The Podium Vol. IX, Ed I Spring 2024

The

Podium

Belmont Hill’s History and Social Sciences Magazine

An important note: All opinions and ideas expressed in The Podium are the personal opinions and convictions of featured student writers and are not necessarily the opinions of The Podium staff, the Belmont Hill History Department, or the Belmont Hill School itself.

Suhas Kaniyar, Mikey Furey, Brandon Li, Ernest Lai, Max Glick, Jaiden Lee, Wesley Zhu, Davis Woolbert, Mr. Harvey

Letter from the Staff

Dear Reader,

Marking the end of the current school year, Volume IX, Edition I is the final edition of The Podium for seniors on our staff and a new chapter for the many new members that have joined this spring, each bringing their own talents and skills to one of Belmont Hill’s fastest-growing clubs. One of our most comprehensive issues to date, Edition I contains many intriguing articles highlighting some of the most important events of today and years gone by.

We begin with “History on the Hill,” where Davis Woolbert ‘25 explores the history of the school’s nordic ski team. As always, our op-ed competition yielded a remarkable student turnout. This edition’s winners wrote about denuclearization, potential federal age limits, Houthi rebel attacks, Native American mascots as well as the rise of gambling in the United States.

Volume IX, Edition II features two research papers. First, Noah Farb ‘24 shares the remarkable story of the rise and fall of Jewish-American gangsters in the early twentieth century in his Monaco prize-winning essay. And Suhas Kaniyar ‘28 explores important Supreme Court cases related to the First Amendment.

In their data analysis, Ernest Lai ‘25 and Wesley Zhu ‘25 explored Belmont Hill students’ views on the escalating China-Taiwan crisis. In the film review, Mikey Furey ‘25 takes a close look at the recent Napoleon movie which has received a lot of criticism for its alleged lack of historical accuracy. Next, Jaiden Lee ‘26 guides us through the current political landscape of South Korea and Brandon Li ‘26 attempts to answer if global government could be the solution to the world’s problems. Finally, Suhas Kaniyar ‘28 takes a look at Sweden’s admission to NATO and Lucien Davis ‘26 runs through important elections taking place this year.

Volume IX, Edition I is another exciting edition of The Podium. It is chock full of historical insight, political analysis from voices around Belmont Hill and we are thrilled to share it with you. Thank you for picking up a copy and enjoy!

Max Glick ‘24 | President

Ernest Lai ‘25, Wesley Zhu ‘25 | Editors-in-Chief

Mikey Furey ‘25, Christopher McEvoy ‘25 | Executive Editors

Lucien Davis ‘26, Suhas Kaniyar ‘28, Jaiden Lee ‘26, Brandon Li ‘26, Davis Woolbert ‘25 | Staff Writers

Mr. Harvey | Faculty Advisor

The Staff of Volume IX of The Podium

Left to Right:

Cover photo by Lucien Davis ‘26

History of Nordic Skiing at Belmont Hill

Davis Woolbert ‘25

The Nordic Skiing program at Belmont Hill first began in the Winter of 1978. The sport, also referred to as Cross Country Skiing, grew out of the school’s Alpine Skiing program. The sport has seen five head coaches since its inception at Belmont Hill. Coach Bates led the team from 1978 to 1982. Coach Kirby took the helm in 1982 and remained head coach until 2016 before passing leadership of the team to Coach Courtney, who led from 2016 until 2021. Coach Ahearne led the team during the 2021-2022 season before passing the lead to Coach DeCaprio who is the current head coach of the program. The Nordic Skiing team at Belmont Hill has won the Lakes Region Championships numerous times as well as X New England Championships. The team also won the ISSA league 11 times in the 1980’s and 1990’s. The team has experienced numerous highs and lows due to varying snow quantities throughout the years, but success has always remained a hallmark of the program.

The sport of Nordic skiing is a unique one that requires immense endurance and strength in tangent with one another. The sport consists of two primary techniques, classic and skate skiing. Classic skiing utilizes tracks in the snow prepared by a grooming machine. The technique primarily consists of “double poling” on flats and downhills; however, it requires “striding” on uphills (a form of running on skis). Skate skiing is quite different from classic skiing; it requires more space and allows skiers to move their skis laterally to generate more momentum. Due to the obvious reality that, in most areas, nordic skiing can only be practiced on snow during a fraction of the year, a means of summer training called roller skiing was invented. Roller skiing is essentially the same as skiing on snow, except it requires different skis and pole attachments. As a result of these techniques being so dif-

ferent and challenging to master, successful skiers must be well rounded in their technique abilities. Nordic skiing races usually consist of either classic or skate skiing, depending on the race. One of the unfortunate downsides

to nordic skiing is the funding necessary for equipment. Nordic skiing, whether in winter or summer, demands specialized equipment tailored to the distinct techniques of classic, skate, and roller skiing, necessitating separate skis for each discipline and often different boots for optimal performance. A seasoned Nordic skier typically maintains an array of skis and poles, finely tuned to the two techniques and to various conditions. Nordic skiing also requires substantial equipment to keep the skis prepared for racing through a process called waxing. Waxing in Nordic skiing is a crucial process that enhances glide and grip on the snow, optimizing performance based on conditions. Skis are waxed differently for classic and skate skiing, with various types of waxes (e.g. grip wax, glide wax) ap-

plied to the base of the ski. To wax skis, skiers need specialized equipment including waxing irons, brushes, scrapers, and a variety of waxes tailored to snow temperatures and moisture levels. The process involves cleaning the ski base, applying the appropriate wax, and then either ironing or corking the wax into the base before scraping off any excess for optimal glide. Despite the inherent expense of the sport, Belmont Hill has done a great job providing equipment and funding for skiers in need, making the sport a viable option for the entire student body.

When the sport originally started at Belmont Hill, the only widely known

technique was classic skiing. As a result, all the early seasons of the sport at Belmont Hill did not include skate skiing. When the skate skiing technique was introduced to the nordic skiing stage in the mid 1880’s Belmont Hill and the then ISSA league were quick to adopt it. According to longtime head coach, Coach Kirby, the sport also included ski jumping when it was first introduced at Belmont Hill. However, ski jumping was not required to attain a champi-

onship and Belmont Hill skiers usually opted out of this additional technique due to its inherent risk and equipment requirements. After skate skiing was introduced to the Lakes Region league, each season of nordic skiing attempted to evenly balance the amount of skate and classic skiing throughout the year. In this attempt to balance the techniques and promote well rounded skiers, the yearly championship adopted a skiathlon format. The skiathalon generally begins as a classic race and requires skiers to change skis and poles at the halfway point in order to finish the race using the skate skiing technique. As a result of the Belmont Hill Nordic skiing teams exceptional coaching staff, skiers have excelled in this form of competition throughout the years, leading to the numerous team accolades listed above. When the Nordic skiing program was first introduced at Belmont Hill, all practices and races were held at the Concord Country Club. After the original league, the ISSA, drifted apart, practices moved to the Leo J. Martin Golf Course, and races moved up north. Despite the difficult competition that came as a result of switching to the New Hampshire/Vermont Lakes Region League, Belmont Hill and its golf course trained Nordic skiing team have excelled repeatedly. The team has typically practiced in Massachusetts on Mondays, Tuesdays, Thursdays, and Fridays, while they travel up north for races on Wednesdays and optional practices on Saturday.

The success of the Belmont Hill Nordic team is a testament to its determined athletes and profoundly skilled coaching staff throughout the years. Despite its occasional challenges such as a lack of snow, the program has persevered, consistently securing titles and is poised to continue its success into the future under the guidance of Coach DeCaprio.

Members of the Nordic Ski Team (c. 1980s) Belmont Hill Archives

BH Nordic Ski Team in 2023 Adam Richins Photography

A Necessity for Global Security

Brady Paquette ‘25

Denuclearization remains a complex issue, especially for countries like North Korea, Russia, and the United States. Nobody will doubt that the removal of nuclear weapons will increase global stability and mitigate risks. However, many argue that the possession of a nuclear arsenal can provide assurance against invasion or external aggression. As safeguarding national sovereignty is important, it can be achieved in more reassuring ways. As international tension continues to rise today, advanced military weaponry rises with it. The effects of using nuclear weapons immeasurably damage our world and increase overall threats. Why should we sit back and wait around for another nuclear war? For this reason, America and every other nuclear state should denuclearize their militaries, leading to improved international relations and economic benefits.

For many years, Israel has been set on possessing nuclear missiles, even though they have never officially acknowledged an arsenal within their military. Whether this be true, Israel’s presumed possession has influenced its relationships with surrounding Middle Eastern countries. Non-proliferation efforts and the ignoring of disarmament have grown into a concern for neighboring states. Likewise, North Korea has struggled with internal issues regarding economic hardship and diplomatic isolation. Countries such as Japan, South Korea, and even allied China have put strict sanctions on North Korea in response to their nuclear activity. Denuclearizing said militaries would help to improve international relations and could lead to a rebuilding of trust among the nations, paving the way for collaboration on future challenges such as climate change. It is also important to note the Treaty on Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons (NPT), signed in 1968 by the US and the Soviet Union amidst the Cold War in an effort to “prevent the spread of nuclear weapons and weapon technology, promote cooperation in the peace-

ful uses of nuclear energy, and further the goal of achieving nuclear disarmament and general and complete disarmament.” Fulfilling these commitments enhances international credibility and reinforces stability. Predecessors such as the US strongly influence the global security landscape, so reducing nuclear stockpiles will not only enforce international relationships, but help mitigate risk, thus fostering a more stable world.

Similarly, the world would also thrive off of denuclearization for economic reasons.

As of 2022, the US has spent roughly $4.4 billion on nuclear weapons, the highest of any country. If military technology continues to advance on this track, the US is looking to spend upwards of $750 billion over the next decade. Maintaining and modernizing weaponry is expensive. Reducing this funding could free up substantial financial resources and that could be redirected to more other important issues like healthcare, infrastructure, and education. These areas of investment focus on benefitting society rather than dividing it. Redirecting funds towards diplomacy and foreign aid could strengthen global relations and address the humanitarian crisis. Expanded relations would help to prevent warfare crises, thus reducing the need for military intervention in the first place. Denuclearization would also foster economic growth and innovation: South Korea promised to implement a relief program to aid North Korea if they committed to the dismantlement of nuclear programs. Said rewards comprise providing food, helping to modernize hospitals and medical infrastructure, and carrying out projects to help facilitate trade. By prioritizing issues focused on human well-being, nations will be able to redirect funding and overall contribute to making a more sustainable world. There are benefits to nations using nuclear weapons. However, it is simply unrealistic to weigh military power over the existence of humanity as we know it. The instability of nuclear warfare is far too perilous, thus making denuclearization a global necessity.

Gerontocracy: Why the US Needs Federal Age Limits

Maxwell Ramanathan ‘25

There is too large of a disconnect between the elderly and the majority of the population for the elderly to represent us. The average age of Congress is 58 years old, compared to the median age of Americans, which is 38 years old. Moreover, out of the 439 members of the House of Representatives, 151 of them are above the age of 65, and over half, 45, of the 100 members of the Senate are above the age of 65. Both the Republican and Democratic presidential nominees are above the age of 75, 77, and 81, respectively Many of our representatives are over the age of 75, which is concerning, seeing that the average American’s life expectancy is 77 years old. The average American should not have to worry that their leaders may die of old age at any moment. Moreover, the National Library of Medicine did a study that found that cognitive decline often occurs at ages 70 and above. We have placed our lives and well-being in the hands of people whose minds are starting to regress. There needs to be change. As our government grows older and older, an age limit for political representation seems more and more prevalent. I believe that there should be an age limit of 70 for all politicians who run for office and a 75-year-old age cap for a Supreme Court Justice before they must abdicate their position. People over 70 years old are the group most likely to get into a car crash, other than

25-year-olds. This raises the question, if we are to base who can run for office on cognitive ability, why don’t we prevent 25-year-olds from running for office? The answer is we do. To run for office as a representative, one must be over the age of 25. To run for office as a Senator, one must be over the age of 30. To run for the presidential office, one must be 35 years old. These minimums were put into place to deter people whose minds are not fully developed from running for office. However, the mind is said to fully develop in the mid to late 20s , so not only do these minimums stop anyone before that age from running for office, but the minimum to run for president is a full five years after the brain finishes developing. If there are minimums to prevent those whose minds are not at their peak capacity from running for office, surely there should be maximums to prevent those whose minds are declining from running for office. Not only are these age maximums needed to protect cognitive functionality in government, but they would also prevent politicians, such as Supreme Court Justices, from influencing Americans while on their own literal deathbed. Instead, the two men who are running for president are both above the average life expectancy and are at least seven years past the age of cognitive decline. Whoever wins will be the supreme representative of a group of people whose median age is 40 years younger than them.

The Houthi Rebels: An Attack on American Economic Interests

Alex Laidlaw ‘25

Foreign affairs have long been a contentious topic in the United States. Early on, many favored an isolationist policy that kept America out of foreign entanglements, particularly in Europe. Later, America became more involved in global affairs, involving itself in conflicts throughout the globe. However, regardless of the era, one thing has prompted America to involve itself beyond its borders: capitalism. Under the early presidents, the US established a highly protective policy of American trade. For example, one of the young country’s first conflicts was the Quasi-War with France, a series of small naval battles between the US and France because of the French seizure of American merchant ships. Later, under the presidents of the early 20th century, America entangled itself in South American political affairs (Venezuela) and overseas (Hawaii, the Philippines, etc.), intending to protect American business people involved there. Today, the United State’s foreign policy must continue its longstanding tradition of protecting its economic interests. With capitalism being a cornerstone of American democracy, it is the government’s duty to protect it. Therefore, as the United States navigates the situation in the Middle East, it must play an active role in inhibiting the Houthi rebels’ attacks on civilian and merchant ships. The Houthi rebels pose a major threat to the global economy. Centered on the Red Sea, the group holds a prime position upstream from the Suez Canal, a waterway through which about 15% of all the world’s shipping traffic travels. Eager to retaliate against Western support for Israel, the group has unleashed constant attacks upon merchant ships heading for the canal. Having launched at least 57 attacks on vessels since November, the group has prompted shipping companies to reroute goods traveling toward Europe. In

doing this, the Houthis have thrown a wrench into the supply chain, causing factories to close and raising consumer prices. While most of the effects have been felt in Europe, the destination of most goods traveling through the Red Sea, the shockwaves sent through the supply chain system have reached America’s shores. More importantly, their attacks could have long-term effects if not stopped. According to Ryan Petersen, CEO of the supply chain management firm Flexport, year-long Houthi disruption may inflate prices by 2%.

Given the economic impact of the Houthi Rebels, the world must act to stop their attacks. Much like how the US fought against the Barbary states of Northern Africa in response to the pirating of American merchant ships during the Tripolitan War (1801-1805), the US must fight against the Houthis in response to their actions in the Red Sea. The US must make it clear that attacking the global supply chain and encroaching on American economic interests cannot be condoned no matter the circumstances. Considering that protecting American economic interests has been a core aspect of American foreign policy from the nation’s beginnings, defending against the Houthis’ attacks would merely be the US following its precedent.

Considering the United State’s duty to protect its economic interests around the globe, the government must play an active role in dealing with the Houthis’ attacks. However, the issue is far more nuanced than an economic matter. With the Israel-Hamas War raging in the Promised Land and anti-American sentiments only growing in the region, the US must be very careful with its approach to retaliation. While passivity is not an option, the government must make its measures controlled and calculated, ensuring that the government’s role as a protector of its economic interests is made clear without overstepping its boundaries.

A New Era for Sports Mascots

Eli Norden ‘26

There is no room for racism in this country. Sports team names like ‘Redskins’ should not be acceptable in a nation that strives for equal opportunity for all. This name demeans a group and uses racist terminology to do so, as does their logo. Additionally, the stereotypical facepaint, headdress, garb, and dances of Chief Noc-A-Homa represented a misunderstanding of the great and diverse culture and tradition of Indigenous Peoples in North America. However, other mascots and team names, such as the Kansas City Chiefs and Atlanta Braves, represent the ideals of the great Indigenous tradition in the Americas. Native American mascots and team names should continue to exist because of the ideals they represent; however, a line must be drawn between actual representation of the ideals of a great culture and tradition and flat-out racism and cultural appropriation.

Native American mascots represent ideals that not only represent the values of Indigenous tribes, but also those of Americans of all backgrounds. A name like the Braves makes one think about a warrior willing to go into battle to fight for the sake of others. Bravery (naturally), courage, and perseverance come to my mind when I hear this team’s name. The Chiefs’ logo and name represent the ideals mentioned above, along with leadership, as chiefs are respected and listened to by all in native american cultures. As a culture of victimization becomes increasingly popular and accepted in the U.S., it is crucial to recognize that these teams lack offensive language or logos but rather ideas that all Americans can learn from.

