Bablake Scientists - Issue 2

Aldehyde’s and Ketones in Veterinary Medicine Formaldehyde

Vets often come across unknown/unfamiliar masses in animals’ bodies and to be analysed properly, they must be preserved until being sent off to the labs. The solution used to preserve them is made up of 37% methanal (active ingredient), 63% water and methanol (inactive ingredient).

Methanal (still commonly called by its old name, formaldehyde), is a very simple and innocuous looking molecule, but is nevertheless a highly toxic gas which is quite often being encountered within local veterinary practices. Despite having its uses, is it posing an unacceptable danger to vets?

Structure of methanal An important application of methanal is to kill off any unwanted viruses and bacteria contaminating a vaccine and inactivate bacterial products used to make toxoid vaccines. These vaccines will ultimately be used to promote immunity.

However, before distribution, most of the chemical has been removed.

Fish stored in jar of formaldehyde Coming into contact with methanal may cause great irritation to the skin, eyes, nose and throat.

Low dose exposure to the lungs can result in headaches, rhinitis and dyspnoea, whilst higher doses can cause severe mucous membrane irritation, bronchitis or pneumonia.

Another use of methanal is in a solution commonly called formaldehyde, which is an extremely effective preservative for tissue samples.

Despite methanal’s undoubted usefulness, is it too dangerous a substance for our vets and should alternatives be sought?

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Ketoacidosis Ketoacidosis is a life-threatening condition for our dogs.

Treatment for the condition would begin by addressing symptoms such as dehydration and electrolyte imbalance. These are treated with intravenous fluids and supplements of phosphate and potassium. Next, the veterinarian will work on restoring the appropriate levels of insulin in the body. Typically, in more mild cases of diabetic ketoacidosis, dogs are treated with injections of insulin to restore glucose levels.

Ketones are produced from the metabolism of non-esterified fatty acids (NEFAs) and volatile fatty acids when there is not enough insulin to regulate blood sugar levels.

Blood glucose must be monitored carefully and any underlying problem which could have caused the diabetic ketoacidosis will be dealt with.

This could be a result of an inadequate diet or uncontrolled insulin in dogs with diabetes mellitus which causes high risks of Ketoacidosis (DKA).

If so, insulin can no longer perform its function of cancelling the feedback loop, slowing and preventing the overproduction of ketones. Levels of ketones will begin to rise as the liver produces them from NEFAs to act as a fuel source. This will cause the body to become more acidic, which would be very dangerous for the animal, as it cannot maintain its fluid and electrolyte balance.

Warning signs include excessive urination and thirst, dehydration, sudden weight loss, muscle loss, loss of appetite, fatigue, unhealthy coat, rapid breathing rate, weakness, vomiting and jaundice. If your pet begins to display these signs, seek advice from your local Vet. Diabetes mellitus is the main cause of ketoacidosis in dogs, however there are many other triggers of this serious illness, such as heart failure, stress hormones and cancer.

By Ellie Aitchison

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Drugs in Sport On Wednesday 15 January, a group of Lower Sixth students attended the fourth in a series of chemistry lectures held at Birmingham University.

Entitled ‘Drugs in Sport’, it provided a chemical insight into some Performance Enhancing Drugs (PEDs) and also mentioned some of the famous athletes who have used them.

The 17-β esters are also active orally and are able to resist liver metabolism, allowing for longer lasting anabolic effects and hepatotoxicity.

Dr Cotton later recalled the infamous 1988 Seoul Olympics 100m final, referred to as ‘the dirtiest race in history’, as six of the eight competitors tested positive for doping.

The lecturer, Dr Simon Cotton, presented a fascinating talk on the effects of stimulants, hormones, and steroids on our bodies. This was of particular interest, as many of their structures have links with the chemistry studied within the A-level course.

Steroids, which were first used for doping in cold-war era Russia, is a molecule with 4 Carbon rings, comprising three 6-membered and one 5membered. Steroids, including testosterone and other 17-β esters, have anabolic effects on the performer, increasing muscle mass and allowing greater power and strength to be achieved.

1988 Seoul Olympics 100m final

Structure of testosterone

The first three athletes to finish all failed drugs tests, including champion Ben Johnson. His disqualification announced three days later, came after drugs tests showed evidence of stanozolol metabolites, the products of the body’s metabolism of steroid and the tertiary alcohol stanozolol. It is metabolised by enzymes that add an additional hydroxyl group, making the compound water-soluble and allowing it to be excreted out of the body. However, through the use of mass spectrometry, officials found the evidence of doping.

Many drugs can be tested for through the products of their metabolism within bodily cells.

17-β esters, in particular, are oxidised at C-17, allowing drugs testers to identify doping, not through the drugs themselves, but by the metabolites formed. These steroids are secondary alcohols (alcohols characterised by the hydroxyl group attached in the middle of the carbon chain) and form ketones when oxidised.

Structure of stanozolol 3

Throughout the evening, Dr Cotton eluded to the constant battle between new “designer” drugs and the International Doping Agencies.

performance advantages, yet also greatly decrease life expectancy.

Dr Cotton gave his final thoughts through a quote from Rica Reinisch, a German swimmer who had drugs forced upon her at age 14, ‘they robbed me of a chance to win medals without doping.’

In 2003 the United States Anti-Doping Agency (ASADA) anonymously received a syringe with a new form of steroid called tetrahydrogestrinone (THG) – later known as “The Clear”.

Structure of tetrahydrogestrinone Within six weeks of receiving the sample, the ASADA had discovered its potency in binding to the androgen receptor in a cell’s nucleus and turning on anabolic and androgenic functions inducing larger muscle growth.

Rica Reinisch, a German swimmer The lecture was most engaging and presented an incredible opportunity to expand our knowledge and to see the real-life applications of chemistry.

British sprinter Dwain Chambers They went on to develop a test to detect similar THG molecules using mass spectrometry and, through this, athletic stars such as British sprinter Dwain Chambers received bans. This clearly illustrated the ongoing war between the developers of less easily detectable performance enhancing drugs and the ‘cheats’ who use them, and those tasked with detecting them.

By Freya Bennett & Harry White

The lecture ended with reference to a Norwegian experiment on mice, which demonstrated that brief exposure to PEDs has long lasting

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Immortal but Forgotten On 4 October 1951, a 31-year-old woman died from cervical adenocarcinoma (cancer), making her one of over 15,000 American women who died from the disease that year.

synthesis and division, enabling them to be used for generalised cell research.

The HeLa cells reproduce at such a rate that an entire new generation is produced every 24 hours. This phenomenal replication provides a constant supply of cells for scientific study and has enabled ground-breaking developments including genetic research, life-saving vaccinations and being sent into space to test the effects of zero-gravity on biological matter.

However, the very cancerous cells that killed her would be the ones driving medical research and improving current survival rates of cervical cancer to over 70%. Despite the fact that her cells have helped to save countless lives, contributed to six Nobel prizes and established the scientific nomenclature ‘HeLa’, there has been scarce recognition for the woman who provided them, Henrietta Lacks.

The human body comprises around 37.2 trillion cells, whose myriad functions enable us to live.

Henrietta’s cancerous cells were harvested and used to create the HeLa cell line.

HeLa cells Before the introduction of HeLa cells, scientists had long believed human cells contained 48 chromosomes; their clumped nature prevented accurate study. In 1953, an accidental discovery by cytogeneticist, Joe Hin Tijo, established that

These were the first cells observed to have reproduced multiple times without dying, and so were termed ‘immortal’. Despite this, HeLa cells share the characteristics of all other cells, intercellular communication, gene expression, protein 5

the majority of human cells contain 46 chromosomes, dispelling the 50-year-held belief that the number of chromosomes in the human cell was 48. This led to important research into chromosomal disorders. Patients with Down’s syndrome were discovered to have an extra chromosome 21, whilst those with Turner’s syndrome lack an X chromosome.

causes oral and cervical cancer; the disease which killed Henrietta Lacks.

Genetic research was further advanced in 1965 when Watkins and Harris fused HeLa with mouse cells creating the first human-animal hybrid cell, from which the genes producing specific proteins could be identified, ultimately leading to the mapping of the human genome.

HPV-18 Despite an estimated 50 million metric tonnes of cells being produced, and almost 11,000 patents, Henrietta had never consented to the removal of her tissue for research or otherwise.

