Hydrogen Catalogue Actions for airports to stimulate the uptake of hydrogen
Index 01 Executive Summary 02 Hydrogen: an introduction
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p.8
03 Hydrogen Airport actions overview
p.14
3A Research & Support
p.16
A1 Hydrogen startup support
p.18
A2 Hydrogen demand and supply studies
p.20
2A Hydrogen Production Pathways
p.10
A3 Regulatory and national framework research
p.22
2B Why Airports should engage with Hydrogen
p.11
3B Testing & Development
p.24
2C The Airport Hydrogen value chain
p.12
B1 Hydrogen aircraft refuelling and taxi demonstration at RTHA
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B2 Liquid hydrogen storage and dispensing facility for R&D purposes
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B3 Fixed Liquid landside hydrogen refuelling station
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3C Deployment
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C1 Zero emission energy station (fixed GH₂ refuelling station)
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C2 Hydrogen GSE Testing “Zero Carbon Turn” (ZCT) demonstrator project
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C3 Hydrogen GSE Testing MULAG H₂ baggage tractor tests
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C4 Green-hydrogen pilot plant for smart-grid operation
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C5 Hydrogen winter equipment and mobile refuelling demonstration
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C6 Mobile hydrogen refuelling pilots – Brussels and Hamburg
p.44
04 Future Outlook
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4A What enables Airports to act?
p.46
4B The way forward
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4C Other helpful resources
p.49
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01 Executive Summary Hydrogen adoption at airports is currently at a low Technology Readiness Level (TRL), and large-scale deployment is still developing. However, momentum is accelerating, with airports across Europe already testing hydrogen technologies, building operational know how and preparing for potential future hydrogen powered aircraft. Hydrogen is one of several potential pathways for decarbonising airport ground operations and future aircraft propulsion. Current airport hydrogen activity in the aviation sector is concentrated on research, feasibility studies, and small-scale demonstrations across different parts of the value chain. Examples include trials of hydrogen-powered ground support equipment (GSE), hydrogen production and storage, and mobile and fixed refueling solutions. These initiatives show a gradual progression from individual technology trials towards more integrated hydrogen solutions at airports. Nevertheless, wider deployment remains dependent on several factors, including the availability and cost of low-carbon hydrogen, infrastructure investment, suitable refueling and storage technologies, safety and regulatory frameworks, and sufficient future demand.
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For airports, this means that working with hydrogen does not require large-scale investment from the start but rather gradual commitment. Actions can be adapted to an airport’s maturity, ambition, and local context, ranging from monitoring developments and assessing potential demand to participating in trials, testing hydrogen ground equipment, and preparing infrastructure strategies. Furthermore, airports should take advantage of the synergy between start-ups, research institutes, and other airports to share knowledge and create long-lasting partnerships. This catalogue sets out practical actions airports can take now, from research and planning to operational pilots and infrastructure development on a non-exhaustive set of European initiatives. The map below provides a wider benchmark of organisations active in airport hydrogen projects worldwide as of 2026.
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Figure 1 - Hydrogen in Airports projects (as of April 2026) compiled by To70
Airports may use this catalogue to:
Methodology
• Understand the hydrogen value chain and its implications for airport operations
The catalogue has been developed under the H2020 Horizon project Stargate. It relies on desktop research and a series of semi-structured interviews with ACI Europe, Athens, Brussels Airport, Hamburg Airport, Helsinki, Riga airport, Rotterdam The Hague Airport, Swedavia, AeroDelft and Vinci Airports.
• Identify relevant actions based on maturity, ambition, and local context • Learn from peer airports through real pilots and demonstrations This catalogue supports airports navigating this transition with practical and illustrative actions.
The catalogue is not a comprehensive inventory of airport hydrogen activity. It primarily reflects initiatives for which participating airports or project partners responded to interview requests, supplemented by publicly available information. Unsuccessful, discontinued, confidential and non-European initiatives may be underrepresented. The information in this catalogue has been gathered through publicly available sources and conducted interviews.
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02 Hydrogen: an introduction Hydrogen presents a promising solution to decarbonize the aviation industry, both as an energy carrier for airport ground handling equipment and for future aircraft refuelling. Research programs and sector initiatives are actively developing the technology and preparing it for market uptake. According to the latest Destination 20501 roadmap, hydrogen could deliver around 7 % of total CO₂ reductions within and departing the EU+ region (the European Union, United Kingdom and European Free Trade Association countries) by 2050. This contribution comprises approximately 2% from improvements in hydrogen aircraft technology, 1% from the effect of hydrogen technology on energy demand, and 4% from hydrogen as an alternative fuel.
However, many challenges remain. In contrast to other decarbonisation solutions such as Sustainable Aviation Fuels (SAF), large scale hydrogen adoption requires the development of a novel value and supply chain. Moreover, it requires a radical shift in aircraft technology, additional regulations to ensure safety and increased collaboration to align supply, infrastructure and uptake. To address these challenges at the European level, the Alliance for Zero-Emission Aviation (AZEA) brings together public and private stakeholders with the objective of preparing the aviation sector for the introduction of zero-emissions aircraft, including electric and hydrogenpowered aircraft. The results are developed by all EU stakeholders and will be publicly accessible. This coordinated effort comes in addition to the many individual research projects, trials and tests on hydrogen currently being developed.
