Narrative-based literacy programs in disadvantaged schools evidence from Swedish civil society enga

Scandinavian Journal of Educational Research

ISSN: 0031-3831 (Print) 1470-1170 (Online) Journal homepage: www.tandfonline.com/journals/csje20

Narrative-based literacy programs in disadvantaged schools: evidence from Swedish civil society engagement Carina Wikman To cite this article: Carina Wikman (07 Jun 2026): Narrative-based literacy programs in disadvantaged schools: evidence from Swedish civil society engagement, Scandinavian Journal of Educational Research, DOI: 10.1080/00313831.2026.2685713 To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/00313831.2026.2685713

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SCANDINAVIAN JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH https://doi.org/10.1080/00313831.2026.2685713

Narrative-based literacy programs in disadvantaged schools: evidence from Swedish civil society engagement Carina Wikman Department of Special Education, Stockholm University, Stockholm, Sweden ABSTRACT

ARTICLE HISTORY

Civil society organizations increasingly complement public education in disadvantaged areas. Yet little is known about narrative-based literacy programs in Swedish welfare contexts. This qualitative study examines teacher perspectives on two programs delivered by a Swedish nonprofit in compulsory schools. Drawing on self-determination theory and literacy frameworks, the study uses semi-structured interviews with 20 teachers to explore how narrative pedagogy supports motivation and literacy development. Findings indicate that readers and structured narrative frames enhance engagement, particularly for multilingual learners. A key finding emerged: while external narrative structure enabled pupil autonomy during program delivery, teachers struggled to maintain these motivational conditions without ongoing scaffolding.

Sustaining these practices requires protected time, materials adapted for diverse learners, collegial structures, and deliberate handover processes through which teachers can make the underlying pedagogical thinking their own. The study identifies implementation conditions critical for equity-oriented civil society programs in Swedish education.

Received 17 October 2025 Accepted 13 May 2026 KEYWORDS

Narrative pedagogy; literacy development; multilingual learners; civil society; educational equity; implementation science

Educational equity remains a central challenge in Nordic welfare states, despite long-standing com­ mitments to comprehensive schooling and universal access (Blossing et al., 2014; Smeplass et al., 2024). Recent evidence from Sweden demonstrates that equity gaps persist despite targeted policy programs (Swedish National Agency for Education, 2025), raising questions about implementation mechanisms in disadvantaged school contexts. Yet research on how nonprofit programs function within Nordic education systems remains limited, particularly regarding narrative-based pedago­ gies and their implementation conditions in disadvantaged schools. This study investigates these questions through an examination of teacher experiences with civil society-led narrative literacy programs in Swedish schools.

Research on volunteer-based tutoring and after-school programs has documented positive effects on student achievement, particularly in reading and writing (Ritter et al., 2009), yet curricu­ lum-integrated approaches delivered during regular instruction remain less studied, especially in Nordic welfare state contexts. Narrative-based pedagogies show promise for developing pupils’ motivation and confidence in writing (Myhill et al., 2023), yet little is known about how such pro­ grams function when delivered by external actors in Nordic education systems, particularly regard­ ing their implementation conditions in disadvantaged schools. Questions remain about what

CONTACT Carina Wikman 91 Stockholm, Sweden

carina.wikman@specped.su.se

Department of Special Education, Stockholm University, SE-106

© 2026 The Author(s). Published by Informa UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis Group This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. The terms on which this article has been published allow the posting of the Accepted Manuscript in a repository by the author(s) or with their consent.

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motivates teacher uptake, how programs support diverse learners, and what conditions enable sus­ tainability beyond initial implementation.

However, most studies examine narrative methods within teacher-led classroom instruction rather than externally delivered programs, leaving questions about how narrative approaches func­ tion when introduced by civil society actors who then withdraw. Curriculum-aligned, classroomembedded programs represent a less common but potentially more integrated model of public-non­ profit collaboration. Unlike supplementary programs, which operate outside formal schooling structures, curriculum-integrated approaches must navigate the tensions that arise when externally designed materials meet teachers’ professional judgment and local classroom conditions. Swedish schools serving socioeconomically disadvantaged areas face particular challenges.

Increasing residential segregation has concentrated multilingual pupils in schools with fewer resources and greater educational challenges (Smeplass et al., 2024). In these contexts, literacy instruction must simultaneously address basic skills and academic language proficiency, with par­ ticular attention to the distinct needs of multilingual learners (Taube et al., 2015). Civil society pro­ grams targeting these schools thus enter complex pedagogical terrain where promising methods must prove both effective and sustainable within constrained conditions.

