Experiencing Construction

0328906 0328652 0328784 0328565 0328189

AZEERAH MUBARAKH ALI LOI CHI WUN NG BILLAR NG ZIEN LOON TEH ROUYI

SCHOOL OF ARCHITECTURE, BUILDING & DESIGN BACHELOR OF SCIENCE (HONOURS) IN ARCHITECTURE BUILDING CONSTRUCTION I (BLD 60303)

EXPERIENCING CONSTRUCTION

0.0

Introduction 0.1 Preface 0.2 Karya Residensi 0.3 Setia Ecohill

01

1.0

Preliminaries Work 1.1 Soil Testing 1.2 Site Layout 1.3 Earthworks 1.4 Setting Out 1.5 Site Security 1.6 Machines on Site 1.7 Site Safety 1.8 Site Utilities

05

AZEERAH MUBARAKH ALI

2.0

Building Foundation 2.1 Foundation Types 2.2 Piled Foundation 2.3 Types of Pile 2.4 Piling Hammer 2.5 Pile Cap 2.6 Piling Process 2.7 Construction oF Pile Cap

24

NG ZIEN LOON

3.0

Building Structure

34

LOI CHI WUN

43

NG BILLAR

51

TEH ROUYI

3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7 3.8 3.9 4.0

CONTENT

5.0

Wall 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5

Types of Walls Bricks Wall Components Wall Construction Wall Coats

Staircase 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 5.6

6.0

Slab Types Reinforcement bar process BRC slab construction Column types Column process Column construction Beam types Beam process Beam construction

Stair Terminology Type of Staircase Method of Construction Materials Framework Construction Process

References

58

0.0 0.1 Preface 0.2 Karya Residensi 0.3 Setia Ecohill

INTRODUCTION

0.1 PREFACE

Experiencing Construction: Experiencing, documenting and analysing the Construction Process

Through this project, we have been introduced to the basic principles and procedures of construction process through real-life project which is known as experiential learning. We understood and documented the sequence and coordination of construction at the site.

Apart from that, we have analysed the construction technology and methods responding to the site context.

In this report, we have documented our understanding and knowledge of construction, material and technology through our thorough site analysis at the construction sites. We have included manual sketches, drawings and detailing related to the existing construction at our chosen sites.

The outcome of this report includes producing a complete documentation consisting of pictures, sketches, drawings and an analysis of construction elements. Apart from that, the understanding and explanation of the construction elements and its components. That being said, we have understood the current construction technology and local construction sites by explaining the current material and technology in relevance to the present construction industry.

02

0.2 KARYA RESIDENSI

Karya Residensi is a freehold low-density development comprised of 161 double-storey terrace house & currently 111 units (phase 1) are open for booking and sales. Located in a familyfriendly neighbourhood of Jalan Kota Raja is wellconnected by multiple upgraded highways providing the residents of Karya Residensi easy access to key destinations. The area of Karya Residensi is also surrounded by highly accessible public transportation & offering unprecedented convenience.

Photo 0.1: Rendering of Completed Karya Residensi

Photo 0.2: Rendering of Completed Karya Residensi

Karya Residensi is located along Jalan Kota Raja, Klang. The highways are well connected which are made easy for its residents to go in and out from Klang to anywhere else. Due to its strategic location, the residence is suitable for growing family or even newlyweds.

Photo 0.3: Location Map of Karya Residensi

Photo 0.4: Highlighted Map of Karya Residensi

03

0.3 SETIA ECOHILL

Setia Ecohill is the beautiful new township from SP Setia, a leading Malaysian developer, situated in the lush green areas of Semenyih out of town. Setia Ecohill will consist of 753 acres of land in Semenyih, where 673 acres of the land will be dedicated to housing development and 80 acres be dedicated to a parkland.

Setia Ecohill was created with the intention of being eco-friendly by reducing carbon footprint and providing sustainability through careful township planning and energy-saving homes via solar power and renewable energy.

Setia Ecohill will be a development of low density with only 10 homes to an acre of land, ensuring no lack of space between every home to maintain the peace and quiet of every neighbourhood within Setia Ecohill.

Photo 0.5: Rendering of Setia Ecohill

Kelab 360, 1, Persiaran Ecohill Barat, 43500 Semenyih, Selangor

Photo 0.6: Location Map of Setia Ecohill

Photo 0.7: Highlighted Map of Setia Ecohill

04

1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8

Soil Testing Site Layout Earthworks Setting Out Site Security Machines On Site Site Safety Site Utilities

Preliminaries work (or 'prelims') is the highest division in the process of building construction.

It usually appears in tender documents that gives the contractor a description of a project as a whole, and to specify the conditions of the site as well as requirements for their execution later on which includes installing general plants and site based services.

PRELIMINARIES WORK AZEERAH MUBARAKH ALI

1.1 SOIL TESTING

Before construction, soil investigation is done to determine the suitable type of foundation to be used according to the condition of soil. Then, Soil tests are carried out to assess the density of the soil where the soil remains undisturbed.

Standard Penetration Test

Before designing the foundations for a building, the properties of the subsoil must be assessed through testing to determine shear strength and consolidation.

At Karya Residensi, the type of soil test used was the standard insitu penetration test as it is commonly used for deep foundations.

The standard penetration test (STP) measures the resistance of a soil using a split spoon penetration sampler driven into the borehole ground to determine the relative density of the soil. The sampler is driven into the soil to a depth of 150mm by a falling standard weight of 60kg falling through a distance of 760mm.

The sampler is then driven into the soil a further 300mm and the number of blows counted up to a maximum 50 blows. The typical results for the cohesive soil at Karya Residensi varies from very soft to medium as the soil of the site is relatively soft.

Typical results for cohesive soils:

No. of Blows

Relative Density

0 to 2

very soft

2 to 4

soft

4 to 8

medium

Diagram 1: Split Barrer Sample

06

1.2 SITE LAYOUT Karya Residensi

Diagram 2:

Site Layout of Karya Residensi

07

1.2 SITE LAYOUT Access Roads and Exits

1

Photo 5: Minor Road Access and Exit

The main entrance of Karya Residensi offers access to small vehicles entering and exiting the site; mainly staffs and visitors.

3

The entrance has an obvious arch design emphasizing the entrance to the site for people who are new to the site.

2

Photo 6: Major Road Access and Exit

The major road access situated beside the arched entrance, is relatively bigger and wider.

