such as designing dams, canals, pipes and flood systems

Final Solution (Endlösung) the term used by the Nazis for the genocide of the Jewish people of Europe First Opium War

also known as the AngloChinese War; a series of military conflicts between the British Empire and the Qing dynasty of China that took place from 1839 to 1842

incursion a sudden attack into enemy territory indemnity

a payment made to the victors of a conflict to compensate for the losses or costs involved

indentured labour a system where workers sign a contract to work for a certain time, often under harsh conditions

do against their will, often under threat

independence the condition of selfgovernment or sovereignty of a country or state

Geneva Convention

Indochina collective name for Vietnam,

forced labour work that people are made to

series of agreements made in 1864 by various countries on how wounded and captured soldiers, as well as civilians, should be treated during wartime

genocide acts done with the intent to

destroy a national, ethnic, racial or religious group; the word was coined by Raphael Lemkin, a Polish Jewish lawyer who fled the Nazis in 1941

geopolitical rivalries competition among

European powers for colonies, contributing to tensions leading up to World War I

ghetto an overcrowded, guarded part of a

city where Jewish people were forced to live under strict control

Guomindang (GMD)

a political party that aimed to establish a modern, democratic republic in China promoting nationalism and modernisation

han the regions ruled by daimyo under the

Tokugawa shogunate, measured by how much rice they produced and run like selfgoverning provinces

heir a person who inherits the property and title of another

high-income country a nation with a high per-capita GDP and standard of living

Hopalong Cassidy fictional cowboy hero from Hollywood films of the 1930s and 1940s

Cambodia and Laos when they were under French colonial rule

infant mortality the number of deaths of children under one year of age, usually expressed as per 1000 live births

infantry

soldiers who march or fight on foot

internment camp prison camps used during

wartime to detain people from foreign nations due to fears that they might assist their home countries in the conflict

Intolerable Acts (1774) a series of punitive

laws passed by Britain in response to the Boston Tea Party, including closing Boston Harbor and reducing the colonies’ ability to govern themselves

invasion an occasion when an army or

country uses force to enter and take control of another country

isolationism a policy of avoiding

involvement in international conflicts and foreign affairs

junk a Chinese ship with a flat bottom and

square sails

kamikaze ‘divine wind’ in Japanese – a World War II tactic whereby pilots carried out suicide crashes against enemy targets; used to sink at least 34 Allied ships and damage hundreds more

Glossary

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Khmer Rouge a Cambodian communist military group led by Pol Pot that carried out the Cambodian genocide between 1975 and 1979

land reforms the division of existing agricultural land and its reallocation to landless people – a practice used by Communist governments to empower peasants to control food production

mutiny a rebellion by soldiers or sailors against their senior officers

narcotic a psychoactive drug that changes brain functions to alter mood, perception or behaviour

nationalism a political ideology that emphasises the interests, culture and identity of a specific nation

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Lebensraum (‘living space’) the belief that Germany needed to expand its borders into other countries to take their resources, which they claimed as Germany’s by right due to their belief in the superiority of the German people

monopoly when one company controls all of a product or service, with no competition

legations diplomatic missions established by foreign countries in various Chinese cities that operated under the laws of their own nations literati the educated or scholar class

Luftwaffe the German air force before and

Night of the Long Knives the massacre of

members and leaders of the paramilitary Sturmabteilung (SA) force, ordered by Adolf Hitler on 30 June 1934 to secure his control over the Nazi Party

no man’s land the contested strip of land

between enemy trenches, often covered in explosive mines and barbed wire

November Criminals the nickname German

during World War II

nationalists gave the German politicians who negotiated the Treaty of Versailles

mandarin an educated member of the

Nuremberg Laws

political or administration class, trained in Chinese methods

Mandate of Heaven the belief that heaven

gives authority to a dynasty to rule China and may revoke this authority if the dynasty is immoral or incompetent

manifesto public declaration of political ideas and aims

antisemitic and racist laws passed on 15 September 1935 – these laws were enacted by the German government after a meeting in the city of Nuremberg

one-party state a country where only one

political party is allowed to govern and no other parties can run in elections

martial law

pacifist a person who opposes or resists all war and militarism, a peace activist

Marxism-Leninism a communist ideology

pagan a person who has no religion or a religion other than Christianity, Judaism or Islam

when a military force is given direct authority over normal civilian functions

based on the theories of Karl Marx and Vladimir Lenin, predominant among 21stcentury communist states

paramilitary

Meiji Restoration a period of rapid modernisation in Japan that transformed politics, the economy and society