During a period in American history where racial injustice was prevalent, unconsented experimentation was not uncommon; the American physician Dr Howard Jones of John Hopkins University wrote, ‘Hopkins, with its large indigent black population, had no dearth of clinical material’. This unethical practice spawned a multi-million-dollar industry in the trade of the HeLa cells, costing $250 per vial. However, the Lacks family received neither information nor financial reward from this business.

Turner’s syndrome The HeLa cell culture proved incomparable in its ability to stimulate research, such as the discovery in 2009 of telomerase, an enzyme which prevents chromosomal degradation allowing endless cell division and consequently the formation of tumours. HeLa cells have greatly contributed to virology with the development of Salk’s Polio vaccine, the identification of the HIV virus and its method of infecting human T-cells.

Indeed, it was not until 25 years after Henrietta’s death that the family learnt that her cells were being used for scientific research creating huge profits. Despite this, Henrietta Lacks’ own family could afford neither basic healthcare nor living costs. Not only had the HeLa cells created new scientific opportunities but also opened the door to ethical challenges still prevalent in medicine today. Such uninformed tissue retention led to legislation in the US regarding the removal and use of human cells without explicit consent;

In the 1980s, Harald zur Hausen discovered that the Human Papilloma Virus, HPV-18 strain, was present in Henrietta’s cells. This subsequently led to the development of the HPV vaccine, so immunising against the viral infection which 6

protecting individuals whilst allowing society to benefit from crucial human tissue research.

Rebecca Skloot’s fascinating account is the story of the life, and afterlife, of one woman who changed the medical world for ever. Balancing the beauty and drama of scientific discovery with dark questions about who owns the stuff our bodies are made of, The Immortal Life of Henrietta Lacks is an extraordinary journey in search of the soul and story of a real woman, whose cells live on today in all four corners of the world.

HeLa cells have proved to be one of the most important resources in medicine of the last 100 years, they have now lived longer outside Henrietta’s body than in it and are considered the backbone of cellular research. Yet behind these medical advances and the HeLa cells was a person, and that person was Henrietta Lacks.

Rebecca Skloot

By Freya Bennett

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Jacques Dubochet, Joachim Frank and Richard Henderson each made discoveries that have revolutionised imaging technology and now allow structural determination of non-crystalline biomolecules in solution at high resolution using single-particle cryo-electron microscopy.

Therefore, scientists can now see many images, from the proteins that cause antibiotic resistance to the surface of the Zika virus. This shows how vital their work has been in the scientific world.

organic cells by the intense electronic bombardment�. There have been numerous attempts to solve this problem and many scientists such as Dubochet, Frank and Henderson have made breakthroughs.

It was thought that either to cool the biological material or use a similar approach to negative staining could be a solution.

To cool the biological specimen was considered to have potential as it was originally expected to reduce the water evaporation and protect the biological material from radiation-induced damage. However, upon freezing, the water was found to nucleate to form crystalline ice, which strongly diffracts electrons and will not, therefore, result in a good photo. Cooling also posed the problem of ice crystals which can damage or change the specimen culture when the water expands as they form.

This remained a problem for a period of time until Kenneth Taylor and Glaeser discovered that hydration was maintained in the electron microscope at cryogenic temperatures. This discovery lead to the work that Richard Henderson did.

These three scientists have been instrumental in developing cryo-electron microscopy. In 1990 Richard Henderson showed that it was possible to obtain high-resolution structures of biomolecules using cryo-EM through averaging over many copies of the same object. At

Cryo-electron microscope There have been many challenges in visualising biological material, as it was once thought that it was impossible to study cells with an electron microscope without the “destruction of the 8

cryogenic temperatures the consequences of radiation damage can be limited, and so it is possible to reveal positions of amino-acid side chains in a protein. His achievement allowed for scientists to realise the potential of the technology available to them.

Joachim Frank discovered that by merging fuzzy two-dimensional images it would be possible to reveal a sharp three-dimensional image. This is done by aligning low dose images of individual molecules using cross-correlation functions. He proved that he could eventually obtain highresolution data.

Difference in resolution

Jacques Dubochet was able to succeed in adding water to electron microscopy. This was previously thought to be near impossible as any liquid water evaporates in an electron microscope’s high vacuum, causing the biological molecule to collapse. He discovered that a layer of vitrified water (solid water in the form of a non-crystalline, i.e. amorphous, solid) could allow nearly uniform absorption of electrons in the cryo-EM and noted that vitreous ice could be maintained around a specimen for extended times as long as it is kept below -160oC. This allowed for detailed studies of bacteriophages, purple membranes and DNA at cryogenic temperatures.

Combined, these three discoveries have allowed research scientists to image things that were not possible before. Dubochet developed methods for preparation of the samples, Frank developed methods for the structural determination of biomolecules and Henderson demonstrated how it is possible to obtain atomic resolution structures of biomolecules using cryo-EM.

Joachim Frank pioneered processing techniques to generate sharper images

Cryo-electron microscope image of a Zika virus

By Mila Bilsland 9

The Chemical Cosmos On Tuesday 28th January, Dr June McCombie presented the final chemistry lecture of a series of five, held at Birmingham University and attended by of sixth form students. The lecture focused on “The Chemical Cosmos” and gave us a brief insight into the fascinating chemistry that occurs in the interstellar regions of space and the processes that astrochemists use to detect the reactions and the molecules involved.

Despite the freezing temperatures, an average of just 10 Kelvin in interstellar space, dense dust clouds act as catalysts, providing a surface for adsorption of species such as atoms, molecules and ions. Due to the extremely low pressure in interstellar space (1x10-15 mbar compared to 1000mbar on Earth), the chances of successful collisions involving freely moving species are so small that a catalytic surface is required for species to be adsorbed and reactions to occur.

Dr June McCombie opened with Sir Arthur Eddington’s words that “molecules cannot survive the interstellar radiation field”. However, through the research and dedication of many astrochemists, in 1937 the first alkyl radical (•CH) was discovered, proving the existence of molecules in interstellar space within extremely dense dust clouds. The fascinating progress of discovery continued into the 1950s through radiation telescopes and atomic excitation, which lead to further discover of simple molecules such as water, methane and carbon monoxide within the Orion Nebula.

Interstellar dust clouds In addition, all reactions in interstellar space require at least one ion to be involved, as an additional attractive force is required to lower the activation energy at these extremely low temperatures. These ions are generated due to the powerful cosmic radiation released from stars during their main sequence of life by fusion of elements.

Dr June McCombie spoke further of the relationship between dust clouds and young stars and the cycle of the ever-growing complex compounds within young stars. Due to the radiation emanating from young stars, the ionisation of atoms and molecules within dust

Orion Nebula

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clouds causes further reactions to occur on the surface, thus creating more complex compounds.

Once these dust clouds become dense enough, they begin to form stars, with centres of more complex species giving these stars a lower core temperature when the excitation phase of the star begins. This is the birth of a new star with more complex molecules, which begins radiating – thus repeating the cycle.

Experiments in an astrochemistry laboratory Diagram showing star formation Towards the end of the lecture, Dr June McCombie spoke much more about the detection and work of astrochemists using mass spectrometry and radiation spectroscopy.

Involving both surface and satellite telescopes, radiation spectroscopy detects the wavelengths at which photons are emitted by excited electrons in space. Each element has its own “barcode” which is detected from space using electromagnetic radiation.

Astrochemists attempt to recreate these reactions on Earth by using highly technical laser trapping of molecules at around 30K. A mass spectrometry of these reactions is then taken to attempt to match the laboratory results to the results from space.

As a final thought, Dr June McCombie left us a brief description of how the research and further evolution of astrochemistry could lead us to the discovery of exoplanets that could sustain life due to their chemical makeup.

By Harry White

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The Big Bang UK Young Scientists & Engineers Fair is the largest celebration of science, technology, engineering and maths (STEM) for young people. Upper Sixth students, Kogulan and Viren selected as finalists for the Big Bang Competition and were due to present their Gold CREST project on ‘Isomers in Action’ at the NEC in Birmingham in March. However, the event was cancelled due to the situation with the coronavirus.