Other groups are represented by figures regarding culture, tradition, and race, yet there is no outrage about the names and mascots of these teams. A fighting Leprechaun represents the Notre Dame Fighting Irish. The Ragin’ Cajuns is a nickname used to refer to the University of Louisiana at Lafayette’s sports teams. Many far-left movements pro-

moting equal opportunity also seem to strive for equality of outcome. Normalizing victimization must end. When looking at the oppression or appropriation of a traditionally marginalized group, it is necessary to make sure that all groups are correctly represented.

Although it is clear that the majority of Native American mascots—in the current day— represent the positives of a culture that has been decreasing both in population and in the sphere of influence since colonization, something must be done to protect the racist imagery of the former Cleveland Indians or Washington Redskins logos from occurring at the high school level through professional sports broadcasted in front of millions of Americans weekly. There are two ways to combat this. First, establishing a board of knowledgeable Native Americans or experts in Indigenous culture, language, and tradition to regulate what is OK and accurately represents the good parts of a culture compared to what is racist, demeaning, and doesn’t correctly represent Native Americans. This could occur via legislation, too. Last, restrictions should be put in place at local, state, and federal logos so that all cultures are accurately represented.

Native American mascots and team names are significant parts of a long tradition of courage and leadership. Still, restrictions must be established to distinguish between accurate representation and racism. Fake news and misinformation is an issue in this nation. Whether it be regarding elections, foreign conflict, or even sports, the average internet user consumes false or skewed information seemingly constantly. For this, all cultures must be appropriately represented in mass media. For people to care about a cause, they need to understand it; Native American mascots and the ideals they help teach must be kept for people to care about bettering the Native American experience in the 21st Century.

Gambling: America’s Newest Epidemic

Gavin Zug ‘25

To say there is a gambling problem in the United States is an understatement. Even for teens, gambling has never been more accessible. First, sports gambling has finally become legal in 38 U.S. states. This has heavily shifted the makeup, process, and view of gambling among gamblers and non-gamblers. According to Statistica.com, there were over 25 million sports betting users in the U.S. in 2022. In addition, this number is expected to add over 10 million bettors by 2025. Many gamblers have shifted betting to sports due to the view on it in the U.S. While gambling, such as blackjack, slots, and craps, is portrayed as true luck; sports betting is slightly less so. For example, sports betting and stocks have a lot in common. Like studying your stocks, you can watch, read, and learn about the teams you bet on. Further, these bets can be longer-term and short-term, just like stocks. Sports users can bet on who will win a championship, similar to a long-term stock. However, they can also bet on points scored or who will cover a game’s spread, similar to day trading stocks. With these ideas, the U.S.’s culture and view on gambling for sports betting have changed significantly. Also, just like stocks, gambling sensations have appeared online with the recent changes in sports betting. For example, Sean Perry, a casino and sports betting sensation, correctly predicted the Super Bowl winner for five years. This also prompts more people to join the sports betting culture, seeing big wins from just regular people.

There is a real problem on the topic of teens. While big businesses are doing a solid job of keeping teens off their platforms, the new culture has encouraged teens to gamble offline with friends and others for small but large wagers. Big brands such as DraftKings, Fanduel, and Bet MGM require an ID and your Social Security number. This secures their platforms in order to attempt to slow down the rush of teen gambling. Unfortunately, with these restrictions on apps, teens and young adults have turned to betting with each other or even illegal sportsbooks. Sports betting is a problem, but not nearly as much as casino gambling.

Casino gambling is more of an oldtime type of betting. Games such as poker, blackjack, slots, and craps have revolutionized with the times. Big lights, unique colors, and big chips in casinos are all part of the plan to make sure the house wins. This has become an epidemic in the U.S. and is not adequately addressed. A few ways to fix this problem would be to add regulations for casinos, such as a maximum amount of money a person can bet, depending on their worth. Another way to fix this problem would be to change the gambling age law to 25; this would allow the young teenage brain to fully develop before making irresponsible decisions with their money. Finally, just raising awareness of the gambling epidemic through government money would help to bring awareness to the problem even more in the U.S. Overall, casinos are a much worse problem for gambling, but there are ways to fix this problem slowly.

The Detrimental Influence of Gambling on US Culture

Kevin Weldon ‘24

Gambling is perhaps the most normalized of all addictions. While addiction to substances like hard drugs and alcohol is taken extraordinarily seriously, with massive historical and current reactions to the issues, gambling can just as easily destroy a person’s life, yet is seeing the opposite effect. Policies such as prohibition and the War on Drugs prove that the US has never taken addiction lightly, and gambling was no exception for the vast majority of our nation’s history. For decades gambling was reduced to small-scale bets among friends by heavy regulation, while any larger scale gambling was localized to the remote city of Las Vegas, Nevada. However, with the advent of technological revolution and online betting, gambling regulation everywhere has taken a hit and seems to be buckling under the pressure of a massively growing market. Thus, not yet a crisis, a gambling epidemic is sweeping the US, and it is mostly unopposed or is even supported by policy-makers.

DraftKings and Fanduel are the two largest online betting websites, and they have skyrocketed in popularity over the last decade. Like any addictive activity, gambling gives a much sought-after emotional feeling, known as the “gambler’s high,” where a rush of excitement in the form of adrenaline floods the body. This feeling either results in a crushing defeat or euphoric feeling when they gamble either busts or pays off, and the cycle quickly becomes dangerous. Large online betting companies understand this feeling well, and have been weaponizing it against the public. Oftentimes, commercials will offer hundreds of dollars in “bonus bets” if an initial wager is placed, since these corporations understand that the biggest barrier of entry is the creation of an account, and try to bribe users with offers of free money. They depend upon the fact that once these “bonus bets” expire, users will

continue to gamble, and unfortunately, they overwhelmingly are correct.

The problem is facing no meaningful regulation, but is rapidly gaining popularity among the youth. Especially in sports gambling, influential people are increasingly placing massive wagers, popular social media companies like Barstool Sports and ESPN are heavily promoting gambling, and gambling figures – over/under lines, points favored, and odds – have increasingly become part of the sports spectating experience and stat lines. This is especially catastrophic for the American youth, who have easy access to gambling and are much more likely to become addicted and not understand the true stakes of gambling large amounts of money.

If this evidence is not convincing enough, Australia presents a cautionary tale. The nation underwent a similar gambling boom which never faced pushback decades ago, and the results have been clear. The Guardian claims that Australia youths as young as 10 years old have become addicted to gambling, and the nation has the largest per capita losses in the world, which total up to an estimated twenty-five billion dollars lost every year. This is the future of the United States if we do not act swiftly. Staunch regulations, requiring identification and proof of age must be instituted to combat underage gambling. Furthermore, enticement of non-gamblers with “deals” should be outlawed, as well as a raise in the age requirement for gambling. Online gambling should face strict restrictions, such as limiting bets over a certain amount, stopping users who exhibit destructive gambling habits, and reducing the role it can play in media and national events. Most essentially, it is critical that gambling be recognized and acknowledged by the public for what it is – dangerous and detrimental – and the normalization of it, especially in the sports world, must be altered or stopped altogether.

From Probation to Plutocrats: The

Untold Story of the Demise of Jewish Organized Crime in Early to Mid-20th Century America

Noah Farb ‘24

Introduction:

“Michael, we’re bigger than U.S. Steel,” said Hyman Roth to Michael Corleone, head of the Corleone crime family in Martin Scorsese’s Academy Award Winning Godfather trilogy.1 Roth was a fictional character based on Meyer Lansky,2 one of the most influential Jewish gangsters in American history who, the year before his death at the age of 80, was awarded a place on the inaugural 1982 Forbes 400 list of richest Americans.3 In addition to the Lansky based character’s appearance in the Godfather trilogy, American Jewish gangsters were featured in several high-profile Hollywood films over the past 50 years including, Mobsters, Bugsy, Casino, Billy Bathgate, Once Upon a Time in America, and most recently the 2021 film Lansky. 4

While the provenance of Lansky/Roth “U.S. Steel” quote comparing mob earnings and influence to the massive U.S. Steel corporation is murky, Lansky and his longtime partner Benjamin “Bugsy” Siegel were undisputedly two of the most well-known American organized crime figures of their time. Despite Lansky and Siegel’s notoriety, the widespread existence of Jewish organized crime in early to mid-20th century America is little known by most Americans, and even less so while it was current.5 Few Americans are familiar with Lansky and Siegal’s Jewish gangster contemporaries, some of whom were among the most powerful and feared men of their time. For example, Murder Inc., was a brutal murderfor-hire organization operating throughout

the 1930s across the United States and was suspected of being involved in hundreds of murders. Murder Inc. sometimes charged as little as $1 for a “hit,” worth around $18 to $25 today,6 and was led by Louis “Lepke” Buchalter,7 a Jewish mobster who, to date, is the only American organized crime figure ever to have been executed by the government.8 Other notables dot the archives. Moe Dalitz was a Jewish gangster involved in bootlegging and illegal gambling who started his underworld career as an associate of Detroit’s much feared Purple Gang. Along with Lansky, Dalitz also made it onto the Forbes’ inaugural 400 Richest Americans list in 1982, based on his ownership of Las Vegas casinos, placing him ahead of Star Wars creator George Lucas and future President Donald Trump.9

Starting with grit, the desire to improve their status and financial position and a “nothing to lose” mentality, Lansky, Siegel, Buchalter, and Dalitz are just a few examples of American Jewish organized crime figures, composed mainly of first-generation immigrants or the children of recent immigrants, who were active underworld figures during the early to mid-20th century.

While the financial success of many Jewish organized crime figures during this period was spectacular, surprisingly few Jewish gangsters passed on their criminal legacy to subsequent generations. American Jewish organized crime was almost exclusively a single generation phenomenon and in many respects a story of assimilation and immigrant success, albeit often through distasteful, unscrupulous, and occasionally violent means.

Few of the prominent American Jewish organized crime figures of that period had successors of any kind, and because there was seemingly no familial desire on the part of these individuals to carry on the criminal activities, no legacies endured. Improving economic conditions gave second and third generation American Jewish families the opportunity to leave the densely populated “immigrant enclaves” which fostered crime and gangsterism, to the suburbs.10 The legalization of widespread alcohol distribution and sale along with legal casino gambling in Nevada in the 1930’s opened pathways for many Jewish gangsters to sustainably legitimize their newfound wealth.11 Increased government attention on organized crime led to many former gangsters turning “legit,” being weeded out of the “business,” or for those that could, retiring. In short, the sudden disappearance of American Jewish organized crime of the early to mid-20th century was the result of a lack of familial legacy, improving economic conditions, the ability to go “legit” through legalized industries, sand a sustained government crackdown on organized crime.

Background: Jewish Presence in America

Jews have been present in the United States since the colonial era; the first confirmed Jewish immigrant community dates to the Dutch merchant ship Valck landing in New Amsterdam in 1654. America’s Jewish population grew slowly from the colony’s inception through the late 1800’s, primarily through immigration to eastern coastal areas.12 By the end of the 1870s, a census commissioned by the Board of Delegates of American Israelites estimated the American Jewish population at 230,000,13 ess than 0.5% of the American population of approximately 50,000,000 in 1880.14 It wasn’t until over 200 years after the arrival of the Valck in the

1880’s that the first reports of American Jewish organized crime emerged.15 Jews were viewed as an “other” by the majority Anglo-Saxon protestant population and faced heavy discrimination in the colonies through the colonial era and early years of the United States. In Maryland, Jews were barred religious freedom under the Maryland Toleration Act of 1649 and did not receive religious toleration until the passing of the “Jew Bill” in 1826.16 Prior to 1880, The American Jewish community was composed primarily of Russian and German immigrants who kept many of their familial traditions but by the mid 1800s were reasonably assimilated into American society. Starting int the 1880’s and throughout the next four and a half decades Jewish immigration to America expanded dramatically, coincident with increasingly anti-Jewish political policies and social views across Eastern Europe17 when anti-Jewish pogroms became common.18 By 1924, some estimates placed the number of American Jews at 4,500,000,19 or approximately 4% of the American population.20 This exponential increase in America’s Jewish population over the 1880-1924 period was the result of mass emigration of Jews out of Eastern Europe chiefly due to increased anti-Jewish sentiment, poor living conditions,21 and America’s open immigration policy for Europians.22

World War I significantly slowed most European, and therefore Jewish, immigration to the United States but the ultimate and lasting cause of reduced Jewish migration to America were the numerous forms of anti-immigration legislation passed by Congress in 1917, 1921, and 1924.23 The Immigration Act of 1924 was particularly onerous; it placed severe restrictions on arrivals into the United States that effectively forced potential immigrants to prove their admissibility under immigration laws rather than for immigration officials to prove inadmissibility, as

Winner of the 2023 Monaco American History Prize

had been the policy in the past. The acts placed admission quotas on ethnic groups based on ethnic group population numbers of 1890 and forced potential immigrants needed to prove their future usefulness to American society to immigration officers by showcasing a skill or trade instead of simply passing a health exam, as was the policy before.24 Post-1924, Jewish immigration to the United States slowed to about 10,000 per year,25 and these restrictions stayed in place until the second half of the 1940s.26

Background: Immigration 1880-1920, Ethnic Enclaves, and Organized Crime

From 1880-1920, the foreign-born population of America doubled from seven to fourteen million; immigrants made up over 13% of the country’s total population in 1920.27 American immigration data from that period indicates that nearly all immigrants were impoverished upon arrival with almost half not having a previous occupation. Most of them were also deemed “unskilled,”28 and less than 40,000 of 200,000 immigrants arriving between July 1st to December 31st were considered “skilled” or “professional.”29 Many of these immigrants had been expelled from their home country as “undesirables” for reasons such as criminality or medical concerns.30

Because of limited resources and familial connections, new arrivals to America typically flocked to densely populated urban neighborhoods where they felt a cultural connection, providing them with a sense of community and helping them with employment and other essential needs. These immigration patterns created communities such as New York’s Little Italy and San Francisco’s Chinatown; communities that were distinct from mainstream populations across the United States. In most cases, these neighborhoods served as transitional waystations for immigrants looking to move upward in society. Most migrants looked to raise their economic status and move out of the “immigrant enclaves.” where they initially settled upon arrival.31 The Jewish immigrant enclaves were no different than any other poor immigrant communities of the late 19th and early

20th century. Jacob Riis’s How the Other Half Lives dedicated a chapter to the “Jewtown” of New York. In the chapter, Riis discusses the brutal living conditions of the New York Jewish community in the late 1880s, “It is said that nowhere in the world are so many people

crowded together on a square mile as here.”32 Different areas of the neighborhood reached over 300,000 people per square mile. Living in these areas was unhospitable. Poverty was widespread, and according to Riis, “life itself is of little value compared with even the leanest bank account.”33 Riis also mentions how “over and over again” he had seen “Polish or Russian Jews deliberately starving themselves to the point of physical exhaustion”34 to save miniscule amounts of money. Gangsterism presented a potential way out of these inhumane conditions and money young Jewish boys of the era jumped on the opportunity.35

The 14 million foreign-born immigrants who entered the United States between 18801920 birthed 23 million children36 in the years after their migration, creating a massive influx of first-generation Americans. Children of immigrants typically had higher crime rates than their parents because of a multitude of factors, including dense population, broken

homes, poor socioeconomic standing, mixing of many different ethnicities and cultures, few community guides, and scarce educational opportunities for first generation Americans regardless of culture or nationality. The children of poor immigrants in urban areas, especially boys, often formed gangs to rebel against the discomfort of continued poverty, leading them into lives of delinquency and crime.37 Multiple studies from the 1920s and 1930s affirm across generations, ages, ethnicities, and races, crime rates are statistically higher in impoverished communities when compared to wealthier areas.38 A 1937 essay in the Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology observed, “all boys of the same socio-economic class, whether of foreign, negro, or native white parentage, enter into gangs with equal facility.”39 One result of the higher crime rates in densely populated, impoverished immigrant communities was the emergence of organized crime syndicates. As defined by the FBI, organized crime is “any group having some manner of a formalized structure and whose primary objective is to obtain money through illegal activities.”40 Chiefly due to the proximity of people living in immigrant enclaves along with shared culture and customs of the people within those groups, the earliest organized crime groups were typically centered around a single race or ethnicity.

