AWT Summer Analyst 2020

the Analyst The Voice of the Water Treatment Industry

Volume 27 Number 3

1300 Piccard Drive, Suite LL 14 • Rockville, MD 20850

Summer 2020

Volume 27 Number 3 Summer 2020

How Do Scale-Inhibition Process Variables Impact Dynamic Scale Testing Results?

How to Stay Ahead of Struvite Scaling in Wastewater Treatment Plants What Is the Efficacy of Secondary Disinfection Treatments Against Opportunistic Waterborne Pathogens?

What Are Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances and Why Should I Care? An Overview of PFAS Issues for Non-PFAS Industries

Published by

Cover An RO system used to remove PFAS contaminants from landfill leachate water.

Photo courtesy of Dewberry Engineers Inc./Leigh-Ann Dudley.

Summer 2020

Volume 27

Number 3

10 How Do Scale-Inhibition Process Variables Impact Dynamic Scale Testing Results?

Emily R. Clark, Ph.D., and Griffin Rial (The Lubrizol Corp.) and John Zibrida and Patrick Sullivan (ZIBEX Inc.) Historically, static tests have been a standard screening method used to evaluate additives as deposit control agents for industrial water treatment. An alternate test method, dynamic tube blocking, differentiates the properties for testing additives that would prove useful in industrial water treatment. Taken together, these test methods distinguish the mechanisms that lead to an effective approach in facing the challenges service companies encounter today. Various inhibitor chemistries are evaluated in a dynamic scale test, with the emphasis on the effects of temperature, pH, and supersaturation to identify effective inhibitor concentrations to prevent fouling.

20 How to Stay Ahead of Struvite Scaling in Wastewater Treatment Plants Zahid Amjad, Ph.D., Walsh University The scaling of wastewater treatment plants by phosphate-based salts continues to pose serious economic operational problems because it clogs piping and damages pumps and valves. Among the phosphate-based salts, struvite scaling is the most prevalent. One approach for staying ahead of this problem involves regularly monitoring the parameters affecting struvite formation and using a treatment program incorporating a scale-control agent. This study presents performance data on a variety of commercial polymers for use as struvite scale control agents.

34 What Is the Efficacy of Secondary Disinfection Treatments Against Opportunistic Waterborne Pathogens?

Shivi Selvaratnam, Ph.D., and Michael Coughlin, Ph.D., Weas Engineering The methods of secondary disinfection are generally confined to chlorine, monochloramine, chlorine dioxide, and copper/silver ionization. Which of these systems is selected will depend on several factors. The complexity of this decision-making process has increased since CMS now requires Water Management Plans to control the presence all opportunistic waterborne pathogens (OWPs). Mycobacteria spp. fall within this category of microorganisms and are particularly resistant to disinfection. The efficacy of traditional secondary disinfection systems to control the growth Legionella and Mycobacterium spp. in potable water systems is compared.

4

Calendar of Events

5

President’s Message

6

Message From the President-Elect

8

Interactive Annual Convention Preview

65 Association News 66 Membership Benefits 67 Industry Notes 70 CWT Spotlight 71

72 Financial Matters 73 Capital Eyes 75 Business Notes 77 T.U.T.O.R. 82 Advertising Index

44 What Are Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances and Why Should I Care? An Overview of PFAS Issues for Non-PFAS Industries Ryan Ames, P.E.; Katie Jones, P.E.; Leigh-Ann Dudley, P.E.; and L. Alex Wall, I.E. Dewberry PFAS are currently receiving high-profile coverage from both technical sources and the national media. The purpose of this article is to explain chemically what PFAS are, delve into the current regulatory climate, and discuss the effects of potential regulations on municipalities and industries. Understanding the current regulatory climate and the possible impacts is vital, as the regulatory landscape is rapidly changing as additional research continues to be published.

3

Making a Splash

the Analyst Volume 27 Number 3

1300 Piccard Drive, Suite LL 14 Rockville, MD 20850 (301) 740-1421 • (301) 990-9771 (fax) www.awt.org

2020 AWT Board of Directors President

Calendar of Events

Association Events 2020 INTERACTIVE Convention & Exposition

Thomas Brandvold, CWT

September 30–October 2, 2020

President-Elect Michael Bourgeois, CWT

2021 Technical Training (West)

Secretary

February 24–27, 2021 Doubletree Mission Valley San Diego, CA

Matt Jensen, CWT

Treasurer Stephen C. Hallier, CWT

Immediate Past President David Wagenfuhr

2021 Technical Training (East)

Directors

March 17–20, 2021 Graduate Annapolis Annapolis, MD

Noah Baskin Mark Coldren, CWT Stephanie Keck, CWT Andy Kruck, CWT

Ex-Officio Supplier Representative Garrett S. Garcia

Past Presidents Jack Altschuler John Baum, CWT R. Trace Blackmore, CWT, LEED AP D.C. “Chuck” Brandvold, CWT Brent W. Chettle, CWT Dennis Clayton Bernadette Combs, CWT, LEED AP Matt Copthorne, CWT James R. Datesh John E. Davies, CWT Jay Farmerie, CWT Gary Glenna Charles D. Hamrick Jr., CWT Joseph M. Hannigan Jr., CWT Mark R. Juhl

Brian Jutzi, CWT Bruce T. Ketrick Jr., CWT Bruce T. Ketrick Sr., CWT Ron Knestaut Robert D. Lee, CWT Mark T. Lewis, CWT Steven MacCarthy, CWT Anthony J. McNamara, CWT James Mulloy Alfred Nickels Scott W. Olson, CWT William E. Pearson II, CWT William C. Smith Marc Vermeulen, CWT David Wagenfuhr Casey Walton, B.Ch.E, CWT Larry A. Webb

Staff Executive Director Heidi J. Zimmerman, CAE

Deputy Executive Director Sara L. Wood, MBA, CAE

Senior Member Services Manager Angela Pike

Vice President, Meetings Grace L. Jan, CMP, CAE

Meetings Manager Morgan Prior

Exhibits and Sponsorship Manager Barbara Bienkowski, CEM

Marketing Director Jennifer Olivares

Managing Editor Lynne Agoston

Director of Accounting Services Dawn Rosenfeld

The Analyst Staff Publisher, Heidi J. Zimmerman, CAE Managing Editor, Lynne Agoston Production Manager, Maryia Alenchyk Technical Editor Michael Henley (303) 324-9507 mdhenleywater@gmail.com

Advertising Sales Heather Prichard advertising@awt.org

2021 Annual Convention & Exposition September 22–25, 2021 Providence Convention Center and Omni Hotel Providence, Rhode Island

2022 Annual Convention & Exposition September 21–24, 2022 Vancouver Convention Centre Vancouver, Canada

2023 Annual Convention & Exposition October 4–7, 2023 Grand Rapids Convention Center and Amway Grand Hotel Grand Rapids, Michigan

Also, please note that the following AWT committees meet on a monthly basis. All times shown are Eastern Time. To become active in one of these committees, please contact us at (301) 740-1421.

Second Tuesday of each month, 11:00 am – Legislative/Regulatory Committee Second Tuesday of each month, 2:30 pm – Convention Committee Second Wednesday of each month, 11:00 am – Business Resources Committee Second Friday of each month, 10:00 am – Special Projects Subcommittee Second Friday of each month, 11:00 am – Cooling Subcommittee Second Friday of each month, 2:00 pm – Pretreatment Subcommittee Third Monday of each month, 9:00 am – Certification Committee Third Monday of each month, 3:30 pm – Young Professionals Task Force Third Tuesday of each month, 3:00 pm – Education Committee Third Friday of each month, 9:00 am – Boiler Subcommittee Third Friday of each month, 10:00 am – Technical Committee Quarterly (call for meeting dates), 10:00 am – Wastewater Subcommittee

Other Industry Events ACS, Fall 2020 Virtual Meeting & Expo, August 17–20, 2020 NACE, Corrosion Technology Week, September 13–17, 2020, Houston, Texas WEFTEC, Virtual Conference & Exhibition, October 5–9, 2020

The Analyst is published quarterly as the official publication of the Association of Water Technologies. Copyright 2020 by the Association of Water Technologies. Materials may not be reproduced without written permission. Contents of the articles are the sole opinions of the author and do not necessarily express the policies and opinions of the publisher, editor or AWT. Authors are responsible for ensuring that the articles are properly released for classification and proprietary information. All advertising will be subject to publisher’s approval, and advertisers will agree to indemnify and relieve publisher of loss or claims resulting from advertising contents. Editorial material in the Analyst may be reproduced in whole or part with prior written permission. Request permission by writing to: Managing Editor, the Analyst, 1300 Piccard Drive, Suite LL 14, Rockville, MD 20850, USA. Annual subscription rate is $100 per year in the U.S. (4 issues).

Please add $25 for Canada and Mexico. International subscriptions are $200 in U.S. funds.

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the Analyst Volume 27 Number 3

President’s Message

By Tom Brandvold, CWT

In early May, AWT conducted its first panel webinar, where we discussed how our member companies are doing. It was eye-opening to hear from peers in the industry about the steps they are taking and, in some cases, the opportunities they see due to this pandemic.

If you weren’t able to join us live, be sure to watch the recording on the Members Only portion of the AWT website. You’ll also want to see the results of the ongoing short benchmarking surveys AWT is conducting to see how our industry is doing.

Professional golfer Frank Nobilo recently recounted this story: You might not have heard of Billy Dunk. He’s one of the great Australian players of all time, winner of five Australian PGAs and 29 tournaments on the Australasian Tour. My first pro tournament in Australia was the Victorian Open. I was 20, unknown, and as such was assigned the first tee time of the day. I was on edge about it because I was staying at a cheap motel well outside of town, didn’t have a car, and would have to depend on a cab picking me up before sunrise. The evening prior, I ran into Billy, whom I idolized. After a little small talk, he asked, “What time you going off tomorrow?” I told him and expressed my concern. “No worries; you can ride with me,” he said. The next morning at 5 am, here came the knock at the door from Billy. “Rise and shine,” he said. “We leave in 30 minutes.” Still squinting, I noticed Billy was still in his pajamas. “Why aren’t you dressed?” I asked. “Aren’t you playing?” He said, “Of course I’m playing, but I don’t go off until this afternoon.” I said, “Why are you giving me a ride in?” He said, “Because you needed one.”

During these times, it has been more important than ever to stay connected to our AWT community. Two of the best resources I have found in recent months have been my AWT colleagues and the AWT website. In fact, we have created a COVID-19 link on the home page that has proven invaluable. Check it out if you haven’t already.

We have exciting plans for the 2020 Annual Convention & Exposition. You will want to join us for this livestreaming, interactive experience. Nothing replaces the connections you make in person, but this year’s format provides new opportunities to engage with colleagues.

The Exhibition Hall will be an immersive experience where we will collaborate using the vFairs tradeshow platform. If there is ever a year you can’t afford to miss, this is it. Be sure register and be part of this unprecedented event.

Impeachment, Kobe, Brexit, Tiger King, COVID, Market Crash, Quarantine, Schools Closed, Zoom, Protests. That’s our 2020 so far, and it’s only July. We are all learning to live in an ever-changing world that includes COVID-19.

The economic impact of the pandemic is yet to be fully realized. As an industry, we have fared better than most.

Water treatment is an essential industry. Those of us whose portfolios include hospitality and components of the oil and gas industries have felt the pinch more than others, but in general, our industry has been relatively unscathed.

Oh, and by the way, look for the opportunity to be Billy Dunk for someone.

Tom Brandvold President

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the Analyst Volume 27 Number 3

Message From the President-Elect

By Michael Bourgeois, CWT

Interactive Meeting

The Convention Committee is excited to be thinking creatively and outside of the box about how we format the AWT INTERACTIVE Convention & Exposition.

People are most curious, and frankly skeptical, about the digital component of the meeting. I was too until I saw a demonstration. Our meeting platform will allow us to have an interactive tradeshow where you can set up appointments or just stop by an exhibitor’s online booth.

All of our speakers will be presenting their sessions online, and this year, we’ll be recording the sessions.

So, if you’re registered for the meeting, you’ll have the opportunity to attend in real-time online and chat with the speakers virtually, and you can watch the sessions later, on your own time. We’ll also have some content prerecorded and available for viewing. We will even have an online awards event and an online silent auction.

While we all wanted to have an in-person event, the issues surrounding the pandemic as well as civil unrest in the convention area convinced us that it would not be possible. The Conference Committee was able to quickly shift its focus to creating an exciting and robust interactive meeting experience. We know that the key to a successful meeting is creating an environment where people can learn from one another and network together.

Given this, we were able to find an online solution that allows us to do just that. Through the interactive meeting, you will still get access to high-quality educational content and be able to meet with vendors and suppliers. You’ll even get to network with your peers in the industry.

If there is ever a year that you can’t afford to miss the Annual Convention, this is it. If you haven’t already registered, be sure to do so soon!

As we continue to plan the 2020 Annual Convention, I welcome your feedback. I can be reached at mbourgeois@chemcoprod.com. Thank you for the opportunity to serve.

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the Analyst Volume 27 Number 3

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What is happening at the AWT Convention

With great educational sessions, networking opportunities, and a dynamic exhibition hall, you won't want to miss this year's event!

Sessions You'll walk away with even more tools and skills that can have an immediate effect on the future direction of your business—and impact your bottom line.

Networking

1,200+ Attendees 50+ Exhibitors 40+ Speakers

More attendees means more networking opportunities.

The convention is a perfect time to meet leading experts in the field and build long-term relationships.

Exposition Hall

The AWT Annual Convention is where over 1,200 water treatment professionals and industry partners gather to exchange resources, strategies, solutions, and more.

Visit the exhibit hall, where you will learn about the latest advances in the industry and see demonstrations of products and technologies that are changing the field of water treatment.

Over three days of learning, growing, and finding inspiration, attendees are equipped with a year's worth of support in their daily responsibilities as leaders in the industry.

We hope you can participate in our first-ever digital event. This will be an unforgettable experience!

8

the Analyst Volume 27 Number 3

SESSIONS 2020—The Future of Water Is Now!

Innovations Improving Efficiencies in Production and the Field

Association of Amoeba and Legionella in Potable and Non-Potable Water Systems

Interpreting and Applying Scale Indices and Saturation Ratios

Chlorine Testing: Choosing the Right Test for the Right Stage of Your Process or Application

Investigation of EDTA/Sodium Thiosulfate for Neutralizing Metal Toxicities When Testing Building Water Samples for Legionella in the Presence of Copper/Silver Biocides

Cleaning and Sterilization of Ion Exchange Resins Comparative Performance of Polymers With Different Architecture as Calcium Oxalate Inhibitors

It’s Time to Reverse the (Mental) Flow: HighRecovery RO Resolved Water Quality Issues and Created Savings in a Beverage Plant

Control of Struvite (Magnesium Ammonium Phosphate) Scale in Wastewater Treatment Plants

Keynote Address—Leadership: Tao of Humor

Cooling Towers and Water Management Programs

Multi-Generational Water Treatment Companies Leaving a Lasting Impact: Part 2

Data-Driven Technology for Water Treatment With a People-Centered Strategy

Not Your Father’s Employee Benefit Market: How Do You Navigate the Maze of Employee Benefits in 2020 and Beyond

Differentiating the Performance of Co- and Terpolymers in Static and Dynamic Laboratory Studies

Onsite qPCR for the Rapid Detection of Legionella Contamination: A Tool to Minimize Risk

Enhancing Efficiencies in Condenser Water Systems

Practical Cybersecurity for Non-Cybersecurity Professionals

Estimation of Best Treatment Conditions of Sunflower Oil Refinery Wastewater for Organic Removal Using Response Surface Methodology

Production of Aqueous Bromine Using Electrohalogenation Systems

Evaluating Vapor-Phase Corrosion Inhibitors Against Traditional Cooling Water Chemistries

Rapid Testing Reducing Risk and Liability During Legionella Outbreak Belgium

Fluorescent Tagged Polymers for Scale Control and Dispersancy

Regulatory Compliance Experiences of Supplemental Disinfection in Premise Plumbing Systems

Going Beyond Legionella: Detection and Control of Other Waterborne Pathogens

Role of Water and Water Treatment in Renewal Energy Production

Government Contracts 101 History and Future—A Survey of Pilot Testing Methodologies and Results for High LSI Applications

Stabilized Chlorine for Cooling Towers Terminations 101: the Good, the Bad, and the Ugly The EPA New Proposed Lead and Copper Rule: How It Can Impact Your Business

Hospitals? Hot Tubs? Pseudomonas aeruginosa: What Water Treaters Should Know

The Importance of Quality Reporting and Maintaining Historical Data

How Do You Attract New Hires?

Implementing a Sustainable Solution for Cooling Tower Treatment in the Food Industry

Wastewater Microbes and Wastewater Pretreatment Systems

Improving Cooling Water Treatment Performance Through a Shared Responsibility Management Agreement

9

the Analyst Volume 27 Number 3

How Do Scale-Inhibition Process Variables Impact Dynamic Scale Testing Results?

Emily R. Clark, Ph.D., and Griffin Rial (The Lubrizol Corp.) and John Zibrida and Patrick Sullivan (ZIBEX Inc.)

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the Analyst Volume 27 Number 3

Abstract Historically, static tests have been a standard screening method used to evaluate additives as deposit control agents for industrial water treatment. Static bottle tests (SBT) are used extensively because they can be conducted under controlled conditions, multiple tests can be run simultaneously, they are easy to set up, and they are economical.

These static tests provide information on an additive’s activity when encountering a range of chemical and thermal variables. In identifying effective additives, it is important to incorporate realistic conditions and situations under which these additives must be able to inhibit scale formation.

or delaying the accumulation of deposits on the heat exchange surface, minimizing corrosion, and preserving the life expectancy of capital equipment. This goal can be achieved by a combination of chemical and mechanical approaches. In this article, we investigate the influence of acrylate-based polymers and their ability to minimize fouling by calcium phosphate. Calcium phosphate can crystallize as Ca3(PO4)2, hydroxyapatite (Ca5(PO4)3OH)), and other amorphous crystals. For this article, we will identify the precipitation of anyone, or the combination, of those crystals as simply calcium phosphate (CaP).

As cooling water programs evolved, the use of zinc, chromate, and other metal-based corrosion inhibitors was curtailed for regulatory reasons (1). An alternative approach based on inorganic phosphate-based programs gained popularity. During the 1980s, cooling water programs began operating under more alkaline conditions. The amount of phosphate in the formulated programs declined; however, phosphate remained in significant concentrations in the cooling water.

Municipalities were required to feed inorganic phosphates to their water distribution lines to achieve compliance with lead and copper limits (40 Code of Federal Regulation [CFR] 141 Subpart 1). The proper treatment of phosphate—whether intentionally incorporated into cooling water programs or incidentally present in the feedwater—is a key factor in proper water treatment.

An alternate test method that has been developed, dynamic tube blocking, differentiates the properties for testing additives that would prove useful in industrial water treatment. Evaluating the performance of an additive in a dynamic environment that includes a heated surface should highlight the chemistry of the scale inhibitors that can minimize the fouling of an industrial water system.

Taken together, these test methods, static and dynamic, distinguish the mechanisms that lead to an effective approach in facing the challenges service companies encounter today. Various inhibitor chemistries are evaluated in a dynamic scale test, with the emphasis on the effects of temperature, pH, and supersaturation to identify effective inhibitor concentrations to prevent fouling.

Introduction The accumulation of mineral deposits (calcium carbonate [CaCO3], calcium sulfate [CaSO4], and tricalcium phosphate [Ca3(PO4)2], among others) on metal surfaces in cooling towers and industrial water treatment systems is a persistent problem. As water is cycled through and replenished in these systems, the mineral concentrations can increase to levels exceeding saturation limits, causing precipitation and mineral deposition on metal surfaces within the system. These deposits lead to decreased efficiency, overheating, unscheduled shutdowns, and heat exchanger failure that can have significant economic impacts for the operators.

Alkaline programs contain other components, specifically for CaCO3 inhibition and ferrous metal corrosion control that can contribute phosphate. The most popular phosphonate treatments are 2-Phosphobutane-1,2,4tricarboxylic acid (PBTC) and 1-Hydroxy ethylidene 1.1-diphosphonic acid (HEDP) (2, 3).

In addition to treatments for corrosion and deposit, control of microbiological activity is a critical aspect of a successful water treatment program (3). The use of oxidizing biocides is prevalent throughout the industry to minimize microorganisms in the cooling system.

These products, whether based on chlorine or bromine, can react with phosphonates and cause reversion to ortho phosphate, further contributing inorganic phosphate to the system.

In addition to monitoring CaP formation, soluble iron levels need to be monitored. In the soluble form, ferrous

The primary objective of a water system operator is to optimize the heat exchange process by preventing

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How Do Scale-Inhibition Process Variables Impact Dynamic Scale Testing Results?

“System pH not only impacts the

iron is not particularly problematic; however, at typical cooling system pH values, iron oxide and iron hydroxide can precipitate. These deposits can be especially difficult to remove. Additionally, the presence of ferric iron in solution negatively affects the performance of some polymeric dispersants (4, 5). As iron concentrations increase, it becomes critical to evaluate and use the appropriate polymeric inhibitor to maximize system performance while also minimizing total operational costs for the operator. To minimize the economic consequences of these deposits, an effective water treatment program tailored to a system’s specific conditions is critical. It is important to evaluate the performance of deposit control polymers (DCPs) in conditions like those being treated in the field.

efficacy of a DCP but can also affect the rate and type of precipitation.”

When evaluating scaling tendencies and additive performance, separate solutions of anions and cations are pumped through the DSL and meet at the sample loop.

As described above, the reactions between ions cause the precipitation of inorganic salts that deposit within the sample loop. As scale builds, the pressure within the sample loop increases. This pressure increase is monitored as a difference between the pressure before and after the sample loop and referred to as the differential pressure (Pdiff ). The DSL can monitor a pressure change up to 10 psi. For this investigation, the loop was considered to have built up sufficient scale when Pdiff was ≥ 2 psi.

The focus of this work was on CaP because of the challenges it presents in all cooling water applications, ranging from moderate-to-severe service (2).

