Dissertation Green Brand Appeal

How can green branding improve appeal for environmentally preferable product services in the fast food market?

Brand Identity Management creates brand appeal Matteo Fabbi

UNIVERSITY OF WESTMINSTER BA Global Marketing 2010/2011

AKNOWLEDGMENT

Writing this dissertation was both an exciting and very challenging task. Undeniably I was confronted with an interesting concept – green brand appeal. The past three months have been very intensive and to some extent exhaustive too, but working on this project has taught me how to deal with a large amount of data and information within a short period of time.

My major project for the Global Marketing degree program at the University of Westminster in London has now finished and I would like to take this opportunity to thank several people for their direct and indirect contribution.

First of all my tutor Nigel Bradley, Senior Lecturer in Marketing at Harrow Business School, for being supportive and understanding while I was developing my project.

Finally I would like to thank my family for giving me the opportunity of studying here in London at the University of Westminster, my brother in particular for inspiring me to returning to study in the first place four years ago and Giulia who was close to me during the most difficult moments while creating this work.

Matteo Fabbi London 3rd of May 2011

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

1. INTRODUCTION

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1.1 BACKGROUND

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1.2 THE QUESTION IN CONTEXT

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2. LITERATURE REVIEW

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2.1 BRAND IDENTITY

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2.2 THE BRAND IDENTITY SYSTEM 2.2.1 THE BRAND AS A PRODUCT 2.2.2 THE BRAND AS AN ORGANISATION 2.2.3 THE BRAND AS A PERSON 2.2.4 THE BRAND AS A SYMBOL

9 10 11 11 11

2.3 BRAND IMAGE 2.3.1 CONSUMER IMAGERY 2.3.2 CONSUMER IMAGERY IN FOOD

12 12 13

2.4 BRAND APPEAL

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2.5 BRAND POSITIONING

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3. METHODOLOGY

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3.1 RESEARCH PHILOSOPHY

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3.2 RESEARCH APPROACH

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3.3 THE PURPOSE OF THE RESEARCH

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3.4 THE RESEARCH STRATEGY

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3.5 DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS PROCEDURE

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3.6 SAMPLE COLLECTION

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3.7 DATA COLLECTION 3.7.1 FOCOUS GROUP 3.7.2 QUESTIONNAIRE DESIGN 3.7.3 DEVELOPMENT OF A SCORING SYSTEM 3.7.4 GREEN BRAND APPEAL MEASUREMENT PLAN

19 19 20 22 22

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4. RESULTS AND ANALYSIS

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4.1 RESULTS FROM THE FOCOUS GROUP 4.1.1 CONSUMERS PERCEIVED GREEN VALUE 4.1.2 CONSUMERS PERCEPTION AND EXPECTATION 4.1.3 CONSUMERS ATTITUDE TOWARDS GREEN ADVERTISING

23 23 23 24

4.2 RESULTS FROM THE QUESTIONNAIRE 4.2.1 POPULATION PERSONAL VALUE IN LIFE 4.2.2 EXPECTATION TOWARDS A “GREEN” FAST FOOD 4.2.3 POPULATION LEVEL OF “GREENNESS” 4.2.4 AD1 PROFILE 4.2.5 AD2 PROFILE 4.2.6 AD3 PROFILE

25 25 25 26 28 26 28

4.3 ANALYSIS RESULTS 4.3.1 BRAND APPEAL ANALYSIS AD1 4.3.2 BRAND APPEAL ANALYSIS AD2 4.3.3 BRAND APPEAL ANALYSIS AD3 4.3.4 BRAND POSITION VERSUS LEVEL OF GREENNESS

29 30 31 31 32

5. DISCUSSION

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6. CONCLUSION: IMPLICATIONS FOR MANAGERS

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6.1 LIMITATIONS

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7. REFERENCES

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8. APPENDIX

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LIST OF FIGURES

FIG 2.2 THE BRAND IDENTITY SYSTEM BY AAKER (1997)

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FIG 2.3.1 THE PARADOXICAL NATURE OF CONSUMER RELATIONSHIP WITH FOODS

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FIG 2.4 BRAND APPEAL ELEMENTS

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FIG 4.2 SCREENING QUESTION

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FIG 4.2.1 QUESTION 2

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FIG 4.2.2 QUESTION 4

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FIG 4.2.3 ANALYSIS QUESTION 3

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FIG 4.2.4 QUESTION 4

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FIG 4.2.5 QUESTION 5

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FIG 4.2.6 QUESTION 6

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FIG 4.3 BRAND APPEAL ANALYSIS

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FIG 4.3.1 BRAND APPEAL ANALYSIS FOR AD1

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FIG 4.3.2 BRAND APPEAL ANALYSIS FOR AD2

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FIG 4.3.3 BRAND APPEAL ANALYSIS FOR AD3

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FIG 4.3.4 BRAND APPEAL CONSUMERS GRENNESS LEVEL CROSSTABULATION

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ABSTRACT

The aim of this dissertation was to explore how could green branding influence brand appeal in relation to environmentally preferable product services in the fast food industry. This is important because green has now become an essential factor for developing new business models that secure compliance with the popular trends of today’s society. Furthermore the investigation of green brand appeal is a concept relatively undiscovered, yet interesting for its abstract and ambiguous nature.

The research is an exploratory and confirmatory study of the consumer’s main motivations for adopting green products within the fast food industry. The research took into consideration recent brand appeal theories from Cramer and Koene and more classic branding concepts such as the Identity System Model by Aaker. The intention was to identify the green value that instigates higher green appeal among the population.

The author created a new research framework called the Green Brand Appeal Survey (GBAS). Based on a target population of 120 university students from the UK, the study measured respondents’ perceptions on three different adverts each representing a different perspective, and measured green brand appeal in respect to green brand positioning. The study was created thanks to the adoption of a customized version of the 23plusone Identity Model, originally created by branding agency BR-ND to measure brand appeal.

The author of this research carefully drafted this measurement tool for measuring ‘green’ brand appeal instead. According to the findings, consumers are likely to be attracted by green products when green brands also provide benefits that are not exclusively perceived as “green”. Values such Achievement and Innovation were identified as the most desirable benefits that, when associated with green, had the strongest appeal on the target population. Furthermore, when considering adopting Aaker Brand Identity model, then green brand appeal is higher if a brand is positioned within a Symbolic Green Brand Identity.

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1. INTRODUCTION 1.1. Background Urbanization together with globalization and industrialization has shifted the food system away from simply moving basic staples from the farms to the (local) plate (Maxwell and Slater, 2003). Food is increasingly being produced by commercial growers, which in turn implement long and complex supply chains. The trend is inescapable and companies are managing and branding products to mainly urban consumers (Garrett, 2000).

However, due the great impact of environmental pollution – which directly links to industrial manufacturing in the world – consumers have become more willing to buy products perceived as environmentally friendly (Chen, 2009). This public demand now includes the fast food sector, one of the main segments of today’s urban society (Faulkner, 2011).

Because of their size and the enormous amount of resource consumption and waste, the fast food chains felt the need to change their behaviour and to comply with society’s environmental concerns (Weinberg and Parss, 2010). As a consequence, an increasing number of companies are positioning their brand identities based on environmentally friendly characteristics, functions, ingredients and benefits usually encoding their messages with the term or colour ‘green’ to communicate this new position (Pundit, 2010).

Yet the way in which consumers confront the ‘green’ concept varies from person to person. According to Gordon (2006) each individual creates his/her own belief, which is based on his/her daily encounters with green products, issues, brands and also the behaviour of others. Because the ambiguous nature of the green concept, what actually represents a green brand image to the consumer is somehow indefinite (Parker et al, 2007).

Ottman et al (2010) investigated the green concept from a managerial point of view and argued that over the last twenty years only a few green brands have managed to create a significant green value for consumers. This is because of green marketing myopia – the majority of the managers focusing on ‘greening’ their product instead of considering the broader expectations of their target audience (Ottman et al, 2006).

Although many studies have been conducted on green marketing, very few have focused on the concept of green branding in the fast food sector.

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This study wanted to fill a research gap and suggest a set of strategic tools for marketing managers that will help to improve appeal for green. Hence the research objective is as follows: RQ: How can green branding improve appeal for environmentally preferable product services in the fast food market?

