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“The Kurukshetra Battle” from The Mahabharata. © The British Library Board: Or. 13180. Used with kind permission from the British Library.

Tragic Views of the Human Condition

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Tragic Views of the Human Condition Cross-cultural comparisons between views of human nature in Greek and Shakespearean tragedy and the Maha-bha-rata and Bhagavadg-ta-

LOURENS MINNEMA

N E W YO LON DON SY DN EY

Bloomsbury Academic An imprint of Bloomsbury Publishing Plc 175 Fifth Avenue New York NY 10010 USA

50 Bedford Square London WC1B 3DP UK

www.bloomsbury.com First published 2013 © Lourens Minnema, 2013 All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or any information storage or retrieval system, without prior permission in writing from the publishers.

No responsibility for loss caused to any individual or organization acting on or refraining from action as a result of the material in this publication can be accepted by Bloomsbury Academic or the author.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Minnema, Lourens, 1960– Tragic views of the human condition: cross-cultural comparisons between views of human nature in Greek and Shakespearean tragedy and the Mahabharata and Bhagavadgita/Lourens Minnema. pages cm Includes bibliographical references (pages ) and index.

ISBN 978-1-4411-9424-4 (hardcover: alk. paper) 1. Tragedy–History and criticism. 2. Tragic, The. I. Title.

PN1892.M56 2013 808.2’512–dc23 2012042522 ISBN HB: 978-1-4411-9424-4 ePub: 978-1-4411-0069-6 ePDF: 978-1-4411-5104-9

Typeset by Deanta Global Publishing Services, Chennai, India

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For Thierno Ibrahima Bah Chaque homme porte en lui un monde composé de tout ce qu’il a vu et aimé et où il rentre sans cesse alors même qu’il parcourt et semble habiter un monde étranger.

Chateaubriand, Voyage en Italie, Lettre troisième à M. Joubert Tivoli, 11 décembre 1803

Contents Acknowledgements

1

Introduction

xii

1

1 Scope and key questions 1 2 Aspects of tragedy and embedded anthropological issues 2 3 Definition and cross-cultural applicability of the notion

of the ‘tragic’ 5 4 The scholarly art of comparing cross-culturally 8 5 Main purpose of the comparative enterprise 10

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Narrative aspects

11

Part I: Greek and Shakespearean issues 11

Introduction 11 2 Three tragic stories in particular 12 3 Specific plot patterns 15 4 A specific world view 25 5 Irony 29 6 Specific subjects 32 7 Conclusions 34 Part II: Indian and Hindu issues 36 1 Summary of the plot(s) of the Maha ¯bha¯rata and Bhagavadgi¯ta¯ 2 The Maha ¯bha¯rata’s specific plot pattern 39 3 Maha ¯bha¯rata’s specific world view 43 4 The Bhagavadgi¯ta ¯’s plot pattern and world view 53 5 Conclusions 61 Part III: Cross-cultural comparisons 62 1 Introduction 62 2 Specific subjects 62 3 Specific plot patterns 64 4 A specific world view and the role of irony 69 1

36

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CONTENTS

Artistic–communicative aspects

75

Part I: Greek and Shakespearean issues 75

Introduction 75 2 A specific literary genre 75 3 Specific dialogues 79 4 A specific audience response 85 5 Conclusions 91 Part II: Indian and Hindu issues 93 1 Introduction 93 2 The Maha ¯bha¯rata’s specific literary genre 93 3 The Gi¯ta ¯’s specific dialogue 101 4 The Gi¯ta ¯’s specific audience response 108 5 Conclusions 113 Part III: Cross-cultural comparisons 114 1 Introduction 114 2 Specific literary genres 114 3 Tragic mood and audience response 117 4 Specific dialogues 121 1

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Socio-political aspects

127

Part I: Tragic and dramatic issues 127

Introduction 127 G. F. W. Hegel’s theory of tragedy 128 3 The state and the theatre as institutional sources of legitimation and conflict 130 4 Religion as an institutional source of legitimation and conflict 5 The family as an institutional source of legitimation and conflict 137 6 Social status defining the tragic genre 141 7 Conclusions 144 Part II: Indian and Hindu issues 146 1 Introduction 146 2 The state and the family as institutional sources of conflict and legitimation 147 3 Religion as an institutional source of legitimation and conflict 4 Conclusions 152 1 2

136

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Part III: Cross-cultural comparisons 153 1 2 3

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Introduction 153 Historical origins 154 Historical functions 156

Literary–cultural aspects

159

Part I: Tragic and dramatic issues 159

Introduction 159 2 Mythic, legendary and epic stories as narrative sources 159 3 The questioning of tradition and the problematization of heroes 161 4 Tragic conflict as a clash of cultural values 167 5 The power of language 170 6 Historical shifts in world view and view of the human being 172 7 Conclusions 182 Part II: Indian and Hindu issues 184 1 Introduction 184 2 The epic’s narrative sources and functions 185 3 Development and debate of a socio-religious value system 189 4 Epic heroes embodying traditional values 192 5 The problematization of heroes: Karna and Yudhisthira 196 6 Controversial values and problematic heroes 199 7 Historico-cultural shifts in the view of the human being 204 8 Conclusions 205 Part III: Cross-cultural comparisons 206 1 The rearrangement of narrative sources 206 2 The problematization of heroes and their language 208 3 The testing of cultural values 211 4 Cultural shifts in the view of the human being 214 1

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Martial aspects

217

Part I: Tragic and dramatic issues 217 1 2 3 4

Introduction 217 The heritage of a martial culture as a given model Epic and tragic testing of martial values 226 Conclusions 241

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Part II: Indian and Hindu issues 241

Introduction 241 2 The idealization of heroes: Arjuna and Krishna 242 3 The controversial issue of kingship 248 4 Changes in the concept of warrior heroism 250 5 Conclusions 253 Part III: Cross-cultural comparisons 254 1 Warrior class and martial culture 254 2 Male dominance and courage, deeds and speech, violence and self-restraint 260 3 Status, honour and shame 266 4 Victor and victim in warrior heroism 269 1

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Psycho-ethical aspects

273

Part I: Tragic and dramatic issues 273

Introduction 273 2 K. M. Sands’ theory of tragedy 274 3 Moral conflict 275 4 Confusing conflict and deliberate response: A matter of knowledge or will 278 5 Psychic conflict 285 6 Self-knowledge 296 7 Conclusions 302 Part II: Indian and Hindu issues 304 1 Introduction 304 2 Moral conflict 305 3 Confusing conflict and emotional response: A matter of desire or emotional appraisal 307 4 The vocabulary for attitudes of mind and heart 313 5 Confusing conflict and deliberate response: A matter of reasoning 316 6 Reasoning towards a spiritual solution: A matter of action, desire and purity 317 7 Self-knowledge 339 8 Conclusions 342 Part III: Cross-cultural comparisons 344 1 Moral dilemmas, actions and intentions 344 2 The nature of action and wrongdoing 349 3 Self-knowledge 357 1

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Religious aspects

361

Part I: Greek and Shakespearean issues 361

Introduction 361 H. J. Heering’s theory of tragedy 362 3 The necessity of fate and the moral order of nature 363 4 The free and gradual appropriation of fate 366 5 Fortune 370 6 Divine intentions and interventions 374 7 Conclusions 382 Part II: Indian and Hindu issues 383 1 Introduction 383 2 The epic on the gods’ intentions and interventions 383 3 The epic on fate, time and fortune 385 4 The epic on karma 386 5 The epic on fate and human effort 387 6 The Gi¯ta ¯ on fate, time, Krishna’s predestination and human action 389 7 Conclusions 392 Part III: Cross-cultural comparisons 393 1 Divine fate, time and fortune, human destiny and freedom 2 The gods 399 3 Human transgression of vertical and horizontal boundaries 1 2

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Concluding observations regarding views of the human condition 405 1 Introduction 405 2 Narrative aspects 406 3 Artistic–communicative aspects 407 4 Socio-political aspects 409 5 Literary–cultural aspects 410 6 Martial aspects 413 7 Psycho-ethical aspects 415 8 Religious aspects 417 9 The ever-changing bird’s-eye view 419

Notes 421 Bibliography 525 Author Index 541 Subject Index 549

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Acknowledgements T

his book is the unintended fruit of a comprehensive research project on religious and humanist views of human nature initiated by the then Head of Department of Philosophy of Religion and Comparative Study of Religions at VU University, Amsterdam, Prof Dr Hendrik M. Vroom. I am grateful for his energetic efforts to have facilitated the research. I also thank my colleague, Dr Victor A. van Bijlert, for his comments on the Hindu sections. I am greatly indebted to my colleague in the Faculty of Philosophy, Dr Louise D. Derksen, who has been of tremendous support at the time I most needed it. She suggested many ways of abridging the earlier draft of the manuscript, as well as stylistic improvements and grammatical corrections. I also wish to extend my thanks to Prof Dr Jan C. Heesterman (University of Leiden) for his continuous readiness to share his insights with me, and to Prof Dr Michael McGhee (University of Liverpool) for his moral support and for bringing me into contact with Continuum.

Regarding substantial sections in Part II, paragraphs 3 and 4, of Chapter III Artistic–Communicative Aspects, I thank Peeters Publishers and Booksellers (Louvain) for granting permission to reproduce identical sections of my article ‘One Dialogue—Four Relationships: The Different Layers of Meaning in the Dialogue between Krishna and Arjuna in the Bhagavadgita-’, which was published in Studies in Interreligious Dialogue 21/1 (2011), 96–111.

Lourens Minnema Amsterdam, in the autumn of 2012

1 Introduction 1 Scope and key questions Gliding silently over the fields, flying across one cultural landscape to the other and back again, this book aspires to compare cross-culturally Western and Indian tragic views of the human condition. The wider scope of interest of the cross-cultural comparisons is marked off by a broad key question: Can tragic views of the human condition, as known to Westerners through Greek and Shakespearean tragedy, be identified outside European culture, in the Indian culture of Hindu epic drama?

This broad key question has to be narrowed down for practical reasons.

For one thing, of the core texts that can be considered prototypical of Greek and Shakespearean tragedy, I will mainly concentrate on Sophocles’ Oedipus Tyrannus and Antigone and on Shakespeare’s Hamlet. These three texts are widely held to be among the best examples of what tragedy is about, as a literary genre. Hindu epic drama appears to be quite different as a literary genre, but the Maha-bha-rata epic, which includes the Bhagavadgita-, can be used to make a good comparison when it comes to issues regarding views of human nature. The anthropological issues seem much more similar crossculturally than the literary genres which contain them might suggest. My main interest is in the anthropological issues.

Whether this first impression will hold remains to be seen, but it can serve to narrow down the broad key question of the wider scope of interest.

The major key question limiting the actual frame of reference and guiding the cross-cultural comparisons can then be formulated as follows: in what respects can the Maha-bha-rata epic’s and the Bhagavadgita-’s views of the human condition be called ‘tragic’ in the Greek and Shakespearean senses of the word? There are no universal criteria to measure the extent to which views of the human condition in various cultures differ. However, this observation does not make the question altogether impossible to answer. It makes the question answerable in many different ways depending on the framing of

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the comparisons. Properly framing the comparisons is one methodological problem to be faced.

Taking seriously the generic variety of cultural sources is another problem at hand. Views of human nature are expounded in theories, condensed in concepts, imagined in symbols and embedded in stories. Tragic views of the human condition are primarily embedded in stories, the plots of tragedies.

Only afterwards are these tragic views of the human condition expounded in theories of tragedy and in philosophical anthropologies. In order to trace tragic views of the human condition, the methodological starting point has to be the stories in which these tragic views of human nature are embedded. In the West, these stories and their dramatic performance constitute a specific narrative genre – ‘tragedy’.

2 Aspects of tragedy and embedded anthropological issues In ancient Greece and in early modern England, the tragic genre represents an art form whose ‘tragic’ character is related to a wide range of aspects. In this book, I shall heuristically identify seven (clusters of) aspects of tragedy – narrative aspects (Chapter II), artistic–communicative aspects (Chapter III), socio-political aspects (Chapter IV), literary–cultural aspects (Chapter V), martial aspects (Chapter VI), psycho-ethical aspects (Chapter VII) and religious aspects (Chapter VIII). Why these aspects instead of other ones? How has the drawing of demarcation lines between these aspects come about? It was not inspired by a particular scholarly tradition or theory. In fact, the aspects and issues presented here could have been defined differently, and most likely would have been if the material at hand had been processed by a different mind.

Those salient aspects related to Greek and Shakespearean tragedy that struck me as characteristic of the tragic genre had to be arranged and presented in a form that would both cover the most important anthropological issues raised and make for good cross-cultural comparison, enabling the reader to perceive more clearly some fundamental similarities and differences between Western and Indian views of (wo)man.

Each set of aspects of tragedy will have its own chapter. By devoting separate chapters to these seven aspects of tragedy, I try to cope with several methodological problems simultaneously.

First of all, by describing each cluster of aspects of tragedy in detail, I stay as close as possible to the Greek and Shakespearean cultural sources from which the embedded tragic views of human nature have to be extracted in

INTRODUCTION

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order to be compared to their Indian counterparts. Embedded views of human nature are identified in terms of the anthropological issues raised in the stories (issues such as coping with evil, suffering, loss, death, power, gender, injustice, fate and freedom) and they are understood in terms of their particular settings before being compared cross-culturally. In my partly phenomenological approach to tragedy and to embedded views of human nature, I try to stay as close as possible to the phenomena at hand, that is to say, to the images of human nature as they are presented in the stories. Taking as their starting point ‘that which lights up and appears to us’, phenomenological approaches expect understanding to emerge out of the description of patterns, that is to say, they take their point of departure in the appearances instead of imposing thought on ‘objects’, attempting, as Douglas Allen puts it, ‘to uncover various structural differentiations within their data’.1 But, I hasten to add that I highly welcome the light that theories can shed on these images. Different theories enable different views of the same phenomena, which then appear differently under different angles. Different theories all cast some light, one way or another, and are presented in this study to do just that. Pure description does not exist, let alone pure understanding. More on that will be said in the following sections. At this stage, let me underscore that the focus is on the appearance of the phenomena themselves under the conditions of a variation in lightning.

Basically, I am inclined rather to observe and show than to judge and argue for or against phenomenal patterns and theoretical views, to observe and show the particular ways in which anthropological issues are raised and understood culturally.

Secondly, doing justice to the richness and complexity of each set of aspects of tragedy also allows for a wide range of specific cross-cultural comparisons. Thus, generalizations are avoided. Each set of aspects of tragedy provides for a particular context within which specific anthropological issues will be treated and compared. In other words, each particular context (and thus every single chapter) constitutes its own frame for cross-cultural comparisons. The framing operates in two ways. On the one hand, a particular context raises particular anthropological issues. This enables comparisons with corresponding issues elsewhere. In India, for example, similar questions will be dealt with differently, depending on the cultural differences. On the other hand, the framing does not only enable comparisons, it also limits and specifies their scope. Western and Indian views of the human being will turn out to be strikingly similar when it comes to certain issues, yet very different when it comes to other issues.

Tragedy deals with issues it does not expound philosophically, politically or historically, but which it raises artistically. The main purpose of discussing several aspects of tragedy in some detail is to develop a sense of what the

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related issues (concerning human affairs) and the various ways they are dealt with are about. Methodologically speaking, I shall not be comparing texts, but the main issues the texts and contexts are dealing with. Of concern are the anthropological issues which the texts and contexts have in common cross-culturally and the respects in which they differ. The same species of dolphin jumping out of the water seems to generate fairly similar patterns of jumping and of waves on the surface in different oceans worldwide, but the same species of homo sapiens appears to generate fairly different patterns of expression and association when raising the ‘same’ anthropological issues in different cultures worldwide. The ‘same’ human suffering, for example, is not experienced and expressed identically everywhere. Similar issues are addressed differently to such an extent that the difference may strike one as more impressive than the similarity. In this study, common anthropological issues are described as embedded within their original cultural contexts before being compared cross-culturally.

A summary of the most important anthropological issues that will be raised in the following chapters is meant to convey a first impression of what one should expect in terms of points of cross-cultural comparison. Each set of aspects of tragedy raises certain issues dealing with human affairs. In the chapter on narrative aspects, attention is drawn to the extreme ways in which life stories develop into tragic life stories; disorder has to be rectified at terrible cost; suffering and loss determine the mood; a sense of unavoidable necessity takes over; evil and destruction have a long-lasting disturbing effect; and despair, obscurity and irony colour the world views of communities and individuals alike. The chapter on artistic–communicative aspects highlights the ways in which dialogues on the tragic stage seem doomed to fail. Audiences are not only influenced by the tragic effects of the representation of events, but also themselves influence the extent to which life stories, characters and events are perceived as tragic or comic. The chapter on socio-political aspects brings to the fore how the state, the family, religion and the theatre have been prominent institutional sources of legitimation and conflict, and how ‘serious’ tragedy was often, despite its democratic origins, expected to exclusively feature aristocratic characters and treat majestic affairs. In the chapter on literary–cultural aspects, it is shown that there are historical shifts in dealing with traditional norms and values, introducing critically reflective views of (wo)man in the transition from epic stories and heroes to tragic stories and heroes that are symptomatic of increased individualization and internalization.