Experimental The polymeric inhibitors used in this study, all commercially available products, are listed in Table A. It has been previously established that co- and terpolymers with sulfonic acid functional groups increase CaP inhibition at lower doses compared to homopolymers or non-sulfonated polymers (6, 7). All polymers were compared under the same precipitation conditions and treatment doses based on active material. Precipitation conditions investigated included temperature, saturation index, and pH. Table A: Polymeric Inhibitors Polymer

Chemistry

A

Poly(acrylic acid/sulfonic acid) copolymer

B

Poly(acrylic acid/sulfonic acid/sulfonated styrene) terpolymer

C

Poly(acrylic acid/sulfonic acid/non-ionic monomer) terpolymer

D

Poly(acrylic acid/sulfonic acid) copolymer

continued

Calcium phosphate. To specifically target CaP formation, solutions of sodium phosphate and calcium chloride were prepared separately and the pH adjusted using dilute NaOH. For experiments involving DCPs, polymer was added to the phosphate solution prior to pH adjustment. Polymer efficacy as a CaP inhibitor was based on the time required for Pdiff to reach ≥ 2 psi.

System pH not only impacts the efficacy of a DCP but can also affect the rate and type of precipitation. The calculated effect of pH changes on CaP scale is shown in Table B (8). Unless noted otherwise, the conditions of this study were 240 parts per million (ppm) calcium and 15 ppm phosphate at pH 9.0.

Table B: Effect of pH on Scaling Indices of Tricalcium Phosphate and Hydroxyapatite in a Solution of 240 ppm Ca2+ and 15 ppm PO43Times Saturation

Dynamic scale loop (DSL). DCP evaluations were done on a PMAC DSL system. The DSL system covers a wide range of temperatures, from ambient to 250 °C, and pressures (up to 3,000 pounds per square inch [psi]). The DSL uses three HPLC pumps capable of handling up to six separate solutions that are pumped through stainless steel tubing in an attached oven.

pH

Tricalcium Phosphate

Hydroxyapatite

7.2

1,764

37

8.3

86,202

545,109

8.5

152,087

2,020,000

9.0

392,648

2,645,507

Notes: 1. The data is based on the use of a solution with 240 ppm Ca2+ and 15 ppm PO43-.

2. Data calculated using French Creek Software (Reference 8).

The pH of the solution post-DSL also was monitored since the formation of hydroxyapatite (Ca 5(PO4)3OH)

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How Do Scale-Inhibition Process Variables Impact Dynamic Scale Testing Results?

can lower the pH. After passing through the sample loop when calcium ions (Ca 2+) mixed with phosphate (PO43-), the water’s pH dropped to 8.0 ± 0.4. The drop in pH was consistent throughout the run, even as scale formation increased within the sample loop.

continued

In those tests, standard polyacrylates, copolymers (based on acrylic acid [AA]/ sulfonic acid [SA]); terpolymers (AA/SA/Sulfonated Styrene [SS]), and other polymers were evaluated.

In the threshold testing for inhibiting CaP formation, it has been observed that homopolymers of acrylic acid are marginally effective in inhibiting CaP precipitation. The copolymers and terpolymers exhibit good activity. Equally important in maintaining a clean heat exchange surface is the ability of the polymers to disperse precipitated CaP. The Amjad et al. results (5, 9) reiterate the enhanced performance of copolymers and terpolymers compared to homoacrylic polymers, but further testing was required to differentiate the activity of the copolymers and terpolymers.

Results and Discussion Polymers can reduce the deposition of scale on a metal surface by a combination of mechanisms: 1. crystal distortion; 2. dispersancy of precipitated or insoluble particulates; and 3. threshold inhibition. Depending on the alkaline salts present in the water, one mechanism may dominate in its ability to maintain a clean surface.

In general, the two mechanisms that are the most effective in inhibiting the formation of scale on a metal surface are dispersancy and threshold inhibition.

Previous investigations by a chemical manufacturerA address the activity of different polymer types that were evaluated in a series of bench tests (5). The performance testing focused on the ability of the polymers to prevent the precipitation of alkaline salts (CaCO3 and Ca3(PO4)2) and their ability to disperse precipitated salts.

The reason for studying both threshold and dispersancy properties is to predict a given compound’s performance in applied water treatment. A product must maintain its efficacy when subjected to various perturbation challenges. Regardless of how effective a threshold inhibitor is, the effectiveness of a polymer depends on its ability to keep a heated surface clean. Therefore, polymer performance is based on the innate properties of threshold inhibition and dispersancy.

To objectively evaluate why these polymers dominate industrial water treatment applications related to CaP, the current study considered a number of options and determined that to objectively test the performance of the polymers in the presence of CaP, the evaluation would require continuous monitoring. The approach that could be used to evaluate performance of the polymers on a continuous basis would be utilization of the DSL system.

Based on the results of these static tests and feedback from end-users in the field, the focus of the study was determined to be specific copolymers and terpolymers. Figure 1 shows the DSL results plotted as a function of the pressure differential (Pdiff ) versus time, comparing DCP performance at at 5 milligrams per liter* (mg/L) active in saturated CaP. *Note: ppm and mg/L are equivalent measurements. For example, 5 mg/L may also be referred to as 5 ppm.

Figure 1: DSL results plotted as a function of Pdiff versus time comparing DCP performance at 5 ppm active in saturated CaP. The fluid temperature was held at 70°C and the system pressure at 100 psi.

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How Do Scale-Inhibition Process Variables Impact Dynamic Scale Testing Results?

In general, polymers with a higher percentage of sulfonate monomers have shown better performance as overall scale inhibitors. Polymer B significantly outperforms the other DCPs. At an increased concentration of 10 and 20 ppm, Polymer A’s performance increased (Figure 2). At 5 ppm, scaling occurred at 140 minutes. Increasing the concentration to 10 ppm extended scaling at 168 minutes,

continued

and at 20 ppm, the Pdiff reached 2 psi at 202 minutes.

However, even at a concentration of 20 ppm, Polymer A did not perform as well as Polymer B. Increasing Polymer B to 20 ppm active ingredient prevented deposition of CaP for more than 24 hours (results not shown).

Figure 2 shows the results plotted as a function of Pdiff versus time comparing Polymer A at 5, 10, and 20 ppm.

Figure 2: DSL results plotted as a function of Pdiff versus time, comparing Polymer A at 5 (solid), 10 (short dashed line), and 20 (dash-dotted line) ppm. The fluid temperature was held at 70 °C and the system pressure at 100 psi.

Interestingly, the rate of scaling does not seem to be greatly affected by the increased polymer dose but rather the time elapsed before scale starts to form in the sample loop. At 20 ppm, Polymer A takes longer to begin scaling, but once it begins, scale formation proceeds at a similar rate regardless of DCP concentration. The average rate of CaP formation in solution with Polymer A for the three concentrations shown in Figure 2 was 0.0167 ± 0.003 psi per minute.

Effect of iron. Previous research showed that the presence of iron adversely effects DCP performance against CaP deposits (5, 9). Sulfonic acid functional groups within a polymer improve their tolerance to the presence of iron. That relationship was investigated again using the DSL and is shown in Figure 3.

Soluble iron in the same saturated solution of CaP increased the rate of deposit formation. Polymer B outperformed Polymer A. The rate of CaP scale formation changed in the presence of iron. This could be due to iron oxide precipitating out of solution or the polymer interactions with Fe3+ and requires further investigation.

“In general, polymers with a higher percentage of sulfonate monomers have shown better performance as overall scale inhibitors.”

14

the Analyst Volume 27 Number 3

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How Do Scale-Inhibition Process Variables Impact Dynamic Scale Testing Results?

continued

Figure 3: DSL results plotted as a function of Pdiff versus time comparing DCPs in the presence of 1 ppm iron. DCPs dosed at 5 ppm active material. The fluid temperature was held at 70 °C and the system pressure at 100 psi.

Field applications/case study. After evaluating DCPs in a laboratory setting, Polymer B, which outperformed the other polymers across all tests, was used in a water sample derived from a commercial water source. With the DSL, rapid testing of DCPs can be done in a controlled environment while allowing adjustments to variables that can affect scaling, such as temperature, pressure, ion content, and additive dosage. It is especially useful in high-stress field applications. Figure 4 shows one example of how the DSL was used to screen DCPs under stressed conditions of high ion content, high temperature, and high pressure. This example highlights the practical ability to conduct dynamic testing using field samples and conditions to determine optimal DCP and dose.

Figure 4: DSL results plotted as a function of Pdiff versus time comparing uninhibited brine (dotted line) to brine treated with 7 ppm Polymer B (dashed line). The fluid temperature was held at 85 °C and the system pressure at 100 psi.

The DSL showed a failure of the blank (Pdiff of ≥ 2 psi) in less than 20 minutes. The use of Polymer B extended the time to failure and complete occlusion of the sample loop (Pdiff ≥10 psi) to 65 minutes. This technique was faster than the usual 20- to 24-hour SBT.

16

the Analyst Volume 27 Number 3

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How Do Scale-Inhibition Process Variables Impact Dynamic Scale Testing Results? continued

A sample of water taken from the field was analyzed (Table D), and synthetic solutions of anions and cations were prepared such that their final concentration, upon mixing in the sample loop of the DSL, equated to the concentration of the field water sample.

3. There is no need to adjust pH during analysis with DSL. Changes in pH can change calcium/phosphorus molar ratios and chemical composition of precipitates.

To determine the appropriate inhibitor for scaling, the pH must be maintained throughout the SBT.

Table D: Water Analysis of Field Sample With a pH of 7.7

4. More variable adjustment during testing, including pressure and inhibitor dose.

Compound

(mg/L)

Compound

(mg/L)

Manganese

0.97

Calcium

294.7

Zinc

0.55

Magnesium

17.9

Sodium

2500

Bicarbonate

75.0

Strontium

9.9

Chloride

4630

Barium

8.5

Sulfate

10.6

Iron

18.1

Phosphate

15.5

Potassium

164.0

Future work will look more closely at the effect of iron on DCP performance. It is critical for DCP selection and performance to understand the mechanism of iron precipitation in a dynamic environment.

References 1. Kemmer, F.N.; Nalco Chemical Company (1988). The Nalco Water Handbook, 2nd ed., McGraw-Hill Co, New York, New York.

Summary Polymer B, the sulfonated terpolymer, provided the best inhibition of CaP with or without the presence of soluble iron. At a higher concentration of 20 ppm, Polymer A did not perform as well as Polymer B at 5 ppm in test conditions of this study. Additionally, Polymer B can be applied to higher-stress waters and excels at inhibiting scale in these stressed water quality conditions sometimes found in the field.

The use of a DSL offers many benefits in designing an effective industrial water treatment program, including:

2. Dubin, L. (1982). “The Effect of Organophosphorus Compounds on a Calcium Carbonate Crystal Morphology,” Journal of Cooling Tower Institute 3(1).

3. Boffardi, B.P. (1986). Fundamentals of Cooling Water Treatment, (6) Calgon, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania.

4. Marshall, A.; Greeves, B. (March 17–21, 1986). “The Effect of Water Quality on the Performance of Extended Phosphate Technology,” Paper No 399, CORROSION ‘86 Houston, Texas, National Association of Corrosion Engineers International.

5. Amjad, Z.; Pugh, J.; Zibrida, J.; Zuhl, R.W. (March 24–29, 1996).

“Polymer Performance in Cooling Water: The Influence of Process Variables”, Paper No 160, CORROSION ’96, Denver, Colorado, National Association of Corrosion Engineers International, Houston, Texas.

6. Zuhl, R.W.; Amjad, Z.; Masler, W.F. (Feb. 25–27, 1987). “A Novel Polymeric Material for Use in Minimizing Calcium Phosphate Fouling in Industrial Cooling Water Systems” Paper No. TP 87-7, Cooling Tower Institute, New Orleans, Louisiana.

7. Marshall, A.; Greeves, B. (March 17–21, 1986). “The Effect of Water Quality on the Performance of Extended Phosphate Technology,” Paper No 399, CORROSION ‘86 Houston, Texas, National Association of Corrosion Engineers International.

1. Analyses that can be done in a few hours versus 20 to 24 hours with SBT.

8. Ferguson, R.J.; Freedman, A.J.; Fowler, G.; Kulik, A.J.; Robson, J.; Weintritt, D.J. (1994). “The Practical Application of Ion Association Model Saturation Level Indices to Commercial Water Treatment Problem Solving,” presentation at symposium in honor of G. Nancollas, Ph.D., American Chemical Society, Washington, D.C.

2. The ion content in the water is continuously refreshed in the DSL sample loop during scaling tests. In SBT, as CaP forms, soluble ions are depleted, slowing down the scaling process in a way that is less representative of conditions in industrial water.

9. Zuhl, R.W.; Amjad, Z. (Nov. 7–10, 1993). “The Role of Polymers in Water Treatment Application and Criteria for Comparing Alternatives,” 1993 Association of Water Technologies Annual Convention, Las Vegas, Nevada.

Endnote A

The Lubrizol Corp. (Wickliffe, Ohio) is the chemical manufacturer referred to in the text.

18

the Analyst Volume 27 Number 3

How Do Scale-Inhibition Process Variables Impact Dynamic Scale Testing Results? continued

Emily R. Clark, Ph.D., is a chemist at the Lubrizol Corp., working in their Oilfield, Refinery, & Water Treatment Division. Her work focuses on the research, development, and testing of materials for both industrial and oilfield water treatment. Dr. Clark earned her doctorate at the University of Texas at San Antonio and has experience in analytical, organic, and biochemistry in the water treatment and the petroleum industries.

BULK SYSTEMS, INC. dŚŽƵŐŚƞƵů ƉƌŽĚƵĐƚƐ ĨŽƌ ƚŚĞ ǁĂƚĞƌ ƚƌĞĂƚŵĞŶƚ ŝŶĚƵƐƚƌLJ ZĞǀŽůƵƟŽŶĂƌLJ ĞƐŝŐŶ ϲϱ 'ĂůůŽŶ ĂƉĂĐŝƚLJ &ůŽŽĚĞĚ ^ƵĐƟŽŶ ŝŬĞdĂŶŬ

Griffin Rial is a product manager at the Lubrizol Corp. within the Oilfield, Refinery, & Water Treatment Division. He supports technical efforts to add value to Lubrizol’s water treatment customers through its differentiated chemistry. Prior to joining Lubrizol, Mr. Rial led product development and commercialization efforts at an early stage medical device company. He holds a master’s degree in biomedical engineering from Case Western Reserve University.

John Zibrida is the president of ZIBEX, Inc. He has been a member of AWT for more than 30 years and has over 40 years of experience in the chemical and environmental industries. Mr. Zibrida has presented several papers at NACE International and AWT conferences. He also chaired the water treatment committee of CTI and was AWT Boiler Subcommittee chair.

He holds a bachelor’s degree in chemistry from Florida State University and an MBA from Emory University. Mr. Zibrida studied chemical engineering at the University of South Florida and the Colorado School of Mines.

Patrick Sullivan is the sales manager at ZIBEX. He has worked in industrial water for more than 30 years. He has served in various capacities, including R&D, technical service support, sales, and marketing. His responsibilities have included supervising the development of applied product information in the laboratory and transferring to successful field commercial applications in cooling, boilers, and reverse osmosis. He holds a bachelor’s degree in chemistry from the State University of New York at Plattsburgh and a master’s in chemistry from the University of Buffalo.

This technical paper was presented at the 2019 AWT Annual Convention, which was conducted September 11–14, 2019, in Palm Springs, California.

19

hŶŝƋƵĞ ĚĞƐŝŐŶ ĨĞĂƚƵƌĞ ŽĨ ƚŚŝƐ ĚŽƵďůĞ ǁĂůůĞĚ ƚĂŶŬ ŝƐ ƚŚĂƚ ŝƚ ƐĂĨĞůLJ ĂůůŽǁƐ LJŽƵ ƚŽ ĂǀŽŝĚ ůŽŽƐŝŶŐ ƉƌŝŵĞ ŝŶ LJŽƵƌ ƉƵŵƉ ďLJ ƉƵŵƉŝŶŐ ĨƌŽŵ ƚŚĞ ďŽƩŽŵ ǁŝƚŚŽƵƚ ĂŶLJ ƌŝƐŬ ŽĨ ĐĂƚĂƐƚƌŽƉŚŝĐ ƐƉŝůů. dŚŝƐ ƚƌƵůLJ ŝŶŶŽǀĂƚĞĚ ĚĞƐŝŐŶ ŝƐ ƚŚĞ ƌĞƐƵůƚ ŽĨ ŽǀĞƌ ƚŚŝƌƚLJ LJĞĂƌƐ ŽĨ ǁŽƌŬŝŶŐ ǁŝƚŚ ĐŽŵƉĂŶŝĞƐ ŝŶ ƚŚĞ tĂƚĞƌ dƌĞĂƚŵĞŶƚ /ŶĚƵƐƚƌLJ. tĞ ŬŶŽǁ ǁŚĂƚ LJŽƵ ǁĂŶƚ͘ &ůŽŽĚĞĚ ^ƵĐƟŽŶ͕ ^ĂĨĞƚLJ͕ ĂŶĚ ^ŵĂƌƚ >ŽŽŬŝŶŐ͘ Bulk Systems, Inc. ĚŽĞƐ ŝƚ ĂŐĂŝŶ͘

ŽŶƚĂĐƚ ƵƐ ĨŽƌ ŵŽƌĞ ŝŶĨŽƌŵĂƟŽŶ Ăƚ͗ ĞŵĂŝů͗ ĚŽƵŐΛďƵůŬƐLJƐƚĞŵƐŝŶĐ͘ĐŽŵ WŚŽŶĞ͗ ϴϰϳ ϱϰϲͲϯϭϭϯ

the Analyst Volume 27 Number 3

How to Stay Ahead of Struvite Scaling in Wastewater Treatment Plants Zahid Amjad, Ph.D., Walsh University

Abstract The scaling of wastewater treatment plants by phosphate-based salts continues to pose serious economic operational problems because it clogs piping and damages pumps and valves, resulting in frequent cleaning and premature equipment replacement. Among the phosphate-based salts, struvite scaling is the most prevalent.

One approach for staying ahead of this problem involves regularly monitoring the parameters affecting struvite formation and using a treatment program incorporating a scale-control agent. This study presents performance data

20

on a variety of commercial polymers for use as struvite scale control agents. The results reveal that synthetic homopolymers containing the carboxylic acid group perform better than other copolymers.

Introduction Higher levels of phosphate in wastewater are responsible both for the deterioration of the water quality of natural water sources and for the formation of undesirable deposits on the various equipment and parts of machinery used during the wastewater treatment

the Analyst Volume 27 Number 3

processes. Phosphate concentrations in wastewater— both industrial and municipal—may increase due to intensive soil fertilization and domestic and industrial processes. In some cases, the phosphate concentrations in treated water may be sufficiently high to cause the formation and deposition of undesirable scale formed due to the interaction of phosphate ions with metal ions such as magnesium, calcium, and iron, which can be present in excess amounts in wastewater.

Additionally, the higher concentrations of phosphate, ammonia, and magnesium present in wasted sludge can result in the formation of scale called struvite (magnesium ammonium phosphate, MgNH4PO4•6H 2O).

Struvite usually precipitates as white orthorhombic crystals and may be used as either a fertilizer or raw material for the production of phosphorous. Apart from struvite, other magnesium phosphate species that can form in solutions include MgHPO4•3H 2O (newberyite), Mg3(PO4)2•8H 2O (trimagnesium phosphate). Other minerals that can form include magnesium carbonate (MgCO3) and calcium phosphate (Ca 5(PO4)3OH, hydroxyapatite) (1).

Olsznski and co-workers (6) investigated the effect of tetrasodium pyrophosphate as struvite precipitation inhibitor. Results of this study show that the addition of this inhibitor not only causes a delay in struvite nucleation and decrease in growth efficiency but also influences struvite morphology and habit. In another study, Kofina, et al. (7), using the constant composition method, reported that the addition of low concentrations (i.e., few milligrams per liter, mg/L) of citrate and phosphocitrate to supersaturated solution showed significant reduction in struvite precipitation.

Struvite formation has also been reported as a component of urinary stones. Commonly encountered minerals as kidney stones include calcium oxalate, struvite, uric acid, and carbonated hydroxyapatite. The so-called infectious urinary stones constitute from 10% to 30% of all stones found in humans (2).

In aqueous solution, struvite precipitation takes place according to the reaction shown in Equation 1: Mg2+ + NH4+ + Hn(PO4)3-n + 6H 2O MgNH4PO4•6H 2O + nH+ (n = 0, 1,2)

Recently, the precipitation and inhibition of struvite in aqueous systems has been the subject of numerous studies. Mpountas, et al. (5), in their study on struvite scale formation and phosphorous recovery using fluidized bed crystallizer, reported that it was possible to achieve significant phosphorous recovery at low pH such as 6.5.

Moreover, the addition of various pollutants, including arsenic, cadmium, iron, manganese, chromium, and nickel, showed very limited adsorption and no effect on the kinetics of crystal growth at pH 6.50, making the process quite attractive for the recovery of an important raw material such as phosphorous.

Eq. 1

Solution pH and supersaturation are the two important parameters that influence struvite precipitation.

Supersaturation is the state of a solution where ion activity product (IP) is greater than its solubility product (Ksp). As the existing species of the three constituent ions of struvite are affected by solution pH, the pH of the solution may, in fact, play the most important role in the process of struvite precipitation (3). Additionally, the presence of low levels of heavy metals present in wastewater may also influence the rate of struvite precipitation (4).

21

During the last three decades, the effect of polymeric and non-polymeric additives as mineral scale (i.e., calcium phosphate, calcium carbonate, calcium sulfate, magnesium ammonium phosphate, strontium sulfate, and silica, among others) inhibitors have been the subject of intensive investigations by academic researchers and industrial technologists (8-12). The results of these studies clearly show that the efficacy of an additive scale inhibitor strongly depends on the molecular architecture of the additive and the mineral scale being inhibited.