Ethnic based criminal organizations often profited off illicit activities often including prohibition-era alcohol trafficking, gambling rings, loan sharking, racketeering, political and legal corruption, extortion, and murder for hire. Organized crime provided a path to move up in status and wealth and helped ease assimilation into American culture and society.41 Ethnic enclaves such as New York’s Lower East Side Jewish “ghetto” and Chicago’s Lower West Side Little Italy were breeding grounds for gangs. During the 1920s, Chicago saw the emergence of, Jewish, Irish, Italian, Black, Mexican, and Chinese crime groups.42 Organized crime was a way for many to sustain a living in underprivileged areas. In Chicago in the 1930s, over ½ of Blacks with a net worth over $100,000 were organized crime bosses.43 Money, and the freedom money al-

lows, equates to power in many modern societies. Organized crime was one way to sustain a living in underprivileged areas, and many of the most successful and powerful members of impoverished immigrant communities in early to mid-20th century America were crime bosses.44 The money and power gained through organized crime provided opportunities for those looking to move out of their immigrant enclaves and opened opportunities not available to them elsewhere.45

Background: Jewish Organized Crime

In the early to mid-20th century, American Jews were rarely viewed as violent criminals by the public; this changed with the murder of Jewish bookmaker Herman Rosenthal in 1912. In the early 1900s, Jewish criminality was often believed to be concentrated around nonviolent offenses, such as fraud or arson. Prior to Rosenthal’s murder, he had announced he was planning to reveal the names of several prominent NYPD officers involved in criminal gambling schemes.46 The subsequent judicial investigation into his murder and a New York Times piece titled “The Rosenthal Murder Case”47 opened the eyes of the New York public to the existence and expansive reach of powerful Jewish organized crime figures. Gang members such as crime boss William “Big Jack Zelig” Alberts, Rosenthal’s murderers, Harry “Gyp the Blood” Horowitz, and Lefty Rosenberg were all pursued and later convicted by the NYPD, revealing to the police force the power and expansiveness of the Jewish Lower East Side Gang.48

Jewish gangsters of the first two decades of the 1900s, like the men mentioned above were violent criminals, yet most were not well known outside of their own communities. These gangsters were poor immigrant children using organized crime to make a living. They operated gambling houses, prostitution rings, and preyed on fellow members of their Jewish community in racketeering schemes while simultaneously defending them from other ethnic gangs.49 These men lived in the Jewish immigrant neighborhoods such as New York’s Lower East Side, Crown Heights, and Brownsville, or Detroit’s Hastings neigh-

Meyer Lansky Gangster

borhood, nicknamed “New Jerusalem,” or “the Ghetto.”50 While few personal connections existed between Jewish criminal groups, these men led to the later and more well-known wave of New York area Jewish gangsters, which included the likes of Arnold Rothstein, Arthur “Dutch Schultz” Flegenheimer, Meyer Lansky, Bugsy Siegel, Louis “Lepke” Buchalter, and Abe “Longy” Zwillman.” Jewish organized crime existed in almost every major American city in the early to mid-20th century.51

The 18th Amendment’s ratification on January 16, 1919, ushered in the era of Prohibition, outlawing the sale of alcohol in the United States. Pre-Prohibition, most organized crime consisted of small ethnic gangs in neighborhoods or cities engaging in small street level crime. Serving as a prime example of the law of unintended consequences, Prohibition quickly became organized crime’s golden ticket.52 The rise in the influence and profitability of organized crime coincided with the 1880-1924 mass migration of Eastern European Jews to America. Prohibition created conditions that allowed Jewish gangsters to earn never-before imagined profit from the newly illegal alcohol distribution industry. A disproportionate number of Jewish immigrants became involved in various aspects of bootlegging operations, both for its profitability, and possibly due to the Jewish immigrant’s history as alcohol producers and distributors in Eastern Europe.53

During the early to mid-20th century, Jews were overrepresented as a percent of their population in organized criminal activity. Nationwide, they accounted for half of the major bootleggers during the Prohibition era from 1919-1933,54 even though less than 4% of Americans in 1929 were Jewish.55 In Detroit, 3.5% of the population was Jewish, yet one of the most prominent gangs was the exceptionally brutal all-Jewish Purple Gang, recruited from the poor children of Eastern European Jewish immigrants. The gang reached its peak during Prohibition; the Detroit police connected the Purples with over 500 murders, more than believed killed by the infamous Capone Mob.56 In nearby Chicago during the late 1920s, 20% of organized crime bosses were Jewish,57

even though Jews made up less than 11% of Chicago’s population in 1927.58 While often similar, Jewish gangsters across the country were active in a variety of criminal activities. Jewish mobsters in Chicago were most heavily involved with gambling and pimping rather than bootlegging, which was the most common illegal activity for Jewish gangsters in most other cities across America.59

While the unquestionable peak of American Jewish gangsterism was during prohibition,60 the reach of Jewish organized crime in America did not completely falter with the passage of the 21st Amendment, which repealed Prohibition in 1933.61 In the late 1930s, Jewish mobsters across the country led the charge to fight against American Nazi Bund groups and their sympathizers when the legal methods of the Jewish establishment failed due to free speech protections. New York judge and former congressman Nathan Perlman sought Meyer Lansky’s help after diplomatic efforts to shut down the Bundist rallies failed. Lansky and a few other Jewish underworld associates infiltrated a meeting and effectively shut the meeting down. Jewish mobsters actively worked to curtail Nazi rallies in New York continued for over a year.62 During the post-World War II era, organized crime controlled parts of the New York and Los Angeles ports. In the late 1940s, Jewish gangsters working these ports were involved in the “misplacement” of military weapons meant to be shipped to Arab nations while ensuring the safe passage for similar weapons destined for Israel in preparation for the Israeli War of Independence.63 Jewish gangsters used their criminality in as a form of geopolitical activism with wide reaching effects all over the world.

Despite their disproportionate involvement in American organized criminal activity, American Jewish gangsters did not build sustainable criminal enterprises. With few exceptions, Jewish gangsters began to disappear through the 1950’s. By the middle of the 20th century, almost all references to American Jewish organized crime in popular culture, political discussions, and newspaper headlines had ceased to exist64 and there was almost no

large scale Jewish organized crime beyond the early 1960’s to carry on the legacy of the Jewish gangsters of the early to mid-20th century.

Lack of Familial Legacy: No Successors

American Jewish organized crime was principally a product of the American immigrant experience. Only a handful of Jewish gangsters born after the major Jewish immigration wave of 1880-1924 became well-known organized crime figures. Of the 34 Jewish gangsters mentioned in the book The Mafia Encyclopedia, only three were born after 1915.65 While not comprehensive, the book profiles many of the most notorious Jewish gangsters and is illustrative of the steep drop in American Jewish gangsterism after the onerous immigration law changes during and after World War I.66 A major contributing factor to the decline of Jewish gangsterism was the lack of familial legacy. Many Italian organized crime figures kept control of their operations through tight familial relations. At the infamous Mafia “Apalachin Meeting,” held at the country estate of Joe “The Barber” Barbara in 1957 in upstate New York, of the more than 60 organized crime figures attending, more than half had family connections to each other according to data gathered by a FBI raid.

Although Italian-American organized crime figures may have attempted to steer their children away from gangsterism as did their Jewish counterparts, ultimately, many Italian organized crime networks defaulted to familial succession.67

Nearly every piece of information available regarding the families of early to mid20th century Jewish gangsters points to the separation of work and home life. Los Angeles mob man Mickey Cohen, who worked primarily in extortion rackets and gambling,68 wrote in his autobiography about a “code of ethics… where one never involved wife or family in work.”69 Similar sentiments were echoed by the Geik family, who were not directly involved in organized crime, but whose family relative George Gordon participated in illegal gambling operations and was a close family friend of Charlie Workman, a member of Murder, Inc. Through the Geik family’s experiences with the mob they noticed “there are no second-generation Jewish mobsters. Jews don’t make gangsters out of their children.”70 Jewish gangsters often worked to insure their children had the ability to pursue other occupations and lifestyles.

Children of the early to mid-20th century Jewish organized crime figures often grew up in more comfortable financial situations than their Jewish gangster immigrant or first-generation American parents, who generally came from low socioeconomic status in urban areas. Consequently, the opportunities the children of American Jewish gangsters were presented with were much broader than those of the generation that preceded them; the younger generation could become skilled tradesmen or pursue higher levels of education, something the older generation generally could not. Another contributing factor to the lack of successors was that many gangsters, both Jewish and non-Jewish, and especially the more ill-tempered and violent ones, died at a young age and therefore did not raise children. While one cannot make sweeping statements about any group without detailed analysis and data, there are numerous examples of the children of American Jewish gangsters leaving their parents legacy of crime behind

Benjamin “Bugsy” Siegel Gangster & Founder of Murder Inc.

them and few counter examples.

One example of the greater opportunities afforded to second generation American Jews born to gangsters can be seen through the case of Meyer Lansky. Born Maier Suchowljansky in 1902, in Grodno, Belarus, Lansky immigrated to New York City’s Lower East Side with his parents when he was nine. In New York, Lansky grew up alongside other infamous mobsters such as Bugsy Siegel and Charles “Lucky” Luciano. With the onset of prohibition, Lansky quickly became one of the most prolific organized crime figures of his era, eventually owning truck and car rental businesses, luxury hotels, and casinos. He was also involved in many illicit ventures including bootlegging, gambling, and the murderfor-hire operation, Murder, Inc. However, Lansky preferred to stay out of violent encounters and was more focused on the business side of criminal operations. At the apex of his success, Lansky had a hand in illicit activities across the country and his enterprise reached Cuba.71

Notwithstanding all the illegal activities, Lansky worked to keep his children in the dark about the true source of his wealth. Buddy Lansky, Meyer’s eldest son, only found out about his father’s role in organized crime when he saw a photo of Meyer on the front of The New York Sun when he was 19.72 Lansky’s daughter, Sandra, a self-described “Manhattan heiress,” was 14 when she discovered her dad was a part of the mob after seeing a photo of gangster Willie Moretti dead on the floor in a newspaper article titled ‘Mob Boss Exterminated in N.J.’; Sandra had dined with her father and “Uncle Willie” the night prior.73 Before seeing the news article, she had thought her dad was a jukebox salesman. Eventually, Sandra came back to her roots and married gangster Vince Lombardo. When her father heard about the arrangement, Lansky asked Lombardo to leave his life of crime for as long as he was in a relationship with Sandra. Lombardo agreed and did not engage in organized crime for the rest of his life.74 Paul Lansky, Meyer’s younger son, attended elite New York City private school Horace Mann,75 graduated from West Point, joined the United States Air Force, and eventually became a lieutenant76

serving in Vietnam.77

Longy Zwillman was another powerful mobster who tried to ensure his family stayed out of his undesirable work life. Zwillman was born in 1905 in Newark, New Jersey, to Jewish Russian immigrants. Throughout the 1920s and into the 1930s, Zwillman was a major bootlegger and racketeer, building relationships with members of the Jewish and Italian underworld across the country. At one point, Zwillman controlled the majority of bootlegging operations in his home state and was often referred to as the “Al Capone of New Jersey.”78 Similarly to Lansky, Zwillman wanted his family to have no knowledge or association with the gangsterism that supported his money and power. Zwillman actively worked to secure jobs in legitimate businesses for his family members.79 His daughter, Lynn Kathryn, grew up in a comfortable life full of wealth before marrying millionaire Warren Tuttle in 1968.80

Irving “Waxey Gordon” Wexler was a major Jewish bootlegger in New York and connected to men like Lansky, Zwillman, and Arnold Rothstein. Gordon kept his family shielded from his criminal activities. His wife, Leah, a Rabbi’s daughter, was unaware of his true job until his trial for income tax evasion in 1933.81

Moe Dalitz was a prominent bootlegger in the 1920s.82 Dalitz had a son, Andrew, and a daughter, Suzanne; neither were involved with organized crime.83 Sol “Red” Steinhardt was a jewel smuggler and gambler operating in similar circles to Meyer Lansky in New York. Steinhardt’s son, Michael, is a retired billionaire hedge fund manager, far from a fedora wearing gangster.84

Consciously pushing one’s children away from one’s business is not the only way to keep children from entering a similar lifestyle. Many Jewish gangsters of the early to mid-20th century lived violent lives, died young, and did not raise children, robbing them of the ability to potentially lead family members into gangsterism. Of a Wikipedia list of 69 prominent Jewish gangsters, 27 are believed to have died before the age of 40.85

An example of this pattern of early death was Detroit’s Purple Gang. The Purple

Gang was formed in the early 1920s with the merging of two rival predominantly Jewish gangs that operated bootlegging and protection racketeering. By 1928, the gang had become known for its ruthlessness and had reached a peak of 50 members. Over the next ten years many of the leaders of the Purple Gang were systematically murdered by rival criminal syndicates. In July of 1929, Irving Shapiro of the Purple Gang was shot in the back of the head four times. In October of the same year, Ziggy Selbin, another gang member, was found dead on the street at the age of 19. In 1933, Abe Axler, and Eddie Fletcher, two of surviving Purple Gang members, were found dead in the back of Axler’s car. Harry Shore of the Purple Gang “disappeared” in 1935, never to be seen again and in 1937, Harry Millman, one of the last remaining members of the gang was killed in a cocktail bar during dinner.86 None of these men were able to “teach” future family members their trade.

Gangsters did not only die from systematic killing sprees. Many died from one-off hits. Jewish gangster Arnold Rothstein, the man who is believed to have conceived the infamous 1919 “Black Sox” scandal along with being embroiled with many bootlegging and gambling operations, was gunned down in November 1928.87 Prolific bootlegger Dutch Schultz was murdered along with three of his associates in a restaurant in 1935 by Jewish mobster Charlie Workman.88 Perhaps the most famous Jewish gangster of all, hitman turned entertainment mogul Bugsy Siegel was killed at his home in 1947 in Beverly Hills.89 These are just a few of the many of murdered Jewish gangsters who died as a result of their underworld activities.

In most cases, Jewish crime figures, even if they were working with others, were solo actors acting for themselves. Jewish organized crime rarely involved large scale all-Jewish organizations formal structures, with Detroit’s Purple Gang being the only long-term example, and even they collapsed after almost two decades of prominence. This contrasts with some of the other ethnic organized crime groups of the early to mid-20th century, most conspicuously the Italian Mafia. Due to the

Mafia’s strict hierarchical structure of family-based groups with the Don, Underboss, and Consigliere at the top, and Soldiers and Associates at the bottom, men were continuously being groomed to be future leaders to move up the ranks. Often, to keep control of organization, only trusted members could achieve positions of power. This led to Italian mafiosos training family members to one day lead the Mafia “family.”90 Because of the familial based operations, Jewish gangsters, even if they were associated with or collaborated extensively with Italian crime groups, rarely reached prominent positions of power within Mafia families, and therefore did not have an opportunity to place their children into leadership roles in those organized crime groups, dissuading them from pushing their kids into the business of organized crime.

Without a tradition of familial legacies, American Jewish gangsterism typically did not last beyond one generation, with the premature deaths of many Jewish gangsters exacerbating this trend. The result of Jewish gangsterism being a typically one generation phenomenon placed an expiry date on how long widespread American Jewish gangsterism could exist.

Improving Economic Conditions: Jewish Migration to Suburbia

A major contributing factor to the rise of American Jewish organized crime in the early 20th century were the poor living conditions and fragile socioeconomic status of the immigrant neighborhoods that served as home to the newly arrived Eastern European Jews and their children. For some, gangsterism presented an attainable way to make a living, move out of the slums, and accelerate assimilation into American society.91 With the passing of the Immigration Act of 1924, the large influx of Jewish immigration into America had effectively ceased.92 In part by the 1940’s, and even more so through the 1950s and 1960s, there were no longer large groups of young, poor, Jewish immigrant children standing by ready to take on the metaphorical torch of the American Jewish gangster.

Starting in the late 1930’s, the United

States entered a decades-long economic expansion as the country started to curtail the negative effects of the Great Depression and headed into World War II. Using Real GDP, a stat meant to compare GDP across years by accounting for inflation, America’s economy finally reached the pre-stock market crash levels in 1938. By the end of World War II in 1945, America’s economy had a Real GDP of 2330.2, over twice of the 1929 value of 1110.2.93 This explosion in economic power allowed many families living in crowded urban centers to uproot themselves and migrate to single family homes in the suburbs94 to places like Levittown, a post-World War II mass-produced suburban housing system on Long Island, New York, meant to help army veterans find housing. Levittown also had developments in New Jersey, Pennsylvania, and Puerto Rico.95 President Hoover’s claim of a chicken in every pot and car in every garage was finally coming to fruition. Jewish families followed this suburban revolution, mainly propelled by a significant increase in income from their impoverished immigrant beginnings and a shift in the types of jobs available to Jews.

