Justice Professional’s Handbook
For Navigating the Criminal Justice System for Adults with Intellectual Disabilities Niagara, Hamilton, Brant, Haldimand, and Norfolk Region and the First Nations communities of Six Nations and the Grand River, and Mississaugas of the New Credit First Nation
Written by Samantha Tullo, Katryna McKenna, Ashley Soucie and Karen Hodgson
October 2025
Disclaimer: This overview of the criminal justice system is intended for general informational purposes only and does not substitute professional legal advice from a qualified lawyer or legal service provider. Each case is unique and may not follow the standard procedures outlined in this booklet. Additionally, court operations can vary by location. While every effort is made to ensure the accuracy of the information provided, updates and edits are made continuously. 905.684.6918 |
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Table of Contents Introduction......................................................................................... Introduction to Bethesda .................................................................... Who are we? ....................................................................................... How a Dual Diagnosis Justice Case Manager Can Provide Support ..... Referral to Dual Diagnosis Justice Case Manager ................................ CHOICE Appointment/Intake............................................................... Eligibility.............................................................................................. Eligibility Screening Tool Checklist....................................................... The Justice Roadmap........................................................................... Mental Health in People with IDD (Intellectual Disabilities)................ Social Determinants of Health.............................................................. Trauma Informed Care.......................................................................... How do I know if I am interacting with someone with an IDD?........... Calls to Emergency/Crisis Services....................................................... Signs of Emotional Instability/Crisis..................................................... Tips for Successful Interactions............................................................ Coping Strategies.................................................................................. 5-4-3-2-1 Exercise................................................................................. Asking for a Break................................................................................. Creating Your Own Coping Skills Toolbox.............................................. Crisis Plan.............................................................................................. How to Access Support......................................................................... References............................................................................................
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Introduction Individuals with intellectual and/or developmental disabilities (IDD) are over-represented in Ontario’s criminal justice system. Specifically, research indicates that the occurrence of IDD in various justice settings such as; forensic inpatient, federal and provincial criminal court, and correctional settings is prevalent, estimated between 2-17% (Lunsky et al., 2024). This over-representation can be explained by a number of factors that put individuals with IDD at a greater risk of coming into contact with the law, such as poverty and homelessness (McCausland & Baldry, 2023), increased risk of mental health and substance related disorders (Lunsky et al., 2024; Dekker et al., 2002), vulnerability to manipulation, lack of understanding of what constitutes a criminal act as well as challenges with impulse control and communication. Furthermore, once involved within the criminal justice system, individuals with IDD may be at a further disadvantage in terms of not understanding their legal rights, prone to suggestibility, lack appropriate legal support or knowledge on how to access legal counsel which can all lead to negative outcomes (Marinos et al., 2009). Navigating the criminal justice system can be extremely challenging and complex for individuals with IDD. The court process involves complex language, processes and procedures that can pose a significant risk for this population not receiving an equitable experience while navigating the criminal justice system. As such, it is paramount that specialized services are available to help bridge this gap in adequately supporting this population.
Introduction to Bethesda Since 1937, Bethesda has provided a wide range of support and services to individuals in Niagara, Hamilton, Brant, Haldimand, and Norfolk; and the First Nations communities of Six Nations and the Grand River, and Mississaugas of the New Credit First Nation with intellectual and/or developmental disabilities. Bethesda remains committed to supporting people with compassion, respect, and excellence. Our emphasis focuses on a holistic approach that considers the whole person’s physical, psychological, social, and spiritual needs.