The present study examines teacher perspectives on narrative-based literacy programs in Swed­ ish socioeconomically disadvantaged schools, investigating how teachers experience and implement externally provided narrative pedagogy, what benefits they perceive for pupils’ literacy and motiv­ ation, and what factors shape long-term integration into classroom practice. The study contributes to understanding civil society roles in Swedish education and identifies mechanisms through which narrative approaches may support equity goals. The empirical focus is on programs delivered by Berättarministeriet (BM), a Swedish nonprofit founded in 2011 that delivers curriculum-integrated narrative literacy instruction directly to schools, targeting socioeconomically disadvantaged con­ texts (Berättarministeriet, n.d.).

Theoretical perspectives The study draws on two complementary theoretical perspectives: self-determination theory (SDT; Deci & Ryan, 1985, 2000) and literacy-as-social-practice frameworks (Gee, 2008; Street, 1984). SDT explains motivational mechanisms, why pupils engage with narrative tasks while literacy theory illuminates what kinds of language competencies develop through such engagement and under what conditions. This dual lens is particularly relevant in welfare state contexts, where civil society programs must balance compensatory functions with support for teacher autonomy and pro­ fessional development (Ryan & Deci, 2017). The frameworks guide the investigation of how exter­ nal programs can strengthen, rather than substitute for, public provision.

For schools serving socioeconomically disadvantaged areas, where pupils may have limited exposure to academic language practices outside school (Heath, 1983), SDT directs attention to whether programs support or undermine pupils’ basic psychological needs (Ryan & Deci, 2017), while literacy theory asks what kinds of language competencies develop and under what social con­ ditions (Luke & Freebody, 1997; Street, 1984).

The aim of this study is to examine teacher perspectives on narrative-based literacy programs delivered by civil society actors in disadvantaged Swedish schools.

Drawing on these frameworks, the study addresses the following questions: 1. How do teachers organize and experience narrative literacy programs, which aspects do they perceive as most beneficial for pupils and classroom practice, and what added value do they attribute beyond immediate literacy outcomes?

2. How do teachers perceive that the programs contribute to pupils’ motivation and engagement, language development, literacy skills, and creative confidence?

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3. What conditions enable sustained use of narrative methods, and what program features could strengthen long-term implementation?

Method Research design The study is based on a qualitative research design, with semi-structured interviews as the primary method of data collection. The purpose was to investigate teachers’ experiences of BM’s programs and their potential impact on classroom practice. Qualitative approaches are frequently used in educational research to capture complex phenomena from participants’ perspectives (Creswell & Poth, 2018).

Context/programs description Building on the introduction, BM provides programs at no cost to schools, combining ready-to-use materials with teacher professional development. Unlike traditional supplementary models such as homework clubs or after-school mentoring, BM staff deliver the initial and final visits, while class­ room lessons are led by teachers supported by BM’s structured materials. The present study focuses on two programs: The Mysterious Box (Swe. Den mystiska lådan) and Editor Schwartz’s Research Journey (Swe. Redaktör Schwartz forskningsresa), both structured around creative writing for read­ ers within fictional narrative frames.

The Mysterious Box (grades 3-4): The program comprises an initial visit to BM, eleven class­ room lessons, and a final visit. At the first visit, classes meet a fictional editor (Editor Schwartz) and co-write a shared story opening, which is printed as a book and returned to pupils. Classroom work proceeds through a structured, narrative-based sequence supported by teacher guides, short videos, pupil materials, and letters from the editor; a “mysterious box” functions as a central prop guiding tasks. Each lesson provides discussion prompts, vocabulary lists, observation points, and writing assignments (e.g., decoding ciphers, map drawing, symbol interpretation, brief factual writ­ ing, and alternative story versions). After each lesson, pupils’ work is sent to BM and later compiled into individual pupil booklets, which are returned at the final visit. The program is aligned with the Swedish national curriculum (Swedish National Agency for Education, 2022) and is designed to be inclusive by allowing participation through oral contributions, planning/sketching, dictation to a peer, or independent writing.

Editor Schwartz’s Research Journey (grades 4-6): The program is cross-curricular and integrates language development with inquiry-oriented science learning through a thematic, narrative-based design. Instruction begins with a storyline in which a fictional editor (Editor Schwartz) alerts the classes that researchers have “lost their imagination” and that pupils’ creativity can help the research community. The class receives a research kit containing hands-on activities, short videos, and letters from researchers at major Swedish research universities. Over nine classroom lessons, pupils for­ mulate hypotheses, conduct simple experiments, document procedures and results, write laboratory reports, and send questions to researchers.

Core components include source evaluation and information seeking, scientific documentation and guided reflection on the role of research in society. When feasible, the program includes a study visit to a research university, where pupils meet researchers and participate in laboratory activities in an academic environment. Lesson materials provide clear instructions, structure, and obser­ vation points to support teachers’ planning and enactment. The program is aligned with the Swed­ ish national curriculum and covers core content in Swedish/Swedish as a Second Language and core science subjects.