1. Destination 2050 Alliance, Destination 2050 – A Route to Net Zero European Aviation Roadmap, February 2025
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02A Hydrogen Production Pathways Hydrogen is emerging as a key energy carrier in the transition toward a low-carbon economy. However, not all hydrogen is produced equally: its environmental impact and sustainability depend on the energy sources and processes used in its production. To differentiate between these production methods, hydrogen is categorized into various “colours,” each representing its source and carbon footprint. Hydrogen can be stored and used in either gaseous (GH₂) or liquid (LH₂) form. The appropriate form in an airport application depends on the use case, vehicle or aircraft type and operational requirements. GH₂ is generally less technically complex to produce, transport, and store, but it requires more space due to its lower energy density. LH₂ is generally regarded as the more plausible hydrogen form for long-range aircraft applications than GH₂, although current concepts remain concentrated on short-tomedium-range aircraft. LH₂ is suited to long-range aircraft because it stores much more hydrogen in a given tank volume than gaseous hydrogen, while providing high energy density. However, LH₂, requires advanced cooling, storage, and handling systems to maintain its cryogenic state. The most common types include grey hydrogen, blue hydrogen, and green hydrogen. Other colours, such as turquoise, pink, and yellow hydrogen, correspond to alternative production techniques, each with varying degrees of sustainability and efficiency. Grey hydrogen is typically 2-4 times cheaper than green hydrogen. Current market estimates place grey hydrogen at roughly €1-4 per kg, while green hydrogen generally ranges between €5-9 per kg, depending on electricity prices and electrolyser costs. The price of green hydrogen is expected to fall as production scales and renewable electricity become more widely available. More information on hydrogen can be found on the Hydrogen Europe website.2
Grey Hydrogen
Blue Hydrogen
Green Hydrogen
This is produced from fossil fuel and commonly uses steam methane reforming (SMR) method. During this process, CO2 is produced and eventually released to the atmosphere.
This is produced from natural gas, which is a fossil fuel, however, most of the CO2 emitted during the process would be captured and stored underground or bound in a solid product and utilised.
This is produced by splitting water (i.e., water electrolysis) using electricity generated from renewable energy sources (RES).
It produces 11.1 – 13.7 kg of CO2 equivalent for every 1 kilogram of hydrogen.
It produces 5.8 – 8.5kg CO2 per kg hydrogen.
It produces no CO2 emission associated with the hydrogen production nor with its usage, therefore it is called green.
02B Why Airports should engage with Hydrogen Airports play a key role in the aviation industry’s sustainability transition through their position as infrastructure providers and facilitators. This catalogue provides an overview of the main drivers for hydrogen adoption, and the actions airports can take to accelerate its uptake. •
Decarbonise airport operations: Transitioning ground support equipment and auxiliary power systems to hydrogen can reduce an airport’s carbon footprint, including Scope 3 emissions associated with third-party operations at the airport.
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Supporting zero-emissions flights: Establishing a hydrogen supply chain or production plant and refuelling infrastructure can accommodate for hydrogen vehicles and the next generation of hydrogen-powered aircraft, ensuring airports remain competitive and future-ready.
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Economic opportunity: Hydrogen may offer several potential economic opportunities for airports, from supplying hydrogen to partners to on site production and mobility applications. These models are still emerging, with early pilots showing mixed results and highlighting that viability will depend on coordinated demand.
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Reducing the reliance on fossil fuel: By use (or production) of H2 locally (near or at airport), airports can reduce the reliance on fossil fuel and enhance the energy security. Although, this is a complex task to fulfil given space and safety requirements. This aligns with the goals of the RePowerEU objective of diversifying energy supplies and accelerating the transition away from fossil fuels through increased production and uptake of clean energy, including renewable hydrogen3.
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Catalysing hydrogen supply & demand: Airports can serve as central nodes within regional hydrogen ecosystems, bringing together suppliers and off takers from both aviation and landside sectors. This enables economies of scale and synergy effects through shared hydrogen production, storage, distribution, and refuelling infrastructure.
Figure 2 - Hydrogen Production Pathways and Associated CO2 Emissions
2. Hydrogen Europe – In a Nutshell
3. Hydrogen
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Hydrogen (H2) Airport value chain Aircraft H2 use 40 to 100 seater
2 to 19 seater retrofit
Airside vehicle H2 use
Small scale testing & drones
Tow tracktors
GSE
Retrofit larger vehicles
Landside H2 use
Buses
Generators
Stationary fuel cells
Refuelling at airport
02C The Airport Hydrogen value chain Hydrogen at airports will require a fully integrated supply chain, linking production, transport, liquefaction, storage, and airside distribution. Airports must make a tradeoff between transportation, on-site production and liquefaction for liquid hydrogen applications to come up with the optimal supply strategy. The optimal strategy depends on grid capacity, renewable electricity availability, land constraints, proximity to emerging hydrogen networks, and projected demand growth. An example of the hydrogen value chain for airports is presented in Figure 3. For the transportation of hydrogen, trucked delivery is appropriate for early deployment and lower volumes but becomes inefficient as demand increases. Pipelines are expected to provide the backbone solution for high volume airports. Meanwhile, on site production strengthens energy security and strategic autonomy, yet requires significant electrical capacity, water supply, capital investment, and land availability. Liquefaction is essential for aviation applications but adds cost, energy consumption, and spatial requirements. If on-site liquefaction is considered, the required infrastructural requirements should be determined. Storage remains space intensive, particularly for liquid hydrogen, and hydrogen systems must coexist with conventional Jet A-1 infrastructure for an extended transition period. This coexistence increases total land requirements and reinforces the importance of early master planning integration.