Who are we? Bethesda oversees the Southern Network of Specialized Care (SNSC) which is part of a provincial collaboration of the Community Networks of Specialized Care (CNSC). They provide a way of linking specialized services and professionals to develop complex support plans for adults who have developmental disabilities with high support and complex needs. The Dual Diagnosis Justice Case Manager (DDJCM) Program provides cross-sector coordination and support for individuals with intellectual and/or developmental disabilities (IDD) or dual diagnoses (IDD + mental health) who come into conflict with the law. The program helps divert individuals from the traditional criminal justice system and connects them to appropriate services, treatment and community supports. To complete this, the DDJCM can generate interdisciplinary referrals to Bethesda’s Adult Clinical Services: • • • • •
Psychology (eligibility assessment) Mental Health and Wellness Behaviour Support Speech and Language Occupational Therapy
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How a Dual Diagnosis Justice Case Manager Can Provide Support Program Components 1. Consultations
5. Case Management
4. Release from Custody
2. Court Support
3. Assist with Diversion
1. Consultations • •
Provide education to Defense, Crowns, families, service providers, court personal, and judiciary regarding dual diagnosis and how it impacts justice involvement Provide education to individuals, agencies, and families regarding the Criminal Justice System and what to expect through the entire process; ie Preventative, pre-charge, court, support in jail, release planning, supports upon release to ensure success and reduced risk of recidivism
2. Court Support • • • • • • • •
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DDJCM workers are present in the criminal court to assist in the management and disposition of cases involving persons with a dual diagnosis Assist in the application of Legal Aid Assist in obtaining a suitable lawyer Assist in obtaining court documents to assist with the disposition of the case (ie. Screening and Disclosure) Advocate with Crown Attorney and/or defense counsel regarding the charged person Assist in obtaining appropriate assessments to aid in the judicial process Prepare individual for court through education, social stories, visuals etc. Attend court dates with the individual as required
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3. Mental Health Diversion and Direct Accountability Programs • • •
Case managers will work collaboratively with community partners who provide support and monitoring of Mental Health Diversion and Direct accountability Programs Take part in completing applications to the Mental Health and Drug Treatment Court and diversion programs Advocate for inclusion in these programs
4. Release from Custody • • • • • •
Develop bail plans and advocate with the judiciary for release Partnership and planning with Provincial and Federal Institutions for appropriate discharge planning Participate in detention centre case management weekly meetings as required Participate in discharge planning meetings in the Forensic setting as required Collaborate with detention centre staff to provide support and receive updates on client’s well-being Communication with probation and parole upon release to provide information on dual diagnosis and release plan
5. Case Management • • •
Assist in making referrals to long term community and regional supports (i.e. addiction services, housing support, income assistance, developmental services) Assist in making referrals for appropriate assessments (DSO eligibility assessment, mental health assessment, risk assessment) Internal Referrals and collaboration with Bethesda Adult Clinical Services (i.e. Mental Health and Wellness, Behaviour Support Services, Speech and Language, Occupational Therapy
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Referral to Dual Diagnosis Justice Case Manager How to make a referral? You may access the Dual Diagnosis Justice Case Management program directly at 1.800.789.1773 or through the DSO at 1.877.376.4674.
CHOICE Appointment/Intake • •
• •
A DDJCM will connect with the referral source A meeting will occur with the individual where we will gather: o Consent o Determine eligibility o Choice Appointment: How can we help? • Discuss the nature of your charge/charges • Discuss current risk factors • Recommend services and supports • Make referrals (addictions, shelter, clinical services, developmental services) Complete an Individual Support Plan (ISP) Make Referral to Developmental Services Ontario, if required
Image from: Activated Insights, 2025
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Eligibility: Is the individual currently enrolled with Developmental Services Ontario? If not, a referral will be made to Developmental Services Ontario for a Psychological Assessment. The Psychological Assessment: • Will take place over the span of several meetings • Assessor will ask a number of questions to the individual and do some observational testing • Assessor will determine if individual is found to have an intellectual and/or developmental disability If individual meets criteria for IDD, DDJCM to assist with connecting to development services and continue court support. If they do not meet criteria: • We cannot further assist the individual • We will assist with connecting the individual to the alternative services (i.e. CMHA)
Image from: Learning Disabilities Association of America, 2025
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Eligibility Screening Tool Checklist
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The Justice Roadmap
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Mental Health in People with IDD (Intellectual Disabilities) Throughout history, those with Intellectual and/or developmental disabilities were thought to be incapable of experiencing challenges with mental health as society believed that they could not experience a full range of emotions (Kalb et al., 2021). Yet, research shows that approximately 40% of people with IDD also have a mental health condition (Kalb et al., 2021) – called Dual Diagnosis. However, due to diagnostic overshadowing, a phenomenon in the medical profession where symptoms of mental health are incorrectly associated with their IDD diagnosis rather than recognising it as a mental health condition, these individuals often do not receive appropriate mental health supports. Considering this, it is important for professionals to decipher between mental health and IDD characteristics.
Unfortunately, there are a variety of social determinants of health that place certain populations at an increased risk for expediencies health challenges, and individuals with IDD have the potential to call into each category.