Both programs center on readers, a fictional editor in The Mysterious Box and university researchers in Editor Schwartz’s Research Journey, and offer structured narrative frames with

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multiple modes of participation. As discussed in the theoretical section, these design features align with literacy-as-social-practice frameworks and SDT. It should be noted that BM’s programs are not evidence-based practices (EBP) in the strict sense; they have not been evaluated through randomized controlled trials or pre–post assessments. Rather, they represent curriculum-aligned pedagogical offerings with specified aims tied to the Swedish national curriculum, including language development, creative writing, and scientific inquiry. Pro­ gram goals are framed in terms of pupil engagement and skill development, but without formally specified learning outcomes or standardized measurement procedures.

Schools voluntarily apply to participate in BM’s programs, which are delivered within regular scheduled classroom time. This means that BM lessons replace rather than supplement ordinary instruction, requiring teachers to integrate program activities within existing curriculum planning.

As several teachers noted, this sometimes necessitated shortening or adapting program elements to accommodate other curricular demands.

Swedish educational context Swedish compulsory schools are characterized by municipal governance, free school choice, and relatively high teacher autonomy over pedagogical methods. However, increasing socioeconomic and ethnic residential segregation has created substantial between-school variation in pupil compo­ sition (Böhlmark et al., 2016). Schools in disadvantaged areas typically serve high proportions of pupils with parents who have limited formal education and low Swedish proficiency. These schools face systemic challenges including teacher recruitment difficulties and pedagogical segregation, where experienced and qualified teachers increasingly move away from schools with more demand­ ing pupil compositions (Swedish National Agency for Education, 2025).

In these contexts, literacy instruction confronts particular demands. Many pupils are simul­ taneous bilinguals developing Swedish alongside home languages, requiring explicit vocabulary instruction and extended opportunities for language-rich interaction (Cummins, 2000). Standard literacy curricula often assume familiarity with narrative structures, genres, and literacy practices common in Swedish-speaking middle-class homes but less accessible to pupils from non-Swed­ ish-speaking or lower-SES backgrounds (Cummins, 2000; Heath, 1983; Taube et al., 2015). Ordin­ ary teaching relies primarily on textbooks, with texts drawn predominantly from literary and nonfiction sources, and considerable variation in instructional quality exists both within and across schools (Swedish Schools Inspectorate, 2012).

Sampling and participants The sample consisted of teachers from schools that participated in one of BM’s school programs: The Mysterious Box or Editor Schwartz’s Research Journey during the 2024 school year. In total, 31 compulsory schools in Gothenburg, Malmö, and Stockholm were identified. Contact infor­ mation for 51 teachers was obtained; of these, 20 teachers from a range of schools agreed to par­ ticipate and completed an interview.

Participants comprised 19 women and 1 man, all working as class teachers in grades 3–6. All held a teaching degree.

Sampling followed a convenience strategy, meaning participants were recruited based on avail­ ability rather than random selection (Etikan et al., 2016). This approach was appropriate given the study’s qualitative, exploratory aim to understand teacher experiences in depth rather than to estab­ lish prevalence or generalizability (Robinson, 2014). All participants had direct, recent experience implementing the programs, the primary criterion for meaningful contribution to the research questions. While convenience sampling introduces potential selection bias toward positively engaged teachers, this limitation is acknowledged and does not preclude valuable insights into implementation mechanisms and perceived benefits in this under-researched area.

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Data collection Semi-structured interviews were conducted via video conferencing in 2024. The interview guide combined open questions with follow-up prompts, allowing for both comparability across inter­ views and scope for respondents to elaborate their views (Brinkmann, 2018). Interviews focused on three main areas: (1) teachers’ experiences before, during, and after participation in BM’s pro­ grams; (2) perceived effects on teaching and on pupils’ learning and development; and (3) chal­ lenges and opportunities for long-term integration of BM’s methods in school.

Each interview lasted approximately 40–60 min and was audio-recorded. Transcriptions were produced using the automated service Amberscript (2024), followed by manual checking to ensure accuracy.

Ethical considerations This study followed national ethical guidelines (Swedish Research Council, 2024). All participants received written information about the study before agreeing to take part; participation was volun­ tary and could be discontinued at any time. To protect participants’ privacy, all data were anon­ ymized and only de-identified excerpts appear in publications. Swedish law (SFS 2003:460) requires formal ethical review when research involves sensitive personal data or physical and psychological interventions. Since this study consisted of interviews with adult professionals and involved neither sensitive data nor interventions of this kind, no formal ethical review was required.

All personal data were handled in accordance with the General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR).

Data processing and analysis The interview material was analyzed using qualitative content analysis (Adu, 2019; Schreier, 2012), a method aimed at systematically identifying patterns and themes in text-based data. The analysis proceeded in three steps (Mayring, 2014): (1) extracting relevant statements from the transcripts; (2) interpreting and categorizing statements; and (3) identifying patterns in the data (Adu, 2019).