Your enquires were great examples of scientific method – which meant you avoided preconceived ideas and confirmation bias and were able to identify and then seek correct explanations for unexpected results when they came along. The practical skill required to get these results is substantial and it is impressive that you were able to obtain so much data in such a short period of time. I enjoyed reading the report and your enthusiasm is great to see.’

Kogulan weighing out a reactant Big Bang finalists Kogulan and Viren

It is a great achievement for the students to reach the finals. The group did a short five-minute video about their project which was submitted online for judging. The winners for the Big Bang Competition have been announced and, unfortunately, we did not win any prizes. The students thoroughly enjoyed their experience and they will receive medals for being finalists; something that they will be proud of.

Initial feedback from one of the judges was very encouraging. He said ‘I was impressed with the documentation of the experimental aspects of the project. Your write-up was well presented and easy to follow, with appropriate analysis and theoretical content. The competition submission conveyed your enthusiasm and the excitement of being able to engage in some really testing and complex lab work, whilst still making solid links back to your academic studies. The experiments were well planned.

You took the cost of the various methods into account when considering what aspects to follow up, but also had the imagination and courage to pursue potentially expensive experiments when it was clear that they might reveal something new.

By Mr Kalsi 12

Sir Walter Norman Haworth Chemistry Nobel Prize Winner 1937 Haworth was a British chemist who was awarded the Nobel Prize for his contributions to carbohydrate chemistry and the synthesis of ascorbic acid, also known as Vitamin C. He shared half of the Prize with Paul Karrer, who also helped with his research of carbohydrates.

He was born in Chorley, Lancashire, on March 19, 1883. In 1903 he entered the Chemistry Department of the University of Manchester as a pupil of W.H. Perkin, Junior

It was Haworth who discovered both its structure and how to synthesise it on a massproduced scale and would later call it ascorbic acid. The hypothesis presented was based upon the reversible oxidation of Vitamin C, in which Haworth obtained the primary oxidation product of the acid, and then showed that the ascorbic acid was regenerated by the reduction of the oxidation product and that this was still fully active. This sequence allowed them to prove their hypothesis by showing that ascorbic acid is identical to Vitamin C.

Many chemists believed that sugars were linear chains of carbon atoms; however, in reality very few monosaccharides take up this structure.

Haworth was the first scientist to recognise sugar carbon atoms were linked via a cyclic structure with one oxygen atom in the ring structure. Not only did he help to distinguish the real structure of monosaccharides such as alpha and beta glucose, he also contributed to the structure of disaccharides such as lactose and maltose.

Structure of ascorbic acid They also showed how the two are identical through the investigation of the potency of samples prepared from different sources and the observation that synthetic ascorbic acid, prepared from inactive materials, had the same activity as the natural substance. This provided further evidence that ascorbic acid was identical to natural Vitamin C. These tests allowed Haworth to discover the structure of Vitamin C and from there he was able to synthesise the first artificially made Vitamin. They devised multiple methods to synthesise the acid each one becoming more efficient than the previous.

The cyclic structure Haworth discovered Walter Haworth was also known for artificially synthesising Vitamin C. Even though the Hungarian biochemist Albert von Szent-Gyorgyi was the first to suspect Vitamin C had a similar structure to hexuronic acid, present in oranges and cabbages, due to its ability to help prevent scurvy.

Vitamin C enables the body more effectively to process carbohydrates, fats, and protein. Vitamin C acts as an antioxidant, it is a nutrient that chemically binds and neutralizes the tissue13

damaging effects of substances named free radicals.

which is commonly used in chemistry to represent the structure of molecules.

Haworth’s discovery and methodology for the synthesis of the vitamin has allowed us to understand the importance of the ascorbic acid in our diets and how it helps our bodies to utilise the full effects of all the other components of our food. An illness effecting many sailors, named scurvy, was caused by a lack of vitamin C in the diet.

Vitamin C and bioflavonoids are important antioxidants that help keep your body healthy.

Foods high in vitamin C, such as citrus fruits and many vegetables, are also excellent sources of bioflavonoids. Research suggests vitamin C and bioflavonoids have a complementary effect, making them both more effective when ingested together rather than separately.

Foods which contains Vitamin C Vitamin C plays an important role in a number of bodily functions including the production of collagen, L-carnitine, and some neurotransmitters. Collagen, which vitamin C helps produce, is the main component of connective tissue and the most abundant protein in mammals. Between 1 and 2% of muscle tissue is collagen. It is a vital component in fibrous tissues such as: tendons, ligaments, skin, cornea, cartilage, bones and blood vessels.

James Lind feeding a lemon to a sailor sick with scurvy during the doctor’s now-famous 1747 experiment. From the series A History of Medicine in Pictures, produced by pharmaceutical company Parke-Davis in 1959 Haworth’s discovery has prevented many deaths from this disease as the importance of vitamin C has been highlighted through the testing that had occurred. Haworth had clearly made a groundbreaking discovery with the help of his researching team and the Hungarian scientist Albert Szent-Gyorgyi. Together they revolutionised our understanding of the human diet and the importance of vitamin C, discovering its structure and synthesis, which resulted in them winning the Nobel Prize for Chemistry in 1937.

The structure of alpha and beta glucose are important within the A level Biology course as we have to learn how the structures are relevant to the synthesis of different polysaccharides, such as cellulose and glycogen. It also links to chemistry through the condensation (addition elimination) reactions that occur. The structure of both the glucose monosaccharides and the L-ascorbic acid also links to the Haworth 3D drawing projection,

By Jay Senghera

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Warwick Science Lectures The lecture finished with a demonstration involving placing a plastic bottle containing liquid nitrogen into a bin full of ping pong balls. As the liquid nitrogen changed state to a gas, the pressure inside the bottle increased. Eventfully the bottle exploded with a big bang sending the ping pong balls flying all over the place!

A group of pupils from the Shells to the Third Year attended a series of lectures at the University of Warwick.

The first lecture was given by scientists and technicians from the Physics Department and The Warwick Manufacturing Group (WMG – an academic department at the University of Warwick and a leading international role model for successful collaboration between academia and the public and private sectors, driving innovation in science, technology and engineering, to develop the brightest ideas and talent that will shape our future). They presented a night of lasers and experiments involving explosions.

The lecture started with a talk about how lasers work and a demonstration involving a powerful laser. The speaker also discussed the role of lasers in eye surgery.

Liquid nitrogen being poured The second lecture was presented by scientists from the Chemistry and Physics Departments.

They discussed ‘how do the laws of physics work in a cartoon universe? and ‘is there a polymer in your pocket?’ They did many exciting demonstrations and the group thoroughly enjoyed it.

A second speaker introduced a number of interesting chemicals and carried out some exciting demonstrations with them, such as making ‘elephant’s toothpaste’.

Demonstration of ‘elephant’s toothpaste’

By Mr Kalsi

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The Wonders of Stem Cells A ‘Science on the Hill’ lecture

adult stem cells are multipotent and can only differentiate into fewer cell types – examples of which can be found in the intestines, hair follicles, neural and mesenchymal (connective tissue, blood vessels, and lymphatic) tissues.

Tuesday 10 March saw another Warwick University’s ‘Science on the Hill’ lectures – a series of life science talks, in which University lecturers present details of their research and other related information to members of the public. Entitled ‘The Wonders of Stem Cells’, the talk provided an insight into stem cells, how they may be used, and the ethics involved.

This creates no problem in the functioning of the body, however, in regenerative medical techniques it provides fewer opportunities for successful treatments. Whilst mesenchymal stem cells can be injected into joints to reduce pain, they have no use in growing a kidney when one isn’t available on an organ donor list!

The first speaker, Dr Andrew Nelson, gave an overview of stem cells and their function in the body. He explained how the two essential properties, self-renewal and differentiation, allowed the cells to take on different functions and how the embryonic pluripotent stem cells develop into a fully-grown organism.

Embryonic stem cells are capable of growing new organs and, with ever advancing techniques, this is becoming more successful. However, the limitations of ethics in science prevents this from taking place. Instead, researchers have developed patient specific ‘induced pluripotent stem cells’ (iPSCs). These are made by taking a biopsy of skin cells which are then cultured and reprogrammed to provide pluripotency. Although they have similar characteristics to embryonic stem cells, they don’t behave in exactly the same way.

