Issuu

02/2022 ISSUE NUMBER / 02 JANUARY 2022

ARGENTINA PEANUT CHAMBER

World Peanut Magazine

index

_ Here We Go Again / 03

_ Market Trends

_ International Peanut Forum 2022 / 06

_ Ocean Freight. An Update / 07

. It is Not Only the Sea Lanes, Freight is in Trouble on Land as Well

_ Peanut Market Data

_ Charts & Tables / 15

_ Industrial Processing

_ Storing Peanuts / 18

. The challenges of selecting the best warehouse facilities and procedures

_ Science and Technology _ The Future of Breeding / 26

. Will Artificial Intelligence revolutionize the way we select new varieties (among other things)?

_ Laws and Regulations _ Aflatoxin in Peanut / 30

. The United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization is still seeking a world standard

_ Peanuts as a Superfood _ Food for the Heart / 36 . How peanut consumption is great for your cardiovascular system

_ Peanut Farming _ Growing Peanuts in India‌/ 40

. The average productivity of peanuts in various states of India . Preferred high yielding varieties and Breeder seed production . Release and distribution of varieties

_ The Challenges of Going Organic / 46

. An interview with a West Texas peanut grower . In Argentina´s North-West, Peanut Production Started Centuries Ago

Nº 02 Here We Go Again We wish to thank all the subscribers who decided to support us and read the first issue of WPM; we had more than 1,400 readers and over 4,000 single visits in total. It was an excellent result and a strong incentive to work hard to make future editions of WPM even better, with more news and perspectives about the production, research, and marketing of peanuts. A very special appreciation goes to all those peanut professionals (their names are always listed on the last page of the magazine) around the world who are helping us look at peanut issues from different perspectives. As we wrote in the first issue, we think that a new magazine can play a significant role in assisting peanut professionals, not only in keeping themselves updated on the issues, but also in developing a perspective on what is happening and, perhaps more importantly, gaining insights into what will happen in the near future. While there is a lot of raw data and information available at all times from a variety of different sources, we believe it is also helpful to dedicate some time to processing the information available and trying to figure out its deeper meaning. So we will work hard to provide the necessary context to the relevant issues of the day. Once again we wish to stress that we are open to all peanut professionals who wish to participate; in fact, we are fully aware that the success of WPM will depend largely on

the participation of peanut experts from all over the world. So we hope that many will join in and help this project in different ways, whether that translates into participating regularly by providing data or submitting articles, or contributing occasionally on specific topics. While WPM will be distributed free to all those who wish to receive it, we will make advertising space available to companies and organizations to cover at least part of the costs. As far as this second issue is concerned, in the Market section we take a look at one of the most important challenges to the international trade of peanuts in the last year or so: the ocean freight crisis. Unfortunately, this crisis continues and as we release this issue of the magazine, it is very difficult to figure out when we will be able to return to normalcy. On a more optimistic front, in just a few months the world peanut sector will have an opportunity to return to actual physical events with the International Peanut Forum, organized by the American Peanut Council, in Budapest from April 27-29. In the Industrial Processing section, we consider peanut storage, a fundamental step in the process of providing a high-quality and safe product. As far as farming is concerned, we are looking at the production of organic peanuts, a still small but promising enterprise, and at farming in India, particularly at the support of the government and the distributions of high-yield varieties. We dedicate the Laws and Regulations section to a major issue regarding the trade of peanuts: the admitted levels of aflatoxin, with different maximum limits around the world, and a still ongoing debate within the Codex Alimentarius, which may bring some results in 2022. In the section about the nutritional properties of peanuts, we mention a significant study performed in Japan which confirms how beneficial peanuts are for the cardiovascular system and, finally, we offer some comments on the deployment of artificial intelligence to plant breeding in the Technology section.

_ Market Trends

This section of the wpm deals with the dynamics of the demand and supply of peanuts in the international markets. We will try to keep track of the changes in peanut consumption in the main areas of the world, the factors that can affect production, and the price shifts of the various peanut products.

_ Industrial Processing

This area of the magazine focuses on shellers as well as companies transforming peanuts into consumer products. We will focus on current industry standards, quality issues, new technologies and the different industrial solutions adopted by producing countries. A special section will be dedicated to new products and tools for peanut processing developed by the best manufacturers.

_ Science and Technology

The activities of the universities and other research institutes engaged in scientific research on peanuts are of paramount importance for the future of the business. We will follow the main discoveries, from the latest issues concerning peanut genetics to the development of projects on pathogens or the impact of peanut consumption on human health. The consequences of scientific research on the future of the industry are hard to overstate, so we will be putting them in perspective in order to try to understand where the sector is heading in the long term.

_ Laws and Regulations

The Laws and Regulations section of World Peanut Magazine analyses the impact of new legislation and regulations affecting the production and trade of peanuts. The main issues treated in this section are governmental measures directly affecting international trade (such as the introduction of tariffs or quotas), health safety issues (such as the establishment of Maximum Residue Limits for certain substances) but also legislation impacting distribution, packaging and sales.

_ Peanut as a Superfood

This section offers peanut professionals news and insights into the world of peanut consumption and all its aspects. Typical news is related to findings concerning the nutritional values of peanuts, the impact of peanut consumption on human health, and the development of peanut-based food.

_ Peanut Farming

The primary production is where the peanut business starts, of course, so we will have a dedicated section for all events, activities, techniques and equipment related to growing peanuts in different parts of the world. The general idea is to bring farming in the producing countries closer to all peanut professionals so that they can have a better grasp of the business from a grower’s perspective and maybe on what the future of peanut farming may look like.