The chapter on martial aspects demonstrates some striking ways in which the martial values of warrior heroism have cross-cultural parallels in cultures that are separate in space and time, especially when it comes to status, honour and manliness. Also, the use of violence can be seen from a victim’s perspective

INTRODUCTION

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instead of a victor’s perspective. The chapter on psycho-ethical aspects raises the issues of personal moral responsibility, individual freedom and social constraint, of the weight of human intention and action, of the power and powerlessness of passion, will and reason, of the available vocabulary for attitudes of mind and heart, and of the acquisition of human self-knowledge.

The chapter on religious aspects touches upon the tensions and interactions between human freedom and supernatural necessity, fate and fortune, and upon the issue of divine intentions and interventions.

3 Definition and cross-cultural applicability of the notion of the ‘tragic’ To define what is ‘tragic’ about tragic views of the human being is not an easy task. It goes without saying that there is no one concept of the ‘tragic’. In fact, a wide range of aspects of the tragic genre has to be accounted for because each cluster of aspects generates its own definitions. Definitions of ‘tragedy’ and the ‘tragic’ will, therefore, be addressed in all chapters. Readers familiar with, say, philosophical definitions and approaches may appreciate and benefit from reading more on narrative or socio-political approaches, and vice versa.

In order to define the ‘tragicness’ of tragedy and consider the applicability of the notion cross-culturally, I shall, in the first instance, apply Benson Saler’s prototype approach of conceptualizing religion. Prototype theory exploits the practical competence of users of a category to distinguish between obvious examples and dubious examples of the category involved.2 All examples are more or less debatable. This ‘more or less’, however, is not considered to be the problem, but the solution. It allows for the broadening and application of categories beyond the initial prototypes from which they derive.3 In establishing resemblances, ‘unbounded’ analytical categories guide us from the better known to the less known or unknown.4 Sophocles’ Oedipus Tyrannus and Antigone and Shakespeare’s Hamlet are nowadays considered to be among the most outstanding examples of what tragedy is all about. It seems that these examples are already being recognized as such before scholars can prove whether this so-called ‘recognition’ is justified, but their recognition as prototypes depends on the cultural fashion of the age.5 Saler’s prototype approach suggests that we should take these plays particularly seriously as actual prototypes. What the three plays have in common is that they are about killing one’s own relatives and oneself. To turn against and kill one’s own relatives and oneself is widely considered a drama and a crime, but it is not necessarily considered a tragedy; if the killing is done

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inevitably and/or unwillingly, however, the event has turned into a tragedy.

This intuitive insight into a good example of what tragedy is about can guide us in recognizing tragic constellations in the first instance, even if it does not exhaust the notion of the ‘tragic’.

The examples of Sophocles’ Oedipus Tyrannus and Antigone and of Shakespeare’s Hamlet are not on a par with each other if one takes the historical development of the Western notion of ‘tragedy’ into account. Saler suggests that history should be taken seriously as a matter of fact, as the actual starting point from which the specific meanings of categories have developed into broader ones. The history of a category does not just refer to its origin, but includes the very development of that category away from its origin, provided the later development has been recognized as such by dramatic practice or by a considerable number of scholars. Such a development is, in fact, illustrated by the plays of Shakespeare being called ‘tragedies’.

The occurrence of the category ‘tragedy’ in early modern England marks a historical move of the genre from classical Greek culture (via Roman culture) to modern English culture, but the historical move is based more on literary links to Roman culture than on historical continuity with Greek culture, as we shall see. This invites us to undertake a first cross-cultural comparison within Western culture itself, before pushing the limits even further by comparing issues in two bodies of Western texts and their contexts with the corresponding issues in a body of Indian texts and their contexts. The crosscultural move from Greece to England has become an integral part of the history of the development of the ‘tragic genre’. Hardly any scholar would deny that Shakespeare has written real tragedies. Since Gotthold Ephraim Lessing (1759), the neo-classic recognition of Greek tragedy at the expense of Shakespearean tragedy has been dismissed as false classicism.6 Whether the category of the ‘tragic genre’ can be extended beyond the borders of Western culture remains to be seen. Whatever the outcome, the category of the ‘tragic’, even broader than that of the ‘tragic genre’, still draws from the history of the genre for its distinctiveness, despite the fact that it is applicable to many more phenomena than to a dramatic or literary genre. Within that history, Greek tragedy continues to be the first point of reference. Greek tragedy remains the historical starting point from which the specific meanings of the notion of ‘tragedy’ have developed into broader ones.

Greek tragedy remains the first point of reference and Shakespearean tragedy complements and transforms the associations connected with the Greek notion of ‘tragic’ in ‘tragic views of the human being’. This picture should provide enough of a hold as an initial comparandum from where the challenge of cross-cultural comparisons beyond the boundaries of Western culture is taken up. Whether a Hindu version of Western tragedy can be identified

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remains to be seen. Issues related to Western tragedy and tragic views of the human condition function as a productive springboard for entering the cross-cultural stage of comparative research. That is to say, Western issues are ‘productive’ in the sense that they highlight certain points (of potential comparison) in the Indian material that come to our attention. These would be different from, say, if Chinese issues were being raised. But the crosscultural comparisons will not be straightforward. The Hindu views of (wo)man under consideration do not emerge from Western tragic literature and drama, but from Indian epic literature and drama, and the socio-political, cultural and religious aspects will turn out to be very different too. The Indian cultural landscape has already constituted its own central points and patterns, thus marking and framing its views of the human condition accordingly. The central points and patterns in the Indian cultural landscape that are now highlighted by a Western interest in certain issues have nonetheless emerged from within the Indian cultural landscape. The reading of the landscape is a predominantly Western one, but the landscape remains a recognizably Indian landscape, a landscape whose patterns are sufficiently characteristic to resist Western reductions of the Indian landscape to a projection screen of Western wishful thinking. Central points and patterns can be recognized as formal structures, even before their meaningfulness is expressed in Western or Indian language games. Hindu views of human nature will be compared as such to certain Western counterparts, not as isolated cases, but as deeply embedded in their own Indian settings. In the second part of each chapter, the Indian tradition will be studied and presented as much as possible in its own terms before being compared to the Western tradition in the third part of each chapter. I realize, however, that this presents a problem in that the Indian tradition is submitted to a predominantly Western reading.

It takes a certain distance, a bird’s eye view, to engage in cross-cultural comparisons. It also takes time to fly across one landscape to the other and back again, building up a gradual picture of what the Western and Indian landscapes look like, especially if one wants to include the observations regarding historical developments within each of these regional landscapes.

After all, these cultural landscapes are not static structures, but have taken ages to grow into their current state.

There is a tension in my method between moving through time and moving through space. In presenting the historical shift from Sophocles to Shakespeare as a move from one culture to the next, I take my starting point in Greek tragedy, move from there to cross the boundary of Greek culture and enter into English culture, but I then move further on, to a culture which is earlier in time – in fact, turning classical again – but remote, albeit still IndoEuropean – the Indian culture. On the one hand, my spatial imagery suggests

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a sideward movement at the expense of chronological considerations. On the other hand, I take my actual starting point in the oldest expression of tragedy, in ancient and classical Greek tragedy because that is where the category originally developed and because I agree with Saler that categories become more transparent if they are not taken as timeless, but are understood as part and parcel of the history of a specific culture where they have proven useful – which includes the extension to later times. The category of ‘tragedy’ is not a timeless notion. And yet, the notion of ‘tragicness’ or the ‘tragic’ may point to a human experience which is of all time, a human experience best exemplified in stories about killing one’s kin and oneself unwillingly, which is known beyond Western culture under different names.

4 The scholarly art of comparing cross-culturally What it means to be a human being varies from one culture to another. Views of the human being differ from one religious or secular world view to another.

To be human is something all human beings have in common, but cultures transmit different perceptions of what that commonness consists of. One method of developing a deepened understanding of human nature is to study several perceptions of the human being from different cultures, and to compare them cross-culturally. But this is easier said than done. How is one to find commonness cross-culturally if each culture has its own methods of identifying that very commonness?

The following comparative enterprise was initially triggered by the naive impression that cross-culturally, certain human issues which are presented in ‘tragic’ literature and drama are strikingly similar worldwide. I decided to submit this impression of cross-cultural similarities to a scholarly testing of its potential for new insights into the similarities and differences between cultures. These similarities and differences are likely to exist, but are hard to spell out.

Comparisons are born from the discovery and recognition of patterns in what seem, at first glance, incoherent and unrelated configurations. Basic patterns, such as ice crystals, are recognized without being meaningful in any narrative sense of the word. Ice crystals appear to present us with patterns that we can recognize. Their formal structures are seductively easy to use as projection screens for ‘recognizing’ (frost) flowers or other images. But they do not represent flowers. Cultural patterns too, can be discovered and ‘recognized’ as formal structures (full of unknown meaning), but although they

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tell a story, they do not necessarily tell your story. They may tell a different story unrelated to your own meaningful patterns, patterns of cultural expression and association. Cultural patterns are like landscapes. Cultural landscapes are difficult to identify and yet visibly bear the traces of cultural patterns manifest to those who have the academic skills to read them. Such patterns can only be seen from the air, or from a certain distance and angle, in a bird’s eye view, at a certain speed. Different angles or contexts enable different perspectives.

One of my main methodological assumptions is that views of the human condition cannot be depicted properly without depicting the specific cultures in which they emerge. Views of human nature are deeply embedded in their respective cultures and should be presented as such. Comparing views of (wo)man cross-culturally implies, therefore, comparing the cultural patterns or contexts that mark and frame these views.

I shall not put forward my own textual analysis of each of the texts concerned, but will present the outcome of exegetical and historical analyses done by well-known scholars who are specialists in their fields, and make explicit my personal preferences within the ongoing debate. All these scholarly commentators are extremely helpful in tracing the blinkers and blind spots that form our personal intuitions, preferences and conjectures. My assumption is that scholarly theories tend to shed light on issues more (often) than they cast shadows on them.7 Also, I assume that one single theory is less likely to shed light on matters than a variety of theories juxtaposed. The juxtaposition of a variety of scholarly theories has the additional advantage that scholars mutually criticize and complement each other’s approaches.

This again generates the feedback scholarly debate needs in order to constitute a more reliable general impression of the issues being raised.

The scholarly debate itself is more important than particular positions within it, in my opinion, because it is the broad debate that conveys a general impression of the issues at stake. Moreover, this general impression of the issues at stake, or rather, my version of that general impression, seeks to avoid getting too abstract and getting lost in details.8 In the humanities, a sophisticated general impression is as close as one can get to the truth or plausibility of cross-cultural comparisons. But as such, it is worlds apart from a casual first impression. Academic rigour in constantly re-examining the original appearance from different angles makes the difference. It takes time, patience and discipline to withhold from making comparisons until one has carefully charted each issue within its own context.9 The main question is a cross-cultural one, and it is a question pertaining to patterns. Such a comparative project presupposes, of course, the possibility and validity of cross-cultural questions. In that respect, much will depend on the reader’s affinity with cross-cultural questioning and with the balancing

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act that every comparative enterprise is. After all, cross-cultural comparisons are closer to impressionistic painting than they are to natural science.10 I can only offer my personal picture as an informed attempt to grasp some fundamental similarities and differences regarding certain views of human nature in classical Western and Indian literature, and speculate about the value of the picture.

5 Main purpose of the comparative enterprise Admittedly, tragedies are not everybody’s favourite genre. One of my classmates in grammar school would compose her lists of works of modern literature in different languages for the exam by first quickly reading through the last chapter of a book in order to find out whether the plot had a happy ending. If not, she would decide without further consideration that the book would not become part of her reading lists. She did not like tragedies. I later found out that she had gone into business management.

The main purpose of my overall comparison is to extend the discussion, not of tragedy as such, but of (tragic) views of the human condition, beyond its Western origins and scope by including (parts of) the Hindu epic tradition of classical India in the discussion. That is one reason why the sections on the Maha-bha-rata epic and on the Bhagavadgita- are more elaborate than the sections on Greek and Shakespearean tragedy. The other reason is that the Indian literary and religious traditions are much less well-known outside Indian culture than Western tragedy is.

To identify how close the Maha-bha-rata epic’s and the Bhagavadgita-’s views of the human condition come to a tragic view (in the Western senses of the word) should serve the wider purpose of extending comparative exercises beyond the boundaries of the known and the familiar, and of appreciating to the full, among other things, what it means when a book like The Go-Between

by Leslie Poles Hartley does not end, but begins, in the present tense, with this opening line: ‘The past is a foreign country: they do things differently there’.

But why would one want to extend the discussion of (tragic) views of the human being beyond its Western origins and scope? Shedding some extra light on what it means to be human, trying out different angles, tracing one’s own blinkers and blind spots, broadening one’s horizon, communicating crossculturally, empathizing with fellow human beings elsewhere – those are the kinds of things one would wish to be the point of this academic exercise. In the end, the underlying question of this study is – are Indian views of human nature very different from Western views of human nature after all?

Author Index Aarsbergen-Ligtvoet, C. 463nn. 45–6 Agarwal, S. P. 501n. 122 Agrawal, M. M. 305, 317, 501n. 124, 506n. 156 Allen, D. 3, 421n. 1 Alles, G. D. 220, 263, 346, 406, 449nn. 133–4, 478n. 15, 514n. 225 Amaladass, A. 96–9, 446nn. 88, 90–1, 447nn. 92–3, 95, 99 Arditi, J. 82, 124, 177–8, 180, 214, 225, 268–9, 441n. 32, 468nn. 86–8, 481n. 42 Aristotle (as author) 427nn. 41, 45, 457n. 59 Armstrong, K. 174, 239, 255, 264, 288, 465n. 69, 476n. 180, 484n. 93, 490nn. 146, 155, 495n. 54 Arnason, J. P. 465n. 68 Assmann, J. 47, 130, 436n. 152, 438n. 2, 453n. 9, 476n. 1 Aurell, M. 481n. 38 Austin, M. M. 478n. 18, 479n. 20 Bansat-Boudon, L. 100, 447n. 100 Barber, R. 225, 479n. 24, 480n. 37, 481nn. 40–1 Bassi, K. 219, 226, 260, 262, 269, 478n. 11, 481nn. 44, 46 Bäumer, B. 438n. 181, 448n. 106 Beer, A. 441n. 30 Berghe, P. Vanden 424n. 12, 428n. 52, 484n. 90, 521nn. 76, 78 Bernard, Th. 504n. 145, 512n. 196, 513n. 202 Betegh, G. 370, 518n. 36

Bevington, D. 161, 231, 378–9, 461n. 11, 483n. 71, 521n. 73 Biardeau, M. 44–8, 56, 150–1, 154, 156, 189, 191–3, 195–6, 201–3, 206, 209, 213, 242, 248–50, 255, 258, 265, 321, 323, 335, 352, 398, 435nn. 143, 145–7, 149, 436n. 155, 448n. 108, 449n. 130, 459n. 88, 460nn. 94–6, 471n. 133, 472nn. 136–41, 473nn. 141, 145, 474n. 153, 476n. 173, 508nn. 170–1, 510n. 180 Bloom, H. 31, 125, 177, 283, 298, 358, 396, 429n. 58, 432n. 98, 441n. 31, 444n. 66, 468n. 84, 495n. 39, 499n. 99 Blundell, M. W. 221, 227, 259, 270, 374, 479n. 21, 482n. 53, 519n. 51, 520n. 52 Bolle, K. W. 111, 118, 322, 451n. 148, 507nn. 158–60, 165, 509n. 173, 511n. 181, 514n. 227 Bradley, A. C. 294, 498n. 81 Bremmer, J. N. 514n. 212 Brennan, A. 21, 31, 82, 426nn. 33–6, 441n. 35 Brodbeck, S. P. 148–9, 151–3, 155–6, 242, 244–6, 265, 267, 324, 388–9, 392, 459nn. 89–91, 93, 460nn. 99–101, 487n. 116, 488nn. 123–5, 509n. 172, 511n. 183, 513n. 209, 523nn. 101, 105, 524nn. 108, 120

542

AUTHOR INDEX

Bryant, J. M. 130, 165, 219, 453n. 9, 463n. 35, 478nn. 13, 17 Buitenen, J. A. B. van 42, 433n. 114, 506n. 152 Bulman, J. C. 171, 208, 263, 464nn. 57–9, 61–2 Burian, P. 16–18, 26, 35, 66–7, 81, 161–2, 424nn. 12–13, 17, 425nn. 19, 25, 432n. 95, 440nn. 26–7, 441n. 28, 461nn. 13–14 Bushnell, R. 454n. 22, 457n. 64, 463n. 47, 519n. 48 Butler, J. 138–9, 456n. 47 Buxton, R. 297, 499n. 94 Cairns, D. L. 218, 227–30, 256, 266–7, 402, 418, 425n. 20, 476n. 181, 477nn. 3–5, 478n. 9, 481n. 48, 482nn. 52, 58, 483nn. 64–6, 69, 520n. 52 Calame, C. 296–7, 499nn. 93–4 Carroll, N. 443n. 47 Cartledge, P. 130–1, 136, 453nn. 7–8, 10, 454n. 16, 455nn. 35, 39 Cessi, V. 427n. 47 Chambers, E. K. 454n. 24 Chapple, Chr. see Sargeant, W. Chattopadhyaya, D. P. 94, 146, 187, 445n. 76, 458n. 75, 472n. 135 Ching, J. 480n. 35 Chirpaz, F. 443n. 49, 499n. 91 Cohen, E. E. 478n. 16 Colebrook, C. 431n. 87 Collins, D. 245, 488n. 121 Coyle, M. 15, 34, 140, 423n. 4, 432n. 109, 457n. 55 Damrosch, D. 450n. 138 Danson, L. 79, 91, 144, 160, 176, 439nn. 4, 13–15, 17, 458n. 74, 461nn. 6, 9, 467n. 79, 485n. 98 Dasgupta, S. 354, 504n. 142 Dhand, A. 195, 201, 459n. 92, 473n. 149, 476n. 172, 490n. 151

Diehl, H.