When transplanted into body tissues as undifferentiated cells, they regularly form tumours and worsen the health of those being treated. However, they do provide much greater use in terms of scientific research, allowing great advances in disease modelling. They have, for example, been cultured into growing structures called organoids (a miniaturized and simplified

Despite all stem cells having the ability to differentiate, the levels of specialisation vary in the different types of stem cells. Whilst embryonic cells can form any type of cell/tissue, 16

version of an organ produced in vitro in three dimensions that shows realistic micro-anatomy).

Whilst this may be difficult to achieve in humans, animals such as the micro-pig have been produced as the result of genetic modification. In conclusion, it was suggested that due to the (relative) cheap and easy nature of the procedure, it was possible for preferential human-editing to take place in countries with lax regulations.

However, the international recommendations are that clinical trials may only be allowed for the treatment of monogenetic disorders. Assuming that these are conducted within regulatory framework, it should ensure that there is no conflict of interest between patient care and profit making.

Prof. Karuna Sampath, spoke about stem cells and their applications in genome modelling to eradicate genetic diseases such as sickle cell anaemia, muscular dystrophy and cystic fibrosis.

She mentioned three techniques through which this could be achieved; zinc finger nucleases (ZFNs), transcription activator-like effector nucleases (TALENs) and the most recent, clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats/ CRISPR Associated protein 9 (CRISPR/Cas9) technique.

The latter of these works by using an RNA guide that lines up against the gene to be edited within the DNA and locates the sections to be cut. The proteins are then used to ‘cut and paste’ sections of the DNA and complete the gene editing process. In 2018 this hit the international news headlines after it was announced that twin girls in China were the first humans ever to be born following genetic modifications of their embryos.

In this instance CRISPR/Cas9 was used to disable the CCR5 gene in the DNA (which is a receptor for HIV).

Following these three talks there was a short poster session in which the speakers, and some of their students, presented research undertaken at the University, giving an insight into the types of projects undertaken.

By Freya Bennett

The father of the twins was HIV positive and the procedure was intended to prevent the virus being passed on to the girls. Initially no action was taken, however after global condemnation of the decision to unnecessarily expose both the parents and unborn babies to the risk of an error, the scientist responsible was sentenced to 3 years in jail.

This last segment of the talk tied into the third presentation by Dr Achim Rosemann, who discussed the ethics of stem cell use within science and the role that this would play in the future. One of the main topics focused on was the possibility of genetic enhancement – modifying humans for desired characteristics.

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Yves Chauvin Chemistry Nobel Prize Winner 2005 research at the time on cracking, hydrodesulphurization, hydrogenation etc.

Born 10 October 1930, Yves Chauvin was a French Chemist who was corecipient of the Nobel Prize for Chemistry in 2005.

Instead he specialised in co-ordination chemistry (the chemistry of the majority of the periodic table), organometallics (compounds containing at least one metal-carbon bond) and homogeneous catalysis by transition metals.

Consequently, Chauvin developed two processes involving homogenous catalysis: 1. Dimersol – which uses a nickel-based catalyst.

He was awarded the Prize for his contributions to the field of Olefin Metathesis (a chemical reaction in which two C=C double bonds (olefins) come together and exchange with one another, forming new olefinic products in the process). Derived from the Greek words meta (change) and thesis (position), metathesis is the exchange of parts of two substances. In the reaction, AB + CD → AC + BD, B has changed position with C.

2. Alphabutol – which uses titanium-based.

The Dimersol Process has two main uses. The first is the dimerization of light olefins (C2 – C4) into isohexenes, a high-octane component used in unleaded gasoline. This was very useful into turning excess propene, namely in oil refineries without petrochemicals, into gasoline.

As of 2006, there were 35 plants operating (18 of which were in the USA) that made use of this process. Their combined output was 3.5 million tonnes per year of product.

Olefin Metathesis Tanker carrying gasoline

Chauvin joined the Institut Français du Pétrole in 1960 despite having little interest in the current 18

The second use is the dimerising of butenes to isooctenes. These can be utilized in the production of plasticizers that are vital in softening polymers such as PVC. As of 2006, annual production levels stood at 400,000 tonnes.

process. He also explained the involvement of metal-carbon bonds as the atomic groups change places.

It was with this knowledge that Yves Chauvin alongside Robert H. Grubbs and Richard R. Schrock – was able to develop the aforementioned catalysts. This was vital in making industrial metathesis more effective and cheaper.

Diagram showing plasticisers between the polymer chains to soften PVC The second homogenous catalysis process, using titanium, is the Alphabutol Process. This involves the dimerising of ethene into but-1-ene, an alkene that can be used in the production of low-density polyethene, a common plastic used in products like cling film.

Chauvin’s work has aided the development of new products (e.g. advanced plastics and fuel additives) and “greener chemistry” (redesign of reactions to have reduced need/ generation of hazardous substances).

As of 2005, there were 20 plants operating worldwide, with more being built, utilising this process and outputting approximately 500,000 tonnes annually.

Cling film used to cover food Yet, why exactly was this worthy of a Nobel Prize?

Back in the 1950s, chemists performed metathesis without fully understanding the reaction. Consequently, they were unable to utilise efficient catalysts in the reactions.

Yves Chauvin receiving the Nobel Prize in Chemistry

Chauvin, in the 1970s, achieved a breakthrough in understanding the mechanism to explain metathesis in detail. He described how C=C double bonds are broken and reorganized and how certain metallic compounds facilitate the

By Nithisa Sivaruban

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Here are some of the fantastic posters produced.

The pupils in the Shells took part in the British Science Week poster competition. The theme for the 2020 poster competition is 'Our diverse planet'. The five best posters were entered into the competition.

Pupils were given some topic ideas to get them started with their poster.

•

Why not think about biodiversity? From the diversity in your own garden, to the diversity at the very bottom of the ocean, research all the amazing creatures and organisms that live on our planet.

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The diversity of science and STEM subjects. Have a think about all the diverse ways that science affects our lives and who you know that uses science every day. Is there science in baking and cooking? What about making a film or taking a picture? Or how about operating planes and cars? Remember that science is everywhere, you just have to look for it.

The British Science Association would like to thank Guinness World Records for sponsoring the poster competition again this year. Pupils were also had the option to make a poster about a world record that celebrates ‘Our diverse planet’?

By Mr Kalsi 20

Whilst Pi day has passed (March 14), it is never too late to do some Maths! I came across the following resources from NASA when I was writing this Science Magazine. Not only are they interesting to read but also provide you with some challenging calculations.

NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory released the next instalment of its popular Pi Day Challenge.

The illustrated maths problem set gets students and adults thinking like NASA scientists to find solutions to real problems posed in space and

planetary exploration. It's a great way to get students excited about the "M" in STEM. I have selected one Pi Day challenge to share with you but there are plenty more. Have a look on the website at https: //www.jpl.nasa.gov/edu/nasapidaychallenge/.

The answer is below (https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/edu/images/activities/pid ay2020_answers.png).

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I also decided to find out more about NASA and coral reefs. A reef is a big group of rocks on the ocean floor, but did you know that a coral reef is alive and covered with very small animals called corals? These animals glue their tiny skeletons to rocks, so they end up staying in the same place their entire lives!

Coral reefs are very sensitive to light and temperature. If the water they live in gets too hot, they might not survive. If coral reefs are under too much stress, they can eject the algae living on them and turn completely white. This is known as coral bleaching.

NASA has developed some very sensitive instruments to study coral reefs from an airplane flying above the ocean. The COral Reef Airborne Laboratory (CORAL) uses an instrument called the Portable Remote Imaging Spectrometer (PRISM) to see the condition of reefs. Scientists will now be able to monitor these reefs and their health.

By Mr Kalsi

22

Biotechnology Biotechnology is the broad term utilised by scientists when referring to the use of living organisms or systems within organism in order to make technological advances. These technological advances can range from applications in medicine to agriculture to industry but what they all have in common is the improvements they make to our lives and to the planet as a result of using processes from microorganisms. Interestingly, the term biotech dates back as far as 1919 as it was first used by Karoly Ereky, and only 50 years later the first successful recombinant DNA experiment was completed.

desired Bt protein which acts as a toxin against the pests.

Genetic engineering The production of beer, bread and cheese are some examples of early industrial biotechnology.