— Section — MARKET TRENDS

By Louise McKerchar Vice President, European Market Director American Peanut Council

After two years of meeting virtually, the American Peanut Council (apc) is looking forward to bringing the world’s peanut industry together again in Budapest. The International Peanut Forum (ipf) provides an ideal opportunity to network and conduct business with current and potential customers, as well as a platform to discuss issues and opportunities for the peanut industry with farmers, shellers, exporters, brokers, dealers, manufacturers and service suppliers from around the world. The ipf theme for 2022 is From Inspiration to Innovation and the conference program will cover key areas of interest to all segments of the peanut supply chain. The 2022 ipf will take place at the Corinthia Hotel, Budapest, Hungary. The event will open on the afternoon of 27 April and close after lunch on 29 April, with morning conference sessions held on 28 and 29 April and afternoons free for individual business meetings. Networking opportunities in the exhibition area will take place during all coffee breaks and during the evening receptions on 27 and 28 April.

— Section — MARKET TRENDS

ipf delegates are encouraged to stay in the Corinthia Hotel to fulfill the room block for the event. Attendees should book hotel accommodation prior to registering for the ipf to claim a discounted registration price during the online booking process. The hotel will honor the ipf room rate for a few days prior to and following the forum for those wishing to spend a little more time in the city to explore the sights of Budapest. Book early to be guaranteed the ipf negotiated rate. Registration is open and an "Early Bird" rate is available until 31st January 2022. You may register one or multiple attendees, book a sponsorship, sign up for your spouse/partner to attend the evening receptions and book table-top exhibits or advertising space through our online registration site.

If you have any questions on the ipf, please contact event organizer Louise McKerchar lmckerchar@peanutsusa.org.uk A dedicated mobile app will allow registered delegates to keep up to date with details of the event, to select events to add to their diary, and to contact other delegates to request and arrange meetings. If you would like to increase your company’s visibility within the global peanut industry, we encourage you to consider sponsoring the forum to promote your services, products, and brand to key decision makers attending this industry-wide event. All sponsors will receive recognition on all ipf mailings, on the registration site and mobile meeting app and throughout the event itself. There are options to suit all budgets and information on the categories, benefits, and prices are highlighted on our registration site. Full sponsorship benefits can be found on the registration site.

Please join the global peanut family at the 2022 ipf in Budapest!

1

— Section — MARKET TRENDS

Ocean Freight An Update

In first issue of the World Peanut Magazine we wrote that: “2021 will probably be remembered by many as the year of the great ocean freight disruption.” It turns out that 2022 may not be very smooth for international transportation either. At least until the second half of the year the disruptions are not expected to ease, especially if the coronavirus outbreak continues, according to a report issued by insurers Euler Hermes and Allianz: “Without production capacity increases and investments in port infrastructure, the normalisation of supply bottlenecks in Europe could be delayed beyond 2022 as demand remains above potential.” The situation doesn't seem much better in America according to another report, the one issued in December by Descartes, a global logistics leader: “The U.S. continues to be one of the more overachieving economies in the world, as import volumes continue to run at a record pace. Despite this success, inventory levels are not catching up to retail sales levels,” said Chris Jones, EVP Industry & Services at Descartes. “Unless consumer behavior changes, we believe that the demand for goods and the associated logistic services to get them to market will continue at elevated levels through 2022. We believe this may result in continued delays through next year at not only the West Coast ports, but all U.S. ports.” The combination of consumers´ massive shift from service to goods purchases and of the Covid 19 disruption seems to be here to stay for the time being and while 2021 is a great year for ocean carriers (iDrewry, the independent maritime consultancy firm, forecasts that container shipment will yield $150 billion in profit, compared to just 25.4 billion in 2020) the international trade of goods, especially those of relatively low per metric ton value, continue to face rising fees, uncertainty, and potential delays.

— Section — MARKET TRENDS

In order to fully grasp the disruption of the current international transportation problems, we propose this image showing the increased freight fees in the different routes.

india

china

argentina

brasil

1242 %

600 %

428 %

327 %

increase

13 sea freight origin to rotterdam argentina

brasil

usa

2019

100

2021

428

327

157

172

1242

600

428%

327%

57%

172%

4,3

3,3

0,6

1,7

increase times of increase

nicaragua

172 % increase

usa

57 %

increase

nicaragua india

china

1242% 600% 12,4

6,0

— Section — MARKET TRENDS

14 When we think of international trade, we are used to considering the distance between the origin and destination of the goods in terms of miles, days of transit, the number of transhipments, and other similar metrics. What the ocean freight crisis that began in 2021 is teaching us is that the actual distance between the origin and destination, also depends, arguably, on the freight fees, making those destinations with high costs more distant in terms of their ability to make trade deals. In the case of peanuts, certain origins were able to maintain their relative distance to Europe (e.g. Nicaragua, the US), while others saw the old continent getting farther and almost disappearing (India, China). For South America (Argentina and Brazil), Europe started distancing slowly during 2021, reaching a maximum distance toward the end of the year, with some perspective of stabilization in the first few months of 2022. Everyone hopes to return to the pre-pandemia globe, making up for the increased distances between origins and destinations. How long this process will take no one knows for sure.

