Flagship Volume 1

Flagship Journal for Evidence Engaged Practice

2019

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Flagship Journal for Evidence Engaged Practice Published by Aylesbury Grammar School 2019

Aylesbury Grammar School Walton Road Aylesbury Bucks HP21 7RP Associate Assistant Headteacher Vanessa Beckley vbeckley@ags.bucks.sch.uk

AGS Research Team @AGSResearchEd AGS Headmaster @AGSHeadmaster www.ags.bucks.sch.uk

Flagship: Journal for Evidence Engaged Practice

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Foreword by the Headmaster To inspire and support all our students to enable them to flourish throughout their lives.

Our core purpose demands that we consistently provide the finest education, the finest opportunities and the finest staff for all of our students and their families. Inspiring and enabling our students to thrive also provides opportunities for our staff to develop their own research-engaged pedagogy. This investment in professional development is essential to provide an environment and a culture where we support and flourish in equal measure.

Our vision sees us striving to be international leaders in education, learning from our peers and standing on the shoulders of giants, but also creating a platform for our own evidence informed practice, contextualised for our unique environment and exceptional School.

Our focus on research provides the basis for professional development, inquisitive pedagogy and a relentless striving for the best in our staff, students and community. The wider implications for our School, our community and society as a whole are clear to see. Our students, and our staff, make a positive contribution to our society and through more effective learning and teaching, we can create the next generation of leaders.

The future of effective education is through teacher expertise, evidence-based pedagogy and understanding the craft of the classroom. We want to learn, engage and create our own knowledge, ensuring Aylesbury Grammar School remains an exceptional School, with unparalleled breadth and quality of opportunity.

This is the beginning of our journey and our thanks go to the team of pioneering staff who have paved the way for future generations of research informed professionals. Their commitment and enthusiasm have developed a legacy that will improve our School community and impact on the learning of our students, whatever their passion and goals.

Mark Sturgeon Headmaster AYLESBURY GRAMMAR SCHOOL

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“Our core purpose demands that we consistently provide the finest education, the finest opportunities and the finest staff for all of our students and their families.”

Flagship: Journal for Evidence Engaged Practice

Editor’s Note This is a journal written by teachers at AGS about what takes place in the classroom every day. As we face thirty sets of eyes, five hours a day, five days a week, we question what we are doing and how we are doing it. Do we teach like this because that’s how we were taught? Because we have a gut feeling that it seems to be working? Because the students in front of us seem engaged?

Because last year’s exam results were outstanding?

Historically, the decisions we make in the classroom about what to teach and how to do it are necessarily a response to policy makers and professional politicians, often with an ideological agenda.

However, significant advances in neuroscience and greater mobilisation of education evidence have enabled classroom practitioners to develop a stronger voice. At AGS, the Research Team believes that investigation enables us to challenge two powerful voices – that of the policy maker and that of our own anecdotal beliefs about what works. We use our research as a way to question compliance via intellectual argument. Ultimately, this will ensure better outcomes for all pupils.

As a group of like-minded professionals, we have completed action research trials to examine a range of critical issues in education, including (amongst others) strategies to promote mental wellbeing, students’ ability to express themselves orally and in writing, and how best to support students through the increasing demands of high-stakes testing. We

Or because we have engaged with education research, examined the best practice and trialled it systematically in our own unique context?

have shared our findings with all staff at AGS during our Research Staff Forum to ensure more staff and students can benefit. Whether you are a teacher, student, parent or visitor, we hope you will find something of interest in our approach.

Aylesbury Grammar School is dedicated in its purpose to enable every student to achieve the best in their learning, relationships and wider life.

The contribution of the Research Team is to take the legacy of learning rooted in over four hundred years of the school’s success and through trialling innovative new research from global educators make it flourish.

Vanessa Beckley Research Lead

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VANESSA BECKLEY Vanessa Beckley is Research Lead and Associate Assistant Headteacher at AGS. She has spent 25 fantastic years teaching pupils about literature, life and learning, still fascinated and amazed by the teenage mind. A book that has changed the way she thinks about the human brain is Joshua Foer’s account of competitive memorisation at the 2005 US Memory Championship – ‘Moonwalking with Einstein: the Art and Science of Remembering Everything’.

KATRINA BLUNT Katrina Blunt is a Teacher of Mathematics at AGS who joined the profession after more than a decade in industry. Her previous career incorporated extensive use of data and research in product development and consumer behaviour. Her latest educational research investigated the use of Direct Instruction to aid students’ ability and confidence in problem solving. Katrina is commencing an MA in Education at UCL IoE in September 2019. A recent fascinating read: What if everything you knew about education was wrong? by David Didau.

JODIE DRAPER Jodie Draper is a member of the English department at AGS. Having trained to teach in Australia after a career in editorial, Jodie brings welcome outside perspective to the school. She has been particularly influenced by Alex Quigley, having attended a talk of his earlier this year and read ‘Closing the Vocabulary Gap’. Jodie has worked with Andrew Skinner on researching the benefits of a whole-school approach to literacy.

ANDREW SKINNER Andrew Skinner is just coming to the end of his 10th Year at AGS and is the current Head of English. He is keen to explore and understand the attainment gap seen nationally in English between boys and girls. Having been inspired by Geoff Barton’s ‘Don’t Call it Literacy’, he has spent the last year exploring the possible benefits of a whole-school approach to literacy alongside Jodie Draper.

LOUISE POLLARD Louise Pollard completed a BA in Politics and an MA in History and Politics at York University before teaching History and Politics at AGS. While teaching she completed a further MSc in Learning and Teaching at Oxford University. This year she has carried out a small action research project examining how well-being programmes can lower stress levels in Year 11. The book she has been inspired by is ‘Teen Yoga For Yoga Therapists: A Guide to Development, Mental Health and Working with Common Teen Issues’.

Flagship: Journal for Evidence Engaged Practice

Meet The Research Team

LIZ SMITH Liz Smith completed a BSc in Biological Sciences at the University of Birmingham before beginning her teaching career at AGS. She is Head of KS3 Science at AGS and passionate about developing her students to reach their full potential and to become effective learners. She has taken the opportunity to carry out action research into how students can be best supported in their examination preparation to ensure they hit their target. A book she has found both enlightening and instrumental in changing her approach to teaching is ‘Teaching Backwards’ by Andy Griffith and Mark Burns.

NEIL GIBBS Neil Gibbs is currently Head of Key Stage 3 P.E. at AGS and a self-confessed technology nerd.

Neil’s passion is in the development and refinement of the curriculum and his department and he is constantly looking for ways to enrich and enthuse the students in P.E. He has been selected by the International Boys’ Schools Coalition to conduct an action research project on Student Agency: Boy Voice and Choice this year and has just returned from a Conference in Montreal. He believes his action research project will enable him to develop an exciting change to the Physical Education landscape.

DR ADRIAN TWISSELL Dr Adrian Twissell is Head of Engineering, Design and Technology. His specialisms include electronics and micro-control. Adrian’s research interests embrace teaching and learning pedagogies that utilise visualisation strategies and their application in the development of abstract conceptual knowledge. His doctoral research explored the use of, and interplay between, multiple representations as strategies for learning about electronics within applied skills contexts. Adrian’s research has been influenced by the synchronous/sequential cognitive processing theories of Pavio (Mental Representations: A Dual Coding Approach, 1986) and Simon and Larkin (Why a Diagram is (Sometimes) Worth Ten Thousand Words, 1987).

KONRAD SUDER-CHATTERJEE Konrad Suder-Chatterjee is a multilingual Classics teacher with a BA in Classics with Italian and PGCE in Latin with Classics. His BA and MA (incomplete) theses concerned cheironomia - the use of gestures and choreography on the stage of the ancient Greek theatre in which he was further trained by the Gardzienice Theatre in Poland. His action research project examines whether engagement at KS3 can be enhanced through the use of Spoken Latin in the classroom. The book that has transformed his thinking: ‘Professor Mmaa’s Lecture’ by Stephan Themerson

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Contents 10 KATRINA BLUNT Does teaching domain-specific knowledge by direct instruction improve students’ problem solving skills?

20 JODIE DRAPER & ANDREW SKINNER How can a whole-school approach to literacy benefit our students?

28 LOUISE POLLARD Do well-being programmes help to reduce stress amongst Year 11 boys?

34 LIZ SMITH What revision strategies can be used to help students meet or exceed their target?

40 VANESSA BECKLEY An interview with Neil Gibbs, action researcher for the International Boys’ Schools Coalition.

44 ADRIAN TWISSELL Exploring conceptual change in applied contexts: Four ‘R’s to support a sustainable learning journey.

56 KONRAD SUDER-CHATTERJEE To what extent can Spoken Latin improve engagement at KS3?

64 SAM CARTER Character Education at Aylesbury Grammar School: A Student Perspective.

Does teaching

COMMENT Having entered the teaching profession via

domain-specific knowledge by

School-Centred Initial Teacher Training (SCITT), and studying for a PGCE, I was adamant that the best way for students to learn was through Discovery Learning. If they discovered it, I was sure they would remember it. I had my Year 8s discover Pi, my Year

direct instruction

9s discover Pythagoras’ Theorem and my Year 12s

improve students’

but when it came to reviewing the topics and

problem solving skills?

discover Binomial Distribution. During the lessons, the students were engaged and performing well marking assessments, it was clear a lot of them had forgotten a lot of it. This led me to the literature to research the best way to facilitate students’ learning, and to help me to define learning in my own mind so I could recognise and measure whether it had happened or not.

This action research project examines whether teaching a topic via Direct Instruction has an impact on students’ learning, retention of knowledge and ability to apply their knowledge to skills and problem solving questions over time.

It will conclude with the suggestion that teaching the topic and increasing domain-specific knowledge is not enough on its own and there is an important step that needs to be taken if we are to improve the problem solving and reasoning skills of our students.

This has led to a change in my teaching and I am developing a number of strategies to help my

Teacher of Mathematics,

Katrina Blunt

students learn better in the future.

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Does teaching domain-specific knowledge by direct instruction improve students’ problem solving skills?

ABSTRACT When designing lessons to improve students’ problem solving skills, in light of the new Maths GCSE demanding more mathematical reasoning (Edexcel 2017), Barton (2018) highlights ‘without [domain-specific knowledge], students simply

This research does not aim to compare Direct Instruction with Discovery Learning, rather it will look to investigate student outcomes following a teacher-led programme of study. It will use a sample of students in isolation however statistical analysis will be used to assess the significance of the results.

cannot identify what the [problem solving] question is asking, select an appropriate strategy, or carry out that strategy…the knowledge has to be there in the first place.’ He goes on to say that “the best way to help students acquire and automate this domain-specific knowledge is via the model of explicit instruction”.

The aim of this research project is to investigate whether teaching domain-specific knowledge within a topic improves students’ problem solving and reasoning skills in that topic. It also aims to evaluate the success or otherwise of using Direct Instruction (a term interchangeable with Explicit Instruction) in ensuring students have the ability to

CONTEXT Aylesbury Grammar School, founded in 1598, is a selective boys’ Grammar in Buckinghamshire. It achieves outstanding results at GCSE and A-level and offers an extensive programme of extra-curricular activities to encourage a full and varied education.

Students come into Year 7 from eighty feeder schools meaning they have a range of backgrounds, in terms of experiences, education and ability, and Year 7 teachers work hard to build strong mathematical foundations across all topics in preparation for Year 8, and a love of the subject.

continue to apply their skills and understanding of a

All Year 7 teachers follow the same Scheme of

new topic long after the teaching has taken place. It

Work and students are taught in tutor groups,

will compare students’ base level of knowledge and

with no setting taking place. Each Year 7

their ability in skills and problem solving questions,

teacher is encouraged to teach the ‘balanced,

measured using a baseline assessment, with

enriching and interesting course’ as they

their results of subsequent assessments following

prefer, providing they cover everything, and

each stage of the research. The research will be

the students are ready for each summative

conducted over a series of five lessons with four

assessment, which happen four times per year.

assessments being used to assess progress. Whilst

Whilst Year 11 is a long way into the future for

this means the students may be affected by the

Year 7 students, the earlier mathematical reasoning

testing effect (Roediger and Karpicke, 2006) the

and problem solving skills are encouraged, the

hypercorrection effect (Fazio and Marsh, 2009) will

longer the students have to develop these skills as

be minimised by withholding test feedback. Whilst

they approach their GCSE and A-level courses.

this may be in conflict with feedback best practice, it is important for this research that students do not have an emotional response to any test results. Students will also not receive homework during the research project as it is imperative for

In 2015 the GCSE reform led to a new, more demanding content with more mathematical reasoning. As Pearson, the Edexcel awarding body, stated:

the control of as many variables as possible that all

“GCSE Maths is changing and getting more

students have access to the same formal learning

demanding for everyone. There is a greater

opportunities with no intervention from others,

emphasis on problem solving and mathematical

for example a parent helping with homework.

reasoning, with more marks in the GCSE exams being allocated to these higher-order skills.”

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All students are therefore required to be strong

When considering performance versus learning,

problem solvers in order to excel at their GCSE

teachers see students perform during lessons

maths papers. With the new GCSE and A-level

but then may experience students forgetting

being fully linear in nature with no coursework

what they have learned by the next lesson,

and all external examinations at the end of

which could be the next day or the next week.

the course, students are also required to retain

This is due, according to Ebbinghaus (1885), to

knowledge for longer, to be able to retrieve it

what has been coined the Forgetting Curve.

when it matters during the examinations.

Finding a way to develop the necessary skills with retention of knowledge and the ability to apply it in different contexts is desirable in order that students are equipped and ready for their future in maths education.

Using this curve as a simple model, it suggests

LITERATURE REVIEW Learning In order to determine whether learning has taken place during a unit of instruction, it is important to first define what learning is. According to Romberg

students will forget over half of what they have been taught after only an hour of being taught it, and this continues until a month later when it is anticipated they will have retained only 21% of what they have been taught.

(in Grouws, 1992), ‘there is no general agreement

Whilst forgetting is an important part of the

on the definition of learning, how learning takes

learning process (Bjork 1994), this is only the

place and what constitutes reasonable evidence

case if students are retrieving knowledge over

that learning has taken place’. Didau and Rose

time. It is retrieval that will help to minimise

(2016) define learning as ‘the retention and transfer

the impact of the forgetting curve.

of knowledge and skills’. They argue that ‘if you can’t remember something or are unable to

Direct Instruction

apply it then it would be hard to argue you had

This research does not look to compare Direct

really learned it.’ They continue by discussing the

Instruction with Discovery Learning however

difference between performance and learning:

a definition of each is required so it is clear

“One of the most useful and important concepts for teachers to understand is the distinction between learning and performance.…We can

what is meant when using the term Direct Instruction as a method of teaching. According to Clark, Kirschner, and Sweller (2012):

make inferences about learning based on the

“Teachers providing explicit instructional

performances we see, but performances at the point

guidance fully explain the concepts and

of instruction are a very poor predictor of learning.”

skills that students are required to learn…

For the purpose of this research project,

“The teacher ensures that through the

learning will have been deemed to have taken

discussion or activity, the relevant information

place only if the students are able to apply

is explicitly provided and practised…

their knowledge successfully some time after the series of lessons has finished, and only if the results show a significant improvement in students’ knowledge and skills. In the case of this research, retention was tested after four weeks.

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Does teaching domain-specific knowledge by direct instruction improve students’ problem solving skills?