Many food productions, in this way, rely on fermentation, the process in which prokaryotes and other microbes convert sugars into alcohol or acetic acid. In cheese and yogurt production the bacteria Lactobacillus is usually used to convert lactose into lactic acid, whereas in the production of bread, beer and wine yeast is used as the catalyst.

Karoly Ereky Medical biotechnology uses this intelligence to benefit human health including the production of vaccines and antibiotics. The pathogens can be extracted using biotechnological techniques in order to create a vaccine that will make the secondary immune response more rapid in the effected individual. An example of this is the development of an anti-lymphoma vaccine using genetically engineered tobacco plants made to exhibit RNA from malignant B-cells.

Lactobacillus After taking off in the early 1970s due to experiments surrounding recombinant DNA, biotechnology is now hugely important for the future of science, with the industry being worth trillions of pounds and providing millions of jobs.

It is the sector that will find breakthrough drugs to cure cancer, Alzheimer’s disease and global pandemics. It will also increase food security for all, reducing widespread poverty.

To maximise crop yield, biotechnology is used to make pest resistant cops rather than constantly applying pesticides. An example of this is when genes from the fungus Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) are transferred to crops so that the crop contains the

By Georgia Gamble

23

CAREER GUIDANCE|MEDICINE

Medical Advice: What should I be doing now?

BELOW 5TH YEAR

Leicester have “offer calculators” that predict your likelihood of being invited to interview; Newcastle values extremely high UCAT scores; Cardiff highly weights GCSE’S; Nottingham grades your personal statement; Keele values high quality work experience – they ask you to fill out another form going into depth in your experiences.

If you are too young to do official work experience, you can do volunteer work within Bablake.

• Be a paired reader in the Junior School, volunteer in the School library, become a peer supporter Take part in as many school clubs as possible • Sports clubs, Bronze/Silver CREST Award, Science Club, school productions & plays

THE UCAT

5TH YEAR

The UCAT – University Clinical Aptitude Test The UCAT is an admissions test required used by most medical schools to invite or reject candidates from interviews. It can only be taken once per year and tests your cognitive ability with five questions.

Focus on smashing your GCSE’s – many universities weight GCSE’s when inviting candidates to interview. During games lessons choose CSV and volunteer in a nearby primary school. During the summer you’ll be 16, with more opportunities available to you: long term volunteering in a care home looks fantastic on your personal statement.

When to take the UCAT exam?

Do not be afraid to postpone your UCAT exam. I booked my test in the August holidays, but was relieved to postpone it until late September.

Taking the exam in Upper Sixth can be more stressful than in the holidays- but remember that your score is not affected by when you take the test, and you only have one chance to get a great score in that year!

LOWER SIXTH Concentrate on getting high quality work experience. Your skills of reflection are more important than what you do, so long as you are actively participating: record the date and what you did each day after each visit. Build up your personal statement with Gold CREST, essay competitions, attending lectures, writing for the scientist magazine, reading medical books and attending medical talks.

Resources • Medify is an excellent online resource: the layout is identical to the real exam, you can practice timed and untimed questions, and see how many questions you have completed every day (which forces you to be honest with your revision!).

• Workbooks are also great for practicing hard questions, but you must practice online (perhaps using the free UCAT question bank) before the real exam, to get used to the computer layout.

Attending MedEx club at lunchtimes is extremely important, as it will prepare you for the UCAT and interview practice.

Applying Strategically to University Think carefully and apply where you have the largest chance of getting in. The most important thing is getting just one offer - because that’s all you need to become a doctor. Birmingham and 24

(every box must have the rule) and compare it to the simplest box in Set B. The SCANS method can help you find common patterns, Shape/Size, Colour, Arrangement/Angle, Number of… (e.g. sides) and Symmetries.

Quantitative Reasoning Solving numerical and data problems.

Tighten up on all your GCSE Maths skills – compound interest, percentage increase, etc. and your speed. Practicing under extreme time pressure will help you avoid silly mistakes and having a false sense of security. Always use the online calculator, your computer number pad, and a notepad to simulate exam conditions.

MMI Interviews MMI (multiple mini interviews) are a series of 610 short 5-minute stations that assess a range of different communication skills. You will wait outside a station and read a prompt for one minute, be interviewed, and then move to the next station. Remaining calm is key- if you mess up in one station, you can make up for it in the rest!

Verbal Reasoning Critically evaluating written information.

Practice, practice, practice! Technique is essential: scan the text to get an idea of the context, then read the question and all the answers. Next skim and search the text, being wary of synonyms or false positive answers (for example, the words in the question will be in a completely unrelated sentence to the answer you need). If stuck you should flag, guess, and move on quickly.

Role Play Stations Introduce yourself in an appropriate way no matter what role you are playing, usually a handshake and a smile is fine. Always ask for consent before doing anything. Adapt to their age and needs without being patronizing.

If they are completing a task, constantly encourage them “Well done, you’re doing really well”, and when explaining or teaching a process constantly check in on them “Did that make sense? Are you with me?”

Explain medical procedures in simple terms, do not use complex medical language with a patient

Situational Judgment Identify importance and appropriateness in reallife scenarios.

Answer not how you would respond, but in line with the GMC guidelines. The questions generally have themes: confidentiality, professionalism, teamwork, non-compliance, distressed patients, miscommunication, coping with pressure. Lots of practice will help you identify common patterns.

Question Stations - Interesting Example Who is the most important member of a multidisciplinary team?

Decision Making Applying logic and evaluating arguments using data.

Get comfortable with Venn Diagrams and other forms of data presentation. This section uses maths skills like replacing shapes with numbers.

With logic questions, draw flow diagrams to organize the information in your head. Ensure true/false questions are factual, relevant, and emotionless before deciding the statement to be true.

The obvious pitfall here is to say just one member – for example, “the doctor” – as all members are valued within the team and have an important role to play- without the radiologist, receptionist, nurse and cleaner, a hospital could not function. However, a nice twist is to add that if you had to choose, the patient is the most important member of the team, as without them there would be no need for healthcare staff at all.

Abstract Reasoning Pattern recognition in abstract shapes and sequences, and logical thinking.

Some sets have red herrings (distractors). Others have such obscure patterns that the only solution is to guess, flag, and move on quickly. For Set A/B questions, look at the simplest box in Set A

By Ashley Kabue

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CAREER GUIDANCE|MEDICINE

My Journey Journey To My Medical to Medical School School deferred my entry. However, I had no idea it would impact my life in so many ways!

As a child it was always my dream to go travelling and see the world and I had always wanted to take a gap year for that simple reason. However, all of my friends were going to university after A levels, and I didn’t want to be left behind as they all began this new chapter in their lives.

Suddenly, I had a whole year on my hands. My head was filled with ideas of what I wanted to achieve. For the first time there was nobody to organise my time! I had to structure my days and work out what my priorities would be. I needed a job, but I also knew I wanted to volunteer.

So, I also chose to follow what I thought was the ‘normal path’ and not take any risks. It was already such a confusing time; choosing what I wanted to study, where I wanted to go and still focus on achieving my absolute best in the exams.

I visited what felt like every University, contemplated endlessly about which course to study and finally decided on reading Biology at the University of Leeds. I sat my exams in Biology, Chemistry and Maths, summer passed by, then results day came. I got the grades I had hoped for and got into my first-choice university, but I simply wasn’t excited. All I felt was uncertainty. I couldn’t help thinking back to when I was so filled with passion and excitement to see the world.

I have always felt incredibly blessed to have lived such a privileged life in comparison to so many across the world. If I could give something back, even in the most marginal way, I wanted to.

I worked as a waitress but also spent time volunteering in a riding school for disabled children. I witnessed the immense challenges faced by those who manage complex conditions and disorders. I not only built strong relationships with the children but learnt how giving back to society, even through the smallest of actions, can make a significant difference.

I was going to do a degree in Biology

I also appreciated just how much fulfilment I gained from helping others, and I began to question what I really wanted to do as a degree.

I knew then that I wanted to take a break from education for a year, take a risk and, crucially, have some time to work out whether this was the path I wanted to go down. That evening I wrote a letter to the University of Leeds and 26

Four months later I was on a twelve-hour plane journey, ready for three weeks volunteering in India, and on my own for the first time. This was the biggest challenge I have ever faced, but it proved to be the most impacting experience of my life.