It is Not Only the Sea Lanes, Freight is in Trouble on Land as Well Everybody is aware of the nightmare we are living since last year because of the maritime transportation problems. Not only prices rising to sky-high levels, but also the problems regarding availability of space, empty containers, longer transit times, abnormally long transshipments, etc. On top of all this, covid is also disrupting land logistics. The American Peanut Council is letting us know that “Lack of trucks and truck drivers are a major issue in the U.S. As an example, as of December 2021, at the Los Angeles port it was estimated that 30% of the weekday truck appointments were left open, and 50% of the weekend appointments.” Boast International, from the UK, is also reporting trouble: “Land transportation is a big problem in the UK as well. Consumers have been warned that they are likely to experience stock scarcity, long delivery times, and further price rises. The huge demand for drivers has forced haulers to impose surcharges to offset the cost of retaining their drivers. As a result, the price of haulage has risen substantially in the UK in recent months and is likely to continue to rise as we head towards peak periods in 2022. Business analysts report that it is inevitable that the rising costs will filter through into product prices.” It seems that so many variables with restrictions mean that it will take longer than expected to come back to the so needed normalicy.

charts & tables

Source: Comexstat

peanut exports of brazil - kernels (mt)

Source: Eurostat

peanut eu imports - chapter 1202 (mt)

— Section —

PEANUT MARKET DATA

Source: INDEC

peanut exports of argentina - kernels (mt)

Source: Zhengzhou Commodity Excjange Courtesy of Geaorgalos Peanut World

china future prices (settle value - rbm)

Source: INDEC

eu (27) imports - chapter 2008.11 (mt)

Source: Mintec Benchmark Prices

mintec benchmark prices for peanuts delivered to rotterdam. Courtesy of Mintec Global

— Section —

INDUSTRIAL PROCESSING

Storing Peanuts —

The challenges of selecting the best warehouse facilities and procedures

Just like other crops, peanuts are a seasonal production, and harvest is concentrated in a relatively short period. Right after harvest, the peanuts have to be stored in huge facilities where they await industrial processing during the remaining months of the year.

Prior to entering the warehouse, the peanuts must undergo a proper precleaning and drying (the kernel moisture must be reduced to approximately 9-10%) before the product can be stored for a significant period (we described the drying process in some detail in the first issue of World Peanut Magazine). While filling the warehouse, higher density foreign materials, including dirt, stones, and loose kernels, tend to stay in the center of the pile, while lighter materials, like stems and leaves, will flow with the shells toward the exterior edge. According to the guidelines of the Argentina National Agricultural Technology (INTA) and the Argentina Peanut Foundation, it is advisable to avoid foreign materials above 4% and loose kernels above 5% for proper storage conditions. The biggest problem with the higher density foreign materials is that they reduce the porosity in the center of the pile, thus creating an obstacle for the natural breathing process of the kernels. This environment with reduced oxygen levels benefits the development of anaerobic bacterial activity, releasing heat which affects quality and, in extreme cases, may cause fires. Proper warehouse ventilation is also important to prevent condensation in the roof that leads to water dripping over the peanuts. This effect, as well as eventual holes in the roof, may also cause hot spots that can be very dangerous for the quality and safety of the warehouse. In some countries the farmer stock storage is not organized in a bulk, but in bags. All previously mentioned concepts also apply, however; condensation, holes in the roof, or improper distribution of foreign materials can cause quality deterioration or even a fire.

Storage types for bulk farmer stock peanuts —

There are several types of structures used for bulk storage of farmer stock peanuts. The most common one is the conventional metal-clad post and beam structure 1 . This type of warehouse has a roof pitch of 45 degrees, allowing enough room in the space above the peanuts to install belt conveyors and the associated equipment to unload the product. The second type of peanut farmer stock warehouse is the “flat” storage 2 . In this type of warehouse, peanuts are unloaded from trucks and placed in the storage area using telescopic conveyors belts. Peanut depth is usually very uniform throughout the facility, with few peaks and valleys, and the bulk is not as tall as in the conventional warehouse, thus allowing the kernels to cool and get to equilibrium much faster. As a report on storage by the American Peanut Shellers Association states, “Many flat structures are built in such a way as to allow the trucks to go inside for the unloading and loading operations, making it possible to continue working even with bad weather. One disadvantage is that this type of structure requires a higher airflow to ventilate the headspace as compared to the conventional one”.

1 Source. www.arinco.com.ar

2 Source. marcusconstruction.com

We have talked about the pros and cons of these two warehouse formats with professionals from the US peanut sector and here are some of the comments that came up: 1) The cost of the flat storage is lower because less steel is used for construction since the structure is lighter. Depending on the design, this difference could make the flat warehouse up to 25% cheaper. 2) Since the pile is not nearly as deep in the flat storage, the heat dissipates much more quickly than in the conventional one. 3) Foreign materials stay blended throughout the bulk more homogeneously than in the conventional warehouse (the latter, being fed from the belt, tends to have dirt, rocks, and loose kernels concentrated in the center; this can cause problems in the shelling plant when chunks of foreign materials are introduced into the processing units).

A third type and fairly recent storage option is the “monolithic concrete dome.” 3 It is a structure built in layers from the outside; a vinyl skin is inflated into a hemispherical shape. High-density polyurethane foam insulation is then applied from the inside of the inflated skin. Steel bars are tied to the foundation inside the foam insulation, and concrete is sprayed on in thin layers until the designed thickness is achieved. Peanuts are typically unloaded into the dome through a single spout located in the center of the top. A significant advantage of the dome is the low maintenance; it is also easier to sanitize and fumigate, as it is more hermetic than the other two types.

