AWT Analyst, Fall 2019

the Analyst The Voice of the Water Treatment Industry

Volume 26 Number 4

1300 Piccard Drive, Suite LL 14 • Rockville, MD 20850

Fall 2019

Is Greywater a Sustainable Alternative for Cooling Water Makeup?

Keeping Up With Legionella Testing: Standards, Accreditations, and Customer Perspectives

Volume 26 Number 4 Fall 2019

Part 4—What Is the Right Way to Dispose of IX Resins?

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Cover Cooling tower at a power plant in Colorado.

Photo courtesy of Mike Henley.

Fall 2019

Volume 26

Number 4

10 Is Greywater a Sustainable Alternative for Cooling Water Makeup?

4

Calendar of Events

By choice or mandate, owners and design engineers for many new power and industrial plants are selecting alternatives to fresh water for plant makeup. An increasingly common choice is effluent from a publicly owned treatment works (POTW), commonly known as municipal wastewater treatment plant effluent, greywater, or “purple pipe water” after the color used to designate recycle water. These waters typically contain elevated concentrations of ammonia, nitrite/nitrate, organics, phosphate, surfactants, and suspended solids, all of which, if left untreated, can lead to a nightmare scenario of microbiological fouling in cooling towers and cooling systems. But with proper pretreatment and cooling water chemical treatment, these makeup supplies can be successfully used.

5

President’s Message

6

Message From the President-Elect

Brad Buecker and Ray Post, P.E., ChemTreat

24 Keeping Up With Legionella Testing: Standards, Accreditations, and Customer Perspectives Patsy Root and Kristin Majeska, IDEXX

Water treatment professionals should be aware of evolving guidelines, standards, and tools that can help them, and their customers, reduce the public health risk of Legionnaires’ disease on their premises and mitigate potential reputational, financial, and legal problems. Facility owners and their water treatment partners should consider following emerging industry standards, most notably the American National Standards Institute (ANSI)-approved American Society of Heating, Refrigeration and Air-Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE) 188 Standard, to develop WSM Plans to reduce risk from waterborne Legionella pneumophila, the primary cause of Legionnaires’ disease. Over time, this standard may be adopted into state building or plumbing codes. In the interim, it represents a consensus view of best practices for managing Legionnaires’ disease risk from building water systems.

44 Part 4—What Is the Right Way to Dispose of IX Resins?

Peter Meyers, ResinTech Inc.

Part 4 of this series covers resin disposal, including general requirements, disposal of hazardous resins, transportation, and miscellaneous disposal topics. Resins are most easily disposed of in their exhausted or salt form. This may require contacting the resin with several bed volumes of dilute (2% to 10%) sodium chloride. Further neutralization with sodium bicarbonate may also be needed to remove the last traces of acidity or causticity from the spent resins. Without neutralization, cation resins that were used in the hydrogen form may have too low a pH for nonhazardous disposal, and anion resins used in the hydroxide form may have too high a pH to be disposed of as ordinary trash.

3

48 Industry Notes 50 Association News 52 Membership Benefits 53 Making a Splash 56 CWT Spotlight 57 T.U.T.O.R. 72 Capital Eyes 74 Ask the Experts 76 Financial Matters 77 Business Notes 78 Advertising Index

the Analyst Volume 26 Number 4

1300 Piccard Drive, Suite LL 14 Rockville, MD 20850 (301) 740-1421 • (301) 990-9771 (fax) www.awt.org

2020 AWT Board of Directors President

Thomas Branvold, CWT

Calendar of Events

Association Events 2020 Business Owners Meeting

Secretary

February 10–11, 2020 Hyatt Regency Clearwater Resort Clearwater, Florida

Treasurer

2020 Technical Training (West)

President-Elect

Michael Bourgeois, CWT Matt Jensen, CWT

February 26–29, 2020 Hyatt Regency Lake Washington Seattle, Washington

Stephen C. Hallier, CWT

Immediate Past President

David Wagenfuhr

Directors

Noah Baskin Mark Coldren, CWT Stephanie Keck, CWT Andy Kruck, CWT

2020 Technical Training (East)

Ex-Officio Supplier Representative

Garrett S. Garcia

Past Presidents

Jack Altschuler John Baum, CWT R. Trace Blackmore, CWT, LEED AP D.C. “Chuck” Brandvold, CWT Brent W. Chettle, CWT Dennis Clayton Bernadette Combs, CWT, LEED AP Matt Copthorne, CWT James R. Datesh John E. Davies, CWT Jay Farmerie, CWT Gary Glenna Charles D. Hamrick Jr., CWT Joseph M. Hannigan Jr., CWT Mark R. Juhl