135–6, 176, 455n. 40, 467n. 82 Doniger, W. 55, 57–8, 106, 140, 422n. 9, 423n. 10, 437nn. 167, 170, 172, 449n. 132, 456n. 53 duBois, P. 297, 469n. 102, 499n. 97 Duggan, A. J. 481n. 38 Duindam, J. 479n. 29, 481n. 41 Durrant, S. 138, 455n. 45 Dux, G. 465n. 68 Eagleton, T. 27–8, 36, 69, 143, 430nn. 70–1, 431n. 73, 457nn. 70–1 Easterling, P. E. 33, 77, 88–9, 92, 406, 424n. 12, 432n. 105, 438n. 2, 439nn. 5, 9, 440n. 23, 444nn. 59, 63–5, 453n. 7, 454n. 13, 461nn. 4, 13 Edwards, Ph. 423n. 1 Eisenstadt, S. N. 465n. 68 Elias, N. 263, 479n. 29, 480–1n. 38 Erp Taalman Kip, A. M. van 22, 76, 169, 427nn. 43–4, 438n. 1, 439n. 3, 461n. 2, 463n. 51 Ewans, M. 15, 34, 87, 165, 363, 366, 376, 394, 399, 423nn. 3, 5–7, 432n. 108, 444n. 58, 463n. 34, 515n. 7, 517n. 22, 520n. 65 Fitzgerald, J. L. 41, 120, 261, 433nn. 113, 119, 459n. 87 Flood, G. 191, 212, 445n. 73, 471nn. 131–2, 134 Frackowiak, R. 245, 488n. 120 Framarin, C. G. 324–5, 502n. 128, 511n. 184 Friedrich, R. 131, 159, 358, 428n. 49, 454n. 14, 461n. 1 Frijda, N. H. 308–11, 316, 503nn. 132–7, 506n. 153 Friston, K. 488n. 120 Frye, N. 78, 439n. 12, 498n. 82 Gash, A.

83, 90, 124, 368–9, 441n. 37, 442nn. 38–41, 443n. 41, 445n. 72, 518n. 33

AUTHOR INDEX

Geller, S. A. 174, 465n. 70 Gerow, E. 119–20, 452nn. 155–6, 159 Gibert, J. 47, 436n. 151, 466n. 71 Gill, Chr. 162, 183, 201, 211, 228, 258, 266, 279–80, 303, 350–1, 411, 449n. 137, 461n. 16, 462nn. 17–21, 476n. 179, 482nn. 55–6, 61, 483n. 61, 492nn. 21–2, 493n. 24 Girard, R. 236–7, 266, 271, 469n. 99, 484n. 90 Goldhill, S. 17, 80, 122, 131, 139, 162, 169–71, 183, 208, 286, 290, 304, 355, 357, 410, 425n. 21, 440nn. 22–3, 454n. 13, 456n. 49, 462n. 22, 463n. 52, 464nn. 54–6, 466n. 72, 491nn. 5, 10, 495n. 47, 496n. 61 Gouhier, H. 78, 439n. 11 Gould, J. 165, 462n. 31 Grazia, M. De 298, 304, 499n. 100 Greenblatt, S. 29, 36, 180, 223, 298, 300, 431n. 84, 480n. 33, 493n. 26, 499nn. 101–2 Groot, G. 18, 68, 80, 139, 424n. 12, 425n. 24, 456n. 48 Gupta, S. 95–7, 445n. 80, 446nn. 82, 85–6, 89 Hall, E.

80, 132, 140, 143, 160, 166, 172, 438n. 2, 440n. 21, 454n. 18, 456n. 50, 457n. 54, 458n. 72, 461nn. 4, 9, 463n. 38, 464n. 64, 482n. 60 Halliwell, S. 86, 89, 164, 367, 443nn. 48–9, 444n. 67, 462n. 26, 464n. 64, 518nn. 27–8 Hamilton, J. D. B. 138, 456n. 46 Hansen, M. H. 453n. 11 Hattaway, M. 135, 137, 455nn. 34, 43–4 Haute, P. Van 80–1, 440n. 25 Heering, H. J. 27–8, 36, 69, 84, 123, 237, 362–3, 382, 403, 431nn. 74–5, 443nn. 42–3, 484n. 92, 515nn. 1–2, 521n. 78

543

Heesterman, J. C. 43, 48–9, 152, 189, 199, 202–3, 213, 249–51, 258, 260, 319, 434nn. 130–1, 436nn. 157–8, 489nn. 132–4, 490n. 135, 507nn. 161, 164 Hegel, G. W. F. (as author) 452n. 1, 463n. 47 Hellemans, S. 465n. 68 Herman, A. L. 513n. 203 Hill, P. 101, 151, 351, 383–91, 394–5, 398, 436n. 150, 448n. 109, 460nn. 97–8, 506n. 155, 521n. 79, 522nn. 80, 82–3, 89–90, 523nn. 91, 93–101, 103, 106, 524nn. 109–13, 117, 121 Hiltebeitel, A. 41–2, 44–5, 47, 50, 55–6, 102, 111, 148, 153–4, 157, 187, 189, 195, 197–203, 207, 209–10, 242, 248–50, 252–3, 257–9, 261, 265, 271, 385, 398, 401, 433nn. 120–2, 434nn. 125, 129, 435nn. 134, 137–8, 141, 143, 148–9, 436nn. 153, 60, 437nn. 165, 168–9, 448nn. 110–15, 450n. 140, 451n. 146, 459nn. 84, 87–8, 470nn. 119–20, 471n. 127, 472n. 137, 473nn. 146–8, 474nn. 156–8, 475nn. 159, 162–6, 476nn. 167–71, 490nn. 140–3, 148, 152–3, 157, 506n. 155, 508n. 170, 522nn. 86–7 Hiriyanna, M. 329, 504nn. 141, 144, 511n. 187, 512nn. 196, 199 Hirst, J. 488n. 127 Hofstadter, D. R. 423n. 10 Hopkins, Th. J. 148, 209, 328, 511n. 186, 512nn. 191, 194 Hulin, M. 339, 514n. 221 Hunter, G. K. 239–40, 484nn. 94–5, 485n. 98 Ingalls, D. H. H. 95, 97, 196, 208, 446n. 81, 447nn. 93–5, 473n. 151 Innes, M. 481n. 38

544

AUTHOR INDEX

Jarcho, V. 163, 462n. 24 Jaspers, K. 173, 464n. 67, 465n. 68 Jatavallabhula, D. Feller 508n. 171

Krishnamoorthy, K. 447nn. 93, 95 Kuch, H. 131–2, 136, 454n. 17, 461n. 2, 462n. 24

Kaeuper, R. W. 479n. 24 Karve, I. 41, 433n. 118 Katz, R. C. 187–8, 197, 209, 242–4, 250, 252, 264, 269–70, 391, 433n. 117, 435n. 140, 438nn. 178–9, 448n. 107, 470nn. 121, 124–5, 474n. 154, 476n. 178, 486nn. 101–5, 487nn. 106–15, 490n. 151, 508n. 170, 524n. 119 Kaveeshwar, G. W. 305, 307–8, 310, 312–13, 437n. 164, 501n. 123, 502nn. 125–8, 503n. 131, 504n. 140 Keay, J. 489n. 130 Keen, M. 224, 480nn. 36–7 Kernan, A. 134–5, 141, 231–2, 235, 257, 439n. 14, 454nn. 27, 30, 455n. 31, 457n. 58, 483nn. 73–4 Kerrigan, W. 24, 33, 281–2, 352, 396, 400, 428nn. 55–6, 429nn. 58– 60, 432n. 107, 493n. 31, 494n. 36 Keyishian, H. 16, 21–4, 28, 176, 240, 270, 378–9, 423n. 9, 424n. 10, 427n. 38, 428nn. 51, 53–4, 431n. 79, 467nn. 76–8, 485n. 99, 486n. 100, 521nn. 71–2 Killingley, D. 252–3, 265, 308, 320, 324, 336, 449n. 127, 471n. 130, 490n. 144, 503nn. 129–30, 505n. 151, 508n. 167, 509nn. 174, 176–7, 511n. 182, 514nn. 215, 220 King, R. 504n. 145, 510n. 179 Kinsley, D. R. 112, 451n. 149 Klostermaier, K. K. 445n. 73, 512n. 193 Knott, K. 445n. 73 Kostof, S. 132, 454n. 21 Kremer, J. 488n. 121 Krieken, R. van 481n. 38

Laine, J. W. 472n. 136 Lardinois, A. P. M. H. 172–3, 175, 464nn. 65, 67 Larson, G. J. 512n. 200 Lee, J. 17, 69, 83, 93, 125, 268, 299–301, 358, 424n. 16, 441n. 36, 500nn. 104–8, 111–12, 501nn. 113–21 Lele, J. 451n. 149 Lenoir, F. 465n. 68 Levin, H. 31, 36, 89–90, 92, 166–7, 176, 280–1, 293–4, 350, 353, 400, 432n. 97, 444n. 66, 445nn. 69–70, 463nn. 40–1, 467n. 81, 493nn. 25–9, 497nn. 74–7 Lipner, J. J. 94, 385, 434n. 133, 445nn. 73–4, 447n. 103, 449n. 127, 471n. 131, 488n. 127, 522n. 88 Liverani, M. 215, 476n. 182, 520n. 58 Lloyd-Jones, H. 423n. 5, 461n. 2, 520n. 64 Lonsdale, S. H. 77, 80, 96, 407, 439nn. 6–8 Loraux, N. 131, 428n. 50, 453n. 12 Lowe, N. J. 31, 36, 71, 432nn. 94–5 Machiavelli, N. 28, 137, 235, 346, 371, 455n. 42, 518n. 41 Macintosh, F. 33, 432n. 106 Maillard, C. 96, 446n. 87 Malinar, A. 242, 246–7, 249–50, 259, 265, 449n. 129, 488nn. 126, 128–9, 513n. 205 Mallism, F. 490n. 145 Manning, R. B. 221–3, 479nn. 22–8, 30, 480nn. 31–2 Margolies, D. 20, 82, 87, 91, 124, 181–2, 234–6, 262, 267, 414, 426n. 31, 441n. 33, 442n. 39, 444nn. 55–6, 469nn. 107–8, 483nn. 82–3, 484nn. 84–9

AUTHOR INDEX

Martin, J. J. 180, 469n. 101, 470nn. 110, 115 Martin, R. P. 164–5, 185–6, 206, 462nn. 27, 31, 463n. 37, 470n. 120 Martines, L. 371–2, 397, 518n. 42, 519n. 43 Matchett, F. 101, 113, 185, 206, 437n. 162, 447n. 105, 448n. 106, 451n. 151, 470n. 111 McAlindon, Th. 17, 31, 140–1, 233–4, 236, 262, 267, 282–3, 352, 364–6, 368–9, 377–9, 382, 395–6, 399, 401–2, 418, 424n. 15, 429n. 62, 432n. 96, 457nn. 56–7, 483n. 79, 494nn. 37–8, 516nn. 15–16, 517nn. 17–21, 521nn. 70, 74–5 McDonnell, M. 481n. 47 Michaels, A. 103, 329, 335, 448n. 119, 513nn. 201, 210–11, 514n. 212 Mikalson, J. D. 374–5, 399, 520nn. 53–4, 56–7, 61–3 Milner Jr, M. 194, 219, 473nn. 142–3, 477n. 9 Minor, R. N. 501n. 122 Mogyoródi, E. 366, 383, 395, 517n. 24, 518n. 26 Moyaert, P. 481n. 39 Mul, J. de 457n. 71 Murray, P. B. 19, 29, 116, 177–8, 233, 425nn. 26–8, 431n. 85, 462n. 31, 463n. 43, 483n. 76 Naerebout, F. G. 219, 255, 453n. 11, 477n. 7 Nagy, G. 186, 206, 427n. 42, 462n. 26, 469n. 109, 470nn. 112–14 Nelson, J. L. 481n. 38 Nussbaum, M. C. 86, 443n. 50, 492n. 22 Nuttall, A. D. 283–4, 494n. 36, 495nn. 40–2, 44

545

Olivelle, P. 514n. 223 Oudemans, Th. C. W. 172–3, 175, 464nn. 65, 67 Padel, R.

175, 285–7, 291–3, 297, 350, 353, 357, 374–5, 377, 399, 416, 467nn. 74–5, 495nn. 45–6, 496nn. 64–73, 520nn. 55, 59–60, 69 Palmer, R. H. 85, 87, 91, 117, 438n. 182, 443nn. 44–6, 451n. 152, 463n. 34 Parker, R. 376–7, 399, 520nn. 64, 68, 524n. 125 Paster, G. K. 282, 287, 353, 494nn. 32–4, 495nn. 49, 51–2 Patel, R. N. 203, 332–3, 337, 476n. 174, 513nn. 206–8 Pathak, S. 121, 452n. 160 Peck, J. 15, 34, 140, 423n. 4, 432n. 109, 457n. 55 Péterfalvi, J.-M. 459n. 88 Peterson, I. V. 94, 445n. 78 Piercey, R. 168, 463nn. 48–9 Platvoet, J. G. 465n. 68 Poole, A. 166–7, 428n. 49, 463n. 39, 42 Prasad, R. 191–2, 472n. 135 Pye, Ch. 178–80, 183, 214, 412, 468nn. 91–2, 94–7, 469nn. 98–100 Radhakrishnan, S. 450n. 140 Ramanujan, A. K. 39, 55, 94, 433n. 116, 437n. 166 Ram-Prasad, C. 250, 490n. 136, 511nn. 188–9 Raphals, L. 390, 524n. 115 Reddy, A. V. R. 315, 505n. 150 Redfield, J. M. 78, 80, 122, 164–5, 170, 182–3, 199, 207, 209–11, 227–9, 258–9, 266, 296, 363, 402, 418, 427n. 48, 439nn. 10, 18, 449n. 132, 451n. 152, 462nn. 28–30, 476n. 177, 481n. 49, 482nn. 54–5, 57, 61, 483n. 62, 491n. 10, 499nn. 90, 92, 515nn. 6, 8

546

AUTHOR INDEX

Rees, J. 176, 191–2, 373, 396, 423n. 8, 426n. 32, 429n. 61, 432n. 110, 467n. 80, 494n. 38, 519nn. 49–50 Ricoeur, P. 25–6, 168–9, 213–14, 429n. 63, 430n. 64, 436n. 152, 463n. 48 Riedel, J. 465n. 68 Riessen, R. van 129, 452n. 1, 453n. 2 Robinson, C. A. 447n. 102 Roche, M. W. 463n. 47 Roetz, H. 465n. 68 Romilly, J. de 165, 462nn. 32–3 Rosen, R. M. 219, 260, 478nn. 10–11, 14, 16, 481n. 47 Rosenmeyer, Th. G. 30, 36, 70, 71, 432nn. 90–1, 94, 439n. 12 Rösler, W. 131, 169, 438n. 2, 454nn. 15, 20 Rosset, C. 19–20, 31, 33, 67, 117, 167, 425nn. 29–30, 432n. 104, 451n. 152, 463n. 44, 499nn. 91–2 Rowe, J. 488n. 120 Rutherford, R. B. 165, 462n. 31 Rykwert, J. 454n. 14 Sachsenmaier, D. 465n. 68 Sagan, E. 237, 270, 484n. 91 Saler, B. 5–6, 8, 421nn. 2–3, 422n. 4 Sands, K. M. 28, 32–3, 36, 63, 70, 175, 183, 274–5, 303, 343–4, 362, 431n. 78, 432nn. 99– 103, 466n. 73, 490nn. 1–3 Sargeant, W., 437n. 177, 438n. 180, 449nn. 125–6, 128, 450n. 143, 459n. 92, 473n. 144, 438n. 180, 490n. 149, 504n. 139, 505n. 149, 507n. 163, 513nn. 203–5, 514nn. 213, 217, 515n. 229, 523n. 107, 524nn. 114, 116 Schechner, R. 100, 120, 447n. 104, 452n. 158 Schein, S. L. 218–19, 229, 255, 432n. 95, 477nn. 2, 6, 8, 483nn. 62–3 Schiltz, E. A. 450n. 141, 511n. 190