The analytical process was informed by the theoretical framework: SDT guided attention to how teachers’ accounts reflected pupils’ psychological needs, while literacy theory sensitized analysis to the social and communicative dimensions of language development. Coding was initially descrip­ tive, then organized around these theoretical constructs.

Coding and thematization Coding followed a descriptive focus, organizing meaning units hierarchically (Saldaña, 2021). To ensure a systematic coding process, NVivo (version 15) (QSR International Pty Ltd., 2024) was used to support structured handling of qualitative data (Bazeley & Jackson, 2013). The main themes identified included: (a) teachers’ organization during participation; (b) pupils’ development and learning; and (c) challenges of integrating the program.

Reflexivity In qualitative research, the researcher’s role and prior understandings can shape both data collec­ tion and analysis (Berger, 2015). The researcher’s background in education implied prior knowl­ edge of pedagogical methods, which may have foregrounded some themes over others. To mitigate bias, transparency was ensured (1) in coding with interpretations anchored in verbatim excerpts, (2) critical scrutiny of themes against prior research, and (3) ongoing reflexive practice throughout the analytic process (Finlay, 2002).

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Methodological limitations The study used a convenience sample of volunteer teachers who had implemented the programs, which may over-represent positively engaged practitioners. Data are retrospective self-reports, entailing potential recall or social-desirability bias. The qualitative design does not allow causal inference; findings should be interpreted as well-informed practitioner perspectives on perceived value and implementation conditions.

Results This section presents teachers’ perspectives on narrative literacy programs organized around three research questions: (1) implementation and classroom integration, (2) perceived effects on pupil development, and (3) sustainability conditions. Findings are interpreted through SDT and lit­ eracy-as-social-practice frameworks.

Implementation and classroom integration (RQ1) Organizing instruction within a narrative frame Teachers described a predetermined narrative structure in which pupils engaged with an unfolding story through recurring interactions with a fictional editor. Implementation varied: some followed the sequence strictly to maintain narrative coherence, while others adapted pacing and activities to accommodate multilingual learners and pupils with varying writing proficiency: “The children became very engaged because the tasks were linked to a story. They wanted to know what would happen next.”

Teachers in older cohorts (grades 5-6) noted that pupils more quickly recognized the fictional frame, requiring reality-anchored adaptations to sustain engagement. This variation reflects tea­ chers’ professional judgment in balancing program fidelity with responsiveness to local conditions, a tension common in externally designed programs (Durlak & DuPre, 2008).

Beneficial program features Three aspects were consistently valued. First, encounters with adults beyond school (volunteers, researchers) and visits to universities provided readers and expanded pupils’ horizons, supporting relatedness (SDT): “They immediately saw which children needed extra support. It was grand for pupils to be listened to by other adults.”

Second, the programs offered multiple ways to participate, oral contribution, visual support, dic­ tation, or independent writing, enabling inclusion across linguistic proficiency levels, as literacy-associal-practice frameworks would predict. Third, publication of pupils’ texts functioned as visible recognition of competence: “Getting their own printed book was a huge boost for many pupils.”

Imprint on teaching and added value Many teachers reported increased use of narrative-based learning and drama post-program, per­ ceiving higher engagement when writing was story-embedded. However, sustaining this without the program’s external scaffold proved challenging: “I use storytelling much more now, but without the external framework it’s harder to keep pupils equally engaged.”

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Beyond literacy outcomes, teachers attributed several forms of added value to the programs.

Group-based narrative work strengthened classroom community and social belonging. Democratic processes, turn-taking, argumentation and majority decisions became practical learning opportu­ nities that some teachers extended into every day routines: “They experienced democracy at BM, and we could continue that because they already knew how it worked.”

For schools in socioeconomically disadvantaged areas, teachers emphasized the programs’ role as bridges to Swedish-speaking communities and academic environments, fostering linguistic confidence and societal connection: “For pupils in disadvantaged areas this is invaluable, they meet Swedish speakers, exercise imagination, and become part of something bigger.”

Perceived effects on pupil development (RQ2) Language development and vocabulary BM’s linguistically rich materials prompted explicit metalinguistic work. Teachers noted that archaic language and unfamiliar expressions necessitated discussion of word meaning, register, and context: “The old-fashioned language meant we had to talk about words constantly. Some children got a real boost.”

In multilingual classes, teachers observed strategic vocabulary learning, circling unknown words, asking for meanings, inferring from context and heightened awareness of register differences between every day and academic language. One teacher described progress for a pupil with sus­ pected language disorder, where structured vocabulary focus supported language organization.

More broadly, teachers observed that multilingual learners developed greater awareness of word meaning and register. Such observations echo Cummins’s (2000) argument that second-language learners benefit particularly from vocabulary instruction that is both explicit and embedded in meaningful contexts.

Literacy skills Teachers most frequently highlighted writing development, attributing gains to the combination of readers and structured narrative scaffolding. Within SDT, this design supports both competence, through visible products and feedback, and autonomy through purposeful communication: “With a concrete recipient, they became more aware of how they expressed themselves.”