“In contrast, those teachers whose lessons

Testing effect

are designed to offer partial or minimal

Anderson, Bjork and Bjork (1994) discuss “the

instructional guidance expect students to

retrieval-based learning assumption—that the act

discover on their own some or all of the concepts

of retrieval is a learning event in the sense that

and skills they are supposed to learn.”

it enhances subsequent recall of the retrieved

Skills versus problem solving This research is concerned with skills questions and problem solving questions so it is important to define what problem solving questions are deemed to be in this context.

For the purpose of this research, skills questions are single-step, requiring the ability to successfully apply learning to tasks. Termed procedural knowledge,

item.” Studies have shown (Roedinger et al, 2011) that the more you retrieve something the easier that retrieval is in the future. This is likely to have had an impact on the results of this research.

However, by not giving feedback, students will have had the benefit of retrieving items but not have been impacted by the hypercorrection effect.

Hypercorrection effect

this involves ‘only memorising operations with no

The impact on this research if feedback had been

understanding of underlying meanings’ (Arslan

given to students after each test, could have been

2010). Problem solving has been used to describe

improvements being made via the hypercorrection

multi-step questions requiring greater mathematical

effect, particularly with the use of confidence scores

reasoning. Also termed conceptual understanding,

(explained later in this paper). In a study by Fazio

this is the ability to successfully solve questions

and Marsh (2009) “subjects’ memory was most

that have not been seen previously and require

accurate when there was a discrepancy between

knowledge to be applied with more thinking, which

their expectation and the actual feedback. This

‘involves understanding and interpreting concepts

pattern of results suggests that subjects pay more

and the relations between concepts’ (Arslan 2010).

attention to surprising feedback and that this leads to the hypercorrection effect.” Controlling for the

Domain-specific knowledge

potential hypercorrection effect was important

This research is concerned with teaching

for this research as although helpful in teaching,

domain-specific knowledge and the impact this

it was a variable that needed to be controlled.

may have on students’ ability to successfully complete problem solving questions. Tricot and Sweller (2014) define domain-specific knowledge as “memorised information that can lead to action permitting specified task completion over indefinite periods of time.” For this research, domain-general skills refer to general problem solving skills and domain-specific knowledge refers to topic-based knowledge.

When writing about critical thinking and its role in problem solving, Willingham (2008) states “there is not a set of critical thinking skills that can be acquired and deployed regardless

“There is an important step that needs to be taken if we are to improve the problem solving and reasoning skills of our students.”

of context”, and “the ability to think critically depends on domain knowledge and practice.”

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RESEARCH QUESTION

The research was conducted as follows:

This research seeks to investigate whether

1) Prior to teaching the topic, the

increasing students’ domain-specific knowledge

students took a baseline test.

improves their ability to answer problem solving

2) The students then had four lessons on a

questions. It will be conducted to compare a

range of concepts including angles in parallel

number of stages of students’ learning of a new

lines, angles in triangles and quadrilaterals,

topic by Direct Instruction. This will give insight

angles in polygons and tessellation.

into the stage at which students’ problem solving improves, if indeed it does improve. The students may already be confident problem solvers, improve after domain-specific knowledge is taught, or

3) The students then took a test to measure any progress made in skills and/or problem solving questions.

improve after domain-specific problem solving

4) The students then had one lesson where

is modelled. The research will also look at any

answering problem solving

long-term retention in the skills learned and if any

questions was modelled

improvement in problem solving is maintained.

5) The students then took the third

The hypothesis for this research is:

test to see what effect the problem

Teaching domain-specific knowledge by Direct Instruction improves students’ problem solving skills.

Whilst a good hypothesis is a statement and not a question, the following question helps guide this research: What, if any, improvements are seen in the skills

solving lesson had on their scores.

6) Four weeks after the end of the angle lessons, students took a final follow up test to see how much of their new knowledge had been retained, with angles not being mentioned at all in the intervening period.

questions and the problem solving questions

Each test was twenty minutes long and contained

following Direct Instruction in this topic?

twenty eight questions (all one mark questions),

The research looks to see any improvements in test scores for both skills questions and problem solving questions following the two stages of teaching and beyond in the retention phase.

split evenly between skills and problem solving questions. As much as was possible in the design of each test, they were the same level of difficulty and therefore comparable tests.

Example skills question:

Research methods The topic used for the series of lessons was Angles and the students were a class of Year 7s. Only students that were present for the entire research period and all assessments were included in the final results (25 students). With Year 7 coming from a huge number of different feeder schools, there is the potential for them to have differing prior knowledge in this topic. In order to mitigate against this in terms of measuring the progress throughout and outcomes of this research project, a baseline test was taken by each student. This was then used to measure

a = .............

b = .............

individual student results for subsequent tests.

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Does teaching domain-specific knowledge by direct instruction improve students’ problem solving skills?

Example problem solving question:

If they got a question correct, they were awarded their confidence score for that question. If they got a question incorrect, their confidence score was subtracted from their confidence score total.

Confidence scores are a good indicator of students’ ability to reflect on the questions, not only how good they are at answering the questions. For example, a higher average confidence score for a subsequent test could mean students are getting

Triangle A is equilateral.

better at judging whether or not they can answer

x = .............

questions correctly (thereby not losing confidence

y = .............

When marking the test, each was given a raw score out of 28 and a confidence score (Barton, 2018) between -140 and +140; -70 to +70 for each section

marks for questions they were over-confident for) or it could mean they are getting better at answering the questions they give high scores to.

(skills and problem solving). The students involved

Whilst feedback to students is an important part

in this research had regularly been using confidence

of the learning process, no feedback was provided

scores so this concept was not new to them.

to the students for each test. This was in

The confidence score is a score from one to five that the students give for their answers to each of the questions. A score of one was given to any question that the student guessed or felt they did

order to minimise the testing effect and to avoid any hypercorrection effect (both defined earlier). Therefore: • The students did not know which

not get correct and a score of five was given for any

questions they had got correct in the previous

question they were completely confident they had

tests before they took each subsequent test.

got correct. They could also use a score of two, three, or four to give a rating between these extremes.

• This eliminated any emotional response to their results, either being complacent or disappointed.

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FINDINGS

Skills questions raw scores:

The expectation was that teaching students the domain-specific knowledge by Direct Instruction would improve both their raw and confidence scores for the skills and problem solving questions.

Increasing students’ basic knowledge of the topic learned through the lessons was expected

Problem solving questions raw scores:

to lead to an improvement in their problem solving in this topic. There was also an expectation that they would forget a lot of what they had been taught (Ebbinghaus, 1885), particularly after the series of lessons had concluded.

Raw scores:

Confidence scores

The findings actually showed that teaching

Again, the skills lessons had a big impact on

the domain-specific knowledge and skills

the students’ confidence in skills questions

significantly increased the students’ results

but not in their confidence levels for problem

in the skills questions but caused very little

solving questions. Once they had attended

improvement in the problem solving questions.

the problem solving lesson, their confidence

In the skills questions, a percentage increase

in these questions increased on average.

of 22% was seen between the baseline test

Between the baseline test and the test following

and the test following the skills lessons. The

the skills teaching, there was a 56.6% average

high level of skills questions raw scores then

increase in the students’ confidence scores for

remained so little change was seen in the skills

the skills questions. The range of scores was

questions results for the rest of the research.

also smaller showing a greater consistency. This

Following the problem solving lesson, the results in

increase was maintained throughout the rest of the

the problem solving questions improved significantly.

research as the students continued to get these

The problem solving raw scores increased

high confidence scores in the subsequent tests.

significantly after the problem solving lesson,

The results for the problem solving questions

showing a percentage increase of 26%. In the

increased by 163.6% (although this was from

follow up test four weeks later, there was an

a low base) and then increased an additional

additional increase of 23.8% in these scores

89.5% after the research project concluded. This

which represented an overall increase in problem

represented an increase of over 380% in average

solving raw scores between the baseline and the

scores for the problem solving confidence scores

follow up test of 56%. This increase only occurred

between the baseline test and the follow up test.

following the problem solving lesson and beyond so

In the follow up test four weeks later, confidence

without this lesson, the students’ problem solving

continued to increase in the problem solving

in this topic may not have seen an increase.

questions and dipped slightly for the skills questions.

The results in the follow up test four weeks later continued to see a rise in both skills and problem solving questions raw scores.

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Does teaching domain-specific knowledge by direct instruction improve students’ problem solving skills?

Skills questions confidence scores:

After the skills lessons, there was no significant increase in the problem solving questions scores.

It was only once the topic-specific problem solving had been modelled that the scores increased significantly. The scores continue to increase significantly from the third to the follow up test.

Problem solving questions confidence scores:

In order to determine whether the increases in the mean (average) score for each type of question was significant or not, I conducted Hypothesis Testing on the Difference of Means:

Confidence scores: SKILLS QUESTIONS

CHANGE IN SCORES

PROBLEM SOLVING QUESTIONS

CHANGE IN SCORES

Confidence scores after skills lessons

Significant

Confidence Not scores after significant skills lessons

Confidence scores after problem solving lessons

Not significant

Confidence scores after problem solving lessons

Significant

Confidence scores four weeks later

Not significant

Confidence scores four weeks later

Significant

Students’ confidence in skills questions increased significantly between their baseline test and following the skills lessons. The change from this point was not significant as the increase was already so marked.

The following results were obtained:

Their confidence in problem solving questions did

Raw scores:

not increase significantly after the skills teaching SKILLS QUESTIONS

CHANGE IN SCORES

PROBLEM SOLVING QUESTIONS

CHANGE IN SCORES

Raw scores after skills lessons

Significant

Raw scores after skills lessons

Not significant

Raw scores after problem solving lessons

Not significant

Raw scores after problem solving lessons

Significant

Raw scores four weeks later

Not significant

Raw scores four weeks later

Significant

From this it can be seen that the increase in the skills questions results after the skills lessons was significant but that future changes in these scores

but did increase significantly after the problem solving lesson. These confidence scores increased significantly again in the follow up assessment four weeks after the angles lessons had concluded.

“It was only once the topic-specific problem solving had been modelled that the scores increased significantly.”

were not. This can be explained by so many students getting full marks or close to full marks so there were no more challenging skills questions for them to demonstrate any further improvement in ability.

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CONCLUSION It was very clear from this research that increasing this group of Year 7 students’ domain-specific knowledge in the topic of Angles was not enough to improve their problem solving in this topic alone. Whilst their raw and confidence scores in the skills questions increased significantly after

The act of retrieval during the measurement here will have prevented some of the forgetting that can so often be seen.

In terms of learning for the future and changing the teaching practice of the author of this study, strategies are being developed in the following areas: • Teaching domain-specific knowledge first

the skills teaching, their raw and confidence

then teaching problem solving within

scores did not increase significantly in the

each domain rather than general

problem solving questions until the students had

problem solving skills. Not making the

received Direct Instruction on domain-specific

assumption that a strong knowledge base

problem solving. It was only when they were

automatically leads to an improvement in

taught problem solving strategies step-by-step

problem solving within a topic.

to solve angle problems that they became more competent and more confident in these questions.

It makes sense that teaching the skills upfront leads to greater domain-specific knowledge which equips the students to answer questions. It is difficult to imagine a scenario where teaching general problem solving skills will improve a student’s problem solving ability within a topic he or she knows

• Make greater use of retrieval practice to utilise the testing effect and ensuring long term retention of knowledge.

• Continue to use confidence scores as a way for students to self-reflect on their knowledge and to give valuable insight into students’ performance.

nothing about. However, this research has shown that increasing knowledge and skills alone may not improve students’ problem solving ability; modelling problem solving improved problem solving.

For this research, all the teaching was carried out using Direct Instruction. Whilst this was not compared to any other teaching method, this research has shown that this series of lessons ensured students remembered what they had been taught and were able to apply their knowledge and skills four weeks later. Whilst four weeks is not a long period of time in the life of a student as they progress through secondary school, it is a long time period where Ebbinghaus’ forgetting curve is concerned. Students in this study showed they could remember and apply what they had been taught almost a month later, going against the forgetting curve principles, and the experience many teachers have of students seemingly forgetting what they have been taught in a very short space of time. The regular testing used for assessing progress during this research is likely to have had a positive impact on the scores.

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Does teaching domain-specific knowledge by direct instruction improve students’ problem solving skills?

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Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 20(5), pp.1063-1087.

Arslan, S. (2010) Traditional instruction of differential equations and conceptual learning, Teaching Mathematics and its Applications: An International Journal of the IMA, Volume 29, Issue 2, Pages 94–107.

Barton, C. (2018). How I wish I’d taught Maths Melton, Woodbridge: John Catt Educational.

Daniel T. Willingham (2008) Critical Thinking: Why Is It So Hard to Teach? Arts Education Policy Review, 109:4, 21-32.

Didau, D. and Rose, N. What Every Teacher Needs to Know About Psychology. John Catt Educational Ltd. Fazio, L. and Marsh, E. (2009). Surprising feedback improves later memory. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 16(1), pp.88-92.

Grouws, D. A. (Ed.). (1992). Handbook of research on mathematics teaching and learning. New York: Macmillan.

Roediger, H. and Karpicke, J. (2006). Test-Enhanced Learning.

Psychological Science, 17(3), pp.249-255.

Roediger, Henry & Putnam, Adam & Sumeracki, Megan. (2011). Ten Benefits of Testing and Their Applications to Educational Practice.

Sweller, J., Kirschner, P. And Clark, R. (2007). Why Minimally Guided Teaching Techniques Do Not Work: A Reply to Commentaries.

Educational Psychologist, 42(2), pp.115-121.

Tricot, A. and Sweller, J. (2013). Domain-Specific Knowledge and Why Teaching Generic Skills Does Not Work. Educational Psychology Review, 26(2), pp.265-283.

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19

How can a

ABSTRACT Our project is huge. If done properly. We aim to

whole-school

explore whether or not a centralised, coordinated, whole-school approach to literacy would benefit our students. Our research will need to be conducted

approach to

in stages due to the potential scale of the project and the limits on our time as full-time teachers.

literacy benefit

Ultimately, our research aims to find out how all

our students?

reading has taught us, effective literacy is simply

departments address literacy (or not). Do they do so explicitly, or does it just ‘happen’? After all, as our effective teaching. We would like to see what an effective, central, SLT driven, approach to literacy looks like. We would like to trial some small-scale changes. We would like to then share these with staff. We plan to present our findings to SLT in order for them to respond to the need for a more holistic approach to literacy. An approach that could be driven and maintained by a dedicated coordinator.

One that is consistent and eventually forms part of the day-to-day running of the school, of every department, of schemes of work and of individual lessons. By the end of the 2018-19 academic year, we aim to have discovered how departments address some basic aspects of literacy, gaining both the student and staff perspective. We aim to have visited a successful school, and learnt from their literacy coordinator. And we aim to have some clear ideas of strategies to trial in the following academic year.

For the purposes of our research, ‘literacy’ encompasses reading, writing, speaking and

Head of English

Andrew Skinner

Teacher of English

Jodie Draper

listening skills.

20

How can a whole-school approach to literacy benefit our students?