Schuurman, C. J. 499n. 87 Schwartz, S. L. 95–6, 100, 445n. 79, 446n. 83, 447nn. 100–1 Scully, D. 488n. 121 Seaford, R. 136, 160, 428n. 49, 455nn. 36, 38, 461n. 1 Segal, C. 17, 86–8, 92, 118, 163, 175, 210, 297–8, 347, 363, 376, 401, 424n. 18, 444nn. 51–4, 59–61, 65, 462n. 23, 466n. 72, 491n. 5, 499n. 95, 514n. 226, 516n. 11, 517n. 23, 520n. 66 Seidensticker, B. 18, 68, 425n. 23, 438n. 185 Sewell-Rutter, N. J. 219, 287–90, 350, 363, 397–8, 478n. 12, 495nn. 53, 56, 496n. 63, 515n. 9, 524n. 122 Shankman, S. 138, 455n. 45 Sharma, A. 433nn. 113, 116, 119, 445nn. 77–8, 507n. 157, 512nn. 195, 197, 514n. 219 Sharma, Ch. 325, 329, 504n. 143, 511n. 185 Sharpe, E. J. 501n. 122 Shellard, D. 133, 454nn. 23, 25 Silk, M. S. 91, 423n. 3, 425n. 23, 427nn. 44, 48, 428n. 49, 430n. 68, 432nn. 90, 94, 106, 441n. 28, 443n. 49, 444nn. 51, 63, 454n. 14, 461n. 1, 464n. 64, 491n. 11, 499nn. 93–4, 517n. 24 Singor, H. W. 219, 255, 477n. 7, 479n. 19 Sluiter, I. 219, 260, 478nn. 10–11, 14, 16, 481n. 47 Solomon, R. C. 370, 515n. 6, 518n. 37, 522n. 79 Sorabji, R. 279, 471n. 128, 492nn. 17–19, 493n. 23, 495n. 50 Sourvinou-Inwood, Ch. 173, 464n. 66 States, B. O. 21, 87, 161, 207, 209, 294–6, 299–300, 353, 371, 373, 407, 426n. 37, 444n. 57, 461n. 10, 497n. 78, 498nn. 80, 82–3, 499nn. 85–6, 88, 500n. 103, 518nn. 38, 40

547

AUTHOR INDEX

Steiner, G. 25–9, 35–6, 69, 129–30, 134, 142–4, 372, 402, 422n. 6, 429n. 62, 430nn. 65– 9, 431n. 83, 448n. 116, 453nn. 2, 4–5, 454n. 29, 455n. 40,, 457nn. 64–9, 458n. 73, 519n. 45 Steinmann, R. M. 103–4, 448nn. 116, 118, 449nn. 120, 122–4 Stewart, F. H. 224, 268, 477nn. 3, 5, 480nn. 31, 34 Struck, P. T. 220, 226, 260, 262, 478n. 14, 481n. 45 Sukthankar, V. S. 109, 110, 126, 436n. 159, 450nn. 139, 142, 144–5, 473n. 152, 474n. 152, 508n. 170 Sutton, N. 210, 259, 474–5n. 158 Suzuki, M. 200, 476n. 169 Szondi, P. 18, 427n. 46 Taels, J.

23, 29–30, 72, 380–2, 424n. 12, 428n. 52, 431nn. 86, 88, 439n. 11, 484n. 90, 521nn. 76, 78 Taylor, Ch. 125, 230–1, 300–1, 339–40, 452nn. 161–2, 483n. 70, 494n. 36, 514n. 222 Temkin, O. 495n. 50 Thapar, R. 113, 147–8, 152–3, 155, 157, 186–7, 199–200, 207, 248–9, 251, 258–9, 451n. 150, 458nn. 76–83, 460n. 98, 470nn. 116–18, 488n. 129, 489n. 131, 490nn. 137–9, 509n. 175 Trapp, M. 276, 427n. 48, 491n. 11 Tubb, G. A. 94, 96, 98, 445n. 77, 446n. 84, 447nn. 93, 95–8 Tuchman, B. 490n. 147 Turner, V. 441n. 29 Vaidya, P. L. 445n. 75 Vanheeswijck, G. 484n. 90 Veer, P. van der 490n. 150

Vernant, J.-P. 161–2, 172, 175, 241, 275–6, 278, 290, 303, 323, 344–5, 349, 366, 374, 418, 428n. 49, 461n. 12, 464n. 63, 491nn. 4–6, 8, 13, 517n. 23 Versnel, H. S. 136, 156, 455n. 37, 516n. 11 Vidal-Naquet, P. 172, 175, 461n. 12, 464n. 63, 478n. 18, 479n. 20, 491nn. 4–5 Virtanen, K. 119, 452nn. 153–4 Vuyk, K. 370, 518n. 35 Waardenburg, J. 514n. 212 Walzer, M. 464n. 67, 465n. 67 Watson, R. N. 34, 87, 137, 233, 267, 277, 281–2, 345, 424n. 14, 432n. 111, 444n. 58, 455n. 41, 483n. 78, 491n. 12, 493nn. 28, 30, 494n. 36 Williams, B. 278–9, 289–90, 333, 348, 350–1, 356, 364, 367–8, 422n. 5, 427n. 45, 482n. 55, 492nn. 15–16, 20, 496nn. 58–60, 506nn. 124, 156, 515n. 228, 516n. 12, 517n. 25, 518nn. 29, 31, 519nn. 47–8 Williams, R. 142, 160, 180, 183, 207, 215, 354–5, 373, 382, 422n. 6, 457nn. 62–4, 461nn. 5, 7–8, 469n. 103 Winnington-Ingram, R. P. 276, 289, 345, 358, 363, 398, 401, 491n. 7, 495n. 57, 515nn. 5, 10, 524n. 124 Wittrock, Bj. 465n. 68 Woods, J. F. 44, 46, 196–7, 204–5, 208, 383, 434n. 132, 435nn. 143–4, 473n. 150, 474n. 155, 476n. 175, 510n. 178, 521n. 79, 524n. 109 Worden, J. 437n. 163 Zaehner, R. C.

505n. 148

548

Subject Index Note: The index of subjects does not include page references to pages in the endnotes section.

Abhinavagupta 96, 407 Achilles 87, 162–3, 167, 182, 209–10, 215, 218–19, 227–8, 237–8, 243, 256–60, 263–6, 270, 289, 296, 346, 413 action see karma; (non-)attachment Aeschylus/-ean 13, 17, 27, 62, 65, 131, 139, 154, 160, 163, 169, 171, 173, 175, 182, 208, 213, 219, 226, 229–30, 237–8, 259, 263, 267, 287–9, 297, 345, 363, 370, 375, 382, 397–9, 401, 413 aesthetics 32, 72, 93–7, 99–100, 113, 116, 118–19, 121, 142, 145, 214, 380 see also beauty afterlife 24, 156 reincarnation/samsara/cycle of rebirth 54, 149, 190, 205, 212, 317, 323–4, 327, 331, 338, 395 Agamemnon 27, 154, 163–5, 169, 171, 208, 228–30, 239, 256–9, 262, 266, 270, 288–9, 356, 397, 413 aggression 24, 174 agon(istic) 43, 129, 219, 252, 260–1 see also contest ahimsa- see violence non-violence Ajax 163, 229–30, 264–7 allegory 108–9, 125 ambition 24, 34, 40, 61, 63–4, 73, 88, 145, 165, 230, 233, 267, 282, 284–5, 313, 316, 351–2, 355, 372, 381, 383, 397, 401–2, 411, 416, 418

anagno- risis see recognition Anandavardhana 93–4, 96–9, 113, 115–20 ancestors/ancestral 149, 191, 305–6, 346, 369 anger 42, 95, 110, 228, 230, 235, 239, 270, 286–7, 289, 291–2, 294, 307, 309, 311, 316, 331–2, 353 Antigone 12–14, 16–18, 65–6, 80, 84, 93, 129–31, 138–40, 169, 207, 236, 260, 271, 277, 289, 366–7, 413 Apollo 13, 77, 163, 171, 288–9, 358, 376, 401, 416 aristocracy see class Aristotle 17–19, 22–3, 28, 30, 35, 68, 78, 81, 86–9, 91–2, 115–16, 118–20, 141–2, 160, 164, 172–3, 182–3, 207–9, 220, 228, 239, 278–9, 287, 304, 310, 348, 370, 373, 381, 407–9 Arjuna and his son Abhimanyu 243, 252, 271 and the audience 111–12, 118, 121, 186 on the battlefield 38, 53–60, 65–9, 71, 107, 109–10, 122–6, 148–9, 151–5, 193, 245, 270 crisis/confusion/grief of 53–6, 58–9, 63, 65, 67, 105, 107–9, 247, 271, 305, 307–12, 315–17, 330, 341–4, 350, 400

550

SUBJECT INDEX

dealing with duties and values 38, 53–4, 59–60, 68, 191, 193, 195, 200–3, 210, 212–13, 217, 243, 246, 253, 259, 266, 268–70, 306, 334, 346, 412–14, 416 destiny of 68, 357, 391, 407, 417 and Duryodhana 38, 65 as eunuch/transvestite 55, 70, 261 as heroic or ideal type 111, 188, 193, 203, 211, 213, 242–4, 247, 250, 252, 258, 261, 264–5, 334 and Karna 196–7, 266 and Krishna 38–9, 53–60, 65, 68–9, 72, 93, 101–5, 107–8, 110–12, 114, 118, 121–6, 149–50, 152, 155, 201, 210, 213–14, 242, 244–6, 251, 264–5, 269, 271, 316, 328, 332, 338–9, 341, 350, 356, 358, 393, 408 moral dilemma of 59–60, 66, 213, 246, 259, 304–5, 332, 343, 345, 410, 417 as son of Indra 50–1, 55, 71, 242, 264 and Yudhisthira 65–6, 98, 193, 198, 200, 203, 209, 212, 242, 244, 250, 264, 316 arrogance see hubris artha (wealth, interest, purpose) 48, 189–91, 193–4, 200, 203, 212–13, 248, 255, 260, 266, 336 ascetic(ism) 48, 66, 103, 151, 156, 191, 193, 198, 205–6, 246, 249, 252–5, 261, 264, 317–18, 322–3, 325–7, 330, 335, 338–9, 343, 348, 387 attachment 98, 104, 204, 307–8, 313, 326, 328, 337, 352, 354, 416 action without/asakta karman 245–6, 252, 265, 324, 336 attitude 19 (habitus) audience 78, 86, 98, 120 change in 18–19, 58, 243, 305

detached 30, 72, 193, 245, 265, 281–2 (Stoic), 308 (yogic), 378, 381, 400 devotional 59, 111–12, 118 (see also devotion) heroic/tragic 162, 238, 280, 366 ironic 30, 53, 72 of mind and heart/mental and emotional 285–7, 294, 303–4, 313–16, 324, 342, 353–4 moral 313, 354 reflective/intellectual 174, 212, 225, 280 to time 379, 395, 400 (see also time) audience 15, 19–20, 23–4, 28–32, 35, 52, 56, 59, 67–8, 70, 75–81, 83, 90, 94, 112, 115–16, 118, 121, 125, 128, 131, 141–3, 145, 161–2, 164, 168, 173, 176, 179, 181–2, 197, 199, 210, 227, 229, 234, 239–40, 283, 288, 296, 298, 302, 357, 380, 409 audience response 89, 91–3, 95–100, 108–9, 111, 113–14, 117, 119–20, 132, 274, 407–8 Augustine 125, 178, 340 authenticity/truthfulness 103, 178, 306, 346 authority 31, 98, 103, 177, 200, 211, 225, 232, 246, 250, 263, 323 absolute 103, 134, 249 divine/transcendent 48, 123–4, 246, 249–51 male 139–40, 409 moral 122, 262 political/state 137, 141, 154, 222, 248 royal/princely 80, 92–4, 113, 121–2, 303, 325 (self-)awareness see (self-) consciousness Axial Age 173, 214–16, 255, 265, 348, 361, 411 balance see equilibrium bard(ic) 147, 186, 188, 206, 251

SUBJECT INDEX

battlefield see war beauty 112, 115, 218 see also aesthetics bhakti see devotion Bharata Muni 95, 98, 100, 116, 118 Bhi ma 191, 244, 262, 323, 351, 388, 394 as brutal and amoral 193 as kshatriya 242 as Pa-ndava 193 bird 110, 408 blindness 13, 54, 64, 71, 84, 123, 163, 247, 265, 276, 278, 292, 296, 303, 307, 316, 326, 349, 356–8, 362, 415 body body-language 311–12 the body politic 138 and cosmos 287, 294 (humours), 353, 379 dead 13–14, 20, 24, 88, 130, 257, 263, 270, 295, 298, 396 and mind/soul/spirit 109–10, 125, 287, 291, 294, 309, 325, 327–8, 330, 332–3, 350 mortal/natural 54, 96, 265, 287, 294–5, 297, 317, 329–30, 332, 353 border/boundary 6–7, 10, 18, 28, 55, 70, 101, 144–5, 166, 178, 180, 185, 193, 202, 212, 215, 233, 239, 282, 291, 300, 352, 357, 363, 395, 401–3, 406–7, 409, 417–19 Briseis 258, 260, 289, 356 brotherhood 25, 69, 102 buddhi (intellect/mind) 109–10, 245, 327, 332, 352 see also mind Buddhism/-ist 47, 148, 151, 153, 192, 201, 252, 264–5, 307, 318, 322, 330 burial see funeral calm(ness) 24, 55, 57, 108, 117, 287, 344, 396 Cassandra 171, 208, 292 caste see class catharsis see purification

551

cattle raid 43, 147, 221, 249, 251, 258 see also ritual of war cavalry see war chaos see order disorder/chaos chivalry 224–5, 235, 264, 266–7 see also martial code of honour choice/will choice 16, 18, 28, 38, 44 (selfchoice/ svayamvara), 108, 124, 164, 168, 170, 172, 174, 201 (Gi ta- 18.63), 212, 253–4, 276, 278, 282, 296, 299, 316, 321, 326–7, 339, 343, 349, 351, 356, 362, 366–7, 371, 376, 380–2, 388, 392, 395, 409, 411–12, 416–17 decision(-making) 18, 20, 84, 123, 135, 137, 140, 163, 186, 212, 245, 275–6, 278–9, 285, 287–8, 290, 302, 312, 327, 344–5, 347, 349, 356–8, 364, 366, 382, 385, 395 deliberate/intentional 30, 56, 123, 138, 166, 218, 238, 261, 270, 276, 278–9, 289–90, 293, 297, 309, 316, 341, 347, 349–50, 358, 367, 382, 396, 400, 416 determination 44, 167, 323, 348, 367, 381, 396, 400–1 endurance 238, 261, 278, 332, 351–2, 379–80, 416 readiness 140, 261, 312, 348, 378–9, 381, 417 voluntary/eager 73, 84, 278–9, 289, 309 volition/will/(un)willingness 56, 228, 276, 278–85, 341, 351–2, 358, 367, 389, 395, 416 willpower see power class aristocracy 132, 134, 136, 141–2, 144–5, 150–1, 154, 156–7, 165–6, 219–25, 227, 233, 241, 254, 256, 267, 347, 373, 380, 413–14 (see also nobility/ nobles)