“A pupil who barely wrote a sentence now writes whole paragraphs.”

Several teachers noted reciprocal reading-writing development: engagement in text production increased interest in reading others’ texts, reinforcing comprehension and attention to language form. This reciprocity is consistent with literacy-as-social-practice frameworks treating reading and writing as mutually reinforcing practices (Luke & Freebody, 1997; Street, 1984).

Creativity and self-confidence The narrative approach lowered participation thresholds by inviting pupils to create characters, worlds, and storylines within a structured frame. Teachers emphasized that pupils could contribute according to their strengths, whether orally, visually, collaboratively, or in writing, enabling broader participation and success experiences that support both competence and relatedness: “There was always a task where everyone could contribute. Even those who didn’t write much felt part of something bigger.”

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Publication was repeatedly cited as affirmation, linked to pride and motivation. However, sus­ taining creative energy without the program’s narrative frame remained challenging, suggesting that external structure plays a crucial scaffolding role during initial implementation.

Sustainability and implementation conditions (RQ3) Working conditions and material structure Time emerged as the primary constraint. Teachers described crowded timetables and competing demands that complicated program integration: “It’s the time, honestly. There’s so much else at school.”

Yet BM’s structured materials were characterized as manageable when integrated into regular literacy instruction rather than treated as add-ons. Teachers stressed that weekly rhythm and con­ tinuity, replacing rather than supplementing existing activities, supported sustained practice and pupil confidence.

The materials’ clarity facilitated use, but teachers emphasized the need for flexibility and predifferentiated versions to reduce adaptation burden: “The instructions are clear, but we still need to adapt for our multilingual learners.”

The need for flexibility within structure reflects a core tension in SDT-informed interventions: external programs must provide sufficient scaffolding to support competence development, yet allow enough adaptability for teachers to maintain autonomy over pedagogical decisions (Ryan & Deci, 2017). When adaptation burden becomes excessive, teachers may feel constrained rather than autonomous, and pupils risk losing access to materials suited to their needs. From a literacy perspective, differentiated materials enable participation across proficiency levels, support­ ing the social practice principle that literacy communities must accommodate diverse entry points (Luke & Freebody, 1997; Street, 1984).

Collegial support was identified as critical for sustainability. Teachers advocated for coordinating roles (e.g., lead teachers) to maintain narrative methods across year levels and distribute preparation: “If a lead teacher coordinated it, storytelling could become a thread through the school years.”

The organizational dimension of autonomy support deserves particular attention here. SDT recognizes that teachers’ ability to support pupil autonomy is itself shaped by the conditions in which they work (Ryan & Deci, 2017). What the present findings add is a practical illustration of this principle: when collegial structures, time, and differentiated materials are absent, even teachers who valued narrative approaches found sustained implementation difficult. This points to a distinc­ tion worth making explicit, between structural autonomy, the organizational conditions that make professional judgment possible, and pedagogical autonomy, the classroom-level choices teachers make within those conditions.

Frequency and program refinement Most teachers wanted programs at least once per term; in schools with many multilingual pupils, some requested 1–2 times per term to provide regular language-rich opportunities. Regarding improvements, teachers suggested: (1) clearer progression across sessions with age-appropriate var­ iants for older cohorts; (2) more visual/concrete supports for abstract-text struggles; and (3) implementation-focused professional development, including demonstration lessons and class­ room coaching: “I’d appreciate someone from BM showing how the lesson is intended to run.”

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Discussion This study examined teacher perspectives on narrative-based literacy programs delivered by a Swedish civil society organization in socioeconomically disadvantaged schools. The analysis reveals how externally provided narrative pedagogy functions in classroom practice, what teachers perceive as beneficial for pupils’ development, and what conditions shape sustained implementation. This discussion synthesizes key findings, interprets them through SDT and literacy frameworks, con­ siders implications for Swedish welfare education contexts, and identifies directions for future research.

Synthesis of key findings Teachers reported that narrative structure with readers supported motivation and literacy develop­ ment, particularly for multilingual learners. The programs enabled inclusive participation, pupils could contribute orally, visually, collaboratively, or in writing, and the shared narrative goals strengthened classroom community. Publication of pupils’ texts functioned as visible competence recognition. However, sustainability challenges emerged: time constraints, need for pre-differen­ tiated materials, and difficulty maintaining engagement without external scaffolding.

Narrative-based programs may create motivating literacy contexts well aligned with curriculum goals, but long-term integration depends on organizational conditions that initial enthusiasm alone cannot sustain.

Theoretical interpretation: motivation and literacy development SDT perspective Interpreted through SDT (Deci & Ryan, 2000; Ryan & Deci, 2017), the reported design features map onto pupils’ basic psychological needs.

Competence was supported through structured progression, visible products (published books), and feedback from external readers. Teachers noted particular benefits for pupils with weaker writ­ ing confidence, consistent with research showing that tangible achievement markers strengthen perceived competence (Ahmadi et al., 2023).