Upon arriving in America, poor immigrant Jews were often only able to obtain the less desirable jobs in which they had prior experience from Europe, such as pushcart peddlers or labor jobs in garment factories. Employment programs created by FDR’s New Deal and the need for both soldiers and other jobs within the war and defense industries opened doors to formerly unattainable positions for American Jews.96 By 1957, Jews on average were making 136% of median income among men, and 145% of median income among women. In an incredibly short period of time, American Jews rose from impoverished lower-class Americans to making more income than the average citizen. The children of these immigrants were growing up comfortably financially, with no need or urge to resort to gangsterism.97

The changing social views of Jews in America were predominantly caused by the horrors of the Holocaust. As the American public became more aware of the atrocities committed against Jews in Europe, they soft-

ened their views towards a people who they started to view as “white,” in contrast to the continued horrible treatment of Americans of other races in many places in the country at the time. Pre-World War II, 64% percent of Americans identified as antisemites; by 1951 this dropped to only 16% of Americans.98 Within government, the presidencies of FDR and Harry Truman were significantly more pro-Jewish than ever before. FDR supported a Jewish homeland in Palestine and appointed a Jew to the Supreme Court;99 Truman was the first major world leader to officially recognize Israel as a Jewish state.100 One of the main reasons for Jewish gangsterism was a means of assimilation, and with changing social views the need to become a gangster for assimilation was no longer needed.

During and after World War II, Jewish families flocked to the suburbs as living outside of cities became affordable for middle-class Americans.101 The ability to move to the suburbs exemplified assimilation as it proved Jews were able to rise above their former place as impoverished outsiders. Over 500,000 American Jews served in World War II102 and upon their return they became eligible for GI benefits helping them to secure low-mortgage rates and to pursue the “American Dream.” In the past, Jews had often been barred from living in certain areas, but the 1948 Supreme Court Case Shelley v. Kraemer banning “restrictive residential covenants,” changing social views of Jews, and increasing numbers of communities built by post-World War II developers that permitted American Jews.103 William Levitt, the man who envisioned Levittown, was a grandchild of Russian and Austrian Jewish immigrants. In 1960, 1/3 of the original Long Island based Levittown was populated by Jewish families.104

Jews moved from cities to the suburbs at a higher rate than non-Jewish Americans. Historian and Rabbi Arthur Hertzberg claimed that one third of all American Jews left cities for suburban areas between 1945 to 1965,105 and this statistic did not include those already living in suburban areas by this time. The massive number of American Jews moving to the suburbs post World War II, created a clear

generational distinction between these new “Suburban Jews” and their parents, the majority of whom had immigrated to America between 1880-1924. An article from 1954 describes this movement of “second-generation American Jews” moving from cities to suburbs as comparable to their parent’s generation moving from European shtetls to America itself.106 The rising economic clout and social status achieved by some American Jews during this time allowed Jews to migrate to the suburbs while also serving to diminish the pool of future Jewish gangsters. One of the main goals of Jewish teenagers and young adults falling into gangsterism was the allure of money. Not only did these suburban Jews not need the money associated with gangsterism, in the suburbs during this time few opportunities for gangsterism existed as communities were more spread out and diverse.107 The need for gangsterism within the overall American Jewish population had diminished, and therefore significantly less Jews became gangsters.

By the early 1960s, 62% of Jews between 18 and 25 attended college or graduate school. These college educated Jews no longer had as to figure out how to make ends meet while growing up in the slums of New York, Chicago, Detroit, or any other major metropolitan area. Only 22% of those student’s parents had attended college. By 1959, 78% of American Jews were deemed “white collar” or “professional” workers, which severely reduced the allure of gangsterism even among those who still lived in urban neighborhoods.108 By the 1950’s, every major American city with a sizable Jewish population experienced meaningful out migration to the suburbs, reducing the possibility of American Jewish gangsters in every major metropolitan area.

Major migrations from urban to suburban areas took place in every major American city, beginning in the 1940s and usually ending by the 1960s. Detroit, Minneapolis, Boston, New York, Cleveland, and Chicago all serve as examples of this trend. Around 85,000 Jews lived in Detroit in 1940. Jewish Detroiters were concentrated in the 12th Street, Linwood, and Dexter neighborhoods, the location of the original Purple Gang. Starting in the late 1930s

and lasting through the 1960s, the center of Detroit’s Jewish communities migrated to Oak Park and Southfield, suburbs northwest of the city center and away from the violence and illicit business of the Purples.109 In 1949, 60% of Minneapolis’s Jews, including the former major bootleggers Blumenfield brothers, lived in the urban North Side area, by 1959 over a third of them had migrated to the suburbs, specifically to nearby St. Louis Park.110 In Boston, a similar trend emerged. Into the 1950s, 90,000 Jews lived in the urban Boston neighborhoods of Mattapan, Dorchester, and Roxbury. By 1960, half of them had moved to the suburbs.111 In 1940, under 100,000 Jews lived in New York City’s suburbs. Only two decades later, in 1960, over 635,000 Jews lived in the nearby suburban Westchester county, Rockland county, and Nassau County.112 A 1980 report from the Jewish Community Federation of Cleveland stated, “in the decade of the 1940s the Cleveland Jewish community departed almost en masse from the central city to become virtually a suburban population.”113 Only 5% of Chicago’s Jewish population lived in the suburbs in 1950. By the early 1960s, this number grew to 40% of Jewish Chicagoans.114 The dense urban areas and immigrant enclaves that were once breeding grounds for gangsters now were replaced with quiet white picket fence neighborhoods. When Jewish families moved out of the decrepit conditions of the “Jewtown” as described by Jacob Riis, there was no longer large groups of Jewish boys looking to become gangsters to comfortably survive.

The impact of these large scale American Jewish migrations from cities to the suburbs cannot be understated. In the suburbs, nearly all the underlying factors contributing to American Jewish gangsterism, such as poverty, lack of education, and societal discrimination ceased to exist. By the 1960s, American Jews from all backgrounds had broadly evolved from immigrants living in impoverished communities into middle class suburbanites. With many of the underlying conditions contributing to American Jewish gangsterism of the early to mid-20th century widely eliminated, few Jewish gangster role models, and new Jewish immigrants virtual-

ly non-existent, the pool of young American Jews now susceptible to gangsterism was quite small, severely mitigating the rise of a second generation of Jewish underworld figures.

Legalization of Formerly Illicit Industries

Prohibition lasted nearly 15 years, helping organized crime figures earn unimaginable wealth through illegal means. When the United States repealed Prohibition with the 21st Amendment on December 5th, 1933, bootleggers were forced to reorganize their enterprises.115 Many Jewish gangsters had amassed significant capital over the Prohibition years and used their newfound wealth to enter legal ventures, including the recently legalized casino gambling industry in Nevada. The legalization of formerly illicit industries provided many Jewish gangsters with a clear path to go “legit,” and exit gangsterism.

There are numerous examples of former bootleggers moving into legal alcohol production and distribution. Abe Rosenberg was a former bootlegger who received one of the first legal liquor licenses in New York.116 Lewis Rosenstiel was involved in a family business called Schenley Distillers Corporation that had existed prior to Prohibition. Throughout Prohibition, Schenley stayed in business as a licensed medicinal alcohol distributor. However, many thought Schenley’s medicinal business was simply a front during the Prohibition years for a very profitable bootlegging business, citing his corporation’s repeated purchase of distilleries and warehouses during that time, thereby allowing him to hold considerably more alcohol than a medicinal distributor could ever need. In 1934, as many distilleries were just beginning to transition to legal businesses, Schenley reported over $40 million of legal alcohol sales, equivalent to nearly $900 million in 2023 dollars. Longy Zwillman and Joe Reinfeld, Newark’s bootlegging kings, also continued to operate their formerly illicit alcohol distribution business after the repeal of Prohibition. In 1940 the two former bootleggers sold their corporation, Browne Vintners, to a larger Canadian owned alcohol distribution company called Seagram for $7.5 million, worth over $162 million to-

day.117 The repeal of Prohibition provided the opportunity for former Jewish bootleggers to own and control legal businesses while still operating the same businesses they had run during the Prohibition years, the production and distribution of alcohol.

By 1910, virtually all forms of gambling were illegal in the United States and remained so through the end of the 1920’s.118 In 1931, in an attempt to revive its economy during the Great Depression, a Nevada state bill called Assembly Bill 98, more popularly known as the “Wide Open Gambling Bill,” was passed, making it the only state with legalized casino gambling.119 In spite of its newfound legality, a host of factors including limited gaming licenses, the Great Depression economy, low population, and the rural nature of the state at the time resulted in Nevada’s casinos never taking off through the 1930’s.120 It was not until the late 1940’s after World War II and the establishment of the first few casino resort-hotels on the Las Vegas Strip that the gambling and entertainment industry in Nevada became a substantial cash flow generating business, foreshadowing the eventual economic explosion of Las Vegas in the decades to come.121

American Jewish gangsters were no strangers to running illegal gambling rings. Like bootlegging, Jews had a disproportionate impact in the criminal gambling world relative to their overall population. A Cleveland syndicate headed by Jewish underworld crime figure Moe Dalitz invested in gambling in Kentucky, Florida, and Las Vegas.122 Moe Kleinman, a Jew who also hailed from Cleveland, made his first $1 million payday in 1929, worth $17 million today, through a bootlegging operation. He quickly used his profits to buy large stakes in illegal casino projects across the country.123 Meyer Lansky was famous for his critical role in domestic gambling projects in Florida, Las Vegas, and internationally in Havana, Cuba.124 In Chicago, Al Capone’s former Jewish bootlegging manager Jack Guzik was central to gambling operations in the megapolis through the 1930s and early 1940s.125 These men, along with many others, were involved in a wide range of gambling. At the time, policy, which was a numbers game, sports betting,

and underground casino games were all popular. Although still involved in many other legal and illegal industries, legal and illegal gambling quickly became organized crime’s main source of profit after the end of prohibition, and many Jewish gangsters followed the money.126

Starting in the mid-1940s many of Jewish gangsters easily transferred their knowledge of running illegal casinos to purchase and operate legal casinos in the emerging boomtown of Las Vegas. Bugsy Siegel, Meyer Lansky, and two other Jewish mobsters, Gus Greenbaum and Moe Sedway, purchased the El Cortez Hotel & Casino in Las Vegas in 1945.127 Soon after, in December 1946, an investment from the same group enabled Bugsy Siegel to open the Flamingo resort casino. Siegel dreamed of creating a spectacle unlike any of the existing casino hotels in Las Vegas at the time. Unfortunately for him, Siegel did not get to see his dream flourish; he was murdered in 1947. Soon after his death, the Flamingo was taken over by Greenbaum, Sedway, and Morris Rosen, all Jewish organized crime figures. With the sale of the Flamingo for $9 million in 1954, worth $100 million today, these gangsters made off with a $3 million profit, worth $33 million today.128 With help from outside investors including the Las Vegas division of the Teamsters union,129 the former members of the defunct Cleveland Jewish Syndicate, led by Moe Dalitz, Moe Kleinman, Sam Tucker, and Louis Rothkop, bought a majority share and control in the Desert Inn, a resort casino that opened in 1950. Through his role at the Desert Inn and other casinos in Las Vegas, reformed gangster Dalitz earned the nickname “The Godfather of Las Vegas” and exerted influence on many new projects in the city through the 1970’s.130

While not all Jewish gangsters moved from bootlegging into either legal alcohol distribution or gambling, many of the most well-off Jewish mob men who had the capital to do so allocated at least a portion of their assets into the casino and or entertainment industries.131 This allowed them to continue earning strong returns while providing them with a convenient cover for past or possibly

current illicit activities, helping to shield them from criminal punishment. The now-legal industries of alcohol sale and distribution along with legalized casino gambling in Nevada provided easy outs for Jewish gangsters to exit illicit businesses.

Changing Policy: Government Crackdown

The ratification of the 18th Amendment and the implementation of Prohibition began the recurring theme of government policies having massive ramifications within the world of organized crime. The resulting financial windfall associated with the new legislation resulted in gangs of differing ethnicities putting aside their long-standing rivalries to achieve maximum profit for all groups.132 Changing government policies and attention on organized crime allowed for both the rise of Jewish gangsters as a dominant force in the criminal underworld and caused their fall due to more aggressive law enforcement action increasing the difficulty and risk of engaging in underworld activities.

In the early to mid-20th century, local and federal government action had a massive effect on the ups and down of organized crime through legalizing formerly illegal industries, leading to the exodus from organized crime of many of the leading bootleggers and gamblers.133 At the same time, increased effectiveness at stopping organized crime nationwide driven by increased federal investment worked to take down those who chose to participate in illegal activities.134

In the beginnings of Prohibition-era organized crime, there was little federal coverage or attention. At the local level, day to day battles between law enforcement officials and organized crime often favored the mob due to their significant power within the areas and industries they operated in. In New York, Thomas Dewey’s investigative and prosecutorial skills changed the culture and relationship between organized crime and local law enforcement. On the federal level, three major waves of federal government action led by George Wickersham in 1929, Estes Kefauver in the early 1950s, and Robert Kennedy in the early to mid 1960s, served to raise public

awareness of the societal problems caused by organized crime and slowed its growth. The tenure of many Jewish gangsters of the early to mid-20th century was stopped short prematurely due to interactions with consistently more aggressive government agents and agencies on both the local and national level, further limiting the presence of the Jewish gangsters.

A major turning point in New York City’s battle against organized crime was led by Thomas Dewey. Dewey had an extraordinarily successful run fighting organized crime in the early to mid-1930’s as a prosecutor for the justice department. At this time, New York City organized crime was running rampant due to the money made from Prohibition, and many of its leaders were American Jewish gangsters. One of Dewey’s first convictions was of Waxey Gordon. A few years later, Dewey’s interest in convicting Dutch Schultz led to Schultz plotting to murder Dewey. Fearing the blowback of assassinating a government official, a group of underworld figures devised the murder of Dutch Schultz and his conspirators. After the death of Schultz, Dewey chose to go after Lepke Buchalter, leading to his conviction and eventual death by electric chair.135 Buchalter’s original partner in Murder, Inc., Jacob “Gurrah” Shapiro, also was imprisoned by Dewey136 and eventually died in a prison hospital in 1947.137 Between 1935 and 1937, Dewey convicted 72 of his 73 prosecutions.138 Not all the gangsters Dewey prosecuted were Jewish, and it would be inaccurate to claim that his prosecutions single handedly significantly reduced Jewish gangsterism in New York City. However, Dewey’s prosecutions, and many others modeled off Dewey’s work across the country, changed the environment and relationship between law enforcement and organized crime, a contributing factor to the exodus of many of the most prominent American Jewish organized crime figures. For many Jewish gangsters the benefits of a life of criminality were beginning to dwindle as the threats of imprisonment or worse began to increase. For the first time on a wide scale, law enforcement was able to get the better of the high profile mobsters instead of just members

of the lower echelon of criminal organizations.

139

In 1929, President Hoover established the first major federal countermeasures against organized crime in the form of the National Commission on Law Observance and Enforcement. Prior to this, there were never any substantial attempts from the federal government to stop organized crime. This commission, also referred to as the Wickersham Commission covered every part of the criminal justice system and was important as it served to initiate the federal government’s multi-decade battle with organized crime. The Wickersham Commission itself was not particularly effective at stopping widespread organized crime, although it provided material aid to the FBI in its quest to learn more about how organized crime figures operated and exposed lots of police corruption scandals across the country. Notably, the commission led to the arrest of Al Capone and helped push Thomas Dewey to investigate many of New York’s Jewish gangsters.140

Organized crime was mostly able to avoid federal interest throughout the 1930s and 1940s due to national conflicts. However, this in changed 1950 due to Tennessee senator Estes Kefauver. Kefauver called for a Senate Special Committee to investigate organized crime, later named the Kefauver Committee. The Kefauver Committee opened America’s eyes to the power and connectivity of organized crime networks in America. Federal agents interviewed over 600 witnesses in 14 cities regarding the expansiveness of a potential hidden national crime syndicate unbeknownst to the public or government. Over 30 million Americans watched the hearings in all, in which gangsters including Zwillman, Dalitz, Lansky, and Irish mobster Frank Erickson were compelled to testify.141 The final report of the hearings contained ten full pages on Zwillman, centered on his association with past criminals and questionable political contributions. He vehemently denied any donation to Jersey City’s Mayor John V. Kenny’s campaign when responding to a question about a mysterious $50,000 donation, “Not 50,000 cents.142 Mr. Senator, that is another fantasy, and who-

ever gave it to you ought to -- I never gave him 50 cents.” Though the hearings did not convict many gangsters, they helped expose several public corruption scandals and further increased pressure on nationwide organized crime networks through increased public awareness. The increase in public awareness had a negative trickle-down effect on many gangsters still in operation by causing numerous local investigations into organized crime.143

At the culmination of the Kefauver Committee’s findings in 1954, the Department of Justice only had three lawyers assigned to Organized Crime and Racketeering. Robert Kennedy quickly revolutionized federal government attention and success at combating organized crime. As U.S. Attorney General from 1961-1964, Kennedy authorized the monitoring of 400 prominent organized crime figures and championed legislation designed to more heavily punish actions that gangsters benefitted from, such as “interstate travel in aid of racketeering.”144 By 1961 when Kennedy became U.S. Attorney General, the number of lawyers in that department had jumped to 17 and quadrupled to 68 by 1962. The increased manpower achieved results. 546 people associated with organized crime were convicted in 1964, dwarfing the 45 convicted in 1960. Some of the prominent Jewish gangsters convicted because of Kennedy’s reforms were Mickey Cohen, Isadore “Kid Cann” Blumenfield, and Abe Minker.145 The culmination of Kennedy’s war on organized crime was the passing of the Racketeer Influenced and Corrupt Organizations Act in 1970 under President Lyndon B. Johnson, two years after Kennedy’s assassination. The act, commonly referred to as “RICO” allowed the government to seize illegally procured assets, hampering the ability of mobsters to keep money or property obtained through criminal actions if they were convicted on any charge.146 Gangsters had to become significantly better at hiding their tracks to continue profiting without high risk of arrest and imprisonment.