552

SUBJECT INDEX

caste system 63, 147–9, 153–4, 157, 191, 193–5, 198, 202, 212, 257–8, 269, 306, 314–15, 322, 329, 354, 412, 414 higher classes 143, 195 lower classes 141, 143, 195 merchant classes 113, 194, 314 middle classes 116, 142–3 nobility/nobles 225, 233, 256–7, 267, 413–14 (see also aristocrats and dignity) priestly class (brahmin not included) 150, 153, 255, 320 (see also priesthood) ruling classes 145, 150, 153, 256, 372, 414 slave class (shudra not included) 166 social class (distinctions) 19, 29, 48, 63, 144, 148, 193–4, 202, 227, 258–9, 315, 409, 413–14 warrior class (kshatriya not included) 59, 145, 150–1, 196, 210, 247, 252–8, 265–6, 320–1, 352, 414 Claudius 14–16, 21, 24, 64, 66, 71, 82, 141, 154, 176, 232, 234, 260, 264, 293 see also fratricide; incest death of (see death specific) embodying evil 34, 63 language and reasoning of 368–70 Clytemnestra 140, 170–1, 208, 260, 413 comedy 22–3, 25, 29, 72, 75, 78–81, 91, 115–16, 141, 143–4, 160, 273, 293–4, 304, 372, 380–1, 408 compassion(ate)/commiseration/ sympathy 43, 54, 118, 172, 188, 197, 215, 237–9, 242, 252, 270–1, 283, 288, 310– 12, 376–7, 382, 388, 399–400, 407, 418 see also pity compassionate taste/ karunarasa 92, 95, 97, 99, 113, 116–17, 198

competition/rivalry 76, 80, 92, 180 conflict between characters 13, 46, 169–70, 231, 257 between strangers 149 cosmic/divine 31, 45, 51, 71, 305, 346, 374–5, 384, 392 cultural 170, 257, 277 family 13, 38, 40, 46, 51, 61, 71, 99, 129, 137–8, 141, 145, 147–8, 153–5, 169–70, 221 gender 129, 139–40, 155, 263, 410 Hegelian concept of 73, 128–30, 168, 343 institutional 131, 136–7, 139, 141, 145, 147–8, 150–6 internal to/within a tradition 49, 203, 213, 257, 342, 345 male 80, 139, 155, 206, 228, 257, 260, 262, 410, 413 military 37, 45, 130 moral/ethical 17, 53, 59, 65, 99, 116, 128–31, 138, 167–70, 184, 193, 198–9, 202–4, 206, 210, 212–13, 227–8, 247, 253, 257, 259, 274–5, 277, 279–80, 283, 285, 289, 296, 302, 304–6, 316–17, 320, 343–5, 350–2, 374 political 37–8, 40, 48, 51, 61, 128, 130, 139, 144, 147–8, 153–6, 206, 257–8, 262, 371, 392 psychic 17, 21–2, 53, 110, 116, 126, 140, 198, 204, 274, 279–80, 283, 285, 289, 296, 302, 304–5, 307, 310, 317, 351, 382 (see also inner world inner conflict) religious 136–7, 150–1, 154–6, 277, 345, 374–5, 400 social 17, 35, 37, 128, 138, 140, 144, 148, 150–1, 154–6, 170, 222, 227–8, 231, 247, 250, 259, 262, 305, 342, 344–5, 371, 374, 409–10, 412–13

SUBJECT INDEX

tragic

16–17, 25–6, 35, 60, 63, 66–7, 128–30, 162, 167, 169, 178, 183–4, 203, 210, 212–13, 275, 277–8, 280, 289, 296, 303–4, 342–3, 358, 406, 409–10 in tragic plot patterns 16–17, 35, 41–3, 58, 99, 178, 188, 199, 206 conscience 24, 30, 34, 110, 136, 138, 156, 176–8, 234, 283, 352, 373, 382, 415 (self-)consciousness/(self-) awareness 19–20, 26, 60, 72–3, 97, 109, 111–12, 119, 125–6, 128–9, 138, 160, 168–9, 171, 174, 176–9, 182, 204, 211, 215, 231, 245, 263, 267, 270, 283, 285–6, 292, 296–8, 310, 325, 327, 329–33, 346–7, 349, 351–3, 355, 357–8, 372, 379–81, 392, 394, 396, 412, 416 moral awareness 175, 183, 205, 210, 214, 273, 275, 303, 343–4, 377, 399, 418 contemplation 231, 275, 329 contest 22, 44, 77, 79–81, 92, 122, 226, 262 see also agon(istic) contingency 78, 170, 370, 380, 382, 389, 397, 418 cooking 95–6, 119 cooperation 226, 231, 379, 414 see also honour competitive vs cooperative corruption 24, 82, 92, 235, 320, 372 cosmic order see order courage 219, 226–7, 230, 232, 237–8, 263, 269, 273, 413 manly 219, 260–1, 264 cow(herd) 112–13, 250–1, 308, 315, 319–20, 325 coward(ice) 83, 171, 190, 219, 223, 233, 235, 238, 241, 260–1, 268, 283, 290, 311, 348, 413 (non-)cruelty 34, 41–3, 95, 139, 153, 198–9, 210, 252–3, 265, 271, 288, 294, 357, 377, 399, 414

553

culture agrarian see economy agriculture approach to 164, 170 Christian 250, 340, 373, 378 clash of cultures/ civilizations 82, 167, 169, 175, 178, 184, 213, 231–2, 235, 241, 257, 410, 413 (see also world view clash of worldviews) courtier 222, 257, 413 cultural patterns/norms/values 78 culture vs nature 138, 227–8 (Redfield on Achilles) dominant vs sub-/counter- 156, 170, 235 English 134, 147 Greek 78–9, 122, 129, 156, 165, 173, 215, 227, 268, 302, 347, 349, 373 high vs low 79, 144 Hindu 93, 151, 153, 156, 185, 190, 192, 202–3, 213, 304, 346, 353 Indian 109, 151, 156, 173, 200, 204, 214, 269, 340, 347–8, 414 martial/warrior 217–26, 241, 245 (arts), 254–5, 255 (arts), 257, 262, 268, 347, 413–14 Renaissance 239, 282, 353–4, 379, 395 traditional 266, 318, 413 Western 78, 109, 185, 340, 378 custom(s)/habit(s)/habituation 19, 65, 138, 151, 174, 181, 222, 248, 259, 262, 295, 336, 373, 381 daimon 276, 288–9, 292, 302, 345, 357, 363–4, 374–5, 393–4, 399 daiva (fate) 45, 385, 392, 395 see also fate Damayanti 111, 140, 198 dance 76–7, 91, 100, 115 danger(ous) 68, 88, 135, 170, 219, 222, 233, 249–50, 259–61, 291, 293, 302, 307–11, 353, 373, 375, 400, 406, 409, 411

554

SUBJECT INDEX

death in general 19, 23–5, 28–9, 32–6, 49, 59, 61–4, 77, 105, 116–17, 128–9, 165, 218, 281, 292, 294, 315, 319–20, 330–1, 379, 385, 395–6, 400, 406, 408, 412 specific 16 (Antigone), 24 (Ophelia), 24 (Hamlet), 29, 44 (Pa-ndu), 105 (Krishna as Death), 179 (Rosencrantz and Guildenstern), 180 (messenger), 181 (fathers), 186 (heroes), 197 (Karna), 218 (warriors), 229 (warriors), 232 (Claudius), 240 (Polonius), 243 (Patroclus, Enkidu), 244 (Arjuna), 252 (warriors), 269 (warriors), 283 (Ophelia), 296 (Polonius, tragic hero), 298 (Hamlet), 357 (Oedipus), 370 (fathers), 377 debate critical/ethical 54, 86, 90, 105, 107, 122, 124, 161, 187, 189, 192, 195, 199–201, 203, 206, 212, 231, 241, 248, 253–4, 259, 263, 277, 288, 290, 304, 317, 322, 324, 333, 344, 353, 366, 378, 388–9, 393, 411 public 79–80, 105, 107, 121–2, 130, 132, 135, 144, 226 scholarly 46, 92, 124, 155, 242, 248, 274, 366, 378 democracy/-cratic 92, 121, 131–2, 141–2, 144–5, 154, 156–7, 226 Athenian 79–80, 122, 130, 260, 298 tendencies in Hindu devotionalism 194, 269 demons 40, 43, 45–7, 50–1, 56, 60–1, 64, 66, 70–1, 116, 186, 209, 244, 271, 276, 293, 302, 349, 375, 384, 392, 400, 402–3, 418–19 see also daimon

desire(lessness) 17, 39, 55, 59, 73, 109–10, 140, 163, 189–93, 204, 230, 245–7, 252–3, 265, 270, 274–5, 279–80, 282, 284–5, 288, 295, 297, 300, 305, 307–8, 311, 316–17, 319–27, 330–2, 334–8, 340–4, 350–4, 357, 365, 402, 416, 418 see also greed despair 26–7, 35, 58, 69–70 destiny 15, 23, 26, 31, 35–6, 46, 52, 54, 59, 65, 68–9, 120, 142, 204, 214, 238, 257, 296–7, 317, 333, 357, 363, 370, 372–3, 376, 379–82, 384, 386–7, 393–6, 399, 407, 410, 412, 417–18 detachment 30, 72–3, 95, 98–9, 177–8, 214–15, 248 (self-), 252, 259 (self-), 265, 326, 331, 334, 336, 380–1, 385, 412, 414 devotion/-al/-alist/bhakti 54, 56, 58–9, 103–5, 112–14, 124, 152, 188, 190, 192–5, 202–3, 209, 212–13, 233, 235–6, 244, 252, 254–6, 262, 269, 318, 325, 333, 337–8, 341–3, 356–7, 361, 386, 390, 392, 400, 414–15 dharma (order, duty) 40–2, 45, 48, 50–1, 64–5, 67, 99, 104, 116, 121, 150–1, 156–7, 187–201, 204, 209–10, 212–13, 242, 244, 248, 252–3, 257–8, 260, 263, 265–6, 271, 305–6, 315, 320–1, 324, 336, 338, 343, 346, 384, 390, 394, 398, 400–1, 403, 411 svadharma (own duty) 193–5, 243, 247, 255, 259 dhvani (poetic evocation) 96–8 dialogue 4, 30, 75–6, 79, 81–2, 84, 91–2, 101, 106, 108, 111, 113, 116, 122, 181, 201, 220, 233, 368, 407

SUBJECT INDEX

between Krishna and Arjuna 101–11, 114, 118, 121, 123 failed/failing 18, 56, 80, 84, 93, 123–5, 408 inner (see inner world inner dialogue) dice (game)/dicing 37–8, 40, 42–5, 47, 61, 63–4, 67, 71, 197–8, 200, 209, 265, 305, 316, 350–1, 385, 387–8, 391–2, 394, 398, 401, 418 dignity/nobility/noblesse 116–17, 141–2, 160, 207, 209, 227, 233, 256–7, 264, 266, 311, 365, 373, 397, 406, 413–14, 417 see also (dis) respect Dionysus/-iac 25, 33, 77, 136, 144, 288, 292 disorder see order disorder/chaos divination 226, 292 dog 40–1, 64, 98, 118, 198, 308 doubt 55, 139, 166–7, 176–7, 188, 200, 211, 231, 257, 260, 265, 281, 283, 316, 362, 372, 376, 381, 388, 400, 416–17 Draupadi 38, 40, 42–5, 50, 69, 111, 195, 197, 199–201, 210, 213, 261, 263, 265, 384–5, 398, 408, 413, 418 duel(ling) 14, 25, 82, 137, 180, 222, 225, 233, 264, 267, 396 Duryodhana 38, 41, 44–5, 56, 63, 65, 69, 71, 102, 110, 196–7, 246–7, 259, 263, 265, 385, 394, 398, 402, 410, 413 as Kali incarnate 45, 50, 71 playing dice 37, 40, 71 duty 37, 39, 51, 54, 59, 65–8, 72, 107, 112–13, 131, 141, 168, 178, 180, 188, 190, 194–5, 197, 209, 218–19, 221, 223, 227, 234–6, 243, 247, 255, 257–8, 266–8, 277, 290, 305–6, 315, 317, 320–1, 333, 346, 355, 387, 406, 413–14

555

caste duty 39, 112, 121, 149, 193, 198, 202, 210, 247, 321, 334, 352 performance of 65–8, 193, 202, 335, 344, 385, 412 economy 147, 149, 153, 176, 178, 190, 220, 233, 248, 260 agriculture/agrarian culture 113, 147, 149, 194, 387, 395 commerce/trade 113, 147, 249, 315 merchant (class) 113, 194, 314 money 134, 233 profit 190–1, 319 urban economy 147, 233, 267, 282 wealth 44, 116, 147, 150, 190–1, 194, 223, 251, 256, 266, 268, 298, 314, 316, 351, 385, 413 ecstasy 291 education of the prince (epic theme) 24, 148, 157, 161, 187, 207 emotion(s)/-al/feeling(s) 22–4, 26, 29, 31, 47, 54, 56, 65, 71, 84–92, 95–100, 113, 116–20, 125, 131, 134, 136, 138, 140, 143, 145, 155, 165–6, 168, 175, 188, 198–9, 205, 218, 237, 270–1, 276, 279–80, 282–3, 285–9, 291, 306–13, 316, 328, 341, 345, 350–1, 353–4, 358, 370, 373, 396, 407, 414–15 empathy 215, 288, 310, 312, 407 endurance see choice/will entertainment 30, 72, 81, 100, 132–5, 145, 157, 207 envy/jealousy 22, 40, 61, 63–4, 110, 283, 313–14 epic age 147 character/hero(es) 40, 50, 52, 84, 93, 113, 116, 123, 137, 159, 162, 167, 183, 185–6, 188, 192, 195–6, 200, 206, 208–9, 219, 236–7, 241–2, 251, 256, 259, 263, 265, 350, 384, 387, 402, 408, 410, 417

556

SUBJECT INDEX

drama/genre/literature 1, 7, 10, 31, 51, 62, 64, 71, 85, 92–4, 98, 101, 106, 117, 120–1, 146, 148, 154, 159, 161, 164–5, 170, 182, 184–7, 192, 199–200, 204–8, 211, 214, 217–18, 220, 222, 226–7, 237, 241, 254, 256, 258–9, 361, 363, 406, 408, 410, 413–14, 416 and empire 148 Greek/Iliad/Odyssey 15, 22, 31, 36, 39, 70–1, 87–8, 106, 139, 155, 159–60, 163–5, 182, 184, 200, 207–9, 211, 218–21, 229–31, 237, 241, 258, 260–2, 268–70, 374, 401–2, 413–14, 416, 418 Maha-bha-rata 11, 36–85, 93–4, 100–1, 106–10, 113–17, 120–3, 125–8, 140, 146–57, 184–92, 194, 196–213, 241–9, 251–8, 261–7, 270, 304, 318, 321, 334, 344, 355, 357, 363, 383–4, 405, 407–8, 410–11, 413, 415–19 narrative/plot/story 37, 39–41, 43, 45–6, 49–50, 52–3, 55–6, 60, 63, 70, 93, 108, 122, 148, 152, 159, 198, 385, 388, 415 themes 51, 53, 62–4, 71, 84, 92, 110, 126, 147, 153, 157, 161, 170, 186–7, 200, 206–8, 211–12, 217, 226–7, 236, 244, 249, 251, 255, 266–7, 357, 383–4, 386–7, 392, 402 vs tragic 41, 52, 64, 71, 84, 92, 123, 137–8, 141, 159, 162, 164–5, 170, 182–5, 195–6, 208, 217, 226–7, 237, 241, 268–9, 344, 402, 410 war (see war Kurukshetra war) world view (see world view) equilibrium/balance 34–5, 61, 63, 85–7, 91–2, 117–19, 132, 134, 193, 217, 219, 225, 228, 231, 233–4, 236, 240, 250, 260, 262, 264, 282, 287, 319, 353, 368, 376, 392, 401–2, 406, 409, 414, 416, 419

Eteocles

13, 17, 63, 169, 219, 230, 236, 238, 288–9, 350, 397 Euripides/-ean 22, 28, 59, 131, 136, 162–3, 172–3, 207, 230, 267, 288, 290, 368, 370, 375, 397, 401 evil 15, 24–5, 28, 32, 34–5, 44, 54, 57, 60, 63, 126, 143, 176, 191, 195–6, 209, 238, 244, 248, 255, 261, 269–71, 280, 312, 317–18, 338, 362, 374–5, 378, 382–3, 399, 406–7, 414–15 as disruptive force 15, 33, 35, 46, 70 vs good 49, 52, 70, 110, 296, 305, 310–11, 321, 326, 346, 384 release of 15, 33–4, 39–41, 43, 58, 61, 64, 88 excellence see greatness excess see hubris failure

19, 28, 35, 41, 55, 64, 69, 78, 80–1, 83, 91, 98, 102, 116, 125, 140, 152, 171, 208, 211, 226, 245, 267–9, 280, 339, 351, 363, 381 family see kinship fatal mistake see hamartia fate see also daiva; moira as destiny 14, 19, 24, 31, 35, 57, 59, 89, 149, 165, 180, 227, 232, 237–8, 270, 283, 298, 312, 363, 366–7, 370, 382 divine 18, 45, 71, 155, 163, 382, 393–5, 399, 401 family 17, 142, 366–7 fatal/fateful 18–19, 27–8, 31, 35, 38, 40, 45–6, 61, 63–4, 67–8, 80, 117, 189, 215, 278, 296, 303, 329–30, 333, 357, 362, 367, 379, 383, 392, 395, 403, 417–18 vs fortune 61, 367, 370, 375, 385, 396–9, 401 vs human effort 45, 163, 188, 197, 350, 362, 366–7, 380, 387–9, 391–2, 395–6, 412, 417

SUBJECT INDEX

vs providence 23, 60, 364, 389, 395, 401 as ultimate order 44, 51, 61, 87, 163, 244, 271, 276, 278–9, 302, 345, 348, 356, 361, 363, 366–70, 382–3, 385–6, 394–6, 401, 411, 417–18 vision of 57, 59–60 fear 14, 24, 54, 68, 86–7, 89, 95, 112, 117–18, 194, 218, 245–6, 260, 269, 283, 306, 308–12, 314, 331, 347, 364, 372, 412–13 female 129, 140, 144, 155, 186, 261 (shakti), 263 see also woman/ women femininity/-ine 44, 129, 138, 297 fire 287 see also sacrifice fire sacrifice fool(ishness) 79, 83–4, 110, 167, 208, 294, 353 fortune/chance 5, 26, 43–4, 47, 61, 66, 89, 281, 290, 331, 356, 361, 370–3, 375, 382–3, 385, 387, 390–1 (Wheel of), 392–3, 395–9, 402, 417 misfortune 86, 142, 160, 207, 331, 373–5, 387, 392, 397–9 fratricide see murder freedom in action 66, 78, 367, 390 of choice/the will 278, 351, 356, 367, 412, 417 existential 177, 214, 283 of expression 278, 351 individual 177, 334, 388, 412 vs necessity 60, 78, 84, 128, 238, 274, 361–2, 366–7, 370, 382–3, 393, 395–6, 417 political 129 as responsibility 237, 334, 356, 361, 367, 383, 388, 416 vs (not as!) responsibility 283, 333, 355–6, 416 spiritual 327 (Upanishadic), 356 total/true/ultimate 72, 203, 313, 324–5, 327, 330–1, 333–4, 339, 367, 381, 395, 417