The present article deals with the precipitation of struvite from simulated wastewater in the presence of polymers as struvite inhibitors. As shown in Table A, these polymers possess several similarities as well as significant structural differences. The morphology of struvite crystals formed in the presence of polymers as investigated

by X-ray diffraction and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) will be presented. Results collected on various polymers used for inhibiting struvite will be compared with inhibition of mineral scales commonly encountered in industrial water systems.

the Analyst Volume 27 Number 3

How to Stay Ahead of Struvite Scaling in Wastewater Treatment Plants continued

Table A: Polymers Tested

Functional Group/ionic Chargea -COOH anionic

Structure &+ ± &+ Q &22+

MW (K)

Acronym

2.7 7.0 60

HP1 HP2 HP3

-COOH anionic

6 30

HP4 HP5

-COOH anionic

<1

HP6

-COOH anionic

<10

HP7

4.5

HP8

0.4 – 1.5

HP9

<20k

HP10

>100

HP11

poly(acrylic acid) &+ &+ ± &+ Q &22+

poly(methacrylic acid) &+ ± &+ Q &22+ &22+

poly(maleic acid) 2

2+ &

1+

2

&+ &+

& Q

poly(aspartic acid) 2+ +2&+ 2 2+ 2+ 2

+2&+

-saccharide -COOH

2

+2 2 &+

&+

2

2

&+

2 2

2

+2

&+

2

2

non-ionic anionic

Q &+ 2+

2+

poly(carboxymethyl inulin) with 25% degree of carboxylation 5 2+

&

5 &

2

-OH -C-C-OH

+

-COOM

Q

022 &

& 220

neutral anionic

poly(epoxysuccinic acid)

&+

&+ Q 1

--C-N-C 2

CO non-ionic

poly(vinyl pyrrolidone)

poly(diallyldimethyl ammonium chloride)

cationic

22

the Analyst Volume 27 Number 3

How to Stay Ahead of Struvite Scaling in Wastewater Treatment Plants continued

Table A: Polymers Tested (continued)

Functional Group/ionic Chargea

Structure &+ ± &+ Q

MW (K)

Acronym

<15k

CP1

<10k

CP2

&+ ± &+ P

-COOH

&2

&22+

1+ + &

&

-SO3H

&+

aninoic

&+ 62 +

poly(acrylic acid:2-acrylamido-2-methyl propane sulfonic acid) &+ ± &+ Q &+ ± &+ P

-COOH -SO3H

&22+ &22+ 62 +

poly(maleic acid:sulfonated styrene)

; ,Ϯ

,ͿŶ

; ,Ϯ

anionic

,Ϳŵ

KK,

-COOH

K

--CO -O

K ; ,ϮͿϯ

,ϮK,

&+

&+

&+

&22 1D

&+

Anionic non-ionic

Q

-COOH --C-N-C

&22 1D

1

2

CP3

-CH-

poly(acrylic acid:hydroxypropyl acrylate)

<10k

15k

CP4

CO anionic non-ionic

poly(maleic acid:vinylpyrrolidone)

&

&+

&22

&22

&+

& 1

2

&+

&

-COOH

S

--C-N-C 2&2&+

CO poly(maleic acid:vinylpyrrolidone:vinyl acetate)

&+ &+ P &+ &22+

&+

TP1

anionic non-ionic

Q &+ &+ \

-COOH -SO3H

&2 1+

anionic

+ & & &+ &+ 62 +

N/A

<15k

TP2

62 +

poly(acrylic acid:2-acrylamido-2-methylpropane sulfonic acid) a at the pH of the working solution

23

the Analyst Volume 27 Number 3

How to Stay Ahead of Struvite Scaling in Wastewater Treatment Plants

continued

Experimental Protocol

Where:

Struvite scale inhibition in the presence and absence of polymers was studied according to the procedure described earlier (13, 14). Chemicals used were analytical grade, and their stock solutions were prepared in distilled water. A stock solution of sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO3) and glucose were made fresh for each set of experiments. All stock solutions of chemicals used for preparing synthetic wastewater (SWW) was filtered through membrane filters (0.22 micron [μm]) before the experiment. The scaling index, SI, defined as IP/Ksp, where IP is the ion activity product and Ksp is the thermodynamic solubility, was calculated for each of the potentially forming solid-phase scalants by considering all appropriate equilibria between magnesium, ammonium, phosphate, and polymer species in solution using the procedure described previously (15).

(Mg)p = Mg concentration in the presence of polymer at t = 24 hour (h) (Mg)i = Mg concentration in the absence of polymer at t=0h (Mg)f = Mg concentration in the absence of polymer at t = 24 h

Results and Discussion The following sections present results and discussion on the evaluation of a variety of polymers containing functional groups with different ionic charges (i.e., neutral [no charge], anionic [negative charge], and cationic [positive charge]) as struvite inhibitors for wastewater applications.

Polymers used were commercial materials, and their stock solutions were prepared on dry weight basis. SWW has the following composition: sodium chloride (NaCl), 585 mg/L; sodium nitrate (NaNO3), 502 mg/L; sodium sulfate (Na 2SO4), 1,704 mg/L; sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO3), 1,504 mg/L; and glucose, 94 mg/L. For the solution containing Mg2+ = NH4+ = PO43- = 6.025 millimolar (mM), the SI calculated is 1.72, indicating that the solution is supersaturated with respect to struvite.

Struvite supersaturated solutions were prepared in a glass bottle (125 mL) by rapidly mixing equimolar (1:1:1) concentration of total Mg, total NH4, and total PO4. Experiments involving inhibitor were performed by adding the inhibitor solution prior to the addition of stock solution of magnesium chloride. All experiments were carried out at pH 8.50 and 25 °C. The progress of struvite precipitation was monitored by withdrawing samples at known time and analyzing the filtered (0.22 μm) samples for magnesium by atomic absorption spectrometry and phosphate by colorimetric method. Solids collected at the end of experiments were characterized by scanning electron microscopy and powder X-ray diffraction technique.

Figure 1 presents dosage versus the %I profile for poly(maleic acid), HP6. It can be seen that the %I value increases with increasing HP6 dosage. For example, the %I value obtained in the presence of 5, 10, and 15 mg/L are 9%, 23%, and 40%, respectively. It is worth noting that increasing the HP6 dosage by twofold (i.e., from 15 to 30 mg/L) results in > 80% increase (from 40% to 75%) in HP6 performance. Figure 2 shows plots of %I value collected in the presence of 30 mg/L of a variety of homopolymers containing different functional groups.

There are three points worth noting: Figure 1: Struvite inhibition as a function of HP1 polymer dosage.

Polymer efficacy as struvite precipitation inhibitor was calculated using Equation 2: Percent inhibition (%I) = [(Mg)p - (Mg)f / (Mg)I – (Mg)f ]

Eq. 2

24

1. Among the homopolymers containing the carboxylic acid group (-COO-), such as poly(acrylic acid), HP1; poly(methacrylic acid), HP4; poly(maleic acid), HP6;

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How to Stay Ahead of Struvite Scaling in Wastewater Treatment Plants continued

poly(aspartic acid), HP7; carboxymethyl inulin with 25% degree of carboxylation, CMI-25, HP8; and poly(epoxysuccinic acid), HP9, the order of polymer performance is HP1 > HP6 > HP9 > HP4 > HP8 > HP7 >> HP10, HP11. It is clear that HP6 containing two -COOgroups on adjacent carbon atoms exhibits relatively poor performance compared to HP1. It is interesting to note that the incorporation of a neutral group in HP9 further decreases the HP9 performance compared to HP1. The better performance shown by HP1 compared to other homopolymers may be attributed to stronger adsorption of HP1 on struvite crystallites.

2. Polymer such as vinylpyrrolidone (HP10) containing a neutral group shows poor performance as struvite inhibitors.

3. A polymer containing cationic charge (HP11) is an ineffective struvite inhibitor. It should be noted that whereas polymers containing neutral and cationic groups (i.e., HP10 and HP11) are ineffective struvite inhibitors, these polymers have been shown to exhibit good performance as silica polymerization inhibitors (16). Thus, the performance data presented in Figure 2 clearly show that homopolymer performance as a scale inhibitor strongly depends on the -COOH group present in the polymer.

Figure 2: Performance of homopolymers (30 mg/L) as struvite inhibitors.

â&#x20AC;&#x153;The results reveal that polymers containing two and three co-monomers exhibit lower performance compared to the homopolymer containing only one monomer (HP1).â&#x20AC;?

For comparison, performance data on homopolymer (i.e., HP1) is also presented in Figure 3. The results reveal that polymers containing two and three co-monomers exhibit lower performance compared to the homopolymer containing only one monomer (HP1).

The observed poor performance shown by co- and terpolymers may be attributed to poor adsorption due to interference of larger and bulky hydrophobic groups (i.e., sulfonated styrene, vinyl pyrrolidone, and 2-acrylamido-2-methyl propane sulfonic acid, among others).

It is worth pointing out that whereas co- and terpolymers (i.e., CP1, CP2, CP3, and TP2) exhibit poor performance as struvite inhibitors, these polymers have been reported to show good-to-excellent performance as calcium phosphate and calcium phosphonate inhibitors and iron oxide dispersants (17). Further, whereas copolymer (i.e., CP4) containing a neutral group shows mediocre performance as struvite inhibitor, this copolymer has been shown to exhibit good performance as silica polymerization inhibitor. This suggests that polymer performance as a scale inhibitor and/or dispersant strongly depends on the scaling system being inhibited, or suspended matter being dispersed.

Figure 3: Performance of homo-, co-, and terpolymers (30 mg/L) as struvite inhibitors.

To study the influence of second and third monomers in poly(acrylic acid) and poly(maleic acid) with co-monomers containing different functional groups (i.e., -SO3H, -COOH [anionic], -COOR, -OH [non-ionic]), a series of struvite precipitation experiments was carried under similar experimental conditions. Performance data on these co- and terpolymers are illustrated in Figure 3.

28

Poly(acrylic acids) (PAAs), which varied in molecular weight (MW) from 2.7K (2,700) to 60K,

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How to Stay Ahead of Struvite Scaling in Wastewater Treatment Plants continued

such as calcium fluoride, calcium phosphate, calcium carbonate, and calcium phosphonates (18-21).

â&#x20AC;&#x153;Successful wastewater treatment formulations incorporate a variety of additives to effectively control

Figure 4: Performance of homo-, co-, and terpolymers (30 mg/L) as a function of polymer molecular weight.

precipitation and deposition of struvite on equipment surfaces.â&#x20AC;?

poly(methacrylic acids) (PMAAs) of varying MW (5K to 30K), and copolymers of maleic acid: vinyl pyrrolidone (MW 15K, 60K) were evaluated under similar experimental conditions (i.e., 30 mg/L dosage, SI 1.72) for their efficacy as struvite inhibitors. The test results presented in Figure 4 show that polymer performance strongly depends on MW. As illustrated, for PAAs, the performance increases with increasing MW (from 2.7K to 7K) and decreases thereafter with increasing MW. Similar observations of MW dependence were also observed for PMAAs and copolymers of maleic acid: vinyl pyrrolidone. The observed decrease in polymer performance with increasing MW may be attributed to poor polymer adsorption, increased bridging effects, and kinetic factors. It is worth noting that polymer performance dependence on MW as observed in the present study has also been reported for various scaling systems,

Struvite Crystals Characterization Struvite crystals formed in the absence and presence of HP6 and collected at the end of experiments were characterized by X-ray diffraction (XRD) technique and SEM. It can be seen from Figure 5A that XRD spectra of struvite crystals formed in the absence of polymer matched very well with that of the published pattern confirmed the formation of struvite crystals as the only phase present. Further, XRD spectra obtained in the presence of varying dosages of HP6 also confirmed the formation of struvite crystals (Figure 5B).

Figure 5: (A) (left): X-ray diffraction pattern of struvite crystals formed in the absence of HP6 polymer (top pattern) versus standard struvite diffractogram (bottom pattern); and (B) (right): Diffractograms of struvite crystals formed in the presence of varying dosages of HP6 polymer.

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Photographs were taken using an SEM for the visual analysis in order to access the effects of polymers on struvite crystals shape and agglomeration. The characteristic morphology of struvite in the absence of HP6 is presented in Figure 6A. SEM images of crystal grown in the presence of HP6 show the strong agglomeration that made the shape hardly distinguishable (Figure 6B). Figure 6C shows the effect of using 10 mg/L HP6.

Figure 6: Scanning electron micrographs of struvite crystals grown in the presence of 0 mg/L to 10 mg/L HP6. Figure 6A (left): 0 mg/L HP6, bar size—10 µm; Figure 6B (middle): 5 mg/L HP6, bar size—1 µm; and Figure 6C (right): 10 mg/L HP6, bar size—3 µm.

Closing Remarks The accumulation of struvite (magnesium ammonium phosphate hexahydrate, MgNH4PO4) on equipment surfaces, pumps, aerator screens, and pipe walls of anaerobic digestion and post-digestion processes is a persistent problem in wastewater treatment plants. Remediation, most of the time, is costly and time consuming. A wide array of wastewaters containing nitrogen and phosphorous has been the subject of struvite precipitation and recovery.

Further, struvite has been recognized as a common constituent of renal calculi in both humans and animals.

Successful wastewater treatment formulations incorporate a variety of additives to effectively control precipitation and deposition of struvite on equipment surfaces.

This article examined the efficacy of different polymers to control struvite scaling. They include a variety of homo-, co-, and terpolymers containing monomers with functional groups of different ionic charge (i.e., anionic, non-ionic, cationic) and varying MWs. The results show that: Struvite inhibition increases with increasing polymer dosage. The ability of a polymer to perform at low dosages is an important selection criterion.

Among the homopolymers tested, polymers containing the -COOH group show good-to-excellent performance as struvite inhibitors.

30

Homopolymers containing neutral and cationic charge are ineffective struvite inhibitors.

Polymer performance as struvite inhibitor strongly depends on ionic charge, monomer type, functional group, and MW. Based on the inhibition data, the ranking of struvite inhibitors is homopolymer > copolymer > terpolymer.

It is worth noting that the reverse order (terpolymer > copolymer >homopolymer) has been observed for calcium phosphate, calcium phosphonate, and iron oxide dispersant.

X-ray diffraction data confirm the formation of struvite in the absence and presence of polymer.

An SEM study revealed that the presence of polymer results in aggregation of struvite crystals.

Acknowledgements The author thanks the Department of Chemistry, School of Arts and Sciences, and Walsh University in North Canton, Ohio, for providing the research facilities, and Professor Peter G. Koutsoukos, Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Patras, Patras, Greece, for struvite crystals characterization.

the Analyst Volume 27 Number 3

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How to Stay Ahead of Struvite Scaling in Wastewater Treatment Plants continued

21. Amjad, Z. (2014). “Bioplymers as Calcium Fluoride Precipitation Inhibitors for Aqueous Systems”, Chapter 6 in Mineral Scales in Biological and Industrial Systems, Amjad, Z., ed., CRC Press, Boca Raton, Florida.

References 1. MacAdam, J.; Jarvis, P.; (2015). “Water-Formed Scales and Deposits: Types, Characterization, and Related Industries”, Chapter 1 in Mineral Scales and Deposits: Fundamentals and Technological Approaches, Amjad, Z; Demadis, K., eds., Elsevier, Waltham, Massachusetts.

Glossary List

2. Chauhan, C.K.; Joshi, M.J. (2013). “In Vitro Crystallization, Characterization, and Growth Inhibition Study of Urinary Type Struvite Crystals”, Journal of Crystal Growth, 362, pp. 330-337.

3. Fatah, K.P. (2012). “Assessing Struvite Formation Potential at Wastewater Treatment Plants”, International Journal of Environmental Science and Technology 3(6), pp. 548-552.

4. Koutsoukos, P.G.; Kofina, A.N. (March 2007). “Struvite Scale Formation and Inhibition in Wastewater”, Paper No. 07057, CORROSION 2007, Nashville, Tennessee, NACE International, Houston, Texas.

5. Mpountas, I.; Mavrikou, T.; Koutsoukos, P.G. (2014). “Struvite Scale Formation and Phosphorous Recovery”, Chapter 9 in Mineral Scales in Biological and Industrial Systems,” Amjad, Z., ed., CRC Press, Boca Raton, Florida.

6. Olszynski, M.; Prywer, J.; Brzoska, E.M. (2016). “Inhibition of Struvite Crystallization by Tetrasodium Pyrophosphate in Artificial Urine: Chemical and Physical Aspects of Nucleation and Growth”, Crystal Growth & Design, 16, pp. 3519-3529.

7. Kofina, A.N.; Demadis, K.D.; Koutsoukos, P.G. (2007). “The Effect of Citrate on Struvite Spontaneous Precipitation”, Crystal Growth & Design 7(12), pp. 2705-2712.

8. Amjad, A.; Hooley, J. (1994). “Effect of Antiscalants on the Precipitation of Calcium Carbonate in Aqueous Solutions”, Tenside Surfactants Detergents, 31, pp. 12-16.

9. Amjad, Z. (2014). “Biopolymers as Calcium Fluoride Precipitation Inhibitors for Aqueous Systems”, Chapter 6 in Mineral Scales in Biological and Industrial Systems,” Amjad, Z., ed., CRC Press, Boca Raton, Florida (2014).

10. Demadis, K.D.; Spinthaki, A.; Skordalou, G.; Aristodemou, I.; Zepou, A. (March 2019). “Influence of Structural Features of Scale Inhibitors on the Control of Silica Scaling”, Paper 12861, CORROSION 2019, Nashville, Tennessee, NACE International, Houston, Texas.

11. Xyla, A.G.; Mikroyannidis, J.; Koutsoukos, P.G. (October 1992). “The Inhibition of Calcium Carbonate Precipitation in Aqueous Media by Organophosphorous Compounds”, Journal of Colloid and Interface Science 152(2), pp. 537-551.

12. Amjad, Z.; Kweik, A. (March 2019). “Comparative Performance of Natural, Hybrid, and Synthetic Polymers Containing Different Functional Groups as Strontium Sulfate Scale Inhibitors”, Paper No. 12880, CORROSION 2019, Nashville, Tennessee, NACE International, Houston, Texas.

13. Koutsoukos, P.G.; Kofina, A.N. (2010). “Phosphate Containing Scale in Wastewater,” Chapter 11 in The Science and Technology of Industrial Water Treatment”, Amjad, Z., ed., CRC Press, Boca Raton, Florida.

14. Amjad, Z.; Koutsoukos, P.G. (April 2018). “Influence of Inhibitor Architecture on Magnesium Ammonium Phosphate (Struvite) Precipitation for Wastewater Application”, Paper No. 10926, CORROSION 2018, Phoenix, Arizona, NACE International, Houston, Texas (2018).

15. Koutsoukos, P.G.; Kofina, A.N. (March 2007). “Struvite Scale Formation and Inhibition in Wastewater”, Paper No. 07057, CORROSION 2007, Nashville, Tennessee, NACE International, Houston, Texas.

16. Amjad, Z.; Zuhl, R.W. (2014). “Solution Chemistry Impact on Silica Polymerization”, Chapter 10 in Mineral Scales in Biological and Industrial Systems, Amjad, Z., ed., CRC Press, Boca Raton, Florida.

17. Zuhl, R.W.; Amjad, Z. (November 7-10, 1993). “The Role of Polymer in Water Treatment Applications and Criteria for Comparing Alternatives”, Paper presented at the Annual Convention of Association of Water Technologies, Las Vegas, Nevada.

18. Amjad, Z. (2006). “Influence of Natural and Synthetic Additives on Calcium Carbonate Precipitation and Crystal Morphology”, Tenside Surfactants Detergents, 43, pp. 184-191.

19. Amjad, Z. (1998). “Development of Calcium Phosphate Inhibiting Polymers for Cooling Water Application”, Chapter 16 in Calcium Phosphates in Biological and Industrial Systems, Amjad, Z., ed., Kluwer Academic Publishers, Boston, Massachusetts.

Chemical Abbreviations: Ca 5(PO4)3OH: Hydroxyapatite MgNH4PO4•6H 2O: Struvite (magnesium ammonium phosphate) MgHPO4•3H 2O: Newberyite Mg3(PO4)2•8H 2O: Trimagnesium phosphate MgCO3: Magnesium carbonate NaCl: Sodium chloride NaHCO3: Sodium bicarbonate NaNO3: Sodium nitrate Na 2SO4: Sodium sulfate Acronyms: -COO-: Carboxylic acid group CP: Co-polymer HP: Homopolymer HP1: poly(methacrylic acid) HP4: poly(methacrylic acid), HP6: poly(maleic acid) HP7: poly(aspartic acid), HP8: Carboxymethyl inulin with 25% degree of carboxylation HP9: Poly(epoxysuccinic acid) HP10: Vinylpyrrolidone K: one thousand Zahid Amjad, Ph.D., is a visiting professor in chemistry at Walsh University, N. Canton, Ohio. He has more than 36 years of experience in water soluble polymer research. Dr. Amjad has an M.Sc. degree from Punjab University and a doctorate from Glasgow University and was a post-doctoral fellow at the State University of New York at Buffalo. A member of NACE for more than 36 years, he is also a member of the American Chemical Society, was inducted into the National Hall of Corporate Investors, and is listed in American Men and Women of Sciences and Who’s Who of American Inventors. Dr. Amjad is a NACE fellow, received a NACE 2016 Technical Achievement Award, and received the AWT’s 2002 Ray Baum Memorial Water Technologist of the Year Award. He holds 30 U.S. patents and has published more than 150 papers and articles and edited nine books.

This technical paper will be presented at the 2020 AWT annual conference scheduled for September 30–October 2, 2020.

20. Amjad, Z. (1997). “Performance of Polymers as Precipitation Inhibitors for Calcium Phosphonates,” Tenside Surfactants Detergents 34, 2 (1997) 102-107.

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What Is the Efficacy of Secondary Disinfection Treatments Against Opportunistic Waterborne Pathogens?

Shivi Selvaratnam, Ph.D., and Michael Coughlin, Ph.D., Weas Engineering, Inc.

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Abstract Since ASHRAE 188 (Legionellosis: Risk Management for Building Water Systems) was ratified in 2015, considerable efforts have been made by water management teams to control the growth of Legionella by commissioning secondary disinfection systems. The methods of secondary disinfection are generally confined to chlorine, monochloramine, chlorine dioxide (ClO2), and copper/silver ionization. Which of these systems is selected will depend on several factors, including water quality, materials of construction, and local regulations.

The complexity of this decision-making process has increased since the Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services (CMS) expanded the requirement of a Water Management Plan to control the presence of not only Legionella spp., but all opportunistic waterborne pathogens (OWP). Mycobacteria spp. fall within this category of microorganisms, and compared to other OWPs, they are particularly resistant to disinfection because of their comparatively slow respiration and hydrophobic cell wall.

Therefore, the decision to select one type of a secondary disinfection system over another should also be based on the ability of that method to curtail the growth of Mycobacteria spp. In this article, we compare the efficacy of traditional secondary disinfection systems to control the growth Legionella and Mycobacterium spp. in potable water systems.

