Alberti

SANT' ANDREA, MANTUA ALBERTI Language of Early Italian Renaissance in worldwide Renaissance, Classic, Modern, Architecture and art

Contents 4 Sant’ Andrea, Alberti Group three 8 Cathedral of St. Michael the Archangel, Aleviz Novyi 11 Basilica de Maxentius, Basilica of Constantine Elisaveta Boulatova 14 St. Paul’s Cathedral by Sir Christopher Wren 17 The Last Supper By Leonardo Da Vinci Chelsea Campbell 20 Dormition Cathedral, Aristotele Fioravanti in Moscow.

22 Parthenon by Ictinus, Callicrates and Phidias in Athens Yekaterina Korotayeva 24 Villa Savoye, Le Corbusier Eric Lachance

SANT' ANDREA, MANTUA PHOTO Trachtenberg, M. (2010). Building-in-time: from Giotto to Alberti and modern oblivion. New Haven [Conn.: Yale University Press.

“I have recently been told that your Lordship and the citizens of Mantua intend building here at S. Andrea, with the prime object of having a large edifice where many people might come and see the blood of Christ. I have seen Manetti’s model, and I like it. But it doesn’t seem to me to suit your requirements. I have thought up the one I am sending you now, which would be much larger, more durable, worthier, and more cheerful. It would also cost much less. If you like it, I shall draw up a plan with its proportions.”

—Letter to Marquis, Alberti

2 GROUP THREE

Sant’ Andrea

PHOTO Tavernor, R. (1998). On Alberti and the art of building. New Haven: Yale University Press.

Leon Battista Alberti (1404 – 1472) was one of the most influential architects and authors of the Early Renaissance period in Italy. Throughout his life Alberti studied classical ideas of Greek and Roman architecture and worked on developing a theory of universal harmony and perfect mathematical division of space.

In his last work of architecture, the Church of Sant’ Andrea in Mantua, he combined his views of a “Renaissance man” with his knowledge of Roman and Etruscan architecture, to create a new prototype of a church that is geometrically perfect. This prototype was dedicated to serve the people and bring them delight. Alberti’s Basilica of Sant Andrea was widely copied until the seventeenth century and had great influence on the development of church typology throughout the world.

This paper is a critical analysis of Alberti’s Sant’ Andrea in its architectural language such as canons, Roman and Etruscan origin and expression of Renaissance ideas of

universal perfection through Alberti’s design.

The Basilica of Sant’ Andrea was designed around 1462 during the Early Renaissance period, or Quattrocento. During this time in Northern Italy and predominantly in Florence, Classical Greek concepts of architectural order and geometrical perfection experienced a cultural rebirth.

They were widely studied and adopted by architects and artists. In contrast to the Middle Ages, a proportional logic and aspiration to achieve perfect symmetry and regularity of parts governed works of architects. The Marquisate of Mantua, a small duchy located in the North of Italy, had just recovered from a political crisis that followed the death of Guido Gonzaga, the lord of Mantua. Willing to re-establish their power over the city, the Gonzaga Family sought to restructure its religious life and build a new significant church on the busiest city square of Piazza Sordello, replacing the old Benedictine monastery (Borsi 230). Alberti entered the competition with a proposal of a church based on a scheme of a classical Etruscan temple and the basic form of the triumphal arch. By this time he was an experienced and mature architect, so he was able to apply all his knowledge of classical architectural language, laws of perspective, mathematical division of space and renaissance aesthetics that he learned and generated throughout his life.

During his practice he experimented and studied a myriad of ancient classical styles developing his own architectural language and documenting it in De re Aedificatoria (Castex 160). Moreover, Alberti was greatly influenced by the innovative Florentine architecture of that time having been in close contact to his colleague, Filippo Brunelleschi.

The program for the new church formulated by Ludovico II Gonzaga required a new home for Mantua’s most prized relic ‘The Holly Blood of Christ’, which attracted many pilgrims from Italy and the rest of Europe. Alberti’s main concern was to organize the pilgrimage in a more coherent way, than it was prior to that time and build a new great lofty hall for people to gazer in it (Castex 158).

Furthermore the new church was meant to become a focal point for Mantua’s city center and represent the power of the Gonzaga family. In his letter to Luca Fancelli, who designed the bell tower on Piazza Sordello, Alberti writes: “Ambassadors and nobleman often pass by and we are obliged to show them some fine work” (Borsi 232). By ‘fine

work’ Alberti meant a more durable, worthier and more cheerful building than the previous monastery, which would first of all bring people delight and serve as a symbol of power and humanism.

Renaissance architecture is an architecture of pure form In the views of the 15th and 16th century, reason guided thinking. Architecture was based on the visually clear and the rationally organized. At this time beauty consisted of the integration of uniform proportions working together in perfect harmony where nothing could be added or taken away (Wittkower 7, 33).

Classical forms were at a rival and yet new ideas continued to alter the definition of sacred architecture.

Like every great style of the past, canons defined the architecture of the period. The following is a dissection of the Mantua church through the ten canons proposed by Jean-Francois Gabriel in his book, Classical Architecture for the 21st century, guided by the arrangement of classical forms.

1. Bilateral symmetry For Alberti, the facade of a building was like a skin to an animal. He was first an artist of facades, then a creator of interiors (Grafton 325). His Santa Maria Novella is often referenced as a classic example of the perfect use of geometry. Similarly in the facade of Sant’ Andrea there is a prominent use of proportion and clearly outlined symmetry. The vertical axis of the facade extends to the division of the Latin cross plan down the centre of the nave into two mirrored halves. Alberti’s influence of the period and intensive study of classical ideas incorporates the use of symmetrical elements evident in the Latin cross plan with three chapels on either side refer-

GROUP THREE 3

encing the layout of the Etruscum Sacrum. Repetition

ratios” (Borsi 232). Alberti’s use of organic geometry can

set in on either side of the nave, hold even smaller cha-

entrance of Sant’ Andrea, was used prior in San Fran-

of elements such as arches, niches, and pilasters mirror

be seen when broken down into simple shapes. The

pels within. The niches break up and lighten the heavi-

cesco, Rimini, and Santa Maria Novella. His use of the

both sides of the church, creating a visual order and un-

facade is organized within a perfect square, (50 by 50

ness of the masonry. Author and professor Joan Gadol

arch in a number of his projects expresses his classicism

derline the effect of perspective (Tavernor 178).

Mantuan braccia square;MBr) (Tavernor 178-181). The

describes the interior space as “that of a cosmos held in

as a humanist (Grafton 325-8). The triumphal arch, de-

only partly concealed basilica behind the facade forms a

dynamic equipoise” (Gadol 137-8). The vastness of the

scribed by Tavernor as “a gate that is continuously open”

2. Anthropomorphism

perfect circle repeated beneath in the form of the great

church is perceived as a whole from all angles, simply

(Tavernor 178) overlooks the piazza square, defining

Emerging from Leonardo Da Vinci’s drawings

triumphal arch. Similar circles and squares divide the fa-

emphasizing the impression of depth.

one public space to another.

of the Vitruvian Man, human and divine proportions fos-

cade. As well, a similar use of ratios is continued further

tered the intention and focus that was on the rational

inside the church.

5. Juxtaposition of discrete forms

6. Emphasis on center, corners, and sides

Alberti’s “stylistic lexicon” was influenced by

Similar to the axis of symmetry that divides

4. Defined space

the ancient building he studied, combined with the ver-

the Latin cross plan into two mirrored halves, the floor

and humane at the time (Glancey 69). The ideal harmony was defined in accordance with the belief that God revealed the human body as the source of all ratios and

Alberti’s facade amounts to “a purely deco-

nacular style of the projects he worked on. In compari-

and ceiling are divided by a similar axis. The coffered

denominations of nature (Wittkower 15). This formula is

rative form, almost like a stage setting” (Grafton 13) in

son to the precedents he studied, Alberti used similar

ceiling (seen earlier in the Pantheon and the Basilica

seen in Sant’ Andrea in the façade and later through the

combination with the elevated platform on which it

forms which he refined to meet his own need. For in-

de Maxentius which Alberti prided to have copied the

use of squares and circles in perfect balance inside.

stands. The great triumphal arch, with a set in coffered

stance,

texture cheaply and efficiently) reflects the checker-

3. Clear and simple geometry

barrel vault, opens the facade to the piazza square. In-

Where the Ancients used colonnades, Alberti used arches.

board-tiled floor used to emphasis the perspective of

side, the same form of coffered barrel vaulting extends

Where Athenians used free-standing columns —

the viewer. Furthermore, the Latin cross plan places em-

The design of the Mantua church is the per-

over the nave emphasizing the longitudinal direction of

Alberti used engaged columns or pilasters.

phasis on the central nave, combined with the light that

fect example of “spatial harmony governed by simple

the Latin cross plan. The three, soaring arched chapels

The classical structure of the triumphal arch seen at the

originates from the barrel vault opening at the front

4 GROUP THREE

DIAGRAMS AND PHOTOS Tavernor, R. (1998). On Alberti and the art of building. New Haven: Yale of the church and directs movement towards the altar

phant,” intelligible harmony which binds a manifold of

The hierarchy of Sant’ Andrea is divisible by

(Tavernor 180-2).

relations in a perfect world” (Gadol 140).

the rule of three. The progression in the order of:

7. Limited inventory of parts

8. Inherent formal hierarchies

This type of organization leads the eye from the elevat-

University Press.