557

friendship 84, 101–2, 105, 110, 197, 227, 243, 259, 288, 365 friend(s) 15, 38, 42, 51, 57, 69, 84, 101–2, 104–5, 108, 110, 114, 123–4, 140, 160, 179, 197, 218, 221, 227–8, 230–1, 237, 239, 244, 252, 259, 267, 270–1, 288, 290, 305, 312, 345, 371, 374, 408–9, 414 funerary rite(s) 40, 88, 131, 139, 169, 230, 236, 240, 257, 271, 365, 376, 408 game see play; dice gender 139, 155, 208, 409–10 see also woman/women generosity/-ous 186, 197, 223–4, 228, 251, 256, 261, 266, 315, 335, 413 gentleman 221–5, 235, 260, 264, 267 Gertrude 14–16, 82, 122, 141, 176, 234, 293, 301, 413 gift 44, 84, 123–4, 147, 150, 171, 186, 207, 228, 236, 251, 292, 297–8, 319, 321, 335–7, 342, 386, 408 (dis)grace 54–5, 82, 104, 152, 177, 193–4, 205, 212, 218, 225, 257, 264, 269, 317, 338, 340–2, 357, 372, 390 greatness cosmic/divine 59 excellence 141, 143, 164, 196, 219, 224, 367 heroic 98, 228–9 human 19, 29, 81, 293, 298, 362, 398, 406 individual 26, 176, 229, 266, 293, 298, 402 greed 40, 61, 64, 73, 110, 224, 230, 263, 265, 308, 411 see also desire grief/mourning 22–3, 29, 33, 41–2, 53–4, 58, 61, 63, 65, 69, 87, 95, 97, 113, 116–17, 131, 181, 198–9, 210, 228, 239, 243, 252, 260, 271, 282, 288, 292, 308–12, 365, 369–70, 400

558

SUBJECT INDEX

guidance 23, 89, 152, 156 guilt 20–1, 33, 56, 65, 89–90, 129–30, 136, 156, 163, 175, 236–8, 240, 243, 247, 261, 271, 276, 341, 345, 347, 358, 362–3, 379–81, 397–8 guna(s) (cosmic constituents) 313–16, 328, 330, 335–6, 342, 354, 389–91, 393, 402 guru (master) 38, 103–5, 107, 114, 123–4, 311–12, 339 see also teacher habitus see attitude hamartia (fatal mistake) 18–19, 28, 35, 41, 55, 64, 69, 78, 80–1, 83, 91, 98, 102, 116, 125, 140, 152, 171, 208, 211, 226, 245, 267–9, 280, 339, 351, 363, 366, 381 happiness 13, 58, 86, 149, 165, 209, 317, 373, 406 haste see time hatred 17, 24, 34, 69, 84, 110, 140, 155, 234, 283, 291, 308, 314, 338, 365–6, 382 heart 5, 24, 42, 53–4, 56, 59, 69, 82, 84, 86, 96, 107, 109, 119, 124–5, 152, 163, 174, 177, 182, 191, 194, 198, 233, 240, 252, 262, 267–8, 277, 285–7, 303–4, 313, 316, 322, 341–2, 351–3, 355, 358, 369, 371, 381, 390, 400, 412 see also inner world; mind heaven 40–3, 46, 49–52, 54, 60–2, 69, 71, 116, 174, 189, 191, 196–8, 240, 252, 317, 345, 362, 369, 378, 395, 399, 410 Hector 155, 165, 210, 228–9, 231, 237, 258–60, 263, 270, 296, 402, 410, 413 Hegel, G. F. W./Hegelian 28, 72–3, 116, 128–31, 138, 155, 167–8, 274, 302, 342–3, 380, 402, 409 see also conflict Hegelian concept of

Helen(a) 163, 200, 237, 270 hell 40–2, 51–2, 69, 98, 149, 312, 396 henotheism/-istic 103, 136, 152, 156, 192, 337, 341, 361 heroic greatness see excellence heroism see war warrior heroism hierarchy/-ical 128, 148–9, 152–3, 157, 191–2, 194, 212, 221–3, 266, 306, 311, 315, 365 history play 15, 34 home(coming) 41, 120–1, 129–30, 138, 140, 229, 291, 298, 407, 409–10 homelessness 26, 35, 69 Homer(ic) 22, 31, 52, 80, 106, 137, 139, 160, 162–5, 167, 172–3, 175, 182–4, 186, 200, 208–9, 218–20, 226–7, 229–30, 237, 241, 254–5, 259–60, 262, 266–70, 278–9, 285, 289, 292, 346, 348, 363–4, 374, 401–2, 414, 418 honour see also dignity; respect; shame competitive vs cooperative 218, 229, 267, 374, 413 as a concept 218, 229, 241, 257, 267–8, 374, 413 honouring the gods 77, 144, 155, 410 lack of 116 martial/military 4, 88, 147, 218, 222–5, 251, 255–8, 266–9, 413 (see also martial code of honour) native vs dative 257 outer vs inner 241, 268, 413 as personal sense of respectability 19, 22, 218, 222, 230, 233, 266–9, 413 as public status 4, 141, 145, 150, 154, 218, 222–39, 251, 257, 262, 264, 266–9, 276, 314, 316, 351, 374, 385, 399, 402, 406, 413

SUBJECT INDEX

as recognition and reputation 4, 170, 218, 230, 234–7, 241, 251, 257, 262, 264, 266–9, 276, 314, 316, 351, 374, 385, 402, 406, 413 as respectful treatment 16, 116, 163, 218, 222–3, 225, 228–32, 234–6, 241, 257, 262, 264, 266–7, 276, 314, 316, 351, 374–5, 399, 402, 406, 414–15, 418 hope 26–7, 29, 197, 309, 322, 335, 347, 400, 418 see also despair Horatio 15–16, 69, 83–4, 89, 117–18, 123, 233, 240, 268, 281–2, 295, 302, 359, 371, 378, 381–2, 402 horse 102, 109, 125, 197, 209 (Trojan), 220, 230, 328 see also sacrifice horse sacrifice hubris/arrogance/pride /excess 22, 24, 28, 80, 91, 135, 196, 215, 226, 248, 262, 290–1, 296, 302, 362, 368, 381, 398, 401–2 human condition 7, 9–10, 27, 168, 201, 218, 243–4, 357, 368, 405–6, 408, 419 see also human nature human nature 1–3, 7–10, 18, 30, 68, 92, 227, 233, 256, 258, 279, 282, 285, 301, 304, 313, 342, 346–8, 352–3, 357, 365, 368, 377, 380, 382, 393, 402, 405–13, 417, 419 see also human condition humiliation 22, 98 humo(u)r 105 (the) humours 286–7, 294, 299, 303, 354, 368 ignorance 16, 30, 32, 66, 70, 105, 123, 276, 278, 303, 307, 314, 322–3, 326, 339, 342–5, 349, 352, 358, 374, 398, 401, 415–16

559

(des)illusion 40, 42, 49–52, 57, 59–60, 69, 72, 86, 90, 99, 101, 136, 177, 218, 235, 292, 301, 322, 333, 339, 342, 355–7, 390, 394, 414 see also ma-ya-; power of (creating an) illusion imagination 23, 123, 132, 146, 230, 284, 358 imitation/mimesis 21, 33, 97, 101, 121, 133, 141, 407 immortality see (im)mortality incest 16–17, 34, 63, 139, 141, 154, 169, 234, 236, 365, 400, 418 individual(ism)/individu(aliz)ation de-individu(aliz)ation 205, 215, 326–7, 330–4, 340, 342–3, 355, 358, 391, 416 the (distinct) individual 4, 29, 31, 36, 52, 67, 78–9, 86, 91, 103, 107, 131, 142, 144–5, 159–60, 163, 168, 175, 177–83, 192, 204–5, 207, 214–15, 220, 222, 228–9, 240, 254, 256, 258, 266, 275–6, 279, 297, 300, 303, 325, 330–4, 343, 345, 347, 354–5, 371–4, 386, 388–9, 395, 397, 409, 412, 416 individualism 131–2, 138, 152, 177–80, 183, 194, 235, 240, 267, 298, 337, 372–3, 379, 381, 387, 397, 402, 416 individu(aliz)ation 4, 82, 175, 177, 183, 205, 214, 235, 299, 326, 330–4, 348, 355, 412 initiation/warrior consecration 103, 107, 136, 243, 251, 261, 321, 334 see also kingship royal consecration inner world (vs outside world, not: innerworldly!) 174, 178, 183, 205, 214, 254, 284–5, 302, 322, 329, 340, 346–8, 350, 352, 370, 412, 415 see also daimon; heart; mind; psychology inner conflict 198, 280, 347 (struggle), 351, 382 inner conquest 335

560

SUBJECT INDEX

inner dialogue 83, 93, 107, 124–6, 277, 368, 408 inner experience 180 (see also ecstasy) inner growth 189 inner life/state 17, 49, 64–5, 276, 285–7, 291, 293, 297–9, 304, 308, 350, 353, 416 inner light 340 inner nature 107, 346 internal Ruler 109 inner self 83, 174, 180, 205, 326, 355 inner sources 125 inner transformation 252 inner voice 81, 240 interior(ity)/inwardness 17, 65, 106–7, 125, 285–7, 297–301, 303–4, 353–4, 412–15 internalization/interiorisation 4, 121, 317–18, 326, 328, 334–5, 339–40, 346–51, 414 inspiration 80, 122 intention 5, 18–19, 29, 35, 67, 69, 81, 179, 218, 268, 273–9, 285, 289–90, 292, 302–3, 305–6, 323–7, 331, 333, 342, 344–51, 354, 361, 367, 374, 377–8, 382–3, 389, 393, 396, 400, 406, 415, 417 see also choice/will interior(ity) see inner world internalization see inner world inwardness see inner world Iocaste 12–13, 376 Iphigenia 154, 163–4, 229 irony 11, 15, 29–32, 36, 51, 53, 55, 68–72, 171, 208, 223, 378 ironic reversal/repetition (see reversal) ironic tension 51–2, 72, 361 as rhetorical skill 30 Ismene 13–14, 139, 366–7 Janamejaya 37–8, 51, 251 joy 25, 100, 119, 310, 325, 372, 406

(in)justice 3, 17, 35, 49, 63, 65–6, 70, 107, 138, 170, 172, 205, 213, 215, 221, 224, 227, 237, 240, 263–4, 270, 274–5, 277, 305, 344, 363, 375–7, 379, 382–3, 392, 395–6, 398–401, 406, 408–9, 411 cosmic/divine laws 14, 129, 131, 137–40, 168, 284, 369 human laws 103, 129, 131, 138, 140, 147, 149–50, 152, 168, 176, 192, 311, 320–1, 367–8 law of karma (see karma) laws of nature 375, 377, 382, 399, 418 (un)lawfulness/law(lessness) (see law(s)) ka-ma (erotic desire) 48, 190–1, 193–4, 203–4, 212, 307, 323, 331 Kant, I./Kantian 278–80, 346, 351, 367 karma (causally binding action) 149, 295, 318, 324, 327, 331, 349, 354–5, 392, 412, 416 doctrine/ideology 153, 155, 204–5, 214, 353, 384 law of 322, 386–7, 390, 398 - yoga 337 Karna battle with Arjuna 196, 266 as kshatriya 196 paragon of generosity 197, 256 of semi-divine origin 70 tragic anti-hero 196, 208 Kaurava (clan) 37–8, 40–1, 61, 66, 70, 271, 379, 386, 401, 413, 418 cheating of 305 conflict with Pa-ndavas 46, 51, 61, 71, 99 as demons 64, 244 Kaurava women weeping (see weeping; woman/women war widows) Kierkegaard, S. 23, 29, 72, 380–1

SUBJECT INDEX

kingship/rulership Krishna’s lordship 271 monarchy/sovereignty 43–4, 64–6, 134–5, 137, 139, 147–8, 150, 153–4, 156–7, 171, 177, 187, 193, 196, 199–200, 206, 219–20, 222–3, 225, 228, 231, 235, 242, 246–51, 254–5, 257–60, 265–7, 284, 385, 391, 398, 413–14, 418 royal consecration 43, 61, 246, 249, 385 royal court/family/house 17, 67, 71, 82, 94, 108, 133–4, 140–1, 145, 155, 225, 235, 241, 247, 259, 262, 277, 397 royal succession 37, 44, 189 royal virtues 44 kinship/family family (curse/duties/members/ ties) 13, 21, 41, 64, 116, 127–8, 131, 137–42, 144–50, 152–5, 168–9, 213, 228–9, 311, 320–1, 329, 342, 345–6, 349, 366, 388, 397–8, 409–10, 418 kinship system/group 138–9, 147, 149, 152–3, 155, 247, 409–10 lineage 38, 40, 44, 61, 138, 147, 150, 187, 196, 207, 248, 266, 392, 397, 417 relative(s) 38, 60, 63, 66, 116, 139, 141, 210, 305, 346 knowledge 17–18, 21, 52, 54, 58, 65, 68–9, 92, 94, 103, 107, 110, 122–3, 163, 168, 183, 215, 240, 247, 274, 277–9, 283, 296–7, 300–3, 305, 313–15, 317, 320, 323, 326, 328–9, 331, 334, 339–41, 347–9, 352, 357–9, 369, 381, 390, 401–2, 406, 409, 412 absolute 59, 103, 296, 315, 324–7, 331–2, 334, 339, 348, 351, 357, 416–17 divine 53, 297, 357–8, 416

561

esoteric 56, 103–4, 107–8, 124, 189, 192, 201, 204–5, 320, 323, 325–6, 332, 340–1 foreknowledge 53, 66, 237, 289, 297, 374 mystical (see esoteric) path of 58 rational 210, 296 ritual (see esoteric) self- 111, 163, 174, 205, 215, 274, 283, 289, 296–8, 302–3, 305, 326, 339–41, 344, 352, 357–9, 361–2, 416–17 tragic 269, 297, 357 Krishna 37–40, 45–6, 50, 52–61, 64–6, 68, 72, 93, 100, 102–8 Kunti 66, 196–7, 208, 324 Kyd, Th. 141, 239–40, 365 language ambiguous/tricky 81–2, 170–1, 183, 208, 211, 235, 262–3, 411 biological/scientific 368 (Claudius) body- 311–12 everyday 27 the Gi ta-’s 111, 118 heroic (use of) 159, 171, 183, 208, 211 and human nature 301 (Proteus) lack of 182, 236 logical/referential 83 middle class sense of 143 (Steiner) of religion and ethics 368 (Gash) power of 81, 170–2, 183, 208, 211, 411 (see also rhetoric(al); power) religious 111, 175, 204, 214, 411 rhetoric(al) 30, 54, 80, 82–3, 86, 92, 122–3, 157, 166, 171, 176, 226, 284, 300–1, 317, 411 of self-experience 287, 303 Stoic 284 tragic (use of) 91, 170–2, 183, 208, 211, 235, 286 laughter 95, 116, 271, 344, 378, 380