CONTEXT We do not have a formal, whole-school literacy policy. We are also one of many schools where, as

issue it will need the enthusiastic backing of SLT. That will be given if we can show that it will be of benefit to the students.

members of the English Department, we are often

Contextually, as a school that takes the top 35%

asked, “Why is this student’s spelling so poor?”

academically, it can be argued that we don’t have

or told, “This student’s writing and clarity are

the need. The majority (again, conjecture) come

terrible,” - with the implication that it is the role

from supportive homes where they develop literacy

of the English Department alone. We have been

skills through an enriched and varied set of activities.

party to many corridor and staffroom conversations

Not all. We hope to be able to show that a holistic

where staff from other departments state they

approach and increased awareness will benefit all of

have no time to correct errors with capital letters

our students.

or sentencing and paragraphing (‘I’m marking [insert subject] not English’). To which, our response should be – ‘It is as much your responsibility as ours to ensure that students can articulate themselves clearly and logically when speaking and writing in your subject.’ Ofsted recommendations and advice going back 15 years have always placed the emphasis on a consistent, joined-up approach. The assumption is that a consistent, joined-up and concerted approach will improve the ability of students to read, write, talk and listen appropriately in all subjects.

“The gap between those who are ‘word rich’ and those who are ‘word poor’ grows as students progress through the school system.”

Therefore, this will improve their learning in all subjects as all students learn through these actions.

Why then do we not have a policy? Is it a dangerous (lazy?) assumption that the students’ academic abilities render the need for any real concerted effort to push literacy improvement across the school obsolete? It is certainly true that results have been outstanding over recent years. Could they be better though? A joined-up approach to literacy would offer provision for students needing support, and challenge for our most able – better preparing them all for higher education or the workplace.

One of the biggest challenges we feel we will face will be the attitude that it’s not everyone’s job. That it is the domain of the English Department. That results at GCSE and A Level don’t suggest there’s a need. In short, the idea that change is needed will be difficult to prove. Equally, many schools have a ‘literacy policy’ that merely pays lip service to the notion. We want to see a really effective change in attitude in order to see if any progress can be made.

That seems like a daunting task. In addition, for it to be seen as important, worthy and a whole-school

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LITERATURE REVIEW What is clear from the range of literature available on school literacy is that ‘children who find reading and writing difficult are disadvantaged in all areas of the curriculum’ (Hannon 2000, p. 8). What is also clear from the range of literature is that successful schools have a holistic, broad approach, with a shared responsibility for developing students’ skills in reading, writing, speaking and listening.

As Geoff Barton (2013) points out though, it can be unhelpful to place these skills under the umbrella of ‘literacy’ as it becomes too easy to simply place the responsibility in the domain of the English Department. Or to become another ‘thing’ to have to address without real meaning or purpose.

In order to successfully develop students, small elements need to be applied consistently across the school by every teacher in every classroom. As Alex

those that have poor vocabulary and literacy skills and those who are more able. Contextually, it may be the case that we have fewer students who suffer from what Quigley terms the ‘vocabulary gap’, but there are undoubtedly students who would benefit from a more focused, whole-school approach to literacy. In ‘Removing Barriers to Literacy’ (2011) Ofsted visited schools that were successful in raising literacy levels among their lowest achievers. It was observed that ‘the most effective providers visited had at least one senior member of staff with an excellent knowledge of literacy and its pedagogy’ (Ofsted 2011, p. 6). Furthermore, specifically in the secondary schools visited there was an improvement in outcomes across all subjects, as well as English, in schools where staff in all departments had received training in literacy, and had literacy objectives in lessons and schemes of work.

Quigley notes, ‘ultimately, every teacher proves a

Clearly then, any attempt to focus on the

teacher of reading, as it is the primary medium for

development of literacy skills needs a shared

gaining academic knowledge’ (2018, p. 15). Quigley

approach if it is to succeed. That is the challenge for

also notes the importance of a rich vocabulary in

most schools. It needs to start from the top. And it

allowing students to access the higher levels of

needs to be given time. One small step at a time.

knowledge and understanding required for top GCSE grades – it fits that the gap between those who are ‘word rich’ and those who are ‘word poor’ grows as students progress through the school system.

Research shows there is a clear link between a child’s social background and their vocabulary (postcode, parents’ level of academic qualification, parental income) and the gap begins between the ages of 0 and 3 (Quigley 2018). By the age of 8 there is already a significant difference in cognitive and linguistic skills between those who are ‘word rich’ at 25 months and those who are ‘word poor’ (Quigley 2018). It is clearly acknowledged that a teacher’s influence can only really be limited to the classroom, but we are still in a position to try and grow those ‘word poor’ students’ vocabularies.

The 2017-18 Ofsted report rightly notes that ‘children with poor literacy do worse at school’ (p. 9).

Furthermore, it points out that ‘literacy is the key to success in a rounded, academic and vocational education.’ (Ofsted 2018, p. 7). The report notes that good schools address the imbalance between

Flagship: Journal for Evidence Engaged Practice

22

How can a whole-school approach to literacy benefit our students?

RESEARCH QUESTION What, then, are we trying to answer? Following the literature review, we want to be able to answer several things. We would like to know what the school’s current approach to literacy across the curriculum is. We want the staff perspective, and the student perspective. We want the reality. We would like to be able to identify a specific area of

“Students across the full ability range would benefit from a centralised and overt focus on literacy.”

literacy (it is after all a rather large ‘umbrella’ term) and explore, trial and evaluate whether or not a centralised approach improves that specific literacy skill. This is of course a huge undertaking. We are therefore looking to be able to answer whether or not a holistic approach to literacy across this school will improve outcomes for students. However, this is too broad a topic area to cover in one academic year. As a result, our research question for 2018/19 is: How is ‘literacy’ applied across the curriculum at AGS?

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Research methods

of scale questions and open-ended questions.

As our project is one that needs to be undertaken in

These were designed to cover reading, writing,

several stages, our first area of investigation was to try

speaking and listening but allowed us to follow up

and uncover what is actually ‘going on’ in the school

in more depth. The open-ended questions proved

in terms of literacy. We wanted to focus on student

most useful in terms of revealing departmental

perception first – what are their experiences of the

approaches to the aspects of literacy. Here, we had 13

different aspects of literacy across their lessons? We

responses with some non-participants – interesting

chose to use an online survey for ease of distribution,

in its own right.

and we targeted every tutor group in Years 7-11 in

In addition to learning about the student experience

order to try and get as full a picture as possible of

in our own setting, we were keen to visit a school

their experiences. In addition, to try and maximise

with an established central approach to literacy. We

the response rate we booked computer rooms in

interviewed the literacy coordinator in post, observed

extended registration for every form group across a

some lessons and participated in a learning walk

four-week period. We chose to offer multiple choice

taking in a range of departments. We chose to

questions to the students in order to be able to

visit Sandringham School in St Albans – part of the

better manage the amount of data collected. In

Research Schools Network. We attended a lecture

addition, the simpler format enabled us to find out

from Alex Quigley on ‘Improving Secondary Literacy’

quickly and simply some of the basic approaches

at the same school – findings from both events

to literacy across the school. There were two open

are discussed in later sections with a view to

ended questions where students were invited to

moving forward.

share their experiences of how wider reading was recommended to them and to highlight any useful writing frames or structures. We had 772 responses.

Ethically, we needed to be most sensitive in terms of how Heads of Departments (HoDs). and the wider staff body would feel about the research. We were

The response rate was dependent on tutors taking

careful to phrase things in such a way that didn’t

groups to the room at the allotted time.

suggest that staff were ‘doing things wrong’. Having

“It is not consistent, and there are examples of good practice that go unshared.”

the ability to present some findings at the end of the academic year proved helpful in ensuring our message was clear: we want to find out what is being done already, share good practice and move forward without large wholesale changes and edicts.

Equally, we were very much aware that our initial survey of students took place without wider staff knowledge of our project. We felt this was essential

We waited until we had the responses from the

in order to gain a true understanding of the student

students before surveying Heads of Departments

experience; but were equally aware that some may

(HoDs). Once again, we chose an online survey. Our

view it differently. We collected names and forms

first choice was to conduct interviews and use focus

of students to formalise the survey and to ensure

groups in a Heads of Departments (HoDs). meeting.

responses were valid, as well as providing us with

However, the half term we targeted between

the opportunity to later select a range of individuals

February and Easter was the only one without a

according to their responses for further discussion.

scheduled meeting. Therefore, we felt an online

This is likely to prove useful as the project develops

survey was our best chance of maximising responses.

into exploring specific strategies next year. The same

Unlike with the students, we gave more opportunity

applies to HoDs’ feedback.

for staff to make broader and more detailed points; therefore we had a mixture of qualitative and quantitative data. HoDs were given a combination Flagship: Journal for Evidence Engaged Practice

24

How can a whole-school approach to literacy benefit our students?

FINDINGS Reading We initially asked students which subjects make them ‘aware of wider reading opportunities related specifically to that subject’. Responses ranged from 91% in English to 9% in games. History (59%), Spanish/German (52%) and sciences (on average 44%) showed evidence of wider reading. Yet results from students suggest either inconsistency across the department or irregularity of recommendations.

When asked, students suggested that there were a range of ways teachers had made them aware of wider reading, including verbal recommendation, Google Classroom, posters, and library visits.

Writing Heads of Department were asked how often they provided ‘opportunities for students to learn the conventions of different forms of writing in different subject areas e.g. by using writing frames and providing clear models for writing’. From 13 responses, 15.4% indicated most of the time, 46.2% sometimes, 30.8% rarely and 7.7% never. Staff also commented that ‘We often provide model answers or writing frames […] we want them to use’ or ‘I shall be starting to incorporate it more’.

When we asked students which subjects helped them develop writing by providing frameworks, the response was 99.6% in English, 38.6% in history, and then between <12% and <1% in all other subjects.

In terms of student feedback for independent

Students cited PEE and PETER paragraph scaffolds

reading time, students reported that aside from

as the most useful. In any subject whereby writing is

English (92%), there was a significant drop to history

required, it surely seems unfair to assume students

(14%), German/Spanish (9%) and science (7%),

know what to do if they are not shown model

with all other subjects falling below 7%. Clearly

material and given guidance for organising their

there is an opportunity here for improvement.

response. As exam boards are not consistent in

As Quigley (2018) states, every teacher needs to be a

their use of command words across subjects (for

teacher of reading as it is vital to the acquisition and

example, ‘evaluation’ means one thing in English,

improvement of academic knowledge. Not only does

another in history and yet another in science),

broad and regular reading support low attaining

it is imperative that students are taught what

students, but it also provides stretch and challenge

writing is expected of them in each subject.

for high achievers and is therefore fundamental to our cohort. At Sandringham School, we observed displays for wider reading in all departments. The school had used presentation boards in corridors as an opportunity for staff and students to promote wider reading – sharing texts they enjoyed and providing short blurbs about why others may want to read a particular text, too. Sandringham School also used a whole-school book to promote reading across the broader school community and encourage staff and students to discuss shared experience.

“Every teacher needs to be a teacher of reading as it is vital to the acquisition and improvement of academic knowledge.”

In hindsight, we could have asked teachers more directly about the role of reading widely and independently in relation to their lessons. Is it happening as little as students say, and if so, why?

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25

In terms of technical accuracy, students reported

Speaking and listening

that errors with spelling, punctuation and grammar

With oracy a key skill for challenging able students,

were identified in English (80%), German/ Spanish

this aspect of literacy is fundamental to our context.

(71%), French (59%), history (35.9%), science (31%),

Students reported that (i) group and (ii) paired

and then below 25% in other subjects. When

discussions helped their understanding in English

we asked Heads of Departments (HoDs). about

(82%, 81%), history (60%, 54%), maths (53%, 66%),

the frequency with which their department

German/Spanish (45%, 53%), science (43%, 43%) and

applies ‘faculty and whole school marking policy

geography (41%, 41%), in particular. Opportunities

in assessing technical accuracy of written work’,

to present were less common, according to student

39% responded always, 23% most of the time,

perception, with 35% of subjects doing so in a way

31% sometimes and 7.7% rarely. Evidently whilst

whereby students found it helpful for their learning

there are some irregularities in staff and student

(English being the exception here at 64%). Heads of

perception, both show unwaveringly that there is

Department responded that students were provided

potential to be more consistent across the school.

with the opportunity to ‘clarify and express their

One way to increase reliability of marking for

ideas and explain their thinking’ at a rate of 23%

technical accuracy was observed on our visit to

always, 62% most of the time and 15% sometimes.

Sandringham School. They had taken measures to

Perhaps the difference in the wording of questions

improve the consistency of marking policies through

for the respective surveys posed a challenge

an SLT book scrutiny of individual students across

here – meaning the discussion is happening, but

every subject. This in theory would improve staff

students simply are not finding it beneficial to

accountability and check consistency, allowing

their learning. Interestingly, a teacher commented

for a school-wide approach which is proven to

during the survey that ‘I would like to do this a lot

progress outcomes in all subjects (Ofsted, 2011).

more, but many students are not able to do this in a meaningful way, which I tend to put down to the

“A consistent, joined-up and concerted approach will improve the ability of students to read, write, talk and listen appropriately in all subjects.”

Flagship: Journal for Evidence Engaged Practice

fact that they don’t get the chance to practise often, and so I have to limit the opportunities.’ Yet as Ofsted (2013) acknowledge, ‘pupils are unlikely to make good progress in physical education (P.E.) if they are unable to speak clearly about tactics or strategies in sport’ and therefore improving students’ speaking and listening skills is paramount to their success.

26

How can a whole-school approach to literacy benefit our students?

CONCLUSION

BIBLIOGRAPHY

To summarise, there are pockets of excellent

Barton, G 2013, Don’t Call it Literacy, Routledge, Abingdon.

practice in relation to specific elements of literacy across the school, from ‘upscaling’ vocabulary in science, to writing models and scaffolds in history and English. However it is not consistent,

Blaxter, L, Hughes, C & Tight, M 2008 How to Research, OUP, Maidenhead.

Clark, C & Teravainen-Goff, A 2018 ‘Mental Well-Being, Reading and Writing’, National Literacy Trust, 26th September 2018, available

and there are examples of good practice that

at https://literacytrust.org.uk/research-services/research-reports/

go unshared. Staff response to our findings has

mental-wellbeing-reading-and-writing/ (Accessed 9th July 2019).

been positive; the geography department already

Didau, D 2019 ‘Teach Secondary Magazine’ Issue 8.1, Jan/Feb 2019.

producing a classroom poster and adjusting KS3 mark schemes to reflect our findings. This

Hannon, P 2000 Reflecting on Literacy Education, Routledge, London.

suggests that staff and departments are willing to make adjustments and see the value in literacy strategies. Even here though, we are still looking for a more consistent approach across the subjects.

Lewis, M & Wray, D 2000 Literacy in the Secondary School, David Fulton, London.

Ofsted 2013 ‘Improving Literacy in Secondary Schools: A Shared Responsibility’, available at https://www.gov.uk/

Our visit to Sandringham School corroborated our

government/publications/improving-literacy-in-secondary-

reading on two main fronts. SLT involvement is a

schools-a-shared-responsibility (Accessed 9th July 2019).

key requirement – they were involved in literacy

Quigley, A 2018 Closing the Vocabulary Gap, Routledge, Abingdon.

book scrutiny, and time is placed on INSET annually, along with a half-termly literacy focus. Secondly

Roskilly, K 2018 The Importance of Writing (and Metacognition of course!), available at https://sandringham.researchschool.

it highlighted the need for someone to be a

org.uk/2018/10/12/the-importance-of-writing-and-

designated literacy lead. Any improvements and

metacognition-of-course/ (Accessed 9th July 2019).

developments need to be led and coordinated

Rowan, L, Knobel, M, Bigum, C & Lankshear, C 2002 Boys, Literacies

by a clearly identified person in role.

and Schooling, OUP, Buckingham.