Relatedness emerged through shared storylines, collaborative authorship, and encounters with adults beyond school (volunteers, researchers). These interactions provided social scaffolding that teachers associated with increased willingness to participate, aligning with findings that rela­ tional support enhances academic engagement (Allen et al., 2013).

Autonomy and creative expression developed within, rather than despite, program structure.

Pupils made meaningful choices about characters, plotlines, and how to contribute, in ways that fostered both autonomy and creative confidence. This pattern reveals an important nuance in SDT: autonomy does not require absence of structure but rather meaningful choice within clear parameters (Ryan & Deci, 2017). The narrative frame functioned as a scaffold that paradoxically liberated rather than constrained creative agency. However, teachers’ difficulty sustaining this engagement post-program highlights the distinction between pedagogical and structural autonomy introduced above, and becomes central to understanding implementation challenges.

Literacy-as-social-practice perspective From a literacy perspective, readers and situated purposes align with social practice frameworks emphasizing meaningful participation in textual communities (Barton & Hamilton, 1998; Street, 1984). Teachers’ accounts of reciprocal reading-writing development where engagement in text production increased interest in others’ texts echo research treating literacy practices as mutually reinforcing rather than isolated skills (Barton & Hamilton, 1998; Luke & Freebody, 1997).

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The programs appear to have supported literacy development across several dimensions: pupils used writing for clear communicative purposes, reflected on language choices and audience, and practiced the language conventions of school. This multi-dimensional development was particu­ larly salient for multilingual learners, for whom explicit vocabulary work embedded in meaningful tasks provided both linguistic input and pragmatic context conditions identified as crucial for second-language literacy development (Cummins, 2000).

Theoretical tensions: scaffolding, autonomy, and the handover challenge Teachers consistently reported a critical finding: the external narrative structure that enabled pupils’ autonomy during the program proved difficult to maintain afterward. This highlights an important implementation challenge for civil society programs.

This pattern is theoretically consistent with work integrating SDT and scaffolding perspectives.

Ryan and Deci (2017) argue that autonomy support requires both pedagogical techniques and sup­ portive organizational structures. Wood et al. (1976) demonstrate how temporary scaffolds enable independent performance that would otherwise be impossible. Together, these perspectives suggest that external structure can create conditions for autonomy rather than simply constraining it.

In BM’s programs, the narrative frame functioned as a scaffold that enabled pupils to make meaningful choices – what characters to create, how to contribute – while the ongoing story sus­ tained their engagement. When this scaffold was removed, many pupils’ autonomous engagement diminished. This reveals the core implementation challenge: programs that successfully scaffold autonomy during delivery cannot assume teachers will spontaneously maintain those structures afterward. The handover problem is not about transferring materials, but about helping teachers internalize the structural thinking underlying autonomy-supportive conditions.

Reciprocal development of literacy and motivation The reciprocal relationship teachers observed between reading and writing, where engagement in one reinforced the other, suggests that literacy development itself may function as a motivational mechanism, not just an outcome. Pupils who successfully produced valued texts (competence) read more willingly (autonomy), which strengthened their sense of participating in a literate com­ munity (relatedness).

This reciprocity challenges linear models in literacy research that treat motivation as a prerequi­ site for skill development. Findings here suggest a bidirectional relationship: successful literacy experiences generated motivation, which enabled further literacy development. Schunk and DiBe­ nedetto (2020) describe a similar reciprocity between competence and motivation, and Barton and Hamilton (1998) make a parallel argument for reading and writing as mutually reinforcing practices.

For multilingual learners specifically, this co-development may be especially important. When academic language demands exceed current proficiency, motivation alone cannot compensate.

But when instruction combines language scaffolding with motivational scaffolding, providing struc­ tured support for vocabulary and genre alongside authentic purposes and valued readers, pupils can experience competence and engagement simultaneously, each reinforcing the other.

Civil society programs in Swedish welfare education Teachers generally experienced the programs as complementary to curriculum, offering structured opportunities for core literacy skill practice in engaging, inclusive ways. In schools characterized by high mobility, multilingualism, and resource constraints, programs were viewed as contributing to equitable access to meaningful literacy experiences. As a nonprofit organization, BM operates

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without commercial incentives or ideological agendas, which distinguishes its presence in schools from that of market-based providers. Its pedagogical goals are shaped by school needs rather than profit.

Yet civil society presence in schools raises important questions about public-nonprofit bound­ aries. Within Swedish welfare education, shaped by broader Nordic traditions of universal public provision, nonprofit contributions should not replace structural public investment. Rather, they can serve as catalysts for pedagogical development when embedded in collaborative arrangements with schools, municipalities, and teacher teams. Teachers’ emphasis on needing collegial support structures and pre-differentiated materials to sustain methods suggests that one-off external pro­ grams, however well-designed, cannot substitute for ongoing professional learning infrastructure.