562

SUBJECT INDEX

law(s)/lawlessness/(un) lawfulness 16, 38, 129, 132, 145, 149, 163, 170, 174, 263–4, 305, 372, 397, 402 see also (in)justice; karma leadership 14, 226, 231, 262, 371, 397 learning 16, 86, 90, 103, 112, 119–20, 130, 183, 207, 235, 240, 253, 298 legitimation/legitimacy 4, 43, 128, 130, 136–7, 140–1, 144, 146–8, 150, 152–6, 171, 176, 192, 194, 199, 207, 232, 236, 246–8, 259, 265–6, 410 Lessing, G. E. 6, 160–1, 182, 381 lineage see kinship/family lonesomeness/social isolation 51, 64, 84, 93, 107, 123–4, 182, 211, 214–15, 227–8, 239, 267–8, 270, 291, 303, 362, 408, 412 loss 23, 29, 33, 35, 45, 62, 80, 149, 156, 237, 241, 248, 269, 283, 303, 309–12, 372, 398, 402, 408, 414–15 of balance 228, 404 of belief 275, 294–5, 344 of consciousness 292 of control 291 of distinction 41, 63 of earrings and armour 197, 256 of freedom 78, 367 of function 132 of history 179 of honour 228, 239, 270 of meaning 32, 295 of memory 307 of people 41, 61, 63, 198, 228, 239, 270 of tradition 153 of Vedic norms and values 152 love courtly 225 devotional/bhakti 104, 113, 193, 245, 338, 340–1, 390 divine 54, 124, 340–1

natural 15, 17, 84, 104, 111, 117, 125, 129, 138–40, 155, 176, 230–1, 233–4, 262, 264, 282, 293, 295, 299, 308–9, 340, 362, 365–6, 368–9, 376–7, 382–3, 402 sexual/erotic 95 loyalty 102, 104, 145, 197, 224, 226, 258, 413 limits of 210, 228, 231, 259, 414 Machiavelli, N. 28, 137, 235, 346, 371 madness 21–2, 64, 83, 163, 175, 177–8, 286–93, 295–7, 300, 302, 316, 350–4, 356–7, 361, 377, 382, 412, 416 male characters see masculinity manas (mind) 327 see also mind Marlowe, Chr. 26, 141, 239, 293 marriage 16, 34, 38, 45, 63, 117, 139, 141, 150, 154, 196, 234, 261, 283, 365, 371 martial code of honour/value system/ values 161, 188, 200, 217–18, 220–6, 228–31, 233–6, 239, 241–4, 247, 251–7, 259–60, 262, 264–8, 270, 277, 305, 320, 345, 347, 413–14 see also chivalry; culture martial culture masculinity/-ine 4, 129, 138, 155, 219–20, 226–7, 230–1, 260–3, 269, 413–14 male characters see (Achilles, Agamemnon, Ajax, Arjuna, Bhima, Claudius, Duryodhana, Eteocles, Hector, Horatio, Janamejaya, Karna, Krishna, Nala, Nara, Na-ra-yana, Odysseus, Oedipus, Osric, Polonius, Ra-ma-, S´alya, Teiresias, Vya-sa) mask(s) 77, 81–2, 178, 286, 292, 294 matricide see murder matricide

SUBJECT INDEX ma-ya- (illusion) 57, 60, 101, 390 see also illusion; power of (creating an) illusion meditation 72, 111, 118, 323, 328–9, 331, 339, 350, 356–7 melancholia/melancholy 33, 275, 287, 293–5, 299, 353–4, 357 melodrama 23, 75, 117, 283 memory 55, 65, 94, 110, 122–3, 161, 182, 234, 300, 307, 340, 352, 379, 396 see also remembrance merchants/merchant class see economy miasma see pollution mime- sis see imitation mind 5, 20, 22, 24, 30–1, 42, 52, 54, 56, 58–9, 65, 69, 84, 86, 97–8, 100, 107–9, 112–13, 119, 125, 145, 150, 166–8, 174, 176, 182, 205, 209–10, 219, 231, 238, 240, 245–6, 253, 263, 265, 276, 278–9, 283–7, 289–92, 300–1, 303–4, 307–8, 312–13, 317, 322, 327 (manas), 328, 331–3, 336, 339, 341–2, 344–5, 349–53, 355–8, 369, 378, 381, 389, 396, 400, 408, 412, 414, 416 see also buddhi mirror(ing) 19, 31, 83–4, 89–90, 92–3, 111, 120–1, 124, 139, 292, 357, 408 moira (fate) 363, 370, 394, 397 see also fate moksha (ultimate liberation) 48, 98, 187, 190–4, 203–5, 212, 246, 338, 343, 395, 410 monarchy/-ical see kingship; order monism/-istic 205, 325, 327 mood 11, 15, 22–4, 27, 29, 32, 35–6, 40–3, 46, 58, 61, 69, 75, 93, 95–7, 99, 110, 113, 116–17, 119–20, 151, 176, 181, 192, 210, 294, 308–9, 396, 408

563

(im)mortal(ity) 31, 33, 51–2, 54, 57–8, 66, 68, 71, 77, 87, 89, 104, 108, 111, 116, 118, 123, 155, 173, 186, 197, 201, 205, 243, 276, 294, 296, 299, 317, 325–6, 330–1, 333, 339, 341–3, 345, 349, 358, 361, 374–7, 382, 384, 387, 389–90, 400, 402, 406–7, 411–12 mother see woman/women mourning see grief murder 12–14, 21, 34, 64, 90, 120, 135, 141, 232, 263, 282, 300, 374, 400, 418 fratricide 17, 34, 63, 69, 101, 141, 154, 365, 397 matricide 139, 208 patricide/parricide 34, 63, 154, 169, 236 suicide 14, 16, 84, 277, 281, 290, 295, 312 mystic(ism)/mystical experience 56, 99, 108, 112, 119, 205, 326 myth/-ic(al) 25, 43, 46, 57–8, 100, 106–8, 115 (itiha-sa), 155, 159–63, 207–8, 210 level of mythos vs level of logos 106–7, 367, 395 mythic vs epic genre 159–62, 185–6, 206, 383–4, 410 mythic vs epic level 45, 50–2, 64, 71–2, 121 mythic vs tragic genre 160–2, 172, 182, 208, 210, 236, 271, 410 mythical past 136, 207 Oedipus myth 163, 208 Phaedrus myth of the soul’s chariot 109, 125, 230, 450 psychological reading of 108, 121 Nala 111, 140, 198 Nara 101, 110–11, 180 Nara-ya-na 101, 110, 188 natural order see order

564

SUBJECT INDEX

necessity 4–5, 20, 23, 60, 65, 68, 78, 87, 91, 117, 128–9, 152, 163, 168, 174, 176, 191, 219, 237–8, 244, 270, 274, 282, 289, 305–6, 345, 351, 362–4, 366–70, 378, 382, 394–7, 401, 406, 417–18 nobility see class; dignity non-cruelty see (non-)cruelty non-violence see (non-)violence Odysseus 138, 165, 209, 219, 227, 229–30, 264, 267, 413 Oedipus 12–13, 16–19, 30–1, 65, 71, 84, 88–9, 93, 123, 131, 154, 163, 166, 182, 208, 215, 260, 262, 271, 303, 346–7, 352, 358, 362, 364, 374, 376, 416 see also patricide; incest; myth downfall of 81, 398, 401 as pharmakos 236 self-blinding 81, 289–90, 297 solving riddles 144, 226, 357 Ophelia 16, 21, 24–5, 63, 84, 140, 232, 234, 283, 293–5, 353 oracle 12–13, 18, 226, 288–9, 302–3, 357, 366, 376, 382, 399 see also divination; seer order cosmic 46, 61, 65, 70, 72, 125, 151, 156, 191, 193, 275, 319–21, 344, 375–6, 379, 383–4, 386, 394, 399–403, 406, 409–11, 417–19 disorder/chaos 4, 15, 17, 32, 34–5, 61, 63–5, 70, 87–8, 141, 145, 191, 195, 233, 242, 244, 248, 257, 266, 271, 295, 320, 365, 368–70, 372, 376, 379, 382–4, 392, 394, 396–7, 401–2, 417–18 divine 65, 129, 345, 362, 375–6, 378, 383–4, 386, 411 eternal 31, 125 feudal 231, 235, 241, 257 monarchical 231, 235, 257, 398–9

moral

30, 40, 61, 82, 141, 151, 156, 190, 275, 306, 346, 363, 375–6, 379–81, 387, 392, 394–6, 398–9, 406, 409, 417 natural 15, 34, 40, 44, 61, 63–6, 82, 88, 129, 233, 243, 274, 295, 315, 339, 352, 363, 365–6, 369–70, 372, 378–9, 382, 396–7, 399, 401, 406, 417 political/legitimate/judicial 16, 43, 82, 123, 131, 155, 165, 263–5, 315, 402 social 40–1, 63, 65–6, 70, 107, 139–41, 145, 151–2, 155–6, 176, 178, 180, 189–91, 208, 215, 344, 381, 402–3, 409, 419 traditional 155, 233, 344, 413 warrior see war warrior order world 28, 46, 150, 172, 204, 242–3, 252, 264, 296, 320–1, 342, 367, 379, 383 Osric 82, 116, 225, 233, 235 pain see suffering Pa-ndava (clan) 37, 40, 66, 94, 98–9, 147, 153, 197, 201, 209, 242, 286 breaking rules of battle 116, 244, 267 end of 99, 113 gods incarnated in 64 vs Kauravas 46, 51, 61, 71, 99 sent into exile 38, 387, 398 passion 5, 24, 29–30, 34, 44, 61, 63, 86, 110, 279–80, 282–6, 291, 307, 316, 331, 350–5, 365, 371–3, 379–81, 396–7, 402, 416 patricide see murder patricide peace Book of 37, 191–2, 200, 212 in death/at peace 24, 130, 240 mediating missions/ negotiations 38, 40, 52, 56 of mind 52, 58, 98–9, 103, 113, 119, 150, 176, 210, 246, 400

SUBJECT INDEX

peacetime 165, 211 vs war 52, 56, 117, 221, 234, 252, 409 Penelope 140 peripeteia see reversal persuasion 54, 123, 316, 394 see also power of persuasion piety 41, 100, 111–12, 118, 120–1, 129, 131, 227, 257, 375, 398, 400–1 pity 43, 86, 89, 116, 118, 234, 271, 283, 290, 305, 308, 310–12, 365, 376–7 Plato(nic) 30, 86, 109, 120, 125, 164, 230–2 play/game cosmic (dis)play 42, 57, 60, 69, 71–2, 101, 124, 253 game 42, 45, 55, 67, 71, 89, 101, 198 role-playing 65, 81, 124, 177–8, 214, 263, 283, 353 wordplay 295 (dis)pleasure 15, 33–4, 77, 101, 115, 134, 190–1, 193, 245, 307–8, 313, 331, 340, 351, 406–7 plot pattern 11, 15–17, 19–20, 25–6, 32, 35, 37, 39–41, 43, 45–7, 49–51, 53–6, 60–2, 64, 67, 71, 85, 87, 108–9, 116, 120, 162, 186, 274, 341, 372, 385, 392, 398, 407 poetry 80, 92–4, 96–7, 100, 113, 115, 119, 122, 164, 225, 262, 286 praise poetry 185–6, 206, 211 pollution/miasma/impurity 12, 15–16, 23, 34, 42, 51, 58, 60–1, 63–4, 69, 72, 86–9, 91–2, 95, 118–20, 175, 202, 269, 290–1, 303, 318, 320–1, 330–1, 344, 357, 376, 415–16 see also purification Polonius 14, 21–2, 24, 65, 79, 83, 91, 234–5, 240, 280, 293–6, 300, 303, 355 polytheism/-istic 48, 377

565

power binding power of action 326, 334 concept of 106, 247, 259 cosmic/divine 28–9, 33, 53–4, 57, 59–61, 72–3, 80, 101, 106–7, 111, 123, 163, 172, 186, 205, 237, 289, 314, 316, 321, 326, 328–9, 332, 334, 337, 340, 357–8, 361, 363–4, 367, 376–7, 382–6, 389–94, 399, 401 and emotion 136, 282, 352 female 139, 261 (shakti), 409–10 human/social 3, 5, 29, 73, 80, 92, 106, 130, 135, 219–20, 230, 268, 271, 306, 308, 367, 411, 415 of (creating an) illusion 59–60, 72, 101, 239, 356, 390 of knowledge and mind 31, 296, 326, 339, 381 lack of/powerlessness 240, 270–1, 384, 388–9, 392, 403, 409 of language/rhetoric(al) 54, 80–1, 86, 106–7, 122–3, 170–1, 183, 208, 211, 220, 263, 284, 301, 316, 411 (see also language) male 80, 92, 155, 409–10 of persuasion 80, 106–7, 122, 220, 263 of playing 90 political/state 37, 44, 62, 64, 66, 133–4, 137, 140, 142–3, 147, 150–1, 153, 155–6, 177–8, 186, 194, 225, 231–2, 242, 246–50, 257, 260, 262–3, 265, 398, 401, 410, 414, 417 religious/spiritual 103, 107, 111, 133, 150–1, 156, 204, 261 of the will/willpower 54, 278, 339, 351, 371, 397, 417 prakrti (self-acting material nature) 247, 313–14, 328– 30, 333, 337, 389–90, 393 pride see hubris priesthood (brahmin not included) 150–1, 154, 156 see also class priestly

566

SUBJECT INDEX

providence 23, 28, 31, 71, 137, 176, 273, 345, 370, 373, 377–82, 395–7, 399, 402, 417 psychology/-ic/-ological psychological breakdown/chaos/ crisis 17, 141, 151–2, 307, 365 psychological conflict 17, 21, 110, 126, 274, 279, 285, 289, 296, 305, 310 psychological debate (see inner world inner dialogue) psychological state 34, 63, 215, 240 psychology 108–9, 121, 227, 279, 323, 388 psychology of characters 24, 50, 192–3, 209, 227, 240, 245, 263, 270, 286, 299, 410 punishment divine 12, 14, 17–18, 33, 291–2, 345, 354, 359, 375, 377–8, 381, 397, 399–402, 418 human 20, 133 karmic 316, 322, 327, 331, 354 purification/catharsis/purity 16, 23, 35, 42, 51, 60–1, 64, 69, 72, 86–9, 91–2, 95, 118–20, 271, 344, 355, 407 see also pollution purusha (person, man) 45 questioning 161–2, 165–6, 174, 176–7, 183–5, 187, 189, 200–1, 203, 211, 241, 259, 297, 411 Ra-ma- 97, 116–17, 121, 250, 346 Ra-ma-nuja 310, 305 Ra-ma-yana 94, 97, 106, 116–17, 121, 147, 346 rank see status rasa (taste) 95–8, 100, 116, 118–19 see also taste

reason(ing)/-able/rational 5, 54, 86, 125, 129, 137, 162, 169, 177–8, 181, 183, 201, 211–12, 230–1, 235, 239, 277, 279–80, 282–9, 293, 295–6, 303–4, 308, 316–18, 321–2, 325, 330, 334, 336–7, 339–40, 343, 348, 350–3, 356–7, 365, 369, 371–3, 377, 380–1, 395, 397, 411, 416–17 rebirth, cycle of see afterlife recognition 17, 53, 69, 78, 86, 90, 172, 192, 220, 226, 257, 260, 262, 268, 270, 275, 296, 407–8, 412–13, 417 of manliness (see masculinity) of necessity 60, 87, 91, 238, 369, 370 reconciliation 16, 25, 35, 68–9, 406 reincarnation see afterlife remembrance/commemoration 16, 65, 94, 123, 105, 141, 186, 257, 270 see also memory; smrti Renaissance 25–6, 29–30, 36, 76, 89, 135, 142, 178, 180, 214, 224–5, 232, 234, 236, 239, 257, 262, 264, 268, 281–2, 293, 295, 300–1, 352, 357, 365, 371–3, 379–80, 395, 401–2, 417, 419 sceptic spirit of 176–7, 211 (dis)respect 102, 105, 218, 227, 235, 305, 346, 376, 406, 410, 413 see also dignity; honour; shame (ir)responsibility 5, 28, 65, 80, 82, 84–5, 156, 161, 163, 167, 172, 175–6, 183, 204, 211, 214, 224, 235, 237–8, 270, 275–8, 283, 289–90, 296, 312, 316, 333–4, 339, 345, 347, 349, 351–2, 355–7, 361–3, 367, 370, 374–5, 378, 380–3, 386, 388, 397, 399, 412, 416

SUBJECT INDEX

revelation/-ory (supernatural) 16, 46, 55–6, 59–60, 81, 94, 108, 122–3, 323, 341, 357–8, 376, 416 revenge 14, 19–24, 30, 34–5, 63–7, 88, 116, 137, 140–1, 156, 163, 167, 171, 176, 221–3, 231–3, 236, 240, 257, 263–4, 267, 269–71, 277, 280–3, 293, 299, 345, 250, 353, 355, 365, 368, 376, 378, 400, 402, 411, 413, 415, 418 pattern 16–17, 31, 36 reversal 17, 19, 26, 35–6, 43, 46, 49, 68–9, 83, 93, 124, 296, 366, 372, 402 Aristotelian 18, 68–9, 71 cosmic 55–6 of fortunes 44, 61, 387, 392, 398 ironic 31, 55, 71, 297 tragic 165 riddle(-solving) 17, 57, 84, 93, 123, 144, 163, 183, 200, 226, 297, 397, 408, 412 ritual action 88, 246, 318, 320–3, 326–7, 334, 337, 343, 349 ancestral (see ancestors/ancestral) burial/funerary 13, 88, 139, 191, 306, 376, 408 closure 88, 92, 118, 408 and community 103, 174, 191, 306 contest 43–4, 262 (see also contest) customs 151 and desire 320, 343 festivities 132, 146, 159–60, 251 Indian/Vedic 37, 319–20, 323 initiation 107 knowledge 103, 192, 204–5, 319, 326, 348 mask 81 pattern 43, 61, 188 power 106, 205 purification/(im)purity 86, 88, 194, 326, 329, 376