Brian Jutzi, CWT Bruce T. Ketrick Jr., CWT Bruce T. Ketrick Sr., CWT Ron Knestaut Robert D. Lee, CWT Mark T. Lewis, CWT Steven MacCarthy, CWT Anthony J. McNamara, CWT James Mulloy Alfred Nickels Scott W. Olson, CWT William E. Pearson II, CWT William C. Smith Marc Vermeulen, CWT David Wagenfuhr Casey Walton, B.Ch.E, CWT Larry A. Webb

Staff

Executive Director

Heidi J. Zimmerman, CAE

Deputy Executive Director

Sara L. Wood, MBA, CAE

Senior Member Services Manager

Angela Pike

Vice President, Meetings

Grace L. Jan, CMP, CAE

Meetings Manager

Morgan Prior

Exhibits and Sponsorship Manager

Barbara Bienkowski, CMP

Exhibits and Sponsorship Associate Manager

Brandon Lawrence

Senior Marketing Director

Julie Hill

Marketing Director

Jennifer Olivares

Technical Writer/Copy Editor Lynne Agoston

Accountant

Dawn Rosenfeld

The Analyst Staff

Publisher, Heidi J. Zimmerman, CAE Managing Editor, Lynne Agoston Production Manager, Jennifer Olivares Technical Editor Michael Henley (303) 324-9507 mdhenleywater@gmail.com

Advertising Sales

Heather Prichard advertising@awt.org

The Analyst is published quarterly as the official publication of the Association of Water Technologies. Copyright 2019 by the Association of Water Technologies. Materials may not be reproduced without written permission. Contents of the articles are the sole opinions of the author and do not necessarily express the policies and opinions of the publisher, editor or AWT. Authors are responsible for ensuring that the articles are properly released for classification and proprietary information. All advertising will be subject to publisher’s approval, and advertisers will agree to indemnify and relieve publisher of loss or claims resulting from advertising contents. Editorial material in the Analyst may be reproduced in whole or part with prior written permission. Request permission by writing to: Editor, the Analyst, 1300 Piccard Drive, Suite LL 14, Rockville, MD 20850, USA. Annual subscription rate is $100 per year in the U.S. (4 issues). Please add $25 for Canada and Mexico. International subscriptions are $200 in U.S. funds.

March 18–21, 2020 Marriott Cleveland Cleveland, Ohio

2020 Annual Convention & Exposition

September 30–October 3, 2020 Louisville Convention Center and Omni Hotel Louisville, Kentucky

2021 Annual Convention & Exposition

September 22–25, 2021 Providence Convention Center and Omni Hotel Providence, Rhode Island

2022 Annual Convention & Exposition September 21–24, 2022 Vancouver Convention Centre Vancouver, Canada

2023 Annual Convention & Exposition

October 4–7, 2023 Grand Rapids Convention Center and Amway Grand Hotel Grand Rapids, Michigan

Also, please note that the following AWT committees meet on a monthly basis. All times shown are Eastern Time. To become active in one of these committees, please contact us at (301) 740-1421.

Second Tuesday of each month, 11:00 am – Legislative/Regulatory Committee Second Tuesday of each month, 2:30 pm – Convention Committee Second Wednesday of each month, 11:00 am – Business Resources Committee Second Friday of each month, 10:00 am – Special Projects Subcommittee Second Friday of each month, 11:00 am – Cooling Subcommittee Second Friday of each month, 2:00 pm – Pretreatment Subcommittee Third Monday of each month, 9:00 am – Certification Committee Third Monday of each month, 3:30 pm – Young Professionals Task Force Third Tuesday of each month, 3:00 pm – Education Committee Third Friday of each month, 9:00 am – Boiler Subcommittee Third Friday of each month, 10:00 am – Technical Committee Quarterly (call for meeting dates), 10:00 am – Wastewater Subcommittee

Other Industry Events

ASHRAE, Winter Meeting, February 1–5, 2020, Orlando, Florida BOMA, Winter Business Meeting, February 2–5, 2020, Washington, D.C. CTI, Annual Conference, February 9–13, 2020, Houston, Texas NACE, Corrosion Conference & Expo, March 15–19, 2020, Houston, Texas ACS, Spring National Meeting & Expo, March 22–26, 2020, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania

4

the Analyst Volume 26 Number 4

President’s Message

By Tom Brandvold, CWT

developed two phenomenal technical resources for members through their year-long biofilm device study.