1.2 The question in context The branding process is the way of thinking about how an organization aligns its goals and abilities with the demand of its stakeholders (Aaker, 1997). When a firm manages a brand in such a way that meets stakeholders demand and exceeds expectations in doing so, people benefit and a value is created (Keller, 2007).

At the moment there is very little doubt about the strategic importance of a well-defined identity for delivering brand value (Aaker, 2000, Kapferer, 1997). This research takes into account the Brand Identity System model by Aaker (1997) and considers its implications for improving green brand appeal to fast food brands.

A green brand identity is defined by “the set of brand attributes and benefits that relates to the reduced environmental impact of the brand and its perception as being environmentally sound” (Hartmann et al, 2006, p.10). However, previous studies on green marketing have revealed that in order for companies to deliver a consistent and appealing green value, brands need to satisfy consumers’ needs and interests beyond what is good for the environment (Grant, 2002).

Accordingly Ottman et al (2006) stressed that consumer’s motivations for adopting green products are stronger when the green benefits satisfy more than just the consumers’ “environmental care”. When green brands are positioned on the personal consumers values, then they are more likely to increase their appeal, especially those related to: efficiency and cost effectiveness; health and safety; performance; symbolism, status and convenience (Ottman et al, 2006).

The research has found similarities between the findings of Ottman et al (2006) with recent theories of brand appeal by Cramer and Koene (2010), which state that the degree by which a brand feels good, brand appeal, has to do with the fundamental human drives, the things people find important in life.

Cramer and Koene (2010) argued that besides being known and fulfill expectations; brands have to make a conscious choice of which drives they want to meet. The choice does not convey just one drive; the most appealing brands touch many drives, which do not always seem to fit logically. As a consequence of such a

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paradoxical mix of drives, brands with tension arise. The right tension contributes to a higher brand appeal (Cramer and Koene, 2010) A classic theory of branding such Aaker’s Identity System (1997) suggests four different perspectives for managers to caliber brand values to their consumers: a brand as a product, a brand as a company, a brand as a person and a brand as a symbol (Aaker, 2002). Pundit (2010) has analyzed those perspectives for the green concept and argued that, different perspectives are meant to deliver different benefits – managers need to choose those that better resonate with their customers.

The research is an exploratory and confirmatory study of the consumer’s main personal values and expectations of “green”, in relation to the fast food industry. A survey was developed in order to test different brand identity perspectives from the Aaker’s model against the principle of brand appeal revealed by Cramer and Koene. This would reveal the brand identity model with a higher green brand appeal on the target population and the influencing factors.

The survey was conducted online among a population of 112 students. It adopted the brand appeal measurement scale from the 23plusone scientific study and was customized for the purpose of the research. Although many are the factors that may influence brand appeal such as price perceptions, quality, social influences, availability (Ottman et al, 2006) this research will only takes into consideration factors such as brand positioning on the four different perspectives and consumers level of involvement. Consequently the research objectives are: 1. To explore the motivations for consumers to adopt preferable environmental brands in the fast food industry.

2. To measure green brand positioning effect on green brand appeal.

3. To derive new insights into the green branding concept for the fast food industry.

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2. LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1 Brand identity A brand identity is defined as the set of associations that brand managers aspire to create or maintain (Aaker, 1992, p.202). The main purpose of branding is to create those identities for the products and services that need to be sold and marketed in the market place (Kotler, 1998). A well-implemented green brand identity is believed to deliver benefits to mainly environmentally conscious consumers (Hartmann et al, 2006), but also to those who can recognize “green� as something significant (Gordon, 2006).

Chen (2007) argues that when people recognize those benefits as something that can be worth their while and they are induced to provide something in return, such as time, loyalty attention or money, then a relationship is created. However, in the words of Ottoman et al (2006) the real challenge for managers today, is to make those benefits being recognizable as something beneficial to the consumers.

2.2 The Brand identity System The research looked at the Brand Identity System by Aaker (1997) as a potential tool for managing the green value. Drawing from Aaker’s findings on brand identity management (1997), a brand value can be represented by functional, emotional, and self-expressive benefits. With the Brand Identity Planning Model (see Exhibit 1) brand strategists can consider different brand elements and patterns to enrich and increase depth for their identities (Aaker, 1997). As shown from the model below, the perspectives are: Band as a product, Brand as a company, Brand as a personality and Brand as a symbol.

Fig. 2.2: The Brand Identity System by Aaker (1997).

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2.2.1 The brand as a product The most visible and common benefits for a value proposition are usually functional product based (Aaker, 2002). These are meant to satisfy needs that have emerged as a consequence of a problem. The product – related associations are important to define a brand identity because they are linked directly to brand choice decisions.

They can offer functional and sometimes emotional benefits for the consumers and can create a value proposition by offering added value (for instance special features), or even just offering something better (Aaker, 1997). As stated by Hartmann et al (2006) this type of association is the most commonly used by green products, as they offer the additional feature of reduced impact on the environment.

An example of a brand that offers something extra is the Coleman Meats brand which claims to indicate that their beef is produced without antibiotics or growth hormones (Aaker, 1997), or for instance Virgin Airlines, which offers the limousine service to people purchasing a business class tickets (Kapferer, 2002).

Consumers usually perceive green functional benefits because the “environmental care” they experience when using the product (Rios et al, 2006).

However as recognized by Ottman et al (2006), also more personal benefits can be perceived by green product brand associations such as for instance “health” in the case of “organic food”.

Parker et al (2007) in the article “What it means to go green” has classified green product brand attributes “organic”, “biodegradable”, “natural” and “healthy”, “recyclable” as the most common used by brand managers for communicating “functional” types of green product brand benefits.

Rios et al (2006) has recognized various emotional benefits that derive from the consumption of green products/service, which brand managers should take into consideration when creating brand identities (Hartmann et al, 2006). More specifically he argued that green product brand association also deliver autoexpressive benefits obtained from their socially visible consumption.

2.2.3 The brand as an organization In this perspective the brand is set to deliver information and attributes of the organization rather than those of the product or service, for example, those such as innovation and concern for the environment that are created by the people, the culture, the values and the programs of the company (Aaker, 1997).

Organizational attributes can contribute to a value proposition by giving associations such as customer focus, environmental concern, and technological 10

commitment and can involve emotional and self-expressive benefits based on admiration and respect (Aaker, 1997).

Previous studies have revealed that the most successful green brands were in fact rather associated with alternative technology or with green corporate philosophy (Ottman et al, 2006). According to Parker et al (2007) when green brands are positioned by their organizational attributes, consumers perceive “experiential benefit” based on the satisfaction of contributing to the “social welfare”.

2.2.4 The brand as a person Looking at the following (Aaker, 1997, Keller, 2002, Kopfere, 2000, Dhār and Upadhyay, 2008), this identity perspective indicates the most powerful of the perspectives, it is more interesting than one based on product attributes. The most important feature of this perspective is that a brand personality can create a very strong brand in a multitude of ways.

For instance it can create self- expressive benefits that become a medium for the customers to express their personalities. The most classic of case is the example that can be attributed to the Apple brand, which has transformed the reality of computers and music, into a lifestyle (Ottman et al, 2006).

A brand personality is ‘purely the result of communications because there is rarely anything intrinsic to a brand that makes it lively or exotic or sophisticated’ (Keller, 2007). Hence, green brands can also be made to evolve to strong brand personalities and take on personality traits such as ‘young-looking’,’ ‘friendly,’ ‘selfesteemed,’ ‘caring,’ ‘responsible’ or even stand for ‘moral leadership” as suggested

by Dhār and Upadhyay (2008).

Another advantage for this perspective is that just as human personalities influence relationships between people, brand personality can also be fundamental for a relationship between the brand and the consumer (Keller, 2002).

2.2.5 The brand as a symbol The final perspective is indicated by the brand as a symbol. There are many academic studies that committed to analyze the symbolic usage of brands.

Meenaghan quoted Levy (1959) who captured the essence of symbolism when arguing, “people buy things not only for what they can do, but also for what they mean”.

Aaker (1997) argues that anything that represents a brand can be a symbol, including programs such as for example the Ronald McDonald House for McDonald’s or the McDonald golden arches. Barthes (1964) (quoted by Kirby et al, 2000) argues 11

that symbols have an enormous power, they are able to summaries an entire culture, religion and even a country.