Introduction The role that OWP play in contributing to hospital-acquired infections continues to gain prominence among infection control professionals. Pseudomonas aeruginosa has long been known as a waterborne pathogen that can cause pneumonia and wound infections. However, it was not until Legionnaires’ disease caught the attention of the general public and the ubiquity of the causative agent (Legionella spp.) in potable water systems that new guidelines and standards were promulgated (1).

One of the most recent policy decisions developed was that of the CMS. A memorandum first issued by CMS in June 2017 and reissued in July 2018 to provide clarification made it clear that healthcare facilities must reduce the risk of hospital-acquired infections caused by any OWP (2).

Because most testing of OWP has been focused on the control of Legionella spp., there is little information available on the control of other OWP. In this article, we examine the use of secondary disinfectants to control the growth of Legionella spp., Mycobacterium spp., and a generic group of bacteria commonly referred to as Heterotrophic Plate Count (HPC). Mycobacterium was selected as an indicator organism because its slow growth and almost impenetrable cell wall could make it especially resistant to disinfection. Since most commonly noted OWP belong to HPC bacteria, we also decided to use this group of microorganisms as an indicator of potable water quality. The presence of Pseudomonas spp. was not investigated because in a recent study (3), it was found to be rarely present, and therefore, the lack of data would make it impossible to make statistically relevant conclusions.

Materials and Methods Potable water sample collection. One liter (L) of first draw potable water from faucets of healthcare facilities was collected in sterile wide-mouth screw cap polypropylene plastic bottles containing 150 to 200 milligrams (mg) of sodium thiosulfate preservative. Temperature and disinfectant concentration were recorded two minutes after the faucet was opened at maximum water velocity.

Filtration of potable water samples for Legionella isolation. 500 milliliter (mL) of each potable water sampμle was filter-concentrated using a 47-millimeter (mm) filter funnel assembly disinfected with 80% isopropyl alcohol between uses and containing a sterile 0.22-micron (μm) polycarbonate filter. After filtration, the filter was removed aseptically from the holder with sterile filter forceps, folded to the outside, and placed into a sterile, 50-mL centrifuge tube containing 5 mL of sterile Butterfield’s buffer. The centrifuge tube was then vortexed for one minute at maximum speed to elute bacteria from the filter.

Acid treatment of samples for Legionella isolation. A selective procedure was used to reduce the numbers of non-Legionella bacteria before culturing since water samples may contain high concentrations of these

“Since most commonly noted OWP belong to HPC bacteria, we also decided to use this group of microorganisms as an indicator of potable water quality.”

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continued

μm polycarbonate filter. After filtration, the filter was removed aseptically from the holder with sterile filter forceps and placed onto a Middlebrook 7H10 agar plate, ensuring no air was trapped beneath the membrane.

Plates were incubated for 7 to 14 days at 36 °C.

bacteria (4). 200 microliters (μL) of the vortexed suspension was placed into a sterile 1.5-mL centrifuge tube containing 200 μL of acid buffer. The suspension was then incubated for 5 minutes at room temperature. For swab samples, 100 μL of the suspension was placed into a sterile 1.5-mL centrifuge tube containing 100 μL of acid buffer and treated as described above.

Media for Legionella growth and isolation. Buffered charcoal yeast extract (BCYE) agar containing 0.1% alpha-ketoglutarate was used as the base medium for the recovery of Legionella and is referred to as BCYE complete. Two types of selective agar were used in the processing of the samples. The first was designated BCYE complete with antibiotics (purchased from Hardy Diagnostics); the second was BCYE complete without antibiotics.

Plating of samples. Plates (already described) were inoculated with 0.2 mL of either an acid-treated or non-acid-treated suspension and distributed over the agar surface with a plastic spreader. They were then incubated at 36 °C in a humidified incubator for 14 days at a minimum humidity of 95%.

Examination of cultures of NTM. Plates were examined after 14 days of incubation for NTM. Colonies were examined for morphological characteristics typical of NTM. Presumptive NTM colonies were counted, and select colonies were stained with acid-fast stain using the Ziehl-Neelsen Method.

Results and Discussion The data in Table A indicate that compared to all other treatments, ClO2 is relatively ineffective in controlling HPC counts at levels even below the 0.05 significance level. An examination of the average colony-forming units per milliliter (CFU/mL) shows that average CFU/ mL is always higher when ClO2 is used to supplement chlorine as compared to all other treatments. With the exception of perhaps total chlorine and copper/silver, all other treatments performed differently from one another at the 0.05 significance level.

Examination of cultures for Legionella. Plates were examined after 72 to 96 hours of incubation for Legionella. Suspect Legionella colonies were streaked onto BCYE complete agar plates without L-cysteine and antibiotics and a positive control BCYE complete agar plate without antibiotics. The plates were incubated for 24 to 48 hours. Colonies that grew on BCYE complete agar but not BCYE complete agar without Lcysteine were considered to be presumptive Legionella species and later serotyped using the Dry Spot™ agglutination test (Oxoid, Dardilly, France) or direct fluorescent antibody (MTech).

By pairing each of these secondary treatments and conducting a T-test on them, we can compare the effect of potential combination treatments and their ability to control the growth of HPC organisms. Admittedly, these results are obtained in a background of chlorine, but it nevertheless may provide guidance for future treatment regimens that may not necessarily include the use of chlorine. Based on the data in Table A, the combination of monochloramine and copper/silver ionization indicates that this could be an effective strategy for controlling the growth of HPC organisms.

Isolation of nontuberculous mycobacterium (NTM) from potable water. Culturing of NTM was carried out according to Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater, Method 9260M using Middlebrook 7H10 agar (Hardy Diagnostics). Twenty mL 0.04% weight per volume (w/v) cetylpridinium chloride (CPC) was added to 500 mL of water sample and left at room temperature for 24 hours (h). The water sample was then filter-concentrated using a 47-mm filter funnel assembly disinfected with 80% isopropyl alcohol between uses and containing a sterile 0.22

The use of copper/silver ionization is most often reserved for the treatment of hot water systems (5). Attempts to implement this type of treatment in cold water systems is usually avoided because of staining issues of porcelain materials that come in contact with this disinfectant.

Secondary disinfection using monochloramine is also normally associated with the treatment of hot water systems. This is in part due to the much higher cost of treating both hot and cold water and because the generating capacity of packaged monochloramine systems are generally limited to low water volume systems.

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Therefore, if a secondary disinfection were to be recommended to control the concentration of HPC organisms below the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) treatment standard of 500 CFU/mL, one possible solution would be to use copper/silver ionization in a potable water system at the premise point of entry that is currently being treated with monochloramine. It is unlikely that this scenario would be commonplace, as the use of monochloramine delivered by a municipality is itself not a common practice. Chlorine is still the mainstay treatment provided by most municipalities in the United States, and fortunately, the data in Table A also indicates that copper/silver ionization coupled with chlorine as the primary disinfectant is also an effective strategy for controlling HPC bacteria.

Table A: Efficacy of Potential Treatment Combinations on Controlling Growth of HPC Microorganisms ClO2 n=468 ClO2 Mean = 10,057 CFU/mL

Copper/Silver n=122

Copper/Silver Mean = 4,755 CFU/mL

6.1x10 -5

Free Chlorine Mean = 2,979 CFU/mL

2.2x10 -14

0.0842

Total Chlorine Mean = 2,606 CFU/mL

5.6x10 -14

0.0486

0.5061

Monochloramine Mean = 5,016 CFU/mL

0.0034

0.8823

0.1767

Free Chlorine n=606 Total Chlorine n=257 Monochloramine n=84 0.7008

In Figure 1, it can be seen that the standard deviations for all treatments were greater than the means for all treatments indicating a high degree of variability for all treatments. Of particular note is the high mean concentration of HPC (10,035 CFU/mL) in systems treated with ClO2. Chlorine dioxide is a gas dissolved in water and, as such, is subject to off-gassing, especially in hot water systems. This characteristic of ClO2 would make it difficult to maintain a consistent concentration of ClO2 in a hot water system sufficient to control HPC organisms and of course also explains the extremely high standard deviation. The unexpected high concentration of HPC bacteria when using ClO2 could also be due to the ability of this disinfectant to penetrate deeply into a biofilm, resulting in sloughing of cells into the bulk water. All other treatments were equally effective against HPC. Figure 1: Treatment means and standard deviations for HPC.

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A T-test analysis of Legionella and Mycobacterium was not conducted because the CFU counts were too low and, in the case of Legionella, so infrequent that no usable information could have been gleaned from such an analysis.

Instead of a T-Test analysis, a more appropriate assessment of the data was to compare the percent positivity of the OWP compared to the type of treatment and the average CFU/mL of the percent positive population (as opposed to the average CFU that would have included water samples with no detectable Legionella or Mycobacterium spp.). This data analysis is presented in Table B. Monochloramine and chlorine dioxide appear to be the preferred disinfectants for controlling the growth of Legionella spp. in the potable water systems that were examined. Free chlorine and total chlorine were significantly less effective when either the percent positivity or the concentration of Legionella spp. were used as indices of performance. The use of copper/silver ionization was also associated with a comparatively low rate of positivity, but when systems were positive, the concentration of Legionella spp. was surprisingly high. It is not clear why this phenomenon occurs, but one possibility is that copper/silver ionization is slow to exert its biocidal effect on biofilm that is released from the surface of potable water pipes.

continued

that tested positive for Mycobacterium spp., monochloramine and copper/silver ionization were associated with the lowest concentration of this OWP. There is no clear explanation for this phenomenon, but it may be related to the comparative inertness of these disinfectants to the waxy composition of the cell wall.

Table B: Percent Positivity and Mean Concentration of Legionella and Mycobacterium Legionella

Total Chlorine

Mycobacterium

% Positivity

Mean CFU/mL of % Positivity

% Positivity

Mean CFU/mL of % Positivity

22.1

23.9

27.8

5.9

Free Chlorine

23.2

11.6

31.8

5.4

Monochloramine

4.5

4.4

34.0

1

Chlorine Dioxide

6.4

2.9

49.7

4.3

Copper/Silver

9.8

22.1

45.9

0.46

The data in Figure 2 show that there is a high degree of variability in the concentration of disinfectant in treated systems to the extent that the standard deviation is close to or exceeds the average concentration of the disinfectant.

The reason for such high variability does not appear to be correlated with the temperature of the water system.

Theoretically, all the tested disinfectants are less stable under higher temperatures. However, the labile nature of the disinfectants does not explain the large range in disinfectant concentration.

Mycobacterium spp. do indeed appear to be more resilient in their ability to resist the biocidal effects of the tested disinfectants, and this may be due to the presence of a hydrophobic cell wall that impedes the penetration of disinfectants and their slow respiration. In the systems Figure 2: Stability of treatment concentrations.

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“The data indicates that there is no correlation between disinfectant efficacy and system temperature. The competing effects of reactivity and stability may negate each other such that system temperature has no appreciable effect on disinfectant efficacy.”

The stability and reactivity of oxidizing biocides are affected by system temperature and therefore, it was relevant to determine if system temperature was correlated with the efficacy of the four oxidizing biocides that were evaluated.

The data in Figure 3 indicate that there is no correlation between disinfectant efficacy and system temperature. The competing effects of reactivity and stability may negate each other such that system temperature has no appreciable effect on disinfectant efficacy. That some disinfectants demonstrated a negative correlation is not significant, given the extremely low R value. Copper/silver ionization was excluded from this analysis because it was used exclusively in hot water systems.

Figure 3: Correlation between bacteria concentration and temperature of system.

Summary and Conclusions Based on our research, the following conclusions were reached: Keeping Legionella spp. from being present in potable water systems appears to be relatively easy compared to Mycobacterium and HPC with the use of several options, including copper/silver ionization, monochloramine, and chlorine dioxide. In addition to considering the antimicrobial efficacy of a disinfectant against a particular OWP, there are logistical issues that also need to be considered when deciding which disinfectant to use. These factors include the inherent corrosivity of a disinfectant to the materials of construction present in a potable water system, the age of these materials, and the cost of installing

a disinfectant feed and control system. All of these logistical issues were beyond the scope of this study.

Good control of the concentration of total chlorine and monochloramine is observed by the median concentrations (1.56 parts per million [ppm] total chlorine, 1.04 ppm monochloramine), and acceptable standard deviations (0.38 ppm total chlorine and 0.32 ppm monochloramine). Therefore, the apparent inability of this combination treatment to control the growth of Mycobacterium and HPC is not due to poor disinfectant control.

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Glossary of Abbreviations

Although Legionella is generally regarded as a chlorine-tolerant organism, monochloramine and chlorine dioxide appear to be effective against this OWP. The HPC concentration, on the other hand, often exceeded the EPA treatment standard of 500 CFU/mL and was difficult to control with any of the tested disinfectants. This is particularly worrisome, as virtually all OWP are heterotrophs, and the failure of combination treatments (dual and different disinfectants) to control their growth will require strategies that go beyond the use of a supplemental secondary disinfectant.

Mycobacterium, although present in low concentrations, is prevalent in potable water systems and relatively recalcitrant to conventional disinfection treatments.

This phenomenon may be related to the composition of its unique cell wall.

Acknowledgements The authors would like to acknowledge Carmel Holliday, Alyssa Mullens, Kaila Whited, and Elizabeth Sotkiewicz of Weas Engineering for their help with sample analysis.

References 1. Falkinham III, J.O.; Hilborn, E.D.; Arduino, M.J.; Pruden, A.; Edwards, M.A. (2015). “Epidemiology and Ecology of Opportunistic Premise Plumbing Pathogens: Legionella pneumophila, Mycobacterium avium, and Pseudomonas aeruginosa,” Environmental Health Perspectives 123(8), pp.

749-758.

2. Centers for Medicare & Medicaid Services ( June 2, 2017). Ref: QSO-17-30- Hospitals/CAHs/NHs.

BCYE: Buffered charcoal yeast extract CFU: Colony forming units ClO2: Chlorine dioxide CMS: Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services HPC: Heterotrophic Plate Count L: Liter mL: Milliliter mm: Millimeter OWP: Opportunistic waterborne pathogens ppm: parts per million w/v: weight per volume μL: Microliter μm: Micron Shivi Selvaratnam, Ph.D., joined Weas Engineering in 2016 as the senior microbiologist and currently serves as the director of the chemistry and microbiology labs at Weas. Dr. Selvaratnam received her doctorate in microbiology from Drexel University and subsequently completed her post-doctorate at the University of Notre Dame. She worked in academia for seven years as an assistant professor of biology, where she taught courses in microbiology and conducted research on the effects of pollutants on microbial communities in freshwater ecosystems.

Prior to joining Weas Engineering, Dr. Selvaratnam worked as a technical environmental specialist at the Indiana Department of Environmental Management. She is the author of numerous publications, invited presentations, and research grants.

Michael Coughlin, Ph.D., graduated with a bachelor’s degree in microbiology from McGill University in Montreal, a master's degree in microbial biochemistry from Dalhousie University in Halifax, and a doctorate in biofilm microbiology from the University of Cincinnati.

Michael has dedicated the past 30 years of his career to the science of controlling the growth of microorganisms in multiple environments. He has held several technical and research positions before joining Weas Engineering in June 2012 as director of research and innovation. He has authored and presented papers at several international symposia on the subjects of bioremediation, food safety, and Legionella control. Dr. Coughlin is also the author of more than a dozen international and U.S. patents.

3. Selvaratnam, S.; Coughlin, M.; Sotkiewicz, E.; Holliday, C. (Sept. 26-29, 2018). “Practical Recommendations for Meeting the Objectives of the CMS Memorandum,” 2018 Association of Water Technologies Annual Convention and Exposition, Orlando, Florida.

4. Centers for Disease Control (2018). “CDC Laboratory Guidance for Processing Environmental Samples. Legionnaires’ Disease Procedures Manual for Recovery,” Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia.

5. Cloutman-Green, E.; Barbosa, V.L.; Jimenez, D.; Wong, D.; Dunn, H.; Needham, B.; Ciric, L.; Hartley, J.C. (2019). “Controlling Legionella pneumophila in water systems at reduced hot water temperatures with copper and silver ionization,” American Journal of Infection Control, 47, pp.

761-766.

This paper was presented at the 2019 AWT Annual Convention & Exhibition, which was conducted September 11-14, 2019, in Palm Springs, California.

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What Are Per- and Polyï¬&#x201A;uoroalkyl Substances and Why Should I Care?

An Overview of PFAS Issues for Non-PFAS Industries Ryan Ames, P.E.; Katie Jones, P.E.; Leigh-Ann Dudley, P.E.; and Alex Wall, E.I. Dewberry

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Industries that do not use Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances (PFAS) directly in their products or processes may still be affected by the presence of PFAS in other products and the environment and due to anticipated regulations. PFAS is a group of synthetic chemicals that is utilized for a variety of applications in industrial processes and consumer products, including vapor control in plating processes, grease-resistant coatings on fast food wrappers, water-resistant coatings, and firefighting foam.

The chemical characteristics that make them useful in these applications also make them widespread and persistent in the environment because they can be transported in both air and water, degrade very slowly, and are not removed by most conventional treatment technologies. These compounds are receiving a great deal of attention in both the technical and popular literature because of known and potential health effects. The regulation of these chemicals is in its infancy. Some states are regulating PFAS in drinking water and the release of PFAS into the environment via various pathways.

incorporate water into products, or discharge wastewater to have an understanding of this emerging regulatory issue. This article will provide an overview of PFAS chemical characteristics; its presence, fate, and transport in water; the current and anticipated scope of PFAS water regulations; the effectiveness of advanced water treatment technologies; and examples of how PFAS concerns could impact non-PFAS industries.

Introduction PFAS are currently receiving high-profile coverage from both technical sources and the national media. Much is still to be learned with regard to PFAS and its impacts on the human body and the environment. The purpose of this article is to explain chemically what PFAS are, delve into the current regulatory climate, and discuss the effects of potential regulations on municipalities and industries. Understanding the current regulatory climate and the possible impacts is vital, as the regulatory landscape is rapidly changing as additional research continues to be published.

Background One limit to regulation is that proposed exposure limits are in the parts per trillion (ppt) range, and analytical methods for detection and accurate quantification of many of these compounds are still being developed.

In February 2019, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) issued an action plan for PFAS that discusses how the EPA regulates new PFAS compounds entering the market place, sets a timeline for establishing toxicity values and drinking water regulations for specific PFAS compounds, and initiates groundwater cleanup actions. In addition, the action plan addresses the development of analytical methods and development of treatment technologies, among other things.

Because of the potential regulatory implications of PFAS, it is important for all industries that use water,

Synthesis of original PFAS. The discovery of the chemical group occurred by accident in 1938. Head researcher Roy J. Plunkett was tasked with creating a new refrigerant gas. He produced gaseous tetrafluoroethylene, which was then stored in gas cylinders. However, when researchers came back to test the tetrafluoroethylene, they found that the gas in the cylinders had polymerized into polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE), the first PFAS (1).

PFAS are manmade fluorinated carbon chain molecules that do not occur naturally. More than 3,000 known perand polyfluorinated chemicals are currently produced and used for a variety of industrial and commercial applications around the globe (2). This large family of related chemical compounds can be subdivided in a variety of ways. Three common ways of organizing these chemicals

â&#x20AC;&#x153;The regulation of these chemicals is in its infancy. Some states are regulating PFAS in drinking water and the release of PFAS into the environment via various pathways.â&#x20AC;?

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continued

“Because of the potential regulatory implications of PFAS, it is important for all industries that use water, incorporate water into products, or discharge wastewater to have an understanding of this emerging regulatory issue.”

is by the degree to which the compound is fluorinated, the type of functional group on the compound, and the length of the fluorinated carbon chain. In perfluoroalkyl substances, all carbon atoms, excluding the functional group, are completely fluorinated. Polyfluoroalkyl substances have some carbon atoms which are not fully fluorinated (3).

Figure 2: Molecular line model of perfluorooctanoic acid.

The two PFAS most produced are perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS) and perfluorooctanoate (PFOA) (4).

The chemical structures of PFOS and PFOA are shown in Figures 1 and 2, respectively. PFOS is a long-chain perfluoroalkyl sulfonic acid, meaning it has a fully fluorinated chain and a sulfonic acid functional group.

PFAS with acid functional groups such as these are typically present in the environment in their anionic form, or PFAS can exist as salts of potassium, ammonium, lithium, and sodium (3). PFOA is a long-chain perfluoroalkyl carboxylic acid. PFOA has a fully fluorinated carbon chain and a carboxylic acid functional group.

Similarly, perfluorononanoic acid (PFNA) has a fully fluorinated carbon chain attached to a carboxylic acid functional group.

Table A summarizes solubility, volatility, octanol-water coefficient, and vapor pressure of some PFAS compounds of interest. These characteristics that govern the behavior of these compounds in the environment vary widely based on carbon chain length and functional group. The presence of fluorine creates three of the properties that make PFAS appealing to manufacturers of a variety of familiar products. Fluorine has a small atomic size, high electronegativity, and low polarizability (3). Fluorine’s small bond length and high electronegativity causes strong carbon-fluorine bonds. This strong bond causes a high thermal stability and chemical stability in PFAS (3).

Figure 1: Molecular line model of perfluorooctanesulfonate.

46

The fluorine atoms in PFAS molecules shield the carbon chain from additional bonds, have low surface energy, and lack available orbitals for additional bonds.

Therefore, hydrolysis, oxidation, and reduction processes are generally ineffective at breaking down PFAS molecules (3). Weak intramolecular interactions occur with PFAS because of the low polarizability of fluorine. These weak intramolecular interactions create the hydrophobic and lipophobic properties that make the use of PFAS appealing in surfactants and repellants.

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What Are Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances and Why Should I Care?

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Table A: Chemical Molecular Properties

Chemical

Boiling Point (°C)

Solubility in Water (mg/L)

PFHxS (perfluorohexane sulfonic acid)1

452

243.4

PFOA (perfluorooctanoate)

1

PFOS (perfluorooctane sulfonate)1

Octanol Water Coefficient (Kw or Log P)

Quantity of Fluorinated Carbons

Vapor Pressure at 25 °C (Pa)

Acid form: 0.424

6

0.00000108

4

7

12.1

8

0.000331

8

112

192

9,500

Acid form: 1.98

258

680

Acid form: 1.494

3

PFNA (perfluorononanoic acid)

218

Polyfluorotetrakis-polyoxaalkane (TFEE-5)

2225

9,500

3

0.00029

Acid form: 2.49

4

Acid Form: 6.4

3.3

Notes: 1

(Reference 5) (Reference 6) 3 (Reference 7) 4 (Reference 8) 5 (Reference 9) 2

Figure 3: Molecular line model of hexofluoropropylene oxide (HFPO) dimer acid.