I. Portico II. Nave III. Altar Alberti’s arrangement of elements creates a

There is a close relationship in forms from the

ed, masonry organism to its majestic interior of arches

harmonious design using simple geometries and ratios

exterior to the interior. The development of the trium-

and dimension. Alberti’s ideas on perspective focus all

that are echoed through the church. Ratios and propor-

phal arch motif, first seen in the great triumphal arch in

accent on the longitudinal progression of journey with-

tions of forms in the facade reappear in the interior. For

the facade, is continued inside (Borsi 274). Looking at

in the church.

instance the two pilasters that run along the facade and

Figure 2.1, the plan to section relationship underlies a

carry the entablature, is repeated in the same way on

similar organization of forms, proportion, and geom-

the interior.

etry. The longitudinal order of both the plan and section

The construction process of the Mantua

Arches, rectangles and circles are used in a myriad of siz-

align as it is about as wide as its height. The dome, cen-

church spanned close to 300 years causing a discrep-

es and positions. This is evident in the rectangular door-

tered above the crossing, mirrors the form of the tran-

ancy in whether Alberti planned Sant’ Andrea as a Latin

ways that are set into the arched walls of the church.

septs on both sides of the nave in the plan to section

cross or in the form of a basilica. As it stands today, Sant’

The circular windows are reflective of the arch and the

alignment.

Andrea, consists of a 6:5 ratio of length to width. The

circular form of the dome. According to Gadol, Alberti sought, “a lucid impression of unity in diversity, a “trium-

10. Regularity

nave, tribunalia, and open chapels are alternated with 9. Tripartite organization: the rule of three

smaller chapels, or cellae combine to form the modular lengths of 6 elements of the width (Borsi 232).

GROUP THREE 5

The design of Sant’ Andrea clearly depends on Roman and Greek architecture, as on a superior one, but it is not bounded by it. Alberti was able to deduce rules and principles from classical architecture and use it for different purposes in a different time context. For instance, the influence of the typology of Etruscan Temple can clearly be seen on the front façade of Sant Andrea. Alberti deliberately used a classical temple front type, to eliminate aisles in plan (Murray 52).

He adopted the relationships of pediment, frieze and cornice of the Etruscum Sacrum and used the length to width ratio in his division of plan.

Apse Holy Blood of Christ Tribunalia Cellae Nave

When studying the classic architecture Alberti tried to stick to the Etruscan-Latin traditions, in contrast to Hellenic, described by Vitruvius (Castex 160). He was lookinag for a broad concept and understanding of the word ‘’Etruscan’’ and wanted to put something more into his design, than what Vitruvius wrote about. That’s why most think that originally the Mantua church was planned as a basilica form, instead of the Latin cross.

Apart from Etruscan architecture, Alberti developed an interest in Roman Thermae and adopted a plan with a vast solemn hall in the middle, small open spaces on both sides and wall height, which is almost equal to the width (Murray 52).

Roman motives also appear on the façade in a form of the Triumphal arch, which con-

6 GROUP THREE

tinues on the inside. This creates a close relationship between the exterior and the interior.

Spatial Context

LEFT TO RIGHT 1 Borsi, F. (1977). Leon Battista Alberti. New

The Sant’ Andrea basilica is located in the centre of urban Mantua. Surrounding it is the central market, the clock tower, and the palace of justice. Since the dome structure of the roof stretches higher than the adjacent buildings it captures attention from many different viewpoints throughout the city, unable to be ignored.

Etruscan+Temples/Elevation+of+the+Etruscan+Temple. 3

Program It is important to note that the basilica was built during a time of great transition and progression in the city of Mantua. The construction

York: Harper & Row. 2 Etruscan Temple described by Vitruvius. http://www.biblehistory.com/ibh/Greek+Temples/ Aerial View of the basilica and surrounding context. 4 The Holy Blood of Christ. 5 Programming analysis.

of this building served as a new town planning scheme as Mantua’s government was about to restructure itself. It was also intended to reorganize Mantua’s religious life, organizing the pilgrimage in a more coherent way.

The city needed to be provided with a better-designed building than the previous monastery. It needed to be more durable, more appropriate for worship, and overall a more worthy and impressive monument erected in God’s name.

As the basilica was to house the ‘Holy Blood of Christ’ Mantua’s most prized relic, the space needed to be functional as a church that is large enough in scale to accommodate the mass amounts of worshippers making a pilgrimage to be in the presence of the relic, as well as be both economical and architecturally advanced.

Ultimately, the building was meant to stand as a monument representing the power of the Gonzaga family at the time, as commissioned

by Ludovico II Gonzaga.

Analysis of Interior Space The interior spaces are arranged in a similar way to the great Roman basilicas and Etruscan temples which were an influential precedent in the separation and proportion of spaces (ratio of 5:6 width to length). The dimensions of the interior reveal a strong manipulation of order that Alberti was so fond of.

The basilica consists of a main nave with six chapels featured on either side along the length of it. Open chapels called “tribunalia” are alternated with smaller chapels called “cellae” creating a balance of open and more secluded spaces as the visitor moves along the nave. At the end of the nave is a semi-circular apse that houses the Holy Blood of Christ.

Alberti employs aspects of vastness in both vertical and horizontal respects to create a sense of awe in the worshipper. The depth of the facades gives way to a perspective that creates

a threshold which introduces the interior space.

The extreme height of the ceiling compliments the vastness found in length and width, particularly since the nave is not defined with traditional aisles.

Intensity of Light The Sant’ Andrea was intended to be dimly lit as Alberti wanted to inspire awe and reflection for those attending the services. It is shaded by an arched structure located above the pediment with light entering the chapels through circular apertures.

A deep, covered barrel vault prevents natural light from entering the nave overhead.

Alberti was always more interested in the conceptual design and the process rather than the actual construction of his buildings and rarely took part in discussions about materiality and workmanship. He was always in need of another architect to aid him with his projects (Castex 158).

In the early stages of the lengthy 300 year Sant’ Andrea project Alberti sent designs in to Fancelli his partner who was a great admirer of Alberti’s work. Fancelli was very fascinated with his final design with proportion since the first proposals of the church were probably not in scale.

Alberti was working with the idea of the functional consideration of size, giving space more importance by making it larger. Once Fancelli (a partner and great admirer) and Alberti decided upon the final scheme they began to estimate the cost of their task and realized they would need more money and time then what they were originally given, which began to put into perspective the importance and immensity of the project.

There remained many financial difficulties that had risen, one being the loans for the mortar and stone. These difficulties impacted the development so much so that by 1477 it was in jeopardy and was eventually suspended due to the fact

that the masons were fired and that winter was approaching, which brought doubt to whether the dry wall would be done in time. Sant’ Andrea is a return to brick architecture for Alberti since it is very easy to appreciate the strict and precise technique that is used to create the pilasters, vaults and coffered panels using bricks. Alberti’s interpretation of the classical past aided him to construct a monumental temple using contemporary needs such as his organization of space, all of which veered Sant’ Andrea off the course of being vernacular (Borsi 231, 238, 263, 272).

In 1470 it was decided that there was a need for new more monumental building to house Mantua’s most important relic that is the blood of Christ. Alberti was suggesting having a large hall that could accommodate the large amount of pilgrims but could also double as a church which was also economical to build.

Alberti tried to meet both the function and economic requirements. He was able to lock together two roman architectural motifs of the temple front and the triumphal arch. Since he was very concerned with proportion he made sure the vertical and horizontal dimensions of the façade were the same (Castex 158).

Sant’ Andrea fulfills many of Alberti’s ideas about what sacred architecture is even though it wasn’t completed before his death. Modeled on the design of Etruscan temples the vast barrel vaulted nave is one of the most dramatic church interiors.

Alberti combined the central type plan with the medieval plan which allowed Sant’ Andrea to create the essential form for most sixteen and seventeenth century Christian churches.