Paris Peace Conference a diplomatic meeting in 1919 that established the terms of peace after World War I

military conscripts people who are drafted

Partition the division of British India

(legally required) to serve in the armed forces for a set period, rather than volunteering to fight

mission civilisatrice (‘mission of civilisation’) France’s justification for colonisation

missionary

a person who travels to a foreign country to convert others to their religion

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unofficial military organisation that is structured and behaves similarly to a legitimate military force

into two independent countries, India and Pakistan

patriarchy

a society in which power and privilege are held mostly or entirely by men

patrimonial estate family-owned property or land, inherited and passed down through generations

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patriotism a feeling of love and support for one’s country or homeland Pentagon Papers a classified US Department

reparations payment or other assistance given by those who have done wrong to those who they have wronged

repatriated returned to one’s home country

of Defense study on America’s involvement in the Vietnam War, leaked in 1971 to reveal that successive governments had misled the public about the war’s progress

government where power is held by the people rather than by rulers who inherit it

perpetrator

resolution a formal statement of the wishes of a group or organisation

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

someone who commits a harmful, illegal or immoral act

republican government a system of

Persian the people, language and culture from the civilisation in the region now known as Iran personality cult officially organised

admiration and love for a particular person, especially a political leader

plantation system form of farming in which large colonial estates (plantations) grow a single export crop, such as sugar, coffee, tea or cotton, using large labour forces

pogrom a riot to massacre or expel an

ethnic or religious group, particularly Jews

Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) a mental

health condition caused by experiencing or witnessing a terrifying event; symptoms include flashbacks, nightmares and severe anxiety

propaganda information used to promote a political cause or point of view, often misleading

puppet government a government that appears independent but is actually controlled by another country

purge to get rid of something harmful, evil

Roma sometimes referred to as Gypsies (now considered a derogatory term), the Romani people are one of the European ethnic groups targeted by the National Socialists as part of their eugenics policies roman alphabet the collection of letters originally used by ancient Romans to write Latin and used in many European languages today

samurai the hereditary warrior class of Japan

Schutzstaffe l (SS) (‘protective echelon’) the

elite and fanatical soldiers of the Nazi Party, the SS were an independent political and military group controlled directly by Heinrich Himmler and Adolf Hitler

scramble for Africa the rapid colonisation

and division of Africa by European powers between the 1880s and 1900

Second Indochina War commonly known

outside Vietnam as the Vietnam War (1964–1975) between the North and South Vietnamese governments and their allies

Second Opium War a war fought by both

or unwanted

France and England to force China to accept the importation of opium

Quoc Ngu literally ‘national language’; the

sedition the crime of inciting people to rebel

romanised Vietnamese alphabet

against the authority of a state

railway a mode of overland transport

Senjinkun a military code issued to

enabling fast movement of goods and people, crucial to industrial and urban growth

Japanese soldiers that prohibited Japanese soldiers from retreat or surrender

ratify the official approval of an act already

sepoy a professional Indian soldier paid by

agreed by a lesser authority

the East India Company and later the Raj

Rats of Tobruk nickname German

serfdom a feudal system in which peasants

propagandists gave Australian soldiers at Tobruk, adopted by the Australian soldiers as their name for themselves

were tied to the land and required to work for their landlords

regent a person who rules a state or country because the emperor is too young or ill

settlement a place where people come to live, or the process of settling in such a place shogun a military leader

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signals military communications, including sending, receiving and decoding messages

suffragist a campaigner for women’s suffrage (the right to vote)

Sikh a believer of a religion based on the

synagogue Jewish place of worship

worship of one god, founded in Punjab, northern India, in the 16th century

tariffs fees or customs charges paid by

Social Darwinism a racial theory used to justify European dominance, portraying it as a natural outcome of superior civilisation

Tet the Vietnamese Lunar New Year festival theatre (of war) the entire area of land, sea and air that is – or may become – directly involved in a war

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

soft power a persuasive approach to

merchants to governments on imports and exports

international relations, typically involving the use of economic or cultural influence

Sonderkommando prisoners in German

concentration and death camps who were forced to work in the gas chambers

spinning jenny a multi-spindle spinning frame that revolutionised weaving by allowing a worker to spin multiple threads of yarn at once

stagnation a situation where development

or progress becomes inactive

stalemate a situation in which neither

side can take an action or make progress (originally from chess)