Due to the inability to break down and the ability to bond with transfer proteins, PFAS have a long half-life in the human body. Typically, molecules with longer PFAS molecules tend to have a longer half-life; therefore, PFNA is very persistent in the body. PFAS do not break down in the body, so the only means by which the body can reduce the concentration of PFAS is through elimination or excretion.

Since the invention of PTFE in 1938, manufacturing and processing has created and used PFAS for a variety of products. Some of these include vapor control in plating processes, emulsifiers, additives, water and oil-resistant coatings, fire and chemical-resistant tubing, electrical wire casing, plumbing seal tape, stain-resistant surface protection (carpet and clothing cleaning), and firefighting foam. PFNA specifically has been used in the production of other fluorinated polymers. The same chemical properties that make PFAS useful in manufacturing make the treatment of PFAS in wastewater very difficult. Several studies have shown that only a handful of current wastewater treatment technologies (reverse osmosis, granular activated carbon, and coagulation/ flocculation/sedimentation) are capable of reducing PFA concentrations (12).

Production of PFOA using electrochemical fluorination (ECF) results in a combination of the linear form and branched isomers in a ratio of approximately 8 to 2, respectively (10). Examples of branched isomers for PFOA include perfluoro-5-methyl-heptanoic acid and perfluoro-3,5-dimethyl-hexanoic acid (11). As a result, the isomer forms are also used in manufacturing and consequently released to the environment.

A fourth PFAS that is receiving a lot of attention is GenX. The compound typically referred to as GenX is the ammonium salt of hexafluoropropylene oxide (HFPO) dimer acid. However, the term GenX is actually the name for the patented technology capable of producing these compounds. The chemical structure of for hexafluoropropylene oxide (HFPO) dimer acid is shown in Figure 3. GenX was originally produced as a byproduct of PFOS production. When production of PFOA was phased out in the United States, GenX was selected as a replacement. GenX is considered a shortchain PFAS compound because the longest fluorinated carbon chain is less than six carbons long. This is significant because short-chain PFAS generally exhibit fewer health concerns than long-chain PFAS, such as PFOS and FOA.

Associated Health Effects Studies have shown that some PFAS may cause adverse health effects at doses equivalent to tens to hundreds of nanograms per liter (ng/L) (also ppt) range in drinking water. Human exposure to PFAS can occur through multiple pathways. These include inhalation, ingestion, and dermal absorption. The most common method of exposure is ingestion through water and/or contaminated food. Levels of PFOA, PFOS, or PFNA entering

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the body through dermal absorption are not considered significant when compared to ingestion (13).

shown to take as many as nine of the twelve bonding sites on the transfer protein (10). Albumin is responsible for maintenance and repair of body tissues, nutrient transportation, and clotting (10, 17). Thus, PFOA is spread readily throughout the body (10).

Due to the chemical properties that make PFAS very resistant to degradation, PFAS are not broken down in the human body. Therefore, the only pathway out of the body is excretion. PFAS with longer carbon chains have a harder time transferring through the membranes of the kidneys into the urine, meaning the concentration of PFAS with longer carbon chains typically takes longer to decrease than that of PFAS with a shorter carbon chain. PFAS also tend to bioaccumulate by binding with proteins.

In medicine, albumin is frequently tested to determine liver and kidney function. When PFOA bonds with albumin, it blocks the bonding ability of other materials normally transported by albumin. Fetuses are shown to be exposed to PFAS through contact with placenta and amniotic fluid (13). PFOS can bond to albumin like PFOA, but PFOS can bond with other transfer proteins as well as antibodies. The pathway and interactions of PFAS through the body has made many interested in the potential human and animal health effects.

One study, conducted in Little Hocking Water Association in Ohio and Lubeck Public Service District in West Virginia, found the average half-life of PFOA in an exposed population was 2.3 years (14). A correlation between the length of the fluorinated carbon chain and half-life of the PFAS in the body has been found.

On average, PFOA, a molecule with seven fluorinated carbon atoms and one carboxylic acid group, has a twoto four-year half-life in the human body, while PFOS, a molecule with eight fluorinated carbon atoms and a sulfate functional group, has a five to six-year half-life in the human body. One exception to the correlation is perfluorohexanesulfonic acid (PFHxS), which has one of the longer half-lives identified in among PFAS compounds of eight to nine years in the human body (13). A recent study conducted in Sweden has found that half-lives of PFOS and PFHxS are shorter than previously thought: 3.4 years and 5.3 years, respectively (15).

In the Swedish study, it was found that the half-life of PFOS and PFHxS in women is likely to be shorter than in men, mainly due to the additional elimination pathway of menstruation (15). Multiple studies suggested that organic anion transporter proteins help to transfer PFAS out of the blood into urine (15) or, in the case of pregnant women, into the fetus (16). Differences in the half-lives of different PFAS have, at least in part, been attributed to the individual PFASâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s interaction with organic anion transporter proteins (15).

Several epidemiology studies have been published on PFOA, PFOS, and GenX. Health effects of most other PFAS still lack research. A link between elevated cholesterol and PFOA has been identified in several studies (10). However, the data is not conclusive as to the exact relationship between elevated cholesterol and PFOA concentration. It is unknown whether PFOA causes higher lipid concentrations; whether higher lipid concentrations help to bond with the PFOA molecules, keeping them in the body and raising the concentration of PFOA; or whether lipid and PFOA concentrations are controlled by an unknown biological process (18). A link was also established between PFNA and elevated cholesterol. PFNA has also been shown to increase the liver enzyme alanine aminotransferase (ALT) and to be toxic to the kidneys (19). PFOA was also found to impact uric acid, a byproduct of natural purine metabolism (18).

PFOA, and to a lesser extent PFOS, has been found to increase uric acid concentration in the body. High uric acid, or hyperuricemia, exhibits itself with goutlike symptoms, fever, and/or kidney stones. Sparse and inconclusive research exists for the relationship between PFAS and diabetes, cardiovascular disease, or cerebrovascular disease (18). At this time, additional research is needed to understand if there is a relationship between PFAS and a variety of cancers.

PFOA is absorbed, both in humans and animals, through the gastrointestinal tract and then bonds with a protein called albumin. Though PFAS, in general, are known to bond to albumin, it is PFOA that has been

Research has shown that PFOA and PFOS have impacts on developmental and reproductive health. In animal testing, PFOA and PFOS were shown to reduce birth weight and increase still births (20). Multiple studies have

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found no link between the rate of miscarriage and PFOA exposure in humans (10, 21). In a 2014 study conducted

by Darrow et al. on miscarriage risks and PFOA/PFOS blood concentration levels, a slight positive association between PFOS blood concentration and miscarriage was found. This positive association was strongest among women who were pregnant for the first time (21).

for PFOA analysis. Severn Trent Laboratories used a solid-phase extraction with High Performance Liquid Chromatography/tandem mass spectrometry (HPLC/ MS/MS), which was approved of by the Office of Quality Assurance. At that time, the detection limit per the laboratory for both PFOA and PFOS was less than 10 ppt (24). The EPA did not approve and verify EPA Method 537 until three years later in 2009 (25). EPA Method 537 also uses solid-phase extraction followed by LC/MS/MS and is validated for 14 PFAS in drinking water (26). EPA Method 537.1 was released in 2018 and added three additional PFAS (including GenX) to the validated analyte list, for a total of 18 PFAS compounds (26).

In 2018, North Carolina’s Department of Health and Human Services released the results of a geographical study on the relationship of birth defects and contaminated water sources. The study did not identify a correlation between proximity to PFAS-contaminated water sources and frequency of birth defects (22). The C8 project conducted a study of birth defects in communities in Ohio and West Virginia that surrounded a PFAS chemical manufacturing plant. In this project, researchers identified that mothers whose estimated PFOA blood levels were in the 70th percentile and above were significantly more likely to give birth to a child with brain defects than mothers with estimated PFOA blood levels in the 40th percentile and below (23). Humans exposed to higher levels of PFOA and/ or PFOS were shown to have a higher likelihood of infertility as well as preeclampsia and pregnancy-induced hypertension (10, 20).

Analytical The potential for health impacts due to PFAS in the environment has led to regulation on the discharge of, and human exposure to, PFAS. The regulation of a substance requires analytical methods for detection and quantification of those substances in various matrices at concentrations at or below the order of magnitude at which the substance may cause an undesirable effect.

PFAS may cause adverse health effects at doses equivalent to a range of tens to hundreds of ng/L in drinking water. As a result, development of appropriate analytical methods for quantification of these low concentrations is a significant aspect of developing regulations. Until recently, EPA Method 537, EPA Method 537.1, and EPA Method 537 Revision 1.1 were the only federally approved testing methods for the identification and quantification of PFAS in drinking water.

In response to interest in measuring PFAS in non-drinking water samples, several laboratories in the United States have modified EPA Method 537 to identify and quantify PFAS in other matrices. This is often referred to as “Method 537 modified” but does not represent a single validated method, and associated quality control procedures can vary from laboratory to laboratory. This method often involves isotope dilution calibration, and laboratories claim to be able to quantify up to 30 different PFAS compounds.

To address the need for analysis of PFAS in other matrices, the EPA has developed and validated SW-846 Method 8327, which was issued for public comment in June 2019. This method uses direct injection LC/MS/ MS with external standard calibration (26). Method 8327 has been validated for 24 PFAS. The EPA has also been developing a solid phase extraction/isotope dilution method. The EPA’s solid-phase extraction/isotope dilution method will test for more than the 24 PFAS currently considered under Method 8327 (26).

One of the limitations to analysis and quantification of PFAS compounds is the availability of high-quality standards. The limitation of a high-quality standard has increased the difficultly of quantification of unknown PFAS in samples. Standards have been identified as a source of variability in the testing method, sometimes varying as much as 20% (25).

McCord and Styrnar of the EPA have co-authored several papers about the use of various testing techniques for PFAS, including a paper on high-resolution mass spectrometry for targeted and non-targeted testing

When New Jersey began testing for PFAS in 2006, Severn Trent Laboratories in Denver, Colorado, was the only laboratory certified by the state of New Jersey

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What Are Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances and Why Should I Care?

continued

to identify and quantify PFAS (27). Chemours has submitted a sampling plan for both targeted and non-targeted PFAS in process and non-process wastewater and stormwater, which uses a liquid chromatography method along with a high-resolution quadruple time of flight mass spectrometry. Through non-targeted PFAS testing, previously unidentified or unknown analytes may be identified. High-resolution mass spectrometry allows for precise identification of the mass of molecular fragments.

Fragment patterns and isotopic characteristics can be used like puzzle pieces to reconstruct and identify an unknown PFAS contaminant (28).

or not to approve production or use of the chemical.

Often, this three-month investigation period is inadequate for the necessary research. In 2008, DuPont (now Chemours) submitted a notice under the Toxic Substance Control Act’s SNURs for two hexafluoropropylene oxide dimer acid chemicals known as GenX (33). GenX was originally a manufacturing byproduct but was later used in food packaging due to its ability to repel both oil and water. In 2009, DuPont began production of GenX chemicals as a PFOA substitute at a plant in Bladen County, North Carolina (34). Under SNURs, the EPA must review the data from required health and environmental testing as well as the eco-toxicity testing that was initiated in 2009 for GenX (33). It is now a decade later and the final toxicity assessment of GenX has not been completed by the EPA (35).

Regulations In 2001, a study confirmed the widespread presence of PFOS in the environment. PFOS was found both in populated regions of North America and Europe as well as remote locations in the Arctic and North Pacific Oceans (29). That same year, a different study found PFAS in the human blood supply at companies selling biological supplies and blood banks (30).

U.S. Overview In 2002, the EPA first acknowledged PFAS with a voluntary stewardship program. Several larger manufacturers began voluntarily phasing out the use of PFOS between 2000 and 2002 (31). In 2006, the EPA joined with eight international manufacturers to phase out the use of PFOA. The PFOA Stewardship Program’s pledgees include Arkema, Asahi, BASF Corp., Clarient, Daikin, 3M/Dyneon, DuPont, and Solvay Solexis (32). The stewardship pledge calls for a 95% reduction in emissions as well as products containing PFOA, or any PFOA-related chemical, by 2010 when compared with 2000 emissions and products. The final goal of the stewardship pledge was complete elimination of PFOA by 2015.

In tandem with the PFOA Stewardship Program, the EPA created the Toxic Substance Control Act’s Significant New User Rules (SNURs) to restrict the use of potential harmful contaminants. SNURs are created for specific chemicals or chemical groups and require that manufacturers or processors notify the EPA of any new uses of the specified chemicals. Under the current system, industries must give the EPA a 90-day notice before starting production or use of a new chemical.

The EPA then has the 90 days to determine whether

Based on PFAS contamination issues and concerns elsewhere in the United States, the EPA included six PFAS compounds on the list of contaminants to be measured under the third Unregulated Contaminant Monitoring Rule (UCMR), which was published in 2012. The EPA uses the UCMR to gather data on emerging contaminants that may be considered for future regulation.

Sampling for PFAS compounds under the third UCMR was conducted between 2013 and 2015. UCMR data showed that approximately 4% of the public water supplies studied have PFAS levels in excess of reporting limits (36). The UCMR data is available to the public.

In 2016, the EPA established a lifetime health advisory level of 70 ng/L combined PFOS and PFOA in drinking water (37). That same year, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) also took steps to eliminate the use of PFOA and PFOS in food packaging (37). In 2018, the EPA initiated the regulatory process of adding PFOA and PFOS to the Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act (CERCLA) list of hazardous substances. Once the process is completed, the EPA will have the authority to require responsible parties to carry out and/or pay for response actions.

A study (38) conducted by North Carolina State University, in partnership with the EPA and the University of North Carolina at Charlotte, exposed the levels of fluorinated chemicals, including GenX, in Cape Fear (35, 39). This study gained traction in

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The federal drinking water or North Carolina health goals have been violated due to unauthorized discharges of PFAS.

the local news. In July 2017, North Carolina created a provisional drinking water health advisory of 140 ppt for GenX (40). Though links have been found between GenX and various health risks in animal studies (e.g., cancer of the pancreas, liver, and testicles), additional human studies are still needed to set risk-based regulatory advisory levels (37).

The facility has additional unauthorized discharges that may result in a violation of federal drinking water standards or health goals within a year from the NCDEQ learning of the first unauthorized discharge.

In 2017, the general assembly of North Carolina recognized GenX in the Cape Fear River and passed a bill allocating $435,000 for additional research into GenX and charging the North Carolina Department of Environmental Quality (NCDEQ ) to issue a Notice of Violation with respect to GenX (40). On September 6, 2017, the NCDEQ issued a Notice of Violation with regard to GenX to the Chemours Co. plant in Fayetteville (41). An agreement was reached between NC DEQ and Chemours Company that requires Chemours to reduce PFAS air emissions by at least 99% by December 31, 2019, provide any North Carolina resident with a GenX contaminated well clean drinking water, pay for additional health studies into a minimum of five additional chemicals, and pay a $12 million fine (42, 43).

Of that, $100,000 went to the Cape Fear Public Utility Authority to study the effects of various water treatment technologies on GenX, and $250,000 went to the University of North Carolina at Wilmington for a study on the identification, quantification, bioaccumulation, and biodegradation of GenX (44, 45). The study by the University of North Carolina Wilmington (UNCW) discovered PFAS in the Cape Fear River that were not previously identified in scientific literature (45).

An additional $5,013,000 was allocated in the 2018– 2019 financial year by the North Carolina state legislature for additional research on PFAS in North Carolina (46). In May 2018, the North Carolina state legislature gave the governor the authority to shut down operations at a facility for the following reasons (44):

In April 2019, North Carolina’s Division of Water Resources (DWR) sent letters notifying publicly owned treatment works (POTWs) with approved pretreatment programs of a three-month sampling event.

The POTWs must take the burden of sampling upon themselves. Sampling will take place at the influent of the notified POTWs. The chemicals of interest include 1,4-dioxane as well as total PFAS concentration from a list of 23 compounds (39). The aim of the sampling is to monitor and assess potential sources of these compounds. DWR also maintains the right to use the data in the future to determine the need for additional treatment by industry and POTWs. Amid increased public scrutiny following the Flint Water Crisis, Michigan began creating its own statewide response to PFAS. Michigan developed a cleanup standard for PFAS in groundwater used for drinking and created Michigan PFAS Action Response Team (MPART) to further research on PFAS while also implementing and recommending a PFAS response statewide (47). The Michigan state legislature passed legislation that requires the Michigan Department of Environmental Quality (MI DEQ ) to create a program to collect PFAS-contaminated firefighting foam, which contains six or more carbons, and to dispose of the foam (48). Additionally, Michigan’s state legislature has charged the MI DEQ with the task of creating and maintaining an interactive map of statewide well water results for a list of contaminants, including PFAS. Suppliers of drinking water in the state of Michigan are required to test water for PFAS and publish a public advisory within three days if PFAS are present at any level in water (49). Currently, Michigan has a 70 ppt PFOA and PFOS unenforceable advisory limit.

Michigan state representatives introduced House Bill No. 5375 on December 13, 2017, which did not pass.

HB 5375 would have established a clean drinking water

A pollutant is produced.

The facility has a National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) permit.

The facility has received more than one notice of violation in a two-year period.

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standard of 5 ng/L for both PFOA and PFOS (50).

This would have been the lowest clean water drinking standard in the United States.

parallel, the EU has banned PFOA and AFPO from products supplied to the general public (56). Sweden has moved a step forward in regulations banning PFNA and PFDA. Norway has taken regulatory steps to require monitoring and cleanup of contaminated soil as well as the monitoring of wastewater treatment discharge and of consumer products (56). Norway also placed a ban on the importation and production of PFOA. China has begun researching alternatives to replace PFOS (56).

New York State is working through the process of establishing a maximum contaminant limit (MCL) for PFOS and PFOA. In December 2019, the New York Drinking Water Quality Council provided a recommendation to the New York State Health Commissioner for MCLs for PFOS and PFOA of 10 ng/L each. The commissioner has the authority to accept the recommendation, at which time the regulation would enter a 60-day public comment period (51).

New Jersey has gone through an iterative process to achieve the lowest clean drinking water standards (52).

The state began researching PFAS in 2006, with a study of the occurrence of PFOA and PFOS in drinking water sources such as wells and surface water around the state (53). In 2007, New Jersey issued a health-based guidance level of 40 ppt for PFOA for drinking water. Nearly a decade later, in 2018, the New Jersey Department of Environmental Policy adopted more stringent drinking water quality standards of 13 ng/L PFNA, 14 ng/L PFOA, and 13 ng/L PFOS. Additional interim specific groundwater quality standards for PFOS and PFOA of 10 ng/L were established in 2019 (54). A bill studying and potentially regulating PFAS in food packing in the state of New Jersey was introduced to the state legislature in February 2019.

In July 2018, the California State Water Resources Control Board issued a drinking water notification level of 14 ppt PFOA and 13 ppt PFOS (55).

Germany and the United Kingdom (UK) were among the first European countries to create guidance legislation for PFOA and PFOS. Germany created a healthbased drinking water standard of 300 ppt and an administrative drinking water standard of 100 ppt in 2006 (57).

The UK followed suit in 2009 and created health-based and three administrative drinking water standards.

Norway and Sweden both implemented standards in 2014 for surface water and drinking water respectively.

In total, Australia, Canada, Denmark, Germany, Italy, the Netherlands, Norway, Sweden, and the UK have all created PFAS standards for water in its various forms (57). Since January 2018, Australia, Norway, and Canada have added or created screening standards for PFAS in soil (57).

A summary of some of the state and federal drinking water MCLs and health advisory levels that were discussed above is presented in Table B. The Interstate Technology & Regulatory Council (ITRC) publishes and regularly updates a more extensive regulatory summary (57).

Water Treatment A contributing factor to PFAS in the environment and exposure from contaminated drinking water is that conventional water and wastewater treatment methods do not remove PFAS effectively. In drinking water treatment, PFAS chemicals are not removed by conventional

Brief International Overview PFAS contamination and regulation is an international concern. The European Union (EU) has limited the use, production, and shipment of PFOS since 2010. In

“Suppliers of water in the state of Michigan are required to test water for PFAS and publish a public advisory within three days if PFAS are present at any level in water.”

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What Are Per- and PolyďŹ&#x201A;uoroalkyl Substances and Why Should I Care?

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coagulation, sedimentation, or filtration treatment stages. PFAS are not oxidized by disinfection processes such as UV, ozone, or various forms of chlorine (58). In wastewater treatment, PFAS are not destroyed by activated sludge treatment; however, some forms of PFAS will partition to the biomass.

Some forms of PFAS are altered by biological processes in that some polymers are broken down into smaller and often more toxic precursors (12). Partitioning of PFAS to biomass is significant enough that PFAS from waste biomass that is disposed by land application has been shown to subsequently release PFAS and cause groundwater contamination (4). This phenomenon poses a significant concern for operation of wastewater treatment plants and the disposal of waste biosolids.

Table B: Limits and Regulations of PFAS in Various Mediums in Various States*

State or Agency

Legislation on PFAS

North Carolina

Governor shutdown manufacturing plant

Regulatory Limits of PFAS in Drinking Water

Michigan

New York

10 ppt of PFOA 10 ppt of PFOS

New Jersey

14 ppt of PFOA 13 ppt of PFOS 13 ppt of PFNA

California

14 ppt of PFOA 13 ppt of PFOS

EPA

Health Advisories of PFAS in Drinking Water

Limits of PFAS in Groundwater

70 ppt for either or combined PFOA and PFOS 140 ppt GenX

2,000 ppt PFOA

70 ppt for either or combined PFOA and PFOS

70 ppt PFOA 70ppt PFOS

Limits of PFAS in Surface Water

Soil Limitations Human Health Screening Levels and Soil Screening Levels for PFBS Soil Screening Levels for PFOA

420 ppt PFOA 11 ppt PFOS

Human Health Soil Screening PFOA and PFOS Soil Screening Levels (both for Drinking Surface Water and Non-Drinking Surface Water)

10 ppt PFOA 10 ppt PFFOS 13 ppt PFNA

70 ppt PFOA and PFOS

400 ppt PFOA and PFOS 400,000ppt PFBS

Human Health Screening for PFOA, PFOS and PFBS Soil Screening Levels for PFOA, PFOS and PFBS

*Note: The data in Table B represents the state of PFAS regulations as of June 2019. The current state of PFAS and related regulations can be accessed at https://www.itrcweb.org/Team/Public?teamID=78.