LH2 refuelling pipeline & hydrant system
LH2 refuelling truck
GH2 refuelling truck
Airport H2 facilities
LH2 storage
Hydrogen liquefaction
GH2 storage
On-site H2 electrolysis
Transport to Airport LH2 supply to Airport Truck – Inland vessel – Other
GH2 supply to Airport Truck – Inland vessel – Pipeline – Other
H2 production & storage
LH2 storage
Hydrogen liquefaction
GH2 storage
LH2 import
GH2 import
Local H2 production
In control of airport
Stay informed
Figure 3 - Hydrogen Airport Value Chain compiled by To70
3. Hydrogen
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GH2 refuelling station
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03 Hydrogen Airport actions overview
Deployment TRL 7 - 9 (high)
Most hydrogen activity at airports as of today, are still largely focused on lower TRL levels, primarily relating to research and demonstration activities rather than full-scale deployment and commercialization. The examples below are a selected, non-exhaustive snapshot of European activity. Together, they reflect initiatives that are broadly representative of the current maturity level and direction of work across Europe.
Fixed landside GH2 refuelling
H2 GSE Testing
Mobile airside H2 Refuelling
Pilot H2 production plant
H2 Aircraft Refuelling
Liquid H2 storage and dispensing facility
H2 Aircraft Refuelling
H2 Startup support
Demand/supply & site planning studies
Regulatory and national framework research
Testing & Development TRL 4 - 6 (Medium)
Research & Support TRL 1 - 3 (Low)
Figure 4 - Maturity and Direction of Airport Hydrogen Initiatives in Europe compiled by To70
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H2 Winter Equipment
03A Research & Support Early adopters and pioneers have already undertaken hydrogen feasibility studies and are increasingly progressing towards pilot projects. For other airports, this creates an opportunity to build knowledge and prepare for future hydrogen implementation before committing to larger investments or trials. Early engagement can help airports understand where hydrogen could contribute to their decarbonisation ambitions, what it could mean for airport operations and what may be required to support its future implementation. This preparation can take several forms. Collaborating with start-ups and student teams can help explore new concepts, support innovation, and provide early practical experience with operational and regulatory challenges. Demand and supply studies can help airports move from a high-level interest in hydrogen towards a clearer understanding of what implementation could require in practice. By assessing future demand alongside infrastructure, supply, and cost requirements, airports can identify potential opportunities, investment needs, and make more informed decisions together with stakeholders within and outside the aviation sector. Understanding the regulatory environment is equally important, particularly as many hydrogen-specific requirements are still being developed. Research can help airports anticipate emerging requirements and identify regulatory gaps. At the same time, airports can provide regulators with practical insight into what is feasible in an airport environment. This exchange can support the development of clearer and more standardised procedures for future hydrogen deployment. The following initiatives illustrate how airports are already engaging in these different areas of research and support.
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Hydrogen startup support Start ups and student teams increasingly collaborate with airports to test how hydrogen aviation could work in practice. Their activities focus on small scale demonstrations, feasibility studies, ground handling concepts, refuelling approaches, safety procedures, and awareness building among airport stakeholders. By using airports as real world test environments, these teams help translate hydrogen aircraft concepts into practical operational requirements, while giving airports early insight into the infrastructure, regulatory frameworks, and partnerships needed for future zero emission aviation. Examples include AeroDelft’s activities at Rotterdam The Hague Airport where this type of hydrogen-aviation collaboration has been supported since 2022, Beyond Aero and Fokker NextGen collaborations, and H2Fly test campaigns.
Expected cost* Very low <€50k
Low €50k - €500k
Medium €500k - €1m
Very high >€5m
*Indicative investment ranges. Actual costs will vary depending on project scope, airport size, location, and existing infrastructure.
Opportunities
Challenges
• Regulatory insight: Early understanding of the regulatory ecosystem and how it will shape future hydrogen deployment.
• Permitting and insurance: Permitting and insurance requirements can create additional costs for trials conducted at airports.
• Infrastructure readiness: Understanding the airport’s existing infrastructure capabilities and future needs.
• Airport safety requirements: Safety considerations within the airport are more contingent than in a start-up space.
• Stakeholder connections: Opportunity for innovators to connect with airport operators and other relevant stakeholders.
Figure 5 - Aerodelft
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High €1m - €5m
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03 A2
Hydrogen demand and supply studies Demand forecasting and scenario studies Brussels Airport conducted two studies to assess future hydrogen demand: one focusing on long-term hydrogen needs for commercial aviation beyond 2040, and another examining gaseous hydrogen (GH₂) demand for airport operations over the next 20 years. Similarly, Athens International Airport explored future hydrogen deployment scenarios through a literature review tailored to the Greek context, a parametric model for scenarios from 2030 onwards, and a stakeholder workshop involving ground handlers, airlines, civil aviation representatives and other relevant parties. Hamburg Airport collaborated with DLR to develop hydrogen roadmap tailored to medium-sized airports. Furthermore, they have looked into different deployment scenarios of aircraft and GSE as a part of the BSR project. Hamburg Airport collaborated with DLR to develop demand scenarios aligned with aircraft manufacturers (OEMs) and a hydrogen roadmap tailored to medium-sized airports. The airport also joined Airbus’ Hydrogen Hubs at Airports initiative and developed a plan covering hydrogen supply, storage and aircraft run-up requirements to support future hydrogen-powered aviation LH₂ demand methodology. The BSR HyAirport partnership developed a methodology for estimating future liquid hydrogen (LH₂) demand for smaller aircraft, using two complementary approaches: one based on flight routes and the other on aircraft departures.
Expected cost* Very low <€50k
Low €50k - €500k
Medium €500k - €1m
Very high >€5m
*Indicative investment ranges. Actual costs will vary depending on project scope, airport size, location, and existing infrastructure.
Opportunities
Challenges
• Demand insight: Understand future H₂ demand drivers, aircraft technology evolution and airport-specific needs.