Works Cited Borsi, F. (1977). Leon Battista Alberti. New York: Harper & Row. Campbell, G. (2004). Renaissance art and architecture. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Castex, J. (2008). Architecture of Italy. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press.

Fletcher, B., & Musgrove, J. (1987). Sir Banister Fletcher’s A history of architecture (19th ed.). London: Butterworths.

Gabriel, J. F. (2004). Classical architecture for the twenty-first century: an introduction to design. New York: W.W. Norton & Co. in association with the Institute of Classical Architecture and Classical America.

Gadol, J. (1969). Leon Battista Alberti: Universal man of the early Renaissance. Chicago: The Univ. of Chicago Press.

Gardner, H., Croix, H., & Tansey, R. G. (1970). Gardner’s Art through the ages (5th ed.). New York: Harcourt, Brace & World.

Grafton, A., & Alberti, L. B. (2000). Leon Battista Alberti: master builder of the Italian Renaissance. New York: Hill and Wang.

Murray, P. (1964). The architecture of the Italian Renaissance. New York: Schocken Books.

Tavernor, R. (1998). On Alberti and the art of building. New Haven: Yale University Press.

Trachtenberg, M. (2010). Building-in-time: from Giotto to Alberti and modern oblivion. New Haven [Conn.: Yale University Press.

GROUP THREE 7

Unknown. (2012) Museum. [image online] Available at: http://museums.artyx. ru/books/item/f00/s00/ z0000000/st056.shtml [Accessed: November 17, 2012].

“Italianianisms” at the Kremlin Hill A clash of cultural styles, A comparison of Alberti’s Sant’ Andrea to Noviy’s St. Michael Cathedral of St. Michael the Archangel Case Study A Elisaveta Boulatova

The forms of the Renaissance are found in several countries throughout the sixteenth and seventeenth century. The Renaissance influence spread beyond Italy in its style, ideas and execution. The following is an analytical comparison of Alberti’s Sant’ Andrea keeping to the true Renaissance ideals, to Aleviz Novyi’s Cathedral of St. Michael the Archangel that clashes both the tradition Russian cathedral to the new and exciting Renaissance forms.

This comparison will bring light to the tastes, beliefs, and adaptability of the Russians and Italians throughout the Renaissance period.

The Spread of Renaissance

8 ELISAVETA BOULATOVA

Invented by the greeks, developed by the romans, and spread from Italy to an international style, Renaissance is the reinvention of classical forms and the rebirth of classical values. Be-

ginning in Florence in 1420, the spread continued throughout the following decades to other urban centers in Italy. The vanguard of the movement relocated to Rome in late 15th century and early 16th, which continued to spread to most of Europe. Moscow drew Renaissance ideas through Venice and Hungary by the marriage of a Neapolitan princess. (Glancey 70). “Italianianisms” coined by Cracraft (author of Architectures of Russian Identity) defines Italian design in a foreign context, in this case situated on Kremlin Hill.

Culture of Period At the time, Russia was not in a state to welcome the ideas of Renaissance and humanism as was popular in Italy at the time and later welcome in the West. There were no common influences, but rather too many religious differences. Neverthe-

less, beyond the cultural clash, general tendencies allowed collaboration between both parties (Zonova 12) as seen in the many examples of Italian architects gracing Kremlin Hill with their designs.

The accepted norm of a church standing on the Kremlin hill was a traditional five dome cathedral, depicting that of an icon canon. Russian cathedrals built prior to the period give the illusion that they are growing right out of the ground (Zunova 13). The masters of Renaissance aspired to divine proportions. Churches had to be heavenly, elevated, and of divine character.

Program With a need to renovate the faith, Italian architect Aleviz Novyi was commissioned to redesign the Archangel Cathedral on Kremlin Hill as a monumental building. Originally built in wood in the thirteenth century, it was rebuilt in stone in 1333 as a family tomb, and rebuilt in 1505 (as decided by Ivan III) worthy to stand beside the Uspenskii and Blagovenshchenskii (Voyce 38). The Cathedral displays most extravagant Italianate features of the Kremlin’s Italian period. The mass and plan was determined by the authority of the Vladimir, constricting the design which resulted in a church that was less innovative in comparison to others standing on the Kremlin hill. It is of close resemblance to the Dormition Cathedral (case study of pg___) in the orientation of the dome and entrances, situated not far away from St. Michaels. The interior is similar to a Suzdalian type plan, a period guided by Vladimir-Suzdal primarily influenced by the Byzantine period (Hamilton 195).

Retaining some of the original foundational elements of the church, such as the entrances and small rooms, four free piers are arranged to accentuate the iconostasis. The nave is therefore wider than the aisles and the interior is much shallower, common to examples of earlier architecture. The exterior is covered with Renaissance detailing of arches, pilasters, recessed panels, and carved ornaments. Comparably, St. Michael resembles a two-storey palace of High Renaissance.

The windows relate back to the Russian style church. Their narrowness almost contradicts the building. The decorative style and traditional structure system are not characteristic of each other. The use of piers is part of a strong response to the symbolism of the russian church, used often in the

16th and 17th centuries. It’s piers seem to be rising towards heaven (Hamilton 195).

The massive scale of Sant’ Andrea defines the church of the Renaissance. A hybrid of the Etruscan Sacrum plan and the Basilica de Maxentius of the Roman Forum, the latin cross plan of Alberti’s church soars above the people. The intensity of light, carefully concealed behind the facade emphasizes the arches, pilasters, and entablature on the facade and inside the church. Circular windows contrast the wall to window relationship and follow the motif of pure and simple geometry. The facade references classical order systems, creating a sculpted form. The nave and chapels on either side add lightness and depth to the heavy masonry interior. There is no need for piers, as Alberti’s inspiration came from Constantine’s massive basilica. Arches elevate the interior, inspiring a space of intimacy and awe.

Culture of period Referred to as an architectural masterpiece, the Archangel Cathedral brings together aspects of the Orthodox Church and a Renaissance palazzo. The architect is given leeway from the traditional canons of the period as it serves as a family tomb of Russian princes and tsars, There is less ideological significance, yet it’s presence in the building still remains through the use of decorative motifs (Zonova 26). Many tombs are crammed within the burial place. At the centre are the relics of Prince Dmitry, declared a martyred saint by the church.

The mantua church was designed to ‘House the blood of Christ’. Alberti placed an emphasis on the idea of sacred architecture in his choice of form and scale. Ideally for pilgrims, Sant’ Andrea has a crypt beneath the crossing that displays the sacred phials.

Beauty of proportions The simplicity of the Renaissance style attracted architects from various countries for its beauty. The divine proportions were cherished as one of the most important definitions of the style. Organization of the axis of symmetry, pure forms, and their intricate patterns are seen in the plans, sections, and elevations of both studies. The uses of classical orders on the exteriors of Sant’

LEFT Zagraevsky, S. (2008) Forms of the domes of the ancient Russian temples. [image online] Available at: http://zagraevsky.com/ glavi_engl.htm [Accessed: November 17, 2012]. RIGHT Злыгостев Алексей Сергеевич (2012) Русское государство, 3-я четверть XVXVI век. [image online] Available at: http://townevolution.ru/books/ item/f00/s00/z0000009/st010.shtml [Accessed: November 17, 2012].

ELISAVETA BOULATOVA 9

Andrea and —somewhat superimposed even on—St. Michaels, define the transmitted Renaissance ideas.

Definition of space Alberti’s perception of the interior of a church had to be elevated, heavenly, and lifting. He created the illusion of soaring. This is evident as one approaches Sant’ Andrea. Sant’ Andrea is elevated, with raised windows, isolating the viewer from the outside while in the space. The Cathedral, on the other hand, establishes a strong visual connection to the public with the use of pyramidal massing, and the placement of four subsidiary domes close to the central dome. The context of their site also gives reference to their effectiveness of the space on the viewer. Sant’ Andrea that faces the piazza square in Mantua, is perceive as an massive, elevated masonry organism. Whereas, St. Michaels, situated on the Kremlin hill is directly open to the public. With no disregard to its massive scale, the five domed church and all of its arched elements imply a directionality towards the heavens.

Elements

ABOVE Tavernor, R. (1998). On Alberti and the art of building. New Haven: Yale University Press.

St. Michael’s decorative detailing of the facade, intricately carved and painted limestone portals, and frescoes, display an acceptance of Christianity in Russia.

The Renaissance detailing or otherwise seen as a factor of Venetian influence, is present on the exterior walls in the form of cornices, arches and pilasters. The interior is decorated with wall paintings and portraits of religious subjects that date back to the seventeenth century. The ‘scallop’ shapes, Orders, loggia, and ornamental motifs are of the Italian influence. This is contrasted by the traditional Moscow interior style with a cross-domed structure and a lack of spaciousness and light.