567

relationship 33, 88 (sharing of tears), 103 (father-son), 150, 194 (status), 266 (status), 318–20, 322, 326 ritualism vs asceticism or ethics 174, 189–90, 215, 246, 254–5, 322–3, 325, 330, 343 royal 43–4, 61, 249, 251–2, 385 sacrifice/offering 14, 37, 149, 151, 189, 191, 193, 246, 264–5, 305, 318, 320–1, 324, 334, 336–7, 346 space 32 text 43, 187, 189 and theatre 76, 81, 121, 146, 159–60 and tragedy 159–61 of war 147, 151, 221–2, 243, 249, 251, 258, 261, 264–5, 321–2, 334 role-playing see play Romantic(ism) 30, 72, 129, 153, 157, 169, 175, 177, 282, 353, 380 rule(s) of battle 40, 66, 222, 243–4, 266, 320, 413 caste 101, 111, 152, 191, 320 of dance and theatre 100 neo-classical 79, 91, 142, 160, 207 of society 45, 111, 150, 152, 162, 191, 216, 320, 375, 384, 403, 409, 418 sacrifice

44, 168, 179, 190, 213, 236, 246, 265, 271, 318 as act of detachment 324, 334–6, 338 addressed to the gods 204, 319, 335 agonistic 43, 77 animal 186 cosmic 247, 319, 321, 324, 326, 334–5 devotional 188, 202, 337, 343 fire 189, 328, 349–50 as gift exchange 319–21, 335–6, 386 heroic 188

568

SUBJECT INDEX

horse 40, 43–4, 118, 243 human 154, 229 ritual 193, 204, 236, 243, 246, 265, 271, 318–24, 328, 330, 386 sacrificer 188, 243, 319, 338 self- 194, 220, 258, 322, 338–9 snake 37 war as 151, 243, 251–2, 264–5, 269, 321, 334, 337 warrior 259, 318 S´alya 102, 260, 262–3, 266 samsara see afterlife satyr play 33, 75, 77, 91 sceptic(ism) 89, 118, 176–7, 211, 231, 285, 378–82, 395, 397, 402 seer 12, 14, 37, 71, 84, 93–4, 100, 104, 109, 122, 236, 303, 340, 349, 357, 376 see also divination; oracle self-control/self-discipline/selfrestaint 40, 64, 103, 110, 205, 219–20, 225, 247–8, 259–61, 263–5, 278, 281, 351–3, 388, 402, 413, 415–16 self-discipline see self-control self-knowledge see knowledge selfself-restraint see self-control (the) senses 86, 307, 311, 327–8, 337, 340, 342, 349, 351–2, 356 shame(lessness) 38, 84, 218, 224, 227–30, 239, 262–70, 321, 347, 402, 413 see also respect Shankara/S´amkara 120, 314 Shiva/S´iva 45, 47, 61, 72, 205, 401, 383, 392 Sidney, Sir Philip 79, 141, 144, 160, 225, 264 sin 34, 142, 156, 197, 233, 306–8, 312, 346–7, 365, 373, 386–7, 400–1 sister see woman/women Sita- 97, 116–17 slave(ry) 73, 132, 140, 144, 156–7, 166, 220–1, 292, 323–4, 327, 371, 373, 396, 409 smrti (sacred narrative) 55, 94, 101 see also remembrance

social order see order Sophocles/-ean 1, 5–7, 11–13, 15, 18, 27, 32, 80, 84, 122–3, 128, 131, 138, 140, 154, 162–4, 166–7, 169, 172–3, 175, 207–8, 210–11, 226–7, 229–30, 236, 239, 256, 259–60, 262, 266–7, 269, 271, 276, 288–90, 296–7, 303, 345, 347, 362–4, 366–8, 370, 374–7, 382, 394, 397–9, 401–2, 418 soul 25, 29, 50, 54, 86, 89–90, 96–7 (of poetry/rasa), 107–10, 125–6, 174, 230, 239, 278–9, 291, 299, 315, 317, 330, 348, 357, 372, 377, 390, 395, 412 sound 96, 131, 318, 328 speech 81, 90, 106, 122, 220, 226, 262–3, 266, 276, 283, 290, 326, 355, 413 spiritual(ity) 103, 109, 111, 253, 342, 358 self-discipline (see self-control) solution 54, 59, 103, 304, 317, 319 tradition(s) of ancient India 54, 103, 317 spy(ing) 21, 65, 82–3, 295–6, 303 S´ri 44, 50 s´ruti (sacred revelation) 93–4 status/rank religious 100, 193–4, 410 ritual 100, 194, 266, 293, 305, 346, 410 sense of 165 social 27, 92, 102, 127, 141–5, 150, 159, 166, 180, 183, 193–4, 196, 214–15, 219, 222–4, 226–8, 230, 233, 235, 257–8, 266–9, 293, 305, 346, 373, 380, 401–2, 410–11, 413 Stoic(ism) 30, 66, 89, 196, 243, 268, 281–2, 284, 352–3, 378, 381–2, 400, 402, 416 stranger 149, 215

SUBJECT INDEX

suffering

taste

3–4, 19, 23, 27–8, 32–3, 35–6, 43, 47, 59–63, 68–9, 72, 77, 86–7, 96, 118, 129, 131, 142, 160, 163, 168–9, 175–6, 207, 215, 237–41, 260–1, 268–70, 275, 278, 281, 291, 310, 327, 331, 344, 347, 357, 366–7, 373, 376–7, 379–81, 394, 399, 403, 406–8, 411, 414–15, 418

35, 83, 95, 97, 100, 113, 119, 160 see also rasa teacher 37–8, 54, 66, 70, 80, 92–3, 103, 106–7, 121–3, 131, 164, 196, 199, 305, 312, 314, 317, 341, 345, 358 see also guru Teiresias 12, 14, 71, 80, 84, 236, 303, 376, 416 theatre/theater 4, 76, 81, 87, 92, 100–1, 115, 121, 128, 130–6, 145–6, 155–7, 178–9, 206, 292, 235, 244, 407 theophany 56, 58, 60, 105 time 7–8, 20 consciousness of 20, 211 cosmic 25, 31, 33, 43–7, 52, 61, 66, 191, 197 counterproductive nature of 35, 67, 69 as death devouring the universe/ as Krishna lord of the universe 39, 55–6, 59, 62, 66–9 (see also ka-la) as decline/degeneration 192, 211 end of 46 haste (associated with injustice) 379, 395 interim 179–80 ka-la 59, 197, 385, 392, 395 as moral order 31, 72, 379, 395 as opportunity 21, 378, 380–1, 383, 396, 417 in plot patterns/plot time 32, 35, 76, 91 as progress vs non-progress 20, 32, 35, 67, 98, 100, 191–2, 211 rhythm of 44

569

Shakespeare’s treatment of 31 as terror/relentlessness of 47, 50, 70 timeless(ness) 8, 20, 67, 71, 115, 131, 245 timing 31 (untimely, mistimed), 47, 378, 380–1, 383, 396, 417 tragic vs normal 20, 197 view of 44, 47, 59, 189, 209 tragic error see hamartia tragic genre see epic vs tragic; myth(ic) vs tragic tranquillity 58, 98, 119, 315, 331, 337 transgression 17, 32–3, 35, 61–2, 136, 139–40, 290, 367, 406 of boundaries 34, 63, 65, 362, 401–3, 418–19 tribe/tribal see kinship/family trickery 40, 61, 66, 71, 209, 211, 244, 269, 369, 401 truth 9, 13, 18–19, 30, 56, 68, 103–4, 108, 120, 123, 125, 130, 170–1, 177, 193, 209, 243, 257, 262, 292, 295–7, 301, 303, 326, 339, 341–4, 347, 357–8, 376, 379, 381, 383, 385, 387, 406, 408, 411, 416 value(s)/value system of action 54, 90 aristocratic vs democratic 145 ascetic 48, 189–90, 193–4, 199, 206, 213, 246, 249 clash of/conflicting 128–9, 138, 167–9, 178, 184, 193, 195, 199–200, 202–4, 206, 212–13, 229, 231, 253, 260, 277, 274, 306 controversial/questioned 161–2, 184–5, 187, 189, 199–204, 206, 212–13, 241, 254, 259, 277, 414 core 185, 188–9, 191–2, 201–3, 206, 212–13, 246–8, 258, 265, 268, 410–11 cultural 159, 167, 169, 170, 172, 175, 178, 182–5, 189, 211, 213, 237, 248, 277, 346, 410 epic vs tragic 159, 161–2, 170, 182–4, 187, 189, 195, 211

570

SUBJECT INDEX

hierachy of 128, 190–2, 194, 212, 248 Hindu 194, 198, 201, 212–13, 269, 306 intrinsic vs exchange 178–9, 184, 231 martial (see martial code of honour) merchant 13 moral 45, 191, 274, 377, 399, 418 norms and 122–3, 152, 156, 170, 191, 221–2, 225, 241 sense of 27, 218, 275, 296, 301, 309, 311 social 189–91, 195, 199, 206, 213, 218, 412 testing of 41, 165, 182–3, 187, 189, 192, 210–13, 226, 258, 411 traditional/conventional 172, 184–5, 192, 195, 211–12, 226, 242, 248, 259, 273, 275, 300 worldly 29, 190–4, 213 victim 4, 20, 30, 32, 35, 70, 163, 171, 217, 226, 228, 231, 234, 236–44, 252, 254, 265, 269–71, 276, 319, 322, 338, 344–5, 357, 406, 415 victory 23, 40–1, 47, 62, 65, 69, 82, 94, 116, 165, 188, 197, 209, 218–19, 222, 224, 230, 235, 243–6, 254, 258, 263, 268–9, 308, 335, 380, 414 violence 4, 17, 22, 28, 33, 41, 65, 140, 198, 224–6, 233–4, 236–7, 241–2, 249, 252, 259–60, 262–5, 269, 271, 283, 291–2, 323, 354, 372, 382, 397, 402, 414–16 non-violence/ahimsa- 195, 198, 252, 255, 261, 264–5 virtue(s) 44, 78, 86, 91, 97, 115–16, 131–2, 137, 141, 153, 162, 164, 176, 182, 198–201, 208–11, 219, 224, 227, 229, 233, 236, 239, 241, 252, 256–7, 261–3, 265, 268, 316, 335, 339, 346, 348–9, 371, 373, 383, 385, 398, 406, 411–13, 418

Vishnu

45–7, 50, 59, 61, 66, 72, 93, 101, 104, 122, 185, 192, 205, 244, 338, 383, 392 vision 123–4, 151, 165, 174, 292, 296, 339, 341, 344, 349, 357–8, 371, 376, 407, 411, 415 mystical 56, 112 Vya-sa 45, 65, 94, 203 as brahmin seer 37, 122 as composer of the Maha-bharata 93, 122 as narrator of the Maha-bharata 51–2, 200 and origin of the Veda’s 185 as Vishnu-Nara-ya-na incarnate 50, 122 war battlefield 14, 37–40, 51, 53, 55–6 (theophany), 60, 66–8, 71, 107–8, 112, 124–5, 140, 148–9, 155, 157, 199, 210, 229, 233, 237, 243, 245, 256, 258, 260, 262, 265, 268–9, 305, 307, 316, 330, 339, 342, 345–6, 375, 380, 400, 413, 418 cavalry 220, 254–5 civil war 155, 161, 222, 226, 262 god of war Indra 51, 55, 71, 264 goddess of war Athena 377 hoplite warfare 219–21, 255–6, 260, 263 Italian wars 371 Kurukshetra war/epic war/ Maha-bha-rata war 38, 40, 43, 45–6, 49, 51, 61, 63–4, 67, 70–1, 101, 118, 121, 123, 126, 148, 153, 186, 192, 197, 202, 209, 243–4, 247, 249, 261, 270, 306, 321, 324, 334, 394, 396 modernization of warfare 220, 222, 254, 256, 414 moral status of war 40, 42, 51, 53, 57, 61, 71, 101, 110, 169, 188, 202, 209, 212, 231, 243–4, 251, 253–4, 265, 267, 269–71, 306–7, 311–12, 325, 335, 345

SUBJECT INDEX

naval warfare 220 Peloponnesian war 130, 221 religious war 136, 165, 184 rites of war 88, 108, 222 Trojan war 71, 163, 165, 186, 209, 224, 229, 231, 237, 269, 293 war as disaster 41, 50, 53, 60–1, 63–4, 67, 70–1, 113, 149, 154, 186, 246, 251, 386, 395–6 war(rior role) as duty 51, 54, 66, 68, 102, 150–1, 154–5, 157, 188, 193, 198, 210, 213, 227–8, 233, 243, 246–7, 251, 256–9, 268–9, 317, 321, 334, 342, 345 war as sacrifice see ritual ritual of war war as cyclic renewal 43, 46, 52 war widows (see woman/women) warfare/waging war as violent politics 56, 129, 198, 221–2, 365 warrior (class/status/elite) 41, 46, 49–51, 53–5, 59, 61–5, 70, 98, 102, 104, 109, 149–51, 193–4, 196, 202, 210, 218–20, 222, 225, 227–8, 232, 237, 242–3, 251, 254–6, 264, 314, 317, 320–1, 334–8, 346, 352, 391, 408, 410 war(rior) action 54, 59, 151, 317, 322 warrior code (see martial code of honour) warrior heroism 4, 55, 198, 210, 217–18, 229, 236–7, 241–2, 245–6, 250–4, 261, 264–5, 414–15 warrior order 148, 154, 187, 199–202, 206, 220, 252, 254, 258, 261, 263–6, 361 warriorship vs kingship 198–200, 206, 242, 248, 256–60, 265, 267, 413 warrior/chivalric values/value system 198, 201, 212, 219– 20, 222, 225, 227–36, 246, 248, 251, 253–4, 259–62, 266, 269, 271, 316, 336, 414 World War I 269

571

weakness 19, 68, 90, 188, 191, 209, 243, 260, 280, 283, 339, 351–2, 373, 377, 399, 416 weeping 41, 61, 63, 87–8, 92, 113, 116, 118, 198, 219 wife see woman/women wisdom 14, 27, 55, 83, 94, 109, 111, 113, 122, 143, 168, 213, 230, 243, 283, 294, 303, 313–15, 331, 337, 349, 356–7 wise 54, 56, 58, 110, 139, 164, 191, 286, 294, 307, 325, 341, 355, 358 witness(ing) 13, 56, 68, 85, 88–90, 92, 117–18, 123, 282–3, 298, 329, 332–3, 340, 352, 358, 408 woman/women see also female; femininity condition of women 14, 24, 26, 63, 112, 129, 132, 135, 139–40, 145, 149, 155–7, 190, 194–5, 200–2, 225, 232, 235, 243, 252, 257, 260, 267, 271, 293, 409–10 female characters see Antigone, Briseis, Cassandra, Clytemnestra, Damayanti, Draupadi, Gertrude, Helen(a), Iocaste, Iphigenia, Ismene, Kunti, Ophelia, Penelope, Sitamother 12–14, 16, 38, 57, 65–6, 81, 83–4, 122, 140–1, 154, 166, 171, 181, 198–9, 208, 240, 269–71, 375–6 questioning role of 200 (Draupadi, Helena) sister 14, 129, 139, 141, 154, 236, 271, 366, 399 war widows/Kaurava women 40–1, 61, 63, 65, 113, 118, 198–9, 237, 243, 252, 271, 400 wife 13–14, 16, 25, 38, 41, 44, 64, 84, 98, 198, 200–1, 237, 260–1, 288, 385, 398 world view 11, 15, 25, 28–9, 132, 159, 172–3, 175, 182–3, 185, 274, 372, 412

572

SUBJECT INDEX

archaic 172, 175 Christian 25, 28, 277, 345, 372 clash of worldviews 28–9, 36 (see also culture clash of cultures/ civilizations) comic 72, 380–1 dramatic 25, 47–8, 61, 69–70 Greek 31, 172–3, 175, 183, 358 Hindu/Hindu epic (incl. Gi ta-) 43, 47–8, 53, 61, 71–2, 215, 319 (Vedic), 324 modern 26 (Renaissance), 172 (Greek), 177 (Renaissance), 182, 379–81 monistic 205 (see also monism) polytheistic 48 postmodern 30, 78, 381 premodern/traditional 379 religious 8, 47 secular 8, 28 Stoic 284 (see also Stoic(ism)) tragic 11, 25–9, 35–6, 47, 69–70, 85, 132, 183, 381, 275, 277, 367, 381

yoga/yogi (discipline/saint) 52, 58, 72–3, 98–9, 104, 193, 198, 216, 247, 252, 254, 265, 269, 307–8, 325–32, 334–5, 337–9, 341, 343–4, 351–3, 357, 388, 390, 400, 414–16 Yudhisthira 38, 42–4, 49, 51–2, 63–6, 69, 98, 118, 121, 148, 151, 157, 187, 191, 193, 197, 199–201, 203, 209, 212–13, 242–4, 250–3, 263–6, 268, 271, 305, 350, 357, 384–5, 387, 391, 394, 398, 400, 408, 410, 413, 418 education as a king 148, 157, 187, 207, 249 obsessed with dicing 37, 61, 316, 351, 388 as Pa-ndava 37 put to the test 41, 198, 210 son of Dharma 40, 50 as tragic hero 196, 259 yuga (epoch) 45–6, 71, 101, 192, 385, 398 see also time