2

This is to allow access for the bigger construction machines to enter and exit the site when transporting all the construction materials in and out of the site.

1

Diagram 3: Access at Karya Residensi

Access at the Karya Residensi considerations are considered for both on and off-site access as the routes to and from the site for the suitability for transporting all the requirements for the proposed works.

From Diagram 3, the access on site for deliveries and general circulation has been carefully considered.

3

Photo 7: Major Road Access Within Site

Similar to the major access and exit, the major roads within the side aare wide to allow easy passage for the huge construction machines when conducting construction works.

08

1.3 EARTHWORKS Site Clearance

Site Excavation

Photo 8: Site Clearance at Karya Residensi

Photo 9: Site Excavation at Karya Residensi

Clearing involves removing construction work obstructions above ground level which includes the process of cutting, taking down and disposal except for vegetation that are marked to be left on site. An excavator is usually used to remove tall trees by uprooting them which is performed by a trained personnel under supervision to prevent damage to nearby properties.

Site clearance at Karya Residensi was then carried out to remove the 150mm of soil that contained seeds, plants and weeds which would not be sound material to construct on.

At Karya Residensi, the site required clearance where it enabled the removal works to be undertaken before the main construction work commenced.

Building Regulation Approved Document C states that vegetable matter such as turf and roots should be removed from the ground to be covered by the building at least to a depth to prevent later growth.

This is to sterilise the ground as the top 300mm usually contains plant life and decaying vegetation. That would cause the topsoil to be easily compressed and unsuitable to support foundations.

This involved: â—? Demolition and removal of existing structures; â—? Grubbing out of bushes and trees.

09

1.4 SETTING OUT

Building Outline

Checking Method

The task of setting out the building outline is done after the site has been cleared and excavation works are finished.

After setting out the baseline, a check should be made of the setting out lines for right angles and correct lengths, The best method is to check with a calculated diagonal length, ensuring the set-out is square.

The first task in setting out the building is to establish a baseline to which all the setting out can be related.

For both Karya Residensi and Setia Ecohill sites, the setting out of the baseline was done prior to the profile board set up whereby the sites used corner posts and cord to mark the corners and outline of the building.

Diagram 4: Setting Out Baseline

Photo 10 below shows the 90 degree angle of the profile board at the Setia Ecohill site where the workers used the Pythagoras Theorem to ensure the accurate angle of the corner post.

Diagram 5: Pythagoras Theorem

Photo 10: 90 Degree Corner

10

1.4 SETTING OUT Profile Board

Photo 11: Marked Profile Boards

At the Setia Ecohill site, the profile boards set up were marked with a red band for identification of the coordinates of piling points.

Photo 12: Variation of Height of Profile Boards

The photo shows the taller profile board at the Setia Ecohill site informing that a sloping site, particularly on split level construction, some of the profiles are high and require bracing.

Photo 13: Excavation Works Within Set Out Boundary Diagram 6:

Profile Board at Setia Ecohill

After the setting-out line has been made and checked, the profile board is set up clear of trench positions to avoid obstruction during construction work.

Photo 13 shows excavation carried out within the set out boundary of the profile boards at the Karya Residensi site.

11

1.5 SITE SECURITY Hoarding

Diagram 7: Security at Karya Residensi

Diagram 8: Cross Section of Hoarding

Diagram 14 and 15 shows the free-standing, close-boarded hoardings at Karya Residensi erected adjacent to the road to provide protection for the public from the construction works. It acts as a physical and visual barrier of the construction works.

The purpose of the vertical hoarding is also to define the site boundary and prevent trespassers and thieves. Hoardings were carried out at the beginning of site operations where the licence was obtained from the local authority.

Photo 14 & 15: Hoardings at Karya Residensi

12

1.5 SITE SECURITY Security Shed

At Karya Residensi, there is a shed for the security guard located beside the main entrance to the site.

This is to watch and control the vehicles entering and exiting the site to ensure no trespassing occurs as well as to ensure all the items at the site is safe.

Photo 16: Security Shed at Karya Residensi

Signboard Diagram 7: Security at Karya Residensi

Photo 17 and 18 shows how the signboard at Karya Residensi provides all the necessary information for the public in relation to the building purpose and people in charge. Referring to Malaysia’s Standard Specifications for Building Works, all project signboards are required to be in Bahasa Melayu and must provide the following information: -

Building Number and street address Project Name Developer Project Architect Project Civil and Structural Engineer Project Mechanical and Electrical Engineer Project Materials Engineer Landscape Architect Photo 17 & 18 : Signboard at Karya Residensi

13

1.6 MACHINES ON SITE

Photo 19 : Ready Mix Concrete Truck

Photo 20 : “Ghost” Lorry

The ready mix concrete truck is used to transport mixed concrete from a mixing plan or depot to the site. Discharge of the concrete was in the form of concrete dumper via chute.

The “ghost” truck refers to a lorry that has no valid road tax, and can only be used at construction sites.

The ghost truck is not allowed to use the road at all.

Photo 21 : Tractor Shovel (i)

The tractor shovel has tyred wheels and functions to scoop up loose materials from the front mounted bucket, elevate the bucket and manoeuvre into a position to deposit them.

Photo 22 : Tractor Shovel (ii)

Photo 23 : Standing Concreting Skip

Photo 24 : Air Compressor

The tractor shovel has steel tracks and functions to scoop up loose materials from the front mounted bucket, elevate the bucket and manoeuvre into a position to deposit them.

The use of the standing concreting skip is to transport or large loads, especially at high levels where crane skips are used.

The air compressor converts power into potential energy stored in pressurized air. The pressured air contained in the compressor is utilized for its kinetic energy as power source.

14

1.6 MACHINES ON SITE

Photo 1.25 : Pan Concrete Mixer

Mixes materials when it rotates in a clockwise direction and discharge when it rotates in an anticlockwise direction. The pan mixer machine combines with batching equipment forming a small-medium concrete batching plant.

Photo 1.26 : Small Batch Concrete Mixer

The small batch mixer is a tilting drum type and are hand loaded which makes the quality control of successive mixes difficult to regulate.

Photo 1.27 : Lorry Mounted Telescopic Crane

The mobile crane consists of a lattice or telescopic boom mounted on a specially adapted lorry.

They have two operating positions: The lorry being driven from a conventional front cab and the crane being controlled from a different location.

Photo 1.28 : Hammer Pile Driver

The hammer pile driver is used to drive piles into the soil to provide foundation support for the building.