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Trauma Informed Care Trauma Defined: Individual trauma results from an EVENT, series of events, or set of circumstances that is EXPERIENCED by an individual as physically or emotionally harmful or threatening and that has lasting adverse EFFECTS on the individual’s functioning and physical, social, emotional, or spiritual well-being.” (Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration,SAMHSA, 2014)
Trauma Effects in IDD: Cognitive I. II. III. IV. V. VI.
Memory problems that may include gaps in time or even gaps in personal history Difficulties acquiring new skills Difficulties with processing new information Communication limitations Deficits in language development Limited abstract reasoning skills
Beliefs and Perceptions I. Trauma DISRUPTS: emotion identification, ability to self-sooth or control expression of emotions, one’s ability to distinguish between what’s safe and unsafe II. Ability to hope III. Outlook on life IV. Poor self-worth or esteem V. Negative beliefs about self or the world around them
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Physical and Mental Health I. Stomach-aches and headaches II. Nightmares or difficulties with sleep III. Regression of milestones (loss of acquired developmental skills) IV. Heart disease, obesity V. Substance Use/Addiction VI. Identify emotions VII. Ability to self-sooth VIII. Control expression of emotions IX. Distinguish between what’s safe and unsafe X. Depression & Anxiety
Dissociation I. II. III. IV. V.
Adaptation Self-protective strategy Hinders the learning of effective coping with stressors and dangers May forget safety plans or coping techniques May have gaps in memories (past and recent)
Relationships I. II. III. IV. V. VI.
Difficulty trusting others or Trusting too easily Hypervigilance, hyper sensitivity to danger or Inability to recognize abusive relationships Victimization over lifetime Lack of a healthy template for interpersonal relationships
Behaviour I. Aggressive externalizing behaviors II. Acting out in social situations such as screaming or crying excessively III. Irritable mood, sadness and anxiety IV. Verbally abusive behavior V. Fearful and avoidant of people or situations VI. Bedwetting and soiling VII. Self-harm
Emotion/Affect Dysregulation Affect dysregulation is the core disturbance resulting from trauma I. Overreacting to minor stressors II. Becoming easily emotionally and cognitively overwhelmed III. Rely on dissociation (hypo arousal or emotional numbness)
Self-Harm I. II. III. IV.
Self-medicate High-risk behaviours Suicide Self-injurious behavior 905.684.6918 |
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Health Services Within health services, research has indicated that multiple health professions do not receive adequate knowledge and/or training on how to support persons with IDD and their health needs (Smith et al., 2020). Additionally, diagnostic overshadowing within health services may discredit symptom experiences and incorrectly attribute these symptoms to their IDD diagnosis, rather than a health condition or concern (Pickard, 2017). These situations within health services increases the risk for mental health challenges for those with IDD as they may not receive the diagnosis, care, and attention that they require to manage their condition.
Healthy Child Development Children with intellectual and developmental disabilities are more 3-4x more likely than their peers to experience a variety of maltreatment types, including abuse and neglect (Leeb et al., 2016; Norris et al., 2016). Research has shown that those who have experienced any type of abuse are at an increased risk of developing anxiety, depression, PTSD, memory issues amongst other challenges (McLean Hospital, 2023).
Health and Wellbeing Having an intellectual and/or developmental disability may come with different predispositions for different health conditions/concerns including psychiatric challenges, but also includes sensory impairments, seizure disorders, and gastrointestinal disorders to name a few (Anderson et al., 2013).
Biology and Genetic Endowment Their diagnosis of an intellectual and/or developmental disability increases their risk of experiencing mental health challenges (Anderson et al., 2013).
Social and Spiritual Environments Individuals with IDD are often only included in disability spaces with others who also have a disability, rather than being fully included in a multitude of social spaces. This separation began in history when people with IDD were separated from mainstream communities and placed into institutions (Hall, 2010). This segregation can lead to challenges with depression and anxiety in those with IDD (Wilson et al., 2016).
Social Support Networks Many individual with IDD face challenges in obtaining and maintaining friendships, often leaving a sense of loneliness and exclusion, increasing risk for depression and anxiety (Wilson et al., 2016).
Income and Social Status Individuals with IDD are often on Ontario Disability Support Program (Canadian Mental Health Association, 2007) or working lower paid positions (Hall, 2010), potentially effecting their quality of life, increasing their risk for experiencing stress, alongside depression and anxiety (Canadian Mental Health Association, 2007).