According to Aaker (1997) a strong symbol can even be the foundation of a brand strategy. “A logo stands for the company and for the lifestyle that the company sells with the product” (Keller, 2002). Brand builders try to construct a symbol from the signs they use, usually a universal symbol so that when people look at the logo they will recognize immediately what it stands for (Kirby et al, 2000).

Green brands usually create a symbolic relationship with nature. Past communication campaign by Opel-GM, or BP have associated their brands with pleasant imagery of natural environments, with the scope of evoking natural experience as emotional brand benefits (Hartmann et al, 2006).

2.3 Brand image The set of benefits held about a particular brand is defined by Kotler (1998, p.197) as “the brand image”. Furthermore, Park et al (1986) argued that brand image covers functional benefits, experiential benefits and symbolic benefits. Based on the above definition Chen (2008), has defined a green brand image as “the set of perceptions of a brand in a consumer’s mind that is linked to environmental commitments and environmental concerns”.

When managers try to manage the brand image development process, then the focus is on those elements that can control and create the identity. As stressed

by Meenaghan (1995) “at the product /brand level the components of identity are in effect the elements of the marketing mix, with special attention to “advertising” believed as the most powerful tool for delivering brand image (Shiffman, 2008).

2.3.1 Consumer imagery According to the main texts on consumer behavior, all seem to agree that consumers have a number of enduring perceptions, or images that are relevant to the creation of brand identity. According to Shiffman et al (2008), brands and products signify something in the minds of consumers; they have a symbolic value for them, who in turn evaluate them on the basis of their consistency (congruence) with their personal image of themselves.

For example identity seekers may paradoxically establish their identity based on the fast food restaurant they go to, by thinking of themselves, as “Burger King type of people” or “Mac Donald type of people”, so it happens for computer users, when people say “I am Mac user” or “I am Pc user”.

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Consumers often attempt to preserve their self-image by purchase decision and patronizing services they believe are congruent with their self-image and avoiding those, which are not (Shiffman et al., 2008).

“ In order to be successful images and symbols must relate to, and indeed, exploit, the needs, values and lifestyle of consumers in such a way what the meanings involved give added values, and differentiate the brand from other brands” (Broadbent and Cooper, 1987, p.3).

2.3.2 Consumer imagery in food Accordingly Biltejkoff (2010), explained in his article on The paradoxes on Food and Health, that people’s value, beliefs and aspirations are significantly important in their eating habits. However more specifically, results from a motivational research on the eating habits among UK students (2010), have revealed that the only idea of “health” expresses fundamental cultural values and complex individual aspirations.

When students were asked to explain the reason for following a healthy diet, respondents included the following reasons: to live longer, to feel responsible, to feel sexy, to perform better at work, at doing sports etc.; meaning that for the students, “diary health is a means to achieving goals that have nothing to do with the biomedical health of the body” (Biltejkoff, 2010).

According to Beardsworth and Keil (quoted by Biltejkoff, 2010), “humans eat with the mind as much as the mouth” and are “immersed in the symbolic nuance of food”. Drawing from the paper by Bitejkoff (2010), this research found three main paradoxes with health and food that managers should take into consideration when creating green brand identities for a fast food brand: pleasure and health, technology and nature and innovation and nostalgia (see Fig 2.3.1).

Fig. 2.3.2 The paradoxical nature of consumer relationships with healthy foods.

(Biltekoff, 2010)

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2.4 Brand appeal Alexander Koene and Kim Cramer (2010) have investigated the science of brand appeal and discovered that paradoxical tensions such those proposed by Biltekoff (2010) are perceived by the p3eople as something desirable, when combining an ”interesting” set of human drives. Cramer and Koene had developed a measurement scale for measuring the factors influencing appeal and with a team of designers, advertising experts and psychologists they have designed a set of 24visual-verbal stimuli that represent the drive domain: the world of human emotions, motivations and aspirations (see Exhibit 2).

When a brand triggers an interesting tension provided by the combination of two or more of those drivers, consumers experience a level of well-being and happiness, influencing significantly the brand preference. Additionally, this feeling works as heuristic, which in busy and time-limited situations can make the choice easier and better (Cramer and Koene, 2010). This was defined as brand appeal. The graph below shows the main elements of BAP: BAW (brand awareness), BEX (brand expectations), 23plusone identity.

Fig. 2.4: Brand Appeal elements

Cramer and Koene (2010)

In their studies, Cramer and Koene (2010) suggests brand strategists to make a conscious choice to which fundamental human drives their branding activities will have to target. Though as stated in the article Brand Positioning: create brand appeal (2010) the choice does not have to be limited on a “central” drive but on a combination of drives. More specifically they argued that a “tension” between category-generic and brand-specific drives is highly desirable.

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“Brands that trigger drives deviating from category conformity increase in brand appeal” (Cramer and Koene, 2010). This has to do mainly with the findings from Ries and Trout, founders of strategic positioning (1969): a brand is successful when the brand entered first a specific category; then creating a new category, one that is not expected by its customers, is believed to lead to the same brand success. According to Cramer and Koene (2010, p.6) “The challenge for creating higher brand appeal is to identify those mix of drivers and activating them into consumers mind through a set of branding activities.

1.4 Brand positioning Brand positioning is considered as a key tool for brand identity implementation in highly competitive markets (Aaker, 1997). Since the invention of positioning as a strategic discipline, rational thinking has been the main element for defining a brand and emotions considered at the edge of the process, simply identified as the brand values (Cramer and Koene, 2011).

Especially in green marketing programmes, practitioners have often emphasized the efficiency of cognitive persuasion strategy in their green communication campaign, supposing the consumer’s high-involvement concerning environmental issues derived by the growing environmental consciousness (Hartmann et al, 2005).

In fact the consumer’s level of involvement with a product, situation or action influences their perception on product relevancy to the self, as discussed by Celsi and Olson (1988, p.211) “… a consumer’s level of involvement with an object, situation or action is determined by the degree to which she perceives that concept to be personally relevant… and the personal relevance of a product is represented by the perceived linkage between an individual’s needs, goals and value and their product knowledge”.

Although as stressed by Rizer (2011) fast food consumption is usually indicated as a form of low involvement type of activity, to Hartman et al (2006) also argued that when coming to green than involvement may differ depending on the level of greenness of a certain individual.

Shiffman et al (2008) argued that types of advertising based on value expressive (images) or symbolic appeals have a greater effect on those activities considered as low involvement, however advertising based on utilitarian (functional) appeals, have greater effect on those that feel participating in high involvement activities.

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The image strategy involves creating a “personality� for the product, or building an image of the product user (Meenaghan, 1995). On the other hand the utilitarian appeal involves providing information with regard to the product benefits that are perceived as functional and important to the consumers (Shiffman et al, 2008).

Peter Cooper and John Pawle in their beta-test for Lovemarks (2006), argued that in the food market emotions account for 75% of the brand–person relationship, so as stressed by Gordon (2006) green brands need greater personality if they want to compete with the other mainstream brands.

Although it is believed that decision-making about brands strongly depends on functional benefits, it all comes down to one question in the end: how will this make me feel? Cramer and Koene (2010) argues that it is not just about what the brand represents, but managers need to assess what is internalized as a desired feeling linked to the brand.

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3. METHODOLOGY 3.1 Research philosophy According to Saunders et al (2007, p105) in order to underline the research strategy and the methods to use for the strategy, it is important to comprehend the research philosophy one adopts. Among the research philosophy, the author chose interpretivism, as it suggests that is essential for the researcher to understand the differences between humans in our roles as “social actors”.

This underlines the differences between conducting the research among people instead of objects. The role of social actor is very important here, where people interpret the social role of others in accordance with our own set of meanings.

The researcher believes that interpretivism is more suitable than positivism philosophy as appeal for a certain brand changes depending on the inside values and changes from country to country. In addition to it interpretivism also tries to explain the why behind humans behave in certain ways.

3.2 Research approach This research will start with collecting data first and then theories will be developed based ion the results of the data analysis. Furthermore this study is more concerned with the context in which the events are taking place, with a major interest in understanding why something is happening, rather than being able to explain what is happening (Saunders et al, 2007).

For all these reasons the researchers adopted an inductive approach rather than deductive. According to Saunders et al (2007), deductive is more suitable for scientific studies and involves the development of a theory that is subject to a rigorous test.