4) Production of loose kernels is significantly lower with the flat storage. 5) Once it is empty, it can be used to store other items and protect them from the weather. For example, dryer trailers in the off-season. 6) Partition walls are not necessarily needed; the stacker can be moved enough to start a new pile not commingled with the previous one. As partition walls do not constitute a constraint, many pile segregations are possible. 7) The main disadvantage of the flat storage is that it requires more labor to fill it up compared to the conventional ones, because of the extra belts required (one man with the conventional warehouse versus two with the flat storage).

3 Source. www.monolithic.org

Ventilation —

Farmer stock peanuts are unloaded into the storage structure shortly after curing and will continue to lose moisture and heat until they have reached equilibrium within the environment. The average moisture content of farmer stock peanuts is 8-9% when graded, and, under typical weather conditions, will reach stability between 5 and 7% moisture. This means that for every 1000 MT of peanut farmer stock in the warehouse, 20 to 40 MT (2 to 4%) of water will evaporated until the equilibrium is reached. This huge amount of water must be removed from the warehouse; otherwise, it will condensate on the roof producing a heavy dripping inside the installation, with a negative impact on the stored product. Ventilation systems aim to cope with this situation, having the capability to extract the hot and wet air from the warehouse. Common designs consist of one or more fans installed on one edge of the warehouse, combined with windows to allow the outside air to enter the installation 4 .

4 Source. www.arinco.com.ar

Aeration, temperature monitoring —

As warehouses get bigger, it becomes necessary to add more sophisticated systems to preserve the quality of the peanuts. These systems include the possibility of pushing fresh air through the bulk of peanuts from the bottom up, by designing an air distribution system under the floor of the warehouse; there will be floor connections covered with grids to allow the airflow to be equally distributed within the entire warehouse at very low velocities. This underfloor system is connected to powerful fans close to the edges of the building, to generate the pressure necessary to move the air through the peanuts. These systems have the ability to shorten the time the peanuts need to reach equilibrium, which means that top ventilation systems must be designed in combination with aeration. It also accelerates the cooling time of the peanuts, as the cool air which is flowing through the peanut mass extracts both heat and humidity. In order to have a real-time monitoring of the temperature of the product, it is also possible to install a cable network hanging from the roof and connecting thermocouples to each cable at different levels; the sensors report the readings to a central station, allowing continuous monitoring 5-6 .

 5-6 Aereation system

—

Here is a summary of our tips for proper storage of peanut farmer stock

Cleaning and drying — Homogenization — Ventilation — Aeration and temps monitoring for big warehouses — Latest technology devices monitoring CO2 for early detection of storage issues.

Insect infestation in warehouses — Most of the grain damage that occurs during storage is caused by insects. It is vital to identify the factors that influence their growth in order to employ the appropriate equipment and computational tool to accurately monitor and predict their evolution on stored grain. Temperature and moisture conditions affect the population growth rate of insect pests by impacting development rate, fecundity, and survivorship. Like the population growth rate, the development rate increases from a lower threshold up to the optimum temperature and then declines rapidly 7. It is also relatively insensitive to grain moisture content. On the other hand, at optimum temperatures (about 33°C), grain moisture content has a much greater effect on the population growth rate. This is largely due to its effect upon fecundity rather than on development [Driscoll, 2000].

7 Source. Miller Mag. 11/2020

State-of-the-art sensor technology —

Continuing with the preventive detection of inconveniences during storage, recent advancements in grain storage technology have enabled the development of wireless sensors 8 that measure all the parameters that affect grain quality (e.g., temperature, relative humidity, O², and CO² gasses). They also safely transmit their data to the cloud in real time, offering worldwide accessibility. Along with the hardware, further improvements in sensor technology have been accomplished thanks to mathematical modeling of methods for silo microclimate. Wireless sensors like those of Centaur Analytics monitor several parameters and alert the user when the condition becomes unsafe. The most important parameter to consider to avoid spoilage is CO². The concentration of this gas is significantly increased at the beginning of the development of molds, and sensors can pick up the value even when positioned many meters away from the hot spot. By contrast, systems that monitor only temperature and moisture are usually unable to detect spoilage at an early stage.

 8

— Section —

SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

Will artificial intelligence revolutionize the way we select new varieties (among other things)?

In our previous issue, we saw how markers technology has become a fundamental tool for plant breeding; in this article we go a step further by taking a look at how the application of artificial intelligence, machine learning, and deep learning can assist breeders in their task of solving the challenging problems linked to phenotyping and associating traits to genomics.

In short, artificial intelligence (AI) is the one that machines can perform. It started being studied systematically in the 1950s, but there has been a significant change of perspective since then, mainly due to the enormous advances in computer hardware and software that today allow the analysis of massive amounts of data. Within AI, machine learning uses mathematical algorithms to enable machines to learn in a way not too dissimilar to how humans do, enhancing their analytical performance as they go along. Machine learning mostly deals with the processing of data and the application of statistical analysis in order to display probable results of a given problem. Such predictive capacities allow corporations and organizations to quickly adapt to events such as market trends and other external changes, thus reducing risks and making better decisions. A further step in the development of AI has been socalled deep learning, the deployment of algorithms which imitate human perception, and, through a network of neural connections, allow them to learn and adjust automatically, without human supervision.