Even the most powerful of the Jewish gangsters faced difficulties escaping the enhanced law enforcement attention. Indicted

on tax evasion charges at 70 years old in 1972, Lansky attempted to flee America to Israel. However, while not extradited, the Israeli government denied Lansky citizenship under the Law of the Return which allows any Jew to enter Israel as an immigrant.147 After leaving Israel, Lansky first fled to Switzerland, before being told he had to leave upon landing.He continued to South America, reportedly offering $1 million, around $7.2 million today, to any nation that would permit his stay. After being refused safe-haven, Lansky flew back to Miami and was arrested in the airport upon landing.148 Even with Lansky’s expansive resources, he still ended up succumbing to the legal system after a multi-year battle.

The nationwide crackdown on organized crime at both the local and federal level was not focused on Jews specifically, but rather on organized crime as a whole.149 That said, considering the overrepresentation of Jews in organized crime rackets in the early to mid20th century, many Jewish gangsters participating in illegal ventures received newfound attention from the now systematic inspection of nationwide gangsterism, making it more difficult for them to successfully operate their illegal operations. These “waves” of federal attention on organized crime did not wipe out entire groups, but together over many decades they were effective in reducing gangsterism, and American Jewish gangsters were not immune.

One reason why many Italian crime groups were able to survive through these waves of government scrutiny was because of their organizational structure. Even if one man went down, there were others in the ranks ready to step up. Also, the Italian Mafia’s nationwide system of “families” that operated in tandem and communicated with each other often allowed them to be one step ahead of law enforcement and to protect their members through methods such as bribery and blackmail. Furthermore, it was more difficult for entire Mafia families, with obligations to hundreds of people, to detach themselves from criminal activity when compared to a single Jewish gangster who most likely only supported himself and his immediate family.150

Shifting government policy limited the supply of “active” Jewish gangsters as many had moved into legitimate businesses, retired, or died, or had been arrested by local or federal law enforcement. By the 1960s Jewish mobsters existed in smaller and smaller numbers and became an afterthought in the minds of law enforcement and the American public; with so few Jewish gangsters continuing with organized crime and very few if any second-generation Jewish gangster families, American Jewish gangsterism had become a generation phenomenon.151

Conclusion:

By the 1960s, American Jewish gangsters had largely disappeared as a force in the world of American organized crime. A U.S. government report on crime in America published in 1967 stated that members of high-profile organized crime syndicates were “exclusively Italian.”152 By 1967, as far as the US government was concerned, American Jewish organized crime figures were no more.153 While no single factor led to the decline of American Jewish gangsters from their position of prominence in the early to mid-20th century, there were numerous factors that contributed to their decline.

Specifically, a lack of desire on the part of surviving Jewish organized crime figures to have their children follow them into the business, broad-based material improvements in the economic capacity of American Jews in the post-World War II years leading to more opportunity outside of the world of crime, legalization of formerly illegal industries giving many gangsters a way out, and the waves of government crackdowns on organized crime beginning in 1929 and lasting until the 1970s led to many Jewish mobsters either choosing or being forced to change their gangster lifestyle through “retirement,” transitioning to legitimate businesses, incarceration, or death. Additionally, by the 1940’s, the pool of potential Jewish children who were in conditions susceptible to becoming gangsters was markedly smaller than it had been in the preceding decades due to changes in US immigration policies, establishing American Jewish gangsterism of the early to mid-20th century as a single generation phenomenon.

While impossible to equivocally prove, based on the conclusion of the US government and volumes of anecdotal evidence, most American Jewish gangsters had ceased criminal activities by the 1960’s. The exodus

of American Jews from organized crime started in the 1930’s with the repeal of Prohibition and the introduction of legal gambling in Nevada. By the 1950’s and into the 1960’s organized crime had entered a new frontier, where the old forms of gangsterism, such as bootlegging, and to a lesser extent illicit gambling, and murder-for-hire operations, where Jewish organized crime figures had focused, had become a legacy of the past. By the 1960’s drug production and distribution had become a primary source of income for organized crime, areas where few Jewish gangsters had much historical involvement or experience.154 Throughout all of this, Jewish gangsters pushed their children away from gangsterism and the Jewish community assimilated into American society through high income jobs and suburbanization.

While most Jewish gangsters of the early to mid-20th century stayed away from narcotics distribution and sales, either because they were dead, retired, or scared off by the various waves of government crackdowns, some Jewish gangsters bucked the trend and remained active. Waxey Gordon did not conform to the norm and after being released from a seven-year stint in prison in 1940, he became actively involved in the narcotics trade. Post his release from prison, detectives watched Gordon’s every move for months after being tipped off regarding his involvement in the heroin trade. Eventually, Gordon was caught with over a pound of the synthetic drug, worth over $200,000 in 1951, or $2.3 million in 2023 dollars,155 and sentenced to life in prison.156

Even though the Jewish crime networks of the early to mid-20th century ceased to exist by the 1960’s, a new, entirely separate wave of American Jewish organized crime began to emerge in the late 1970’s. The migration of Russian Jews to America due to the decline and fall of the Soviet Union introduced a second, much smaller version of American Jewish organized crime. Between 1967 and the official fall of the USSR in 1991, 500,000 Russian Jews moved to the United States. This migration of Russian Jews differed from the Eastern European Jewish migration of 1880-1924, as this

wave of Jewish migrants were significantly more secular, better educated, and therefore had an easier time assimilating into American society.157 The two immigration waves had no overlap and should not be grouped together. Amongst the 500,000 Russian Jewish immigrants were several people who went on to form organized crime syndicates geographically centered around the South Brooklyn neighborhood of Brighton Beach which soon became nicknamed “Little Odessa.”158 Unlike the Jewish gangsters of the early to mid-20th century, many of these new Russian American Jewish mobsters were already criminals upon entry into the United States. The FBI in the mid-1990s estimated that of the Russian mass immigration to the United States, “only” 2,000 of the immigrants were organized crime members, many of whom were Jewish. For this new generation of Russian American Jewish gangsters, organized crime was not a skill learned as a poor immigrant as a way to climb the social ladder, but rather something exported from their lives as oppressed peoples working to increase their quality of life in the former Soviet Union.159 While law enforcement has steadily increased its focus on Russian, and Russian Jewish, organized crime, only time will tell if the Russian Jewish mobsters will disappear in a similar manner as the one-generation phenomenon of the first wave of American Jewish organized crime.

American Jewish gangsters of the early to mid-20th century left behind a complicated legacy for the 5.8 million Jews living in the United States today.160 Old-time Jewish gangsters such as Lansky, Zwillman, Siegel, Dalitz and Buchalter, undeterred by their upbringings as impoverished immigrant children, broke stereotypes and presented America with an image of “tough” Jews willing to fight to assimilate economically and socially, and ultimately in some ways achieving the American Dream. That said, the means which these Jewish mobsters used to achieve their success and climb the social ladder were often completely abhorrent and should in no way be looked upon proudly or as behaviors to be emulated or admired.

Members of the Jewish Mafia in New York Wikipedia Commons

Endnotes

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4) Silver, Stephen. "In 'Lansky,' Harvey Keitel puts legendary gangster's Jewishness front and center." The Times of Israel, June 29, 2021. Accessed March 26, 2023. https://www.timesofisrael. com/in-lansky-harvey-keitel-puts-legendary-gangsters-jewishness-front-and-center/.

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15) Rubin, Rachel. “Gangster Generation.” p.1

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21) “A Sketch of the History.” p.74

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23) Eversole, Theodore W. Jewish Americans in the Roaring Twenties.

24) Garis, Roy L. “America’s Immigration Policy.” The North American Review 220, no. 824 (1924): 63–77. http://www.jstor.org/stable/25113348. p.63

25) Eversole, Theodore W. Jewish Americans in the Roaring Twenties.

26) Weinryb, Bernard D. “East European Immigration.” p.238

27) Hirschman, C., & Mogford, E. (2009). Immigration and the American Industrial Revolution from 1880 to 1920. Social science research, 38(4), 897–920. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssresearch.2009.04.001

28) Husband, W. W. “Immigration.” Monthly Labor Review 14, no. 5 (1922): 208–20. http://www.jstor.org/ stable/41828241. p.211

29) Ibid, p.214

30) Ibid, p.214

31) Logan, John R., Zhang, Wenquan, and Alba, Richard D. “Immigrant Enclaves and Ethnic Communities in New York and Los Angeles.”

American Sociological Review 67, no. 2 (2002): 299–322. https://doi.org/10.2307/3088897. p.299-300

32) Riis, Jacob. How the Other Half Lives: Studies Among the Tenements of New York. (1990) E-Book. Accessed May 17, 2023.

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33) Ibid.

34) Ibid.

35) Ibid.

36) Hirschman, C., & Mogford, E. “Immigration and the American Industrial Revolution”

37) Ross, Harold. “Crime and the Native Born Sons of European Immigrants.” Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology (1931-1951) 28, no. 2 (1937): 202–9. https://doi.org/10.2307/1136898. p.202

38) Gillen, J. L. “Some Economic Factors in the Making of the Criminal.” The Journal of Social Forces 2, no. 5 (1924): 689–91.

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39) Ross, Harold. “Crime and the Native Born Sons.” p.205

40) Lampe, Klaus von. In Organized Crime: Analyzing illegal activities, criminal structures, and extra-legal governance, p.27.

41) Haller, Mark H. “Organized Crime in Urban Society.” p.210

42) Hagedorn, John M. “Race Not Space: A Revisionist History of Gangs in Chicago.” The Journal of African American History 91, no. 2 (2006): 194–208. http://www.jstor.org/stable/20064070. p.198

43) Haller, Mark H. “Organized Crime in Urban Society.” p.223

44) Ibid.

45) Logan, John R., Zhang, Wenquan, and Alba, Richard D. “Immigrant Enclaves and Ethnic Communities.” p.300

46) Heike, Anton. Farbrekhers in America: The Americanization of Jewish Blue-Collar Crime, As-Peers, 19001931. Accessed February 18, 2023. http://www.aspeers.com/sites/default/files/pdf/hieke. pdf. p.97-100

47) New York Times. "The Rosenthal Murder Case." November 20, 1912. Accessed May 20, 2023.       https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1912/11/20/100558336.html?pageNumber=14.

48) Heike, Anton. Farbrekhers in America. p.97-100

49) Rockaway, Robert A. “Hoodlum Hero: The Jewish Gangster as Defender of His People, 1919–1949.” American Jewish History 82, no. 1/4 (1994): 215–35. http://www.jstor.org/stable/23885663. p.216

50) Morris, Tanisia. "Tracing the History of Jewish Immigrants and Their Impact on New York City." Fordham University. Last modified December 12, 2017. Accessed April 6, 2023. https://news. fordham.edu/inside-fordham/faculty-reads/tracing-history-jewish-immigrants-impactnew-york-city/.; Robert Rockaway. “Moving in and Moving Up: Early Twentieth-Century Detroit Jewry.” Michigan Historical Review 41, no. 2 (2015): 59–79. https://doi.org/10.5342/michhistrevi.41.2.0059. p.67

51) Rockaway, Robert A. “Hoodlum Hero.” p.215

52) "Prohibition Profits Transformed the Mob." The Mob Museum. Accessed March 17, 2023. https://prohibition.themobmuseum.org/thehistory/the-rise-of-organized-crime/ the-mob-during-prohibition/.

53) Haber, Joel. "The Forgotten History of Jews in the Alcohol Industry." The Times of Israel, July 16, 2020. Accessed March 21, 2023. https://www.timesofisrael.com/the-forgotten-history-of-jews-in-the-alcohol-industry/.

54) Rockaway, Robert A. “Hoodlum Hero.” p.215

55) Linfield, H. S. “Statistics of Jews-1929.” The American Jewish Year Book, vol. 32, 1930, pp. 215–81. JSTOR. Accessed April 3, 2022. http://www.jstor.org/stable/24230972. p.220

56) Rockaway, Robert A. “The Notorious Purple Gang: Detroit’s All-Jewish Prohibition Era Mob.” Shofar 20, no. 1 (2001): 113–30. Accessed April 3, 2022. http://www.jstor.org/stable/42944836. p121-122

57) Haller, Mark H. “Organized Crime in Urban Society.”

p.211

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59) Haller, Mark H. “Organized Crime in Urban Society.” p.219-221

60) Rubin, Rachel. “Gangster Generation.” p.1

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62) Rockaway, Robert A. “Hoodlum Hero.” p.220

63) Ibid, p.230

64) Rubin, Rachel. “Gangster Generation.” p.1

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109) Brody, Lisa. "Jewish Metro Migration." Downtown News Magazine, May 1, 2014. Accessed March 15, 2023. https://www.downtownpublications.com/single-post/2014/05/01/jewish-metro-migration.

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115) "Prohibition Profits Transformed the Mob." The Mob Museum.

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117) Davis, Marnie. Jews and Booze: Becoming American in the Age of Prohibition. N.p.: NYU Press, 2012. p.193194 ; "Seagram Confirms Deal." January 8, 1941, 34. New York Times Accessed March 18, 2023. https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1941/01/08/85260101.html.

118) Rose, I. Nelson. "Gambling and the Law: Pivotal Dates." PBS. Last modified 1997. Accessed March 18, 2023. https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/ gamble/etc/cron.html.

119) Gemignani, Greg. History of Nevada's Gaming Regulatory Structure. Nevada Cannabis Compliance Board Tax Force. Accessed March 18, 2023. https://tax.nv.gov/uploadedFiles/taxnvgov/Content/FAQs/NV-Gaming-History.pdf.

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122) University of Calgary, comp. Gambling in America: final report. October 15, 1976. Accessed March 18, 2023. https://prism.ucalgary.ca/bitstream/handle/1880/41368/appendix1.pdf;jsessionid=31E138810E21FB2DAFB84F210EB2D7F4?sequence=2. p.133

123) Reynolds, Robert Grey, Jr. Morris "Moe" Kleinman: Cleveland Mobster. N.p., 2017. p.1

124) "Meyer Lansky." The Mob Museum. Accessed March 18, 2023. https://themobmuseum.org/ notable_names/meyer-lansky/.

125) University of Calgary, comp. Gambling in America. p.133

126) "Prohibition Profits Transformed the Mob." The Mob Museum.

127) El Cortez Casino. Accessed March 19, 2023. https:// elcortezhotelcasino.com/about-us/timeline/.

128) Gragg, Larry. "Gus Greenbaum, Las Vegas Casino Operator for the Mob, and His Wife Were Murdered 60 Years Age This Week." The Mob

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129) German, Jeff. "Hoffa: The Strip's Kingmaker." Las Vegas Review Journal. Last modified September 20, 2021. Accessed March 21, 2023. https://www.reviewjournal.com/crime/jimmy-hoffas-role-in-developing-las-vegas-2407166/.

130) Newton, Michael. Mr. Mob. 131) Schwartz, David. "The Consumer Age Turned Americans Into Gamblers." What It Means to be American. Last modified May 2, 2019. Accessed March 21, 2023. https://www.whatitmeanstobeamerican.org/ideas/the-consumer-age-turned-americans-into-gamblers/.

132) Smith, William French. Speech presented at Harvard, Cambridge, MA, November 30, 1983. Accessed March 17, 2023. https://www.justice.gov/sites/default/files/ag/legacy/2011/08/23/11-30-1983.pdf. p.331

133) Ploscowe, Morris. New Approaches to Gambling, Prostitution, and Organized Crime. August 1, 1963. Accessed March 21, 2023. https://scholarship.law.nd.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?referer=&httpsredir=1&article=3455&context=ndlr.