The square piers on pedestals used in the design are later seen in the late 15th century Venetian churches.

Principals of Humanism Alberti’s design of Sant’ Andrea played a key role in the scale of the Renaissance period. His approach

10 ELISAVETA BOULATOVA

and works have been studied and applied to many later buildings. The Mantua church not only fulfills its role as “a large edifice where many people might come and see the blood of Christ” (Letter to Marquis/Tavenor 159), but uses proportional logic and simple ratios to delight and inspire its visitors.

On the other hand, there is a triumph of scientific humanism and use of classical order evident in St. Michael. It can even be said that the Classical orders are superimposed in context of the traditional features of the Archangel. Not grabbing hold as a prototype for later structures, St. Michael contributed to the repertory of Russian decoration especially in its use of horizontal cornices beneath the scallop shells. Taking from examples such as the Dormition Catherdral, St. Michael demonstrates a mixture of style.

Alberti set standards of form as the Renaissance church embodied true religious feelings. Italian influence is accented by the influence of humanist scholars, whereas the Russian traditions are seen in their direct perception, responsiveness and sympathy towards the sacred buildings upon Kremlin Hill.”Renaissance” and “Orders” are added to the lexicon of Russia’s architecture development in the beginning of the fifteenth century.

The main idea is to represent Moscow’s rulers through the use of design.Nevertheless, there is no other place in which ‘antique gracefulness’ was felt so acutely as in Italy and Russia during the Renaissance (Zonova 15).

Bibliography Davison, M. (1980). Ancient Rome. New York: Abbeville Press.

Dowden, K. (2000). European paganism the realities of cult from antiquity to the Middle Ages. London: Routledge.

Holloway, R. R. (2004). Constantine & Rome. New Haven: Yale University Press.

Lancaster, L. C. (2005). Concrete vaulted construction in Imperial Rome: innovations in context. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.

Parker, J. H. (1883). The via sacra (2. ed.). Oxford: Murray.

The Romans Part 2: The 1300 Years. (1966, March 11). Life, 60, 36-39.

Wheeler, M. (1964). Roman art and architecture. New York: F. A. Praeger.

The “Model Basilica” reappiled Constantine’s basilica reflected in Alberti’s Sant’ Andrea Basilica de Maxentius A.D 307-315 Case Study B Elisaveta Boulatova

The suggestion that Alberti’s inspiration lies in the grand vaults of Basilica de Maxentius originate in Alberti’s writings, De re aedificatoria, where he discusses the elements and form of the ideal Renaissance church. His analysis of form references back to not only the classical structures, but the architecture of the ancients. He examines the ideal church in reference to the ‘Temple’ (of Vitruvian influence) and the ‘Basilica’. This comparison between the ideal church and the “model basilica” will outline the form, ideas, and inspiration of the given time period.

Program of the Ideal Church The Basilica de Maxentius was one of the precedents Alberti studied along with the Roman baths (Thermae), the Pantheon, the Parthenon (Case study page 22) and the Etrus-

can Sacrum. Sant’ Andrea was to be, “a large edifice where many people might come and see the blood of Christ” (Letter to Marquis/Tavernor 159). Alberti studied Roman and Greek architecture to apply the rules and purposes of an ancient typology as was common at the time of the Renaissance.

The Basilica de Maxentius was begun by Emperor Maxentius in 307 A.D and completed by his successor Constantine five years later. The basilica was programmed as a sheltered hall for commercial and legal dealings (Davison 36).

It was one of the last Basilicas to be built on the Roman Forum, of which only an aisle remains today. Although already in ruins, the Basilica of Maxentius was continuously studied.

It serves as the prime base of inspiration not only for Alberti, but for Bramante’s St. Peters (Life 36-39).

ABOVE Cassanelli, R., & David, M. (2002). Ruins of Ancient Rome: the drawings of French architects who won the Prix de Rome, 1796-1924. Los Angeles, Calif.: J.P. Getty Museum. [Accessed: November 17, 2012].

ELISAVETA BOULATOVA 11

In its context: Time and Place Alberti’s Sant’ Andrea is focused on divine and human proportions and thus works as a Renaissance model. Alberti aspired to an architecture of pure form.

Sant’ Andrea is ordered as a Latin cross plan containing a long nave, transept extending from both sides of the crossing, and a choir area. In De re aedificatoria, Alberti discusses the full program of the ideal church of the Renaissance. The desirable shape of a temple—synonymous for church, begins with pure geometrical figures.

This pureness is especially seen in the circle, as “nature enjoys the round form above all others,” and aspires to absolute perfection.

Renaissance churches are generally inspired by classical structures. Emperor Constantine’s Rome attracted Alberti by the “pagan antiquity [that] was blended with the spirit of faith and purity of the early Church” (Wittkower 35). The basilica (a seat of jurisdiction in antiquity) was considered to be closely related to the temple. Proportions are the key to the law of harmony as this type of harmony represents absolute perfection, independent of subjective or transitory perception (Wittkower 9).

The ‘Model Basilica’ Romans usually enclosed places of public assembly. The Basilica Nova was built at the time of Contantinian rule as a municipal building that housed the statues of Constantine, situated between the Forum and the Colosseum.

It is one of the largest cross vault and barrel vault structures in Ancient Rome spanning 350 feet in length and 200 feet in width. It consists of three large halls, a central nave, two aisles (of equal width), apses and arches between grand vaults. The austere forms of columns with straight entablature were common for use in both theaters and basilicas (Dowden 70-4).

The Arch and vault — Construction (stability) Unlike all previous basilicas, Basilica de Maxen-

12 ELISAVETA BOULATOVA

tius incorporated imperial bath construction (Lancaster 138). The construction consisted of barrel vaults (double layer of ribbing), cross vaults, octagonal coffers lead into the formwork. The remains of freestanding buttressing arches that helped stabilize the cross vaults. Arches and vaults of the Basilica de Maxentius are constructed of concrete faced with brick. Consisting of huge barrel vaults, the central nave is supported by the aisles. Its large scale is 115 feet above ground. It is divided by both a short and long axis to a long nave and two aisles that are crossed by a shorter one.

Definition of space Basilica Nova—The interior was veneered with marble that had a kaleidoscopic colour effect. The vaults were ornamented with stucco ornaments and projected into the panels and caissons. Large rounded windows introduced a new method of lighting, and a creative relationship of window to wall placement. (Dowden 72).

Etruscan For churches Alberti favored strong and heavier ‘wall’ and ‘temple-like’ architecture without colonnaded aisles.

These architectural characteristics were shared by the Basilica of Maxentius and the Temple of Solomon, evident in Alberti’s design for Sant’ Andrea (Tavernor 175-6) The characteristics of the Etruscan temple can be identified in the Basilica of Maxentius (known to Alberti as Templum Latona at the time), unlike most known basilicas with colonnaded aisles.

Evident similarities in the nave of both Basilicas, each designed with two sets of three large chapels facing each other across a large vaulted rectangular space.

FIgure # shows the relationship of the three chapel plan on either side.

Basilica de Maxentius is a third longer and twice as wide as the Mantua church. Alberti had modified the Etruscan temple while closely following the Temple of Solomon to create a new type of church, unlike any built since antiquity. Sant’ Andrea’s latin cross plan follows the same type of plan. Alberti began with a square of 5 by 5

ABOVE The Basilica de Maxentius overlaid onto the Estruscan plan.

LEFT The Basilica de Maxentius in scale compared to Sant’ Andrea below. Tavernor, R. (1998). On Alberti and the art of building. New Haven: Yale University Press.

units, adding one to its length. The layout of a temple is described within the boundaries of a square. (Also seen in the facade). The latin cross plan contains three chapels on either side of the nave, along with smaller chapels within. However, the Mantua church is not a direct copy of the basilica as the proportions differ. There are no columns in front of the piers and the nave is composed of barrel vault construction, not groin vault. Comparatively small windows light the nave. (Krautheimer/Tavernor 177).

Alberti’s choice of the triumphal arch in the facade is reflected in his treatise: ‘the most suitable place to build an arch is at the point where a road meets a square or forum, especially if it is a royal road (Alberti/Tavernor 178). The dense urban setting of the Mantua church opened the facade to the street. The facade triumphal arch is 15 braccia deep, half the depth of its width. The choice of the triumphal arch for the portico had profound influence on church architecture, Bramante and Vignola in Rome, and even Palladio in Venice. It set a clear entrance, while interacting with the piazza and casting a shadow to vitalize the facade.

him and others, then and only then, pagan antiquity blended with the spirit of faith and purity of the early church” (Wittkower 5).