Where do we go from here? Our findings clearly

School Literacy Policies (Sandringham School 2018; Tiffin Girls’

show there are places where literacy skills are

School 2015; Sir William Borlase Grammar School 2017 – including

promoted successfully. The next stage is naturally

Literacy audit and questionnaire; Lawrence Sheriff School

to focus on one or two specific areas and trial

Rugby 2018).

strategies across the full range of subjects. This will form the focus of 2019-20 research. One such area could be as specific as promoting wider reading.

What would our recommendations be then? To put it simply, students across the full ability range would benefit from a centralised and overt focus on literacy. In order for this to be a success and to work, there needs to be a designated literacy lead working in conjunction with SLT to raise and maintain the profile of all literacy skills. Once this is in place, one small step at a time needs to be taken to address all elements of literacy skills: reading, writing, speaking and listening.

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27

Do well-being programmes help to reduce stress

ABSTRACT This report outlines the use of a voluntary small-scale yoga and meditation programme with Year 11 boys.

One of the major issues facing schools is the rise in levels of anxiety and depression in adolescents; this has been exacerbated by the shortage of funds for schools. This programme was designed with

amongst

the aim being to teach students different methods

Year 11 boys?

for the programme to be run on a short timescale

to deal with anxiety and for the intervention to take place at an earlier stage. The initial plan was but due to the extent of the positive response from the students, the sessions have continued far beyond the initial half term and have run throughout most of the year. The positive feedback may lead to a more extensive programme being utilised by lower year groups to aid in developing resilience and strategies to deal with stress.

Louise Pollard

Head of Y11, Head of Politics, Teacher of History

ACTION RESEARCH CYCLE

28

Do well-being programmes help to reduce stress amongst Year 11 boys?

STAGE 1 EXAMINE CURRENT PRACTICE AND UNDERSTAND WHAT IS CURRENTLY IN PLACE: Following the first examination session of the 9-1 GCSE there was much in the media on the stress that the new course placed on students. Mental health is also an ongoing concern as increasing numbers are referred to CAMHS provision. The long-term impact is then felt at University level with their services struggling to cope with the numbers seeking support. Instead this project examines whether it is possible now to implement a scheme which is based on what Bernard & Walton (2011:23) refer to as ‘the promising findings on the impact of preventative health promotion programs’. Potentially the government has floated the idea of a Mental Health member of teaching staff who could be the primary contact in schools.

This would build on the Mental Health First Aid in Schools programme but this scheme is based on

that they are then reliant on an external agency aiding them and they may need more significant intervention to help them recover from the anxiety attack. Again, this would mainly involve dealing with the problem once it has already manifested itself.

Mindfulness techniques are a cost-efficient methodology to use but the main disadvantages would be that it is often used after the onset of anxiety and stress and it may need additional support from individuals or organisations. Equally, there is little data to show that this has been used successfully to help enable students to deal with stress and anxiety. Generally, however, there is positive endorsement of this type of project; as Bernard & Walton (2011:34) comment, ‘It is encouraging that preventative programs implemented under less well-controlled conditions that are not supported by large grants but merely by the enthusiasm and dedication of schoolbased practitioners can have positive benefits.’

dealing with problems after they have arisen. As

The use of yoga and meditation has been used in

Bernard & Walton (2011:23) comment, ‘Schools are

early years education with some success but it tends

now seen as appropriate settings to implement

to be organised by outside agencies and not within

preventative mental health and wellness-promotion

the schools themselves. This means that provision is

programs’. Recent questions in the House of Lords

not universally accessible and usually at a cost. Most

have also shown the importance of these types of

of the courses that are run for school-aged students

activities: ‘The noble Baroness is quite right about

also have the disadvantage of being aimed at female

the importance of social prescribing and yoga

students rather than male, which exacerbates the

being of great advantage to the population.’1

issue of male oriented stress, anxiety and depression.

There has been a lot of development over recent years in terms of developing mindfulness programmes for students to help them deal with

There were several challenges, therefore, that would need to be met before the programme could begin: cost; accessibility; and preconceptions.

anxiety but often this is based on the individual recognising when they need to use these techniques. This could be following on from CBT training, but it does take a lot of focused practice to achieve the required gains and sometimes there will be setbacks. This may result in them missing indicators for themselves and not being able to recall the techniques they have learnt. This is part of the criticism that is levelled at CBT, although as Franks (2015:64) comments, CBT can be very successful where ‘An individual needs to commit themselves

“The aim being to teach students different methods to deal with anxiety and for the intervention to take place at an earlier stage.”

to the process, as their complete co-operation and willingness to change is imperative’. It means

29

Within AGS there is a tendency towards

extent of the project’s impact although again this

counselling referral, both within and outside of

was not specifically captured as data. In order to

school or GP appointments and occasionally

be judged successful the action research would

medication. Where these approaches have been

have to show a positive response from the student

unsuccessful or less than timely the Head of

data and anecdotal feedback. This could be from

Year quite often finds themselves in the role of

the students, SS and from parental responses.

counsellor, which they are generally untrained for and it requires a huge investment of both time and emotional energy from them.

It was hoped that the introduction and

STAGE 2 MAKING DECISIONS AND PLANNING THE PROJECT:

implementation of a wellbeing structure into the

Based on an examination of the literature available,

lives of GCSE students may result in fewer numbers

the provision in schools for boy-specific sessions on

using the Student Support (SS) services, which are

yoga; meditation; mindfulness; revision strategies

under ever-increasing logistical pressure. Although

and possible challenges were very limited. The

difficult to quantify through this research it may

main discovery was that there is very little offered

improve the resilience of the students during key

for secondary school age students and sessions that

pressure times through Year 11 specifically. This

are available targeted girls instead. The structure

may be illustrated by fewer parental concerns

of the sessions was designed along the lines of a

over stressed boys, although as no data is

typical adult yoga session with basic yoga poses and

captured regarding this, it would be anecdotal

relaxation followed by a new strategy to help with

only. Feedback from SS could also indicate the

anxiety each session. Year 11 students were asked

Flagship: Journal for Evidence Engaged Practice

30

Do well-being programmes help to reduce stress amongst Year 11 boys?

to complete an online survey at the beginning of

successfully implemented yoga practices to help

the 5-week block to provide data allowing for an

athletes avoid injury and to recover more speedily.

evaluation of the effectiveness of the strategies offered. This made the collation of data very simple through the use of a Google Classroom site and a Google Form. Feedback from sessions was collected informally from student comments and how I felt that the session had gone; this was recorded electronically in a bullet-point journal style. Follow-on sessions would then develop based on the feedback and a review of the data.

The students who were interested signed up for an initial session that would outline what I hoped to achieve and to understand what they wanted from the sessions. I decided that the numbers needed to be relatively small for the students to really engage with it and for them to open up to new ideas and so that they could be reflective without fearing any negativity. I used my classroom and moved the tables and chairs to the outer edges to

There was a need to examine how to ‘sell’ the idea

give them enough space; most of the sports areas

to boys to avoid the gender stereotyping and so that

were already in use for team practices and there

they felt comfortable attending sessions. I made

were few alternatives to using this. They could

the decision to launch this through an assembly

wear sports kit if they wanted to but it was entirely

to the year group relating it to an article regarding

up to them. The sessions were run on a Monday

Britain’s Triathletes and recovery from injury. As a

lunchtime so that it gave them a good start to

year group there were many competitive sportsmen

the week. Every other week this would then be

and I judged this the best way to interest them in

followed by PSHCEE, which at times coincided

the sessions. The article was written by a leading

with mental health sessions as an added bonus.

coach from the British Triathlon Team who has

In order to make the project’s success quantifiable, data collection was via online Google Forms before the sessions began in earnest.

“It may improve the resilience of the students during key pressure times.”

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31

STAGE 3 CREATE THE RIGHT ENVIRONMENT & IMPLEMENT THE PROJECT: Over time the environment went through small changes based on the feedback and receptivity of the students. Initially the students were a little apprehensive about what they would be doing.

I spent the first 2 sessions just introducing some breathing techniques and basic stretches and asking them which areas they wanted to work on, with the result they had to become body-aware and much

I had already tried to create a calm environment by keeping the lights off and most of the blinds on the windows were down, meaning that there was only natural light and students outside of the classroom could not see them. The aim was to create a ‘safe space’ for the students and they were considerably less apprehensive by this stage. The group were then receptive to adding in the use of scented candles and calming music during the yoga stage. Had I set up the classroom like this for the first session I feel that many would not have taken it seriously and not returned to the sessions.

more focused on intrinsic rather than extrinsic factors.

For the sessions to be seen as valuable I felt it was important that they had the right equipment.

STAGE 4

A successful bid to the PTA allowed me to buy

COLLECTING, ANALYSING DATA AND REFLECTING:

yoga mats; blocks; a diffuser and oils. These were

The initial data that was collected was a clear

gradually introduced into the sessions so that they

indicator that the levels of stress felt by this group

could appreciate the impact of them. Reflections

were quite high and they had anxiety about the time

on each session took place each week, recording the

pressure that they felt they were under. Many of

feedback from the students as the weeks progressed.

them commented that they were worried about

“They could find additional help and advice with anxiety even when they were struggling on their own at home.”

exams as a long term problem but also how to cope with the day-to-day expectations in terms of time management.

As already mentioned, I felt that it was important that the students didn’t see these sessions as an extension of the work they did in the gym, as this would mean that their mind-set was to push themselves rather than learning how to relax and deal with stress and tension. This was mainly done through constant reinforcement of the message that the aim was not to be in any pain or for them to feel

I gradually introduced the use of meditation and

uncomfortable. Equally, I did not want this time to

relaxation at the end of sessions with the resulting

be spent by them thinking about the lessons or work

feedback being really positive and them wanting

that they had to do. It seemed to be very important

to extend the period of time that was spent doing

that this was distinctly separate from any other

this. I used different audio guides, including the

conversations that I would have as their Head of Year.

Headspace App, to make them aware of where they could find additional help and advice with anxiety even when they were struggling on their own at home. Most of the students took to using these during the week to continue their own practice.

The main drawback of the sessions I felt was the accommodation; the time taken to move a class of desks and chairs and then put them back before and after each session ate into the time considerably. Furthermore, the classroom backs onto the playground and this meant that there was considerable noise over lunchtime, although the students did remarkably well to ignore this.

Flagship: Journal for Evidence Engaged Practice

32

Do well-being programmes help to reduce stress amongst Year 11 boys?

Possibly one of the most positive, and unexpected, consequences of the sessions was the collaboration

BIBLIOGRAPHY 1

The Earl of Courtown in response to Baroness Walmsley. From

between the students. As they became more

https://teenyoga.com/

comfortable with the format, we used the beginning

Bernard, M. & Walton, K. (2011) The effect of You Can Do It!

and end of sessions to discuss issues such as pain,

Education in six schools on student perceptions of wellbeing,

sleeping and general concerns. They were respectful

teaching, learning and relationships. Journal of Student Wellbeing,

of each other and they offered solutions based on

5, 22-37.

their own experience; this would then be discussed

Franks, R. (2015) Cognitive Behavioral Therapy. London: JB

in other sessions and they would reflect on any

Publishing Co.

aspects of yoga or meditation that they had tried at

https://teenyoga.com/. [Accessed July 2019]

home. This was a further positive outcome as it was clear that they were starting to practise some of the

https://ppc.sas.upenn.edu/services/penn-resilience-training.

[Accessed July 2019]

techniques in their own time.

“They were respectful of each other and they offered solutions based on their own experience.”

STAGE 5 THE FUTURE: • The continued practice of voluntary sessions during a lunchtime?

• Should it be used/taught to younger year groups as a resilience strategy?

• Could have short sessions run by students in Y12 for younger years?

• Use short sessions in extended registration?

• Longer sessions could be delivered during PSHE? • Within lessons it could be used as a technique to calm a class or help a class that is having a difficult day or facing many exams; an opportunity to regain focus?

• Develop a programme for staff to aid their well-being?

w: ags.bucks.sch.uk

33

What revision strategies can be used to

ABSTRACT As Head of KS3 Science I have often been asked by parents and students alike how best to prepare for exams. This question continues right through to A-Level where students still struggle to know how best to prepare. A number of students work incredibly hard and spend time preparing

help students

but still fail to meet their target. They find this

meet or exceed

better advise them to support their progress.

their target?

of recognised techniques which have proven to

frustrating and cannot understand why this is the case. This led me to start investigating how I can

Through my reading I found there are a number be successful for students revising. The success has been decided by the use of a wide range of students encompassing all abilities, backgrounds and ages. There have been repeated studies all with the same findings giving credence to the results. I have selected one technique which I shall test on students in my class to see how it helps them. Part of my reason for choosing this option was the fact it had been successfully

Liz Smith

Head of KS3 Science

used with students from selective schools.

34

What revision strategies can be used to help students meet or exceed their target?

LITERATURE REVIEW I had the opportunity to read many articles and journals to further my knowledge of the impact of learning styles on revision and associated exam outcome. Following my early reading (see references), three techniques struck me as potential areas to trial with students – retrieval practice, spaced learning and interleaving.

massed practice). The group using spacing scored 5.15/12 which was a significant improvement on more traditional massed practice techniques.

The article was well written and covered independent learning in both selective and non-selective schools which made it very useful for the work I am doing. I am particularly interested in how students can develop their skills to successfully prepare for examinations (independently). It was

1) Firth, J. (2018). The Application Of

useful to see the comparison between selective

Spacing And Interleaving Approaches

and non-selective schools too to check the

In The Classroom. Impact, (2), pp.23-32.

learning would be suitable for our students. The article strongly supported my hypothesis about

This article from Impact compared the techniques

the use of these techniques to improve exam

of interleaving and spacing and simply described

performance following independent learning.

how they could both be used in the classroom.

The study carried out was looking at students

3) Dunlosky, J. and Rawson, K. (2015).

learning about entirely new areas of study. The

Practice tests, spaced practice, and successive

tests were on only a small sample of students

relearning: Tips for classroom use and for

but exposed to the same conditions. From the

guiding students’ learning. Scholarship of

study it was found that spacing was effective

Teaching and Learning in Psychology,

but interleaving had no significant effect.

1(1), pp.72-78.

While interesting, this article was useful only in summarising the differences between the types of study. As I am looking at revision strategies the majority of the article was less useful.

2) Feddern, L. (2018). Retrieval, Interleaving, Spacing And Visual Cues As Ways To Improve Independent Learning Outcomes At Scale. Impact, (2), pp.23-32.

The article compares ten commonly used techniques for learning and ranks their effectiveness.

The spaced practice and practice testing were the top techniques for getting the best results.

The techniques achieved both the highest scores in tests but more importantly were found to be most effective across a range of learners of different ages and abilities. The article continues to describe how these techniques can be

This article was written following research

implemented practically in lessons and provides

comparing the use of software, spacing and

hands on examples of doing so. The final section

massed practice. Students in the sample were

discusses the need for students to develop these

randomly assigned to the different groups and all

effective learning techniques on a wider scale.

followed the same pattern and timings to learn

I particularly enjoyed this article and it further

material taken from a Biology specification. The trial

proved that this area is one which is likely to

had three phases separated by 2 week gaps and all

work well in line with the movement of the

work was carried out independently with no teacher

department and school to a ‘teach less, learn

input. The pre-test data showed no significant

more’ approach. I am particularly interested in

difference between students’ prior knowledge

developing the students’ ability to be able to learn

across all three groups so any later changes would

independently as this is a skill which will support

be a result of the intervention. In the results there

them throughout their lives and not just at school.

was a marked difference in the group that used software incorporating spacing, interleaving and visual cues – (8.39/12 compared to 4.08/12 using w: ags.bucks.sch.uk

35

SUMMARY FROM READING

RESEARCH METHODS

Retrieval practice is the technique of

In the Y8 class I teach, I asked for student volunteers

reconstructing knowledge that has been learned

who felt they were working hard but not managing

in new and different formats – for example

to meet their targets. I also invited students who I

quizzes, writing framework answers. This is a

felt performed less well in tests than in their class

technique which is regularly used already and

work. The students were set revision tasks in the 3

therefore I chose not to follow this further.

weeks leading up to the assessment period (module

Spaced learning is more closely linked to the teaching techniques than it is to revision. My aim is to develop the students’ ability to revise independently (as I have highlighted this as the area where they are least confident and which seems to most affect their test results).