Education and Literacy Individuals with IDD often have a lower level of education, limiting their learning in a variety of subjects hindering their future abilities to obtain adequate employment (Hall, 2010).
Employment and Working Conditions Individuals with IDD face challenges in obtaining employment, where they are more often volunteers or have lower paying, low-status positions (Hall, 2010). 18
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Gender Those with IDD may also experience intersectionality with gender, particularly those who identify within the LGBTQ+ community. Those who identify as LGBTQ+ often face barriers worsening stigma and discrimination against this population (Stanojevic et al.,2023).
Culture
IDD diagnosis can occur in all cultures, however cultural beliefs, values, and practices often influence how stigma against those with IDD is expressed, such as abuse and neglect practices (Jansen-vanVuuren & Aldersey, 2020).
Physical and Built Environment Some developmental disabilities include physical challenges, which some built environments are not adapted to support individuals in navigating them independently (Ji Yi & Ellis, 2023). This inability to complete tasks independently may increase their risk for depression and anxiety disorders. It is notable that for those with IDD, individuals may experience more than one social determinant of health, which can create barriers to both identifying, and managing mental health concerns effectively, generating an increased risk for mental health conditions.
How do I know if I am interacting with someone who may have an IDD? The following information may not pertain to every individual with an IDD, as each diagnosis and individual’s experience is unique. However, below are some indicators that may assist professionals in identifying if someone may have an IDD when they are interacting with them.
Cognitive Indicators • • • • •
Limited/no ability to read or write May struggle with understanding abstract concepts May think in concrete, rigid ways o Thinking often in the here and now o Thinking in ‘black and white’ May have challenges when referring to time and direction Trouble with generalization or abstraction of information o May not be able to apply information previously learned in other situations/contexts to the current one
Language Indicators • • • • • •
Limited vocabulary May have challenges with long sentences Difficulty understanding or answering questions appropriately May need time to process information Tendency to answer ‘yes’ Repeating phrases from self or others
Behavioural Indicators • • • • • • •
Easily influenced and eager to please others Inappropriate reaction/behaviour in the situation Short attention span or easily distracted Acts impulsively without thinking of consequences Dependence on others for seemingly simple tasks Slow to move or respond Gullible 905.684.6918 |
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Calls to Emergency/Crisis Services Due to the exposure of the previously mentioned social determinants of health, Individuals with IDD, family, or supports of such persons call emergency or crisis services at an increased rate when compared to the neurotypical population. Calls to emergency services can include but are not limited to seeking support for aggressive behaviours, family help, suicidal ideation, general mental health concerns, and persons who have run away or gone missing. Often times, this can be attributed to this population’s difficulties with coping in challenging situations.
Coping Difficulties Individuals with IDD often are insecure in their own abilities to handle situations that are emotion provoking or stressful, and often have a high level of dependency on others to support them through these challenging moments. This dependency may have developed throughout childhood from others often making choices on their behalf, or others handling challenging situations for them. As a professional, you may support by using coregulation strategies to help them through the challenge.
Signs of Emotional Instability/Crisis Feelings of hopelessness, sadness, depressed Feeling anxious Expressing guilt, shame or failure Expressing suicidal thoughts, self-harming Thought process may sound illogical May avoid eye contact
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Acting violently Delusions (false beliefs) Hallucinations (seeing/hearing things not there) May be speaking quickly May sound paranoid May be moving erratically
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Tips for Successful Interactions Reduce sensory overload (ie lights, noise)
Model a sense of calm
Validate the person’s emotions
Listen to their concerns
Ask them to complete coping strategies alongside you
Support in problem solving of concerns
Attempt to build rapport - get to know them
Reassure you are there to support them
Use visuals as support to communicate
Talk to the individual, not their supports
Use simple, concrete language
Avoid yes/no questions
Use 3-5 word sentences
Discuss what can be done, not what they should be doing
Avoid leading questions
Ask to repeat what you said in their own words
Rephrase your questions to ensure understanding
Let them know, if they don’t know the answer - that this is okay
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Coping Strategies What are coping strategies? Coping strategies are used as a conscious or unconscious strategy to reduce an unpleasant emotion.
What can coping strategies do? 1. Tolerate – Face the problems throughout our lives. 2. Minimize – Decrease the intensity
When should you practice coping strategies? All the time! In the morning, afternoon, evening, dinner time. Practice them when you are calm so when you are upset – you know how to use these strategies.
of the behaviour to help you gain control. 3. Deal – Responding to the behaviour.