In the case of Alberti, his studies of the basilica and the Etruscan Sacrum laid the formwork for his structure and plan. And it is no wonder that he had chosen the ruins of the majestic basilica to study. The basilica gives the impression of spaciousness, different from the neighboring temples of the Roman Forum. It is one of the last in a series of basilicas to be erected beside the forum, known as an advancement for its time. As an architectural marvel, its arches and great scale must have soared above the public. The conscious rhythm of arches, in combination with the coffered ceiling would explain the divinity of the temple as the inspiration to many following works and studies.

Work cited Davison, M. (1980). Ancient Rome. New York: Abbeville Press.

Belonging to the domain of religion For Alberti music and geometry were one and the same as ‘music is geometry translated into sound’.

Alberti used musical analogy to organize the ratios and proportions in his design. There was a great belief in the pure geometry, or ‘pure philosophy’ of a building to stimulate the mind (Wittkower 9).

Luca Pacioli, mathematician and Leonardo’s friend, argued that Vitruvian concepts of ratio and proportions revealed the secrets of God, and that the perfect arrangement was the form by which ancients built their temples (Pacioli’s work/ Wittkower 15).

Early christians used private Roman Basilicas as their places of worship. Therefore churches became to be built in the form of the basilica. The temple and basilica as the seats of divine and human justice are closely related to the domain of religion (Wittkower 6). “Alberti linked own his ideas with those of the early Christians.

Emperor Constantine’s Rome had particular attracted

Dowden, K. (2000). European paganism the realities of cult from antiquity to the Middle Ages. London: Routledge.

Holloway, R. R. (2004). Constantine & Rome. New Haven: Yale University Press.

Lancaster, L. C. (2005). Concrete vaulted construction in Imperial Rome: innovations in context. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.

Parker, J. H. (1883). The via sacra (2. ed.). Oxford: Murray.

The Romans Part 2: The 1300 Years. (1966, March 11). Life, 60, 3639.

Wheeler, M. (1964). Roman art and architecture. New York: F. A. Praeger.

TOP LEFT The Basilica de Maxentius axo view showing three large arches and coffered detailing. MACKEY M.D. , A. (2008) BASILICA. [image online] Available at: http://www.standrew518. co.uk/encyclopedia/B/B2.php [Accessed: November 17, 2012]. TOP RIGHT Sant’ Andrea three chapel section to plan relationship. Tavernor, R. (1998). On Alberti and the art of building. New Haven: Yale University Press. BOTTOM Basilica section view. E. V.; G. B. B. (2011) Basilica. [image online] Available at: http://eb.tbicl.org/basilica/ [Accessed: November 17, 2012].

ELISAVETA BOULATOVA 13

ASC 306 Ideas Technologies and Precedents II Term Paper Individual Essay 1 Comparative Analysis of Sant Andrea by Alberti, Leon Battista in Mantua and Dormition Cathedral by Aristotele Fioravanti in Moscow.

Korotayeva Yekaterina

The Dormition Cathedral (Cathedral of Assumption) is one of the most celebrated and well-‐known architectural masterpieces in Moscow. Built in 1475-‐79 by Italian architect Aristotele Fioravanti it adapts the main concepts and ideas of Italian Renaissance and translates them into the language of Russian traditional architecture. (Zonova, 11-‐12) In this paper a comparative analysis of Fioravanti’s Dormition Cathedral and Alberti’s Sant Andrea, is performed, with an emphasis on similar geometry, proportions, shared ideas and concepts. The two Early Renaissance churches are of great historical significance and despite the fact that Alberti and Fioravanti worked in different styles and used different precedents, both buildings convey the same message and follow the same canons of humanism and universal perfection.

Context Being the most significant monuments, Dormition Cathedral and Sant Andrea stand on the central squares of Moscow and Mantua surrounded by governmental buildings and palaces. The Cathedral is located on the northern side of the Cathedral square in Kremlin with a Patriarch’s Palace on the northern side, Ivan the Great Bell-‐ Tower on the East side and the Archangel’s Cathedral on the south side. The church of Sant’Andrea dominates the core of Mantua’s urban life, standing on the busiest city square Piazza Sordello, across from the most important government building Palazzo Della Ragione.

14 YEKATERINA KOROTAYEVA

LEFT Northern façade of Sant Andrea. Borsi, F. (1977). Leon Battista Alberti. New York: Harper & Row. RIGHT Southern façade of Dormition Cathedral. Zonova, O.V. The Dormition Cathedral in the Moscow Kremlin. Moskva : Izobrazit, isskustvo, 1971.)

Time Context Both churches were built at the same time and were influenced by the same cultural movement. Moreover the city of Moscow and the Duchy of Mantua were undergoing major political changes prior to the construction of new churches.

After the old Dormition Cathedral, which was built by Moscow builders, collapsed in 1474, it was decided to reconstruct Kremlin and invite an architect from Europe. By this time Moscow officially became the capital of Russian State and Kremlin, which consisted of several small structures and a small Prince’s Palace, needed a new symbol of power. (Voyce, 33-‐40) In the same year Ivan III sent his ambassadors to Italy – center of innovative architecture and revival of classic ideas. They came back with Bolognian architect and builder Aristotele Fioravanti, who agreed to design a traditional Russian five-‐domed church, similar to the Great Dormition Cathedral in Vladimir. However, Fioravanti, as many Italian artists and architects of that time did, was willing to disseminate the Renaissance culture and architecture beyond the Mediterranean region and bring the new aesthetics of Renaissance to Russia. Late fifteen century Moscow turned to be the right place for Fioravanti and his ideas and even though political conditions in Russia were not present for a successful Renaissance and triumph of humanism, there was a strong need to renovate the faith and refer back to the early Christianity. (Zonova, 12-‐14) At the same time the Italian Duchy of Mantua was also going through changes in political structure and the royal House of Gonzaga needed a new symbol of it’s power and new epoch, which Alberti’s Sant Andrea became.

Program

The program for the Dormition Cathedral was formulated by Ivan III and included the requirement for a place where the most important and solemn state events in life of the country would take place, including the coronation of Moscow’s rulers and Patriarchs. (Hamilton, 100-‐103)

Ivan III also wanted a durable well-‐built structure, since the previous cathedral collapsed. The interior had to be lofty, of heavenly character and be able to provide enough space for people to gather. Fioravanti, in his turn wanted to create a focal point where East will meet West; a cathedral built on the crossroads of main cultural mainstreams of that time. (Zonova, 12-‐14) He studied the typology of Russian wooden churches, Dormition Cathedral in Vladimir, ‘old’ Uspenskii Cathedral in Kremlin and Russian masonry churches in Rostov and under strict observation of Ivan III designed a traditional five-‐domed cathedral, which symbolized Jesus Christ and four Archangels. At the same time Fioravanti managed to bring the aesthetics, proportions and geometry of Italian Renaissance into his design.

Shared Ideas When looking at the ideas behind the design of Dormition Cathedral and Sant Andrea, one could find that they have lots in common.

First of all, Alberti and Fioravanti tried to translate old canons and concepts into the new aesthetics of Renaissance. In the case of Sant Andrea, Alberti adopted the typology of classical Etruscan temple and Roman Thermae, while Fioravanti incorporated centuries-‐old Russian cathedral type. (Zonova, 16) The choice of precedents was predominantly governed by history and origin of two nations.

Secondly in both designs above all the decoration stands the noble simplicity and lucidity of form, without which the beauty of proportions and form cannot be appreciated. The facades of both churches are not overloaded with décor.

Thirdly in his design Fioravanti did not refer to classical ordering system, established by Alberti and his followers, but still embodied ideas of humanism, geometrical perfection and proximity of God. Using different forms and architectural styles the two architects created lofty magnificent halls of elevated character, symbolizing the aspiration towards heavens.

Left diagram: Plan of Sant Andrea. Borsi, F. (1977). Leon Battista Alberti. New York: Harper & Row. Right diagram: Plan of Dormition Cathedral. Zonova, O.V. The Dormition Cathedral in the Moscow Kremlin. Moskva : Izobrazit, isskustvo, 1971.)

YEKATERINA KOROTAYEVA 15

Moreover both churches have a strong relationship between exterior and interior. The triumphal arch on Sant Andrea’s façade continues on the interior and forms the space. Meanwhile the arches on all four facades of Dormition Cathedral become three-‐dimensional on the inside and model the ceiling.

The materials used to build the two churches are also similar. Dormition and Sant Andrea are pure masonry structures with no wooden elements. For Sant Andrea Alberti specified to use the local limestone, while for Dormition Cathedral a brickyard was built outside of Moscow. The technology, which Fioravanti used to mix the concrete and pour the foundation, was new for Russian builders. On the inside the nave of Sant Andrea and Dormition is roofed by barrel vault, supported by massive masonry walls.