Because of their short site preparation time, they are ideally suited for short hire periods.

15

1.7 SITE UTILITIES Site Office

Photo 1.29 & 1.30: Site Office at Karya Residensi

At Karya Residensi, the site office is located right beside the main entrance and serves the purpose of providing facilities for site managers, space for meetings and storage for site documentation.

Accommodation

Diagram 1.8: Utilities at Karya Residensi

Toilet Photo 33 shows the existing toilet at the Karya Residensi site, where it is located next to the site office.

The toilet for staff or VIPs and construction workers on the site are separated where the toilet access for the construction workers are situated nearby their dedicated accommodation.

Photo 1.33: Toilet at Karya Residensi

Photo 31 & 32: Accomodation for Workers and Karya Residensi

At Karya Residensi, there is are sheds for the labour workers on site which provides accommodation for rest, shelter, changing and eating. The shed has separated provisions for men and women.

16

1.7 SITE UTILITIES Water Supply

Photo 1. 34: Elevated Water Tank

Photo 1.35: Temporary Water Supply

Photo 34 shows the elevated water tank erected next to the site office in Karya Residensi which provides water to the toilets and construction works in the proximity. Photo 35 shows a temporary water tank located further from the site office and provides water for the construction works such as for cement mixing.

Diagram 1.8: Utilities at Karya Residensi

Electrical Supply

Photo 36 and 37 shows the connection of electricity from Karya Residensi to the TNB power supply line. The electrical power supply is required for power tools and lighting for the accomodation and offices.

The electrical supply depends on the contracts between the contractor and the local TNB company to know the duration of supply and maximum load in kilowatts for the construction period.

Photo 1.36 & 1.37: Power Line Connection at Karya Residensi

17

1.7 SITE UTILITIES Drainage

Photo 1.38, 1.39 & 1.40: Earth Drain at Setia Ecohill

At the Setia Ecohill site, the temporary drainage is constructed to channel the excess water into the main drain pipe and out of the construction site itself. This is to ensure that the water does not flood or accumulate the excavated areas and obstruct the construction progress. The earth drain is created along the major road of the site, creating a boundary around the construction site and helps control the water flow during rain.

The photo above shows the earth drain extending across the site towards the main drain pipe which is located at the end of the site.

The concrete drainage pipe is connected to the earth drain which directs all the water flow into it thus reducing waterlogging in the site.

18

1.8 SITE SAFETY

Scaffolding Scaffold are temporary platforms which allow workers to have a safe working place with a convenient height. It is usually required when the working height is above 1.5 metres above ground level. Karya Residensi site uses fabricated metal frame scaffolding.

Main Frame

Photo 1.41 & 1.42: External Scaffolding at Karya Residensi Site

Diagram 1.9: External Scaffolding

Based on Photo 1.41 and 1.42, the external scaffolding at the Karya Residensi site consists of stacked main vertical frames and a cross bracing.

19

1.8 SITE SAFETY

Scaffolding

Photo 1.43 & 1.44: Internal Scaffolding at Karya Residensi

Diagram 1.10: Internal Scaffolding

Based on Photo 1.43 and 1.44, the internal scaffolding erected below the building structure at the Karya Residensi site is comprised of the main frame and a ladder end frame above it, a well as the cross bracing.

The scaffolds comprise of a standard two rows. Instead of being joined together using ledgers which in turn supports the transverse transoms, the ledgers are replaced with cross braces and the transoms are already fixed on the vertical frames.

20

1.8 SITE SAFETY Scaffolding

Photo 1.45, 1.46, 1.47, & 1.48: Scaffolding at Karya Residensi

Diagram 1.11: Scaffolding Head & Base

U-Head Jack Base

Based on the photos above, the scaffolding at the Karya Residensi site has two types of base and head. The U-head is used on the top of the vertical frames on the highest point of the internal scaffolding to support the structure above it.

The Jack base is applied to the bottom legs of the main frame to keep the scaffold sturdy. However, if the ground is uneven, the U-head is used as the base which is placed onto wooden planks to ensure a stable ground support for the scaffolding.

21

1.8 SITE SAFETY Scaffolding Steps

Safety Nets According to the OSHA Rules and Regulation, every safety nets shall be of sufficient size and strength to catch any person and located as to cover the area of possible fall.

At Karya Residensi, the steps for the scaffolding comprises of 7 and 8 steps where the 8th or 9th step is the landing made of a wooden plank base.

At the Karya Residensi site, the safety nets were tested prior to the commencement of all the construction works. Due to the heavy rain, the safety nets are loose and therefore will be corrected by the workers before starting the construction works.

Diagram 1.12: Scaffolding Steps

Photo 1.49 & 1.50: Scaffolding and Safety Nets at Karya Residensi

Safety Sign At the Setia Ecohill site, visual signboards regarding the rules and regulations of site safety was put up at the site office where workers, staff and visitors are able to see.

At Karya Residensi, the notice board has been filled up with notices, requirements, rules and regulations based on the OSHA rules and regulations where the workers in the site must obey and fulfill the necessary stated safety requirements.

Photo 1.51: Safety Requirements Notice Board

Photo 1.52: Safety SIgn Board

22

1.8 SITE SAFETY

Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) PPE is equipment that will protect the user against health or safety risks at work. It includes items such as safety helmets, gloves, eye protection, highvisibility clothing, safety footwear and safety harnesses.

According to the OSHA Rules and Regulation, employers are required to provide most types of required PPE at no cost to the worker.

Photo 1.53 & 1.54: Protective Attire of Workers

Safety Helmet (keeps head safe from heavy impact)

Gloves (protect hands from abrasion, cuts and punctures) High-Visibility Clothing ( allow workers to be noticed easily during day and night)

Safety Boots (protects toe and penetration resistant to avoid feet and leg injuries)

Photo 1.55: Protective Attire Provided on Site

According to OSHA Rules and Regulations; Act 514 Occupational Safety and Health Act 1994, it shall be the duty of every employer and selfemployed person to ensure the safety, health and welfare at work of all his employees.

Both sites Karya Residensi and Setia Ecohill obey these rules and regulations as the workers are wearing the Personal Protective Equipment.

Photo 1.56: Protective Attire of Workers

23

2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7

Foundation Types Piled Foundation Types of Pile Piling Hammer Pile Cap Piling Process Construction of Pile Cap

Foundation is the lowest division of a building constructed partly or wholly below the surface of the ground.