134) Smith, William French. Speech presented at Harvard. p.331

135) "Thomas Dewey." The Mob Museum. Accessed March 19, 2023. https://themobmuseum.org/ notable_names/thomas-dewey/

136) New York Times. "Gurrah to be Arraigned." April 17, 1938. Accessed March 20, 2023. https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1938/04/17/96815488.html?pageNumber=15.

137) New York Times. "Gurrah Jake Dies in Prison Hospital." June 10, 1947. Accessed March 20, 2023. https://www.nytimes.com/1947/06/10/archives/ gurrah-jake-dies-in-prison-hospital-shapiro-associate-of-lepke-in.html.

138) "Thomas Dewey." The Mob Museum.

139) Stolberg, Mary M. Fighting Organized Crime: Politics, Justice, and the Legacy of Thomas E. Dewey. N.p.: Northeastern University Press, 1995. p.248

140) Smith, William French. Speech presented at Harvard. p.332

141) Lyman, Michael, and Potter, Gary. "Understanding Organized Crime." p.31

142) U.S. Senate Special Committee to Investigate Organized Crime in Interstate Commerce, Kefauver Committee Final Report, S. Doc. (Aug. 31, 1951). Accessed May 20, 2023. https://stoppredatorygambling.org/wp-content/uploads/2012/12/Kefauver-Committee-Final-report.pdf.

143) Smith, William French. Speech presented at Harvard. p.332

144) Bradley, Craig, Racketeering, and the Federalization of Crime. 1984. Accessed March 20, 2023. https://www.repository.law.indiana.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?referer=&httpsredir=1&article=3138&context=facpub. p.243

145) "Robert F. Kennedy's Crusade Against the Mob: Part 3." The Mob Museum. Entry posted June 14, 2022. Accessed May 21, 2023. https://themobmuseum.org/blog/robert-f-kennedys-crusade-mob-part-3/.

146) Smith, William French. Speech presented at Harvard. p.333

147) New York Times. "Israel Refuses Citizenship to Lansky, But Offers Him Special Travel Papers." September 12, 1972. Accessed March 23, 2023. https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1972/09/12/91345376.html?pageNumber=2. 148) New York Times. "Lansky Is Arrested on Landing in Miami." November 8, 1972. Accessed March 23, 2023.

https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1972/11/08/82230591.html?pageNumber=49. 149) Bradley, Craig, Racketeering, and the Federalization. p.255

150) Lyman, Michael, and Potter, Gary. "Understanding Organized Crime." p.36-45 151) Rubin, Rachel. “Gangster Generation.” p.2 152) The President's Commission on Law Enforcement and Administration of Justice. The Challenge of Crime in A Free Society. February 1967. Accessed March 29, 2023. https://www.ojp.gov/pdffiles1/ Digitization/42NCJRS.pdf. p.192

153) Ibid.

154) Celeste, Richard, and Anthony Celebrezze. 1986 Report on the Organized Crime Committee. November 24, 1987. Accessed March 29, 2023.https://www.ojp.gov/pdffiles1/Digitization/108043NCJRS.pdf.

155) "Crime: End of the Line." Time Magazine, August 13, 1951. Accessed March 30, 2023. https://content.time.com/time/subscriber/article/0,33009,889162,00.html.

156) New York Times. "25 Years in Prison for Waxey Gordon; He Will Fight Baumes Law Sentence Halting Comeback in Crime Via Narcotics A Comeback in Crime." December 14, 1951. Accessed March 30, 2023. https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/ timesmachine/1951/12/14/issue.html.

157) Gelbin, S. Cathy., and Sander, L. Gillman. “Russian Jews as the Newest Cosmopolitans.” In Cosmopolitanisms and the Jews, 223–54.

University of Michigan Press, 2017. http://www.jstor. org/stable/j.ctvndv9qv.10. p.223,243

158) Growing Threat of Russian Organized Crime. 1999.

Accessed March 31, 2023. https://www.ojp.gov/ncjrs/ virtual-library/abstracts/growingthreat-russian-organized-crime.

159) Raab, Selwyn. "Influx of Russian Gangsters Troubles F.B.I. in Brooklyn." New York Times, August 23, 1994. Accessed March 30, 2023. https://www.nytimes.com/1994/08/23/nyregion/influxof-russian-gangsters-troubles-fbi-in-brooklyn.html.

160) Pew Research Center, comp. Jewish Americans in 2020. Accessed March 30, 2023. https://www.pewresearch.org/religion/2021/05/11/the-sizeof-the-u-s-jewish-population/.

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Levine, Yitzchok. “Jews And The Maryland Toleration Act.” Jewish Press, March 2, 2011. Accessed April 5, 2023. https://www.jewishpress.com/sections/ magazine/glimpses-ajh/jews-and-the-mary land-toleration-act/2011/03/02/.

Levy, Goldy. “This Day in Jewish History | 1935: A Jewish Mobster Is Gunned Down in a Newark Toilet.” Haaretz. Accessed March 13, 2023. https://www. haaretz.com/jewish/2016-10-23/ty-article/jew ish-mobster-gunned-down-in-newark-toi let/0000017f-db8e-d856-a37f-ffce04a20000.

---.”List of Jewish American Mobsters.” Wikipedia. Ac cessed March 10, 2023. https://en.wikipedia.org/ wiki/List_of_Jewish_American_mobsters.

Logan, John R., Wenquan Zhang, and Richard D. Alba. “Immigrant Enclaves and Ethnic Communities in New York and Los Angeles.” American Socio logical Review 67, no. 2 (2002): 299–322. Ac cessed March 11, 2023. https://doi. org/10.2307/3088897.

Lyman, Michael, and Gary Potter. Prentice Hall “Un derstanding Organized Crime.” In Organized Crime, Fourth ed., 1-58. Prentice Hall, 2007. Ac cessed March 20, 2023. https://wps.pearsoncus tom.com/wps/media/objects/6904/7070214/ CRJ455_Ch01.pdf.

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First Amendment: It’s the One

Suhas Kaniyar ‘28

The First Amendment; is the first alteration to the Constitution. Praised as one of the most influential directives of the modern world, the American Founders created the First Amendment to safeguard individuals’ rights to freedom of speech, expression, and assembly. Over the last few centuries, the First Amendment has been interpreted differently, but has covered the same ground regarding individual rights. The First Amendment states, “Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof; or abridging the freedom of speech, or of the press; or the right of the people peaceably to assemble, and to petition the Government for a redress of grievances.”1 Essentially, the First Amendment prohibits Congress from making any law impeding, promoting, or establishing a religious belief system.2 Additionally, the First Amendment safeguards individuals’ rights to express themselves freely without government interference. The First Amendment was a compromise between Federalists and Anti-Federalists in the form of the Bill of Rights. Unlike Anti-Federalists, who opposed a strong central government, Federalists wanted a powerful central government. Anti-Federalists asserted that the Constitution threatened individual liberties while giving the central government control over individuals.3 In response to this, Congress enacted the Bill of Rights. The Bill of Rights protects many individual freedoms that the Constitution leaves open to interpretation.

The Colonists were compelled to create these guidelines because the British Monarchy restricted freedom of religion for its subjects. After witnessing two centuries of state-sponsored religious conflict in England, the Founders were keen to allow individuals to express themselves in nearly any way they wanted. In the 1620s, the English State and Church became increasingly unsympathetic towards Puritans. They demanded that the Puritans abdicate their religion and conform to the

English State and Church, ultimately leading to the Puritans fleeing England and colonizing North America, marking the beginning of the United States. After escaping religious confinement from Britain, the Founders laid the groundwork for a country where individuals could express themselves freely without government obtrusion. In the eighteenth century, this came as the First Amendment.4

Throughout the history of the United States, there have been many cases regarding the “gray” lines of the Constitution, or the parts of the Constitution that one can interpret in multiple ways. Here are some landmark cases concerning the “gray” lines of the Constitution’s First Amendment and how its interpretation has evolved over time.

The first of these five landmark cases is Engel v. Vitale. In 1962, a New York state public school encouraged students to participate in a nondenominational prayer at the beginning of each school day. Although there was a promotion of religion and belief in God, the school guidelines were that students were not mandated to participate in these prayers and were allowed to leave the room. The prayer in question was, “Almighty God, we acknowledge our dependence upon Thee, and we beg Thy blessings upon us, our parents, our teachers, and our Country.”5 A father sued the school on behalf of his student, arguing that this law violated the Establishment Clause under the First Amendment. The defendant contested that the students were not obliged to participate in religious affairs and that no “official religion”6 was established or promoted by reciting the prayer. The question concerning the Constitution was whether encouraging the prayer violated the Establishment Clause in the First Amendment. Ultimately, the Supreme Court ruled in favor of Vitale (the father) in a 6-1 vote. Justice Hugo Black, the majority, stated that since Americans adhere to many religious beliefs, endorsing a specific Belief System (i.e., the existence of God) would violate the First Amendment. He also stated that since the school is government-sponsored, it acts as

a form of government. Therefore, the school promoting religion serves as the government promoting religion. The Court also noted that many riots, uproars, and persecutions have surfaced when a government engages in religious activities. The controversy that ensued, however, argued that even though the prayer furthered the notion of the existence of God, it did not tangibly endorse or establish a religion. Therefore, the ruling against it gave the rights of the protected too much power.

Another landmark case concerning the “gray” lines of the Constitution is the New York Times vs. the U.S. In 1971, the New York Times and Washington Post leaked multiple classified documents about the ongoing Vietnam War. The Nixon administration attempted to censor the New York Times and Washington Post from publishing these documents. The documents in question were dubbed the “Pentagon Papers” and were detailed documents regarding American-Vietnamese affairs from the last 20 years. The Nixon administration contended that publishing these documents in the New York Times and Washington Post threatened national security. They also noted that the New York Times had obtained and published these documents illegally. Conversely, the New York Times argued that they were allowed to criticize the U.S. Government under the First Amendment and that the citizens should know about Vietnamese affairs. The Constitutional question was whether Nixon’s efforts to suppress the New York Times articles violated the First Amendment. Ultimately, the court ruled in favor of the New York Times (6-3), and many publishing organizations nationwide were permitted to continue publishing the Pentagon Papers. Justices Black and Douglass stated that since there was no sense of immediate danger for Americans, prior restraint of the publishings from the Nixon Administration was unwarranted. There was no evidence found that suggested the publishing of the Pentagon Papers threatened national security, leading many to believe that the Nixon Administration did not want the public to know about the strong war effort in Vietnam out of embarrassment.7 This case drew the lines for freedom of the press

and set the precedent that publishing companies are allowed to publish detailed war documents as long as they do not put Americans in immediate danger.

The next landmark case is Tinker v. Des Moines. In 1965, five students aged 13 - 16 protested U.S. involvement in the Vietnamese War by wearing black armbands to school. The school district, Des Moines, threatened to suspend the students if they were to wear the bands. The parents (of two of the students) sued the school district for violating the student’s right of expression and symbolic free speech. The District Court upheld the school’s decision, stating that the students would be temporarily suspended until they were willing to comply. The Court of Appeals later affirmed the decision without an opinion, and the Tinker family brought the case to the Supreme Court. On one hand, the Tinker family reasoned that the First and Fourteenth Amendments protect symbolic free speech. They also asserted that wearing the armbands on school property did not endanger anyone. On the contrary, Des Moines disputed that kids’ harsh stance on such a controversial issue could lead to polarization at school, hence bullying. The Constitutional question was whether prohibiting the students from wearing the armbands violated the students’ First Amendment rights. Ultimately, the Court ruled in favor of Tinker (7-2). The Court stated that since there was no immediate danger for any student in the Des Moines schooling district, the rights of the protected stand in place. Many disagreed with the Court’s ruling, as a controversial issue such as war is not appropriate for middle or high school students in school.8 The students symbolically protested against the United States government by wearing the armbands, which could have caused fights or disputes between students. Extending this logic, students could also wear controversial political apparel to school, which could be even more provocative.

In the 1930s, a New Hampshire state statute prohibited parades, gatherings, or marches without specific licensing provided by town selectmen or licensing bodies. Although there was no hidden agenda in administering this statute, many felt this abridged their First

Amendment right to free assembly. In 1939, Willis Cox, Walter Chaplinsky, John Konides, and nearly 80 others gathered in a hall in New Hampshire to participate in an “information march.” The group did not have a permit and were convicted. The Superior Court found the defendants guilty, and the Supreme Court of New Hampshire supported the decision. In the case of Cox vs. New Hampshire, the Constitutional question was whether the New Hampshire statute violated the First Amendment’s promise of freedom of speech and assembly. The Supreme Court ruled unanimously in favor of New Hampshire. Chief Justice Charles E. Hughes, who delivered the opinion, stated that in order to maintain the safety of its populace, the New Hampshire government must impose regulations on public gatherings.9 He also noted that no evidence suggested that the statute had been unfairly administered. It is also worth noting that the state government sought nothing to gain by administering this statute and that it is a necessity to keep order in a state.10 This case set the standard for peaceful assembly, and how states manage public gatherings or petitions.

The fifth of these landmark cases is Hazelwood vs. Kuhlmeier. The Spectrum, newspaper program of East Hazlewood High School, was a student-led journalism 2 class. The class distributed papers to students at the school, community members, and people around town. The town government entirely financed the class. In 1983, the principal censored parts of the newspaper about birth control (including talks about pregnant teens in the school) and divorce issues, thinking that it might lead to bullying at school. Instead of telling the students beforehand, the principal cut out parts of the paper discreetly. The students confronted the principal, and he justified his actions by stating that the censored sections were “inappropriate, personal, sensitive, and unsuitable.” Cathy Kuhlmeier took the school district to Court. The Constitutional question was whether censoring “inappropriate” speech in a school newspaper violated the writers’ (students’) First Amendment rights and freedom of the press. Finally, the Supreme Court ruled in favor of the Hazel-

wood School District (5 - 3). The Court noted that the Hazelwood School District exercising editorial powers did not impede on the First Amendment as long as their measures were “reasonably related to legitimate pedagogical concerns.”11 The Court agreed that publishing the censored sections could have led to bullying and polarization at school. If the students’ logic of no censorship were to be followed, publishing even racist remarks or other hurtful messages should be allowed freely, which is simply untenable.

As we reflect on these cases, it shows that the First Amendment is open to interpretation, and its interpretation has indeed evolved over time. Originally, as Cox v. New Hampshire demonstrated, the Court took a more limiting view of individuals’ freedom of expression to protect the society at large. As time progressed, the Courts took a more expansive view of individual rights, as demonstrated in Engel v. Vitale, Tinker vs. Des Moines, and the New York Times Company vs. United States. The Courts have also been prudent not to let this go too far by putting reasonable limits on individual liberties, as in the case of Hazelwood vs. Kuhlmeier.

Looking forward, one can say this is still a work in progress, as the interpretation of the First Amendment continues to consider new and unforeseen changes in our environment. For example, the Counterman v. Colorado case interpreted the First Amendment in an environment beyond what the Founders had foreseen. In 2016, creepy text messages from Billy Raymond Counterman surfaced in which he threatened a girl multiple times with death and harm for the last two years. He was arrested by Colorado State. Counterman sued Colorado, asserting that arresting based on his text threats violated his freedom of speech under the First Amendment. He also claimed that these text messages were not “true threats’’, implying that they were not valid and had no foundation for execution. The Constitutional question was whether the government must prove that the speaker knew of any malicious or harmful intent of their “true threat(s)” in order to convict them. The Court ultimately dismissed the messages as carrying no dead-

ly intent or repercussions. Many agree with the Court, as no real consequences seemed to emerge for the girl.12 As the internet becomes more widely used, the interpretation of the First Amendment will also need to evolve to take into account the norms of communication on the internet to decide between what counts as a true threat that is unacceptable vs. what is less than desirable but within the limits of one’s liberties.