3.3 The purpose of the research Saunders et al (2007) argues “exploratory studies an available means of finding out what is happening, to see new insights, to ask questions and to assess phenomena in a new light” (p.132). The explanatory research focus instead on the study of a problem, situation through explaining the relationship between variables.

In line with the main objective of exploring and testing of the dimension of green branding position and its effects on brand appeal, the study is an exploratory and explanatory research.

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3.4 The research strategy According to Saunders a survey strategy allows the researcher to collect quantitative data, which can be analyzed using descriptive and inferential statistics.

In addition data collected can be used to suggest possible reasons for relationship between variables and to produce models of this relationship. Brand appeal is a result of different variables that combined together makes people to feel good about something. For the purpose of this research then the author decided to adopt a survey strategy. In order to understand the relationship among the various factors influencing green and appeal, the author has created a new research framework called the Green Brand Appeal Survey (GBAS).

3.5 Data collection and analysis procedure The research strategy adopted a mixed-methods approach, as this will allow triangulation (Saunders et al, 2009). Triangulation is defined as the use of two or more independent sources of data or data collection methods in one study, this will help to ensure that “data are telling me what I believe are telling me” (Saunders et al, 2007). For example focus groups maybe a valuable method for triangulation data collected by questionnaires.

However, sometimes-qualitative results are speculative and usually not generalizable for a larger population. Saunders et al (2007) is in favour of conducting qualitative surveys an attempt to evaluate whether the opinion and views of the respondents in the focus group are representative for a larger population. The research has taken these findings into consideration and decided to carry out a focus group first and then use the results to adapt and formulate questions for a larger survey.

3.6 Sample selection This research follows the case stressed by Saunders et al (2007): “the probability of each case being selected from the population is not known and it is impossible to answer the research question or to address objectives require that the author makes statistical inferences about characteristics of population” (p.221). As suggested by Saunders et al (2007) studies in this category need to apply a non – probability or judgmental sampling techniques.

Although the author will be still be able to generalize from such procedures, probably not on statistical grounds. Therefore the researcher has chosen a nonprobability sampling techniques, which it will also allow the author to select and sample purposively (Saunders et al, 2009).

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The sample chosen for the focus group were undergraduate students from the University of Westminster in London (UK). Two out of four were British citizens and the rest international students, however living in the UK for more than 3 years.

Although it is acknowledged that the use of students in marketing research is controversial (Hartmann et al, 2006), students are also one of the core target markets of the UK fast food sector, more specifically 17-25 years old (Pundit, 2009), so a convenience sample of students can be justified for this exploratory study.

Furthermore according to Kraus (1995), cited by Hartmann et al (2006), “a students sample is more homogeneous than non-students, hence resulting in less “extraneous variation”.

The questionnaires were sent online to approximately 200 British email addresses that the author obtained from the University of Westminster portal, University of Keele, University of Manchester and University of Liverpool, through a subscription to their mailing list. Therefore the questionnaire was sent to the people in the UK. 3.7 Data collection This study has used primary and secondary data sources. The literature review was written based on the collection of secondary data. Then primary data was gathered through the use of focus groups and then the construction of a research framework (GBAS) based on the literature and the focus groups has allowed the research to quantitatively validate the results and to respond to the research question. Secondary data include Journals, database such as Mintel, Emerald and books, periodicals from the University of Westminster library.

3.7.1 Focus group In designing the questions for the focus group, the author had three main objectives in mind: to identify what is the perceived green value for the student, which will help to identify the motivations that would lead students to go for a green fast food (research objective 1); to design a students expectation profile with a green fast food, which according to brand appeal theories of Cramer and Koene (2010), it will help to measure the brand appeal, hence to respond research objective 2 and also to identify the perceptions of green advertising on students, which would help the author to answer objective 3.

The first part of the focus group was related to exploring students’ perceptions of the green value, through open questions, while the second part was designed to interpret perceptions and feelings through visual stimuli.

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Here the author has asked students to brainstorm visual stimuli that after the author needed to include them into the online questionnaire (see Exhibit 2). The images were taken from the 23plusone scientific study on brand appeal (Cramer and Koene, 2010), and students in the focus group were asked to select those that they thought would fit an environmentally friendly fast food the best and discuss their choices. The focus group took place in the University of Westminster, consisting of four participants. Participants were picked at random from the library and asked to participate through a consent form (see Exhibit 3).

3.7.2 Questionnaire design In line with the main objective of exploring and measuring the green brand appeal generated by different green brand identities, the questionnaire was divided into three main sections. The first part of the questionnaire allowed the author to identify the respondents profile in terms of three main characteristics:

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Target population personal values in life (Q.2)

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Population’s level of “greenness” (Q.3)

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Population’s expectations for an environmentally preferable fast food restaurant (Q.4)

The second part of the questionnaire was dedicated on the perceptional responses from three different advertisements, while the third part only gathered additional demographic information about the population. In order to identify the students profile the survey made use of the drivograms, a set of 24 visual and verbal stimuli, that have been recognized in the 23plusoen scientific study by Cramer and Koene (2010) as indicating the 24 human drives “the things we find important in life” (2010).

Students were asked to select the five most important things in their life at that moment in time based on those drivograms. The five with the highest score, were considered as the population best five personal values. In order to identify the level of “greenness” respondents had to score from 1 = “strongly disagree” to 7 = “strongly agree” to six main statements, all taken from the Green Consumer Values measurement scale suggested by Haws et al (2010). The average from the six answers were considered as the level of greenness for the whole population.

In question 4 the student expectations for a green fast food brand were also assessed through the drivograms. This time only 12, those that were previously selected and discussed in the focus group, as being representative for a green fast food sector. This has helped the author to generate a faster assessment of the 20

adverts, and to focus on those variables that were already meant to be associated to green according to the focus group and the findings of Ottman et al (2006) in the literature.

The second part of the questionnaire consisted of showing students three different adverts each recognized by the author as representatives for three different green brand positions. At this point students were asked to score on a five point scale 1 = “neutral” - 5 = “fits very well” how strongly they would associate the brand with a set of 12 drivograms already, the same used to assess the expectations (see Exhibit 13).

Although brand positioning involves the whole marketing mix, consumers can often develop brand perceptions and appeal mainly or even exclusively through advertising exposure (Cramer and Koene, 2010). The advert with the highest score deriving from the assessment of the brand appeal criteria (Cramer and Koene, 2010) was considered the highest in green brand appeal. The different level of green appeal generated by the adverts showed the effect of the different brand position on brand appeal (see Exhibit 14).

The author has identified AD1 (see Exhibit 7 – 8), as a suitable visual stimulus for representing a green brand position based on a product-brand identity with functional green attributes, recognized by its product green attributes such “free range” and “organic” communicated in the copy. In fact the product-brand perspective tends to highlight the special features of the product as explained in the literature by Aaker (see contents 2.2.2).

The AD2 was recognized by the author to be representative for a green brand position based on an organization-brand perspective identity. In fact brand attributes that communicate the companies programs and values such as “improving the environment sustainability of our business”…”we support people development” (see Exhibit 9 – 10), are those believed by Aaker (2002) to represent an organizational brand identity perspective (see contents 2.2.3).

The significant cues that helped the author to link the AD3 with the personality/symbolic brand perspective were given by the change in colour of the company’s logo from the traditional red to the green colour and by the use of wide of imagery (see Exhibit 11 – 12). Based on the literature findings, symbolic benefits can also derive from the strategic management of the logo (see contents 2.2.4/2.2.5).

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3.7.3 Development of a scoring system.

In order for the researcher to measure the effect of positioning on brand appeal, a scoring system was developed based on the theories of Cramer and Koene (2010). Therefore the following criteria were followed: 1. The better a brand touches the 12 green human drives the higher the brand appeal (tot score of the 12 green human drives) 2. The better a brand simultaneously triggers all the 12 green human drives the higher is the green brand appeal (tot number of the12 green human drives that scored over “neutral”) 3. The brand, which trigger ‘unexpected’, drives from category conformity, increases in brand appeal (tot number of drivers that scored over “neutral”, different from those selected in the question 4 as the five which would better fit an environmentally preferable fast food).

3.7.4 Green Brand Appeal Measurement plan.

• 23plusone students profile – the five most important values in life • 12plusone category profile (green brand expectations in the fast food category) – five most important.