As we saw in the first issue of WPM, breeding with the aid of genomics and markers requires the processing of huge amounts of data and this is where, precisely, AI can play a big role. Steven Tanksley, a professor emeritus at Cornell University in Ithaca, NY, conducts breeding research for various plants. As he explained to the National Academy of Science of the USA (https:// www.pnas.org/content/117/44/27066), he, “inputs DNA sequence data, phenotypic data on traits like drought tolerance, disease resistance, and yield, as well as environmental data for the region where the plant line was originally developed. The algorithm projects which genes are associated with which traits under which environmental conditions and then determines the optimal combination of genes for a specific breeding goal, such as drought tolerance in a particular growing region, while accounting for genes that help boost yield. The algorithm also determines which plant lines to cross together in which order to achieve the optimal combination of genes in the fewest generations.” Of course, things are not always so simple and AI technology is still far from offering breeders perfect predictions; the possible combinations are just too many. “Suppose, for example,” says Tanksley, “a wheat breeder has 200 genetically distinct lines. The breeder must decide which lines to breed together to optimize yield, disease resistance, protein content, and other traits. The breeder may know which genes confer which traits, but it’s difficult to decipher which lines to cross in what order to achieve the optimum gene combination." The number of possible combinations, says Tanksley, “is more than the stars in the universe.” Another issue is the environment; the same genetic material will manifest in different traits depending on the conditions in which the actual plant will grow. This adds significantly to the number of variables to take into account. But the applications of artificial intelligence to plant breeding are not limited to the analysis of genomic data. One of the most timeconsuming tasks of breeders is the actual observation of how a new variety grows, its actual traits, or phenotypes. It is a very slow effort during various generations of the plant, but it allows professionals

to select the lines that display the most desired features. Image interpretation through artificial intelligence is developing very quickly and can be efficiently applied to the observation of plants. We talked with Santiago Alvarez Prado, a researcher who recently participated in postdoctoral work at the INRAE Agriculture Institute of Montpellier, France. One of the things they do at the institute is measure the architecture and development of the plant during its growth cycle. Prado told us: “We use a conveyor belt where the potted plants are placed, a number of cameras take pictures recording the different features, and the data is stored for further processing. These images allow the reconstruction of information such as leaf area, biomass, height, and so on. Thanks to the platform it is possible to follow the daily performance of the plant under the conditions set by the researchers (e.g. hydric stress, different temperatures, etc.). The processing of all this data allows the simulation of how the plant will perform in the field.” Of course, AI will be employed for the purpose of image analysis in a number of ways. Thanks to modern drones and rovers, for example, images of plants can be obtained directly from the field without the necessity for armies of observers. The images can then be processed through AI algorithms in order to solve many different kinds of agronomic problems. Artificial intelligence may soon revolutionize many aspects of our lives; peanut production, no doubt, will be strongly affected as well.

1950 —

ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE captures the imagination of the world

1980 —

MACHINE LEARNING starts to gain traction

2010 — DEEP LEARNING catapults the industry

— Section —

LAWS AND REGULATIONS

Aflatoxin in Peanuts The United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization is still seeking a world standard

Most peanut professionals are quite familiar with aflatoxin as this mycotoxin is one of the main potential contaminants affecting the trade, processing, and distribution of peanuts around the world. It is produced by two species of aspergillus, a fungus often found in hot and humid climates. Several types of aflatoxin occur in nature, but the one most commonly associated with peanuts and many tree nuts is aflatoxin B1, which has been found to be, in certain quantities, genotoxic and carcinogenic for humans. As a consequence most national health authorities have established Maximum Limits (ML) for aflatoxin in food. While a number of methods are available to detect and measure aflatoxin, sampling is not easy because the fungus, and hence the aflatoxin, is not distributed evenly within the bulk shipments or the stored grains (an example of a sampling protocol for mycotoxin recommended by the World Health Organization (WHO) can be found at http://tools.fstools.org/mycotoxins/). Environmental factors may have a major impact on aflatoxin contamination, which can become particularly severe in very hot and damp conditions, while droughts have been found to worsen the problem by causing excessive stress to the plants. Climate change is also expected to have a negative effect on the spreading of the aspergillus. Among the methods of aflatoxin control, the most effective ones would probably be the breeding of varieties that prove resistant to fungal infection, though, of course, this is a time-consuming effort, even with marker-aided breeding techniques. Biological control of the fungus is another option, which is indeed being tested in many peanut-producing countries. Post-harvest interventions mostly deal with storage conditions: aeration, moisture, temperature, presence of insects; all these elements may have an impact on aflatoxin levels.

— Section —

LAWS AND REGULATIONS

Aflatoxin Maximum Limits in various countries (the numbers indicate ppb, Parts Per Billion)

Source. American Peanut Council. shorturl.at/cdpAV

In 2015, the Codex Alimentarius, a commission of the UN Food and Agriculture Organization, decided to move forward with a proposal from India to set a maximum limit for Ready to Eat (that is, non-processed) peanuts and recommended 10 parts per billion (or 10 µg./Kg.), in line with the ML for tree nuts. Shortly afterward, the CCCF (Codex Committee on Contaminants in Food) decided to task the JECFA (the Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee of Food Additives) with an evaluation of the effects of exposure to different levels (15, 10, 8, and 4 ppb) of aflatoxin on human health. By the end of 2016, the joint committee completed its work and sent two basic messages: 1) Enforcing an ML of 10, 8 or 4μg/kg in RTE peanuts would have little further impact on reducing dietary exposure to aflatoxins for the general population, compared with setting an ML of 15μg/kg 2) At an ML of 4μg/kg, the proportion of the world market of RTE peanuts rejected would be approximately double the proportion rejected at an ML of 15μg/kg (about 20% versus 10%). So, in essence, setting a strict limit, such as 4 ppb, would not significantly improve food security, but would harm world markets.