Healthy Coping Strategies Deep Breaths
Deep breaths regulate breathing, you can do this in a few different ways to make it easier to remember: • • • •
Smelling in the flower. Blowing out the pinwheel. Blowing the candles out on a cake. Putting your hands on your belly and breathing in and out.
Deep Breathing Exercises
1. Figure 8 Breathing Follow the figure 8 with your finger 2. Square Breathing Start at the flower and follow the directions along the edges. (breathe in for 4, hold it for 4, breathe out for 4)
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5 - 4 - 3 - 2 - 1 Exercise 5
Look around the room, what do you see? Find 5 things around you that you can see.
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Feel around you, what do you feel? Find 4 things near you that you can touch.
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Close your eyes, listen. What do you hear? Find 3 things around you that you can hear.
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Keep your eyes closed, take a deep breath. What do you smell? Find 2 things around you that you can smell.
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With your eyes still close – what can you taste? Find 1 thing you can taste.
https://www.mondaycampaigns.org/destress-monday/unwind-monday-5-4-3-2-1-grounding-technique
Counting Counting depends on the individual – some people may count 1-5, 3 to 4 times if that is what works for them. Others may count to 10 or 20.
Writing in a Journal Writing in a journal allows the individual to write down how they are feeling, what has happened, and how they can see what will happen next.
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Asking for a Break Being able to ask for a minute if they are feeling overwhelmed or upset. It is important to know the value of what asking for this break is.
Coming up with a Compromise Talking it through – coming to a compromise. This can be very difficult.
Exercise Exercise can help with coping in different situations to let out some of that stress. This can include going for a walk, doing yoga, going on a bike ride, skipping rope, playing different recreational sports (e.g., hockey, basketball, bowling).
Plan for Success!
Plan for next time – what worked? What didn’t work? What can you do differently next time? 24
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Creating Your Own Coping Skills Toolbox What is it?
Coping Skills Toolbox
A Coping Skills Toolbox is a place for you to keep things that calm you down in periods of distress. If you have everything gathered in one place, it’s easier to remember to use your coping skills, rather than using negative behaviours.
Healthy Distractors ...
Distraction (Taking your mind off the problem for a while) Examples: Puzzles, books, artwork, crafts, knitting, crocheting, sewing, crossword puzzles, Sudoku, positive websites, music, movies, etc.
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Self-Soothing
What I find soothing ...
(Comforting yourself through your five senses) • Something to touch ex. stuffed animal, stress ball • Something to hear ex. music, meditation guides • Something to see ex. snowglobe, happy pictures • Something to taste ex. mints, tea, sour candy • Something to smell ex. lotion, candles, perfume
Opposite Action (Doing something the opposite of your impulse that’s consistent with a more positive emotion)
Affirmations and Inspiration Ideas ...
1. Affirmations and Inspiration ex. looking at or drawing motivational statements or images. 2. Something funny or cheering ex. funny movies/ TV / books.
Things that make me laugh ... 26
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Emotional Awareness
Tools that work for me ...
(Tools for identifying and expressing your feelings) Examples: A list or chart of emotions, a journal, writing supplies, drawing/art supplies.
What works for me ...
Relaxation (Tools for centering and grounding yourself in the present moment) Examples: Meditation or relaxation recordings, grounding objects (like a rock or paperweight) yoga mat, breathing exercises.
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Who are my supports?