Star of David

six-pointed star, consisting of two overlapping triangles, used as a symbol to identify and represent Jewish people

steam engine a key invention driving

industrialisation and powering factories

steamships steam-powered vessels that

revolutionised maritime trade by improving speed and reliability, connecting Europe to global markets

‘stiff upper lip’ British wartime ideal of

showing fortitude and strength in the face of adversity

Sturmabteilung (‘storm division’) unofficial

and (due to the Treaty of Versailles) unarmed militia force of the Nazi Party, notorious for using violence and intimidation against political opponents

sue for peace request a peace settlement, usually by a losing side in a war suffrage the right to vote in political

trade deficit a situation where a country’s imports are greater than its exports

transcontinental railway a railway that crosses an entire continent, connecting distant regions tube slang for the Underground, London’s rail network unification the process of combining

separate regions or states into one nation

urbanisation the movement of people from

rural areas (such as farms or small towns) to towns and cities

vassal in a feudal system, someone granted land or position by a superior in exchange for loyalty

victim someone who suffers harm, injury or death

Victoria Cross

the highest British award for valour, only awarded when, in the presence of the enemy, the person displays the most conspicuous courage, a daring or pre-eminent act of valour or self-sacrifice, extreme devotion to duty

war of attrition a military strategy of trying to wear down the enemy to the point of collapse through continuous losses in personnel, resources and equipment

Watergate scandal a 1970s US political

scandal involving a break-in at the Democratic National Committee headquarters in the Watergate complex and the Nixon administration’s cover-up of the break-in; when the cover-up was discovered, President Nixon was forced to resign

elections

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Geography acute food insecurity a situation where people do not have enough food to survive or maintain their way of life, no matter the cause, context or length of time

adaptation the process of change where an organism becomes better suited to its environment

cover crop plants grown to cover the soil rather than to be harvested crop residue natural waste materials from agriculture, such as stalks, stubble, leaves and seed pods

crop yield the amount of produce grown per area of land

raising animals for human use and as food

cultural burning a Traditional Aboriginal land management practice to enhance the health of Country and culture

agroforestry

debt the total amount owing from

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

agriculture the process of growing crops and

a land management system that integrates trees and shrubs with crops or livestock to enhance biodiversity, soil fertility and productivity

algae bloom when colonies of algae grow

uncontrollably, harming people and wildlife

aquifer underground layers of rock that

past borrowing

deforestation

clearing a large area of trees

desertification

the process by which fertile land turns into desert, typically because of drought, deforestation or poor farming practices

hold and store water

development the standard of living and

arable land land used to produce cereal and

quality of life of people in a place

root crops, rather than for raising livestock

displacement the forced movement of

archipelago an area that contains a chain or

people from one place to another

group of islands scattered in lakes, rivers, or the ocean

artificial intelligence the development of

computer systems to perform tasks that normally require human intelligence

aspect the direction a slope faces

diversify the practice of producing a variety of crops or animals, or both, on one farm domestication

the process of growing and adapting wild plants or animals to suit human needs

and animal life in a place

economic shock random, unpredictable event that has a major impact on the economy

biomass organic material that comes from

El Niño a climate pattern that causes

biodiverse having a large variety of plant

plants and animals

biome a large, naturally formed community of plants and animals found in a place calorie supply the daily per capita supply

of calories is measured in kilocalories per person per day

circumnavigation

sailing or travelling all the way around something

climate pollution the release of harmful substances, primarily greenhouse gases like carbon dioxide and methane, into the atmosphere, contributing to global climate change

compaction the compression of soil particles into a smaller volume, reducing the amount of air and water the soil can hold

unusual warming of surface waters in the eastern tropical Pacific Ocean, often resulting in extreme weather events such as floods and droughts

endemic native to a particular region

eutrophication when a body of water gets too many nutrients, especially phosphorus and nitrogen, often leading to excessive algae growth

fossil fuel natural fuel, such as coal or gas,

made from the remains of living organisms

genetic modification a process that uses

laboratory-based technologies to alter the DNA makeup of an organism

goods items for sale that can be moved

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gross domestic product (GDP) the total value of goods and services produced by a country in one year

perennials crops or plants that grow back

homogenisation the process of changing something so that all its parts or features become the same or very similar

population density the number of people

humus the organic part of soil that is

poverty when people or communities

formed when microorganisms break down

lack the financial resources and essentials needed for a minimum standard of living