Table Source: Reference 57

Treatment methods. Three readily available treatment technologies have been identified to treat some PFAS compounds with a practical degree of effectiveness.

However, due to the broad range of characteristics of PFAS compounds, no single treatment technology will be able to achieve a high degree removal of all PFAS compounds. The most widely used technologies to remove PFAS and PFOA are activated carbon (granular activated carbon, [GAC] and powder activated carbon [PAC]), ion exchange (IX) filtration, and reverse osmosis (RO).

Activated carbon is most effective on longer chain PFAS compounds (12). Activated carbon has been implemented for full-scale removal of PFOA in communities near the DuPont facility in Washington, West Virginia. In each

56

case, the carbon systems were dual-filter systems so that breakthrough of PFOA on the lead carbon filter could be monitored. The concentration of PFOA in drinking water at these installations was reduced from the parts per billion (ppb) range down to non-detect (14).

Activated carbon processes adsorb PFAS onto the carbon material, but do not destroy PFAS. When activated carbon is saturated and cannot adsorb more PFAS, it must be regenerated or disposed. Activated carbon is regenerated in a kiln at high temperature, which is intended to drive off adsorbed materials. If gases generated by the regeneration process are not managed, there is an associated risk of re-releasing PFAS to the environment. Off gasses may be treated by incineration,

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What Are Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances and Why Should I Care?

continued

however, a specialized high temperature process must be used because PFAS can only be destroyed at temperatures in excess of 1,000 to 1,200°C, and there is risk of creating fluorinated combustion byproducts (36).

Closing Thoughts: PFAS Regulatory Impacts on Non-PFAS Industries

IX uses a granular filter material that has a strong affinity to charged particles. The functional groups on PFAS compounds are typically acidic and as a result, the PFAS compound typically exists in the negatively charged (anionic) conjugate base, which makes them well suited for removal by IX. Unlike GAC, IX resins can be regenerated on site. However, the regeneration process would result in a concentrated PFAS waste stream that would need to be managed and disposed. Like GAC, spent IX resin could be disposed in a landfill (58) or by high-temperature incineration.

RO is a membrane-based technology that removes contaminants from water. Water is driven through the membrane under pressure, and larger molecules and ions are retained in the membrane. The retained contaminants and a fraction of the raw water stream form a concentrated waste stream that must be further treated or disposed. The efficiency of the membrane process is based on the ratio of clean water, or permeate, to a concentrated waste stream. Some RO systems can achieve an efficiency of up to 90% clean water and generate a highly concentrated waste stream. Studies have shown that RO systems can remove PFAS from drinking water and can remove both long and shortchain PFAS compounds. Disposal of permeate may be challenging. Disposal methods that can achieve destruction of PFAS include high temperature incineration or electrochemical oxidation (36).

Utility service providers, both public and private, are on the front line of the PFAS issue and will continue to be going forward. As some states begin to enact enforceable MCLs for specific PFAS compounds in drinking water, utilities have begun to evaluate and implement treatment alternatives for removing PFAS from drinking water. It is less clear at this time whether the EPA or states will set limits for PFAS in NPDES permits for discharge of treated wastewater.

In the case of the North Carolina wastewater influent study, concern for the potential discharge of PFAS in treated wastewater effluent upstream of a drinking water intake has resulted in a study that creates a precedent for POTWs investigating potential sources of PFAS from significant industrial users (SIUs). Another element of concern for POTWs is that land application is a common method for disposing of excess biosolids and treated wastewater. Some states have already begun to regulate PFAS in land application activities due to the potential to contaminate groundwater.

PFAS testing, similar to that required by the Commonwealth of Massachusetts (59) and Maine (60), has begun in the biosolids land application industry. The Massachusetts Department of Environmental Protection (Mass DEP) requires PFAS testing for all biosolids sold, distributed, and applied in the Commonwealth of Massachusetts. In Wisconsin, two cities— Marinette and Peshtigo— with PFAS-contaminated biosolids are voluntarily storing biosolids until an appropriate disposal method is found (61). It is important to note that biosolids include food waste, paper fiber from paper mills, and sludge from both water treatment and wastewater treatment facilities. Such regulations would also affect industries that have individual NPDES permits or non-discharge permits.

The landfill industry, including public and private landfills, municipal solid waste landfills, and construction and demolition (C&D) landfills, is likely to be affected if PFAS becomes regulated in wastewater. Many landfills discharge leachate to POTWs for treatment and disposal. If POTWs limit PFAS as part of a landfill’s pretreatment permit, this could add a significant burden to the landfill for leachate pretreatment. However, the

“The most widely used technologies to remove PFAS and PFOA are activated carbon (granular activated carbon and powder activated carbon), ion exchange filtration, and reverse osmosis.”

58

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What Are Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances and Why Should I Care?

continued

relationship between landfills and POTWs is potentially complex, because many landfills receive waste biosolids from POTWs. If land application of waste biosolids becomes more difficult, more POTWs may need to dispose of waste biosolids in landfills. As the PFAS regulatory landscape continues to develop, it will be important for these entities to work together to find mutual solutions to this issue.

Impacts have already been seen in the food and beverage industry. The Commonwealth of Massachusetts has tested bottled water to ensure that residents are not using contaminated bottled water (66). Bottled water companies have individually begun testing products for PFAS, though only some companies have submitted results to Mass DEP (59).

In industries requiring high-purity water, such as the microelectronics and pharmaceutical/life sciences, RO systems will remove PFAS impurities. Likewise, for the food and beverage industry, RO systems are effective at producing a high-quality water stream; RO systems also produce a highly concentrated waste stream. If RO is used on source water that contains PFAS, even in low concentrations, it is possible that the concentrated waste stream could have concentrations of PFAS above a future regulatory limit. If PFAS are eventually regulated in wastewater, these concentrated waste streams could become more difficult to dispose.

In addition to land application and disposal in landfills, biosolids are also disposed of in composting facilities.

In 2017 in Hoosick, New York, a composting facility was forced by the State of New York to stop distributing compost due to levels of PFOA and PFOS found in the processed mulch. PFOA and PFOS were found in samples taken from CTI Agri-Cycle. Additionally, PFAS were found in paper mill wastes sent to the composting facility (62). Since 2017, several other composting facilities have ceased sales due to PFAS contamination, including Golden Heart Utilities in Fairbanks, Alaska (63). Currently, there is no federal guideline or limit for PFAS in compost.

References

Foods grown in soil and water containing PFAS have been shown to absorb PFAS (64). Farmers using contaminated water are especially susceptible to PFAS pollution and effects of regulation. Testing in 2019 on 91 food samples found that only 14 samples had detectable concentration of PFAS (65). In a 2012 study, only one sample of 57 milk samples contained PFAS (65). The one contaminated sample was collected from a farm were biosolids containing PFAS were added to the field.

While some parts of the food and beverage industry have actively used PFAS for years, it is possible that PFAS could ultimately affect non-historic users. As awareness of PFAS grows, new regulations surrounding the use of PFAS-contaminated media has followed. Additional regulations are expected for the food and beverage industry since the FDA has recognized the presence of PFAS in food samples. Sourcing food products from PFAS-free farms will prove important. If PFAScontaminated products are knowingly used in the food industry, that company may find themselves in a situation similar to the dairy farmer in New Mexico or the composters in Alaska and New York.

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1. Chemours. (n.d.b). “Chemical Invention that Changed the World: Teflon™,” Retrieved June 27, 2019, from https://www.chemours.com/ application-development/teflon-continuous-innovation/.

2. Dauchy, X. (2019). “Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances (PFASs) in Drinking Water: Current State of the Science,” Current Opinion in Environmental Science & Health, 7, pp. 8-12, Doi:10.1016/j. coesh.2018.07.004.

3. EPA (Dec. 6, 2018). “Basic Information on PFAS,” Retrieved July 19, 2019, from https://www.epa.gov/pfas/basic-information-pfas, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, D.C. 4. Mueller, R.; Yingling, V. (March 2018). “Naming Conventions and Physical and Chemical Properties of Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances (PFAS),” PDF version, Interstate Technology & Regulatory Council, Washington, D.C. 5. EPA (November 2017). “Technical Fact Sheet— Perfluorooctane Sulfonate (PFOS) and Perfluorooctanoic Acid (PFOA),” PDF version, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, D.C. 6. National Center for Biotechnology Information (n.d.). “Perfluorononanoic Acid,” PubChem, Retrieved June 24, 2019, from https://pubchem. ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/Perfluorononanoic-acid.

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8. Hidalgo, A.; Mora-Diez, N. (2016). “Novel Approach for Predicting Partition Coefficients of Linear Perfluorinated Compounds,” Theoretical Chemistry Accounts 135(1). Doi:10.1007/s00214-015-1784-6.

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What Are Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances and Why Should I Care?

continued

10. EPA (May 2016). “Health Effects Support Document for Perfluorooctanoic Acid (PFOA) United,” PDF version, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Office of Water (4304T) Health and Ecological Criteria Division, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, D.C.

26. EPA ( June 2019). “Perfluoroalkyl and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances (PFAS) Methods and Guidance for Sampling and Analyzing Water and Other Environmental Media,” PDF version, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, D.C.

11. Kärrman, A.; Elgh-Dalgren, K.; Lafossas, C.; Møskeland, T. (2011).

“Environmental Levels and Distribution of Structural Isomers of Perfluoroalkyl Acids after Aqueous Fire-Fighting Foam (AFFF) Contamination,” Environmental Chemistry 8(4), p. 372. doi:10.1071/ en10145.

27. McCord, J.; Strynar, M. (2019). “Identifying Per- and Polyfluorinated Chemical Species with a Combined Targeted and Non-Targeted-Screening High-Resolution Mass Spectrometry Workflow,” The Journal of Visualized Experiments, 146, e59142, doi:10.3791/59142 (2019).

28. Chemours ( Jan. 30, 2019). “PFAS Non-Targeted Analysis and Methods development Plan: Process and Non-Process Wastewater and Stormwater,” (Rep.), Retrieved June 21, 2019, from Chemours website: https:// www.chemours.com/Fayetteville-Works/en-us/assets/downloads/ pfas-non-targeted-analysis-and-methods-development-plan.pdf.

12. Bartell, S.; Field, J.; Jones, D.; Lau, C.; Masten, S.; Savitz, D. (Dec. 7, 2018). “Scientific Evidence and Recommendations for Managing PFAS Contamination in Michigan,” PDF version, Michigan PFAS Science Advisory Panel.

13. ATSDR ( June 7, 2017). An Overview of Perfluoroalkyl and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances and Interim Guidance for Clinicians Responding to Patient Exposure Concerns (PDF), Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry, Atlanta, Georgia.

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1339-1345. Retrieved June 25, 2019.

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Doi:10.1002/ieam.258.

14. Bartell, S.M.; Calafat, A.M.; Lyu, C.; Kato, K.; Ryan, P.B.; Steenland, K. (2010). “Rate of Decline in Serum PFOA Concentrations after Granular Activated Carbon Filtration at Two Public Water Systems in Ohio and West Virginia,” Environmental Health Perspectives 118(2), pp. 222-228.

Doi:10.1289/ehp.0901252.

15. Li, Y.; Fletcher, T.; Mucs, D.; Scott, K.; Lindh, C. H.; Tallving, P.; Jakobsson, K. (2017). “Half-Lives of PFOS, PFHxS, and PFOA after End of Exposure to Contaminated Drinking Water,” Occupational and Environmental Medicine 75(1), pp. 46-51, Doi:10.1136/oemed-2017104651.

31. Mueller, R.; Yingling, V. (April 2020). “Regulations, Guidance, and Advisories for Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances (PFAS),” PDF version, Interstate Technology & Regulatory Council, Washington, D.C., accessible at https://pfas-1.itrcweb.org/fact_sheets_page/PFAS_Fact_ Sheet_Regulations_April2020.pdf.

32. EPA (August 9, 2018). “Fact Sheet: 2010/2015 PFOA Stewardship Program,” Retrieved from https://www.epa.gov/assessing-and-managing-chemicals-under-tsca/fact-sheet-20102015-pfoa-stewardship-program, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, D.C.

16. Kummu, M.; Sieppi, E.; Koponen, J.; Laatio, L.; Vähäkangas, K.; Kiviranta, H.; Myllynen, P. (2015). “Organic Anion Transporter 4 (OAT 4) Modifies Placental Transfer of Perfluorinated Alkyl Acids PFOS and PFOA in Human Placental ex vivo Perfusion System,” Placenta 36(10), pp. 1185-1191. Doi:10.1016/j.placenta.2015.07.119.

33. EPA. (April 30, 2018). “GenX Chemicals Studies,” Retrieved from https://www.epa.gov/pfas/genx-chemicals-studies, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, D.C.

17. EPA (May2016). “Health Effects Support Document for Perfluorooctane Sulfonate (PFOS),” PDF version, Office of Water (4304T) Health and Ecological Criteria Division, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, D.C.

34. Chemours. Sustainability— GenX. (n.d.). Retrieved June 21, 2019, from https://www.chemours.com/Industrial_Bakery_Solutions/en_GB/ sustainability/dibs_genx.html.

18. Steenland, K.; Fletcher, T.; Savitz, D.A. (2010). “Epidemiologic Evidence on the Health Effects of Perfluorooctanoic Acid (PFOA),” Environmental Health Perspectives 118(8),” 1100-1108. Doi:10.1289/ehp.0901827.

19. NJDWQI ( July 1, 2015). “Maximum Contaminant Level Recommendations for Perfluorononanoic Acid in Drinking Water,” PDF version, New Jersey Drinking Water Quality Institute.

20. Minnesota Department of Health (n.d.). “Toxicological Summary for: Perfluorooctanoate,” PDF version, Minnesota Health-Based Guidance for Water Health Risk Assessment Unit, Environmental Health Division, St. Paul, Minnesota.

21. Darrow, L.A.; Howards, P.P.; Winquist, A.; Steenland, K. (2014). “PFOA and PFOS Serum Levels and Miscarriage Risk,” Epidemiology 25(4), pp.

505-512, Doi:10.1097/ede.0000000000000103.

35. EPA (February 2019). “EPA’s Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances (PFAS) Action Plan,” PDF version, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, D.C. 36. Reade, A.; Quinn, T.; Schrieber, J.S. (March 15, 2019). “Scientific and Policy Assessment for Addressing Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances (PFAS) in Drinking Water,” PDF version, Natural Resources Defense Council, New York, New York.

37. EPA (November 2016). “Fact Sheet PFOA and PFOS Drinking Water Health Advisories,” PDF version, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, D.C. 38. Sun, M.; Arevalo, E.; Strynar, M.; Lindstrom, A.; Richardson, M.; Kearns, B.; Knappe, D.R. (2016). “Legacy and Emerging Perfluoroalkyl Substances Are Important Drinking Water Contaminants in the Cape Fear River Watershed of North Carolina,” Environmental Science & Technology Letters 3(12), pp. 415-419. Doi:10.1021/acs.estlett.6b00398

22. NCDHHS (Nov. 8, 2018). “Prevalence of Selected Birth Defects, 2003–2014,” PDF version, North Carolina Department of Health and Human Services, Raleigh, North Carolina.

39. NCDHHS (November 2018). “Occupational & Environmental Epidemiology,” Retrieved June 25, 2019, from https://epi.dph.ncdhhs. gov/oee/a_z/genx.html.

23. Stein, C.R.; Savitz, D.A.; Elston, B.; Thorpe, P.G.; Gilboa, S.M. (2014).

“Perfluorooctanoate Exposure and Major Birth Defects”. Reproductive Toxicology, 47, pp. 15-20. Doi:10.1016/j.reprotox.2014.04.006.

40. NCDHHS (September 2017). “GenX Health Information,” PDF version, State of North Carolina—Department of Health and Human Services, Division of Public Health, Raleigh, North Carolina.

24. Parsa, B.; Krietzman, S.; Soong, S. ( June 1, 2015). “Report on the Development of a Practical Quantitation Level for Perfluorononanoic Acid in Drinking Water,” PDF version, New Jersey Drinking Water Quality Institute Testing Subcommittee.

41. Scott, M.B.; Zimmer, J. (Sept. 6, 2017). “Notice of Violation and Intent to Enforce,” Letter to E. McGaughy.

25. ASDWA (Feb. 14, 2019). Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances (PFAS) Laboratory Testing Primer for State Drinking Water Programs and Public Water Systems (PDF), Association of State Drinking Water Administrators, Arlington, Virginia.

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42. Southern Environmental Law Center (Nov. 21, 2018). “Agreement Reached on Chemours’ PFAS, GenX Pollution in North Carolina,” press release, Retrieved June 21, 2019 from https://www.southernenvironment. org/news-and-press/press-releases/agreement-reached-on-chemourspfas-genx-pollution-in-north-carolina.

59. Mass DEP. (2019). “Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances (PFAS),” Retrieved July 25, 2019, from https://www.mass.gov/info-details/ per-and-polyfluoroalkyl-substances-pfas#bottled-water-and-home-water-filters-.

60. Doyle, T.R.; Gray, K.F.; Taylor, W.E.; Gilbreath, L.A. (March 25, 2019).

“Maine DEP Establishes Aggressive Requirement for PFAS Testing in Biosolids,” accessed July 25, 2019, from https://www.natlawreview.com/ article/maine-dep-establishes-aggressive-requirement-pfas-testing-biosolids.

43. NCDEQ (2018). Press Release: “State Officials Require Chemours to Provide Permanent Drinking Water and Pay $12 Million Penalty,” Retrieved from https://deq.nc.gov/news/press-releases/2018/11/21/ release-state-officials-require-chemours-provide-permanent-drinking.

44. General Assembly of North Carolina (2017). House Bill No. 56, Section 20, 2017 legislative session, Raleigh, North Carolina.

61. WDNR ( July 15, 2019). “PFAS Contamination in the Marinette and Peshtigo Area: Frequently Asked Questions,” Retrieved July 25, 2019, from https://dnr.wi.gov/topic/Contaminants/MarinetteFAQ.html.

45. Lanier, M.; Mead, R.; Vetter, R.; Volety, A. (2017). “Interim Report from UNC Wilmington for the Environmental Review Commission,” PDF version, University of North Carolina at Wilmington, North Carolina, accessible at https://www.ncleg.gov/documentsites/committees/ERC/ ERC%20Reports%20Received/2018/CFPUA%20and%20UNCW/2018-Jan%20Interim%20Rpt%20HB%2056%20with%20maps.pdf.

62. Crowe, K. (March 15, 2017). “PFOA Contamination found at Cambridge Site,” Retrieved from https://www.timesunion.com/local/article/ PFOA-contamination-found-at-Cambridge-site-11000346.php.

63. McGroarty, E. ( June 3, 2019). “Fairbanks Company Suspends Compost Sales over PFAS Contaminant Concerns,” Retrieved July 25, 2019, from https://www.adn.com/alaska-news/fairbanks/2019/06/03/fairbanks-company-suspends-compost-sales-over-pfas-contaminant-concerns/.

46. NCPC ( January 2019). “North Carolina Per- and Polyfluororoalkyl Substances (PFAST) Network Testing,” PDF version, North Carolina Policy Collaboratory.

47. Michigan Department of Environment (n.d.) “About MPART,” Retrieved June 21, 2019, from https://www.michigan.gov/pfasresponse/0,9038,7-365-86513---,00.html.

48. Michigan. (n.d.b). “Firefighting Foam and PFAS,” Retrieved from https:// www.michigan.gov/pfasresponse/0,9038,7-365-86514-496805--,00.html.

49. MDHHS (April 2019). “PFAS Exposure and Your Health,” PDF version, Michigan Department of Health and Human Services, Lansing, Michigan, accessible at https://www.michigan.gov/documents/ pfasresponse/2019-4-23_PFAS_Exposure_and_Your_Health_-_ APPROVED_WEB_653460_7.pdf.

50. Michigan House of Representatives (2017). House Bill No 5375: “A Bill to Amend 1976 PA 399, entitled Safe Drinking Water Act,” 2017-2018 Michigan House legislative session (2017).

51. Mason, D. ( Jan. 15, 2019). “PFAS News— New York MCL Recommendations and ASDWA Website Information,” Retrieved July 24, 2019, from https://www.asdwa.org/2018/12/21/pfas-news-new-york-mcl-recommendations-and-asdwa-website-information/.

52. McCabe, C.R. (2019). “Groundwater Quality Standards and Maximum Contaminant Levels (MCLs) for Perfluorooctanoic Acid (PFOA) and Perfluorooctanesulfonic Acid (PFOS),” New Jersey Environmental Protection, Division of Water Supply and Geoscience, Trenton, New Jersey.

53. Walsh, L.; Bonnette, L.; Dillon, A. (April 2014). “Occurrence of Perfluorinated Chemicals in Untreated New Jersey Drinking Water Sources: Final Report,” PDF version, New Jersey Department of Environmental Protection Division of Water Supply & Geoscience, Trenton, New Jersey.

54. NJDEP (March 13, 2019). “Contaminants of Emerging Concern,” Retrieved June 21, 2019, from https://www.nj.gov/dep/srp/emerging-contaminants/.

55. CSWRCB (December 2018). “Groundwater Information Sheet: Perfluorooctanoic Acid (PFOA) & Perfluorooctanesulfonic Acid (PFOS),” PDF version, available at . https://www.waterboards.ca.gov, California State Water Resources Control Board, Sacramento, California.

56. OECD (2015). “Risk Reduction Approaches for PFASS—A Cross-Country Analysis,” PDF version, Paris: Inter-Organization Programme for the Sound Management of Chemicals.

57. ITRC (May 2019). “PFAS Regulations, Guidance and Advisories, Section 4 Tables (XLSX),” Interstate Technology & Regulatory Council, Washington, D.C. 58. Dickenson, E.; Higgins, C. (February 2016). “Treatment Mitigation Strategies for Poly- and Perfluoroalkyl Substances,” PDF version, Water Research Foundation, Denver, Colorado.