According to the India Oilseed and Produce Export Promotion Council:

“Even though the JECFA report shows that ML of 15 μg/kg can be accepted, India has been requesting moderate relaxation to 10 μg/kg. Due to the stringent aflatoxin MLs, despite India being one of the largest exporters, its share in the EU market is less than 1%. This reasonable relaxation in ML of aflatoxin in peanut (10 μg/kg) will have no health impact on the EU, but provides huge opportunities for peanut export from various origins.”

Some of the participating countries, however, were not very impressed by the conclusions of the joint committee, and after a few rounds of observations (with some countries opting for a 10ppb and others for a 15ppb maximum limit), the European Union (EU) asked the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) to independently assess the impact of an increase of the ML of 4ppb (enforced in the EU) to 10ppb on public health. By 2018 the EFSA concluded that such an increase may raise the cancer risk of peanut and peanut butter consumers by a factor of between 1.6 and 1.8. The EU, of course, rejected the Indian-led proposal. The CCCF then decided to take some time (three years) and kept the procedure at step 4 (see chart on next page) before issuing a new call for data. This call was issued in 2021 (with an October deadline), and the Electronic Working Group was re-established with the support of the EU. Its work will be considered by the CCCF number 15 in 2022.

— Section —

LAWS AND REGULATIONS

The step procedure for elaborating codex standards Before a decision is made to undertake the development of a new standard or other text, a project proposal is prepared and discussed at Committee level.

— Section —

PEANUTS AS A SUPERFOOD

Food for the Heart How peanuts consumption is great for your cardiovascular system

The benefits of peanut consumption for the cardiovascular system have been the subject of a significant number of studies and may be considered a rather established fact; what stands out from research performed in Japan and recently published by the journal Stroke is the scope: almost 75,000 participants over a period of more than 15 years.

The participating individuals, Japanese men and women aged 45 to 74, were divided into two cohorts and followed from 1995 until 2012. During this timeframe, more than 3500 strokes and almost 850 ischemic (deficient supply of blood) heart disease cases were reported. The main conclusion by the scientists who conducted the experiment was that those participants with higher peanut consumption patterns were clearly found to be less likely to be affected by stroke, especially by ischemic stroke. The study was performed by Dr Satoyo Ikehara from the Department of Social Medicine of the University of Osaka, together with other Japanese researchers, and published in 2021 with the title "Peanut Consumption and Risk of Stroke and Ischemic Heart Disease in Japanese Men and Women."

— Section —

PEANUTS AS A SUPERFOOD

Scientists have been studying the positive effects of peanuts on the cardiovascular system for quite some time, and the evidence appears rather straightforward: eating peanuts brings significant benefits. One of the best research libraries on peanuts available online, the one hosted by the Peanut Institute (https://peanut-institute.com), includes close to 80 published pieces of research on the subject, many of which have been performed by highly prestigious universities and research centers.

In many cases, researchers concentrated on the effects of certain key elements of peanuts, such as unsaturated fats, I-arginine, phenolic compounds, phytosterols, and some minerals. Arginine, for example, is thought to have the ability to improve circulation and reduce the risk of heart disease. The fatty acids of peanuts are mostly unsaturated, unlike animal fats, and they provide a major contribution to the lowering of the total and “bad” LDL cholesterol and triglycerides. Another potentially very beneficial element found in peanuts is resveratrol, an antioxidant that has the property to prevent cellular damage and has a protective effect on the cardiovascular system. Another interesting study, performed by Penn State University, considered the effects of a high-fat meal on individuals. Immediately after the intake, the levels of fat in the blood tend to rise significantly, making the arteries and veins stiff. In time this can cause the heart to work under stress thus increasing the risk of stroke. The proteins and bioactives found in peanuts were found to help prevent arteries from stiffening after a high-fat meal and reduced the rise in triglyceride levels by about a third.

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PEANUT FARMING

Growing Peanuts in India By SK Bera, Kirti Rani, Kona Praveen ICAR-Directorate of Groundnut Research Junagadh, India

The peanut is an important food legume and oilseed crop of India, cultivated mainly by small and marginal farmers predominantly under rainfed conditions with minimal or no inputs. In India, the cultivation of peanuts is extended in almost all states and most of the districts, as per the latest statistics; it is grown in about 360 districts (DOACFW 2019). The crop is grown mostly on rainfed drylands on well-drained sandy soils in low (<750 mm) and medium (750-1000 mm) annual rainfall areas, often subject to the vagaries of weather conditions. So far only 29% of the peanut area is under irrigation. Between the decades of the 1960s and 1970s, there was little difference in productivity (700-800 kg ha-1) and the increase in production was largely due to the expansion in growing areas. But during the 1980s, particularly in 1988-89 due to favorable seasons and the transfer of improved technologies through the Technology Mission on Oilseeds (TMO, 1989), productivity, for the first time, crossed one ton (1132 kg ha-1). However, there was a fluctuating trend and the average yield of the crop in 1990-2000 was 994 which surpassed 1100 kg ha-1 in 2001-10 with a maximum of 1459 kg ha-1 in 2007-08. During the last decade (2010-2020) much attention was paid to increasing productivity. As a result, except for a bad season in 201213, peanut productivity in India increased to around 9.3 million tons in 2017-18. It further increased to 10.0 million tons of pods from an approximate 4.5 million - hectare area in 2019-2020.