Unexpectedly, amongst the fifteen volunteers, was a nurse who inspired me to take the path that I am now on. She treated one of the boys in the slums who wouldn’t otherwise have received any medical help. The effect she had on his life was monumental and showed me the power of the application of medical knowledge. Without her intervention the boy could have died. It made me reflect on how precious human life is and how easily it can be taken away.

I wanted to study Medicine I arranged work experience at several GP surgeries, a variety of specialisms within different hospitals and spoke to many medical professionals and junior doctors.

I wanted a full and broad understanding of how the NHS worked and what life as a doctor would truly be like. I saw the immense pressure and challenges placed upon doctors and the emotional resilience needed when patients’ lives are in their hands. I was not going to go into this blind! I needed to appreciate the increasing demands and responsibilities of this vocation and be certain this was the right one for me.

However, the path into medical school is not easy! It was not simply enough for me to have my grades, work experience and ambition. I had made my decision too late in the year to take the admissions test required to apply for medicine.

The only choices left were either to start a degree I no longer wished to or take another year out before completing the application procedure. I knew that I really wanted to become a doctor, it was worth the risk and I postponed going to university for another year.

My trip to India I spent the rest of my time there teaching and running projects in the slums. I realised that there are just a handful of things that people really need in order to be happy; food, shelter, friendship and health. I had been so focused on achieving my best, but with no real purpose or direction.

This brings me to now. I was ranked in the top 1% in the admissions test, applied and had my interviews and got offers from all four medical schools, of which I am immensely proud. I am extremely excited to starting my medical degree in September, and this time I’m going with genuine reasons – not just because everyone is going or because I don’t see another option – but because it is what I really want.

These experiences showed me that I had the passion for aiding people with Science, not only in education. I left India knowing I wanted to be part of the medical profession. I could see nothing more rewarding than a career where you give back the gift of good health.

I no longer wanted to study Biology but instead was determined to go to medical school. What I needed to achieve from the rest of my gap year changed dramatically.

Over the past two years I have matured, and my experiences have shaped me into who I am now. I saw more of the world than I ever hoped to; 27

Australia, Brazil, India and South East Asia. I had the time to explore different careers, opportunities, hobbies and to work out what makes me happy.

Travelling in Australia

By Anna Elkins I learnt that my love of people and passion for science is what drives me each day, and I feel very lucky to have found a career in which I will use these skills.

Two years ago, I had worried about what others might think of my decisions and worried that there was only one ‘normal’ or ‘straight forward’ path to take. I now know that that there is nothing to fear from doing things that are a little bit different! Taking two years out was one of the best decisions that I have ever made. I didn’t know how crucial this time would be and I can honestly say looking back, I wouldn’t change any of it.

Anna will be studying at the University of Birmingham Medical School in September My road to medical school might not have been the simplest, but it has been a crucial part of my journey and I am truly excited about all the opportunities and challenges that lie ahead.

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Nobel Prize for Chemistry 2018 George P. Smith and Sir Gregory P. Winter Phage therapy, developed in 1985

by George Smith, is a laboratory platform that allows scientists to study protein interactions on a large-scale and select proteins with the highest affinity for specific targets in order to treat bacterial infection.

tains the genetic information. The sheath, surrounded by protective proteins, forms a hollow tube through which the viral DNA/ RNA is injected into the host bacterium. The collar region connects the head to the sheath, which is also connected to the Why are phages needed? baseplate on the underside of the phage. The baseplate provides a connection point for the tail fibres Bacterial infection is generally which facilitate attachment to treated with antibiotics, but host cells. bacteria are evolving to become resistant to these. Not all viruses, How do phages work? unlike Covid-19, are harmful to Viruses are always pathogenic. us. Phages may be used to attack They invade and cause harm to and destroy specific harmful the host, and remain completely bacteria within the body, which reliant on the cell for survival. have become antibiotic resistant.

These have been used since the late 19th century as an alternative to antibiotics in the former Soviet Union and Central Europe, as well as in France.

What are phages?

The phage (bacteriophage), discovered in 1915 by Frederik Twort and Felix D’Herelle, injects Diagram of a phage itself into and infects a Therefore, in order to reproduce, bacteria cell. the phage must first enter the cell.

Its simple structure consists of a This is initially co-ordinated by the prism-shaped head, surrounded base plate. The phage binds its tail by a protein capsid, which confibres (adsorption) to specific 29

receptors on the bacterial cell surface and propels a rigid tube out of the sheath in order to create a hole through which the genetic material can be inserted.

If conditions within the cell are unfavourable the phage will enter the lytic cycle; a process by which the phage uses the host cell for its own replication. However, in favourable conditions the bacteriophage will enter a dormant state, known as the lysogenic cycle.

The Lysogenic Cycle The lysogenic cycle, commonly termed a non-virulent infection as the host cell remains alive throughout the dormant process, is specifically obtained in phage therapy techniques. Following the injection of the DNA/RNA into the cell, it integrates itself into the host cell’s genome, becoming a prophage.

The prophage genome is then replicated passively along with the host genome as the host cell divides for as long as it remains there and does not form the proteins required to produce offspring.

The process works by having a gene encoding the protein of interest inserted into a phage coat protein gene, causing the phage to "display" the protein on its outside. The phage still contains the gene for the protein on its inside, resulting in a connection between genotype and phenotype. These displaying phages can then be screened against other proteins, peptides or DNA sequences, in order to detect interaction between the displayed protein and those other molecules.

Filamentous Phage Display Lysogenic Cycle

Uses of Bacteriophages Bacteriophages have many clinical and research-based uses, one of which is phage display. This laboratory technique is used for the study of protein-protein, protein-peptide and protein-DNA interactions, using the phages to connect proteins within the In the case of filamentous phage genetic information that encodes display, the DNA encoding the them. protein or peptide of interest is Polypeptides are presented on the ligated (inserted using the enzyme DNA ligase) into the gene, surface of lysogenic, filamentous encoding either a minor or major bacteriophages (phages of a filament/rod shape in the dormant coat protein. cycle) and this has become one of the most effective ways for producing large amounts of peptide proteins and antibodies.

The phage gene and DNA hybrid is then inserted by a process known as "transduction" into E. coli bacterial cells from which the phagemids (DNA-based cloning vectors, which have both bacteriophage and plasmid properties) can be collected and the relevant DNA sequence excised and sequenced to identify the relevant interacting 30

proteins or protein fragments.

The aim of the modification is to generate a molecule that can mimic a natural modulator within the cellular process. By expressing peptide sequences on the surface of the phage protein coat scientists can then select the proteins with the highest affinity for specific targets, based on the fact that phage phenotype and genotype are physically linked.

The Research Following Smith’s demonstration of successfully incorporated foreign DNA into the M13 phage chromosome in 1985, Jamie Scott and George Smith described creation of large random peptide libraries displayed on filamentous phage, 5 years later. Phage display technology was further developed and improved by groups at the Laboratory of Molecular Biology with Greg Winter and John McCafferty, who used phage display to build large libraries of fully human antibody sequences.

This work has led to the development of human antibody based drugs. The genetically modified phages can be assembled into a library in order to screen proteins and DNA sections.

These libraries, full of millions of phages can be used to make human-antibodies for use in medicine and immunology.

In October 2017 the first successful treatment of an antibioticresistant A. baumannii infection took place through the use of personalised bacteriophages.

By Freya Bennett

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On 5 February, a group of 12 Bablake students attended a ‘Science on the Hill’ event at Warwick University entitled ‘All About (Biological) Time’, which highlighted the necessity of our circadian rhythms.

The term circadian originates from the two Latin words, circa, meaning approximately, and diem, meaning one day.

The event consisted of two lectures: ‘Life around the clock – from animals and plants to simple bacteria’, presented by circadian scientist Dr Isabelle Carré, followed by ‘Impacts of clocks in human health and disease’, by Dr Robert Dallmann.

Life around the clock The initial lecture was insightful and provided us with numerous examples of organisms, not only mammals, exhibiting 24 hour rhythms. Examples quoted included hamsters, fish, birds and many species of plant.

Carré initiated the lecture by explaining the history of circadian science, and how the developments over the years have led to our understanding of it today.