• Forecast uncertainty: An immature market makes long-term forecasting uncertain and assumption driven.
• Supply planning: Assess supply routes, infrastructure needs, space requirements, production, storage and run-up requirements.
• Fuel interdependencies: Interactions between hydrogen, SAF and electrification remain difficult to model.
• Business case: Support investment timing, opportunity mapping, KPI planning and dynamic scenario planning.
• Regulatory uncertainty: Regulatory gaps, permitting schedules and safety requirements must be clarified. • Use-case sequencing: Different hydrogen applications need to be phased appropriately, with GSE as a potential near-term option.
• Partnerships: Build OEM, regional and stakeholder cooperation and support early positioning as a hydrogen hub.
• Scenario reliability: Estimationbased calculations require careful KPI selection and scenario updates.
• Benchmarking: Compare airport scenarios and developments across different contexts.
Figure 6 - Hydrogen tanks
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High €1m - €5m
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03 A3
Regulatory and national framework research Athens International Airport Athens International Airport commissioned To70 to assess the regulatory and policy landscape for hydrogen use in aviation. The study examined both EU-level regulations and the Greek national framework, focusing on financial support mechanisms, legislative enablers and technical requirements relevant to the deployment of hydrogen at airports.
BSR HyAirport The BSR HyAirport project assessed the regulatory and legal frameworks governing gaseous green hydrogen at airports in the Baltic Sea Region. The study examined international, EU and national regulations covering hydrogen production, storage, transport and refuelling. It also mapped regulatory authorities, policies and technical standards, while identifying regulatory gaps, barriers and areas for clarification or harmonisation across Estonia, Lithuania, Latvia, Finland, Sweden, Denmark, Germany and Poland.
Expected cost* Very low <€50k
Low €50k - €500k
Medium €500k - €1m
Very high >€5m
*Indicative investment ranges. Actual costs will vary depending on project scope, airport size, location, and existing infrastructure.
Opportunities
Challenges
• Regulatory insight: Understand the regulatory ecosystem shaping future hydrogen deployment.
• Regulatory uncertainty: Uncertainty remains around upcoming EU and national regulations.
• Policy and funding: Leverage policy and funding instruments to support sustainable growth.
• Evolving requirements: Hydrogen-specific rules are still underdevelopment and may evolve significantly.
• Business case development: Structure credible hydrogen business cases, including integration with onsite energy assets such as PV panels.
• Local differences: Regulatory support varies locally, influencing feasibility and timing.
• Framework assessment: Identify roadblocks, gaps and enabling conditions in national frameworks.
• Lack of harmonisation: Further clarification and harmonisation are still needed across countries and technical standards.
• Deployment planning: Support future pilots and deployment through clearer regulatory planning.
Figure 7 - EU regulatory and policy framework relevant to hydrogen deployment at airports
Figure 8 - Athens International Airport
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High €1m - €5m
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03B Testing & Development Testing and development represent an important step between feasibility studies and larger-scale deployment at airports. While research can identify potential requirements and challenges, practical testing allows airports to validate these under real operating conditions. Demonstrations can reveal how hydrogen technologies interact with existing airport infrastructure, procedures, and day-to-day operations, and help determine what may need to be adapted before implementation at a larger scale. This is particularly relevant as the requirements and capabilities of individual airports will differ depending on their infrastructure, operations, and intended hydrogen applications. Testing also helps airports develop the technical and operational capabilities needed to handle hydrogen safely, in both gaseous and liquid form. It can provide insight into safety and regulatory requirements, refueling and turnaround times, while giving airport personnel early experience with hydrogen operations. The following initiatives illustrate how airports are gaining practical experience through aircraft demonstrations, hydrogen storage and dispensing facilities, and fixed refueling infrastructure.
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03 B1
Hydrogen aircraft refuelling and taxi demonstration at RTHA Aircraft refuelling tests Rotterdam The Hague Airport conducted aircraft refuelling tests using both liquid (LH₂) and gaseous (GH2) hydrogen. LH₂ activities were carried out as part of the GOLIAT project, while GH₂ testing was conducted in collaboration with AeroDelft, which also tested liquid hydrogen refuelling into aircraft. To support hydrogen operations, the airport has a landside GH₂ Fountain Fuel station and an airside LH₂ storage facility.
Technology Readiness Levels (TRL) TRL 6: Aircraft refuelling and taxi testing have been demonstrated in a real airport environment. Wider deployment requires mature GH₂/LH₂ refuelling technology, clearer regulation, suitable compression or cooling systems, safety procedures and airport infrastructure.
Expected cost* Very low <€50k
Low €50k - €500k
Medium €500k - €1m
Very high >€5m
*Indicative investment ranges. Actual costs will vary depending on project scope, airport size, location, and existing infrastructure.
Opportunities
Challenges
• Operational readiness: Prepare airport procedures for future H₂ aircraft operations.
• Supply method: Choosing between GH₂ and LH₂ supply remains uncertain.
• Technology demonstration: Test refuelling and aircraft operation in the same airport environment.
• GH₂ constraints: Longer refuelling times and high compression requirements, which airports do not currently have.
• Demand and infrastructure: Understand H₂ demand, airport infrastructure needs and suitable supply methods.
• LH₂ constraints: Cooling technology still needs development, extra LH₂ volume is needed for cooling and boiloff must be managed.
• Safety preparation: Identify safety precautions, safety procedures and airport requirements for H₂ operations.
• Regulation and safety: Aviation H₂ regulation is still new and often JetA1-focused; safety distances between electrical systems and hydrogen must be addressed.