Its function is to securely withstand the combined dead and live loads through ground transmission without causing settlement or underground movement that might cause stability failure or damage to any part of the building.

BUILDING FOUNDATION NG ZIEN LOON

2.1 FOUNDATION TYPES Before construction, soil investigation is done to determine the suitable type of foundation to be used according to the condition of soil. A site can consist of multiple type of soils which require different type of foundation to support the superstructure.

In common, foundation is divided into shallow and deep foundation.

SHALLOW FOUNDATION

Strip Foundation

Pad Foundation

DEEP FOUNDATION

Raft Foundation

Piled Foundation

Diagram 2.1

Diagram 2.2

Diagram 2.3

Diagram 2.4

Can be used for most subsoils especially light structure such as low to medium rise buildings

Suitable for most subsoils except loose sands, loose gravels and filled areas.

Specifically useful for low bearing capacity soils or where individual column loads are heavy.

Usually made of reinforced concrete and preferably square in plan.

The load per unit area being exerted on the ground is minimized by spreading the load of the superstructure over a large base.

Can be used when suitable foundation conditions are not present at or near ground level.

Series of columns inserted into the ground to transmit loads of structure to a lower level of stronger subsoil.

25

2.2 PILED FOUNDATION At both sites, Karya Residensi and Setia Ecohill, piled foundations are used as the foundation conditions are not present near ground level, which is caused by the low bearing capacity of subsoil and the layers of highly compressible subsoils.

End Bearing Pile Piles at Karya Residensi and Setia Hill are hammered into subsoil until it reach the firm strata.

More stable than shallow foundations as it is casted deeply into the ground

+

Higher load bearing capacity

+

Can be precast to specification

+

Saves time at construction site

+

Can be tested for strength and quality

+

Suitable for most locations

-

Process of driving piles requires heavy equipment

-

Hard to determine required length of the pile

-

Process of addition of more length and cutting off of the excess pile will increase project cost

-

Can be damaged while driving

-

Additional cost and effort for transportation

● ● ● ●

Pros and Cons of Piled Foundation +

Displacement Pile Also known as driven piles as they are driven into the ground by displacing the soil around the pile shaft.

Can be either precast, partially precast, or cast in-situ Available in wide variety of types and materials Hammered into the predetermined depth measured from the subsoil’s resistance to the penetration of the pile, to obtain certain bearing capacity

Diagram 2.5: Load transfer of end bearing pile

● ● ●

Transfer load through the soft soil at Karya Residensi and Setia Ecohill to a suitable bearing strata.

Carry heavy loads safely to hard strata.

Minimise settlements of the residential units.

Diagram 2.6: Displacement of soil by pile

● ● Photo 2.1: Precast concrete piles found on site of Setia Hill

●

Cause the soil to be displaced radially and vertically as the pile shaft is driven into the ground.

Sands and granular soils are compacted by the displacement process which increase the strength of subsoil.

Cheaper and quicker than bored pile.

26

2.3 TYPES OF PILE Comparison of Different Types of Pile

Timber Pile ● ● ●

Steel Pile

Rot above the ground water level Have limited bearing capacity Can easily be damaged by stones and boulders

● ● ● ●

Suitable for handlings and driving in long lengths Low lateral displacement and easier penetration Easily cut off and join by welding Relatively expensive

Concrete

Precast Concrete Pile ● ● ● ●

●

Available in variety of types.

Use where soft soil deposits overlie a firmer strata.

Percussion driven using a drop hammer.

3m & 6m precast concrete piles were used at both sites, they can be easily connected together to reach the required length while maintaining the designated load capacity.

It is stable and suitable to be used in squeezing ground of the sites.

Cast in-situ Piles ● ●

Pile lengths are readily adjustable Enlarged base can be formed to increase end bearing capacity

Precast concrete pile was used at both Karya Residensi and Setia Ecohill due to its suitability to soft subsoil and relatively cheaper and more convenience compared to other type of piles.

Diagram 2.7: Piling Rig and Precast Reinforced Concrete Pile

28

2.4 PILING HAMMER Steel Helmet

Piling hammer is designed to provide an impact blow to the top of the pile to be driven. Weight and drop height of the hammer are selected based on the pile type and nature of subsoil. Drop hammer is used at the sites we visited.

●

Head of pile is covered with a steel helmet to protect the pile from damages.

Drop Hammer ● ● ● ●

A block of iron with a rear lug to locate in piling rig’s leader, and lifting eye for attachment of the winch rope.

Dropped from a rig and suspended by rope.

Weight of hammer is not less than half of the concrete pile weight.

10-12 blows can be delivered in a minute from a free fall of 1.2-1.5m

Photo 2.2: Driven pile at Setia Ecohill with steel helmet on top Diagram 2.8: Drop hammer used at Setia Hill

2.5 PILE CAP Pile cap links piles in groups or cluster with a reinforced concrete cap. It distributes loads of building into different piles.

Diagram 2.9: Transferring of load

Diagram 2.10: Section showing pile cap, pile, beam and column

Photo 2.3: Pile cap with formwork of stump on top

29

2.5 PILE CAP

Diagram 2.11: One Pile Cap

Diagram 2.14: Four Pile Cap

Diagram 2.12: Two Pile Cap

Diagram 2.15: Fiver Pile Cap

Photo 2.4: Foundation Layout Plan showing some of the pile cap used at Karya Residensi

Diagram 2.13 : Three Pile Cap

30

2.6 PILING PROCESS

Diagram 2.16: Profile board with grid points

Diagram 2.17: Piling Rig lifting pile

1. Positioning of Pile

● ●

Piling points are marked on the site according to the drawing.

The positions are measured using grid lines that are marked on the profile boards at the site.

Photo 2.5: Markings on the profile board

Diagram 2.18: Piling Rig hammering pile

2. Lifting

● ● ●

Diagram 2.19: Worker cutting extension pile

3. Hammering

Pile is tied on its lifting eye.

Lifted and positioned to thee piling points.

Straightened and ready for hammering.

● ● ●

4. Cutting of Pile

Pile is driven into the ground using drop hammer.

Subsoil is displaced by the piled.

Pile is hammered until it reach the strong strata

Photo 2.6: Excess pile before being cut

● ●

Extension pile is crushed using hammer.

Reinforcement bar is cut using oxy-cutter

Photo 2.7: Workers crushing and cutting the excess pile

31

2.7 CONSTRUCTION OF PILE CAP 1. Soil around the pile is excavated until the soil is 1450 mm below first floor level to prepare for pile cap installation.