Because of the proximity of the adjacent buildings Alberti avoided windows on both sides of the nave of Sant Andrea, which made the set of windows around the dome the main source of light. The Dormition Cathedral, in contrast, has narrow windows on each façade and a well distributed soft light on the inside.

Geometry Analysis When looking for geometrical similarities Southern façade of Dormition cathedral and Front façade of Sant Andrea are the most interesting. Divine proportions and mathematically perfect division of plane governed each decision made by the two architects. Both facades could be inscribed into a square, a perfect form, and divided into two symmetrical parts. Horizontal lines of décor divide them into two equal parts, and two vertical pilasters break the plane into three equal parts. All the six rectangles generated by this simple division are equal and have a 2:3 width to height ratio. Positions of windows, doors and décor depend upon mathematical logic in relation to the basic division into nine rectangles. Even though the basic form is a square, the vertical divisions of the two facades,

16 YEKATERINA KOROTAYEVA

in combination with narrow windows bring a sense of verticality.

Geometrical order and division of plan of two churches share some similarities. Through the position of four limestone columns Fioravanti divided the interior space into nine equal square compartments, three central of which drive the user towards the iconostasis, while those on the side remain of secondary importance. The plan of Alberti’s Sant Andrea was also divided into multiple squares with a vast lofty nave and chapels on both sides. The idea of a dim nave and bright and beautifully lit transept was very popular during the Early Renaissance. It symbolized a road to heaven and drove the visitor towards the apse. In both churches the contrast between darkish and illuminated spaces is well used to create a sacred atmosphere.

To conclude, Fioravanti’s Cathedral was a spark of the Renaissance generation, which glowed in Moscow in the end of fifteenth century.

(Zonova, 15) Even though after the completition of the Cathedral an order was issued to make it a prototype for future cathedrals in Russia, Dormition of Moscow remained inimitable and unique. The same happened to Sant Andrea, as it was copied widely until seventeenth century. Both buildings had a great influence on church typology in Russia, Italy and the rest of the world. While Alberti’s Sant Andrea is a straightforward example of architectural language and concepts of Renaissance, in his Dormition Cathedral Fioravanti expressed the new progressive world outlook and ideas through creative interpretation of Russian vernacular architecture.

Bibliography Alpatov M. (1969). Russian impact on art. New York: Greenwood Press Publishers. Borsi, F. (1977). Leon Battista Alberti.

New York: Harper & Row. Brooke C. (2006). Moscow: a cultural history. New York ; Toronto : Oxford University Press.

Hamilton G. (1975). Art and architecture of Russia. Baltimore : Penguin Books. Murray, P. (1964). The architecture of the Italian Renaissance. New York: Schocken Books.

Voyce A. (1967). Art and architecture of medieval Russia.

Norman : U.of Oklahoma P. Voyce A.(1954). The Moscow Kremlin. It’s History, architecture and art treasures. California: The Uversity of California press.

ASC 306 Ideas Technologies and Precedents II Term Paper Individual Essay 2 Comparative Analysis of Sant Andrea by Alberti, Leon Battista in Mantua and Parthenon by Ictinus, Callicrates and Phidias in Athens.

Korotayeva Yekaterina

Parthenon was designed and built by architects Ictinus, Callicrates and sculpture Phidias between 447 and 432 BC. It is known to be the most perfect and delicate Doric temple, an example to study and to follow. Parthenon with it’s mathematically arranged plan and facade, massive pediment, sophisticated slight curves of stylobate and columns’ entasis, which serve to please the eye and create optical illusion, is called a narrative-‐free eternal temple. (Bruno 10) The concept of eternal temple was the one, which Alberti was striving towards when he was designing his church of Sant Andrea in Mantua.

He studied the geometry, principles of balance and divine proportions of Parthenon during his visits to Acropolis.

This paper is a comparative analysis of Athenian Parthenon and Basilica of Sant Andrea in Mantua, with emphasis on architectural language, concepts and geometry adopted by Alberti from Parthenon and classical Greek architecture.

Time context The construction of Parthenon began in 447 BC., when Greece was at the height of its power and the city of Athens was about to become a cultural and commercial center of the country. Athenian Acropolis, a symbol of the Greek Empire, was totally destroyed by Persians and therefore the reconstruction process was initiated. Ictinus’s Parthenon was a replacement for the Old Parthenon of Acropolis. The new temple of Athena stood on the same site as the old one, but was bigger in size. The other important buildings of Acropolis, such as Propylaea, Erechtheum, Theatre of Dionysus and the temple of Athena Nike were reconstructed simultaneously.

For a long period of time Athenian Acropolis with its magnificent temples and monuments was forgotten by architects. But during the Early Renaissance in Italy they start to develop an interest in Classic Greek architecture and particularly in Parthenon. Florence now resembles Athens of the times when it was a cultural center, where the most progressive ideas were generated. Alberti, in his turn, had several trips to Athens, where he studied Athenian Acropolis, and right before designing Sant Andrea he worked on restoration of Roman and Greek buildings and monuments.

Shared Ideas When Ictinus and Callicrates were designing Parthenon their main concern was the human response to their building. They delicately curved the stylobate and columns, so that the human eye would perceive the form without distortion (Carpenter 15). This idea of having a human in the center of the universe and building to please and

bring delight to people got its rebirth in Renaissance and was called Humanism. Alberti adopted this concept and in all of his commissions an important part of program was ‘’delight’’ and human scale.

Even though the rule that a temple must be elevated and be as close to God as possible was established long before Ictinus and Callicrates, they implemented it in a very fine way. Their temple rests on a plinth three steps high and is located on the top of the Acropolis summit. Three centuries after Parthenon was built Vitruvius in his “Ten Books on Architecture” states that a temple should be elevated above the ground, since it has to bring people closer to heavens. Alberti, in his turn, also elevated Sant Andrea and designed entrance six steps high. Even today his ethereal church dominates the city of Mantua.

Many architects of Italian Renaissance assimilated the aesthetics of Parthenon and its architectural language and Alberti was not an exemption. He adopted the static and perfectly symmetrical composition, both in plan and section, purity of form and lofty character of both interior and exterior. The material used on the exterior (limestone for Parthenon and hardened stucco for Sant Andrea) is bright colored and creates a smooth surface, emphasizing the noble character of two buildings.

In terms of light, architects of the Parthenon and Sant Andrea use the contrast between dark and bright to distinguish the solemn and holly zones of their buildings. The sacred chamber in Parthenon was planned to be a dim space with no windows, so that the further the visitor proceeded, the less natural light was reaching him or her (Carpenter 15). Sant Andrea, in contrast, has a dark nave, which leads to a well-‐lit transept and apse. The most sacred part of the church has windows above it and the light forces the visitor to move towards Holly Blood relic.

Geometry and architectural language When looking at the front facades of Sant Andrea and Parthenon it can be seen that the proportions of the pediment are exactly the same in both buildings. The height of pediment relates to its width as 1:7. The height of the Pediment of the Parthenon is 1/4 of the height of the building, while Sant Andrea’s pediment is 1/6. The 1:6 ratio, which gives Sant Andrea a sense of verticality in contrast to static and Wstable Parthenon, comes from the Etruscum Sacrum typology, which Alberti used as a prototype (Borsi 230).

The width to height ratio of the rest part of the entablature (In Parthenon cornice, triglyph, metope and architrave; In Sant Andrea frieze, cornice and architrave) is also the same in both buildings. The proportions of the rectangle, in which the entablature could be in-

YEKATERINA KOROTAYEVA 17

LEFT Northern faรงade of Sant Andrea. Borsi, F. (1977). Leon Battista Alberti. New York: Harper & Row. RIGHT Front faรงade of Parthenon. Bruno V.J. (1996). The Parthenon: illustrations, introductory essay, history, archeological analysis, criticism. New York : Norton.

18 YEKATERINA KOROTAYEVA

scribed, are 1:9.

Even though Alberti introduces two different orders, much thinner and taller columns, arched windows and a bigger arch on his façade, the form of classical Greek temple is easily recognizable. He gracefully adapts the classical façade and gives it a new interpretation.

mathematical relationships of parts of Parthenon attracted Alberti, who was interested in mathematics and exact sciences.

Left diagram: Northern façade of Sant Andrea. Borsi, F. (1977).

Leon Battista Alberti. New York: Harper & Row. Right diagram: Front façade of Parthenon. Bruno V.J. (1996).

The Parthenon: illustrations, introductory essay, history, archeological analysis, criticism. New York : Norton.