You can find the comprehensive paper as well as the device spreadsheet outlining their work in the Cooling section of the Members Only web page.

Great seeing everyone in Palm Springs! On behalf of the board of directors, I hope you had a productive convention and brought back ideas that make you and your businesses more competent and profitable. It’s amazing how quickly most of us have transitioned from the heat in Palm Springs to a brisk fall, and now the holidays are just around the corner.

We also continue to review our relationships with all of our Related Trade Organizations (RTOs). If you have involvement with ASTM, AWWA, CTI, IWC, or USGBC, we’re looking to hear from you. Please contact me at president@awt.org to further discuss these groups with us.

Your association continues to focus on our four strategic outcomes.

The Exchange, our online community, is a great way to engage with other members throughout the year. If you have a technical question or are looking for advice, make the Exchange your first stop. It’s an easy way to get input from your peers.

Outcome 1—Training and Education: As the water treatment industry’s premier business and technical resource, AWT continues to invest in a robust platform of training offerings. Thousands have downloaded the AWT app that puts an array of water treatment calculations in the palm of your hand, and over 300 people are now using the online training modules.

Finally, I would like to thank all of you who have donated to PWW. Through the incredible generosity of our membership, AWT has been able to fully fund three communities in Honduras—El Horconcito, La Union, and Las Uvillas. Your generosity will touch the lives of more than 50 families, over 250 people, and three community schools.

Outcome 2—Member and Industry Advocate: AWT is the recognized leader in advocacy for the water treatment industry. We have created a workforce pipeline that is known for its astute contributions by members, the public, and especially the next generation of water treatment professionals.

Get Involved!

Outcome 3—An Engaged Membership: With over 600 member companies in 2019, AWT’s communications reach tens of thousands across our industry. The Exchange gives these people a platform for collaborating on technical related questions. Your board and committee chairs would welcome your participation on one of our committees or task forces.

It occurs to me that our industry and AWT look and feel very different than they did 30, 20, or even 10 years ago. And I bet this reality is the same for the companies where we work. All of us have had to embrace progress and change that at times barrels down on us.

I also can assure you that the next 10 years will bring more change. This means that your association will have to change to remain viable and relevant. Just expect it. Become a part of it. Now more than ever, we need your help.

Outcome 4—Charity Focused on Water: AWT continues to demonstrate its commitment to global clean water through our affiliation with Pure Water for the World (PWW).

The next generation of leaders is part of AWT now. We need your ideas, your input, and your leadership. Help shape the future of AWT and become part of the voice

We are making some great progress on our strategic plan. For example, the Cooling Subcommittee has

continued on page 6

5

the Analyst Volume 26 Number 4

Message From the President-Elect

By Michael Bourgeois, CWT

with modern comforts, the Omni Louisville Hotel reflects the essence of the city and invites you have an unforgettable stay.

Having just returned from a planning trip to Louisville, Kentucky, I’m anxious to share some of the exciting things about the 2020 Annual Convention & Exposition, which will take place September 30–October 3, in Louisville, Kentucky.

AWT also has a block of rooms at the Marriott Louisville Downtown. Both hotels are equidistant from the Louisville Convention Center, where you will find the exhibit hall and education sessions. And, both hotels are a short, 15-minute ride from the Louisville Mohammed Ali International Airport, 96 miles from Cincinnati/Northern Kentucky International Airport, and 115 miles from Indianapolis International Airport.

The Location

If you haven’t been to Louisville, you are in for a treat.

Louisville is a city that combines heritage with innovation, authenticity with originality, and quirkiness with friendliness in a way that’s completely unique.

Educational Program

We’re currently accepting abstracts for the 2020 convention. If you have a presentation that would be of interest to the membership, submit an abstract to be part of the program. We’re also researching keynote speakers, and while we haven’t selected one yet, we are considering some great individuals to inspire and motivate you in your work.

Louisville was recently named one of the “10 Best New Food Cities” in America. You’ll also discover one-of-akind attractions like the legendary Churchill Downs, the Louisville Slugger Museum & Factory, and the Muhammad Ali Center. And of course, you can’t forget that it’s the only place to have the Urban Bourbon Experience, featuring the world’s only citywide trail filled with award-winning micro-distilleries, exhibits, and craft cocktail destinations.

Mark your calendars now for the 2020 Annual Convention & Exposition!

The Hotel

As we plan and prepare for Louisville, I welcome your input and feedback. I can be reached at mbourgeois@chemcoprod.com. Thank you for the opportunity, and I look forward to serving you!