Diagram 2.20: Excavation for pile cap installation

2. Concrete of pile head is chipped off by hammering it to expose the reinforcement bar

Diagram 2.21: Removal of excess pile concrete

4. Formwork of pile cap is installed

Diagram 2.23:: Formwork of pile cap

3. 50 mm of lean concrete is laid to act as the base for the formwork of pile cap.

Reinforcement of pile cap is fitted into the formwork and tied to the starter bar from pile.

Photo 2.8: Excavation for pile cap installation

Diagram 2.22: Lean concrete

Photo 2.9: Worker constructing formwork for pile cap

32

2.7 CONSTRUCTION OF PILE CAP 5. Reinforcement of pile cap is fitted into the formwork and tied to the starter bar from pile.

Diagram 2.24: Pile cap reinforcement

6. Reinforcement of the of column stump is tied to the reinforcement of pile cap.

Diagram 2.25: Reinforcement of stump and pile cap

4. Formwork is removed when the concrete is cured.

Diagram 2.27: Reinforced concrete pile cap

7. Concrete is added into the formwork until it reaches 600 mm of thickness and compacted.

Photo 2.11: Completed pile cap with formwork of stump on top

Photo 2.10: Reinforcement for different types of pile cap

Diagram 2.26: Formwork of pile cap filled with concrete

33

3.0 3.1 Reinforcement 3.2 Reinforcement Bar Construction Process 3.3 Beam 3.4 Simply supported Beam Construction 3.5 Slab 3.6 BRC Slab 3.7 Construction 3.8 Column 3.9 Tied Column Construction Process

A superstructure is an upward extension of an existing structure above a baseline called Ground Level in general and it usually serves the purpose of the structure's intended use.

BUILDING STRUCTURE LOI CHI WUN

3.1 REINFORCEMENT Reinforcement are generally are used to provide the tensile strength. The number, diameter,spacing, shape and type of bars to be used have to be designed. A cover of concrete over the reinforcement is required to protect the steel from corrosion and to provide a degree of fire resistance.

TYPE OF REINFORCEMENT

Steel bars

Diagram 3.2 : Types of Steel bars

Diagram 3.1 : Reinforcement Bar of beam, slab and column

Steel Mesh

Diagram 3.3 : Types of Steel Mesh

It is commonly used in building structure such as columns and beams.

It is mainly used in the construction of the reinforced concrete slab.

Mild steel or high yield steel. Both contain about 99% iron, the remaining constituents are manganese, carbon, sulphur and phosphorus.

Steel reinforcement mesh or fabric is produced in four different formats for different application.

35

3.2 REINFORCEMENT BAR CONSTRUCTION PROCESS Reinforcement Bar consist of 3 different steps of process to be ready for the structural construction progress. Stainless steels are easy to handle, manipulate and weld and can withstand damage and abrasion during installation when compared with galvanized and coated steels.

Items :

Photo 3.1 : Wired Reinforcement bars

Diagram 3.4 Wire

Photo 3.2 : Stacks of Links

Diagram 3.5 : Link

Photo 3.3 : Stack of Reinforcement bars

Diagram 3.6 : Steel Bar

Process :

Photo 3.4 : Marking of the length of wire needed to be cut into and cut it with special cutting equipment

Photo 3.5 : Placing reinforcement onto Bar bending machine to bend it

Photo 3.6 : Workers binding the reinforcement bar and reinforcement link together with the wires

36

3.7 BEAM Beam is a horizontal load bearing members which is classified as either main beams which transmit floor and secondary beam loads to the columns or secondary beams which transmit floor loads to the main beams.

TYPE OF BEAM

Simply Supported Beam

Diagram 3.7

Cantilever

Diagram 3.8.:

A projecting beam fixed only at one end A beam supported on the ends which are free to rotate and have no moment resistance

Continuous

Diagram 3.10.

A beam extending over more than two supports

Fixed ended

Diagram 3.1.

A beam supported on both ends and restrained from rotation

Overhanging

Diagram 3.9.

A simple beam extending beyond its support on one end

Cantilever, simply supported

Diagram 3.12

A simple beam with both ends extending beyond its supports on both ends

41

3.8 SIMPLY SUPPORTED BEAM CONSTRUCTION PROCESS For both sites Karya Residensi and Setia Ecohil uses Simply Supported Beam construction method. It is quick and easy to install as require no complicated connection to the supporting member which also transfer more load to the end supports than a continuous beam.

Diagram 3.13: Reinforcement Bar of beam

Diagram 3.14: Formwork of beam

1. Installation of Reinforcement bars

2. Assemble and erect formwork for beam

●

Reinforcement bars type B to be being attached together with the starter bar form the column

Photo 3.7 : Assembling of reinforcement bars for beam

●

Nailing formwork panels together accordingly to create the beam boundary with the help of scaffolding to set up

Photo 3.8 : Fromwork in progress

Diagram 3.15: Beam formwork filled with concrete

3. Pour and compact concrete ●

Concrete poured and filled around the reinforcement and within the formwork.

Diagram 3.16: Reinforced concrete beam

4. Strike and remove formwork in stages as curing proceeds ●

Removing of formworks, revealing of concrete slab and left to cure after 3 days.

Photo 3.9 : Completed beam

42

3.3 SLAB Slab is a flat piece of concrete, put on the walls or columns of a structure. It serves as a walking surface but may also serve as a load bearing member, as in slab homes.

REINFORCED CONCRETE SLAB ( BRC MESH )

One way slab

Diagram 3.17 : Section of One way Slab

It is supported on two opposite side only, thus structural action is only at one direction.

Slab is supported on all the four sides but the ratio of longer span to shorten span is greater than 2.

METAL SECTION (METSEC) DECKING

Two way slab

Diagram 3.18 : Section of Two way slab

Profile Galvanised Steel Decking

Diagram 3.19 : Section of Galv.Steel

The load will be carried in both the directions.

Main reinforcement is provided in both direction.

The steel sheet has surface indentations and deformities to affect bond with the concrete topping.

The slab are supported on four sides and the ratio of longer span to shorter is less than 2.

Requirement of steel rods or mesh.