• Aircraft refuelling concepts: Explore customised mobile refuelling stations for aircraft.
• Test conditions: Weather can affect performance, hydrogen storage in aircraft tanks over time remains a challenge, and space, insurance and regulatory preparation are required.
Figure 9 - Hydrogen refuelling
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High €1m - €5m
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03 B2
Liquid hydrogen storage and dispensing facility for R&D purposes Lufthansa Technik – Hamburg A 100 kg liquid hydrogen (LH₂) storage and dispensing facility was established at Lufthansa Technik premises to support the Hydrogen Aviation Lab (HAL). The facility enabled refuelling of a 14.7 kg LH₂ tank installed in a modified A320 aircraft. The decommissioned aircraft served as an open laboratory for exploring hydrogen applications in aviation, with a focus on maintenance training, ground operations research, and LH₂ handling studies.
Rotterdam The Hague Airport Rotterdam The Hague Airport established an 8.6 kg LH₂ storage and dispensing facility to support the refueling of small research and development aircraft and support on-site experimental activities. The installation was under construction in 2024 and became operational in summer 2025. LH₂ was supplied by Air Products from Rotterdam. In addition to aircraft refuelling, the installation supports research into leakage detection and LH₂ flow-behavior.
Technology Readiness Levels (TRL) • TRL 6: Hamburg / Lufthansa Technik. • TRL 6: Rotterdam The Hague Airport. • Facilities validated for R&D use, but not yet representative of large-scale LH₂ aircraft operations.
Expected cost* Very low <€50k
Low €50k - €500k
Medium €500k - €1m
Very high >€5m
*Indicative investment ranges. Actual costs will vary depending on project scope, airport size, location, and existing infrastructure.
Opportunities
Challenges
• Operational testing: Test LH₂ handling, maintenance and aircraft operations on real aircraft.
• LH₂ supply: Obtaining delivery contracts for small LH₂ volumes. • Safety requirements: Environmental permits, safety distances and 5 m venting requirements.
• R&D environment: Use the airport as an R&D centre for LH₂ applications. • Small-scale trials: Support smallscale testing before larger airport deployment.
• Stakeholder acceptance: Demonstrate safe operations to stakeholders not directly involved in the trials.
• Apron integration: Fit LH₂ infrastructure into an existing apron environment.
• Complex permitting: Navigate permitting processes with limited aviation-specific LH₂ rules. • Regulatory uncertainty: Address unclear regulatory fit, including potential reliance on existing Jet A-1type rules.
Figure 10 - Aviation lab - Hamburg Airport
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High €1m - €5m
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03 B3
Fixed Liquid landside hydrogen refuelling station The EU-funded GOLIAT (Ground Operations of LIquid Hydrogen AircrafT) project aims to develop essential technologies for large-scale, high-performance liquid hydrogen refuelling and to demonstrate small-scale liquid hydrogen aircraft ground operations at three airport sites. As part of the project, ground operations for hydrogen aviation tests have been assessed to estimate aircraft turnaround times. Based on this analysis, a list of turnaround times and other key operational parameters for liquid hydrogen flights has been created for each airport. The project started in 2024, with ground-operation demonstrations planned at Stuttgart and Rotterdam in 2026 and Lyon in 2027.
Technology Readiness Levels (TRL) TRL 7: The technology is demonstrated and ready for commercial use.
Expected cost* Very low <€50k
Low €50k - €500k
Medium €500k - €1m
High €1m - €5m
Very high >€5m
*Indicative investment ranges. Actual costs will vary depending on project scope, airport size, location, and existing infrastructure.
Opportunities
Challenges
• Turnaround planning: Estimate turnaround times at an early stage.
• Insurance and costs: Address insurance requirements and associated costs.
• Operational benchmarking: Compare of ground operations across various EU airports.
• LH₂ regulation: Navigate legislative hurdles for liquid hydrogen handling at airports.
• Regulatory insight: Understand the legislative hurdles affecting hydrogen operations.
• Regulatory differences: Address misaligned regulations between countries. • Financing: Secure funding for testing and implementation.
Figure 11 - Airbus ZEROe project visualization
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03C Deployment Deployment represents a more advanced stage of airport hydrogen activity, where technologies begin to move from testing towards practical implementation. This gives airports the opportunity to gain experience over longer periods and better understand how hydrogen systems perform under real operating conditions. Beyond the operational experience gained, deployment can also help airports explore the business case for hydrogen refuelling and their potential role as energy hubs, supplying hydrogen for their own activities as well as other nearby demand centres. At this stage, existing airport activities can provide an initial source of hydrogen demand. Ground operations offer a strong starting point, with GSE providing an opportunity to introduce hydrogen without waiting for hydrogen-powered aircraft to enter into service. Existing equipment can be adapted for hydrogen use while dedicated hydrogen vehicles continue to develop. This initial demand can support the deployment of different hydrogen supply and refuelling solutions, including fixed infrastructure, mobile refuelling, or temporary on-site production. Monitoring these activities over time can provide lessons on operational performance and the wider hydrogen supply chain, from production and delivery through to its final use at the airport. The following initiatives illustrate how airports are beginning to gain this experience.
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03 C1
Zero emission energy station (fixed GH2 refuelling station) Fountain Fuel is developing a zero-emission energy station at Zaventembaan near Rotterdam The Hague Airport, to provide hydrogen refuelling and electric charging for road vehicles. Construction began in 2024, with opening planned for 2026. The facility is designed to serve passenger cars, vans, trucks and other commercial vehicles, with 700-bar refuelling for cars and 350-bar refuelling for heavier vehicles reported in recent coverage. RTHA has agreed to become an off-taker of hydrogen from the landside station, which complements the airport’s broader hydrogen ecosystem, including the DutcH₂ Aviation Hub and separate liquidhydrogen aviation research infrastructure for aviation.