• 12plusone profile for AD1 • 12plusone profile for AD2 • 12plusone profile for AD3 • TOT score of all the human drives • TOT number of matches between the adverts and the student value individually • TOT score of the unexpected drives, deviating from the green fast food category • TOT score of the drives touched simultaneously

According to Peter Cooper and John Pawle Beta as can be seen from their test of Lovemarks (2006), computer self-completion interviewing gives the great advantage that without the presence of an interviewer, respondents feel more honest and willing to explore sensitive issues.

To design the questionnaire the researcher used the online survey website ‘keysurvey.com’. Data from the survey was collected automatically. The author made use of a pilot test before sending the survey to a larger population. Also rotation for all the visuals in the advert were set in the survey design as suggested by Bradley (2010) to avoid order bias.

Furthermore the researcher decided to provide each position with two different adverts so to reduce the risk of measuring appeal deriving from the graphics and colour. For this reason the survey was split into two main groups and results merged together only in the end.

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4. RESULTS AND ANALYSIS In this section all the main results will be reported from the questionnaire and the focus group. The results will be analysed and revealed through Spss software in form of crosstabs or simply descriptive statistics through Excel tables and charts.

4.1 Results from the focus group As explained in the methodology chapter, the focus group was conducted to achieve three main objectives: perceived students green values, student’s expectations of a green fast food and attitudes towards green advertising.

4.1.1 Consumers perceived green value Participants were found very prepared on regard to the concept of green and quite confident when talking about it, suggesting the wide concern about green in general. The green value was identified mostly as something positive and mainly associated with attributes related to the environment, to health, to the Innovation and technology, but also social and self-expressive benefits.

Most of the associations with the green concept were given to “recycling”, “going green for the planet”, “organic”, “animal welfare”, “fare trade” and respondents have also identified a more holistic trait for the concept green, saying that it is more than just business related “…green products have a meaning for giving something back to the Earth…it’s all a cycle”.

The green values has been categorized also as something to do with status, “sometimes is considered luxury…”. When participant were asked to state brands that were believed to be green, Apple, Ikea and Body Shop were mentioned. Apple was associated with green for being “forward thinking” and “innovative”, Ikea with being “Swedish” and “environmentally friendly” The Body Shop with its pesticide free ingredients and its for innate “green culture”.

4.1.2 Consumers perception and expectations Expectations about a green fast food restaurant were defined as being a pleasurable experience (Play and Fun), serving healthy food (Health and Nutrition), providing a sense of affiliation (Connected together), being good for the society (Loyal and Moral), being trendy and doing things differently (Individualism and Uniqueness), being innovative (Achievement and Innovation), being relaxing (Relax and Carefree), and seeking good ideals (Idealism). Controversially when discussed

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the green perceptions for fast food in the first section of the focus group, participants have shown certain reluctance for the green concept in relation to fast food.

One of the participants had previously been in one and experienced it as something for elders, “just for vegetarian” and therefore out of his appeal “it was really good, but it’s not the same as going to the Burger King man...it’ was boring…“.

Some participants have stated to worrying about health when going to a fast food, as something that would affect their purchase; “ I usually get the Tropicana with the menu instead of the Coke…. Coke is much worst than the burgers”, some they just say that fast food is not really about health “I’d rather go to a vegetarian place, fast food is not really about health.”

4.1.3 Consumers attitude towards green advertising.

The participants have shown some skepticism about green advertising “I think they are too pushy sometimes; they want to say they are green for everything” however when asked if they remembered any past green adverts, their attitudes were positive if they liked the advert “I liked the Heineken campaign about the recycling, where all the pictures where from the fifties.”; “ Prius, Toyota Prius, that was cool”.

4.2 Result from the questionnaire The target population that took part at this survey consisted of 112 UK university students. From the total respondents 58% were women and 41% men.

The majority of the respondents were between the age sectors 18 – 24 (57%), whilst 39% belonged to the age range 25-34.

Fig. 4.2: screening question

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4.2.1 Population personal values in life In order to define the respondents profile in terms of personal values, then students were asked to select the five most important things in their life, represented by 24 visual images (the drivograms). The chart below represents the list of the responses from the questionnaire.

Fig. 4.2.1: question 2

The highest percentage of people has scored Health and Nutrition (29% of the tot population) as one of the most important things in their life, followed by Achievement and Innovation (28.13%), Relaxed and Carefree, Play and Fun and Sex and Passion, respectively 28%, 27%, 25%.

4.2.2 Expectations towards a “green� fast food In order to idenitfy those unexpected drives that are likely to increase appeal for a green brand then the author asked the students for the expected values they would attrbiute to a green fast food and so designed a student green fast food expectation profile. This also gave an overview of the perceptions of a green fast food in general.

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Fig. 4.2.2: question 4

As can be seen from the graph, the majority of the respondents think Health and Nutrition would fit a fast food positioned as green; 60% of the respondents felt that a green fast food would deliver values such as a better world and idealism. 44% of the respondents felt that a green fast food would deliver safety feelings and order, while being innovative and using new technology. Also a sense of affiliation (Connected together and Warm and caring 40%) The least expected drivers were play and fun, relaxed and carefree, uniqueness and materialism (possess and collect). Surprisingly Loyal and Moral was only considered by 39% of the respondents.

4.2.3 Population level of “greenness” In order to identify the green students profile, the green measurement scale was included in the questionnaire. For a better representation of the findings the author has labeled the responses as low – medium – high. Tot score of each student in relation to the six questions was categorized as low if the average score was below 33%, as medium if the average was in between 33% and 66%, and as high for those scoring over 66%.

As shown by the graph below the highest percentage is represented by high green consumers, which represent 49% of the students’ responses. 39.3% were categorized as having a medium green profile, while only 11% a low green profile.

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Fig. 4.2.3: analysis question 3

A deeper analysis on the population level of greenness has identified that the majority of the population had stronger green values related to the statement in q4 “I am concerned about wasting the resources of the planet� (64%) (see Fig.4). The second most relevant green value is given by the product usage and their effect on the environment (57%), whilst the least sensitive green value considered by the population has been the commitment on green purchases in relation to their shopping habits.

Fig.4.2.3: analysis question 3

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4.2.4 AD1 profile The graph below is the representation of the AD1 perspective profile. On the right side the four drivers that received the highest score by this identity perspective were highlighted. From the highest to the lowest, Health and Nutrition (12%), Idealism (11%), Loyal and Moral (10%) and Safe and Secure (9%).

Fig. 4.2.4: question 4

4.2.5 AD2 profile AD2 represented the position based on the organization – brand perspective.

As can be seen from the responses, the drivograms triggered by this position relates for the majority on Achievement and Innovation (12%), Idealism (11%) and Individualism and Loyal and Moral (9%).

Fig. 4.2.5 question 5

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4.2.6 AD3 profile Students’ perceptions with regard to the position based on a personality symbolic identity perspective originated the highest score for human drivers Individualism and Uniqueness, together with Play and Fun (12%), Connected Together and Relaxed and Carefree (10%).

Fig. 4.2.6: question 6

4.3 Questionnaire analysis According to the table below, 20% of the population perceived higher brand appeal from the position based on the product - brand perspective (AD1), while 36% received higher appeal from AD2 and the majority of the target population, about 43% were found by this research to be more likely to perceive a higher green brand appeal by AD3.

Fig. 4.3: brand appeal analysis

The results have shown that green brand position based on the three different identities perspectives have different effect on the green brand appeal. A green brand positioned by its product - brand identity perspective has lower green brand appeal than a green brand positioned by its organizational or symbolic perspective.

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Fig. 4.3.1 Brand appeal analysis

As can be seen from the graph above, the brand perspective that generated the highest green brand appeal on the target population was the personality green brand perspective, with 5177 business points followed by the Organizational perspective that scored 4932.

4.3.1 Further analysis and discussions Fig. 4.3.1: analysis brand appeal for AD1

AD1 brand position based mainly on green product attributes such being “organic” and offering “free range eggs” (see exhibit 21), has triggered mainly feelings related to health and nutrition with a score of 500 business points. As it can be seen from the top five scores, Health also matched with the students most important values in life, but missed to score in those drivograms that would have represented the “unexpected factor”.