The phenomenon was first studied in 1729 by Jean Jacques d’Ortous de Marian who showed that diurnal rhythms in mimosa persisted in constant darkness, hence proving that these internal rhythms are controlled by endogenous biological clocks and not just the darkness or light.

Since then, other scientists have involved themselves with the research and demonstrated that cycle length does not change with temperature, which of course, is a benefit for The Drosophila - fruit fly

organisms that have a changing temperature throughout the day due to differing conditions. Yet, Carré emphasised, there was reluctance to accept the theory of a circadian rhythm until the late 80s when new techniques of gene expression in live organisms were developed.

At this time, Ron Konopka and Seymour Benzer were the pioneers of neurogenetics, and looked into rhythm abnormalities in fruit flies.

They discovered that the fruit flies could have a normal, fast, slow or distorted clock. Over time it, seemed that the clock of fruit flies is almost equivalent to that of mice, which is very similar, also, to us humans.

To end the first lecture, we learnt about the benefits of having a circadian rhythm. For example, in cyanobacteria the two essential processes of

The opening of leaves for photosynthesis, for example, is controlled by this day and night cycle.

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nitrogen fixation and photosynthesis are incompatible with each other.

Having a circadian clock makes them occur at different times of the day, so they do not interrupt the process of each other.

Similarly, the clocks in some plants allow for effective plant vs herbivore defence, with the plants enabling a toxic chemical to be produced at the time of day when insects are likely to graze on them.

Impact of clocks in human health and disease The second lecture entitled ‘Impact of clocks in human health and disease’ was a highly interesting and informative lecture by Dr Robert Dallman.

He started by describing an experiment on mice in which he showed that if they ate in a restricted time period (especially when active) they

The effects of circadian rhythm in mice

were able to become more active and even lose weight.

Some audience members were very keen to know if that would apply to humans too!

We were particularly interested when the professor began to talk about the body clock of teenagers! He was able to show us a report that strongly suggested that if school was to start an hour later, children would be able to gain another one hour of sleep and that this could actually increase school performance in lessons by 70% to 85%! He also commented that switching to daylight saving time (DST) results in twenty seven deaths, which would otherwise not happen, in the week after the time change!

He then went on to explain the impact of taking drugs at different times of the day and how particular times are more likely to be effective than others.

This was particularly useful for children that experience asthma – he told us that taking the drug at 21:00 was much more effective and actually largely eliminated the symptoms that the child experiences, whereas taking it at 06:00 would mean the drug would peak at completely the wrong time.

This shows the immense effect that the circadian rhythm (body clock) has on us.

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We all very much enjoyed the experience and would like to say thank you to Mr Kalsi for taking us!

By Georgia Gamble and Charlotte Bull

Cutting Edge Science Dissections For many students of all ages, Once we had observed the dissection practical experiments external features including identiare an exciting and new prospect. fying the left and right side of the In the Lower Sixth, as part of the heart, as well as the blood vessels, assessed practical component all we were able to make our incisions in order to see internally.

Lower Sixth biologists have to

The students also undertook a stem dissection, a process that may seem simple and not as exciting.

However, the process was much more delicate and complicated undergo the dissection of a heart than we all expected. In as well as a plant stem. order to view the xylem and We were able to observe the Whilst dissections are not for the atria and ventricles, as well as the phloem tissues we had to create faint hearted, they have many chordae tendenae (heart-strings) microscope slides. We cut celery into extremely thin slices benefits. They are very useful as that ensure the (transverse and they allow us to develop our skills atrio-ventricular valves stay in longitudinal) using a razor blade! with equipment such as scalpels, place.

This was to make sure that there as well as allowing us to visually were minimal overlapping cells. observe what we have been We then dyed the strips of celery learning. and then put them onto a The heart dissection involved us microscope slide before viewing. first observing the external The microscope slides produced features of the heart. some amazing images.

In order to show this we had to The dissections were very useful do a scientific drawing, a task that and enjoyable experiences for all may seem simple but was in fact involved as it gave the students much more complicated due to the opportunity to get hands on the many rules involved. and learn from their own observations.

Some images of the dissection can be seen below.

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CAREER GUIDANCE|DENTISTRY

Applying for Dentistry Planning to pursue a career in dentistry can be daunting, but with the right information, you will hopefully have a clear idea of the pathway you may be about to undertake Throughout your application process, you will endlessly be asked about the skills a dentist should have and how you are able to demonstrate them. This is not only designed to assess your suitability for the career, but also your ability to self-reflect and grow as a person. For this reason, it is important to start thinking about, and acquiring, as many skills and as much experience as possible early on, so that you can talk about these and enhance your chances of receiving an offer.

Year 10 and 11 Key skills to think about: •

Commitment

•

Enthusiasm

•

Teamworking

•

Communication

- Co-Curricular In year 10 and 11, you still may not be completely sure about Dentistry, but there is no harm in getting a head start. During these years, I would suggest getting involved in a wide range of school activities on offer. Joining a sports team for example develops a whole set of skills such as dedication to weekly practices, determination in matches and good communication with team members.

different people. It would also help consolidate your knowledge of the basics before exams.

- Volunteering It is also a good idea to think about volunteering, as the longer you have volunteered for, the more you will be displaying dedication and enthusiasm. If you are under 16, helping out at your local library or charity shop is a wonderful way to improve your people skills. As a dentist, you need to be able to show that you work well with all sorts of people, and a similar environment to your surgery can be found whilst volunteering.

Bablake also holds many charity fundraisers and being part of Amnesty International may help you make the most of these opportunities. The Duke of Edinburgh Award (D of E) and National Citizen Service (NCS) schemes may also enable you to take However, sport is not your only option! Being part part in your community as these both require a certain amount of volunteering to be done to of the debating society shows your ability to formulate arguments and explain your thoughts in a receive the award. These schemes are also amazing at helping you meet new people and improving your clear and concise manner. Helping students in the confidence. years below you with subjects they struggle in would demonstrate how you are able to cater your own understanding of topics to suit the needs of 35

may even be focused on how good yours is. In simplest terms, this is how well you are able to work with your hands. This is crucial in dentistry as you must have good hand eye coordination to perform most procedures. Obviously this will improve with practise in university, but it reflects well on you if you are able to involve yourself in a hobby that hones this skill.

Year 12 •

Work Experience

•

Manual Dexterity

•

Volunteering

•

Ability to work with a wide range of people (young and old)

Activities such as painting, embroidery or learning to play a stringed instrument dramatically improves • Extended project Qualification (EPQ) the precision and accuracy of your hand actions.

• Massive Open Online Course (MOOC) During your multiple mini Interviews (MMI), there is a possibility that one of your stations focuses in particular on this skill. There really isn’t any way you - Work Experience can prepare for such a task, but going in as calm and In Year 12, if your mind is set on dentistry, it is best cheery is possibly the best way to approach it. The to consider gaining some work experience to make interviewer may also want to hold a conversation at sure this is definitely the career for you. Being able the same time, so make sure you do so to display to shadow a dentist in practice will really open your your ability to multitask. eyes to the field, even if you have already been visit- Volunteering Placements ing the dentist as a patient.

Once you are 16, you could also gain a volunteering There is no doubt that it can be a hectic and busy placement at a care home, which many universities career, but with a bit of passion, the payoff is worth love to see. It shows a caring and compassionate it. It is important to research entry requirements of side to your personality. I would recommend keepthe universities to which you wish to apply. Most ing a diary of what happens on every visit, detailing won’t specify, but some may mention that they need any progress you make with the residents. This you to complete a certain amount of work experimeans that when it comes to writing your personal ence in an NHS/non-private practice. Take the time statement or preparing for your interview, you to go through the application requirements on the don’t waste any time trying to remember everything University’s website, as a lot of information can be you did. With all this behind you, how could you easily found there. If you still have doubts, it is best possibly fail to gain a place? – remember also to to call the admissions team as they are always availconcentrate on getting the examination grades able to answer any queries you have. needed!

•

Prefect

- Manual Dexterity

By Areej Raza

One of the main things that sets dentistry apart from other careers is the sheer amount of manual dexterity required on a daily basis. Manual dexterity is a phrase you will hear constantly throughout your application process. One of your interview stations 36

Junior An experiment into coke and Mentos At a Science lecture at the University of Warwick our pupils were impressed with the classic ‘ Coke and Mentos’ experiment.