Spaced learning involves short learning periods

2). Each task consisted of a series of questions showing the interleaved principle (short periods on each concept divided by other concepts). Students were given guidance on how to complete the task and then it was marked and they received feedback on the areas which they needed to focus on.

• Trialling interleaved revision

on a given topic which is then repeated with

- Practice booklets with exam questions

different topics being covered in between. I

- Moving between topics

shall be looking to try this in lessons to help students with their initial learning of material.

- Students asked to spend 2 minutes on a page then move on

Interleaving – an alternative to ‘blocking’ where

- Handed in and marked – teacher identifying

students focus on multiple areas in a learning period.

weaker areas and advising reading based

They alternate between several areas during their

on this

revision. This method has been used and appears to be effective in aiding retention. The interleaving process involves separating concepts of the same type and interspersing them with different types.

• Group of Y8 students who feel they revise but are often disappointed by their test result.

- Some do very well but lack confidence - Some lack detail in their answers

“A number of students work incredibly hard and spend time preparing but still fail to meet their target.”

- Some do not do active revision - Some have aspirational targets higher than school target • I am unsure of the effect on this particular group with this form of revision. I expect they will all do well as the revision alone will improve the likelihood. Ideally need a control group revising in a different way.

Sample size is too small.

• Will get feedback (qualitative) from the students after the test and try to look at the data for quantitative evidence too.

Flagship: Journal for Evidence Engaged Practice

36

What revision strategies can be used to help students meet or exceed their target?

Post test results Aspirational Target

Module 1

Module 2

Comments Limited tasks completed

1

A

9

8 (76%)

8 (80%)

2

B

9

7 (64%)

9 (92%)

3

C

9

8 (86%)

9 (94%)

4

D

8

7 (64%)

7 (65%)

5

E

8

7 (72%)

8 (86%)

6

F

8

8 (74%)

8 (88%)

7

G

7

7 (68%)

7 (71%)

Knowledge sound, lack of depth / exam skill. Average report grade = 6.9 so is on target.

Only completed one of the 5 homework tasks

Notes • Challenging to get students to participate – especially the students most likely to benefit • Positive feedback on their confidence for the test • Needs to be on a larger scale

STUDENT COMMENTS A

B

only joined later so did not complete all the

quite surprised himself with the score! He is

tasks set. Pleased with an increase and keen to

a typically lazy preparer and doing some sound

try again.

practice made a huge difference to his ability to recall.

extremely pleased with the increase – felt his knowledge was much more secure and coped

C

E

F

same grade but a significant increase in the

better with the variety of subjects through

% achieved (borderline grade 9 this test). He was

the questions.

pleased at the increase but still wants to drive for

very pleased, found it made a real difference (he

the grade 9.

revised a lot historically but mostly reading his notes and the book).

D disappointed but after analysing his paper together he realised that his knowledge was good but he rushed to finish (panicked) and did not go back and add details. He also started to see that he was repeating the same point in different words and therefore missing out on additional marks despite having ‘written lots’.

w: ags.bucks.sch.uk

“It has been an exciting opportunity to delve deeper into how I prepare students for the challenges of exams.”

37

POTENTIAL NEXT STEPS Given the small scale and limited time allocated to my project I have a number of areas which I am interested in pursuing next year.

Repeat with larger sample – ideally I would like to upscale this to an entire year group.

Have a comparison group – could sample alternative approaches to revision strategies with the year group divided in two to allow quantitative data to be compared.

Share methods with department – I am keen to embed the successful aspects of my research into the Scheme of Learning at KS3 to ensure the best approach is available to all students.

Given the opportunity I would certainly carry out more of the above ideas to really address the issues surrounding revision and exam preparation in our students. It is not an area which is specific to Science and I believe the outcomes of this mini project could impact on a number of subjects, specifically addressing the learning skills of the students.

Being part of the Research Team has been a great opportunity and I have developed skills I might not normally use in my teaching role. The time allocation was useful in driving me to trial new ideas based on the research I was able to carry out. I have been keen to address the issue of students who underachieve despite their best efforts and feel this

Develop resources to aid this type of learning – needs

has helped me to consider alternative approaches

to be inherent in the SoL rather than revision alone.

to support them. I have been able to work with

I am already looking at this aspect and developing

colleagues I would not normally work with and have

the KS3 Science department SoL to have a greater

learned from them and their expertise too. Part

focus on learning skills alongside curriculum delivery.

of the research project has been for me to reach the conclusion that revision alone is not enough

REFLECTION – WHAT HAVE I GAINED FROM THIS? It has been an exciting opportunity to delve deeper into how I prepare students for the challenges of exams. The research has not gone as far as I had hoped but I shall be continuing to look at this area in Science and to develop the SoL.

Flagship: Journal for Evidence Engaged Practice

to prepare students to reach their full potential (as determined by exam results) but instead a different approach to my teaching is required to ensure learning is the priority.

Off the back of this I am looking at an extended project next year with Y7 – a rewrite of the SoL to incorporate more learning skills being delivered to the students. As preparation for this I am trialling

38

What revision strategies can be used to help students meet or exceed their target?

Project Based Learning this summer term with a Y8 class to compare their results against standard teaching styles. My vision is for students to have the

REFERENCES Dunlosky, J. and Rawson, K. (2015). Practice tests, spaced practice, and successive relearning: Tips for classroom use and for guiding

appropriate scaffolding to ensure they are covering

students’ learning. Scholarship of Teaching and Learning in

the curriculum but having lessons which encourage

Psychology, 1(1), pp.72-78.

independent thinking and greater resilience (and

Feddern, L. (2018). Retrieval, Interleaving, Spacing And Visual Cues

hopefully greater interest and engagement). The Y8

As Ways To Improve Independent Learning Outcomes At Scale.

class I teach are looking at the topic Microbes and

Impact, (2), pp.23-32.

Disease but with a different contextual approach to our standard curriculum based lessons – I have tasked them to provide an answer to ‘Pandemic!

Firth, J. (2018). The Application Of Spacing And Interleaving Approaches In The Classroom. Impact, (2), pp.23-32.

Moane, F., Moane, F. and Moane, F. (2019). Revision Techniques

How can a worldwide pandemic be stopped?’

and Memory Clock - Sandagogy. [online] Sandagogy. Available at:

Students are making decisions about what and how

https://www.sandagogy.co.uk/learning-steps/revision-techniques-

they learn with a final task of producing resources

and-memory-clock/ [Accessed 7 May 2019].

and a presentation to their peers and other

Tes. (2019). Rethinking revision: it’s more than just the facts. [online]

members of the school community.

Available at: https://www.tes.com/revision-tips/rethinking-revision-

The reasons for carrying out the research and the gain I have personally had are summarised below.

its-more-just-facts [Accessed 7 May 2019].

Aft.org. (2019). [online] Available at: https://www.aft.org/sites/default/ files/periodicals/dunlosky.pdf [Accessed 7 May 2019].

• Professional development - specific to my personal interests

Indiana.edu. (2019). [online] Available at: http://www.indiana. edu/~pcl/rgoldsto/courses/dunloskyimprovinglearning.pdf

• Personal choice - interesting and relevant

[Accessed 7 May 2019].

• Good to have the chance to share findings and

The Confident Teacher. (2019). Effective Revision Strategies. [online]

potentially help someone else • Opportunity to visit other schools / share

Available at: https://www.theconfidentteacher.com/2013/04/ effective-revision-strategies/ [Accessed 2 May 2019].

good practice • Reading it would be hard otherwise to justify the time for • Driven my planning for next year: “What I will do next as a result of this”

“My vision is for students to have the appropriate scaffolding to ensure they are covering the curriculum but having lessons which encourage independent thinking and greater resilience.” w: ags.bucks.sch.uk

39

An interview

Neil Gibbs is Head of Key Stage 3 P.E. at Aylesbury Grammar School where he has taught for twelve years. In June he attended the International Boys’

with with Neil

Schools Coalition Annual Conference at Selwyn House School in Montreal after being selected to

Gibbs, Head

conduct a piece of action research into Student Agency: Boy Voice and Choice. He believes his action research project will enable him to develop

of Key Stage 3

an exciting change to the Physical Education landscape. Funded by the IBSC – the leading

P.E. and action

voice worldwide in the best education practices for boys – Neil will be an active part of this global organisation over a period of twenty four months, in order to better the outcomes for AGS boys.

researcher for the International

What drove you to apply for a place on the IBSC action research project?

There were a few strands really. Last year I was

Boys’ Schools

involved in our Staff Learning Forum – a group of

Coalition.

learn. Off the back of this, the IBSC topic, Boy Voice

like-minded teachers working together on a cross-curricular project – focusing on how boys and Choice, spoke to me because of the way P.E. is sometimes taught. P.E. can be very instructional, and having the opportunity to try a different way of teaching with strong foundations grounded in research excited me as KS3 leader, together with the chance to implement change in the department.

Second, I’m thirteen years into my career and comfortable with the classroom part of it. This opportunity appealed to me to further my professional development, and I am at a time in my career where it felt right to do that. In terms of my own development, I am excited to be able to lead on

Head of Key Stage 3 P.E.

Neil Gibbs

Research Lead

Vanessa Beckley

an area that is very important in education.

40

An interview with Neil Gibbs, Head of Key Stage 3 P.E. and action researcher for the International Boys’ Schools Coalition

Talk to me a little bit about the action

Can you give me an example?

research topic.

Well, from my point of view, I’m looking at project

The topic is Student Agency: Boy Voice and Choice.

based learning. I want to examine to what extent

The first thing that came to mind is how noisy a P.E.

applying a project to a P.E. topic would give students

lesson is in terms of engagement and enthusiasm,

room to make the decisions about how they access

but then how little that voice is heard in terms of

the learning.

boys being in charge of their own learning. I’ve always grappled with the idea of giving boys more choice. Essentially in our environment we have a lot of boys who enjoy P.E., but I wanted to focus on increasing student motivation in those more passive within the lesson and see if increasing the choice and giving more ownership over their learning would increase their intrinsic motivation.

And what about boy voice and choice?

It’s about empowerment. Giving students a sense of control over what they’re learning and the ability to choose how they are accessing parts of their curriculum.

w: ags.bucks.sch.uk

“It’s about empowerment. Giving students a sense of control over what they’re learning and the ability to choose how they are accessing parts of their curriculum.”

41

What does that look like in practice?

Tell me about the conference itself.

Framing a unit within a real-life project with tangible

I am not naturally outgoing, but it was hard not

outcomes. For example, a primary school has

to talk to people – everyone was so incredibly

approached us about how to develop badminton

friendly and nervously excited about the whole

within their school. Students could potentially

experience. Having time to talk through our action

produce posters, videos, resource cards aimed at

research proposals and get into the nitty-gritty of

introducing the game to Y5 students. Through this,

the project, bounce ideas off each other in a

they will in small groups undertake different roles

comfortable and engaging environment and

within the unit, have the responsibility to produce

knowing that that my ideas were on a par with

written material as well as video demonstrations to

everyone else was incredible.

produce their product.

Let’s talk about the value of this to boys’ education at AGS. Boyology – or the study of male adolescence – positions boys as the main theme, keeping them at the centre of what we are doing and making sure the research is really focusing on the learning of boys and what we’re teaching them to do. I see the title as an opportunity to improve my classroom teaching, whereas others read it as something pastoral. The broad topic means teachers can look at what interests them and the needs of their school.

AGS students are able to take P.E. into the wider context of the world allowing students who potentially are less confident practically but who have strengths in other areas such as video editing and written communication to add significant value to a team based project.

And what have you learnt from the experience?

For me, it’s about the whole feeling of self-worth and adequacy – the fact that my research project was chosen over 70 other applicants gave my career significant validation through achieving something on merit. I’ve done all sorts of great things over my career but this was the first actual tangible thing that I’ve earnt. Hearing I had been selected was like rocket-boosters!

Flagship: Journal for Evidence Engaged Practice

42

An interview with Neil Gibbs, Head of Key Stage 3 P.E. and action researcher for the International Boys’ Schools Coalition

How did you spend your time in Montreal?

some had a whole-school impact, and some had

The days were long – seven o’clock in the morning

spread to reach other districts. The real take-away

until six at night – broken up into workshops or

was that because it was research conducted by

speakers or time with the team, followed by a

teachers in a real setting, it was very easy to see how

number of evening events. The Senior

straightforward it would be to transfer the findings

Research team delivered very good information

to other settings. For me, that gave me the insight

regarding what to expect from an action

into what I want from my project – that someone

research programme - the deadlines and

could come along and implement my project into

challenges to overcome - using the best

their teaching.

examples from the past and showing videos

This time with the research group was incredibly

of previous action research projects.

useful. By the end of the week, I’d come out

Much time was also spent in our research team

with a working title and have started developing

of ten – Team Trish – comprising Australians, New

my proposal.

Zealanders, an American and a Canadian. This was genuine international collaboration – and I felt massively privileged to be talking to other teachers from right across the world. We were a diverse range of schools on the Research Team – from a big boys’ state school in New Zealand to Eton, Harrow, Aylesbury Grammar School and Dr Challoner’s from GB. We represented different contexts – prep schools, independent schools, state schools, secondary schools, elementary schools - but we all had boys as our focus.

Most memorable moment?

Well, the topic is on Student Agency and to start with they gave us all super-hero masks. From the very beginning the Research Leads encouraged us to get into the topic, breaking it down into what was really meant by Student Agency. We started to

“I feel we are right where we should belong – amongst other boys’ schools, developing a positive school environment.”

So what next?

In terms of the action research, it is to complete and submit my proposal and to begin reading for my literature review. The implementation of my project gets underway in November. I will primarily be focusing on Y8 P.E. classes to do this.

realise we were giving students a voice, a choice and

In addition, I want to bring back from Canada the

ownership over their learning, empowering them to

message about research – the benefits – and to

make choices – like a super hero would do!

inspire and encourage other teachers to get involved.

As a school, I feel we are right where we should

What do you consider to be the highlight of

belong – amongst other Boys’ schools, developing

the conference?

a positive school environment with the boys at the

Team Trish from the 2018-2019 cycle of researchers

heart of what we do.

(Gold Coast, Australia) returned to talk to us about their projects last year, giving great insight in the pitfalls and the challenges ahead, reinforcing all of what the senior researchers were saying about

And of course next year I’m looking forward to presenting my findings at the IBSC Conference 2020 in Barcelona!

meeting deadlines and the process steps. Allowing us to see a finished project and hearing the impact it has had in their schools was very inspiring. Some were having great impact locally, in their classrooms;

w: ags.bucks.sch.uk

43

Exploring conceptual change in applied

ABSTRACT Developing abstract conceptual knowledge is problematic for learners because the phenomenon of interest cannot be readily observed. Knowledge is thus often a product of learned theories and the outcome of learners’ practice. Through practice, such as the modelling and simulating of abstract

contexts: Four

phenomena, learners translate representations,

‘R’s to support

conceptual change in the learner’s knowledge

a sustainable

for example diagrams and schematics into other forms such as physical models. Through this process schema develops understanding and expertise enabling its application in new situations. This case study research explored learners’ perceptions of change in understanding during a two-year GCSE

learning journey

Design and Technology: Electronic Products course.