This tension mirrors wider Swedish and Nordic debates on equity and resource allocation (Sme­ plass et al., 2024). While targeted programs address immediate needs in disadvantaged schools, they also risk creating dependency on external actors rather than building internal capacity. The finding that teachers struggled to maintain engagement without external scaffolding highlights this risk. For civil society contributions to genuinely complement public provision, program design must treat handover as a core commitment rather than an afterthought, building in differentiated materials, demonstration lessons, and collegial networks from the outset.

Policy implications These findings raise three critical policy questions for Swedish education systems.

First, how should public education systems relate to civil society programs targeting disadvan­ taged schools? The Swedish model, where nonprofits provide free programs to publicly identified schools, differs from market-based models where schools purchase services. This hybrid arrange­ ment preserves equity (avoiding ability-to-pay barriers) while introducing external actors into cur­ riculum delivery.

Second, what quality assurance mechanisms should govern such programs? Unlike commercial providers, civil society actors typically lack regulatory oversight beyond general nonprofit law.

While this enables flexibility and innovation, it also means program quality varies. Teacher pro­ fessional judgment becomes the primary quality filter, but this presumes teachers have time, exper­ tise, and organizational support to evaluate pedagogical approaches, conditions not always present in under-resourced schools.

Third, how should implementation support be resourced? Findings suggest that one-off program delivery without handover mechanisms risks creating dependency rather than capacity. Yet, com­ prehensive implementation support of this kind, including differentiated materials, demonstration teaching, and ongoing consultation, requires substantial investment. Policy must clarify whether implementation support is civil society organizations’ responsibility, which may limit their reach, or public systems’ responsibility, which would require new funding streams for implementation science in schools.

Implementation conditions and sustainability Teachers identified time, differentiation, and collegial support as critical implementation factors.

These align with broader implementation science showing that intervention sustainability depends on organizational context, not just program quality (Fixsen et al., 2005). The finding that strict pro­ gram adherence competed with adaptation for diverse learners reflects a common implementation dilemma: fidelity versus responsiveness (Durlak & DuPre, 2008).

Notably, teachers in multilingual classes requested more frequent program cycles, recognizing that literacy development for second-language learners requires sustained, language-rich input (Cummins, 2000). This suggests that intervention intensity should be calibrated to school context

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rather than uniform across settings, a principle consistent with equity-oriented implementation frameworks.

Implications for teaching and school practice Findings suggest several practice-level implications: 1. Curricular embedding: Position narrative literacy work within ordinary instruction blocks (not as add-ons) to establish routine and cumulative progress.

2. Pre-differentiation: Provide tiered tasks and language scaffolds from the outset to reduce teacher adaptation burden and secure multilingual learner access.

3. Readership beyond programs: Integrate periodic publication or external readers (e.g., partner classes, community members) into regular teaching to sustain motivational structures.

4. Collegial learning structures: Coordinating roles (lead teachers, year-level teams) can support continuity and distribute preparation across staff.

5. Reality-anchored narrative for older pupils: Adapt fictional frames for older cohorts who recog­ nize pretense more quickly, potentially through journalism, community storytelling, or docu­ mentary forms.

These implications extend beyond narrative pedagogy to equity-oriented instruction generally: meaningful purposes, readers, and inclusive participation modes characterize effective literacy teaching across contexts (Barton & Hamilton, 1998; Cummins, 2000; Luke & Freebody, 1997).

Limitations and methodological considerations Several limitations qualify these findings. The convenience sample of volunteer teachers almost cer­ tainly over-represents positively engaged practitioners. Teachers who found programs unhelpful, too demanding, or pedagogically misaligned likely declined participation, creating selection bias toward favorable accounts. This limitation is common in intervention research but particularly sali­ ent here: if the sample includes primarily enthusiasts, sustainability challenges may be understated and benefits overstated.

Retrospective self-reports entail recall bias and social desirability effects. Teachers reconstructing experiences months after implementation may unconsciously emphasize positive outcomes and downplay difficulties, especially in research contexts where critical evaluation might seem ungrate­ ful toward organizations providing free support. Cross-sectional design precludes examining how perceptions evolve over time or which initial perceptions predict sustained use.

The qualitative design, while appropriate for exploratory research, cannot establish causality or quantify effects. Teacher perceptions of pupil development are filtered through pedagogical beliefs and observational biases. What teachers interpret as “increased motivation” may reflect novelty effects, Hawthorne effects, or genuine motivational development, and the design cannot distinguish between them. Similarly, perceived literacy gains lack independent verification through pupil work analysis or standardized assessment. No post-program assessment of pupil learning was conducted, either by BM or within this study. Perceived gains in literacy and motivation therefore rest entirely on teacher judgment rather than independent measurement, a limitation that future research should address through pupil work analysis or standardized assessments.