Technology Readiness Levels (TRL) TRL 7: The technology is demonstrated and ready for commercial use.
Expected cost* Very low <€50k
Low €50k - €500k
Medium €500k - €1m
Very high >€5m
*Indicative investment ranges. Actual costs will vary depending on project scope, airport size, location, and existing infrastructure.
Opportunities
Challenges
• Multi-modal refuelling: Support hydrogen refuelling across different transport modes and additional airport uses.
• Limited control: Partial ownership can limit the airport’s control over project development and operations. • Permitting and documentation: Manage the required permits and supporting documentation.
• Research opportunities: Use station and surrounding hydrogen activities to support research and demonstration projects.
• Safety zones: Accommodate required safety distances and zones within and around the site.
• Shared ownership: Participate through a shared ownership model, sharing investment and responsibilities with project partners.
• Roadside licensing: Navigate licensing requirements associated with publicly accessible roadside refuelling station.
Figure 12 - Hydrogen station visualization
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High €1m - €5m
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03 C2
Hydrogen GSE Testing “Zero Carbon Turn” (ZCT) demonstrator project Airside use of individual hydrogen GSE units has been demonstrated in the UK (Bristol BRS, Cranfield EGTC, etc) and across the EU. This demonstrator brought together three hydrogen-powered GSE units, covering baggage handling, aircraft towing/pushback and ground power, to support the turnaround of a commercial TUI passenger flight at EXT. These covered key turnaround functions rather than 100% of the aircraft’s ground handling needs. The objectives were to both demonstrate the feasibility of the zero-emissions GSE working together on a live flight, and to “flush out” any operational challenges through the close cooperation of the airport management & operational staff, airline, aircraft OEM, GSE providers and the regulator (CAA). The live demonstration took place on 29 April 2025.
Technology Readiness Levels (TRL) TRL 7: Increased TRL from 5 to 7. In the next steps, vehicles need to be left airside for operational staff to use independently for more than one week, without supplier support onsite, ideally at a larger airport such as LHR.
Expected cost* Very low <€50k
Low €50k - €500k
Medium €500k - €1m
Very high >€5m
*Indicative investment ranges. Actual costs will vary depending on project scope, airport size, location, and existing infrastructure.
Opportunities
Challenges
• Operational insight: Identification of real world operational challenges and regulatory barriers to using hydrogen airside (e.g., fire safety, H&S procedures, use under canopies).
• Space constraints: Difficulty finding suitable, safe locations within the existing airport layout for gaseous hydrogen storage and vehicle refuelling.
• Practical use cases: Enabled equipment providers to better understand practical airport applications and operational requirements.
• Stakeholder awareness: Educate stakeholders and equipment providers on hydrogen’s advantages, limitations, and operational implications.
• Zero-emission operations: Demonstrate the potential for hydrogen to support zero-emission ground operations.
Figure 13 - Hydrogen refuelling
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High €1m - €5m
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03 C3
Hydrogen GSE Testing MULAG H₂ baggage tractor tests Hydrogen ICE retrofit – Hamburg Airport An existing MULAG CNG baggage tractor was converted by HTM Hydro Technology Motors into a hydrogen-powered vehicle, combining an H₂-rotary combustion engine combined with a parallel electric motor. The tractor was deployed in regular airport operations from May 2025 to April 2026. Refuelling was supported by a temporary mobile green hydrogen station rented from Ryze Power (now FPS Energy), consisting of a 300 kg trailer operating at 300–350 bar using a simple overflow mechanism. The pilot evaluated technical and operational performance, safety, refuelling logistics, hydrogen consumption and total cost of ownership. Despite a lengthy permitting process, the trial provided valuable insights to support further drivetrain development. Figure 14 - Hamburg Airport - Photo by Oliver Sorg
Fuel-cell tractor – Hamburg and Riga Airports A MULAG 4 FC fuel-cell baggage tractor was tested under real airport operating conditions at Hamburg Airport in September 2019 and Riga Airport in March 2025, including cold-start testing. Refuelling was supported by a temporary hydrogen supply system consisting of 200-bar cylinder bundles and an overflow dispenser. The demonstrations assessed vehicle performance, refuelling logistics, safety procedures and overall operational behaviour.
Fuel-cell tractor — Brussels Airport At Brussels Airport, a MULAG hydrogen fuel-cell baggage tractor operated by DHL was tested in May–June 2024 to assess vehicle performance and refuelling procedures. User feedback was positive, and the tractor could be used in normal operations, but not for heavy loads. The trial also identified development needs for higher-duty applications.
Technology Readiness Levels (TRL) TRL 7: Technical feasibility, operational safety and usability have been validated in real airport environments, but still at pilot scale. For the retrofit pathway, TRL 8–9 would require serial retrofits, long-term operation, standardized conversion and approval processes, economically viable deployment and scaled hydrogen infrastructure.
Expected cost* Very low <€50k
Low €50k - €500k
Medium €500k - €1m
High €1m - €5m
Very high >€5m
*Indicative investment ranges. Actual costs will vary depending on project scope, airport size, location, and existing infrastructure.
Opportunities
Challenges
• Fleet transition: Retrofit existing tractors to extend their service life and reduce the investment barrier compared with procuring new vehicles.
• Vehicle performance: Initial coldstart limitations in 2019, limited torque and motor power, small tank capacity, reduced range and inability to support heavy loads.