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4.3.2 Brand appeal analysis AD2 Fig. 4.3.2: analysis brand appeal for AD2

As can be seen from the graph above, the AD2 positioned, which was based mainly on organizational brand type of associations, thus attributes such as Innovation and Concern for the environment, the culture and values and the programs of the company, have scored the highest for Achievement and Innovation with a score of 603 business point. However the mix of the other drivers has kept this position as the second most appealing among the total population, after AD3.

4.3.3 Brand appeal analysis AD3 Fig. 4.3.3: brand appeal analysis for AD3

As can be seen from the graph above, the AD3 has triggered the most appealing profile in general. The human driver that was triggered by this perspective the most was Individualism, with appeal score of 596 business point just a few points less of the Achievement and Innovation from AD2. Even though Individualism was not part of the population’s main important personal values in life, it scored high in appeal because perceived as highly unexpected. Also Play and Fun, had a significant role in this perspective, because was highly unexpected and 31

also part of the population personal value, two of the most important criteria for increasing in brand appeal.

4.3.4 Brand position versus level of greenness Following the theories of involvement derived from the literature, the author wanted to analyze a possible relationship between level of greenness and brand appeal generated by the three different positions. Does appeal for a certain brand position change depending on the student’s level of greenness? The researcher has not found a statistical relationship between the variables, however interesting associations were found.

Fig. 4.3.4: brand appeal analysis for AD3

As can be seen from the table the majority of the students that felt in the low greenness category are more likely to feel attracted by the AD3, however because the sample for low green consumers is too small, this analysis only takes into account the students with medium and high level of greenness. From the results, it can be seen that among those who have scored medium green, the majority of them have also scored higher appeal for AD2. On the other hand the students that have highest green values, have scored higher for AD3.

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5. DISCUSSION Results from the last analysis on brand position versus level of greenness were the most unexpected from the whole study. According to the findings from the literature regarding theories of involvement, consumers with a stronger green value were found being more attracted by the perspectives AD1 and AD2, which have adopted a more utilitarian type of advertising appeal.

The assumption was made considering the conventional beliefs held by green marketers where consumers with strong green values, usually face high involvement type of activities when considering green purchases. Because high involvement purchases are more sensitive to advertising with utilitarian appeals, then the research wanted to test the validity of these findings to see if green is considered as high involvement within the fast food market or not.

This research rejected those assumptions because there was not such a match in the results and approves on Coopers findings in relation to the strong emotional relationship that people have with food. Drawing from the findings, AD3 profile was identified as the perspective with the best full-drive profile among the other three proposed in the survey, leading the research to assume that green brands based on a Symbolic and Personality Green Identity have greater appeal on the target population.

As stressed by Cramer and Koene (2010), when managers develop brands they need to make a conscious choice when targeting the human drives, however “the choice does not have to be limited on a “central” drive but on a combination of drives”, “...a brand with a full drive profile is more appealing than a brand with a single focus on one drive” (see chapter 2.4).

In fact even though the human drive with the highest score among all adverts was Achievement and Innovation with 603-business point triggered by the AD2, the most interesting mix was triggered by the AD3 profile, thanks to the highest combination score of drivers such Individualism, Play and Fun, Connected together, Relax and Carefree and Idealism.

So combining the findings from the focus group and looking at the most appealing human drivers that emerged from the survey, it can be argued that green appeal is more of a social concept than something related to the green characteristics of food, such being organic and using free range eggs. Although the green attributes found in the adverts are not representative for all the other attributes that can be related to a product – brand identity perspective, the literature have found

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that those communicated in the adverts are the most common functional product related attributes that are associated with the green food, such to be considered by the researcher as representative of that brand identity.

If looking at each individual human drivers score, then this research has also identified the most appealing motivations for adopting environmentally preferable product service in the fast food market. The highest score was for Achievement and Innovation, meaning that students are more willing to increase their appeal for green when a fast food brand make them feel as they are achieving something in their life.

As stressed by Rios et al (2007), in his study on the green brand benefits, consumers perceive green experiential benefits contributing to the satisfaction for achieving “social welfare”. Furthermore according the paradoxical nature of consumer relationships with healthy food suggested in the literature by Biltekoff (2010) consumers seek solutions to a health problem through technology innovation, or seek technological innovation that promotes health, meaning that other main motivations for students to adopt green products in the fast food are probably related to Health and Nutrition, as confirmed in their students most important things in life profile (Q2), in which the health drivers scored as the highest.

Technology and Innovation is therefore an important driver that must be used by managers to associate with green brand identities in order to make consumers choices for green in the fast food industry, easier and better (consequence of high brand appeal, Cramer and Koene, 2010). Furthermore the driver with the second highest score was Individualism, which suggests that students are likely to feel in tune with a green fast food, when it makes them feel they are doing something unique and special.

Green brands are more likely to appeal to students when associated with attributes that make them feel different and unique and allow them to express their personality. As stated in the literature by Rios et al (2006) usually green identity seekers feel satisfied when they meet expressive green benefits that match their needs for being “cool” and “trendy”. So when consumers feel cool and trendy when using the brand or by being exposed to the brand, appeal is higher.

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6. CONCLUSION: IMPLICATIONS FOR MANAGERS This research intended contributing to the understanding of factors influencing green brand appeal for the fast food sector and suggested a set of desirable brand associations with ‘green’ that managers can use for creating and communicating green brand identities with a greater appeal to their audience.

In relation to the first objective, the research has found that consumers tend to adopt preferable environmental products in the fast food market, because of the health benefits they perceive from using green products, where green was associated with the functional attributes such as “free range” and “organic”.

Other main motivation for adopting green products in the fast food market also derive from the personal satisfaction of contributing to social welfare, often perceived by consumers when acknowledging the organization values and programmes in relation to the technology and innovation (Parker et al, 2007). Furthermore motivations for buying green also derive from the symbolic green benefits delivered by a green brand, where ‘green’ is perceived as something unique and a means for self-expression.

However the main desirable benefit that would increase appeal for an environmentally preferable product service in the fast food market was been identified by the sense of Achievement and Innovation that consumers perceive from a green brand. Hence managers need to associate their green brands with Innovation and Technology if they want to make their green brands more appealing to their target audience.

Green fast food restaurants should use the latest technology and deliver innovative ideas if they want to capture a largest segment of the market, also because in some cases, technology can also be representative of healthy products, as suggested by the finding from Biltekoff (2010) on The paradox of food and health.

On the other hand in relation to the second objectives, results have found that a green brand using a perspective that is entirely focused on the organizational value and its characteristics, may lack of personality and uniqueness, important factors for influencing the brand appeal on the target population. In fact the perspective that scored the highest in the online green brand appeal survey was the personality one.

Results from the test of the three perspectives have shown that a wellimplemented green brand identity based on symbolic and personality green brand attributes and benefits lead to higher green brand appeal than organizational and product brand identity perspectives.

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However recommendations for managers should be to use more than one perspective at once, eventually merging the organizational and personality or symbolic perspective to give consumers a mix of motivations, which according to Cramer and Koene theories of brand appeal (2010) is likely to provoke a desirable tension and therefore even higher green appeal.

There was a not statistical relationship between the level of greenness of the population and the perception of brand appeal generated by the different position.

However population preference for the symbolic perspective suggests that consumers going for a green fast food are facing a low involvement type of purchase and therefore ready for persuasive techniques and perspectives that goes further than just stating the functionality of green attributes.

According to the findings in this research ‘green’ is ready to embrace a more symbolic and personality perspective, at least within the fast food segment. Avoiding green marketing myopia in the fast food market, means marketers need to consider green as something more social rather than functional. Mangers need to consider how people want to feel when going green and target the motivations, needs and aspirations of those people outside the green sphere.

People going for a green fast food do not want to feel like ordinary people, they like to feel unique and special. They do not want to be in a place that it only represents health conscious people or vegetarian, green is much more than that.

People going for a green fast food want to identify themselves as being cool and trendy, innovative and want a place that makes them feel relaxed and happy.

Focusing exclusively on the health functional attributes may lead to green marketing myopia. When targeting consumers with strong green values then such as the case of the target population in the survey, marketers need to focus on the ‘unexpected factor’ if they want to make green to spark. Green marketing managers need to focus on the personal values of their target audience as suggested by Ottman et al (2006).

6.1 Limitations Although the research was carefully prepared, there are certain limitations that need to be taken into account. This paper was an attempt for the author to develop a new green branding concept and to break through the abstract and indefinite concept of “green”. The green brand appeal was only measured against factors such as positioning and level of involvement, other factors that influence appeal such as price perceptions, availability, and also awareness of the brand taken into analysis, were not assessed.