living in a specific area, usually measured per square kilometre

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

indigenous naturally existing in a

every year, unlike annuals, which die after one season and need replanting

specific place

industrialised agriculture also known as

intensive agriculture involves large-scale, intensive production of crops and animals, often involving technology and chemicals

inequality

unequal distribution of resources, resulting in some people having more than others

input what is brought into a farm or farming system (e.g. water, machinery, chemicals)

leaching the process of water carrying

dissolved substances or small particles through soil or rock

livestock

animals used for work, food or produce

living wage

an income high enough to support a normal standard of living

marine dead zone

an area of reduced oxygen in the water, causing organisms to die

market forces economic factors that

poverty cycle the continuation of poverty, often from one generation to another due to the impact of many factors precipitation

liquid or frozen water that forms in the atmosphere and falls to Earth (e.g. rain, snow)

precision farming uses modern data-driven

technologies to collect real-time data on conditions in crop fields

savanna flat grasslands with scattered trees and shrubs social enterprise businesses guided by a social purpose to benefit the public, community and environment soil acidification

when acids, often from acid rain or excessive use of chemical fertilisers, build up in the soil, making it harder for plants to grow

soil degradation a decline in soil condition

due to improper use or poor management

affect the price, demand and availability of a product

soil erosion the movement of soil particles from one place to another by wind or water

market volatility uncertain and occasionally

soil fertility the ability of soil to support plant growth by providing essential nutrients and suitable chemical, physical and biological conditions for plants to grow

abrupt changes in prices for farming outputs

microclimate

the climate of a very small area that is different from the surrounding climate

over-cultivation

growing crops repeatedly on the same land without allowing time for the soil to recover its natural nutrients

overgrazing when too many animals (such

as cows, sheep, or goats) graze in one area for too long, damaging the land

pasture grassed land suitable for grazing animals

pathogen an organism that causes disease, such as viruses, bacteria, fungi and parasites

482

subduction a process where one tectonic plate moves under another tectonic plate and sinks into the mantle subsidies benefits given to an individual,

business or organisation, usually by the government; can be direct (such as cash payments) or indirect (such as tax breaks)

subsistence farming a type of farming where farmers grow food only for themselves and their families, not for sale tax exemption a situation where certain goods or activities are tax-free

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terracing cutting sloped land into flat

best material life the highest material

platforms for farming

till dig or loosen the soil to prepare it

wellbeing a person can achieve from consuming goods and services

for planting

borrow to take a loan from someone

topography

branding making a company’s name stand

the shape of the land’s surface, which includes landforms such as hills, plateaus and valleys

trade barrier a law or policy that restricts

build wealth obtain more material assets over time, such as a house, motor vehicle, shares and cash

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

international trade (e.g. tariffs and quotas)

out from competitors (e.g. Coca-Cola)

tributary a small river that feeds its water into a bigger river

business model the way a business operates

undernourished having insufficient

capped contributions limits set by the

energy (calorie) intake from food or other substances, resulting in poor health and wellbeing

government on the amount that can be contributed to superannuation each year

cashflow budget a plan for future expected

urbanisation the movement of people from

income, spending and saving

rural areas (such as farms or small towns) to towns and cities

competitive able to compete for market share with rival businesses

water table the boundary between water-saturated ground and unsaturated ground

compliance following the laws and

waterlogging when soil becomes saturated

compound interest a 5 per cent interest on a lump sum in a year is a simple interest; if the interest earned is added to the lump sum, then 5 per cent of that amount will be greater than the first year and so on; interest earned is growing because the lump sum grows

with water because more water enters than the soil can drain

Business and Economics

agile able to quickly adapt to change rather

than resisting it

Australian Competition and Consumer Commission (ACCC) an authority that regulates

competitive and fair trading, and protects consumer rights

Australian Council of Trade Unions (ACTU) the central body representing all unions in Australia

Australian Financial Complaints Authority (AFCA) an authority that resolves financial

disputes and provides details of licenced financial advisers

Australian stock market the Australian

to generate revenue

regulations set by governments and their agencies

concessional tax rate a lower tax rate

applied to certain incomes, including superannuation contributions

consumption spending the money people spend on goods and services for their daily needs and wants credit card

a card that allows purchases on credit to be repaid later

crypto-currency a digital currency created using blockchain technology

debt the total amount owing from past borrowing

Stock Exchange, where company shares are traded

discount a reduction in the price of an item

balanced risk portfolio a mix of low-

production of goods and services and the national income

, medium- and high-risk investments, offering stable returns

economic growth an increase in the nation’s

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effectiveness

maximising revenue from sales by offering high-quality products that customers want

investments savings used to buy assets that generate income or increase in value, such as property or shares

efficiency reducing the average cost of production by using more efficient methods

key performance indicator (KPI) a measure of a worker’s success in completing tasks

employer association an organisation that

legal relating to laws and regulations that must be followed lobby try to persuade the government to introduce laws or regulations that benefit a particular group