Finally, the study examines only one organization’s programs. While findings may illuminate general mechanisms (narrative engagement, readers), their generalizability to other civil society programs or narrative pedagogies remains uncertain. It should also be noted that both theoretical frameworks applied here are broad, and their alignment with the findings may partly reflect their explanatory breadth rather than their precision. Future research should test more specific

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theoretical predictions to establish the distinctive contributions of SDT and literacy-as-social-prac­ tice in civil society-delivered programs.

Future research directions Future research should address these limitations through mixed-methods designs combining tea­ cher interviews with pupil work samples, classroom observations, and pre–post literacy assess­ ments. Longitudinal studies tracking implementation over 2–3 years would clarify what supports sustained practice beyond initial enthusiasm (Fixsen et al., 2005). Comparative studies could exam­ ine (1) differential effects across pupil subgroups, including newly arrived multilingual learners, struggling readers, and more advanced writers, to identify for whom narrative approaches work best; (2) variation across implementation conditions, such as degree of teacher autonomy and strength of collegial support, to specify enabling organizational factors; (3) comparison with alternative approaches such as direct instruction, workshop models, or digital platforms, to estab­ lish their relative effectiveness.

Particularly valuable would be comparative research across Nordic countries, testing whether the mechanisms observed here operate similarly where civil society roles, school structures, and language instruction traditions differ from the Swedish case. Such research could identify which findings reflect generalizable principles versus Sweden-specific conditions.

Additionally, pupil-perspective research through interviews, focus groups, or participatory methods with multilingual learners would provide crucial insights currently missing. How do pupils experience narrative programs? What features do they find motivating versus constraining?

Do readers matter as much to pupils as teachers believe? Such research would complement teacher perspectives with pupil voices, enabling more complete understanding of program mechanisms.

Future research should also include interviews with BM program designers and developers, who are notably absent from the current study. Understanding what theoretical frameworks, if any, inform program design, what pedagogical values drive the organization, and how designers concep­ tualize the relationship between narrative structure and literacy development would provide impor­ tant insights into program intentionality. Such research could examine alignment between designer intentions and teacher implementations, identifying where interpretive gaps emerge and how pro­ gram design might better support sustainable practice.

Conclusion Narrative-based literacy programs delivered by civil society actors can create structured, engaging conditions for literacy learning in socioeconomically disadvantaged schools when aligned with cur­ riculum goals and designed for sustainable teacher practice. This study demonstrates how readers, structured narrative frames, and multiple participation modes can support both pupil motivation and literacy development, engaging basic psychological needs while enabling functional, critical, and sociocultural language use. However, a key finding challenges conventional assumptions about intervention transfer: the external structure that enabled pupil autonomy during implemen­ tation proved difficult to sustain without ongoing scaffolding. This handover challenge reveals that autonomy support may require, at least initially, external scaffolding that creates conditions for experiencing competence and relatedness, which in turn enable genuine self-direction. Sustainabil­ ity therefore requires more than handing over materials; teachers need protected time, resources adapted for diverse learners, collegial structures, and deliberate support in making the thinking behind autonomy-supportive practice genuinely their own.

For Swedish schools within the Nordic welfare model, these findings highlight both opportu­ nities and tensions in civil society engagement. While the Swedish case cannot directly represent other Nordic countries, the shared welfare state traditions suggest potential relevance for other Nor­ dic contexts. When embedded in collaborative arrangements with schools and municipalities,

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nonprofit programs can catalyze pedagogical development without substituting for structural pub­ lic investment in teacher professional learning. Yet the difficulty teachers experienced maintaining engagement without external support underscores risks of dependency. For civil society contri­ butions to genuinely complement, rather than replace public provision, implementation science principles must guide program design from the outset, treating handover, differentiated materials, and ongoing professional development as core commitments rather than optional additions.

For multilingual pupils in disadvantaged areas, where academic language exposure outside school may be limited, frequent, well-supported narrative literacy work offers a promising pathway toward equitable outcomes. The challenge for both civil society organizations and public education systems is creating conditions where such promising practices can be sustained at scale. This requires policy attention to how quality is assured, how implementation is resourced, and how non­ profit innovation can strengthen public capacity rather than substitute for it in an increasingly seg­ regated educational landscape.

Acknowledgments The author used a generative AI tool for linguistic editing to improve manuscript clarity, coherence, and English language quality. The AI tool was not used for research design, data collection, data analysis, coding, thematic devel­ opment, or generation of original interpretations or conclusions. All substantive research decisions remained exclu­ sively with the author.

Disclosure statement No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author.

Funding This research was supported by Stiftelsen Sven Jerrings Fond (Jerringfonden). The funder had no role in study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript.

Data availability statement Interview transcripts are not publicly available, as participants did not consent to public data sharing. De-identified excerpts are included in the article.

ORCID Carina Wikman

http://orcid.org/0000-0003-2758-1784

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