An enquiry into the influences

engage with the practicalities of modelling and

on conceptual change during a

simulating the phenomena of interest. Learners

GCSE applied-skills course in electronics and recommendations

The findings indicate that changes in conceptual understanding occur through the need to gradually

were shown to adjust understanding from an initial theoretical focus, to a more pragmatic view of knowledge grounded in their own observations

for methods to support sustainable,

of simulated phenomena during the learning

independent learning.

journey. Learners’ dispositional attitudes to learning were found to support the nature of learning activities encountered during the period of the research. The discussion concludes with a model of sustainable learning based around the four ‘R’s: relate, reinterpret, reflect and revise. The model describes specific learner actions proposed as necessary in support of the development of cognitive skills and learning autonomy within a conceptual change view of knowledge. This report is a condensed version of a previous publication

Head of Design Technology

Adrian Twissell

and focuses on the background and discussion of findings, whilst detaching the empirical data on the grounds of scope and space. See Twissell (2019) for detailed presentation of the findings1.

44

Exploring conceptual change in applied contexts: Four ‘R’s to support a sustainable learning journey

KEYWORDS:

LITERATURE REVIEW

Conceptual change, sustainable learning, learning

Constructivism and conceptual change

journey, procedural knowledge, learning disposition

The relevance of procedure has been considered central to constructivist approaches to learning,

INTRODUCTION

such as those described by Bruner (1977) and Kolb

Abstract concepts, such as those encountered in

leads to the assimilation of new knowledge

electronics education, can be difficult to develop

(Piaget, 1955). An important vehicle for scaffolding

because the phenomenon of interest cannot be

change in understanding is provided through

readily observed; only the product of the phenomena

the process of translating representations such

may be observed. Voltage, current and resistance

as diagrams and models (Ainsworth, 2006). This

represent such phenomena and learners develop

translation, or reinterpretation process, provides

an understanding on the basis of both theoretical

the opportunity to view knowledge from different

principles and practical experience. Gainsburg,

perspectives and can lead to conceptual change;

Rodriguez-Lluesma and Bailey (2010) highlight

that is change in the schema held as current

this distinction, emphasising historically-based

understanding for the phenomena of interest.

knowledge and the tacit knowledge gained through

Learners thus modify their current personal

activities and procedures associated with problem

understanding on the basis of experience,

solving. This view emphasises the situated nature

gradually integrating new knowledge into existing

of knowledge (Lave and Wenger, 1990) related to

understandings (Chen, Pan, Sung and Chang, 2013).

concept development in applied skills subjects such as Design and Technology and Engineering. The view however applies more widely and is applicable, for example, to the natural sciences more generally.

(1984), where change in learners’ understanding

Chen et al.’s (2013) conceptual change model includes the following conditions which describe a learning trajectory: 1) learning material triggers dissatisfaction with existing understanding 2)

Theoretical principles nonetheless, gained

new concept visualisations provide intelligibility 3)

through historically-based knowledge, are useful

plausibility of concept is achieved when visualisation

in communicating knowledge and have been

can be matched with theoretical understanding

described as providing the reference point for

and 4) to overcome long standing misconceptions,

thinking about the behaviour of electricity (Metioui

visualisation needs to be linked with manipulation

and Trudel, 2012). Conversely it has been shown

and exploitation opportunities. This approach

that appreciable understanding can be built

represents a ‘traditional’ radical constructivist (von

upon the practical experience of developing

Glasersfeld, 1995) view of conceptual change. The

electronic circuits and that these concepts are

view may however miss alternative explanations for

open to considerable interpretation (Twissell,

change in understanding (Harrison and Treagust,

2018). Understanding in this way is developed

2001), and may therefore benefit from attention

following the principles of procedural knowledge

to learners’ individual and social facets of learning

(McCormick, 1997), rather than those of a more

(Duit and Treagust, 2010). Kural and Kocakulah

‘scientific’, or knowledge as ‘object’ nature.

(2016) provide a useful analysis of this modification in perspective on conceptual change and discuss

“An emphasis on the development of curiosity and autonomy as central learning skills.” w: ags.bucks.sch.uk

the emphasis on learners’ motivational dispositions in particular as central facets of conceptual change.

45

The procedures and processes of learning

Adopting this view of learning places as centrally

Learning through development and change in

important the agency and actions of the learner,

understanding can be viewed as a matter of

rather than the educator’s need to ‘impart’

choice in the learning strategy adopted by the

knowledge (Knapper, 2006). The agency of the

learner. Bruner (1977) described his developmental

learner is often multi-faceted where a range of

taxonomy within a process of strategic learning

strategies are applied to suit the context (Siegler,

episodes including: the acquisition of new

2005), as found by Twissell (2018) in relation to

knowledge (complementing existing knowledge),

electronics concept formation. Actions are thus

transformation (the new knowledge is manipulated,

personal adaptations to problems grounded in

analysed and converted to another form) and

experience and not the product of the widely

evaluation (new knowledge is considered in context

promoted, but conceptually problematic ‘learning

and checked for generalisations and plausibility).

style’ (Coffield, 2006), which implies a fixed view of

Figure 1: Adapted from Kolb (1984) Reinterpretation is central to the taxonomy’s

learners’ strategy use. Thus, adapting to problems

application to development and learning. Kolb’s

in personal ways may reflect more about learners’

(1984) experiential learning cycle emphasises

dispositions for different approaches to learning and

the additional dimensions of active agency

their preferences for different learning strategies.

and reflection on action during the process of reinterpretation. This provides clarity on the procedural learning process and suggests specific strategies which have the potential to progress the learner from assimilation to the accommodation of understanding (Piaget, 1955). Figure 1 shows an adaptation of Kolb’s (1984) cycle with the integration of Bruner (1977) and Piaget (1955).

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Exploring conceptual change in applied contexts: Four ‘R’s to support a sustainable learning journey

Dispositions for learning

The case study research discussed here is a reduced

There is very little recent research explaining how

version of a report which includes comprehensive

learning dispositions (also commonly referred to as

presentation of the findings (Twissell, 2019). The

learning character, however I use ‘disposition’ here

research sought to identify both learners’ individual

to reflect a cognitive focus and avoid confusion with

perceptions of change in understanding about

character education which is used to describe an

abstract electronics concepts and the dispositions

alternative focus), such as motivation or resilience,

which may have contributed to such change.

are perceived by learners to support their learning.

The discussion takes place within the context of

The degree of action taken by learners has been

secondary school GCSE Design and Technology:

considered to reflect an individual’s level of personal

Electronic Products (UK). Previous research in

efficacy; that is their ability to manage self-referential

this area has focused on the close observation of

thoughts and to maintain achievement when faced

students within a ‘natural’ learning environment

with difficulty (Bandura, 1982). Personal efficacy may

and identified learners’ specific conceptions of

manifest itself in observations of learning disposition.

electronics knowledge during a single phase in

Costa and Kallick, (2002) describe sixteen ‘habits

their learning (Twissell, 2018). Four conceptual

of mind’ that reflect the specific dispositions

profiles were identified including: the operative

individuals apply when problem solving in the real

(understanding based in hands-on experience),

world. Resnick (1999) suggests that a dispositional

the logician (understanding based in logic/digital

view of learning reflects an explicit strategy-based

electronics), the programmer (understanding based

approach which develops learners’ self-efficacy and

in programming) and the dialectic (understanding

eventual learning success. Kural and Kocakulah’s

of both digital and analogue electronics) to describe

(2016) view emphasises the dispositional dimension

the different ways learners engaged with the

within a conceptual change approach to learning.

concept of analogue/digital voltage.

Learning is therefore more sustainable for students who have consciously embraced and applied such personal strategies in the formation of abstract concepts.

Consequently, disposition development aims to empower learners towards an awareness of conditions and strategies for success in learning and enhanced independence to complement the

“A model of sustainable learning based around the four ‘R’s: relate, reinterpret, reflect and revise.”

development of subject specific knowledge and skills. Lucas, Hanson and Claxton’s (2014) Engineering

However, although this provided a useful taxonomy

Habits of Mind model includes three different levels

of students’ conceptual profiles, the nature of

at which this may occur including: a general level,

change in understanding and the influences on

a subject specific level and a core learner-character

such change was not apparent. The research

level. The research discussed in this paper focuses

discussed here therefore sought to expose students’

on the core institution-based dispositions including:

perceptions of the learning process within the

ownership, courage, resilience, innovation and

context of the two-year course of study. Students’

motivation. Participants in this research have been

experiences on the course, engagement with other

exposed to an enhanced focus on these dispositions

learners and their perceived dispositions for learning

during the period of the research, as a part of a

grounded the conceptual framework for this study.

school-wide strategy, and consequently the research methodology embraces participants’ views on their relevance.

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METHODOLOGY

METHODS

This case study research aimed to explore change

Figure 2 provides a diagrammatic summary of the

in students’ understanding about electronics

research process. The original report (Twissell, 2019),

concepts as a development of Twissell’s (2018)

includes detailed descriptions of the methods

previous research which identified a taxonomy of

used and justification for their use. Briefly,

four conceptual profiles (the operative, logician,

questionnaires formed the main data collection

programmer and dialectic), but not a trajectory

method and included both open ended questions

of change. The research used a phased approach

and closed-ended questions based around

to data collection to enable an assessment of

Likert-scale responses.

change in conceptual understanding to be made.

The following two key questions were asked: what are the perceptions of change in understanding, following the experiences of a two-year GCSE Design and Technology: Electronics course? And what are the influences on such change? The approach adopted a mixed methods cross comparative methodology drawing from participant perception and self-report. The approach drew from Johnson and Onwuegbuzie’s (2004) mixed methods design model with qualitative strategies the dominant status within a concurrent design. Three phases offered the opportunity to expose understanding at different positions in the learner’s developmental

Figure 2: Diagrammatic summary of the

trajectory and therefore the opportunity to make

research process

comparisons between understandings at those different points.

This approach was chosen because it offered an opportunity to gauge students’ descriptive understandings and perceptions within context, whilst capturing a quantitative overview of perceptions through Likert-scale responses. Change in conceptual understanding therefore formed the unit of analysis for wider considerations of learning within an applied skills context. The research was bounded within the two academic-year time period of a GCSE course and involved seventeen participants aged 14-16. The case study research aimed to both exemplify understanding about the phenomenon (Thomas, 2011) and provide potential insight and extendability beyond the research setting (VanWynsberghe and Khan, 2007).

FINDINGS Within the scope of this paper, the following section provides summaries of the research findings. For detailed presentation of the data, see the full report (ibid). Analysis of Likert-scale responses used frequency response analysis to determine the distribution of answers. Comments from open ended questions were explored using the constant comparison technique.

This involved systematically reading comments from questions to elicit themes, then developing categories describing the interconnection between emergent ideas (Thomas, 2013).

Summary of Phase 1 The findings from Phase 1 are categorised by a strong theoretical conception of electricity gained largely from KS3 science lessons. Some independent approaches to concept formation are noted including personally framed understandings of conceptions using metaphors.

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Exploring conceptual change in applied contexts: Four ‘R’s to support a sustainable learning journey

Summary of Phase 2 Phase 2 responses are categorised by a developing understanding of the application of theoretical knowledge and how this relates to topics of interest on the course. Underlying theoretical understanding is largely unchanged, however an appreciation of ‘theory in action’ is emerging at the end of the first year of study. Learning is considered successful when opportunities for modelling and simulation of concepts is provided and understanding is increasingly individual, as reflected in the introduction of personal metaphor.

DISCUSSION This case study research aimed to reveal the nature of change in understanding about electronics concepts, as perceived by participants in the study, during a two-year GCSE Design and Technology: Electronic Products course.

In addition, the study aimed to describe the influences on any change identified.

Comparisons between Phases indicate a step change in perceptions of electronics as a field of endeavour. Phase 1 findings reflect a theoretical view of electronics grounded in scientific knowledge

Summary of Phase 3

gained mainly from previous study in Science

Phase 3 findings are categorised by an increasingly

lessons. The use of personal conceptions, for

pragmatic approach to conceptual understanding

example metaphor, to describe understanding

and knowledge development. Participants’

is beginning to appear at this stage. In Phase 2

responses reflect a strong focus on applying

understanding is shown to begin to adjust to the

their knowledge, problem solving and goal

pragmatics of applying theory to the development

achievement linked with the coursework phase of

of electronic product prototypes. The translation

study. Descriptions of learning are grounded in the

of knowledge, through modelling and simulating

pragmatics of ‘getting the job done’ and personal

activities, reflects a procedural approach to

descriptions of learning strategies, as reflected in an

understanding how electronics theories apply in

awareness and support for institution-based learning

practice. Findings from this Phase are categorised

dispositions and which follow the trend in learner

by the strong functional nature of participants’

agency and action identified in previous research

growing electronics knowledge which is also

(Twissell, 2018).

individually characterised. This approach aligns with the demands of the course-based activities, which draw on the use and development of procedural

“Learning is considered successful when opportunities for modelling and simulation of concepts is provided and understanding is increasingly individual.”

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knowledge; that is, understanding is a product of the knowledge gained through experience.

Phase 3 findings indicate that the process of carrying out individual project work may lead to a more personalised attitude to learning.

The institution-based learning characteristics including ownership, resilience, innovation and motivation were perceived to positively support learning and to complement the development of understanding, particularly within a problem solving focused learning context.

49

Understanding was therefore shown to adjust to meet the demands of the context, supported by self-referential thought encouraged by the school’s taxonomy of learner characteristics. Conceptual change is categorised by the modification of schema representing electronics knowledge. The change is reflected in an initial understanding grounded in science-based theory, reinterpreted to represent the application of theory during designing, modelling and making activities.

The process of change is underpinned by the application of translation strategies, for example modelling and simulating electronic circuit schematics using virtual computer softwarebased techniques and the associated reflection on change and revision of conceptual schema.

However, the finding during Phase 3, indicating that 35% of participants regarded collaborative working as an important factor in their learning, shows that working beyond the personally-based dispositions is also a key support for learning. Both Costa and Kallik’s (2002) and Lucas et al.’s (2014) habits of mind models include dimensions incorporating listening, understanding, empathy and collaboration.

These dimensions would form useful avenues for further research exploring conceptual change in specific contexts, such as applied skills learning.

Overall, within a modified conceptual change theory of learning, these findings support the analysis

by Kural and Kocakulah (2016), who assert that cognitive, metacognitive, personal disposition such as motivation and self-efficacy factors contribute to effective conceptual change. The findings indicate that a combination of active engagement in the process of attending to conflicting conceptual ideas, coupled with a self-awareness of the methods used to develop those ideas, supports advancements in complex abstract concept understandings.

The following section outlines a model of change based on the preceding discussion and which incorporates a number of practical strategies to support conceptual change and how this might be encouraged and developed within a model of

TOWARDS A MODEL OF SUSTAINABLE LEARNING Drawing from a combination of Bruner (1977), Kolb (1984) and Piaget’s (1955) constructivist theories (Figure 1), this section outlines a structured approach to developing sustainable learning strategies to encourage conceptual change. I refer to this model as the Four ‘R’s Model of Sustainable Learning and show the framework overlaid with Piaget’s (1955) assimilation/accommodation process (Figure 3).