• Hydrogen deployment: Introduce hydrogen into GSE fleets and gradually scale demand with limited initial investment risk.
• Reliability and evidence: Couplingchain, cooling and battery issues were encountered and resolved during the demonstration; evidence remained limited by single-vehicle trials and lower duty cycles than initially planned.
• Alternative to electrification: Hydrogen provides a zero direct carbon emission, grid-independent alternative for applications where battery-electric ground support equipment may be unsuitable.
• Operations and maintenance: Dependence on vehicle OEMs for maintenance, slower refuelling, additional driver training and increased coordination for safety and emergency procedures.
• Operational suitability: Hydrogenpowered tractors can support normal airport operations with driving and noise levels comparable to compressed natural gas (CNG) vehicles and potential use in 24/7 GSE fleets.
• Scale-up conditions: Refuelling safety aspects, standardisation, commercial availability, hydrogen price, overall costs and lengthy permitting procedures.
• User experience: Provide positive operational experience for drivers and ground handling personnel.
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03 C4
Green-hydrogen pilot plant for smart-grid operation The pilot plant developed within the TULIPS project was designed to study how key smart grid components interact under real operating conditions. Located at the airside fire station, it combined a photovoltaic system, multiple storage solutions (including repurposed car batteries and an electrolyser with dedicated hydrogen storage), fuel cells capable of operating on methane and 100% hydrogen, the local electrical network, and the fire station building acting as the load. The system increased self consumption of renewable electricity by converting surplus PV generation into hydrogen, which could later power the fuel cells. Design work began in 2022, the plant entered operation in late 2023, and it will continue running until 2026.
Technology Readiness Levels (TRL) TRL 7: Plant operative with remote assistance
Expected cost* Very low <€50k
Low €50k - €500k
Medium €500k - €1m
Very high >€5m
*Indicative investment ranges. Actual costs will vary depending on project scope, airport size, location, and existing infrastructure.
Opportunities
Challenges
• Operational flexibility: Flexible (wide modulation) operating range to respond to varying energy demand and generation.
• Safety requirements: Implement appropriate safety measures for hydrogen production, storage, and use.
• Fuel flexibility: Achieve high efficiency while operating with different fuel mixtures, including hydrogen.
• Equipment costs: Manage the costs associated with hydrogen production, storage, and fuel-cell equipment. • Component reliability: Ensure reliable operation of the different components within the integrated energy system.
• Emission reduction: Reduce emissions by increasing the use of renewable energy and hydrogen.
Figure 15 - Turin airport
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High €1m - €5m
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03 C5
Hydrogen winter equipment and mobile refuelling demonstration WOPS winter-service equipment A hydrogen-powered Hyzon HyMax 250 fuel-cell truck was modified with a frontmounted snow plough and hydraulic control system and operated with a towable Vammas SB3600H snow sweeper-blower. The vehicle was tested under real winter conditions from January to April 2026, starting in Helsinki and continuing in Riga, Kaunas and Tallinn. The equipment was operated in a manner comparable to conventional airport-maintenance equipment, within defined operational limitations. The trial assessed reliability, refuelling, safety, user experience, gaseous-H₂ consumption during active snow-removal tasks, suitability for winter-service operations and future H₂ demand.
Mobile gaseous-H₂ refuelling for WOPS Riga Airport and Finavia Helsinki Airport used mobile refuelling stations to refuel the WOPS equipment. The test assessed both WOPS equipment performance and H₂ refuelling times in winter conditions. Refuelling was slow due to the low-pressure compressor and became slower when the hydrogen storage-tank level was low. The pilot recommended using refuelling equipment suited to operational needs and trained in-house personnel where permitted.
Technology Readiness Levels (TRL) TRL 9: Mobile refuelling. TRL 7: Winter equipment. Winter equipment was validated in real airport winter maintenance, but still with operational limitations and in a demonstration setting. Next TRL requires continuous regular deployment with mature technology and standardised safety and approval processes.
Expected cost* Very low <€50k
Low €50k - €500k
Medium €500k - €1m
High €1m - €5m
Very high >€5m
*Indicative investment ranges. Actual costs will vary depending on project scope, airport size, location, and existing infrastructure.
Opportunities
Challenges
• WOPS capability: Full ploughing and towing capability, comparable handling and usability to conventional winter equipment.
• Refuelling speed: Low-pressure compressors caused slow refuelling, especially when storage-tank levels were low; refuelling remained slower than diesel.
• User acceptance: Strong performance, immediate power delivery, low noise, high comfort and high driver acceptance.
• Operational limits: No runway/ taxiway use and no indoor storage when onboard H₂ tanks are filled.
• Airport know-how: Practical experience with H₂ reliability, consumption, refuelling, safety and integration into existing airport operations.
• Staffing and supply: Tank switching was restricted to external experts, reducing risk but creating waiting time. H₂ had to be delivered by certified suppliers in certified storage tanks. In some cases, refuelling was also restricted to certified external experts, while trained in-house refuelling was recommended where permitted.
• Refuelling operations: Apron refuelling can improve efficiency, with emergency-service access to the mobile station. • Risk reduction: Cooperation with manufacturers, hydrogen suppliers, authorities and national hydrogen associations to minimise risks.
• Training: Additional driver training, refuelling training and no storagehandling authorisation. • Maintenance and administration: Dependence on vehicle owner for maintenance, 24 V auxiliary-battery issue, extra safety coordination and heavy paperwork.