37

3.4 BRC SLAB CONSTRUCTION PROCESS

Diagram 3.20 : Wooden Slab Formwork

Diagram 3.21 : Formwork , Rebar and Spacer

1 . Assemble and erect formwork for slab

2. Layering of Type B wire mesh

●

Nailing formwork panels together according to construction drawings to create the exact boundary for the reinforcement bar and concrete

Photo 3.10 : Preparation of formwork material before assembling

●

Reinforcement bars (wire mesh) are being layered within the formwork before the placement of cast concrete block as a spacer

Diagram 3.22 : Pouring Concretes

3. Pour and compact concrete ●

Concrete poured and compacted around the reinforcement and formwork

Photo 3.11 : Workers pouring of concrete mixture onto the wire mesh

Diagram 3.23.: Slab

4. Strike and remove form work in stages as curing proceeds ●

Removing of formworks, revealing of concrete slab and left to cure after 3 days to harden

Photo 3.12 : Completed slab

38

3.5 COLUMN

Columns are the vertical load bearing members of the structural frame which transmits the beam loads down to the foundations.

They are usually constructed in storey heights and therefore the reinforcement must be lapped to provide structural continuity.

Reinforced Concrete Column

Tied column (Rectangular or Square)

Diagram 3.24. : Tied Column

The column reinforced with longitudinal bars and horizontal ties.

Steel Frame Structure

Circular column

Steel Column

Diagram 3.25. : Circular column

Diagram 3.26. : Steel column

It is suitable for additional loadcarry.

It is suitable to be used in multiple story structure.

The capacity is greater than or equal to that attributed from the shell as to compensate for the strength lost when the shell spalls off.

There are various sizes of steel column section to choose and these steel columns are commonly produced in advance.

39

3.6 TIED COLUMN CONSTRUCTION PROCESS For both sites Karya residensi and Setia Ecohil, Rectangular and Square Tied Column was being used during the construction. As it has the most common column design and construction method that fits both of the project.

Diagram 3.27. : Reinforcement Bar

1. Connecting of Reinforcement bars with starter bars ●

Fixing of reinforcement bars with the starter bars that extend out of its surface

Photo 3.13 : Set up Reinforcement bar

Diagram 3.28. : Wooden Column Formwork

2. Assemble and erect formwork for column ●

Nailing formwork panels together accordingly to create the boundary for the reinforcement bar and concrete.

Extra supporting stilts can be seen to support the structure vertically

Diagram 3.29. : Pouring concrete

3. Pour and compact concrete ●

Concrete poured from the top of the formwork opening and compacted around the reinforcement

Photo 3.14 : Formwork and solidification of concrete

Diagram 3.30. : Completed column

4. Strike and remove formwork in stages as curing proceeds ●

Removing of formworks, revealing concrete slab after 3 days for the curing process. So that the column will be much more stronger

Photo 3.15 : Tied column 40

4.0 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6 4.7

Types of Walls Bricks Brick Bonds Wall Components Wall Construction Wall Coats Conduit Installation

Walls are the vertical construction of a building, usually made up from bricks that create a homogenous arrangement of masonry which separate, encloses and protects the interior spaces to form rooms that shelter occupants from external elements such as weather, heat and discomforts cause by external factors.

WALLS NG BILLAR

4.1 TYPES OF WALLS Non-load Bearing Wall ●

●

● ● ● ●

Party Wall (Parti-wall)

Composed of modular building blocks called bricks which are bonded together with mortar Non load bearing building wall; only supports its own weight and not other loads due to construction within beam and column framework, where the loads are transferred through the columns to the foundation.

Materials used are cheap and easily available Serve as a barrier to external weather Durable, provides soundproofing and thermal insulation Structural integrity achieved through one layer of bricks laid in a stretcher bond with thickness of 102.5 mm

●

●

● Photo 4.3: Party Wall

A party wall acts as a partition that separates two adjoining buildings which is shared by neighbouring tenants.

As observed from our site, the construction method of the party wall has similar properties as a non-load bearing wall.

Made up of two layered courses of cement sand bricks laid in an english bond, totalling in 250 mm in thickness with a fire rating of 2 hours.

Partition Wall ● ●

● ●

Partition walls divides the interior spaces within a building into rooms.

Our site uses non-load bearing walls as partition walls, though there are also load bearing ones which are called “internal walls” Composed of cement sand bricks laid in stretcher bond and provides acoustic separation between rooms Also accomodate the outlets of electrical and mechanical services

Photo 4.4: Partition Wall

Party Wall Partition Wall Diagram 4.1: Non-Load bearing wall

Diagram 4.2: Plan of semi-detached unit in Karya Residensi

44

4.2 BRICKS A brick is building material used to make walls, pavements and other elements in masonry construction.

CEMENT SAND BRICKS

DIMENSIONS ● ● ●

Most common brick type used for walls in Malaysia Low production costs and pricing Advanced production: high density, low water absorption, high strength and fire resistant Stronger paint adhesion compared to clay brick.

Surface has a smooth finish, reduces need for plastering Provides enough strength to bear its own load Least porous cause it to be free from efflorescence Used in our site as it is the cheap and easily available, and serves its intended function

● ● ● ● ● Diagram 4.5: Pile of Cement Sand Brick on site

The dimension of bricks used in our site are as below:

Diagram 4.6: Dimension of a Cement Sand Brick

4.3 BRICK BONDS

●

Cement Sand Brick has a dent that passes through its middle,

●

The purpose of the dented area is to help increase the grip, allow mortar to fill the gaps and and to reduce overall weight of brick.

A bond is the pattern in which bricks are laid along a course on a wall.

FLEMISH BOND

STRETCHER BOND ● ● ● ●

●

Flemish bond is formed by alternating headers and stretchers on each course The headers of each course are centred on the stretchers of the course below High strength and aesthetic value The cut needed for this brick arrangement is called a King closer which is obtained by cutting out a triangular portion of brick, leaving it half header, half stretcher Flemish bond is used only on the party wall on our site.

●

●

●

Stretcher bond is formed by using homogenous courses of brickwork with a ½ offset.

Usage of the bond is found on the party walls as its only support wall with non-load bearing qualities.

Stretcher bond is used for construction partition walls within a singular unit in our site.

Diagram 4.9: Components of Stretcher Bond

Diagram 4.7: Components of Flemish Bond

Photo 4.8: Flemish Bond

Photo 4.10: Stretcher Bond

45

4.4 WALL COMPONENTS MORTAR MORTAR LINTEL

EXMET MILD STEEL REINFORCEMENT BAR

Diagram 4.12: Mortar Joints

●

Photo 4.13: Mortar

Mortar transfers tensile, compressive and sheer strength between adjacent bricks, hence spreading loads Good workability, retained plasticity, durable and economical.