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

represents the interests of employers in an industry (e.g. Australian Retailers Association)

employment flexibility allows businesses

to adjust work hours and location to meet business needs

Enterprise Agreement (EA) an agreement,

registered with the Fair Work Commission, between employers and employees in the same business

enterprise bargaining the process where employers and employees negotiate agreements for better employment terms and conditions at the enterprise level enterprise the process of creating a

new product or business based on an innovative idea

entrepreneur

a person who is enterprising

equity the value of the property that you

actually own – the market value minus any money still owed on the mortgage

ethical relating to moral principles about

what is right and fair

fair economy a system where all people share fairly in the goods and services produced

market share

the percentage of total sales in a market that belongs to a particular business

marketing how a business makes its

product known to potential customers and persuades them to buy it

material wellbeing happiness in life derived

from using or consuming goods and services

Medicare a government program that helps cover medical costs for everyone

Modern Award a set of minimum

entitlements for employees across a certain industry

mortgage lending insurance a required insurance if your home loan is more than 80 % of the property’s value

national income the total income paid to

the owners of resources (including labour) used in producing goods and services in the nation

ordinary income

goals the medium-term objectives for achieving a vision

the salary paid for contracted hours, excluding overtime and other additional payments

growth portfolio

pension (from superannuation) a regular

investments focused on high-return shares, carrying greater risk but potentially higher rewards

payment from a person’s superannuation fund in retirement, designed to last many years

human resource management (HRM) managing a business’ staff to achieve its objectives

phishing an online message designed to

income cash and government transfers

trick you into giving out personal information

received by a household member

preserved funds funds put into a

income inequality differences in the sharing

of national income among people

superannuation account that cannot be withdrawn until retirement

innovation developing new products or

pricing setting the price of a product for

improving how products are made

the market

insurance a financial protection plan that

product differentiation the process of making a product distinct from competitors’ products, allowing the business to charge different prices

helps cover losses or damage caused by unexpected events

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productivity of labour the average amount of a product made by one worker over a specific period

public relations (PR) the process of building a positive reputation with customers and the public real income the money a person, business

talent a worker’s capability to use their skills to help achieve business objectives target a short-term measurable objective for achieving a goal trade union an organisation that represents workers in discussions with their employers; members typically share the same job type or industry

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

or government earns over a set period, adjusted for inflation to show what it can actually buy

sustainable growth economic growth that can continue using renewable resources with limited environmental damage

real wage the actual value of a worker’s

wage, considering inflation; if inflation rises and wages do not, real wages decrease

risk potential damage or loss from an

two-factor identification a security process requiring two forms of identification (e.g. a password and a code)

event that could occur

vision the long-term ideal state for an

salary sacrifice part of an employee’s salary

organisation (such as a household)

that is given up in return for employerprovided benefits, reducing taxable income

voluntary contribution additional money, beyond the Superannuation Guarantee, that people can contribute to their superannuation fund

savings that part of disposable income left after spending on necessities and other expenses

their money to a fake scheme

wasteful spending purchasing something you do not really need or want due to impulse or emotion

self-managed super fund a superannuation

wealth the assets owned by a household

fund established by an individual instead of a large public fund; allows the individual to choose how their funds are invested

worker performance how well an employee

social responsibility a business acting in ways

Civics and Citizenship

scam (financial) deceiving people to give

that benefit society, even if it reduces profits

staff motivation

the level of energy, commitment and creativity employees bring to their jobs

carries out assigned responsibilities

Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Voice an

superannuation

Indigenous voice to Parliament that gives Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples a say on laws and policies that affect them; it forms part of a request (the Uluru Statement from the Heart) for voice, treaty and truth