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PEANUT FARMING

The country is the second-largest producer as well as consumer of peanuts in the world. Though its area and productivity are subject to abrupt fluctuations in the weather conditions, India has been producing one of the best quality peanuts in the world and had a strong export demand due to its well-filled pods and flavor. Though in India peanuts are grown in almost all states, the main peanut growing states are: Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh, Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, and Maharashtra.

The average productivity of peanuts in various states of India The data for the last decade reveals that Gujarat, Rajasthan, and Tamil Nadu cover about 50% of the area producing about 65% of the peanuts of India and are now the best belt for commercial production of peanuts. The peanut is grown during the rainy season (June to October) and, although it is produced in fairly large areas (> 70%), productivity is relatively low and production is rain-dependent. The average productivity of the post- rainy season (October to March, known as Rabi crop, and February to May, known as summer crop) is about 2000 kg ha-1, much higher than a rainy season (1500 kg ha-1), indicating more production potential during this season. In the rainy season, both short-duration (less than 100 days) and long-duration (110-140 days) peanuts are grown based on weather, soil, and distribution of rainfall. In the post-rainy season, only short duration crops are grown.

Preferred high yielding varieties and breeder seed production A total of 117 high-yield varieties have been developed and recommended for commercial cultivation during the last 20 years. Among the varieties recommended for cultivation during the post-rainy season, J87 (4165 kg/ha, Dh86 (4020 kg/ ha), TGGS341 (4000 kg/ha), and Greeshma (4000 kg/ha) are the top recommended varieties for different zones. The top five varieties recommended for cultivation during the rainy season are: Sneha (3820 kg/ha), RARS-T-2 (3734 kg/ha), Snigdha (3550 kg/ha), K 1812 (3514 kga/ha), and Pratap Mungphali (3388 kg/ha). The availability of quality seed in peanuts is a major concern. Compared to other crops, breeder seed requirement is very high in peanuts with it being a high seed volume crop. Also the seed rate is very high (200 kg pods/ha) and around 1 million tons of peanut kernels are required to sow approximately 5 million hectares in a year. The notable varieties having high breeder seed demand over the years have been: Kadiri-6, GPBD-4, TG 37 A, Narayani, and Dharani. However, in the rainy 2021 season, the highest DAC indents for breeder seed production were received for K 1812 (1080 q), GJG 32 (738 q), Dharani (611 q), GPBD-4 (450 q), and GJG-22 (310 q).

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PEANUT FARMING

Release and distribution of varieties In India, peanut varieties are released and recommended for commercial cultivation by the Ministry of Agriculture and Farmers Welfare, Government of India for different parts of the country (called centrally released varieties). Similarly, the agriculture department of each state government also releases peanut varieties and recommends commercial cultivation for a particular state (called state released varieties). In both cases, the concerned breeder who develops a variety is primarily responsible for producing and supplying enough nucleus and breeder seeds to meet the demand. Demand is placed by the state government to the central government in advance and breeder seed is produced under the All India Coordinated Research Project on peanuts. Finally, various agencies, in the aegis of both central and state government, receive the breeder seed and further multiply the seed, producing Certified and Truthful Labeled seeds which are distributed to the farmers through Krishi Vigan Kendras, the state department, and agricultural universities. Each state government decides the price for quality seed each year and sells it to farmers and other stakeholders..

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PEANUT FARMING

The Challenges of Going Organic An interview with a West Texas peanut grower JIM GREGORY Jim works with his family in Brownfield, Texas with varieties planted in West Texas, the MidSouth and Southeast U.S.; Central and South America; Europe; and Africa. He enjoys a great partnership with many good people from many different cultures.

DYLAN WANN Dylan joined the IPG family in 2015 and serves as plant breeder and research director. He earned his M.S. in Crop and Soil Sciences from the University of Georgia and his Ph.D. in Crop Science from Texas Tech University.

MARK GREGORY Mark joined the IPG family in 1988, when he was born to Jim and Jana Gregory. He earned his B.S. in Biology from Lubbock Christian University. A jack of all trades, he has implemented food safety programs, managed seed and edible sales, and worked for two decades in the business of peanut genetics.

Different institutions have varying estimates as to the size of the organic food market; what they all seem to agree upon is that this market is growing and will not stop anytime soon. Peanuts are no exception: Jim Gregory and his son Mark are the owners of the Texas-based International Peanut Group, and they specialize in the production and marketing of organic peanuts. We asked them a few questions regarding the challenges of organic peanut production.

// What are the main issues organic peanut producers have to face? The main issue with growing organic peanuts is probably how to manage plant diseases. You want to have a dry climate, and/or you need resistant peanuts, especially to leaf spot and ground diseases. Generally, you want varieties that are somewhat short cycle, because we plant them later, for weed issues. But I would say leaf spot may be the main problem: if you have to spray for leaf spot, you can’t do organic. The next biggest problem may be rotation. You need a crop to rotate with. Rotation is fundamental. If you grow peanuts over peanuts, you will start having a lot of problems and all the diseases you can possibly imagine. If you do not have another organic product with a market it is very difficult to sustain peanuts. Also, the seed must not be treated. You need to be in an arid region. If you are not there is no way to do it. // Do you follow a certification program? There is a pretty intense certification program in the US for organic produce and we certainly have to abide by it. This may be another big problem with organic: just people not following the rules. // Where are the best areas in the US for growing organic peanuts? I believe there is a little bit of organic done in Georgia, but it is probably not even a thousand acres. Ideally, West Texas and a little bit New Mexico, and I am sure there are other areas…you can definitely grow them in Arizona.