If the mortar is weaker than the bricks, shrinkage may occur, weakening the structural integrity of the wall.

FLUSH JOINT ● ●

Photo 4.14: Bricks laid with mortar on site

FLUSH JOINT

Bricks Mortar Joint

Diagram 4.15: Mortar Joints

● ●

Photo 4.16: Flush Joints

Flush joint is made by scraping off excess mortar using the trowel while laying the bricks It is used at areas where the wall is plastered to hide the mortar joints under the paint

Diagram 4.11: Wall Components Photo 4.17: Wall Joints shown through the side of the wall

46

4.4 WALL COMPONENTS LINTELS

EXMET (EXPANDED METAL) ● ● ● ● ● ● ●

A horizontal component placed across openings in the building’s openings such as doors and windows Lintel takes the load from structure above it and provides support Our site uses Reinforced Cement Concrete Lintels Used at the openings of the building for doors and windows.

High supporting strength, rigid and fire resistant Ease of construction at an economical cost The width of a singular lintel is the same as the width of the surrounding wall, while the length of the lintel depends on how far the span of opening is and the weight of the load

Diagram 4.21: Exmet placement

● ● ● Photo 4.20: Exmet placed between bricks

Photo 4.18: Lintel on site

Made from rolled steel plates to enhance the internal bonding between bricks Increases the flexural strength of wall against wind The exmet mesh is place on every 4th course of the walls in the buildings of our site

MILD STEEL REINFORCEMENT BAR ● ●

●

Has excellent ductility and is corrosion resistant Protrude out from the column of the framework to provide extra adhesion between the brickwork and cement mortar Usually found in load bearing walls but was used on non-load bearing walls on our site

Photo 4.22: Protruding reinforcement bar between bricks on site Diagram 4.19: Structure of a lintel

47

4.5 WALL CONSTRUCTION

1. Locate corners beam of the wall.

Mark the footing using a chalk line to align the first course of bricks.

2. Bricks are placed along the wall without mortar leaving a 10mm gap for mortar to check the layout of the wall.

3. Remove the bricks. A bed of mortar with the thickness of at least 20-30mm is spread and furrowed to be the damp proof course for ground floor brickwork.

4. A masonry line is hooked up between each wall corner to ensure that the first and next course of bricks are even in level, especially when laying the infill portion. The line should be stretched tightly.

5. Place a spirit level on top of the course of brick to ensure the evenness. For better adhesion, the bricks are plumbed by knocking them with the trowel.

6. To ensure the height of the mortar is an additional 10mm high for each new course, the height is measured consistently.On every 4th course of the bricks, exmet wire mesh is placed.

7.Let the mortar dry and test the joints by pressing it with the thumb every 20 minutes or so. If the joint holds, the excess protruding mortar is cut off with the trowel’s edge.

8.The process of laying bricks is repeated until the desired height is achieved. To fill up the remaining rows on the top, the bricks are placed at a 45 degree angle.

48

4.6 WALL COATS

PAINT

SKIMMING

PLASTERING MASONRY WALL

Photo 4.24: Brick walls with stretcher bond.

MASONRY WALLS ● ● ●

Masonry brick wall is 1 brick thick (100mm) Non-load bearing Composed of cement sand bricks

Photo 4.25: Wall with thin layer of plaster

PLASTERING ● ● ● ●

●

SKIMMING ●

● ● ●

Diagram 4.23: Wall Coating Layers

A muddy plaster compound use to smooth and repair any imperfections A Light thin coat is applied Thin wall plaster is used The skimming used at the site is 5mm thick per layer. Two layers of skimming are applied making the layer 10mm in total

Plaster contains gypsum, lime and cement It is dry powder is mixed with water to form a stiff paste that can be used as plastering Plastering is done after brick is cured. The mix ratio of cement and fine aggregate mix ratio is 1:6 (cement:fine aggregate) for internal plastering and 1:4 for external.

The thickness of the plaster coat is 20 mm according to Malaysian standard

PAINT ●

●

A flat layer of undercoat applied to both the interior and exterior. Additives such as fungicides can be found in paint A light grey colour is used for the interior walls of the house to give a cool ambience to the house

49

4.7 CONDUIT INSTALLATION

1. Electrical circuit route is planned by marking position on the wall connected to power source. Process should be done at least 7 day after the brickwork has cured.

5. The respective wires (Live, Earth & Neutral) are connected to the wire box properly to ensure it functionality. The switch panel is then screwed onto the wire box.

2. The wall surface is then hacked using a chasing machine, with the marked path as reference. A 30mm width is used to cut through wall, with a 10mm depth for wall chasing.

6. Wall is painted to cover up the marks caused by skimming or plastering. Electricity should be available in the housing unit as the conduit had been installed properly.

3. The conduit is then fitted into the hacked area and place in together with the wire box attached. It is fixed into the wall with clips and made sure it flushes with the wall.

Photo 4.26: Hacked wall with wire box installed

4. The remaining gap between the conduit and the wall is covered with plaster, and skimmed to flush with the wall.

Photo 4.27: Plastered wall with conduit wires inside wire box

50

5.0 5.1 Stair Terminology 5.2 Type of Staircase 5.3 Method of Construction 5.4 Framework 5.5 Construction Process

Staircases are a set of steps formed to make it possible to pass from one level to another on foot by putting one foot after the other on alternate steps to climb up and down the stairs.

It functions to provides means of circulation between floors, establish a safe means of travels between floors and provides easy means of travel between floor levels.

STAIRCASE TEH ROUYI

5.1 STAIR TERMINOLOGY Handrail ● ●

Horizontal member fixed on the top of series of baluster.

Can be made from timber or steel.

Treads ●

The stair treads are the horizontal steps of the staircase upon which individuals step or tread.

Riser ● ●

A stair riser is the near-vertical element in a set of stairs, forming the space between one step and the next.

The rise and tread in one flight and landings between floors should be equal.

Head Room ● ●

A clearance height between the pitch line of the stair and the underside of the stairs, landings and floors above the stairs.

Minimum 2m clearance for convenience of human movement

Material: Reinforced Concrete Staircase

● ● ●

The ones used in our site was cast in-situ Better fire resistant from timber staircase.