The four ‘R’s refer to the following strategies: relate, reinterpret, reflect and revise, explained in more detail below (Figure 4). The four ‘R’s developed from consideration of the processes discussed earlier (Figure 1) and Twissell’s (2018) research which identified a similar cycle of learning through modelling and simulating activities.

“Learners’ personal learning character, or disposition for specific approaches was shown to be an important feature in support of the strategies used to solve problems.”

The strategies are ‘sustainable’, because they have the potential to develop understanding beyond the resources offered by formal education. Learning thus has the potential to become more independent when the four ‘R’s have been adopted, and places an emphasis on the development of curiosity and autonomy as central learning skills when the four ‘R’s are successfully applied.

Previous research by Twissell (2018) revealed the importance of reinterpretation as a central strategy to increase learners’ depth of learning.

sustainable independent learning.

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Exploring conceptual change in applied contexts: Four ‘R’s to support a sustainable learning journey

The personalisation of knowledge was shown to be an important attribute of the learner’s strategy when reinterpreting, problem solving and developing conceptual schema. The Four ‘R’s Model of Sustainable Learning is proposed as a framework for operationalising a personal learning process which can be developed and applied in multiple contexts and sustained beyond formal educational objectives.

“This view of learning places as centrally important the agency and actions of the learner, rather than the educator’s need to ‘impart’ knowledge.”

Figure 3: Four ‘R’s model of sustainable learning incorporated into Piaget’s process of assimilation and accommodation Figure 4 provides an overview of the four ‘R’s framework and each element is now discussed in more detail.

Relate Piaget’s (1955) theory of schema modification describes how learners bring new knowledge into existing understandings. They relate, or assimilate, new knowledge with existing understandings.

Research with secondary age learners of electronics (Twissell, 2018) showed that this was the most frequently chosen strategy when learning about complex abstract concepts. Learners in this study (ibid) were shown to relate their existing theoretical understanding of electronics to their own observations of functioning models and simulations. Developing learners’ awareness of this link between knowledge types and use of the knowledge relationships is a useful starting point for developing a metacognitive approach and route to reinterpreting understanding through future translation, modelling and simulation.

Reinterpret

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51

Bruner’s (1977) learning taxonomy emphasises the

Reflect

need for the manipulation of knowledge once it

According to Bruner (1977), once knowledge has

has been brought into existing understanding.

been reinterpreted or ‘manipulated’, the learner

Reinterpreting in this way provides the learner with

checks its plausibility. Kolb’s (1984) experiential

the opportunity to appraise the new knowledge

learning cycle, similarly, includes a reflection on

within a new situation, therefore learners’ breadth

experience phase where questions can be directed

of understanding is widened to meet the demands

to clarify understanding. For example, is the outcome

of the new situation. The reinterpretation of

plausible? Does it work? Does the new knowledge

conceptual knowledge is often achieved through

‘fit’ within the context? Reflecting provides an

modelling and the simulation of concepts. This may

opportunity to attend to the change, development

involve, for example, converting knowledge from

and improvement of knowledge and understanding

one representation type (circuit diagram) to an

in light of the new learning experience. Participants

alternative type (physical model), thus providing the

5 and 10 provide a relevant example with respect

opportunity to view phenomena in alternative ways.

to experimentation and overcoming errors, where reflection would have been central to the recognition of knowledge development (Twissell, 2019).

“An emphasis on the development of curiosity and autonomy as central learning skills.”

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Exploring conceptual change in applied contexts: Four ‘R’s to support a sustainable learning journey

Revise

ways and has focused on both the cognitive and

Revising schema involves changing existing

affective domains to explain an individual’s learning

understanding to accommodate new knowledge.

engagement when refining understanding.

Reinterpretation is itself a process of revision in the

Knowledge in this way is developmental, fluid

short term, but revision of schema involves a greater

and personal, rather than rigid and fixed, as

shift in understanding. As discussed above, Piaget’s

demonstrated by the findings in this case study

(1955) notion of assimilation and accommodation

research. According to Knapper (2006), this process

has been defined in terms of the process of

of change is characteristic of contemporary ways

conceptual change (Chen et al., 2013; Ozdemir and

of thinking about learners, their development and

Clark, 2007; Treagust and Duit, 2008). This describes

progression. Revision of understanding is therefore

the process of reinterpretation and revision of

central to the process of conceptual change and

schema formed in previous and alternative

change in the learner’s conceptual schema.

Sustainable Learning: A Four ‘R’s Framework for Cognitive Skills

RELATE

Model • In real world/practical approach • Using symbol systems Simulate • Trialling & interpretation of modelling

REFLECT

• New knowledge acquisition replaces/modifies existing understanding

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• Relate phenomenon to existing knowledge • Arouse existing understandings • Make comparisons • Connect knowledge • Seek patterns/similarities

Figure 4: Four ‘R’s for sustainable learning framework

REINTERPRET

• On new knowledge/simulation/ interpretation • Is it plausible?

• Does it ‘fit’?

• How does it compare with original understanding?

• What are the collective /opposing/confirmative views from discussion with others?

REVISE

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CONCLUSION This case study research aimed to explore changes in conceptual understanding as perceived by participants following a GCSE Design and Technology: Electronic Products course. The study developed Twissell’s (2018) previous research, which identified a taxonomy of conceptual profiles (the

The findings also indicate that collaboration was a key dispositional dimension in learners’ approaches to learning. Further research to identify how collaboration informs and supports learners’ development of personal schema would enable a more informed approach to the design of learning instruction and engagement.

operative, logician, programmer and dialectic), by

At a practical level this research contributes a Four

exploring how learners’ conceptual understandings

‘R’s Model of Sustainable Learning which describes

change and evolve in the development of their

a practical approach to developing cognitive skills

knowledge. The study explored learning through the

which may lead to the development of abstract

lens of conceptual change theory, which describes a

conceptual understanding. The model builds upon

particular view of learning based around the gradual

Piaget’s (1955) assimilation/accommodation process,

modification of knowledge schema.

providing specific strategies for achieving conceptual

At a theoretical level this research contributes a learner perspective on conceptual change which draws from the constructivist theories of Bruner (1977), Kolb (1984) and Piaget (1955). The findings suggest that through the experiences of modelling and simulating abstract conceptual phenomena, understanding gradually changes and learners’ attitudes to learning adopt a more pragmatic stance which is focused on the practicalities of applying theoretical ideas to problem solving rather than on the principles of theoretical knowledge as ‘object’.

In addition, learners’ personal learning character, or disposition for specific approaches was shown to be an important feature in support of the strategies used to solve problems; particularly within a project-based learning phase of the course. Their ownership, resilience, motivation and innovation

change based on the four principles: relate, reinterpret, reflect and revise. The model has the potential to apply beyond the applied skills subjects discussed in this case study research.

“Changes in conceptual understanding occur through the need to gradually engage with the practicalities of modelling and simulating the phenomena of interest.”

were found to support the development of both knowledge and understanding and practical coursework-based tasks. This finding supports Kural and Kocakulah’s (2016) assertion that conceptual change involves a multidimensional array of factors including cognitive, metacognitive and specific dispositions for learning to achieve a modification in conceptual understanding.

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Exploring conceptual change in applied contexts: Four ‘R’s to support a sustainable learning journey

NOTES

Kural, M. and Kocakulah, M. S. (2016). Teaching for hot conceptual

1. This manuscript is a modified version of Twissell, A.

European Journal of Education Studies, 2(8), pp. 1-40.

(2019) Conceptual change on the learning journey: Four ‘r’s for sustainable learning in applied contexts.

European Journal of Education Studies, 5 (11), pp. 20-41. The full version includes empirical data to support the discussion of findings, here removed on grounds of scope and space.

change: Towards a new model, beyond the cold and warm ones,

Lave, J., & Wenger, E. (1990) Situated Learning: Legitimate Peripheral Participation. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.

Lucas, B., Hanson, J. and Claxton, G. (2014) Thinking Like an Engineer: Implications for the education system. Project Report. Royal Academy of Engineering.

McCormick, R. (1997). Conceptual and procedural knowledge, Internal Journal of Technology and Design Education, 7, pp. 141-159.

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To what extent can Spoken Latin improve

ABSTRACT This action research project aims at measuring the impact of the use of the Spoken Latin method on the engagement level of Latin students in a Year 9 class (KS3). The level of engagement as the chosen focus of this study was selected based on my professional observations and, consequently, the

engagement at

conclusion that in Year 9 in particular, around and

KS3?

drop in the level of engagement in Latin lessons

immediately after the time of the school year when Year 9 make their GCSE subject choices, the sudden has been considered noticeable and frequently mentioned in the Department. The Spoken Latin project was also hoped to result in increasing the level of confidence of students in seeing the subject as a valuable choice for GCSE and thus creating a motivated self-directed Latin learner where self-motivation is seen as a sign of engagement

Teacher of Classics

Konrad Suder-Chatterjee

(Pilotti, 2017; Nguyen, 2016; Cooper, 2014).

56

To what extent can Spoken Latin improve engagement at KS3?

CONTEXT Aylesbury Grammar School is a state-funded highly achieving selective boys’ grammar school based in Buckinghamshire, UK, with a long tradition of Classics instruction.

Although the success criteria considered as most relevant and relatively plausible to observe within the time frame and the scale of this project are enlisted below, learners’ engagement level is a principal success criterion which has been broken down into more tangible items having

The Classics Department offers fortnightly

the following question in mind: ‘what would it

classes of an in-house Classical Civilisation course

look like if a student is engaged with this aspect

delivered to all Year 7 learners. In Year 8 and Year

of the pedagogy against the success criteria?’

9 all learners study heavily contextualised Latin language as a compulsory subject after which Classics offers GCSE courses in Latin or Ancient History. Subsequently, at A-level learners can choose to continue with Latin or Ancient History.

Ancient Greek is offered in the format of Greek Club on a weekly basis and occasionally some learners take Ancient Greek at GCSE Level.

Following the department scheme of learning, Cambridge Latin Course (CLC) 1 course book was

• Learners are willing to engage with the tasks (whether it is just listening, following what is happening in the class or making notes of the keywords used in the lesson) • Learners do not hesitate to contribute to the lesson and ‘have a go’ using Latin • Learners’ engagement increased via increased understanding of the lesson and parts of it • Instances of re-engaging learners who

used and the project extended over part of the

may have become disengaged

Stage 8 in CLC1 and the Stage is entitled gladiatores

otherwise, via using voice in Spoken Latin

(gladiators). One of three teaching sets which are currently taught by me was recruited to the project and six students, that is, two high attainers, two middle and two lower were chosen to be

• Learners are using Spoken Latin in lesson confidently: think - pair - share • Learners are engaged in their learning:

scrutinised more closely. These six students were

- evidence of learners being challenged but

invited to the focus group interview. The teaching

not overly stretched resulting in

set selection was motivated vastly by the fact that

disengagement due to a poor

I teach the exact same content to two remaining

level of accessibility of the lesson

classes beforehand earlier in any of the weeks A or B and thus choosing this class provided me with an

evidence for focus on the tasks given

invaluable opportunity to familiarise myself with and

• Learners complete their activities

practise the content in a combination of English and

and willingly contribute to the lesson:

Latin before the attempt to implement the Spoken Latin into the lesson in the selected study group.

As the study followed the departmental scheme of learning, more comparable data can be obtained as currently the same material is taught to six cohorts. Three of them are taught by the study leader. Choosing the cohort and selecting learners for the study group from three different groups of attainment was in line with the research ethics and to measure both the learners’ engagement and the progress

- supported contribution - a feedback based on activities - unsupported contribution - a learner tries to play with the language to express themselves in a controlled environment of the lesson topic While analysing the data gained from the study the observed success criteria will be marked whenever and wherever possible as either met, exceeded, or fell short of success criteria.

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57

LITERATURE REVIEW Not surprisingly there is a plethora of teaching and

theories of the method and also examines early attempts to implement the method in classroom.

training materials for the effective and engaging

Wills (1998) provides an organised analysis of oral

use of Spoken Latin followed by a vast corpus of

Latin in schools and colleges. The article focuses on

articles, bloggers, vloggers, youtube channels, social

explaining a number of aspects of Spoken Latin:

media collective or individual accounts, books and

pronunciation, oral comprehension, performance,

journalists focusing on various methods of teaching

oral response and guided conversation. It also

Latin. This almost anecdotal dichotomy between

addresses a burning issue of differing goals and

two major methodologies of Latin instruction has

attitudes and introduces a specific apology of

fuelled intellectual ferment through centuries chiefly

‘increased orality’. The latter is accompanied

in Europe. Due to globalisation and instant access

by an honest comment on the prevalent

to any information from anywhere in the world this

issue of Latin instruction which is low level of

dynamic has been noticeably challenged. In the

familiarity with Latin amongst Latin teachers.

below literature review I specifically focus on only

‘Why should anyone study Latin?’ is a controversial

a number of more modern examples of research

opening question to the article where the spoken

that do include and evaluate the achievements of

method is presented in the light of the discipline of

the previous generations but have more relevance

Second Language Acquisition (SLA) and its relevant

to the contemporary context of Latin instruction

principles by Carlon (2013). The article recognises

and its challenges. There are also positions which

the underdevelopment of SLA research with the

highlight shortcomings of the spoken method

acquisition of Latin as a spoken language which

to which a particular attention was paid.

resonates with caveats introduced by Wills (1998).

Avitus (2018) provides some advice on how to start

Carlon also offers a list of classroom activities seen

speaking Latin, discusses the current developments

from the perspective of SLA research results.

in the UK and aspires to provide guidance on

An interesting answer to the above question can be

speaking Latin opportunities throughout the

found in Sparks et al (1996). Although not specifically

world. He also analyses using Spoken Latin in

focused on spoken method as such, the article

the context of schools and at universities and

provides a wider context to the aims and benefits

provides some pointers on research as well.

of studying Latin as it explores potential correlation

“This almost anecdotal dichotomy between two major methodologies of Latin instruction has fuelled intellectual ferment.”

between studying Latin and academic achievement, that is, the effects of Latin on the native language skills and foreign language aptitude. It presents an analysis of the relationship between native and foreign languages and pays particular attention to phonological, orthographic and lexical areas of language acquisition in learners both at-risk and not-at-risk of learning difficulties (Letchford, 2018).

Peckett (1963) offers an interesting, well-balanced and not propagandist case study of an apparently excellent Latin and Greek teacher W. H. D. Rouse.

An interesting assessment of the effectiveness of the

The article exposes the differing aims of learning

use of Spoken Latin as a means of Latin instruction

modern and classical languages. The chief of

provided by Wingate (2013) is juxtaposed with the

the former is to enable learners to speak while

grammar/translation method which is mentioned

appreciation of the literature is of secondary

as ‘likely to lead to a loss of student interest.’ The

importance. The latter, however, is presented as

article discusses the origins and the underlying

concerned with reading the literature rather than

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To what extent can Spoken Latin improve engagement at KS3?

speaking it. Peckett convincingly argues that if the

and, as a result, the study at this time of the year

sine qua non condition of careful and purposeful

would have been less affected by this factor.

planning of bringing the Latin language into an active capacity is met, the level of ability in and efficiency of reading Latin in students is unparalleled.