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PEANUT FARMING

// What about the marketing of organic peanuts? On the marketing side, it is very important to have a company that backs you up with all your production. If you produce too much, you may have problems. With regular peanuts you will always have a place to go. So, if the market is saturated you must be available to sell peanuts at their regular price. That happened only once to us. But the market is not nearly as flexible, let’s put it that way. It is also difficult to have a steady supply from the farm. It is organic…it is easy to come short on the contract if you are not careful. // What varieties do you work with? We do organic Runner and organic Spanish. We have a breeding program specifically for organic peanuts. With organic, the varieties’ features are possibly more important as they cannot receive any chemicals. // Obviously, producing organic peanuts must be more expensive than regular ones. The cost is twice plus, I would say. It may change a little depending on the season, but 120% more than regular could be a good indication. The market price of organic is fairly stable. Does not change as much as regular peanuts. // What can you tell me about the demand? Sold mostly to the US market, some in Europe, quite a bit in Canada. Some time ago here in West Texas people were saying that there may be too many organic peanuts for the demand. But that never happened really. It seems to me that the demand is going up. We never experienced a lack of demand. Sometimes we have been over a contract, but never had trouble selling it.

In Argentina´s North-West, Peanut Production Started Centuries Ago The province of Corrientes, in the north-west of Argentina, close to the border with Paraguay, is one of the most ancient territories for peanut planting. During the second half of the seventeenth century, the Spanish authorities ordered the elimination of all the olive trees in the region, including Argentina, as they did not appreciate competition for Europe’s olive industry. The immigrants’ need for edible oil was then fulfilled by sunflower and peanuts. The area of Corrientes is one of the most important ones for peanut breeding; the oily seed was traded there already in the second half of the eighteenth century together with cotton. Oil extraction was also a significant industry here, with plants in the towns of Santo Tomé and Riachuelo, among others. Later on, peanut became a significant crop in the province of Entre Rios and Santa Fe, where seven different companies set up shop to make peanut oil. During this period an especially important variety was the Blanco Santa Fe (Arachis hypogaea subsp. fastigiata var. Vulgaris), also known as Spanish, with the characteristic small shell bearing two kernels. From Santa Fe, peanut planting moved to Cordoba, in the middle of the province, around the towns of Pilar, Manfredi, Oncativo, Rio Segundo, and General Cabrera, becoming a quite substantial crop. This area had become Argentina’s top peanutproducing territory by the early 1950s. In 1959-60 José Pietrangeli, Antonio Karpovickas, and Walton Gregory, from the US, organized a series of trips in Corrientes, Missiones, Paraguay, Brazil, and Bolivia in order to collect samples of cultivated and wild peanuts. In a report written by Pietrangeli, the peanut growing areas of Corrientes were identified as being around the towns of Riachuelo and Paso de la Patria. Nowadays, however, the main peanut-planting areas of Corrientes are in San Luis del Palmar and Colonia Pando. The lots are rather small, the lines often do not go beyond a hectare and all the tilling is performed manually, even the digging and harvesting. Just like in ancient times, women are in charge of growing peanuts, no chemical is used to eliminate weed or insects, making this product completely organic. Peanuts are grown for two years, then they are rotated with corn, beans, or mandioca. In some cases, the lots are used for foraging and then seeded again. The varieties grown in Corrientes are rather ancient and they are produced in a very traditional way. They were maintained over the years in family lots for self-consumption and for sale in local markets. These varieties were not artificially manipulated; they adapted to the particular features of the local ecosystem, which makes them very valuable. They also have an excellent flavor and a great protein content.

This issue of the World Peanut Magazine has been completed thanks to the efforts of: Silvia Tombesi

Jim and Mark Gregory

Martin Frigerio

USA

Argentina

European Snack Association

International Peanut Group

Argentina Peanut Foundation

Kishore Tanna

Ricardo Vanni

Boast International Ltd.

India

Argentina

JL Kukreja, IOPEPC

University of Corrientes

Satoyo Ikehara

Zhang Peng

Japan

China

University of Osaka

JLA China

SK Bera, Kirti Rani, Kona Praveen

American Peanut Sheller Association

Javier Martinetto Gabriela Alcorta Verónica Quiroga Soledad Bossio Edoardo Fracanzani Sebastián Della Giustina

India

USA

Argentina

ICAR-Directorate of Groundnut Research, Junagadh

Santiago Alvarez Prado

cam (Argentina Peanut Chamber)

Louise McKerchar, Richard Owen USA

American Peanut Council

France

INRAE Agriculture Institute of Montpellier Osval Antonio Montesinos López México

University of Colima

Graphic Design and illustrations. ese-estudio.com.ar Typography. Journalist by Sergio Rodriguez / Cantarell by Dave Crossland / Work Sans by Wei Huang Map of India. Copyright © Free Vector Maps.com / Peanuts IPF Food vector created by macrovector. www.freepik.com Infographics. Sebastián Carignano & Facundo Soldano

Cámara Argentina del Maní 20 de Septiembre 855 “A”. (X5809AJI) General Cabrera · Córdoba, Argentina Tel +54 358 4933118 cam@camaradelmani.org.ar www.camaradelmani.org.ar

World Peanut Magazine 02. 2022