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The perceptions and the attitudes of the McDonald brand held by consumers before the test may have influenced the validity of the results, also the graphics used by the advertisements may have influenced the score of the drivograms, where students may have assessed their preferences depending on the advert design, instead of the perceptions of the green value derived by the position.

The online survey was distributed to people in different parts of the UK to ensure a high response, however the conditions in which the respondents have conducted the survey were unknown, so external factors could not be isolated.

However the research had to accept this main limitation because of time restrictions and a low level of respondents given the long execution for the students to the survey, perceived when pilot testing.

The sample was UK students so the results are nevertheless indicative for the responses of the target population. Response rate was low. Another major limitation was given by the fact that the advertisements were not using all the same persuasive technique; AD1 and AD2 adopted a more utilitarian type of appeal whereas AD3 a symbolic image appeal. However the persuasive techniques are usually chosen in relation to the different brand perspectives.

Often product brand identity perspectives use utilitarian appeal to inform their audience about the functional benefits of the product, as in the case of the AD1 in the current study. Assessing the green appeal when the three identity perspectives are communicated by the same persuasive technique, would overweight the concept of this limitation.

Further research could emerge from this limitation. Would a green brand positioned on the symbolic/personality - product identity perspective still generate higher appeal than the other two perspectives – if adverts were using all the same persuasive technique? Would a green brand based on a product brand perspective deliver higher brand appeal if using transformational advertising when communicating their green benefits?

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7. REFERENCES Bibliography Aaker, D. et al. (2006). Marketing research. 9th edition. (USA): John Wiley & Sons Aaker, D (2002). Building strong brand. (UK): Simon & Shuster Bearden, W. et al (2010). Marketing Scales. Multi – Item Measures for Marketing and Consumer Behavior Research. 3rd edition. (USA): Sage Bradley, N. (2010). Marketing research. Tools and techniques. 2nd edition. (USA) Oxford University Press.

Charter, M., Polonsky, J. (1999). Greener Marketing. Sheffield (UK): Greenleaf Publishing Limited.

Kapferer, J. (2005). The new strategic brand management. Creating and sustaining brand equity long term. 4th edition Bodmin (UK): MPG Books Ltd. Kotler, P., (2000). Marketing Management Millennium Edition, 10th ed. [online] New Jersey: Prentice-Hall. Available from: top-pdf.com. <http://top-pdf.com> [Accessed 15th November 2010].

Ritzer, G. (2001). Explorations in the Sociology of Consumption. Fast food, Credit Cards and Casino. London (UK): Sage Publication.

Roberts, K. (2006). The lovemarks effect: winning in the consumer revolution.

(UK): PowerHouse Books.

Saunders, M. et al. (2009). Research methods for business students. 5th edition.

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Shiffman, G. et al (2008). Consumer behavior. A European outlook. Edinburgh Gate (UK): Pearson Education Limited.

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E-journal article accessed via a full text database Biltekoff, C. (2010) Consumer response: the paradoxes of food and health. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences. 22 (1), 174-178. [online] Available from: Emerald Management Extra <www.emeraldinsight.com> [Accesses 14th of March] Chang, N. and Fong, C. (2010). Green product quality, green corporate image, green customer satisfaction, and green customer loyalty. African Journal of Business Management. 4 (13), 2836-2844. [online] Available from: <www.academicjournals.org> [Accessed 18th of January] Chen, S. (2010) The Drivers of Green Brand Equity: Green Brand Image, Green Satisfaction, and Green Trust. Journal of Business Ethics. 93 (2), 307-319. [online] Available from: Emerald Management Extra <www.emeraldinsight.com> [Accesses 14th of March] Hartmann, P et al. (2005) Green branding effects on attitude: functional versus emotional positioning strategies. Marketing Intelligence and planning 23. (1), 9-29. [online] Available from: Emerald Management Extra <www.emeraldinsight.com> [Accesses 14th of March] Hartmann P. and Ibanez, V. (2009) Green advertising revisited â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Conditioning virtual nature experiences. International Journal of Advertising. 28 (4), 715-739. [online].

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Meenghan, T. (1995) The role of advertising in brand image development. Journal of Product & Brand Management. 4 (4), 23-34. [online] Available from: Emerald Extra <emeraldinsight.com> [Accessed 18th November 2010] Peattie, A. and Crane, A. (2005) Green marketing: legend, myth, farces or prophesy?

8 (4), 357-370. [online] Available from: Emerald Management Extra <www.emeraldinsight.com> [Accesses 17th of January] Sirgy, J.M. and Lee, D., (1996). Setting social responsible marketing objectives. A quality-of-life approach. European Journal of Marketing. 30 (5), 20-34. [online] Available from: Emerald Extra <emeraldinsight.com> [Accessed 18th November 2010] Sillanpää, M., (1998). The Body Shop Values. Report – Towards Integrated Stakeholder Auditing. Journal of Business Ethics 17 (3), 1443-1456. [online] Available from: Springer Link <www.springerlink.com> [Accessed 27th February] E-journal article accessed via website on the open Internet Bee, P., (2005) It's not what you do, it's what you wear. [online] Guardian.co.uk Available from: <http://www.guardian.co.uk/sport/2008/feb/19/thegear.petabee#history-link-box> [Accessed 25th November 2010].

Cramer, K. and Koene, A. (2011) Brand positioning: Create brand appeal. [online] Available from: <http://www.brnd.com/Brand_positioning_Create_brand_appeal.pdf> [Accesses 14th of March] Cramer, K. and Koene, A. (2010). 23plusone. A scientific study of brand appeal. [online] Available from: <http://issuu.com/br-nd/docs/23plusone> [Accesses 14th of March] Faulkner, Z. (2010) Can Fast-Food Companies Really Go Green? [online] Available from: <http://www.divinecaroline.com/22355/71998-fast-food-companies-really-gogreen/print> [Accessed 28th of March]

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Gordon, W. (2002) brand green: mainstream or forever niche? [online] Available from: <http://www.greenlliance.org.uk/uploadedFiles/Publications/BrandGreen.pdf> [Accessed 18th of January] Kotler et al., (2005) The marketing Audit Comes of Age [online] Cambridge: Hamilton Consultant Available from: <http://www.hamiltonco.com/features/hampub/SMR.html> [Accessed 18th November] Miller, C. et al (2011). Catching brand butterflies with reaction times. A new method to measure brand appeal. [online] Available from: <http://issuu.com/alexanderkoene/docs/artikel_reactietijdentaak> [Accesses 14th of March] Ottman, A. et all (2006) Avoiding Green marketing myopia: ways to improve appeal for environmentally preferable products. 48 (5), 22-36. [online] Available from: <www.greenmarketing.com> [Accessed 18th of January] Parker, B. et al (2005). What it means to go green: consumer perceptions of green brands and dimensions of â&#x20AC;&#x153;greennessâ&#x20AC;?. Proceedings of the Conference of the American Academy of Advertising [online] Available from: <www.aaasite.org> [Accessed 18th of January] Parrs C., Weinberg, I., (2010) The Why Before You Buy. [online] Available from: <http://www.fastcompany.com/blog/alissa-walker/designerati/top-ten-worst-greenbrand-names> [Accessed 18th of January] Pundit, T. (2010) ENN: Environmental News Network -- Know Your Environment. [online] Available from: <http://www.enn.com/top_stories/article/40185/print> [Accessed 20th of April]

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8. APPENDIX Exhibit 1: Brand Identity Model

Exhibit 2: The drivograms

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Exhibit 3: Consent form for the focus group

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Exhibit 5: Topic guide focus group Topic guide for the focus group (Duration: approximately 35 minutes) Key questions 1. What are the perceptions and feelings about green?

2. What are the expectations for a “green” in the fast food restaurant?

3. What are the perceptions on green advertising?

1. Introduction Thanking everyone for participating at the focus group. Explanation of the research study.

2. Opening Participants introduce themselves, by telling their name, age and major interests.

Drinks are provided and some snack.

3. Introductory question: What does green mean to you?

- 1) Green perceptions and feelings - What does the green brand concept evoke to you?

- Is green just related to environmental issues?