Geometry of Plan Both Sant Andrea and Parthenon have one axis of symmetry, along which the circulation and procession towards the most sacred parts of two buildings occurs. The experience of Parthenon and Sant Andrea is all about movement towards the most important sacred space (cella, where Athena’s statue stands in Parthenon and apse, where Blood of Christ relic is placed in Sant Andrea). The holy chamber in both buildings is not exposed. One has to process through a series of spaces, before reaching the core. Interestingly the proportions of nave of Sant Andrea resemble the ones of Parthenon.

Left diagram: Plan of Sant Andrea. Borsi, F. (1977). Leon Battista Alberti. New York: Harper & Row. Right diagram: Plan of Parthenon. Bruno V.J. (1996). The Parthenon: illustrations, introductory essay, history, archeological analysis, criticism. New York : Norton.

To conclude, the classical Greek architecture and Greek temple typology had a great influence on Alberti and his work. He generated the concepts of perfect symmetry, ideal proportions, static composition and symbolism by studying great monuments of the past and Parthenon in particular (Borsi 233). Moreover, the complex

Bibliography Borsi, F. (1977). Leon Battista Alberti. New York: Harper & Row. Brown F.E.(1961). Roman architecture. New York: George Braziller.

Bruno V.J. (1996). The Parthenon: illustrations, introductory essay, history, archeological analysis, criticism. New York : Norton.

Carpenter R. (1970). The architects of the Parthenon. Harmondsworth : Penguin. Gadol, J. (1969). Leon Battista Alberti: Universal man of the early Renaissance. Chicago: The Univ. of Chicago Press.

Hopper R.J. (1971). Acropolis. New York : Macmillan.

Rhodes R.F.(1995). Architecture and meaning on the Athenian Acropolis. Cambridge ; New York : Cambridge University Press.

LEFT Plan of Sant Andrea. Borsi, F. (1977). Leon Battista Alberti. New York: Harper & Row. RIGHT Plan of Parthenon. Bruno V.J. (1996). The Parthenon: illustrations, introductory essay, history, archeological analysis, criticism. New York : Norton.

YEKATERINA KOROTAYEVA 19

St. Paul’s Cathedral by Sir Christopher Wren Case Study A Figure 1 A section taken trough the dome of the cathedral, identify-

CHELSEA CAMPBELL Context

St. Paul’s Cathedral, the fifth historically, by architect Sir Christopher Wren was a renaissance church expressing similar ideas and concepts employed by Alberti in his creation of the Sant Andrea Basilica. It is situated at the highest point in London, England at the top of Ludgate Hill, allowing for perspective view ports for almost any angle in the city Sir Christopher Wren was one of the most famous British Architects of his time. He was a brilliant scientist whose interest in tangible and visual truths in optics and geometry lead him to pursue architecture. Wren was fascinated by ancient Vitruvius who was an important influence in his design process. In addition, he was moved by two main forces when it came to taking on the challenge of redesigning the new cathedral. The first is the fact that large prestigious buildings were becoming symbols of national pride. The second is that Wren wanted to build a tall dome in addition to the nave, one that would be looked upon more highly than the dome at St. Peters basilica.

The reason for the rebuilding of St. Paul’s Cathedral was due to the Great Fire occurring in London in 1666. This transformed the

20 CHELSEA CAMPBELL

ing the galleries and their positions.

construction of a new cathedral from an idea to a necessity. In1670 Wren was the surveyor of the king’s works and became the official architect of the new St. Paul’s Cathedral in 1673, commissioned as part of the Rebuilding Act. Form and function: Spatial analysis From the renaissance to the nineteenth century the cathedral was used purely as a place of religious, worship, observances, and royal sacraments. Today it still serves these purposes to the Diocese of London, but with the added intentions of use as meeting place for people and ideas, centre for arts, and public debate.

The form of the building contains great balance between interior space and exterior space achieved through the creation of 3 domes that intersect. Below the inner dome lies the main space which contains three circular galleries: the Whispering Gallery, the Stone Gallery, and the Golden Gallery. In the nave, there are three small chapels: The Chapel of All Souls, The Chapel of St Dunstan, and the Chapel of St Michael and St George in the south aisle. The towers to the west are composed of a cylinder rising through drums with corinthian columns and buttresses.

Construction Before he was granted the commission, Wren had started designing out of pure fascination with the opportunity. He worked on five designs in succession and in the end, the design took fortyfive years with construction comprising thirty-five years of it. In 1675 the building contracts were confirmed, with the Warrant design selected. This consisted of a latin cross layout, typical of renaissance churches and not unlike Alberti’s Sant Andrea basillica.

Wren’s final design was constructed without a physical model, which was no easy feat for architects of that time. The main material used in construction was portland stone and it was said to have been a project that could be finished in parts, however, the design continued to change up until their actual execution.The construction of Christopher Wren’s design of the new St. Paul’s Cathedral was completed in 1710 and is the fifth cathedral in its place.

Bibliography Downes, K. (1988). Sir christopher wren: the design of st. paul’s cathedral. London, ! England: Anchor Brendon Ltd. Hart, V. (1995). St. paul’s cathedral: Sir christopher wren. Phaidon Pres. Sutcliffe, A. (2006). London: An architectural history. Yale University Press.

Summerson, J. (1965). Sir christopher wren. (2nd ed.). St. James Place, London: Collins Clear-Type Press.

(1796). The dimensions and curiosities of st. paul’s cathedral, london. London, England: ! Retrieved from http://find.galegroup.com.ezproxy.lib.ryerson.ca/eccoinfomark.do?

action=in

terpret&docType=ECCOArticles&source=library&docLevel=TE XT_GRAPHICS &tabID=T001&prodId=ECCO&userGroupName=rpu_ main&bookId=1720400600&type= getFullCitation&contentSet=EC COArticles&version=1.0&finalAuth=true Henry, D. (1777). A historical description of st. paul’s cathedral. London, England: Retrieved from http://find.galegroup.com.ezproxy.lib.ryerson.ca/ ecco/retrieve.do? docLevel=TEXT_GRAPHICS&inPS=true&prodId= ECCO&userGroupName=rpu_main& doDirectDocNumSearch=false &tabID=T001&resultListType=RESULT_LIST ¤tPosition=1&content Set=ECCOArticles&showLOI=&bookId=0156800800&collectionId= &relevancePageBatch=CW100447884

Figure 2 Plan to Section Relationship

Figure 3 Symmetry and balance analysis in the floor plan.

Figure 1, 2, 3 The Chapter of St Paul’s Cathedral. (2012). Explore the cathedral. Retrieved from http:// www.stpauls.co.uk/Cathedral-History/Explorethe-Cathedral

CHELSEA CAMPBELL 21

The Last Supper By Leonardo Da Vinci Case Study C CHELSEA CAMPBELL Figure 1: The painting as it remains on the wall in the refectory.

Figure 3: The Albertian perspective used to compose the painting.

Overview

“Perspective is the rein and rudder of painting”. This methodical quote captures the essence of art during the renaissance and is applicable to the painting The Last Supper by Leonardo Da Vinci, the author of the quote himself. It is clear that this masterpiece came about during a time when all forms of art were undergoing great transformation. Humanism was the dominating idea at the time which put the human being at the centre of thought and consideration. The subject matter of this composition is a direct reflection of this, with Jesus Christ, the human son of God as the focal point.

Da Vinci painted this work in1498 on the northern wall in the refectory of Santa Maria delle Grazie, encompassing a surface area of 15 by 29 feet. He was commissioned to carry out the painting in the monastery by the Duke of Milan, Ludovico Sforza. Though there are many drawings focusing on the geometries and proportions that he employed in the painting, the only effective evidence of symbolism and meaning is the painting itself, which has been restored multiple times. The painting became famous immediately in its time and still holds this reputation as an artistic and religious masterpiece worldwide.

Artistic Influences Leonardo Da Vinci was considered to be a polymath, which in renaissance terms means someone who is knowledgable in many fields. He was primarily an artist, scientist, and mathematician, learning through observation even though he has almost no formal training. Da Vinci set up many controlled experiments and he has been called the “father of modern science”.

Da Vinci is said to be influenced by the perspectives of Euclid’s Optica and Witelo’s Perspectiva.

But the most direct correlation as a precedent was the Albertian perspective and his work the Della Pittura (1435). Leon Battista Alberti was Influential painter, sculptor, and architect and founding father of many of the renaissance concepts looked back on today. The perspective employed by Da Vinci in the Last Supper has been studied for centuries diagrammatically it has been philosophized that the painting directly utilized the method of drawing an architectural perspective that Alberti invented.

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Composition Da Vinci’s work is composed of two main elements: Christ with his Apostles and the architecture of the refectory. He had a realistic approach to systemizing the representation of space in the painting.