Reflecting the past, present, and future of an exciting Kentucky town, the Omni Louisville Hotel, our headquarters hotel, is the new cornerstone of downtown. The location allows you to easily make your way to Main Street and indulge in Louisville's many popular restaurants and distilleries. Blending the historic surroundings

President's Message continued

help advance the water treatment industry by being part of our strategic goal to increase member engagement.

of the global water treatment industry. Volunteer for a committee or a task force. Remember, AWT is member driven, meaning this is your association. It’s not about any one person or company—it’s about the membership.

AWT is only as good as we make it. I encourage you to tell us what you need and to get involved.

As always, I welcome your feedback and can be reached at president@awt.org.

On behalf of your board of directors,

Being a volunteer does make a difference. By lending your time to a task force, committee, or project, you can

Tom Brandvold President 6

the Analyst Volume 26 Number 4

2020 ANNUAL CONVENTION & EXPOSITION S E PT E M B E R 3 0 – O C TOB ER 3 , 2 020

LOUISVILLE, KENTUCKY

Mark your calendar for the 2020 Annual Convention & Exposition!

Kentucky International Convention Center and Omni Louisville Hotel Louisville, Kentucky Visit www.awt.org for more details.

b

AWT-Sponsored Communities Update: La UnionLA and LasUpdate: El Horconcito, Honduras Uvillas, AWT-Sponsored Community AWT-SPONSORED COMMUNITIES UPDATE: UNION & LASHonduras UVILLAS, HONDURAS El Horconcito is a small village located in the Maraita region of Honduras.

La Union and Las Uvillas are two small villages located in the Maraita There are 12 families, with 45 people, in total. They have one small region of Honduras. In total, there are 42 families, 220 residents. Each community school, which currently serves 12 students. village has a community school, which serve students grades 1-6.

AWT-Sponsored Community Update: El Horconcito, Honduras

Results from water analysis in Las Uvillas.

E-coli, fecal coliforms, total coliforms.

“I do not have (good) water. I don’t have money to repair my latrine.” – Resident

Schoolchildren wash their hands with contaminated water.

The present situation with water and sanitation: THE present PRESENTsituation SITUATION WATER AND SANITATION: The withWITH water and sanitation: El Horconcito is a small village located in the Maraita region of Honduras.

• Families drink, bathe in, and wash with groundwater that is heavily • There are 12 families, with 45 people, in total. They have one small Water is very limited, primarily pumped from wells or collected from contaminated. lagoons, creeks, surface water, or small, hand dug wells…all with high community school, which currently serves 12 students.

• 90% of families practice open defecation, further contaminating levels of contamination and turbidity.

The present situation with water and sanitation: groundwater sources and the environment.

• Water quality is a major concern. Results from water quality tests, •conducted in Las Uvillas in September 2019, demonstrated extremely Families drink, bathe in, and wash with groundwater that is heavily • The 10% of families with latrines use pits that need correction due to contaminated. the proximity of their water source. Many are unsafe for small high levels of e-coli contamination ( pictured left, 1,502 count). children.

• 90% of families practice open defecation, further contaminating • Families without functional latrines practice open defecation, further groundwater sources and the environment.

• Diarrhea, intestinal worms, and other waterborne illnesses are contaminating groundwater sources and the environment. widespread, impacting all members of the community.

The 10% of families with latrines use pits that need correction due to • •Diarrhea, intestinal worms, and other waterborne illnesses are the proximity of their water source. Many are unsafe for small widespread, impacting all members of the communities.

AWT Members have sponsored all 12 families to receive: children.

• Conditions of water and sanitation at the local schools is deplorable, • Personal Hygiene Training •with no access to water or handwashing facilities and latrines that are Diarrhea, intestinal worms, and other waterborne illnesses are • Home Hygiene Training widespread, impacting all members of the community. breaking and dangerous for the students.

• Environmental Hygiene Training AWT Members have sponsored all 12 families to receive: “I am very worried about water access and quality at our school. Most of the • Water Source Protection Training year, students have to fetch water at a neighbor’s lagoon, which is highly • Personal Hygiene Training • contaminated. When it dries up, students have to bring a liter bottle (or 2) Community Agent Training: Training of volunteers in the community • Home Hygiene Training who serve as an extension of the PWW team to support safe and from their homes, which is also highly contaminated. There is also no place to • Environmental Hygiene Training- Marlen Ordonez, Teacher, Las Uvillas proper use of the water, hygiene, and sanitation tools and practices. safely wash hands or to store water.”