Crisis Plan (Contact information of supports and resources, for when coping skills aren’t enough) Family / Friends Therapist Psychiatrist Hotline Crisis Team / ER 911
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How to Access Support
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References Anderson, L. L., Humphries, K., McDermott, S., Marks, B., Sisarak, J., & Larson, S. (2013). The state of the science of health and wellness for adults with intellectual and developmental disabilities. Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities, 51(5), 385–398. Australian Mental Health Association. (2007). Poverty and mental health. https://ontario.cmha.ca/wp-content/ uploads/2007/11/cmha_ont_poverty_backgrounder_112007.pdf Beasley, J. B., Caoili, A., Kalb, L. G., McLaren, J. L., & Barnhill, J. (2021). Predictors of mental health crises among individuals with intellectual and developmental disabilities enrolled in the START program. Psychiatric Services, 72(3), 273–280. Dekker, M. C., Koot, H. M., van der Ende, J., & Verhulst, F. C. (2002). Emotional and behavioral problems in children and adolescents with and without intellectual disability. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 43(8), 1087–1098. https:// doi.org/10.1111/1469-7610.00492 Hall, E. (2010). Spaces of social inclusion and belonging for people with intellectual disabilities. Journal of Intellectual Disability Research, 54(1), 48–57. Hsieh, K., Scott, H. M., & Murthy, S. (2020). Associated risk factors for depression and anxiety in adults with intellectual and developmental disabilities: Five-year follow-up. American Journal of Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities, 125(1), 49–63. Jansen-vanVuuren, J., & Aldersey, H. M. (2020). Stigma, acceptance, and belonging for people with IDD across cultures. Intellectual Disability, 7, 163–172. Ji Yi, Y., & Ellis, N. (2023). Associations between environmental factors and adaptive skills of people with intellectual and developmental disabilities in educational settings. Social Sciences & Humanities Open, 7(1), 1–11. Kalb, L. G., Beasley, J. B., Caoili, A., McLaren, J. L., & Barnhill, J. (2021). Predictors of mental health crises among individuals with intellectual and developmental disabilities enrolled in the START program. Psychiatric Services, 72(3), 273–280. Leeb, R. T., Kaminski, J. W., Bitsko, R. H., Armour, B., & Merrick, M. T. (2016). The association between childhood disability and child maltreatment: A systemic review of the literature. In J. R. Lutzker, K. Guastaferro, & M. L. Benka-Coker (Eds.), Maltreatment of people with intellectual and developmental disabilities (pp. 11–82). American Association on Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities. Lunsky, Y., Matheson, F. I., Kouyoumdjian, F., Whittingham, L., Lin, E., Durbin, A., Calzavara, A., Moser, A., Dastoori, P., Sirotich, F., & Volpe, T. (2024). Intellectual and developmental disabilities in Ontario’s criminal justice and forensic mental health systems: Using data to tell the story. Criminal Behaviour and Mental Health, 34(1), 24–37. https://doi.org/10.1002/cbm.2331 Marinos, V., Griffiths, D., Stromski, S., & Whittingham, L. (2009). Complexities and gaps in understanding persons with intellectual and developmental disabilities and the criminal justice system. In V. Marinos, S. Stromski, L. Whittingham, & D. Griffiths (Eds.), Intellectual and developmental disabilities & the criminal justice system (pp. 3–21). NADD Press.
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References McCausland, R., & Baldry, E. (2023). Who does Australia lock up? The social determinants of justice. International Journal for Crime, Justice and Social Democracy, 12(3), 37–53. https://doi.org/10.5204/ijcjsd.2504 McLean Hospital. (2023). Understanding child abuse and its effects on mental health: Understandings the signs, symptoms, and impacts of abuse and how to keep children safe. https://www.mcleanhospital.org/essential/effects-childabuse#:~:text=It%20can%20leave%20children%20with,a%20hard%20time%20making%20friends Norris, M., Cunningham, N., & Butter, E. M. (2016). Sexual trauma in children and adolescents with IDD. In J. R. Lutzker, K. Guastaferro, & M. L. Benka-Coker (Eds.), Maltreatment of people with intellectual and developmental disabilities (pp. 11–82). American Association on Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities. Pickard, M. (2017). Diagnostic overshadowing, essentialism, and intellectual disability: Lay persons’ perceptions (Doctoral dissertation). University of Central Arkansas. ProQuest Dissertations & Theses. Smith, S. E., McCann, H. P., Dykens, E. M., & Hodapp, R. M. (2020). Chapter 6 – The disability training needs of healthcare professionals: Scoping review and new initiatives. International Review of Research in Developmental Disabilities, 58, 219– 264. Stanojevic, I. S., Baugh, M., Greer, K. M., Piatt, J., & Yarber, W. (2023). Increasing opportunities for healthy sexual socialization in LGBTQ+ people with IDD: The role of LGBTQ+ organizations and community. Sexuality and Disability, 41, 531–541. Wilson, N. J., Jaques, H., Johnson, A., & Brotherton, M. L. (2016). From social exclusion to supported inclusion: Adults with intellectual disability discuss their lived experiences of a structured social group. Journal of Applied Research in Intellectual Disabilities, 30(5), 847–858.
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