The painting appears symmetrical to the observer as the arrangement of forms suggests this. Jesus’ apostles are depicted in four clusters of three on either side of him which creates a visual balance. Above the painting lies three semi-circular arches in keeping with the formal balance of the scene. Jesus and his Apostles on one side of the table gives a full view of the scene with Jesus as the focal point in the centre, emphasized by the perspective of the background. It is important to note that this is the first depiction of the scene that features the apostles all on one side of a long rectangular table as opposed to sharing the meal around a circular table, a very humanist approach. They appear to be pressed toward the centre, placing a greater importance on Christ. The triple window featured in the perspective behind Christ further isolates him in the centre of balance. With this distribution of the apostles, Christ as the centre, and the single point perspective used, the triangle of the holy trinity is said to be imposed in the work. The powerful emotions of the apostles juxtaposes the

serene calmness that the trinity represents making the composition increasingly powerful.

In The Last Supper light and colour is used evocatively, coming from the left to coincide with the actual lighting of the room. Christ is where this element comes to a climax. There is glow of light on his face an he is wearing a red robe to offset the lightness.This makes the man subject matter dominate the image in colour and value. A shadow cast over Judas’ face demonstrates the same principle but in opposition in the image.To paint on the refectory wall, Da Vinci used a technique he invented that involves applying oil paint to a damp wall, sort of a tempera on stone technique. This is different than a normal fresco or mural because the stone brick wall it was painted on underwent a great deal of temperature change, humidity and decay, which is the leading reason why it has been restored repeatedly since the time of its creation.

Perspective Da Vinci constructed the perspective in the background using an Albertian Grid, with the method of Costruzione Legittima. This perspective gave the illusion of an extension of the refectory in terms of its depth. There has been much controversy as to

which distance he painted it from and the reasoning behind the chosen perspective, but it is widely accepted that it was used to emphasize the importance of Christ as the central figure in the illustration and as an application of drawing techniques of the time.

Analysis of the Subject Matter The scene that Da Vinci is depicting is Christ’s unity and self-sacrifice are represented in the offering of the eucharistic bread to Judas. The biblical passage John 13: 21 is illustrated in the subject matter in which Jesus says to his Apostles “One of you will betray me” at the last supper that Jesus partakes in on earth. As a result of this betrayal, Jesus is sentenced to a death that he freely accepts. This narrative is reflected artistically in the painting in many ways, particularly in the reaction of the apostles.

As opposed to illustrating the theme of sacrifice that accompanies the eucharistic christian symbol that had ordinarily been captured up until this point, Da Vinci captured emotions on a more humanly understandable level, straying away from the predecessors of Duccio and Sassetta. Da Vinci’s version focuses more on the announcement of the betrayal and the reception of the news. The reactions of astonish-

Figure 2: The contrasting expressions of Jesus and Judas in relation to the other Apostles.

ment are very apparent in their hand positions and facial expressions, and even their body language toward Christ.

Conclusion Leonardo Da Vinci created a work of art that successfully harmonized the human figures and the architecture in the painting. With countless reproductions The Last Supper is a universally famous piece that represents renaissance ideals. It remains an important Christian symbol to this date, evoking powerful emotions and resonating with a large and broad audience.

Bibliography Brizio, A. M., Brungnoli, M. V., & Chastel, A. (1980).Leonardo: The artist. Maidenhead, England: Mcgraw-Hill Book Company.

Kemp, M. (2004). Lenardo. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.

Ladwein, M. (2006). Leonardo da vinci, the last supper: A cosmic drama and an act of redemption. Temple Lodge Publishing.

Marani, P. C. (2003). Leonardo da vinci: The complete paintings. New York, NY: Harry, N. Abrams.

Nicholl, C. (2004). Leonardo da vinci: Flights of the mind. New York, NY: Penguin Group.

Nolde, E., & Selz, P. H. (1980). Emil nolde: The museum of modern art publications in reprint. Ayer Publishing.

Pedretti, C. (1983). Leonardo : studies for the last supper from the royal library at windsor castle. Ivrea : Olivetti.

Sketches for the last supper. In (2003). C. C. Bambach (Ed.), Leonardo Da Vinci: Master draftsmanNew York, NY: The Metropolitan Museum of Art. Tomás García-Salgado, Tomás, “The Perspective of Leonardo’s Last Supper” <perspectivegeometry.com> e-journal, Number 3 (2005) Figure 1: Sacred Destinations. (2005). The last supper church, milan.

Retrieved from http://www.sacred-destinations.com/italy/milansanta-maria-delle-grazie-lastsupper Figure 2: Cvrk, L. (2005). The life of judas iscariot from the holy bible.

Retrieved from http://www.judasischariot.com/judas-in-the-bible. html Figure 3: Thoman, K. (2012, August 21). Linear perspective. Retrieved from http://online.peralta.edu/fall2012/mod/page/view. php?id=24668

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Villa Savoye Modern and Renaissance architecture are two different styles that have equally had an impact on the world of architecture. Villa Savoye a modernist villa was built by Le Corbusier in Paris, France between the years 1928 and 1931. This building was essentially designed by unifying his five points of architecture. Today it represents the epitome of modern architecture. On the other hand we have the Basilica of San’t Andrea which is a church built in Mantua Italy by Alberti. San’t Andrea is one of his major works of the 15th century. When comparing these works there are my similarities in the way Le Corbusier and Alberti designed the spaces and programs which influenced the cost and impact on society The program like in many projects plays a huge role in the development. It can affect the cost, the amount of work that is needed and the time it takes to complete this work. In Villa Savoye the creation of such a complex house obligated the site client and program to work as a whole. The couple wanted a weekend home

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that was large enough to house servant corners, however similarly to San’t Andrea where the budget was very constricting, which leads to many changes to the initial design scheme. (Borsi. 238,) Despite the fact that Le Corbusier downsized the house dimensionally it was still double the initial cost because the eventual changes that had to be made during the construction. Contrarily to Alberti, Le Corbusier rarely spent time at the site of his project during the time of construction, which is why his right hand man Fancelli played a major role in the construction of San’t Andrea.

Le Corbusier believed that there was a connection between what is ancient and modern. He attempted to create a work of art in his architecture which would engage emotions of the user through experiential aspects. Rooms in villa Savoye were arranged in a matter for sun and their view, the salon was placed in the northwest, the terrace to the south, the accommodations to the west and the kitchen to the east. The ramp on the exterior of the house used

to produce uninterrupted circulation produces a relation between it and the spiral stair, which becomes an essential centerpiece to the house; it unifies the exterior and the interior spaces. The way Le Corbusier is able to combine space is possibly the most important Cobusier motif. The public rooms of Villa Savoye Le Corbusier placed a strip window to fragment the distinction between outside and inside. Alberti also used a system to generate space. He used massing, scale and perception of space in relation to the person in order to determine the sizes of these spaces. The arch in San’t Andrea provided a division between spaces while the dome creates a sense of pull towards the center (Grafton 13).

Shortly after 1914 there was a strong backlash against experimentalism, and a return to order was much needed. Some they just saw it as a way to return to their conservative values and reject modernity yet others began to embrace modern technologies. Both San’t Andrea and Villa Savoye were both the first of their time which

(Author’s drawings)

explains why they have a monumental first impression. One has a powerful impression due to its size and materiality, the other due to its attention to detail. In either case the user gets a sense of the amount of time it took to construct these works of art. Imitations of these buildings are found all over the world due to their impact. Villa Savoye was the first to be fully governed by his five principles, Horizontal windows, pilotis, roof gardens, free ground plan and free design of façade. San’t Andrea on the other hand was the first church to combine the central type plan with a medieval plan. Both were able to pave the way for future buildings.

Bibliography Benton, T. (2007). Classic houses: Villa Savoye. The villas of Le Corbusier and Pierre Jeanneret, 1920 - 1930 (Rev. and expanded ed., pp. 183-203). Basel: Birkhäuser.

Gans, D. (2006). Le Corbusier guide (Third ed.). New York: Princeton Architectural Press.

Curtis, W. J. (1983). Modern architecture since 1900 (Second ed.). London: Phaidon.

Colquhoun, A. (2002). Modern architecture. Oxford: Oxford University Press Unwin, S. (2010). Twenty buildings every architect should understand. Oxon: Routledge.

Papas, Nicholas. “ARCH 1201: Project 1 Villa Savoye Parti Diagrams.” ARCH 1201. N.p., 5 Apr. 2009. Web. 29 Nov. 2012. <http://arch1201nicholaspapas.blogspot.ca/2009/04/project1-villa-savoye-parti-diagrams.html>.

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