63

64. NCDEQ and NCDHHS (Aug. 29, 2018). “Secretaries’ Science Advisory Board Review of the North Carolina Drinking Water Provisional Health Goal for GenX,” PDF version, North Carolina Department of Environmental Quality and North Carolina Department of Health and Human Services, Raleigh, North Carolina.

65. FDA. ( June 11, 2019). Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition.

Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances (PFAS), Retrieved from https://www. fda.gov/food/chemicals/and-polyfluoroalkyl-substances-pfas, U.S. Food and Drug Administration, Silver Spring, Maryland.

66. MassDEP. (April 19, 2019). “MassDEP Testing of Bottled Water Provided by State Contractors for PFAS,” PDF version, Massachusetts Department of Environmental Protection, Boston, Massachusetts

Ryan Ames, P.E., is a process design leader in the water practice at Dewberry with more than 20 years of water and wastewater engineering experience. His primary focus is leading multidisciplinary teams in water and wastewater detailed design projects. He also has extensive experience in water chemistry; process evaluation, optimization, and troubleshooting; and conceptual and preliminary design. Mr. Ames has experience with project execution for both public and private sector clients. He earned a master’s degree in environmental engineering from Pennsylvania State University and a bachelor’s degree in chemistry from Juniata College. He is a professional engineer in North Carolina and Pennsylvania.

Katie Jones leads Dewberry’s industrial practice as a subject matter expert in wastewater process optimization and design. She provides lifecycle services to clients from concept design to detailed design/design-build and process optimization. Ms. Jones has worked on more than 400 projects over the last 15 years related to wastewater treatment plant design; process evaluation, optimization, and operation; biological nutrient removal; physical/chemical treatment processes; evaluation of sludge management and disposal options;

the Analyst Volume 27 Number 3

What Are Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances and Why Should I Care?

continued

waste recycling reclamation and minimization; water quality permitting; and regulatory plan development. She holds a master’s degree in environmental engineering from the Georgia Institute of Technology.

Leigh-Ann Dudley has 11 years of experience working on water/wastewater projects focused on biological, physical, and chemical treatment processes. Her work includes treatment plant process evaluations and troubleshooting, bench and pilot scale treatability studies, concept-level design, land-based treatment systems, and regulatory negotiation/permitting. Ms. Dudley earned a master’s degree in environmental engineering and a bachelor’s degree in chemical engineering, both from North Carolina State University. She is a member of AWWA and NC AWWA-WEA.

Alex Wall is a staff engineer with Dewberry. She has experience working as a process engineer in the wastewater and textile industry. She has been involved in the development of preliminary engineering reports, treatability studies, data analysis, permitting and regulatory negotiation, and concept design and modeling.

Ms. Wall graduated from Clemson University with a bachelor’s degree in chemical engineering.

This paper was presented at the International Water Conference, which was conducted November 10–14, 2019, in Orlando, Florida. More information about the IWC can be found at www.eswp.com.

AWT Committee Leadership Enhance Your Career and Your AWT Membership Join an AWT Committee Today!

Members who have participated in an AWT committee will refer to their participation as a benefit and tell you how valuable it has been to their professional development. Joining an AWT committee will allow you to: • Get to know more water treatment professionals and suppliers, better establishing your network.

• Test and expand your leadership skills.

• Share your expertise with other industry professionals.

• Broaden your understanding of the water treatment industry.

To become active, please contact us at (301) 740-1421:

For more information about each committee go to https://www.awt.org/about_AWT/committees.cfm.

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Association News

Following is an update on the four outcomes of the AWT strategic plan.

Outcome 3—An Engaged Membership: If you haven’t already visited, please be sure to check out the updated and more user-friendly AWT website at www.awt.org.

Outcome 1—Training and Education: AWT volunteers are hard at work on many projects. Here are just a few.

Given the popularity of the 2020 Business Owners Meeting, we’re looking forward to another great meeting in 2021. Stay tuned for the dates (early February 2021) and location.

In addition, the Governance Task Force continues to look at our membership structures and opportunities. As their work progresses, we will share their progress.

Thanks to the work of some dedicated AWT members, work is progressing on the development of a water treatment exhibit at the Museum of Industrial History.

Work continues on the updates to the Raw Materials Manual as well as the Technical Reference and Training Manual (TR&TM). We anticipate new versions of the manuals to be out very soon.

Outcome 2—Member and Industry Advocate: The two STEM festivals AWT was scheduled to attend were canceled. In addition, the legislation AWT was monitoring in Florida regarding cooling tower inspection and treatment was rescinded. However, activity with our RTO liaisons continues.

Outcome 4—Charity: Thanks to the amazing support

by AWT members, we are making a big impact with Pure Water for the World, supporting water projects in three small communities in Honduras—El Horconcito, Las Uvillas, and La Union. Through the COVID-19 pandemic, PWW teams continue to be designated as “essential” by local governments, building emergency latrines and handwashing stations. The projects being put in place are more critical than ever, as hand-washing and sanitation stations are important components to fighting COVID-19.

You can see the work you are a part of at the PWW website at www.purewaterfortheworld.org.

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Membership Benefits

Don’t forget to take advantage of all the discount programs AWT offers. These savings can really add up.

Avis/Budget Car Rental Discounts AWT has partnered with the Avis Budget Group, a leading global provider of vehicle rental and car sharing services. Avis/Budget operates 10,000 locations in approximately 175 countries and offers AWT members up to 25% off base rates as well as coupons and special offers. Sign up today at https://www.avis.com/en/association/D423508.

UPS Shipping and Business Services Discounts AWT and UPS took the guesswork out and put the easy in. Members now have access to new and improved flat rate pricing with savings of 45% on Domestic Next Day/Deferred, 25% on Ground Commercial/Residential, and up to 50% on additional services. In addition, members can take advantage of the UPS Smart Pickup service for free.

Open a new account or, if you are already taking advantage of our UPS savings program, re-enroll and apply the new discounts to your existing account by visiting www.savewithups.com/awt, or call 1-800MEMBERS (1-800-636-2377), Monday–Friday, 8:00 am–5:00 pm ET.

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OfficeMax Partner Advantage℠ Program AWT members will enjoy substantial savings of 31% to 88% off the manufacturer’s list price on frequently purchased items and receive reduced pricing on more than 12,000 in-stock products and 3,700 environmentally preferable products and services. Members will also receive discounts on certain ImPress print and document services. Members with fewer than 40 employees, visit https://business.officedepot.com/, and have your AWT OfficeMax Partner Advantage Program (Username: 0729341w and Password: t5BKbNc3) available to start saving now! Members with 40 or more employees, call 1 (800) 636-2377 to request more information on setting up your account.

TSYS Merchant Services Discount Program With more than 30 years of industry experience, TSYS Merchant Solutions offers AWT members a payment acceptance program tailored to your business needs. With a full portfolio of payment-acceptance solutions that include credit, debit, prepaid, mobile, chip, digital wallet, and B2B, we help our customers conveniently conduct safe and secure electronic transactions with trust and confidence. Contact TSYS today for a free cost-saving analysis and learn how you can receive a free chip card terminal. Learn more at www.tsysmerchantsolutions.com/awt.

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Industry Notes

H2O Logistics. Uncomplicated.

“We are excited to combine ChemSystems’ talented commercial team with Solenis’ world-class solutions service model to create enhanced value for our customers,” said Andreas Türk, president, Eurasia, Solenis. For additional information about Solenis, please visit www.solenis.com.

What if you could future-proof your supply chain through state-of-the-art technology and human intelligence? At Ascent Global Logistics, our focus is on uncomplicating logistics through our domestic, international, and on-demand solutions.

ASHRAE Publishes Updated Legionella Guideline

Our team specializes in analyzing your supply chain and building a solution customized to your business’s needs. Whether your shipment is one-time or recurring, one pallet or a full container load, transported by truck, ship, rail or air, our team of transportation experts is here to help.Who said logistics has to be complicated? We certainly didn’t. Contact the Ascent team to learn more. Contact Ascent Global Logistics www.ascentgl.com/awt.

ASHRAE Guideline 12-2020, Managing the Risk of Legionellosis Associated with Building Water Systems, provides guidance useful in the implementation of ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 188, Legionellosis: Risk Management for Building Water Systems. The guideline is intended for use by owners of human-occupied buildings and those involved in the design, construction, installation, commissioning, management, operation, maintenance, and service of centralized building water systems and components.

Solenis Completes Acquisition of Paper Business of ChemSystems Effective June 1, 2020, Solenis LLC closed on its previously announced acquisition of the paper business of ChemSystems, a division of AECI Ltd. Headquartered in Johannesburg, South Africa, ChemSystems is a leading producer and supplier of specialized chemical solutions for water-intensive industries, including the pulp, paper, and tissue manufacturing industries in sub-Saharan Africa. The business will be integrated into Solenis as part of its direct-tomarket strategy.

“The purchase of paper business of ChemSystems represents another milestone in Solenis’ growth strategy as we continue to clean up our channel to market following the merger with BASF’s Paper and Water business,” said John Panichella, CEO, Solenis. “We will rapidly integrate the ChemSystems business and its talented teams into Solenis and look forward to strengthening our commitment and providing value to pulp and paper customers in sub-Saharan Africa.”

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“ASHRAE Standard 188 gives direction regarding what to do to control the spread of legionellosis, such as to follow a risk management process, but does not necessarily explain how to do it in a prescriptive way” says Paul Lindahl, committee chair for ASHRAE Standing Standard Project Committee (SSPC) 188, the committee responsible for writing Guideline 12-2020.

“Guideline 12 complements Standard 188 by providing detailed guidance for water management program teams to develop the necessary elements of an effective water management plan. This can be a particularly important aspect of plans to reopen buildings following the COVID-19 pandemic.”

Guideline 12 applies to spaces such as hotels, office buildings, hospitals and other health care facilities, assisted living facilities, schools, universities, commercial buildings, industrial buildings, and centralized systems in multifamily residential buildings. Buildings with noncentralized water systems and single-family

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Industry Notes continued

Dr. Steven Jons, Dr. Tina Arrowood, and Dr. Steve Rosenberg of DuPont Safety & Construction were recognized for leading the development and commercialization of nanofiltration products for the purification of municipal drinking water, treatment of offshore oil and gas production water, dairy production, and wastewater reuse. Nanofiltration—a membrane liquid separation process that rejects dissolved solutes in the approximate size range of one nanometer—is a relatively new chemistry-based technology. Since their first use, nanofiltration products have had a huge impact on the safety of our drinking water, the production of the milk on our tables, and the collection of the oil that powers our lives.

residential buildings, though not included, may also benefit.

Three presentations on Guideline 12-2020 will take place during the 2020 ASHRAE Virtual Conference.

History of Standard 188, Guideline 12, and Other Guidelines ASHRAE Guideline 12 and the Facts About Legionella Growth in Building Water Systems Guideline 12 Is a Tool Designed to Support the Preparation of a Water Management Plan Using ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 188

DuPont's nanofiltration membranes are part of the company's FilmTec™ portfolio. Going forward, nanofiltration is poised to continue to make a global impact— being a critical part of the solutions to address water scarcity, more sustainable use of energy, and worldwide food supply shortages.

While Legionnaire’s disease has been known about for many years, recent outbreaks have increased awareness of the disease, its causes, and prevention strategies.

According to the World Health Organization, because many countries lack appropriate methods of diagnosing the infection or sufficient surveillance systems, the rate of occurrence is unknown. For more information and to stay up to date on ASHRAE, visit ashrae.org

DuPont Scientists Named 2020 Heroes of Chemistry DuPont announced that 10 of its current and former scientists and engineers, representing the DuPont Electronics & Imaging and DuPont Safety & Construction businesses, have been named recipients of the prestigious American Chemical Society Heroes of Chemistry Award, representing generations of technology advancement in semiconductor materials and water filtration. The individuals recognized are some of the key contributors in defining technologies that have had a long-lasting legacy on their respective industries.

Also recognized were Dr. Marty DeGroot, Dr. Bainian Qian, Dr. Mary Jo Kulp, Dr. David James, John Roberts, Harry (George) McClain, and William (Bill) Budinger of DuPont Electronics & Imaging for their role in creating and optimizing a broad portfolio of chemical mechanical polishing (CMP) pads, which have been key enablers in the semiconductor evolution and continue to be critically important for chip fabricators around the world.

"Both DuPont's CMP pads and nanofiltration membranes are essential innovations that help our customers advance their best ideas while delivering far-reaching global solutions that contribute to a more sustainable world," added Dembek.

Heroes of Chemistry is an annual award sponsored by the American Chemical Society that recognizes the role industrial chemical scientists and companies play in improving human welfare through commercial innovations and products. Award recipients will be recognized in August. More information can be found at www.dupont.com.

"These awards recognize the creative and dedicated work of DuPont teams across decades of innovation," said Alexa Dembek, chief technology & sustainability officer for DuPont. "We applaud our DuPont Heroes of Chemistry and their teams for their impactful contributions to industry and society."

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Industry Notes continued

AquaPhoenix Expands Equipment Product Offering With Acquisition of General Treatment Products

AP Tech Group Partners With Star Solutions AP Tech Group is excited to announce a partnership with Star Solutions. The two Cincinnati-based companies have agreed to work together in an effort to optimize existing solid products and develop exciting new technologies for the water treatment industry.

AquaPhoenix is pleased to announce it has acquired General Treatment Products, Inc. (GTP) out of Brea, California. This is a very exciting time for both companies as well as their customers and employees. Both AquaPhoenix and GTP have years of experience supplying the water treatment industry with quality products and equipment. Their shared knowledge, expanded product offerings, and geographic locations will enhance the customer experience by providing testing products and feed and control equipment needs in one place.

AP Tech believes that through this partnership, it will be able to create value through real-life case studies, product evaluation, and application knowledge.

"This was really a natural next step for us. We've worked closely with Star Solutions for over 15 years. The partnership we've developed will allow us to get closer to the point of application in the field and better understand how we can help water treatment companies around the world provide safer, easier, and more convenient water treatment programs" says Matt Horine, managing director of AP Tech Group.

Expanded products include: Containment Tanks Glycol Feeder Bypass Feeders Mixing Tanks-Stands To learn more, please visit AquaPhoenix and GTP online at www.aquaphoenixsci.com and www.gtpcompany.com.

Tom Wehby, owner of Star Solutions agrees, "The real winner here is our customers. They will gain immediate access to new developments and technologies for water treatment, as well as the experience and guidance of the AP Tech team. At Star Solutions, this will free up our time to focus on our core business."

AquaPhoenix Grows Distributor Network AquaPhoenix distributes thousands of products from some of the top manufacturers, and it is pleased to announce it has added both Blue-White Industries and Seametrics to its equipment product line. Blue-White offers a full-spectrum of products used in the treatment of water and wastewater, including chemical dosing pumps, chemical feed sensors, and variable area flowmeters. Seametrics specializes in developing magnetic and mechanical flow meters and environmental sensors for precision fluid measurement.

Founded in 1999, AP Tech now serves over 200 water treatment partners who supply AP Tech’s solid chemistry technology and equipment to water treatment programs to over 10,000 customers in North America, Central America, South America, United Kingdom, Europe, Australia, New Zealand, Korea, Malaysia, and Thailand.

To learn more, contact AquaPhoenix at (866) 632-1291 or visit the company online at www.aquaphoenixsci.com.

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CWT Spotlight

Jeremy Stokes, CWT QualiChem, Inc. Salem, Virginia

What prompted you to obtain your CWT and when did you begin the process by taking the test?

After steering my career path towards water treatment, I was fortunate enough to attend the Technical Training Seminar. It was at this time I realized the breadth of knowledge available in our industry, the importance of the AWT organization, and the value of becoming a CWT. I quickly made obtaining certification a professional goal. Joining the group at QualiChem allowed me to work alongside a number of experienced CWTâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s and continue to work toward my goal of becoming a CWT. What advice would you give those thinking about taking the exam?

Study! Set a plan and allow yourself time to study and practice. There are so many resources available to AWT members, and I believe it was critical to use all of these resources as I prepared for the exam. The Technical Training Seminar was certainly helpful. The AWT Technical Reference & Training Manual is a great resource as well. AWT also has a number of educational resources available on the website, including Analyst articles and practice quizzes that I found extremely valuable in preparing for the exam.

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What was the most difficult aspect of the exam?

The most difficult aspect of the exam was the large number of questions and potential 4-hour test length. I imagine for many taking the exam that it has been quite a long time since weâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;ve had to prepare for that type of test. Getting past the initial mental challenge of the test size was difficult. A critical piece of advice I was given was to not dwell on any one question, to get through as many questions as possible knowing that there would be time to go back through any questions where I was unsure of the answer.

Why do you feel this credential was important to have?

Being a CWT shows your customers and industry peers that you are committed to your craft. You have to continue to gain experience, participate in the AWT organization, and stay committed to ongoing education in order to maintain your CWT. I believe the industry recognizes the importance of the certification, and being a CWT sets you apart from others in the business.

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Making a Splash

Kristen Majeska IDEXX Westbrook, Maine

What prompted you to start volunteering with AWT? My volunteer journey with AWT began with the warm welcome and great conversations I had on the USS Midway in San Diego with long-time AWT member John Caloritis and his wife during my first Annual Convention. I quickly understood that AWT was a community that was committed to the professionalism of its field and that AWT members were eager to learn from each other. At that very first meeting, I recognized the professional development opportunity that AWT offered for me to learn about water management and treatment from world-class experts. I also realized then that, in return, I could share the specialized expertise that my company, IDEXX, has developed over 37 years as a global leader in developing water microbiology test kits. In fact, I brought along one of our top R&D scientists and world-class Legionella experts to present at the very next AWT Annual Convention. A couple of Annual Conventions later, when John, the subcommittee chair, invited me to help facilitate a brainstorm session at a Cooling Water Subcommittee meeting, my volunteering began in earnest.

How has volunteering improved your professional career?

In 2018 the Cooling Water Subcommittee realized AWT members could benefit from a single, easy-to-use and objective source of information about the numerous chemical and microbiological testing and analytical methods that can be tools for water treaters. Customer

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education is a big part of what we do every day at IDEXX, so it was a great place for me to contribute. It was a true group effort, leveraging the years of experience of the subcommittee members, and the result was a simple spreadsheet that now lives in the Members Only section of the AWT website under “Cooling Resources.”

We included information on appropriate applications and pros and cons of both traditional and recently developed testing methods, so I encourage everyone to check it out.

Tell us about a current project you or your committee is working on.

A working group of the Cooling Sub-Committee has just received board approval to coordinate an AWT member study to gain a better understanding of the prevalence and nature of Legionella pneumophila entering premise water systems from public drinking water distribution systems. AWT members will be invited to submit their de-identified L. pneumophila testing results for point of entry samples, along with information about other water quality parameters at the sampling point and characteristics of the local water system. The data will be aggregated and analyzed to provide a snapshot of sources of Legionnaires’ disease risk across the country. We hope the study will give water treaters a better understanding of the impact of incoming distribution system water on the potential bacteria and L. pneumophila load for their clients and provide useful insights for treatment design, customer support, and, above all, reducing Legionnaires’ disease risk for AWT members’ customers and staff.

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Financial Matters

Is Credit Monitoring Enough to Keep Your Identity Safe?

By Hugh Norton

open financial accounts that aren't generally on the major three consumer credit reports, such as a bank account or payday loan.

Identity theft can be a time-consuming and costly hassle, but there are measures you can take to protect your personal information and avoid the headache. One tool that can help is credit monitoring. But what exactly does credit monitoring do? And more importantly, is it enough to keep you safe?

An alert may be too late, but it can still be helpful.

Credit monitoring services are reactive by nature. If you're alerted that someone has tried to use (or successfully used) your personal information, then in a sense it's too late—you're already a victim of identity theft.

What is credit monitoring? There are a three primary national consumer credit bureaus, and you may have a credit report with more than one. Although the reports are often similar, they're not necessarily identical because some financial institutions only report data to one or two of the bureaus, and some don't report data to any of them.

However, being able to react right away can help limit the damage because you can contact the companies to have the fraudulent accounts shut down. Additionally, there are steps you can take to help minimize your risk of identity theft.

At their simplest, credit monitoring services will look for potentially suspicious changes in your credit reports based on your prior activity and send you an alert if they detect an issue. These could include a new hard inquiry (when you apply for credit and a creditor checks your report) or a new account. Either could be an indication that someone is using your information to fraudulently open financial accounts.

Ways to protect yourself before something happens.

Unless you decide to live off the financial grid, you may not be able to completely protect yourself from large data breaches. But here are a few things you can do to help keep your personal information secure: Don't carry your Social Security card in your wallet, and only carry other documents with sensitive information (such as a Medicare card) when you know you'll need them.

They may also alert you to new public records, such as a bankruptcy, and to changes to the personal information section, such as a new name or address on your report.

Credit monitoring services can range in price and function. You can find the basic monitoring and alert services for free. However, they may only monitor one or two of your credit reports, so you could have to sign up for several to get full coverage.

Generally, don't share your personal information if you receive an incoming call, even if the person claims to be from your bank or a government agency. Instead, tell the caller you will call them back and use the entity's actual number (which can usually be found on a bill, statement of account or website) to do so.

Learn how to safely and properly dispose of computers, mobile phones, and other electronics that may have your personal information on them.

Services that have a monthly or annual subscription fee may monitor your credit reports from all three bureaus.

More robust identity monitoring services include additional features, such as fraud resolution assistance, reimbursements for lost funds or expenses related to identity theft, and scanning the Internet for your personal information. They may alert you if your info is used to

Place fraud alerts or credit freezes on your reports to make it more difficult for someone else to open an account in your name.

Continued on page 74 72

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Capital Eyes

EPA Actions Rev Up Opposition The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has issued several proposals and notices recently that have been the subject of opposition from environmental groups. Here are some examples.

Cost-Benefit Basis EPA’s newly unveiled plan to reshape the handling of cost and benefit forecasts for future Clean Air Act regulations was under fire one day after it was released.

Administrator Wheeler described the proposal as a first-ever bid to establish “best practices” in the handling of cost-benefit analysis of air pollution and climate regulations. Opponents are concerned about a provision that would bar consideration of health “co-benefits” to help justify the need for future air pollution and climate regulations. Wheeler disputed critics’ contention that the plan is designed to raise fresh hurdles to the issuance of new rules, particularly in regard to climate policy.

In collecting feedback for Trump’s regulatory reform agenda, Wheeler said EPA heard concerns that the agency had previously lowballed compliance costs while inflating the benefits expected from specific regulations.