Another factor that needs to be borne in mind is that, due to the element of novelty and passion for the Spoken instruction of Latin, the suddenly increased engagement of the instructor themselves

RESEARCH QUESTION It is understood that the engagement of the students in the lesson may be increased or decreased due to the following factors that may need to be considered while analysing data.

may be affecting the engagement of the learners as well. Subsequently, the students in Y9 have not been taught using Spoken Latin and some of them may have grown accustomed or perhaps even over reliant on the use of English as the language of instruction and may struggle with following

Firstly, one of the significant factors affecting the

the Latin language suddenly dominating in the

engagement in the study itself can be the element

classroom. This may result, in some cases, in losing

of novelty alone after introducing Spoken element

the attention of the students and, since it is possible

to Latin lessons for the students. This increased

to anticipate this as a potential barrier, should be

engagement would not necessarily remain at

addressed in advance. One of the ideas to tackle

the same level after a certain period of time (a

this issue was the use of visual support materials or

possibility of its fading away once learners have

hints of the key instructional Latin phrases in the

become accustomed to the newly introduced

format of the permanent displays in the classroom

methodology). It is worth bearing in mind that if

or the permanent elements incorporated into the

the Spoken Latin method had been introduced

PowerPoint presentations used in the classroom.

alongside the Cambridge Latin course at the beginning of the year, it is likely that the element of novelty would have worn off relatively early

59

Furthermore, some learners, for various reasons, may not be able to understand parts of the lesson as the spoken element may lead to a partial or complete disengagement. I am aware of other factors that may play an important role in shaping the engagement in the class. Due to the limitations imposed on the scale of this study and time allowed for it, the aforementioned factors are only a narrow selection of them and more of them were borne in mind while conducting the research in case any of them would become apparent and would be significantly and noticeably affecting the level of engagement amongst learners. In order to avoid the danger of concentrating the attention almost exclusively on the spoken language of the teacher, ‘students being not grounded and knowledge being superficial and inaccurate’ 1, questioning and role playing were incorporated into the lesson plans.

Although the list of those factors does not seem to be short and, more importantly, the question of engagement itself is not simple, the area of this study was chosen in response to markedly and progressively decreased engagement level hitherto observed in lessons in Y9.

Even if not entirely answerable and measurable within the constraints and limitations enlisted earlier, the main research question is whether, to what extent and what dimensions of learner’s engagement the use of Spoken Latin may have an impact on.

According to more traditional statistics, Classics subjects do not have a wide appeal amongst GCSE choices. In this light, although the increased number of learners opting for Classis subjects at GCSE would be a desirable outcome and somehow convincing evidence of enhanced engagement caused by any new approach to the delivery of the course, the underlying recruitment agenda of the Classics department does not play a key role

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY For the duration of the project qualitative methods were chosen over quantitative methods for data collection due to a relatively small sample group recruited to the study, but also due to having significantly more experience and thus confidence in processing the qualitative data. Moreover, due to the complex nature of a phenomenon such as engagement coupled with multiple constraints imposed on the study it was felt that qualitative method would allow wider access to the wealth of information otherwise somehow limited by the quantitative method and the small scale of the project, respectively. Furthermore, it was also felt that the complexity of engagement would be best studied by engaging and listening to the learners themselves about their experiences and reflections.

Despite the limitations, in order to remain as objective as possible various qualitative tools have been employed in the study: external observation, a focus group and a survey in the format of an exit ticket after the whole sequence.

A member of senior leadership (mathematician) conducted an observation of the class taught with the use of Spoken Latin. The Head of Modern Foreign Languages observed the second lesson of the sequence. Subsequently, I provided the observers with an observation sheet with success criteria for engagement in the classroom.

All of the study cohort were informed about their involvement prior to the project implementation.

Six students were selected in pairs from three different ability ranges and observed against the success criteria. The recruitment of the above groups was based on the results from the recent CLC Stage 1-4 assessments. The whole class was taught with the use of Spoken Latin but only those six students were invited to the focus group interview.

in this study but the maximised opportunities for those who would not choose Classics do.

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60

To what extent can Spoken Latin improve engagement at KS3?

During the meeting with the focus group at

via exaggerated body language, varied intonation

one of the lunchtimes, I presented them with

and amplified voice. Both of the lessons were

four major questions which I later replicated

equipped with instructional vocabulary, e.g. audi/te,

in the survey released to the whole class:

tace/te, dic/dicite etc. as well as with question words

1. What are your first impressions after having two lessons where I used Spoken Latin to teach you?

2. How different was your experience of learning

to further support learners’ comprehension. After the story, the cohort was divided into smaller groups, equipped with worksheets and props and the task was to prepare a performance based on the story.

The focus group were asked to work in one group.

Latin using Spoken Latin from your Latin lessons in English?

3. Because the focus of this research project is ‘engagement’ I would like to know what you think of the level of your engagement in Latin when Spoken Latin is used.

4. I am very keen to develop my Spoken Latin lessons and would like to know how to make it more engaging. Would you like to share some ideas I could use in future?

The answers of the group were recorded live by typing when students were sharing the answers with me. Whenever it was perceived as helpful, the teacher asked questions from outside of the prepared list but only in order to clarify the meaning of the question or individual’s answer and to further widen the access to reflections of the group. The same set of questions in the format of a

“Due to the repetitive nature of using keywords and phrases as well as providing definitions of Latin words in Latin, learners should be able to find Spoken Latin supportive of their memory formation, retrieval and retention.”

survey - an exit ticket - was then used to investigate

FINDINGS

and analyse the broader context of the selected, that

Engagement refers to the investment of resources

is, the whole cohort. Subsequently, my professional

either of learners or instructors made to optimise

observations throughout the action research project

learning experience and enhance learning

were taken into account as limited due to high level

outcomes. It can be understood as a threefold

of subjectivity yet insightful due to being well placed

phenomenon that consists of emotional, behavioural

to notice any significant changes in certain students.

and cognitive elements (Trowler, 2010) and relates

I developed a sequence of two Spoken Latin lessons

both to the learners and instructors (sic). It also

largely based on easily adaptable material from

relates to satisfaction, persistence and achievement

CLC E-learning Resources. The comprehension

of both the former and the latter (Pilotti, 2017).

questions which accompany the model sentences

As opposed to traditional Latin composition and

in stage 8 were translated into Latin in order to

grammar activities, in the Spoken Latin method

create an immersive language environment. The

when learners are asked to put down in Latin

CLC original images illustrating the meaning of the

their personal opinions, whether it is in the form

sentences were used as well and provided the basis

of a supported contribution (a feedback based

to Lectio Prima. Lectio Secunda used the CLC story

on activities) or an unsupported contribution (a

in arena. I went through the translation in Latin

learner tries to ‘play’ with the language to express

exemplifying the meaning of words and sentences

themselves in a controlled environment of the

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61

lesson topic), the role of emotional involvement

such, ‘grabs your attention’. Learners also found the

in learning is much greater (Avitus, 2018). Learners

opportunity to use Spoken Latin to communicate

from the focus group, although referred to various

with their peers and the teacher motivational as ‘you

aspects of the Spoken Latin lessons that they

don’t lose track of the lesson’. More evidence for such

experienced while in the research project, gave

observation was noted by the teacher, observer and

almost unanimous and univocal answers to the

some of the learners from the rest of the cohort. A

question regarding the level of their engagement.

few, however, described some difficulty in following

Surprisingly, within the duration of the project, there

the lesson. Theoretically, due to the repetitive

was no conspicuous and distinctive difference in the

nature of using keywords and phrases as well as

engagement level amongst the learners. Moreover,

providing definitions of Latin words in Latin, learners

some learners with suspected learning difficulties

should be able to find Spoken Latin supportive of

where learners are said to ‘exhibit a discrepancy

their memory formation, retrieval and retention. It

between their intellectual ability (IQ) and academic

was pleasing that one student admitted that the

achievement in one or more areas’ (Sparks et al.

Spoken Latin was ‘more rewarding’ as they felt that

1996, p. 166) seemed re-activated by showing signs

they ‘achieve more because’ they ‘learnt more’.

of increased level of enthusiasm and engagement.

Interestingly, at this stage of the research and due to

The learners from the focus group maintained an

its limited timeframe, scale and capacity it remains

increased concentration, paid more attention to

difficult to measure the effect and extent of the

the classroom environment and were significantly

element of novelty brought to the classroom with the

less disruptive. Fourteen out of nineteen of those

trial of extensive spoken Latin use on engagement.

learners who participated in the post-sequence survey admitted that they felt more engaged.

CONCLUSIONS As this method and its effective and inclusive application is clearly very dependent on the competency of the teachers, the use of Spoken Latin may be considered an ultimate proficiency test for teachers. There are multiple resources available to any practitioner willing to improve, if time permits. Although the survey completed by the cohort involved in the study indicates that a minor group of learners would prefer a more grammar directed approach, analysing the nature of the comments it can be suggested that more

The focus group learners commented on this area as well and mentioned that the spoken method implemented in the lessons was ‘more interesting’ and they were ‘more willing to learn and engaged

scaffolding and more differentiated actions would be the opportunity to support those learners for them to be able to access their learning fully and maximise both the satisfaction and outcome.

with and not mess around’. Some of them referred to the higher level of difficulty and challenge which required from them being ‘more engaged to be able to pay more attention to understand in Latin and to know what to do’. Others, however, did not perceive a significant difference in difficulty but highlighted enhanced engagement due to ‘the change of pace’, being ‘different to what they were doing’ and, as Flagship: Journal for Evidence Engaged Practice

“The spoken method implemented in the lessons was more interesting.”

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To what extent can Spoken Latin improve engagement at KS3?

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Does Character teaching domain-specific Education knowledge at Aylesbury by

PROSPECTIVE STUDENTS OPEN EVENING, AYLESBURY GRAMMAR SCHOOL, 15TH SEPTEMBER 2011: I’m standing up to leave a crowded school hall, not entirely sure why I want to come here for my secondary education, but sure that I do nonetheless.

direct Grammar instruction School:

My parents gather their prospectuses and handouts

improve A Student students’

get into the local all-boys, selective Grammar school,

problem-solving Perspective

on either side of me - they probably steered me towards this open evening, keen for me to ultimately with a reputation for its intimidatingly good results.

The highlight of the evening has most certainly not been the former headmaster’s speech at the end - that was for the adults. After all, I’ve just burnt magnesium in a Bunsen burner, spent half my evening throwing a basketball around the sports

The AGS Learner was launched in 2016, following extensive research into

hall and rounded off a school tour in the food tech department, where an unashamed attempt to lure students in with free food has absolutely worked.

character education. Here the Head

Some words from the speech sit uncomfortably in

Boy reflects on its impact across the

my head though: “65% of the jobs that you will go

school, drawing on the views of some

into on leaving this school don’t exist yet”. I shrug it

of our younger students.

off. I’m not concerned by career choice right now. Six years later however, the figure has remained

Year 13 student

Sam Carter

with me.

64

Character Education at Aylesbury Grammar School: A Student Perspective

DECEMBER 20TH 2018 “Gatwick airport’s drone disruption has entered its second day as police, the military and aviation officials attempt to track down who is behind the flights. Some flights have started arriving and departing the airport again but officials have yet

The idea has been implemented across the school, with subject-specific noticeboards in every classroom, assemblies focussed on one or multiple key characteristics, and lessons often specifically targeted at improving these skills alongside subject knowledge.

to find whoever caused the logistical nightmare.

“The AGS Learner has been made very effective.

Just after 21:00 on December 19 two drones were

But why? Due to everybody in the school - teachers

spotted near the runway of Gatwick airport. Though

and students - referring to it and not just thinking

the drones disappeared for a short time around

of it as an irrelevant learning code that can be put

03:00 on December 20, allowing the runway to

at the back of your mind. Extended assemblies

reopen temporarily, they reappeared, shutting down

specifically devoted to the AGS Learner unite the

the airport for the entire day.” – WIRED magazine.

school in striving to foster these characteristics.

The combined might of both the nation’s official aviation authorities and its military have been

The AGS Learner gives a vision to students and teachers alike.” – Aryan, Year 8 Student.

outclassed and overwhelmed. A facility passed

Reaching a point where the AGS Learner is now

through by over 3 million people each month

accepted by all students and fully integrated into

is ground to a complete standstill for days on

school life has not been without its challenges.

end by one little whirring, plastic machine. This

When first introduced, it was met by students with a

is it - I realise - a problem for which you can’t

degree of scepticism, gaining a slightly cliché status.

prepare, or just do your job to counter. This calls

Whilst not all students may find the AGS Learner

for something different; something new. Martin

valuable to the same degree, it is now a largely

Luther King Jnr. asserted “intelligence plus

unchallenged, well integrated idea within the school.

character – that is the true goal of education”,

Only through consistent usage and reinforcement

and in today’s volatile world, the only consistent

has this been possible. Students, especially those

factor, the only education that can be guaranteed

in younger years (for whom the AGS Learner has

effective, is an education of character - those

been in place since their arrival at the school), now

transferable qualities applicable to all situations;

acknowledge the importance of these characteristics

to new experiences, new jobs and new problems.

and the school’s focus on character education.

At our school, the implementation of a central learning ideology, the ‘AGS Learner’, has served to optimise character education. Encompassing five key attributes chosen through consultation with students, staff and parents (resilience, innovation, courage, ownership and motivation) its introduction has proved to bring a real focus to the importance of character as a foundation for all other success.

“The AGS Learner sets a path for the whole school - an ultimate goal that all students look to achieve. Being in a school with this amount of passion towards learning character motivates you to excel and being part of this learning community supports you to become a person of your choice.” – Anthony, Year 7 Student.

“The AGS Learner can be looked upon as a critical checklist for success - it isn’t just in place to help you academically, but it is a guide to build your thinking process in general. It also makes teachers think outside the box for lessons!” – Haaris, Year 7 Student.

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65

JANUARY 12TH 2019 Nikhil, Year 12 Student: Why should I try if I can’t get it right? Throughout my academic experience, this is quite possibly the question I have asked myself the most frequently.

of employability and life satisfaction. After all, there is nothing more gratifying than absolutely nailing something you failed to do last time.

That is why you should not spare yourself the effort.

Or the frustration. Or the personal development.

There is a sort of twisted logic to it, especially to the mind of a confounded schoolboy. If trying leads to failure, and failure brings frustration, then why not spare yourself the effort, right? Wrong.

I sit, gazing through a cloud of irritation at a physics paper, the front cover drooping from where it’s been ripped. To have set expectations so high and to have fallen so low, that more than anything drives my disappointment. After some time of teachers attempting to console me, I honestly feel like hitting the next person who says, ‘don’t worry, there’s always next time’.

MAY 12TH 2019 Looking to the future, just weeks away from the end of my time at school, I can say with certainty that it is the character that has been developed at AGS that I am most grateful for. The difference between knowing the information needed to solve a problem and knowing how to approach the problem in the first place, learning the importance of failure and how to deal with it, the value of self-responsibility, drive and calculated risk taking - these are the skills I will take forwards.

The thing that most miss is that resilience isn’t something you either have or don’t. After a while, you start thinking, ‘Perhaps I should try again’, or ‘I know I can do better than that’. However, for this to happen, the idea needs to be planted. Enter the AGS Learner. The aim of it isn’t to force you to conform to the abstract characteristics displayed on shiny posters, but when the situation arises, such as my aforementioned tangle with failure, to nudge you in the right direction. That right direction

NO MATTER WHAT THE FUTURE HOLDS, CHARACTER STICKS WITH YOU.

eventually leads to significant developments in your character, not only academically, but in terms

Flagship: Journal for Evidence Engaged Practice

66

Flagship Journal for Evidence Engaged Practice Published by Aylesbury Grammar School 2019

“The future of effective education is through teacher expertise, evidence-based pedagogy and understanding the craft of the classroom.”

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