Figure 16 - Helsinki Airport
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03 C6
Mobile hydrogen refuelling pilots – Brussels and Hamburg Brussels Airport As a part of the STARGATE project, a temporary mobile hydrogen refuelling station was installed at Brussels Airport for eight weeks in May–June 2024 to assess the feasibility and operational efficiency of on-site refuelling. The test identified safety considerations and hydrogen supply constraints that must be addressed before long-term deployment.
Expected cost* Very low <€50k
Low €50k - €500k
Medium €500k - €1m
High €1m - €5m
Very high >€5m
*Indicative investment ranges. Actual costs will vary depending on project scope, airport size, location, and existing infrastructure.
Hamburg Airport
Opportunities
Challenges
At Hamburg Airport, a mobile hydrogen station rented from Ryze Power, now FPS Energy, was used to refuel the retrofitted H₂ ICE MULAG tractor. The station consisted of a 300 kg / 300-bar trailer and used a simple overflow mechanism. Obtaining the necessary permits took considerable time.
• Mobile refuelling: Enables temporary H₂ refuelling without permanent infrastructure.
• Permitting: Approval for permitting processes can take considerable time.
Technology Readiness Levels (TRL) TRL 7: Mobile H₂ refuelling stations have been operated in airport pilots, but mainly at temporary or low-speed refuelling scale. Wider deployment requires standardised permitting, safety procedures, reliable green-H₂ supply and commercially available equipment.
• Grid independence: Supports H₂ GSE operations without relying on charging infrastructure.
• Safety: Site layout, safety distances and refuelling procedures require careful assessment for safety compliance.
• Operational flexibility: Can support on-site airport refuelling pilots and future airside use cases.
• Hydrogen supply: Commercial availability of green H₂ remains a constraint.
• Landside compatibility: Potential compatibility with car and truck H₂ infrastructure.
• Market readiness: Standardisation, commercial availability and cost H₂ of remain barriers. • Refuelling performance: Lowspeed or overflow refuelling limits operational efficiency.
Figure 17 - Mobile H2 refueling station Brussels Airport
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04 Future Outlook 04A What enables Airports to act? Airport readiness for hydrogen is shaped by the context, governance, and internal capability – not ambition alone. The figure on the right shows the key enablers for airports to meaningfully act on H2 developments at different levels
Airport hydrogen readyness External conditions
Governance & ownership
Organisational capacity
Policy momentum
Ownership model
Resources
Sector-wide developments define the direction and pressure points airports need to respond to.
Set the approval pathways that hydrogen-related work must pass through.
The people, expertise, and budget available determine what can be delivered.
Energy access
Strategic vision
Innovation mindset
Access to renewable energy sets the boundary conditions for whether hydrogen is a viable pathway.
A clear long-term direction helps hydrogen become part of the agenda.
Determines the airport’s ability to work with emerging technologies and uncertainty.
Funding landscape
Leadership commitment
Collaborative drive
Support schemes and grants determine the level of financial risk the airport must carry.
Sets the level of organisational support for developing hydrogen-related work.
Strong partnerships help navigate early technical and regulatory hurdles.
Figure 18 - Checklist for airport hydrogen readyness
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04B The way forward
04C Other helpful resources
This subsection summarises key considerations for future hydrogen market evolution. What can be expected regarding the hydrogen aviation market is summarised below.
What is certain
What is emerging
• Liquid H2 will be required for large-scale aircraft applications
• Falling cost of green H2
Informational material Going further, this section outlines the state of the art work on Hydrogen use in air transport.
AZEA Hydrogen factsheets for airports
Concept of Operations of Battery and HydrogenPowered Aircraft at Aerodromes
Integration of Hydrogen aircraft into the Air Transport System
Zero Emission Airports (ZEA)
• New regulations are introducing green-H2 quotas
• No liquid H2 aircraft expected before 2035 • Gaseous H2 will be the first operational step before liquid use
• Technology advances are strengthening both gaseous H2 (e.g., compressors) and liquid H2 options (e.g., cryogenic tanks)
• Gaseous H2 supports GSE and landside mobility
• OEMs are revising their timelines for more realistic delivery dates of aircraft
• Safety, permitting, and training remain universal bottlenecks
• Funding and partnerships are becoming more accessible
• Current H2 prices make demand creation and business cases challenging
• Hydrogen markets are growing beyond aviation
• Cross-sector collaboration is essential: without it, progress stalls
Applicable policies for airports • AFIR: The EU’s Alternative Fuels Infrastructure Regulation, setting minimum requirements for hydrogen and alternative fuel infrastructure. • TEN-T and TEN-E: EU network regulations defining Europe’s core transport and energy corridors, including airport connections. • Airport charges 2009/12/EC: the framework governing how airports set and differentiate charges for airlines.
• Large-scale supply demands major grid capacity and renewable access
• Airport slots regulation EC95/93: the EU rules for allocating take off and landing slots at coordinated airports.
Funding sources for airports • EU Innovation Fund: The EU’s flagship mechanism for financing large scale low carbon and demonstration projects. • Horizon Europe: The EU’s primary research and innovation programme supporting cross sector R&D, including hydrogen. • CEF: Funding instrument for strategic transport and energy infrastructure across the EU network. • IPCEI: Framework enabling cross border industrial projects of strategic European interest, including hydrogen value chain development. • Revision Energy Taxation Directive: EU’s framework for setting energy tax structures, shaping cost signals for emerging fuels.
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This catalogue has been developed under the coordination of Efe Kulaksizoglu, Kimberly Ullrich, Valentin Rajon Bernard from To70, with support of Julian Klaaßen and Theresa Großmann from Hamburg Airport, Pieter Leonard from Brussels Airport Company and Alexandros Ouzounopoulos from ACI Europe.
This project has received funding from the European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme under grant agreement GA101037053.