Wheeler also portrayed the plan as part of a broader administration goal to knead more transparency into government operations. He specifically cited a recently created database of agency guidance documents as well as a separate proposal to limit the use of scientific studies in making significant regulatory decisions unless the data and models are available in a manner sufficient for independent validation. That proposed rule has been fiercely contested as detractors similarly see it as a backdoor attack on EPA’s ability to confront threats to public health and the environment through new regulations.

Within the next three years, EPA hopes to complete similar makeovers for estimating the potential health gains and compliance costs for future regulations used

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under various statutes covering water, land, and chemicals programs, Wheeler announced. The major laws covering the programs Wheeler mentioned include the Clean Water Act, the Toxic Substances Control Act, and the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act. In tandem, EPA is also revamping its 2010 guidelines for conducting economic analyses for proposed rulemaking.

Air Pollution The battle over a far-reaching set of EPA air toxics regulations could soon reignite after a two-year lull. At issue is unfinished business from two appellate court rulings on hazardous emission standards for thousands of industrial boilers and related systems. After the U.S. Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit sent some provisions back to EPA for more work, the agency is now poised to issue its planned fixes. The White House regulations office completed a routine review, clearing the way for EPA to formally release the proposed rule.

At stake is the final shape of one of the most ambitious packages of air toxics regulations ever issued. The EPA proposal is supposed to address what the D.C. Circuit found to be serious flaws in the regulations that set maximum achievable control technology (MACT) emission standards for thousands of industrial boilers that power or heat paper mills, chemical plants, and other industrial operations.

The saga dates back to 2010, when a federal court ordered the Obama Administration to come up with a replacement for a previous set of boiler emission standards promulgated during George W. Bush’s presidency that had been thrown out. But the agency’s draft sparked an outcry from industry groups and members of Congress. Even then-EPA Office of Air Chief Gina McCarthy said that some of the limits in the proposal were simply too tight to be able to be achievable.

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Capital Eyes continued

As a result, the final 2011 version was considerably less strict, with estimated compliance costs that EPA pegged at $1.8 billion less—or about half—than what had been forecast for the proposal.

In 2016, a three-judge panel faulted EPA for excluding some of the best-performing boilers in various categories, a step that effectively led to weaker emission limits. In 2018, a separate D.C. circuit panel agreed with environmental groups represented by Earthjustice in finding that EPA had failed to justify a decision to weaken a limit on carbon monoxide when using the lethal gas as a proxy for releases of formaldehyde and other toxic organic pollutants.

Guidance Documents EPA moved to set formal boundaries on its future handling of nonbinding guidance documents that often shape broader regulatory practices under a draft rule recently released. The draft proposal, which follows an executive order issued by the president last fall, would require EPA to provide advance notice in the Federal Register and the opportunity for public feedback on significant new proposed guidance.

The draft rule would create a petition process for members of the public or interest groups to seek to change or scrap existing guidance. EPA is also seeking input on whether to create a similar petition process applying to formal regulations. All new guidance would be posted on a recently created central website.

In addition, the proposal would officially define guidance as an agency statement intended to have future effect on the behavior of regulated parties that sets forth a policy on a statutory, regulatory, or technical issue, or an interpretation of a statute or regulation.

In contrast with the issuance of legally binding regulations, EPA is now not required to give the public a heads up on proposed guidance or open a window for outside feedback. Since Trump took office in 2017, EPA’s Office of Air has issued 132 guidance documents.

Janet Kopenhaver is president of Eye on Washington and serves as the AWT Washington representative. She can be reached at (703) 528-6674 or janetk@eyeonwashington.com.

Financial Matters continued

Before throwing it out, shred or cut up material that has personal information, including old bank statements, credit cards and insurance forms.

The Federal Trade Commission also has helpful articles and resources that you can explore to learn more about identity theft prevention and recovery.

Install antivirus software on your computer and keep it up to date.

Bottom line: At a minimum, having some form of free credit monitoring or making a practice of regularly checking your credit reports for suspicious changes could help you avoid major problems down the road.

If you're concerned about identity theft, taking steps to secure your personal information and paying for a service that includes resolution assistance and reimbursements could be a good idea.

Avoid logging into financial accounts while using public Wi-Fi networks, including those at cafes or airports.

Set and regularly update your password for your phone and computer.

© www.practicalmoneyskills.com

Use different, long passwords for your online accounts.

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Business Notes

What the “Best Companies to Work For” Do Differently Help Workers Find and Pursue Their Passions

What makes a great company culture? To explore this question, Bill Baker and I spent the last three years researching the best places to work in the United States, from Patagonia to Edmunds.com.

To make our final list, companies had to appear perennially on one or more of the “Best Companies to Work for” lists of reputable business publications between 2014 and 2018. Each company also had to agree to let us in to interview executives, conduct focus groups with employees, and tour their facilities. Our selections included businesses in both the private and public sectors, ranging in size from 250 employees to over 7,000.

Our aim in conducting this research was not simply to tabulate all the interesting things these companies do.

Instead, we aimed to extract general principles about why what they do is so successful. While no one formula can capture the idiosyncrasies of these companies, below are some common themes we found.

Put People First Almost all of the founders and CEOs we spoke with told us that they built their companies with people in mind.

To them, a healthy culture is as important as a healthy balance sheet.

Take the case of the San Francisco grocer Bi-Rite Market.

In addition to paying $15.59 an hour and providing full health insurance coverage, Bi-Rite matches dollars on all employee 401(k) plans up to 4% of their income and pays profit-sharing that ranges from 2 to 6% of worker salaries.

Anyone who works at least 20 hours a week, including part-time workers, has access to these benefits.

Other companies went a step further, offering a robust number of supplemental programs to help employees maintain work-life balance and improve their mental and physical health, from stress-reduction workshops and nutritional consultations to financial planning and grievance counseling services. Health Catalyst even helped build a controlled living environment for an employee’s newborn child who was born with a rare immune deficiency.

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The companies we surveyed find ways to rejuvenate employees by helping them identify the areas of work that provide them with the greatest fulfillment. Doing so not only increases productivity, it makes people feel happy to be at work.

Regeneron Pharmaceuticals serves as a case in point.

The company’s mission is to develop new medicines for patients in need. Many of these medicines may never make large sums of money from these treatments, but the goal is to relieve people in pain without binding qualifications such as return on investment. This purity of position makes a big difference to people who work there because they feel a genuine sense of purpose.

Other companies seek to arouse people’s passions through special programs or sabbaticals. Intuitive Research and Technology challenges workers to come up with innovative solutions to problems through its Creative Incentive Program. Employees are invited to write a prospectus on new product ideas, and if the company likes an idea submitted by an employee, it will provide startup funding and give half the profits to the creator.

Bring People Together on a Personal Level The organizations we studied realize that their effectiveness also relies upon the goodwill and solidarity of groups, so they put quite a bit of effort into bringing people together and make a big deal out of significant dates in the workers’ lives. BambooHR treats birthdays as paid holidays. Insomniac Games provides new parents with a custom onesie, art books, and toys, as well as a baby briefcase to help them keep their newborn’s details organized.

In our personal lives, we understand that it is good practice to celebrate and sympathize; to show regard for others’ feelings and needs; to uplift, soften, comfort, and aid. Like good families, good organizations have the same responsibility. If they want to create a real sense of

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Business Notes continued

prevent them from acting on their passions and beliefs.

Employees within our sample have found a place where they can be their “authentic” selves.

community among their teams, they also need to create shared experiences.

Empower People to Own Their Work The executives we interviewed repeatedly told us that they want their employees to think and act like owners.

Allowing them to control aspects of their work is key to accomplishing this. Employees who have the leeway to rearrange, modify and improve their assignments feel possession over them. Once this happens, they are more easily able to grow, innovate and push their companies forward.

For Tom Caporaso, the CEO of Clarus Commerce, a winning management philosophy resembles that of a sports team: hire good people; train, practice and prepare; coach teammates to back each other up, learn from mistakes, and accept wins and losses together.

Once people have proved they are capable of tackling projects on their own, a manager will rarely step in; the field of play at Clarus is set by goals and budgets. Within those boundaries, it is up to the workers to execute. This empowerment enables Clarus to move quickly according to conditions on the ground and to diligently meet changing customer needs.

Create a Space Where People Can Be Themselves Employees realize that they will forever bump up against conventions, others’ preferences, and miscellaneous confinements that restrict what they can and cannot do at work. But this does not necessarily have to

The Motley Fool offers a great example. The company is inspired by a character in Shakespeare’s As You Like It, who, as a licensed fool, is able to live outside of society and share freely his opinions and beliefs in a way that is not available to others. In that spirit, the company’s founding brothers, Tom and David Gardner, have infused their corporate creation with “foolishness”: The company has no dress code other than “to not wear anything that would embarrass your parents” and has enshrined honesty as one of its core values. At The Motley Fool, people feel comfortable expressing themselves, both physically and verbally.

Today, many businesses function with only their own interests in mind. But the presumption that profit-making management should put money before employees is based on gross misconceptions about how people work. The organizations we studied are proof that companies can succeed by recognizing the human as the heart of the workplace—the thing that keeps everything else running.

It is a mistake to let organizations escape the civic responsibilities people have toward one another. Instead, leaders have an obligation to foster human potential and support their employees’ flourishing.

Michael O’Malley is managing director at Pearl Meyer and the author (with Bill Baker) of "Organizations for People." c.2020 Harvard Business School Publishing Corp.

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T.U.T.O.R.

Technical Updates, Tips, or Reviews

How the IoWT Can Aid Water Treatment During COVID-19 or Other Pandemics

By Jeff Lazor, Chem-Aqua Inc. COVID-19 has brought the term “social distancing” to the forefront, with many companies only allowing essential employees and vendors on site. Not only has it changed the world we live in, but also the value proposition for water treatment controls and service. It has forced us to look back at the way things have been done traditionally and to identify new technologies and approaches to manage risks as we migrate to the new normal.

In this article, we will look at ways the COVID-19 pandemic has impacted water treatment practices and how currently available technologies, such as the Internet of Water Treatment (IoWT), can help end-users and service providers effectively manage water systems with reduced staffing and site access. No technology can replace the expertise of a water treatment professional and value of periodic site service visits for program oversight. However, the monitoring dynamics have changed with the advent of new controllers and sensors that provide remote, real-time access to valuable data that previously required site monitoring to obtain. Data analytics are now used to predict and identify problems as they occur.

light, it is hardly groundbreaking and only extends the alert’s distance as far as the sound will travel minus the earplugs. These “old school” controllers are not connected to the Internet and only provide limited data on operational parameters. The data can only be obtained onsite at the controller itself, and there is no real feedback loop for feed verification and control.

Scale and corrosion inhibitor pumps will inevitably lose prime, and with outdated controllers, only the wet chemistry can identify the problem. High or low mineral concentrations can occur without notice when a blowdown valve sticks closed or opened and can only be identified onsite. Failures can cause rampant corrosion, heat exchangers to plug, and energy usage to sky rocket. Lack of treatment can cause irreparable failure. Figure 1 shows an example of a heat exchanger with mineral scaling.

Figure 1: Heat exchanger fouled with mineral scale from failed inhibitor pump.

Traditional Monitoring Approaches Water treatment programs using decade’s old equipment technology have been running completely in the dark.

These out-of-date “dumb controllers” only measure conductivity and occasionally ORP (oxygen reduction potential) and/or pH. There are no alert systems other than the tiny red light that you can only see at the controller itself. There may be a buzzer added to signal that a system has failed when no one is nearby to see the light. While innovative compared to a small

Biocide pump failures can accelerate the formation of biofilms and biofouling deposits. These slimy deposits can allow bacteria to grow beneath them and can cause

“These out-of-date ‘dumb controllers’ only measure conductivity and occasionally ORP (oxygen reduction potential) and/or pH. There are no alert systems other than the tiny red light that you can only see at the controller itself.”

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long-term issues such as microbiologically induced corrosion (MIC). Once formed, biofilm can prove to be very tenacious and difficult to remove even after biocide feeds are restored. Legionella growth can spiral out of control causing operational, regulatory, and liability costs to sky rocket. Microbiological corrosion can cause severe damage, and it is much more complex than many people realize. Many people refer to their biocides as the chemical that prevents algae. While that is one function of the biocide, algae alone does not cause the same damage as sulfate-reducing bacteria, and does not cause potential death like Legionella pneumophila. Figure 2 shows a biofouled condenser tube sheet.

Figure 2: Condenser tube sheet damage from improper biocide treatment.

connectivity, and communication are vital. All of these issues are preventable for reasonable upgrade fees, and with the current technologies available, these failures can be identified in real time and alert personnel immediately should there be problems in their water systems.

Years ago, searching for information required going to the library and combing through periodicals, textbooks, or encyclopedias. The Internet was a fantasy, and the thought of turning days of research into minutes was like watching a futuristic movie. That dream is now a reality, and with just a few keystrokes, endless information is at hand, sorted by articles, photos, and videos, among other categories. It has become such an essential part of our everyday life that Googling has becoming a common word even though the company did not even exist 25 years ago. When the Internet is lost, even for short moments, we feel like we are back in the stone ages and people begin to panic. The Internet has become an essential part of everyday life.

Water treatment is no different. Not long ago, almost full-scale labs with burets were required for even the simplest of tests, and some tests took vast amounts of time. Test kits used by water treatment professionals often required multiple cases. Spectrophotometers were only used in the fanciest of labs because they were so expensive. Just like computers and cell phones, water treatment monitoring and control has evolved over time.

Computers and cell phones have become part of water treatment technology for data collection and communication. We can now carry all of these tools in backpacks and employ “smart controllers.”

Entire plants could be shut down because of failure in the heating and cooling water systems. Data centers could be forced to go to their backup systems as fouled heat exchangers reduce a HVAC (heating ventilation air conditioning) system’s cooling ability. This could leave them vulnerable in the event of a second failure.

Hospitals would have to reduce or postpone surgeries without proper cooling and humidity control, reducing one of their main revenue sources. The water treatment apocalypse could arrive out of nowhere!

Smart Controllers

That’s likely an overdramatic statement, but with COVID-19, it no longer seems out of the realm of possibility when healthcare and other facilities have limited onsite personnel. COVID-19 didn’t actually cause any of the previously mentioned problems, but it did bring the importance of automation and technology to the forefront. The pandemic has proven that automation, remote

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Advanced controllers are often referred to as “smart controllers” because they can monitor critical parameters such as conductivity, treatment chemical level, biofilm potential, and biocide feeds in real time. Any parameter that puts out an analog or digital signal can be easily tracked and compiled, and easy-to-read graphs can be generated. Figure 3 shows an example of the type of data smart controllers track. In this case, the figure pictures ORP spikes that occur when a chemical feed pump is activated.

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Figure 3: Graph verifying the oxidizing biocide feed by showing the ORP spikes corresponding with the pump activation (blue). The ORP dip (blue) corresponds with the nonoxidizing biocide feed (brown).

These controllers can connect to the Internet and send emails or texts to anyone anywhere in the world. Thatâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s a far cry from the tiny light or buzzer on the controller itself. They can send graphs showing treatment system operators all levels for any time period, beginning when the controller was put online. This data can provide documentation of biocide feeds, inventory levels, treatment chemical usage rates, calculated days of inventory, and much more. They can be used to pinpoint when a problem or failure occurred by showing exactly when the treatment chemical, conductivity, pH, or other key measurements fell outside the normal operating parameters. All of this data can be stored in dashboards (Figure 4) where data interpretation becomes quick and easy.

Smart controllers provide that ounce of prevention, but theyâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;re worth their weight in gold. They provide peace of mind on your water systems so that you can sleep better at night.

Internet of Things

Figure 4: Dashboard showing service report data compliance, reporting schedule compliance, and controller readings compliance.

The Internet of Things (IoT) is simply a group of inputs from devices, objects, people, machines, sensors, and others with their own unique identifiers that transfer data over a network automatically. People hear how the IoT is the future and how it will change lives, yet it is dismissed because it seems unnecessary in many applications. After all, who needs to talk to their vacuum or their washer and dryer, right? But do we really understand what IoT means? What it means is connecting a device to the Internet or other devices simply by turning it on. It is what allows you to turn on your lights or close your garage door even when you are not home. The IoT is what allows you to monitor the status of any number of things remotely via the Internet.

Does the IoT apply to water treatment or does it even make sense? A few short months ago, many businesses thought Internet connectivity for water treatment was a luxury item rather than a necessity. The COVID-19 crisis has rapidly shown why the Internet of Water Treatment (IoWT) is crucial to protecting vital assets. The IoWT can be as simple or complex as you want it to be.

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Using the Internet of Water Treatment The IoWT can put your mind at ease by allowing you to see your system from anywhere in the world where you have Internet access. During the current COVID-19 pandemic, plant personnel and water treatment providers can monitor systems from home, from an office, or even from thousands of miles away while on vacation. Conductivity sensors can control your bleed in real time and send any out-of-specification readings 24/7/365. A plugged solenoid can be identified in short order and communicated to the appropriate personnel. An inhibitor reading can be tracked and adjustments made from remote locations. Biofilm monitors have successfully been used to identify loss of biocide feed, stagnant offline equipment being brought online, and other failures. Disinfections of water systems can immediately be started remotely if the need arises. Figure 5 illustrates an online controller dashboard.

Figure 5: Online controller dashboard showing current readings, flow, setpoints, and water usage. All controller functions and chemical pumps can be activated from this screen remotely.

What can you do with the IoWT? You can look at all of your sensors tied to your controller, such as pH, a fluorescent tracer known as PTSA used to track inhibitor levels, temperature, ORP, temperature, corrosion rates, tank levels for inventory, and much more. You can be as fancy as you want monitoring various KPI. Remotely turn chemical pumps on or off or make adjustments. You can do almost anything remotely that does not require physical labor, such as priming a pump. While you cannot prime a pump remotely, you can activate the pump to verify that it has lost prime or the inventory container has run dry. This information can then be used to alert someone onsite or schedule a trip to the location to correct it.

“During the current COVID-19 pandemic, plant personnel and water treatment providers can monitor systems from home, from an office, or even from thousands of miles away while on vacation.”

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Graphing can be set up to help you analyze the data over any period of time since the system was set up. The data can be used to pinpoint the time a particular problem occurred. Multiple water treatment systems can be monitored from a single location, and multiple locations can be analyzed from a single dashboard. It can give you all of this valuable information even when the unexpected happens. The IoWT gives you the ability to monitor your systems at anytime from anywhere. Figure 6 shows a combined graph with multiple measurements.

IoWT is data collection, but it can be so much more.

Real-time monitoring gives you the ability to communicate in real time as well. It allows you to communicate with the customer what is needed, what has been done, upset conditions that have occurred, and so much more.

The IoWT can be used to diagnose and solve potential problems by providing the data needed to successfully operate a water treatment system.

Final Thoughts The IoWT can be anything you want it to be. It can be as simple or as detailed as your system requires. That is entirely up to the water treatment provider and the end-user. The unique thing about it is it can be upgraded over time to help with the successful operation of a water treatment system.

While upgrading from a “dumb controller” to a “smart controller” may look expensive on the front end, the cost of living in the past is far greater. The IoWT can really be a Holy Grail of water treatment, and it can evolve as quickly or slowly as your resources allow.

Jeff Lazor is a senior corporate engineer for Chem-Aqua, Inc., a global leader in custom-designed water treatment programs. With more than 29 years in water treatment, his expertise ranges from sales successes and program design to servicing and troubleshooting. Mr. Lazor’s experience encompasses boiler and cooling water, chillers, pretreatment technologies, and wastewater treatment.

Figure 6: A combined graph showing system conductivity (blowdown), ORP (oxidizer), PTSA (inhibitor), and online chlorine analyzer (blue—chlorine is the oxidizer).

“Multiple water treatment systems can be monitored from a single location, and multiple locations can be analyzed from a single dashboard.”

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Advertising Index 31 American Water Chemicals

42 Myron L. Company

25 AMSA, Inc.

26 North Metal & Chemical Company

17

55 QualiChem, Inc.

AquaPhoenix Scientific

51 Brenntag North America

6

59 Browne Laboratories, Inc.

49 Sanipur US LLC

19 Bulk Systems, Inc.

61 Scranton Associates, Inc.

59 Chem-Met Company

61 Seko Dosing Systems Corp.

15 CHEMetrics

7

2

84 Special Pathogens Laboratory

Environmental Safety Technologies, Inc.

Ques Industries, Inc.

Sigura

33 Equip Solutions

57 USA BlueBook

82 IDEXX

83 Walchem, IWAKI America Inc.

39 Lutz-Jesco America Corp.

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Spread-plate methods are notoriously inaccurate, with up to tenfold variability in results for the same sample.1 Multiple peer-reviewed studies have confirmed that the Legiolert® Test provides more accurate results for Legionella pneumophila.2–5

Find out if your lab uses the Legiolert Test at idexx.com/liquidculture References 1. Lucas CE, Taylor TH Jr, Fields BS. Accuracy and precision of Legionella isolation by US laboratories in the ELITE program pilot study. Water Res. 2011;45(15):4428–4436. doi:10.1016/j.watres.2011.05.030 2. Petrisek R, Hall J. Evaluation of a most probable number method for the enumeration of Legionella pneumophila from North American potable and nonpotable water samples. J Water Health.

2018;16(1):25–33. doi:10.2166/wh.2017.118 3. Spies K, Pleischl S, Lange B, et al. Comparison of the Legiolert/Quanti-Tray MPN test for the enumeration of Legionella pneumophila from potable water samples with the German regulatory requirements methods ISO 11731-2 and ISO 11731. Int J Hyg Environ Health. 2018;221(7):1047–1053. doi:10.1016/j.ijheh.2018.07.006 4. Sartory DP, Spies K, Lange B, Schneider S, Langer B. Evaluation of a most probable number method for the enumeration of Legionella pneumophila from potable and related water samples.

Lett Appl Microbiol. 2017;64(4):271–275. doi:10.1111/lam.12719 5. Barrette I. Comparison of Legiolert and a conventional culture method for detection of Legionella pneumophila from cooling towers in Québec. J AOAC Int. 2019;102(4):1235–1240. doi:10.5740/jaoacint.18-0245 © 2020 IDEXX Laboratories, Inc. All rights reserved. • 2462756-00 All ®/ TM marks are owned by IDEXX Laboratories, Inc. or its affiliates in the United States and/or other countries. The IDEXX Privacy Policy is available at idexx.com.

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