Endnotes

1) “Constitution of the United States”, Constitution Annotated, Analysis and Interpretation of the U.S. Constitution

2) “7 things you need to know about the First Amendment”, The Free Speech Center

3) “Anti-Federalists”, The Free Speech Center

4) “Primer on the First Amendment & Religious Freedom”, Anti Defamation League, November, 2016 (Article)

5) “Engel v. Vitale”, Legal Information Institute, Cornell Law

6) “Engel v. Vitale”, Oyez Supreme Court Resources

7) “New York Times Company v. United States” Oyez

8) “Tinker v. Des Moines Independent Community School District” Oyez

9) “Facts and Case Summary: Cox v. New Hampshire”, USCourts.gov

10) “Cox v. New Hampshire”, Oyez Supreme Court Resources

11) ”Hazelwood School District v. Kuhlmeier” Oyez Supreme Court Resources

12) “Counterman v. Colorado.” Oyez,

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Belmont Hill’s Thoughts on the China-Taiwan Situation

Ernest Lai ‘25, Wesley Zhu ‘25

Since becoming a self-governing territory in 1949, Taiwan has had a rocky relationship with its neighbor China. Taiwan declares itself to be an independent country while China continues to claim that the island belongs to them and is rightfully theirs. Their assertion rests upon the 1992 Consensus, an agreement between the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) and Kuomintang (KMT), the governing body of Taiwan at the time.1 As former Chinese President Tsai Ing-Wen bluntly put it: “Taiwan is the Republic of China, the Republic of China is Taiwan.”2 This tension has continued to escalate over the last few decades, and many think that a violent, militaristic conflict is looming on the horizon. Today, the China vs. Taiwan dilemma has risen to the forefront of public concern, with 78% of Americans describing it as “at least somewhat of a concern,” according to the Pew Research Center. Taiwan has historically been an ally of the United States due to its trading potential and common values, which calls into question the extent to which the US should and would intervene in the event of a violent Taiwan-China conflict. Some believe that Taiwan must not be given to China, as it would be a blow to American military superiority and the battle against communism. Others argue that Taiwan is not America’s war to fight, and the government should not waste resources or troops on another country’s issues. However, after Lai Ching-te was elected the new president of Taiwan, President Biden stated that the government “did not support (Taiwanese) independence,” despite Lai being a strongly anti-Chinese figure.3 This again creates uncertainty around the motives of Washington and the president, as well as what the future of Taiwan may be. Since much remains unclear, public opinion regarding this conflict is still very much divided. In this spring edition of The Podium, we polled Belmont Hill

about their opinions on the China-Taiwan conflict.

they regarded Taiwan as its own sovereign country; 9% said they believed Taiwan belonged to China, while 18% felt unsure or responded that Taiwan was somewhere in the middle. As expected, this generally reflects the American view of Taiwan as an independent ally.

The first question asked people if they believed that the China/Taiwan situation was currently a major issue. An overwhelming majority of 85% voted “yes” while 15% voted “no,” similar to the previously mentioned Pew Research poll. Though slightly higher than the Pew’s results, both polls display a high level of concern for this issue. In the second question, respondents identified their opinion on the status of Taiwan, whether it was an independent nation, part of China, or somewhere in between. 70% of respondents indicated that

Independent

Part of China Nation

Something in the middle

Question 2: How do you regard the status of Taiwan?

Question 3: Do you believe the United States should continue supporting Taiwan in these ways and remain involved in the current situation?

The next group of four questions focused on opinions about the specific actions that the US should take in a given situation. The third question examined the school’s sentiment toward US aid to Taiwan. In March of 2023, the Biden administration promised Taiwan $345 in military aid; over the last few years, the US military has also strengthened itself in the region. However, given his recent statements seemingly withdrawing support for Taiwanese independence, it is unclear how the US would respond to an armed conflict should it happen today. When asked if the US should continue supporting Taiwan in these ways and remain involved in the situation, 79% of respondents chose “yes,” while the remaining 21% selected “no.” The “yes” majority was likely due to the view of communism as a threat to American democracy, a view present since the Cold War, given both Russia and China’s considerable threat in terms of political control. The following question asked if

the US should respond if China attacks Taiwan. Despite not attacking directly, over the last decade China has consistently employed various tactics in an attempt to wear down and pressure Taiwan and its people. These methods include larger and more frequent scouting flights by bombers, jets, and other surveillance aircraft around the island; displaying force and military prowess by sailing warships through the Taiwan Strait; hacking Taiwanese government agencies; suspending “a cross-strait communication mechanism with the main Taiwan liaison office”; restricting Chinese tourism to Taiwan; and intimidating countries possessing diplomatic relations with Taiwan.4 Further intimidation tactics were seen after former Speaker of the House Nancy Pelosi visited Taiwan in 2022 when China flew aerial maneuvers and fired missiles over Taiwanese airspace.5 Thus, US intervention would include the military aid previously outlined and possible troop deployment on the front lines, as well as tactics to combat China’s long list of non-violent pressuring methods. Understandably, the percentage of “yes” votes dropped to 59%, with 41% voting “no,” as opposed to the 79% yes/21% no seen in the previous question.

Question 4: If China attacks Taiwan, should the US intervene in any way?

When asked to elaborate on the previous question, one respondent who voted “no,” said this: “If the US gets

Question 1: Do you believe the China/Taiwan situation is currently a major issue?

into a war with China it would be catastrophic for mankind and may start World War Three, as other eastern bloc nations may rush to support China.” Other respondents who also voted “no” seemed to think along the same lines; one stated, “[it] feels prudent to avoid direct military contact with another superpower.” On the other hand, an individual who voted “yes” said, “If the US doesn’t defend Taiwan, especially after pledging they would, other Asian countries could rethink their alliance with the United States.”

This person focuses more on the volatile balance of international power today, where America currently stands at the top. They argue that if America lets China take over Taiwan, some countries might take its passivity as a sign of weakness and consider reevaluating their allegiance with the US. In the long run, this could negatively affect American influence and power and propel China ahead of the US. Another person who said “yes” highlighted the possibility of a precedent being set, saying, “If they (China) invade and we do not defend, we show that we will not stand by our allies when they are attacked, negating the effectiveness of our alliance … North Korea might invade South Korea, and NATO allies would appear undefended.” This sentiment was shared by many others, who also stated that the US has a duty to uphold to protect democracy and maintain global prominence.

The next question sought to answer how the US and China could reach an agreement on the situation, given each country’s global power and influence. More than half

the respondents (56%) said the best way to remedy the situation was through a diplomatic agreement. About 20% believed giving Taiwan military aid, similar to Ukraine, would be most effective, while another 14% thought the current situation of an armed standoff should be kept. As one person simply put it: “Both countries are too powerful to have a direct fight, so stalemate is very likely.” This is likely the reason why China has not yet invaded, and why military conflict has been avoided altogether thus far. Similar instances have been seen multiple times before, a prime example being the Cold War, where armed conflict was kept to a minimum due to the potential of the mutual destruction of nuclear weapons. Many other comments on this question also mentioned the prospect of nuclear war being a key deterrent from conflict.

Question 7: Do you think there is a path that China and Taiwan can take to peacefully reunite, or have the tensions become too great to reconcile?

The final set of questions in this poll evaluated respondents’ views regarding the future of the China vs. Taiwan conflict. The first of these questions asked if there is still a path to a peaceful reunion, or if tensions are too great for reconciliation to be possible. In response, 67% were convinced that there was no peaceful alternative, while the remaining third disagreed, voting “yes.” The next question asked if direct conflict felt inevitable, to which a slim majority of 54% said “yes,” and 46% said “no.” It can be seen that not all people who believed that peace was unachievable also believed that a conflict was inevitable, as

the US should involve itself should the tensions turn into violence. Some believed the US and China could reach an agreement over the scenario, while others thought it was no longer possible for China and Taiwan to reunite again. Whatever the case, the school’s diverse opinions create an open space for fruitful debate among students and teachers. And, with the situation continuing to evolve and change daily, it will be intriguing to watch how the conflict is handled in the future.

Endnotes

67% voted that peace was unachievable, but only 54% said that conflict was inevitable. This means that some people in the community might argue that the standoff won’t end, but neither side will commit to an actual war. This is supported by the prospect of mutual destruction stated previously as well.

As a whole, the Belmont Hill community has mostly agreed upon the urgency of the China-Taiwan conflict. A large majority considered Taiwan to be an independent nation and believed that the US should continue to support it with economic and military aid. However, the school was more split on the viability of reconciling the situation and whether

1) Maizland, Lindsay. “Why China-Taiwan Relations Are So Tense.” Council on Foreign Relations, Council on Foreign Relations, 8 Feb. 2024, www.cfr.org/backgrounder/ china-taiwan-relations-tension-us-policy-biden.

2) Li Thian-hok, “Taiwan is not Republic of China,” Taipei Times, January 26, 2014, 8, https://www.taipeitimes. com/News/editorials/archives/2014/01/26/2003582152.

3) Steve Holland, Nandita Bose, and Trevor Hunnicut, “U.S. does not support Taiwan independence, Biden says,” Reuters, January 13, 2024, https://www.reuters. com/world/biden-us-does-not-support-taiwan-independence-2024-01-13.

4) Maizland, Lindsay. “Why China-Taiwan Relations Are So Tense.” Council on Foreign Relations, Council on Foreign Relations, 8 Feb. 2024, www.cfr.org/backgrounder/ china-taiwan-relations-tension-us-policy-biden.

5) David Rising, “China’s response to Pelosi visit a sign of future intentions,” AP News, August 19, 2022, https://apnews.com/article/taiwan-china-beijing-congress-8857910a1e44cefa70bc4dfd184ef880.

Question 8: Does conflict feel inevitable orunavoidable?

How Accurate is Ridley Scott’s Napoleon film?

Mikey Furey ‘25

Napoleon Bonaparte remains one of the most famous people in all of history. He is renowned worldwide for his cunning military tactics and great strategic skills. Bonaparte was a menace on the European continent for decades and defeated coalitions of other European powers as a result of his military genius. Due to his famous escapades and colorful personality, Hollywood loves to tell the story of Bonaparte. In fact, there have been over 100 movies made about him, and of course some are better than others. Movies such as Waterloo (1971), starring Rob Steiger and Christopher Plummer portray the Napoleonic war era with incredible accuracy on a spectacular scale, making it worth the watch. However, there are other movies that are not an accurate depiction of the French general and his exploits. Ridley Scott’s blockbuster Napoleon (2023) movie, starring Joaquin Phoenix is one such example. The primary focus of this movie is Bonaparte’s relationship with his first wife Josephine de Beauharnais. Scott’s version sacrifices historical facts to create a Hollywood blockbuster drama. The movie compromises battle scenes and provides an inaccurate timeline in an effort to produce a box office success.

The battle scenes are a major source of inaccuracy in the movie Napoleon. The Battle of Austerlitz is widely considered a perfect

example of Bonaparte’s military genius. Under his leadership, French forces defeated Russian-Austrian troops. Scott’s depiction of this battle is arguably one of the movie’s best cinematic scenes, and while it successfully captivates the viewer it is not historically accurate. The movie depicts Bonaparte strategically splitting his forces - one stationed on the high ground and the other on the low ground, with the Russian-Austrian advancing across an icy body of water to attack the French troops located on the low ground. Bonaparte then orders his troops on the hills to counterattack the Russian-Austrian forces, driving them back across the ice and dramatically orders his artillery to fire on the ice, causing mass casualties to the enemy forces as they fall into the freezing water. All of this creates a great cinematic battle scene, but viewers beware, because it is not historically accurate. The first inaccuracy is the French position. Bonaparte never separated his forces or used troops located on the low ground to draw in Russian-Austrian troops, while his high ground-situated troops swooped in to attack. Before the battle, the French actually abandoned Pratzen Heights, the high ground. It was Russians and Austrians troops who defended these hills that overlooked the battlefield. And at no point during the Battle of Austerlitz were the French on the defensive; they were always on the offensive. The last major inaccuracy of this battle scene is bom-

bardment of the ice as Russian forces retreat. The movie depicts thousands of retreating Russian soldiers falling through broken ice caused by the firing of French cannons. In reality, historians estimate the actual death count was less than two hundred dead and not the thousands depicted by the movie. Overall, the movie’s depiction of the Battle of Austerlitz sacrifices historical accuracy to provide the viewer with a fantastic immersive experience and an Oscar-worthy battle scene.

Another disappointing aspect of the movie is the way it skips large chunks of time, leaving out key historical events to create a story with an acceptable runtime. The movie never focuses on one part of Bonaparte’s life, rather it jumps to different significant dates. For example, the film jumped from the Battle of Austerlitz to Napoleon’s divorce. The difference between these two events is six years. By skipping these six years the movie misses important historical conflicts such as the Fourth and Fifth Wars of the Coalition and the Peninsular War. The movie also excludes important milestones that lead to the decline in Bonaparte’s power, including the destruction of the French and Spanish fleets at Trafalgar and the nightmare that was the French invasion of Spain and Portugal. Another jump that hurts the historical accuracy of the movie is the transition from the invasion of Russia to the abdication of Napoleon. The movie jumps from the retreat of Russia directly to Bonaparte’s abdication. This can lead the viewer to

assume that the failed invasion was the cause of Bonaparte’s abdication. However, Bonaparte’s retreat from Russia didn’t lead to his exile to the island of Elba. It was actually the Sixth war of the Coalition that caused his deposition. This particular time skip in the movie is misleading and historically inaccurate. Scott sacrificed historical accuracy and took certain liberties that resulted in a misleading course of events to create a good story line and acceptable runtime.

Ridley Scott’s Napoleon sacrifices historical accuracy for the purpose of creating a cinematic blockbuster. The inaccuracies in the movie’s battle scenes and timeline are a disappointment to those that value historical correctness. Had Scott chosen to make Bonaparte a limited series instead of a three hour movie, he could have depicted the main character’s story with more accuracy. A limited series would solve the issue of the movie’s timeline and allow for a deeper dive into Bonaparte’s involvement in different wars without the need to rush through subject matter. A three hour movie that covers Bonaparte’s rise to power and his military conquests deprives the viewer of so many interesting and compelling facts about the main character. This movie had the potential to be an incredibly immersive and thrilling movie for so many reasons – it’s A-list director, an Oscar awarding winning actor, a bigtime Hollywood budget, but mostly because Bonaparte is still a compelling and interesting character. Unfortunately, this Napoleon movie did not live up to its potential.

Political Situation in South Korea

Jaiden Lee ‘26

In June 2021, Yoon Suk-Yeol of the People Power Party was voted the 13th President of South Korea by a narrow margin of votes over Democratic Party nominee Lee JaeMyung; parties and delegations on both sides of the political spectrum faced fervent elections in the primaries. In the Democratic Party, Lee Jae-myung’s nomination prompted the party’s runner-up candidate Lee Nak-yon to seek an appeal of the voting outcome, but was ultimately obliged to concede. Likewise in the PPP, Yoon and the chairman of the party Lee Jun-seok constantly debated over Yoon’s past political performance. In other parties, the People Party ultimately put forth a nomination for Ahn Cheol-soo and the Justice Party elected Sim Sang-jung to run.

In the context of the political division among South Korean voters, previously, the incumbent President was Moon Jae-In, a member of the Democratic Party along with Lee Jae-Myung. South Korea had just been involved in a major political scandal with the impeachment of Park Geun-hye (notably the daughter of the infamous militaristic dictator Park Chung-Hee) for corruption, and Moon’s win in 2017 was the first presidential victory for the Democratic Party in nine years. Moon won by a big margin in votes from Korean citizens, a large majority of them young voters who disagreed with the controversial decisions of recent leaders like Park. However, the 2021 mayoral by-election that took place in the capital Seoul marked a change in viewers’ tra-

ditional opinions on candidates in the last couple of years. Young voters actually voted for the opposite side of the spectrum in the People Power Party, and not by narrow margins as well. A large factor in the change in voting was ongoing criticism of Moon’s administration’s handling of the crisis in housing in Korea, an incident that resulted in many younger citizens being affected in Seoul. Another significant factor was the rise of antifeminism ideologies being widespread among Korean men in their twenties, which generally went against popular views supported by the Democratic Party.

The People Power Party had historically had solid roots in various conservative parties throughout Korean history, with the PPP being the current form of popular ideas supported by conservative politics. Essentially, the PPP was actually formed very recently in 2020, as a result of the merging of several conservative-aligned parties in the aftermath of the 2016 corruption scandal with Park Geun-Hye. Notably, the scandal marked the crumbling of the Saenuri Party headed by Park. (Interestingly, the current President Yoon actually served as the head of the prosecution team that investigated charges of corruption aligned with Park, and Yoon was initially welcomed by the Democratic Party. However, he ultimately decided to switch political sides and take charge as the lead figure of the recently formed PPP and run as a conservative against the Democratic Party.)

The 2020 National Assembly election marked a strong standing for the Democratic

Party, but after the 2021 by-elections, the PPP regained solid support from voters after winning the mayoral positions in the largely populated cities of the capital Seoul and Busan. Prominent members of the PPP have been known to hold opinions in support of liberal policies in economics but strongly conservative views on the matter of national country security; the party has held steadfast views in distrust and hostility towards North Korea, as well as opposition to hesitant policies in favor of the reunification of Korea. During the election itself, noteworthy topics that were focused on were inequality in the economic sphere, efforts in returning to a back-to-normal environment amidst the COVID-19 pandemic, opinions on feminism, and problems regarding housing.