- Are there brands you can recall that you think are very green? Why? - 2) Fast food perceptions and feelings - Can you list three things you like the most about fast food and three things you like the least?

- Do you mind about health when going for a fast food?

- 3) Perceptions of green in the fast food sector - Do you think a fast food can be green? How? - Do you buy fast food that is environmentally friendly?

- 4) Perception of green advertising.

- How do you feel about the green advertising?

- Do you remember any green advertising?

4. Third part – Stimulus a) Provide candidates with the 24 cards representing the 24 human drives (the things people retain important in life).

- Discuss which cards would best describe a green fast food restaurant the best.

5. Closing – are there any questions that would like to be asked to the group?

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Exhibit 6: Excerpt from the focus group discussion.

Transcript focus group, conducted on the 10th of March, 2011.

M: Hi everyone, and welcome to my focus group. First of all - thank you for coming here today and to participate at my discussion group. My name is Matteo Fabbi and I am a final year marketing student. In this 35 minutes session I will ask you a few questions about green brands, and what green represent for you. The aim of my study is to improve the appeal of green brands in the fast food market, so I will really appreciate if you can just say whatever comes to your mind, because there is no right or wrong answers to this matter. Can you introduce yourself, and tell five seconds about yourself?

Everyone introduce themselves.

M: my first question today for you is: what does green mean to you?

G.

Green is echo- friendly

R.

Green means that something is recyclable and is good for the environment.

S.

It’s organic – fresh and sustainable.

T.

It means awareness and being responsible.

M:

- What feelings does the green brand concept evoke to you?

G.

When I think of green brands I usually think that they are something good for

the

environment somehow.

S.

The whole point of going green is to keep our planet clean

T.

I feel there is something more than just business stuff… I feel like that by using green products I give something back to the Earth what has been given to us for using the product. It is all a cycle.

M:

- Is green just related to environmental issues?

R.

Very often, but sometimes green also means that the product is better than the competition. That’s why costs more, sometimes is considered luxury.

S.

Innovation and technology are often very related, big companies invest in technologies for going green, that’s not too bad

T.

What about Fair trade and animal welfare… are they considered green?

M

- Yes, if you say so…

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M

- Are there brands you recall that you think are very green?

Can you

tell me why if any?

S.

The Body Shop. It has the whole green culture behind it….the products are made with natural ingredients and fare trade.

R.

Apple…. because is innovative and forward thinking.

T.

Ikea, because they are caring and they are fare….they are Swedish!

M

- So would you say that green is associated with technology or country of origin?

S.

Yes, but it is expensive when it is so.

T

I just think that in Sweden everything is greener …they wouldn’t do anything bad for the environment…

M:

What are three things that you like the most about the fast food and three things you dislike?

R.

Is good for you – save time and money and you know it has always the same “freshness”.

S.

The food is heavy, it is usually associated with the multinationals and sometimes the there are things on the TV and on the magazines, that do not make you to go to the fast food for a while, then you go back though….

M:

Like what? Can you state some?

S.

….well things like the ingredients that are usually not mentioned in the advertising and the resources they use; but you can only read that type of information through other sources, not from their advertising

T.

I enjoy going to Starbucks, it’s one of those place you can go and never alone, it makes me relax and I love the cheesecakes

G.

I like going to the fast food because make me not have to think about what to eat.

M.

Do you mind about health when going for a fast food?

T.

No, when going to McDonald, otherwise I’do go to a vegetarian place, fast food is not really about health. It depends what are you looking for, but I make sure I do not go very often; I know is bad for me.

R.

Everyone goes to the fast food; it cannot be that bad and it does taste good. I do care about health in fact I always get the Tropicana with the menu instead of the Coke I think Coke is probably the worst of the 46

feel

products for your health…much worst than the burgers, those are more controlled.

M.

Do you think a fast food can be green?

G.

Everyone can be green, they can recycle and then if they really want to be green they can even use organic products.

R.

I was in the States last summer and I went to an organic fast food chain, it was really good, but it’s not the same as going to the Burger King man...

M

Why?

R.

Well first of all it was for elders. I went for a couple of time because my sister is vegetarian and they did some sort of veg burger, but in the end is boring and it wasn’t open until late, it was just for a daily meal.

G.

Organic is not the same as going to a fast food like Burger King or McDonald; I think organic is more for girls.

M. How do you feel about green advertising?

R.

I think they are too pushy sometimes; they want to say they are green for everything. Everyone now wants to be green and those who can afford more money to do green adverting can also say more about what they do.

G.

I think that if companies do lots of green advertising is because they have something to say, those who do less, is because they don’t do much.

M. Do you remember any green advertising?

T.

BP is doing very well in making the brand look green; I think the big companies do more, than the small one.

G.

I liked the Heineken campaign about the recycling, where all the pictures where from the fifties.

R.

Prius, Toyota Prius, that was cool.

M

- Now we can skip to the other part of the focus group. Take a look at the cards and discuss which cards would best describe a green fast food restaurant

M

– Please now select five only related to the fast food and explain me why?

TGRS. Health and Nutrition, Play and fun, Possess and Collect, Connected Together, Relax and Carefree (fast food).

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T.

A fast food makes me think at Play and Fun, because it is a casual place, where you can go and don’t mind about how to behave, how to eat, it’s a bit like when you are a kid.

G.

Connected together because since when I was a kid I used to go with my friends and be at McDonald for hours! It was a gathering point for my friends.

R.

Relax and Carefree because you really don’t have to think even at the menu, it is always the same. Health and Nutrition, because in the end is a primary need for us to survive.

S.

Possess and collect because the fast food represent modernity, the modern and busy society, with the main value of wealth and possession…I don’t know, that’s what it makes me think about.

T.

Plus it saves me money, McNuggets for £3.

M

- Please now select those which best represent green and tell me why?

TGRS Health and Nutrition, Safe and Secure, Idealism, Loyal and Moral, Connected together, Status, Individualism, Achievement and Innovation,

Warm and

Caring (green).

G.

Health and Nutrition that come to my mind, also security. Especially for food, I guess is important to know where does the food come from and what you are actually eating. In the end you are what you eat!

R.

Individualism and uniqueness because sometimes green is trendy and it tells that you are doing something like everyone else but in a different way!

G.

Innovation and technology because the most of the green initiatives come from the development of innovation.

R.

Loyal and Moral because, green means integrity and a green fast food is good for the society as a whole, it’s a moral choice

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Exhibit 7: AD1

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Exhibit 8: AD1 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; survey 2

50

Exhibit 9: AD2

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Exhibit 10: AD2 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; survey 2

52

Exhibit 11: AD3

Exhibit 12: AD3 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; survey 2

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Exhibit 13: The drivograms selection from the focus group.

Exhibit 14: question 8

Exhibit 15: question 9

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Exhibit 16: Q3 – a)

Exhibit 20: Q3 – e)

Exhibit 17: Q3 – b)

Exhibit 18: Q3 – c)

Exhibit 19: Q3 – d)

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Exhibit 21: crosstab green value a) * Brand appeal

Exhibit 22: crosstab green value b) * Brand appeal

Exhibit 23: crosstab green value c) * Brand appeal

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Exhibit 24: crosstab green value d) * Brand appeal

Exhibit 25: crosstab green value e) * Brand appeal

Exhibit 26: crosstab green sex* Brand appeal

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Exhibit 27: crosstab green age* Brand appeal

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The online survey Exhibit 28: Screening question

Exhibit 29: Q.2 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Personal values

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Exhibit 30: Q.3 – Level of “greenness”

Exhibit 31: Q.4 – Expectations

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Exhibit 32: Q.5 – AD1

Exhibit 33: Q5 – AD1 survey 2

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Exhibit 34: Q6 – AD2

Exhibit 34: Q6– AD2 survey 2

62

Exhibit 35: Q7 – AD3

Exhibit 35: Q5 – AD3 survey 2

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Exhibit 36: Q.8 – Q.9 – Q.10 – Q11

Exhibit 37: The Brand identity model in the creation of brand appeal

Green brand iden/ty

Green brand Image

1. Personal values in life 2. Expecta6ons for “green”

` 1.

2.

3.

4.

Green brand appeal

+ unexpected drivers from category conformity + personal values match + simultaneously touch (tot n. of drivers ) + beDer touch (tot score of drivers)

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Exhibit 37: The Brand identity model in the creation of brand appeal

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