Superannuation Guarantee the amount

Act (of Parliament) when a Bill is given Royal Assent, it becomes an Act

employers must pay into employee superannuation accounts by law

Administrative Appeals Tribunal a panel that hears appeals against government decisions

supply chain the network of businesses

adversarial system a system where opposing

sunk cost money spent that cannot be recovered, such as rent

savings put aside to provide a pension in retirement

involved in providing resources and materials, and distributing products to consumers

sustainable using resources in a way that does not exhaust them and ensures continued activity

parties to a dispute argue their cases

arbitration the process where parties agree

to let an independent person decide on the settlement of their dispute

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arbitrator

an independent third party who makes binding decisions for parties in a dispute

Australian Human Rights Commission an independent third party which investigates complaints about discrimination and human rights breaches

fair trial a trial that is open and impartial with both parties treated equally Federal Executive Council the group of Ministers who present Bills passed by both Houses of Parliament to the GovernorGeneral for Royal Assent into Acts

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

Bill a proposed law presented to Parliament for approval

Bill of Rights a document that details a range of rights to which the people of a nation are entitled Cabinet group of senior government

ministers, chosen by the prime minister, who meet regularly to set policy and coordinate the work of their portfolios

Governor the representative of King Charles III, in his absence, for a State of Australia, under that State’s Constitution

Governor-General the Australian

the High Court

representative of King Charles III when he is not in Australia, as defined by the Constitution of Australia

Constitution a formal written document

impartial judge a judge who has no bias

that details the structure of government, the processes for making laws, protecting rights and changing the Constitution

implied rights not explicitly stated in a law or

Chief Justice the senior Justice appointed to

constitutional monarchy a liberal democracy

governed in accordance with a Constitution which includes a Monarch with limited or no power to govern

defamation making false statements about a person that injure their reputation defence lawyer

a person appointed by the accused to represent them in court

defendant the accused person in a

court case

democracy a system of government

against or for one of the parties

Constitution but understood to exist based on legal principles or interpretation of other explicit rights

industrial relations the relationships between employers, employees and trade unions, including collective bargaining, workplace disputes and regulation of employment rights

judge a person appointed to a court to hear cases and make decisions to resolve disputes

jurisdiction the roles and legal issues that a court covers

whereby power is ultimately with all the people equally

jury a group of people appointed in major

double majority

requires both a majority of voters nationally and a majority of the six States to vote YES to proposed changes in the Constitution

liberal democracy a representative democracy that also upholds liberal principles of rights, freedoms and opportunities

electoral system the way representatives are

elected to Parliament

magistrate a person appointed to a lower court to act as ‘judge’

equal freedom

mediation the process of attempting to

everyone has the same chance of exercising a right

the Executive

the government of a nation that rules within the law; does not have the power to make laws (which is the role of Parliament) or to enforce the laws (which is the role of the Judiciary)

486

cases to determine guilt or innocence

settle a legal dispute through discussion between the parties

mediator the person who conducts a mediation

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Monarch the king or queen of a nation, who is the Head of State; for Australia, this is King Charles III

Royal Assent when the Governor-General signs a Bill to make it a new law rule of law

order command issued by a court (e.g.

a nation is governed through laws that are made and enforced equally

restraining order, custody order)

self-determination the ability of a national

plaintiff a person who is the injured party and brings a case to court in a civil matter

government to freely make its own decisions about its future

platform the set of policies of a political party that guide its actions when in government

social democracy

policy an agreed guideline for taking action

sovereignty

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES

an ideal society seeking national wellbeing through democratic means

political party an organisation seeking

to establish its view of the ideal society by being elected as parliamentary representatives

the independent authority or power of the rulers of a nation to govern its people in a defined territory, as well as the power to deal with other nations

Minister is responsible, such as Education

summary offence minor case of breaking the law (e.g. arson, property damage, personal injury)

prosecutor

Tort law a type of civil law based on the

Portfolio the area or department for which a a person appointed by the government to represent the people in court in criminal cases

idea that people are responsible for the consequences of their actions

referendum (plural: referenda) a vote to

trial the process of settling a legal issue by

decide whether or not to change part of the Constitution

United Nations an international organisation

representative democracy

a democracy in which people choose their government by electing representatives

republic a representative government

a Judge or Jury

founded in 1945, currently made up of 193 member nations and guided by the purposes and principles in its founding Charter

headed by a President rather than a Monarch

victim impact statement a statement by a

residual powers

Westminster model the British system

the responsibilities of the state governments, excluding the specified areas for the federal government

victim, which is entered in court proceedings

of government

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<T OC

OM E

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<T OC

OM E

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES Index

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<T OC

OM E

U N SA C O M R PL R E EC PA T E G D ES 490

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