Yoon’s campaign was certainly not without significant controversies. He publicly made several surprising takes on sensitive issues that affected popular support in votes, but which ultimately were not enough to deter his rise to the presidency. Yoon made remarks on his dislike of incumbent Moon’s policy on the average work hours in a week, advocating for a rise from Moon’s 52-hour work policy to 120 hours a week in certain companies, despite South Korea’s standings as already being one of the leading countries in highest work hours. Yoon also controversially remarked about the rising feminist movement in Korea being solely responsible for the minimal birth rates across the country, as well as making misinformed comments about the lives of the lower class in Korea, the Fukushima Plant accident, and pushing for hostile policies against North Korea in opposition to peace settlements.

Of former military dictator of Korea Chun Doo-Hwan, he said that most Korean citizens believed Chun was an able and successful politician aside from a few errors; it is worth noting

that Chun is one of the most infamous dictators in Korean history, responsible for the violent coup for power by arresting the chief-of-staff of the army and getting support from the secret military organization the Hanahoe. During Chun’s term, there were countless arrests and tortures made in specially designed torture facilities in his labeled “fight against communism”; he is also responsible for one of the most famous military massacres in Korea’s 20th century–the Gwangju Massacre, where hundreds of civilians were violently beaten down, raped, and killed by armed forces for protesting against Chun’s coup. (In the 2022 election, over 80% of the city of Gwangju notably voted for Lee of the Democratic Party, one of the biggest city majorities in the voting.)

Ultimately, the election polls tipped to Yoon’s favor in the People Power Party; with 16,394,815 votes, he defeated his main opponent Lee JaeMyung, who garnered 16,147,738 votes. In an incredibly narrow margin, Yoon was able to edge out Lee with 48.56% in votes, as opposed to Lee’s 47.83%. Many Korean political commentators viewed the loss of the Democratic Party as an unpredictable outcome, especially due to the conservatives’ utter defeat in the 2017 presidential voting results after Park’s corruption scandal. Moon and the Democratic Party’s failure to distribute good quality housing at rates the people could afford, as well as glaring contradictions in the party’s public campaign supporting anti-corruption, were seen as big factors in the comeback of the conservatives and their victory in Yoon. Additionally, the Democratics’ struggle to follow through with reforms dedicated to social policies although there was a huge majority in the National Assembly, and lack of success in recruiting new political stars much like the PPP did during their campaign, were credited to their loss in the election.

Can World Government Solve All of Our Problems?

Brandon Li ‘26

“A few centuries from now, we’re all going to look like Brazilians.” This statement comes from Stephen Stearns, a professor of ecology and evolutionary biology at Yale, who argued in 2012 that increased race-mixing as a result of globalization would eventually lead to racial homogeneity among the global population of humans. According to his argument, just a few centuries ago, such race-mixing would have been extremely rare. The average 13th-century Englishman would have found romantic companionship in a 13th-century Englishwoman, and the average 13th-century Japanese man would have dated a 13th-century Japanese woman. However, with the invention of the caravel in 1450, people could move between continents for the first time. The Industrial Revolution produced the railroad in 1804, the steamboat in 1812, and then the airplane in 1903, allowing people to travel and move between different countries much quicker. People were beginning to fully comprehend their position in a global society for the first time, resulting in the phenomenon known as “globalization.”

Due to this globalization, there was a drastic increase in race-mixing. There are “lightskins” for descendants of Africans and Europeans, there are “wasians” for descendants of Europeans and Asians, and there are “blasians” for descendants of Asians and Africans. Given that the rate at which race-mixing occurs is now much higher than the rate at which natural selection can enforce racial differences based on geography, Stearns concluded in 2012 that “a few centuries from now, we’re all going to look like Brazilians.” A similar result of this is that cultural identity will also become homogenized over time, since those with multiple cultural backgrounds as a result of ethnically diverse ancestors will no longer strongly adhere to one single cultural background. If Stearns’s theory proves to be correct, it would be a great day for world government. World government, which advocates for giving increased political power over individual sovereign nations to a centralized global authority, has long been criticized for being impractical and impossible to implement due to the influence of nationalism in politics around the world. Almost every human being still believes that steps should

be taken to advance the welfare of one’s own country over the welfare of other countries. In this way, nationalism directly prevents dreams of world government from being realized. After all, why would people of any given nation surrender the political power of their country to some foreign globalist government, which would not directly prioritize the interests of that nation?

However, if Stearns’s theory of racial homogenization comes about, nationalist ideology will grow significantly less influential. Global homogenization of racial and cultural identity would take away one major reason to prioritize the interests of your own country over others. Because nationalist sentiment will decrease over time, the degree to which people care about the welfare of their own nation as opposed to that of other nations will also decrease over time. Of course, I am not denying that the process of racial and cultural homogenization would have to happen over a long period of time, but as the people of the world become increasingly homogenous, dreams of world government will become increasingly realistic.

So, if world government will likely be possible at some point due to this homogenization, the question remains: Is world government better than our current form of governance? In my opinion, the answer to this question is a clear “yes.” Due to lack of collaboration brought on by nationalist infighting, the current governments of the world are unable to resolve key short-term issues critical to the survival of humanity such as nuclear conflict, climate change, and more recently, AI. This is especially relevant to modern-day geopolitics, as nationalism is quickly gaining favor over globalism in the present era. As the Munich Security Conference reported in February of 2024, “Amid growing geopoliti-

cal tensions and rising economic uncertainty, many governments are no longer focusing on the absolute benefits of global cooperation, but are increasingly concerned that they are gaining less than others.” Giving some degree of political power to democratic world governments, possibly using a federalist system such as the United States, would immediately resolve these issues, as members of this world government could multilaterally agree to forcefully implement measures that are now more necessary than ever, easily bringing about nuclear disarmament, emissions reductions, and safer artificial intelligence development. Firstly, nuclear conflict is now more likely than ever due to the impending collision between major global powers. Tensions between Russia and the United States are at an all-time high since the Cold War due to the war in Ukraine, and China is projected to invade Taiwan as early as 2025. Every country wants nuclear arms to cement their status as a threat on the international stage, which is why countries such as North Korea and Iran continue to develop nuclear programs. Additionally, once a country obtains nuclear capabilities, it becomes extremely difficult to make it give up these weapons. If a world government existed, member nations of this world government would be able to multilaterally agree to enforce the destruction and non-proliferation of nuclear weapons. In this way, the urgent existential threat posed by nuclear conflict would be easily solved by a system of world government.

Secondly, climate change is gradually making Earth uninhabitable by disrupting longstanding ecological systems necessary for human survival, as I am sure we are all aware of. Guided by self-interest, individual nations do not want to implement measures that cut

down on greenhouse gas emissions due to the economic setbacks of such policies, which would diminish the given nation’s power on the global stage and consequently their international influence. In a model of world government, member nations would once again be able to multilaterally agree to enforce better policy for the purpose of reducing emissions and counteracting global warming.

Finally, with tech companies around the world racing towards the development of artificial general intelligence, many have called for stronger regulations regarding AI development. Critics worry about the “technology singularity;” a point at which artificial intelligence and related technologies become uncontrollable, resulting in unpredictable consequences for humanity akin to the scenarios demonstrated in many sci-fi movies. In a survey of 2700 AI experts, the majority agreed that there was at least a 5% chance of AI destroying humanity. However, proposed regulation of private for-profit companies developing this AI technology, such as OpenAI and Google, has been held back due to fears that increased regulation would slow down progress, crucially resulting in loss of American technological dominance in the field of AI. As Bill Whyman of the Center for Strategic and International Studies states, “...private companies will advance their own “responsible AI” initiatives and face a fragmented global AI regulatory landscape. Looming China

competition will escalate a ‘don’t fall behind’ debate.” World government would easily solve this issue by once again facilitating agreement between member nations, who could multilaterally agree to enforce better regulations for the development of AI.

Overall, having a system of world government would be great to rein in the danger of the technology that humanity could potentially use to end itself, such as nuclear weapons, climate change, and AI. This concept of a world government might even be realistic in the future, if we agree with Stearns’s theory about racial and cultural homogenization, which would gradually decrease the influence of nationalism within countries over time. However, we definitely know for certain that the United Nations – the current system for world collaboration – is not doing a very good job on these issues. Without even partial authority over its members, it is impossible for the United Nations to effectively regulate any of these three issues, and it certainly does not help that the organization has been accused of corruption, moral relativism, and ideological bias over the years that it has existed. It would take a worldwide movement of globalism triumphing over nationalism for a federalist, democratic world government to be born. Until then, we might have to solve the issues of nuclear conflict, global warming, and artificial intelligence by working within the current fragmented system we have.

NATO’s newest member: Sweden

Suhas Kaniyar ‘28

On March 7, 2024, Sweden officially joined NATO, becoming the 32nd independent nation of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization. While Sweden had remained a neutral party for over 200 years, even going as far as rejecting NATO membership in 2021, Sweden ultimately opted into NATO in May 2022 following Russian threats. By joining NATO, Sweden averts any threats from the Russian Military, gaining an extra set of allies in NATO. NATO and Swedish forces also complement each other with capable military additions, and Sweden serves as a buffer zone between the Atlantic Ocean and the Baltic Sea, a crucial location for NATO. The Sweden-NATO alliance will be a vital association that transforms the balance of power in Europe.

By joining NATO, Sweden is blocking any threats from the Russian Military. Prior to joining NATO, Sweden was vulnerable to Russian attacks, and Russia had long since threatened a ground invasion. Just as recently as 2013, Russian bomber planes simulated an attack on east-central Sweden, sending the entire nation into a panic. Again in 2014, a Russian submarine was caught lurking in the Stockholm Archipelago, roughly 100 kilometers away from mainland Sweden. Following Russia’s ground invasion of Ukraine in 2022, Sweden and Finland applied to NATO, perceiving Russia as a threat to their “freedom, democracy, and values”. By displaying a confident global demeanor, Russia shows a lack of fear of Swedish retaliation. On the other hand, Sweden’s lack of military response displayed their lack of confidence in confronting Russia. By joining NATO, Sweden adds a permanent set of allies, allowing them to fend off potential attacks from Russia. In the future, Russia will think twice before provoking Sweden, knowing Sweden is backed by NATO. Sweden is shifting the balance of power in Europe and the world by gaining confidence in engaging with Russia.

Unlike many other ex-Soviet states,

Sweden has maintained a sufficient military centered around technological innovations. Sweden provides NATO with Gripen fighter jets and cutting-edge submarines, aiding NATO’s sea efforts. Among these innovations, Sweden’s Gotland-class attack submarines and Leopard 2 main battle tanks use an air-independent propulsion system, increasing their battle duration. Paired with NATO’s widespread F-16 Fighting Falcon, Sweden’s air-toair combat is unmatched by Russia’s outdated fighter jets. Sweden and NATO complement each other with capable military additions, equipping each side with cutting-edge technology and previously unavailable fighter jets. These vital additions will help NATO in control of the Baltic and fight Russia, thus shifting Europe’s power balance.

Sweden serves as a buffer zone between the Atlantic Ocean and the Baltic Sea. Sweden’s critical positioning helps NATO control the Baltic in the event of war with Russia. The Baltic is a crucial location for NATO, as it passes through the Russian exclave Kaliningrad, where most of Russia’s second-strike nuclear capability is located. Sweden is also a land transit route between Norway and Finland, allowing NATO to bypass the longer and less fuel-efficient journey through the Norwegian Sea. Using Sweden as a transit route to Finland, NATO is also far less vulnerable than if they had to cross Poland and Lithuania, two countries within Russian artillery ranges. Therefore, Sweden’s geographical location aids NATO control in the Baltic, saves time and fuel, and makes NATO less vulnerable to Russian attacks.

Henceforth, the Sweden-NATO alliance is one of the most important associations of the 21st century. Not only does it help NATO in case war breaks out with Russia, but it also adds a variety of military assets that were previously unattainable by NATO. The Sweden-NATO alliance will shift the power balance of Europe for years to come, and the lasting effect this alliance will have on NATO war efforts cannot be overstated.

A Preview of Global Elections in 2024

Lucien Davis ‘26

Half the world population will head to the polls in 2024, dubbed “the biggest election year in history” by Politico. Elections will take place across the globe, with some of the most notable occurring in the United States, Taiwan and the European Union. Voters will choose who they want to represent them for the next cycle, at a time when the world is in the midst of conflict in Europe and the Middle East, looming threats face the South China Sea, and concerns are on the rise around Climate Change. Who wins in 2024 will show what people around the world think of these pressing issues and how they hope to enter the future. 2024 is a General Election year in the United States, with the Presidency, all seats in the House and a third of seats in the Senate up for grabs. Polls have shown Trump leading in 5 of 6 swing states: Nevada, Georgia, Arizona, Michigan and Pennsylvania. According to polls from the New York Times around last fall, people in these vital states favor Trump in matters such as National Security, Immigration, and the economy but seem to trust Biden’s abortion policy more. In the first matchup, Biden was relatively well-regarded, however, his time in office seems to have shifted public opinion. According to the New York Times, 97% of those who voted Trump four years ago are ready to back him again, while Biden is “winning only 83 percent of his 2020 voters, with 10 percent saying they now back Mr. Trump.” Coming into this year’s elections, both candidates are relatively unpopular. According to the Pew Research Center, more than 1 in 4 Americans have “unfavorable views” of both Trump and Biden. However, the current president appears to be leading with this unusual new voting bloc.

Trump’s recent court dealings have made this year’s election even more unique and unpredictable. He faces four criminal

indictments involving a potential case of ‘hush money,’ illegal possession of classified documents, civil fraud, as well as election interference on both a state and federal level. These cases have yet to have any impact on voting patterns, however, a conviction would very well sink his campaign.

In Congress, 33 senate seats and all House seats are up for election this fall. Currently, Republicans have the majority in the House, while Democrats and liberal independents hold onto a narrow majority in the Senate. However, 20 democratic seats, three independent seats, and 10 Republican-filled seats are up for re-election, placing Democrats in a dangerous position. According to the Wall Street Journal, the House is expected to remain conservative while Republicans are predicted to win at least 50 seats in the Senate, meaning that both chambers could be Republican by next fall. However, Washington will be watching several key elections this year outside of the nation as well.

Earlier this year, on January 13, Taiwan held legislative and presidential elections amidst growing fears of a Chinese invasion. This year featured a showdown between William Lai, current vice president and Democratic Progressive Party (DPP) candidate, and Kuomintang (KMT) candidate Hou Yu-ih. The DPP advocates for Taiwanese autonomy, while the KMT typically pushes for closer Chinese relations and a potential merger. The Democrats have held a dominant grasp on the presidential elections in the last 20 years. However, unlike in its two previous victories, the party failed to win a majority, obtaining only 40% of the popular vote. This fall-off is largely the result of the TPP’s (Taiwan People’s Party) recent growth, which carved out votes from both the KMT and the DPP this year, winning 20% of the vote.

In the legislative elections, the DPP did not show the same dominance it has in the

presidency. They lost their majority, while the KMT picked up 14 seats, giving them 52 in total, one more than the DPP. For the first time since 2000, neither side obtained the 57 votes necessary to win an outright majority. This means that the TPP’s eight seats will play a decisive role in forming a coalition to give either side the majority, meaning they will have some major bargaining power.

Much like the TPP, they have shown strong support for Taiwanese autonomy and secure welfare systems. However, they have also recently advocated for nuclear power regeneration with the KMT; they will likely help form a majority for either side on an issue-specific basis. The DPP will certainly

Democracy Group), a far-right party that has seen a rapid rise in the last six months. These radical right-wing parties have recently seen growth in many parts of Europe as Green and center-left parties have gradually fallen in the polls. The ‘super grand coalition’ comprising the three centrist groups has held firm control of Parliament and EU policy for decades. However, this year, they are expected to obtain barely half the seats, and a right coalition formed from Christian democrats, conservatives, and other radical MEPs threatens to dethrone the centrists for the first time. If this growing coalition manages to win a majority, Europe’s agenda around immigration, environmental policy, and nearly all major issues

face more division and opposition towards their agenda in this next term. Regardless, this year’s results ensure the internal safety of Taiwan’s autonomy and democracy at a crucial time.

Every 5 years, 450 million EU citizens vote 700 members into Parliament. Many polls predict a major conservative surge in this summer’s elections. The European People’s Party, a moderate conservative group, is expected to seal its control and win close to 180 seats. The S&D (Progressive Alliance of Socialists and Democrats) is set to come second with 140, followed by the I&D (Identity and

could see a drastic change. This year’s results will be absolutely vital for either side. All around the world, in every continent, countries will have path-defining elections. In Africa, close to 20 countries will host general, presidential legislative elections, including South Africa and Senegal. Elections help shape a country’s future and lead to an overall increase in freedom and equality. Democratic nations represent human progress as the world strives to improve. Even in the midst of global conflicts, 2024 elections will help to determine what the world will look like in a few years time.

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