We decided to dedicate one of our Junior Science Club sessions to the experiment.

We started by watching a YouTube Clip of Fritz and Stephen, the mad scientists from EepyBird who had 250 bottles of coke setup in one giant chain reaction! If you haven’t seen the video, I would definitely encourage you to do so!

Science This involved creating a paper tube and filling it with Mentos. A piece of paper was placed between the top of the open bottle and the paper tube filled with Mentos.

The paper was pulled, down went the Mentos and the coke went flying out! The pupils enjoyed the session and thankfully nobody got soaked in coke.

We always like to try to explain the Science behind the activities.

This reaction is due to a process called nucleation, where the carbon dioxide in the coke is attracted to the Mentos. The surface of a Mentos is sprayed with over 40 microscopic layers of liquid sugar. That makes it not only sweet but also covered with lots and lots of nucleation sites where the gas can grab onto and start forming bubbles. This creates so much pressure that the coke goes flying.

We then explained the technique to add the Mentos to the coke so the pupils would avoid having a shower of coke.

Nucleation 37

Orange You Glad You Aren’t a Bird?

“What wild creature is more That pensive comment was made accessible to our eyes and ears, as close to us and everyone in the world, by the national treasure who is none other than Sir David as universal as a bird?”

Attenborough. Be it the iridescence of the endangered Ribbon-tailed astrapia (Astrapia mayeri), or the entrancing song of the Common nightingale (Luscinia megarhynchos), birds have always fascinated humans and continue to attract our aural and visual attention.

First proposed by Darwin and Wallace, sexual selection is one of the driving factors of survival and is therefore a mode of natural selection (Brennan 2010).

Avian intersexual selection (female choice) has resulted in both behavioural and physiological adaptations. Expression of visual, acoustic and olfactory ornamentation has led to the evolution of some of the most incredible birds.

One such bird is the Crested auklet (Aethia cristatella) of the Bering Sea. With colonies of over 1 million individuals, this monogamous seabird has evolved various iconic characteristics, through the pressures of sexual selection, to ensure its survival.

(Darwin and Wallace)

(Calling and attracting mates)

The black, forward-curving bristle feathers found on their foreheads, befitting of their name, are used to attract mates and to assert dominance.

The existence of these showy monomorphic traits is indicative of intense sexual selection for both sexes (Jones 1993). Their notable trumpetlike call is used for both individual recognition and sexual advertising. The loud volume and harsh timbre of the call may not be ‘music to our ears’, but it still does its evolutionary purpose: to attract a mate.

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(Aethia cristatella)

However, one of the most distinctive and unique features of this bird is its citrus-like plumage odour. The ‘tangerinesque’ fragrance is an integral part of the courtship process as it secures the long-term pair formation of mates. During the ruff sniff display, pairs anoint one another by rubbing the perfume on each other’s napes, back and breast. These strong scent molecules attract individuals to form mating pairs through a courtship ritual, whilst signalling the quality of the potential mate; this function gives the secretion a pheromone-like purpose (Hagelin et al.; 2004 and Ng et al.; 2014).

(The rubbing of perfume)

What causes this ‘orangey’ aroma?

Through mass spectra and organic analysis, it appears that this perfumelike secretion contains even-numbered carbon aldehydes, such as hexanal, octanal and decanal.

Around 50% of the secreted mixture contains caprylic aldehyde or octanal. This short chain aldehyde gives the bird its notorious ‘waxy, citrus orange with a green peely nuance’ smell (Sorensen and Hoye 2010).

(Skeletal formula of hexanal)

In addition to the aldehydes, the mixture also contains unsaturated aldehydes: (Z)-4-decanal, (Z)-4-dodecenal and (Z)-6-dodecenal (Jones 2004).

Our ability to taste and smell is regulated by chiral molecules in our mouths and noses that act as receptors to "sense" and recognise foreign substances. We can anticipate, then, that enantiomers may interact differently with the receptor molecules and induce different sensations. This is why there is high stereospecificity in the production of the chemicals found within this avian organism to ensure and maintain its communicatory purpose.

(Olfactory system - sense of smell and taste)

This odour is known to repel parasitic organisms and recent evidence shows that crested auklets with a low chemical emission rate tend to be heavily parasitized by ticks (Douglas 2006).

This puts these individuals at a biological disadvantage as it reduces the likelihood of their survival and therefore lowers their chances of mating. It also illustrates the evolutionary significance of this physiological adaptation.

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Thus, this seemingly ornamental feature is underlined with intricate workings of natural selection. Without its chemically created citric smell, this peculiar and wonderful bird may not even be alive today.

Life’s ability to thrive in the face of adversity shows the beautiful, yet ruthless, randomness of nature.

So, the next time you think you can smell a tangerine being peeled near you, remember this; you could actually be standing right next to an avian ‘Eau De Parfum’ producer!

By Sathvika Krishnan

Lower 6th Gold Crest During the February half term, our group went to visit Professor Antonio Belli, a Professor of trauma neurosurgery who is currently working on the metabolism of the brain following mild and severe traumatic brain injury.

This meeting was arranged as an introduction to our Gold CREST project. We met with him to plan out what aspect of traumatic brain injury we would be researching with him. After discussing the different techniques implemented in this area of research, we decided to investigate the imaging of the brain. This included the potential use of new experimental techniques, as well as machines used frequently in hospitals such as magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scanners and near infra-red scanning (NIRS) to map the inside of the brain, showing how it is affected by sporting injuries such as concussion.

(L6 Group - Reef, Kira, Manav & Jaydeep)

(No contrasting medium used (left) vs contrasting medium used (right). Detected blood barrier after stroke)

(MRI scanner)

After watching the MRI scan take place, professor Belli explained how the machine was able to produce the image of the patient’s brain.

We saw the image being mapped onto the computer and were shown the neurological changes occurring during the scan. He discussed the use of gadolinium contrast medium (sometimes called an MRI contrast dye) as the chemical substance used in the MRI scans.

When injected into the body, gadolinium contrast medium enhances and improves the quality of the MRI images allowing us to see the detail more clearly. After showing our enthusiasm for this imaging technique, Professor Belli advised us to conduct some extra reading on the topic as we would be using MRI scanning in our research.

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Following our planning of research, Professor Belli gave us a tour of the Denis Howell building, the research unit where we would be conducting our project.

Along this tour, we were fortunate enough to watch a live MRI scan take place. This was very impressive, as it gave us an insight into the level of technology we would be using in our research with

(MRI scan results - No concussion (left) vs. concussion (right) results)

Professor Belli.

In addition to this, we were shown around the ophthalmology clinic where we saw the brandnew retina scanning technology that is being used, linking closely to the diagnosis and testing of concussion. To finish the tour, Professor Belli explained to us the plans to convert the existing underground network of the research building and clinic into a newly developed, state of the art concussion research facility. This was very interesting as it showed the growing importance of our CREST topic on concussion.

(MEG scan results showing how the brain reacts to a an activity, magnitude of activity and location of activity)

Detecting Concussion?

As well as showing us all the impressive machinery at the research building, Professor Belli spoke of a new imaging technique known as magnetoencephalography (MEG). This is a relatively experimental imaging process for the verification of concussion. The MEG uses sensitive magnetometers to record magnetic fields in the brain. Ions in the brain cells generate electricity by flowing in and out of the cell membrane and the MEG machine can detect the magnetic fields these create and effectively see the neurofeedback. This allows a live display of how the different parts of the brain are functioning to be observed.

Professor A. Belli MD, FRCS, FRCS (SN) (University of Birmingham)

We look forward to working with Professor Belli in the future and have agreed to meet him again to coordinate the timetable for our one-week placement during the summer. Our aim as a group is to learn more about the technology being developed regarding concussion in athletes and understand the impact new technology may have on the sporting world.

(How an MEG detects magnetic

By Jaydeep Senghera

Currently, at Professor Belli’s clinic, patients must engage in a round of cognitive tests which involves the recall of information, for example.

A sequence of letters will appear on a screen and the patient must repeat them in reverse order. By looking at the basic brain function using the MEG and the results from the cognitive testing, researchers can make a comparison between healthy athletes and ones that may have a concussion.

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