Common use in multi-storey building

Diagram 5.1 Stair Terminologies

52

5.2 TYPE OF STAIRCASE

STAIRCASE

Straight stairs

Winder stairs

L- shaped stairs

Diagram 5.2

Diagram 5.3

Diagram 5.4

Straight stairs are one of the most common types of stairs found in both residential and commercial properties.

Winder stairs are a variation of an L shaped stair but instead of a flat landing, they have pie shaped or triangular steps at the corner transition.

The L shaped stair is a variation of the straight stair with a bend in some portion of the stair. This bend is usually achieved by adding a landing at the bend transition point. The bend is often 90 degrees, however it does not have to be. If the landing is closer to the top or bottom of the stairs it is sometimes referred to as a long L stair.

Half landing stairs

Spiral stairs

Curved stairs

Diagram 5.5

Diagram 5.6

Diagram 5.7

Half landing stairs are basically 2 parallel flights of straight stairs joined by by a landing that requires 180 degree turn in the walk line.

If a third flight is inserted into the middle of the stairs, it would become a double L stair (or quarter landing).

Spiral stairs are a often confused with curved stairs.

Although, both types of stairs follow a helical arc (like the shape of a spring), spiral stairs usually are made very compact and the treads radiate around a center pole.

Curved stairs add elegance to home or business. For this reason they are almost always located at the entry where it makes the best first impression. Curved stairs, like spiral stairs are helical however, they tend to be on a much larger radius and typically do not make a full circle.

5.2 TYPE OF STAIRCASE Two types of staircase can be found at Karya Residensi.

Diagram 5.8 .1 Winder stairs

Diagram 5.8.2 Circulation of winder stairs

● ● ●

Winder stairs are a variation of an L shaped stair but instead of a flat landing, they have pie shaped or triangular steps at the corner transition.

A series of winders form a circular or spiral stairway. When three steps are used to turn a 90° corner, the middle step is called a kite winder as a kite-shaped quadrilateral.

More popular in modern homes.

Compact and attractive, suitable for homes.

Advantages ● ●

Requires less space, economic.

Visually interesting and appealing.

Diagram 5.9.2 Circulation of half turning stairs

Half Landing Stairs

Winder Stairs ●

Diagram 5.9.1 Half turning stairs in construction at Karya Residensi.

Disadvantages

● ● ●

Harder to navigate than Lshaped stairs.

More difficult to install handrails.

Like L shaped stairs, a center support is typically required.

● ● ●

Half landing stairs are basically 2 parallel flights of straight stairs joined by by a landing that requires 180 degree turn in the walk line.

Also called half-turn stairs or switchback stairs.

Half landing may be utilized as a space itself and provide an area for seating or shelving.

Advantages

● ● ●

Easier to fit into an architectural plan.

They offer some architectural interest.

The landing can offer a resting point part way up the stairs.

Disadvantages ●

May be more difficult to build.

53

5.3 METHOD OF CONSTRUCTION Inclined Slab Stair ● ● ● ●

Commonly used in the construction of homes in Malaysia.

Constructed when there is a load bearing wall around the stairs.

Landings span from well edge to load bearing wall.

Stairs flights span from floor to landing and from landing to floor.

Advantage More compact and space-efficient.

Disadvantage Wasteful cutting of brick or block to allow flight of stairs to be built into the wall.

Diagram 5.10 Incline slab stair method used in the construction of winder stairs in Karya Residensi.

Diagram 5.11 Support structure of stairs.

Diagram 5.12 Sketch depicting the construction inclined slab stair into the low bearing wall.

of

54

5.4 FORMWORK In-situ Reinforced Concrete Staircase Formwork â—?

Used as a mould for the insitu concrete.

Diagram 5.15 Typical formwork section.

Diagram 5.12 Formwork and support

Diagram 5.14 Wooden boards and scaffolding used as support for formwork.

Diagram 5.13 Formwork used as mould for mortar to form stairs.

Diagram 5.16 Typical formwork to upper landing

55

5.5 CONSTRUCTION PROCESS 1. Calculate dimensions Calculate the height of one floor to the other (total rise). Measure total run and width of each step from left to right in the area where the staircase will go.

Diagram 5.17.1 Measure total rise and total run.

2. Building Formwork The form is made by plywood. The first step is to cut the side forms according to tread and riser calculations.

Diagram 5.18.1 Base of formwork and side forms.

3. Reinforcing staircase with steel Steel bars and wires are used as reinforcement for stairs.

Diagram 5.19.1 Sketch showing the reinforcement.

Diagram 5.17.2 Measure total width.

Diagram 5.18.2 Photo of formwork on site.

Diagram 5.19.2 Reinforcement bars as seen at the site.

56

5.5 CONSTRUCTION PROCESS 4. Add stringer and riser boards

6. Concrete vibrator used to remove air bubbles.

8. Riser boards are removed and concrete is cured by spraying water on the surface.

Stringer and riser boards are cut and nailed to the lateral formwork.

Air bubbles are removed to increase strength of concrete.

Increases strength and durability of concrete.

Diagram 5.20 Stringer and riser boards added to the formwork.

5. Concrete is poured onto formwork from top to bottom.

Diagram 5.22 Concrete vibrator

7. Surface of steps are screeded using a trowel.

Diagram 5.24 Spraying concrete surface with water.

9. Formwork is removed and handrail is installed.

A trowel is a small handheld tool with a flat blade, used to apply and spread mortar or plaster.

Diagram 5.21Concrete is pored from top of stairs to bottom.

Diagram 5.23 Scredding using trowel.

Diagram 5.25 Installation of handrail.

57

6.0 REFERENCES

BOOKS Ching, F. (2014). Building Construction Illustrated. Canada: John Wiley & Sons.

Chudley, R., & Greeno, R. (2016). Building Construction Handbook. New York: Routledge.

Chudley, R., Greeno, R., Hurst, M., & Topliss, S. (2011). Construction Technology. United Kingdom: Pearson Education Limited.

Johnson, D. (2013). Construction Safety and OSHA Handbook. United States of America: Delmar.

ONLINE SOURCES Wuollet, J. (2016, June 20)Six Distinct Staircase Styles: An In-Depth Look. Retrieved from https://www.glacialwood.com/blog/six-distinct-staircase-styles-an-in-depth-look Propwall Malaysia. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://www.propwall.my/insight/5671/setia_ecohill REA Group Ltd. (n.d.). iProperty. Retrieved from https://newlaunch.iproperty.com.my/property/klang/karya-residensi/new-5337/

58