• • •

• Water Source Protection Training Point-of-Use BioSand Water Filter Installation

• • • •

BioSand Water Filter in the School

2019 SILENTauction AUCTION FUNDS HELP 42 FAMILIES 2019 funds will WILL help all 42ALL families receive:RECEIVE: Latrine Building Training & Materials for Constructing Home Latrine • silent Community Agent Training: Training of volunteers in the community who serve as an extension of the PWW team to support safe and • Hygiene Trainings: Personal Health, Menstrual Hygiene Management, Monitoring and Follow-Up: Measure Impact & Support Sustainability proper use of the water, hygiene, and sanitation tools and practices.

Home & Environmental, including Water Source Protection Funds from AWT’s 2019 Convention Golf Tournament and Silent Point-of-Use BioSand Water Filter Installation • •Community Agent Training: Volunteers who serve as extension of the Auction will pay for a comprehensive WASH (water, sanitation and •PWW team to support safe use of the tools and practices Latrine Building Training & Materials for Constructing Home Latrine hygiene) program at El Horconcito’s community school, including: • •Point-of-Use BioSand Water Filters Monitoring and Follow-Up: Measure Impact & Support Sustainability • Rainwater Harvesting System, as there is no water at the school • Funds from AWT’s 2019 Convention Golf Tournament and Silent Latrine Building Training & Materials for Constructing (as needed) • Gender-Specific Latrines • Auction will pay for a comprehensive WASH (water, sanitation and Rainwater Harvesting Systems Training & Materials (as needed) • Handwashing Station • hygiene) program at El Horconcito’s community school, including: Monitoring and Follow-Up: Measure Impact & Support Sustainability

• silent Rainwater Harvesting System, as there is no water at the school 2019 SILENTauction AUCTION WASH (WATER, SANITATION AND 2019 willWILL fundFUND WASH (water, sanitation, and Teacher Training • Gender-Specific Latrines hygiene) programs at both community schools: HYGIENE) PROGRAMS AT BOTH COMMUNITY SCHOOLS: Hygiene Training, including Menstrual Hygiene Training Handwashing Station • •Rainwater Harvesting System (Las Uvillas) Monitoring and Follow Up BioSand Water Filter in the School • •Piping from the Water Source to the School (La Union) Project will begin in October with expected completion by December 31, Teacher Training • •Gender-Specific Latrines & Handwashing Station 2019. Updates to come, including photos and stories from families.

Hygiene Training, including Menstrual Hygiene Training • •BioSand Water Filter Pure Water for the World, Inc. | Dedicated to Safe Water and Sanitation for All. Monitoring and Follow Up • •Teacher Training PO Box 55 | Rutland, VT 05702 | Tel (802) 747 0778 | www.purewaterfortheworld.org | info@purewaterfortheworld.org • Project will begin in October with expected completion by December 31, Monitoring and Follow Up 2019. Updates to come, including photos and stories from families.

Pure Water for the World, Inc. | Dedicated to Safe Water and Sanitation for All. PO Box 55 | Rutland, VT 05702 | Tel (802) 747 0778 | www.purewaterfortheworld.org | info@purewaterfortheworld.org Pure Water for the World, Inc. | Dedicated to Safe Water and Sanitation for All.

PO Box 55 | Rutland, VT 05702 | Tel (802) 747 0778 | www.purewaterfortheworld.org | info@purewaterfortheworld.org

AWT-Sponsored Community Update: El Horconcito, Honduras AWT-Sponsored Community Update: El Horconcito, Honduras El Horconcito is a small village located in the Maraita region of Honduras.

There are 12 families, with 45 people, in total. They have one small community school, which currently serves 12 students.

AWT-Sponsored Community Update: El Horconcito, Honduras

The present situation with water and sanitation:

El Horconcito is a small village located in the Maraita region of Honduras.

•There are 12 families, with 45 people, in total. They have one small Families drink, bathe in, and wash with groundwater that is heavily contaminated. community school, which currently serves 12 students.

•The present situation with water and sanitation: 90% of families practice open defecation, further contaminating groundwater sources and the environment.

• Families drink, bathe in, and wash with groundwater that is heavily • The 10% of families with latrines use pits that need correction due to contaminated. the proximity of their water source. Many are unsafe for small • children.

90% of families practice open defecation, further contaminating groundwater sources and the environment.

• Diarrhea, intestinal worms, and other waterborne illnesses are • widespread, impacting all members of the community.

The 10% of families with latrines use pits that need correction due to the proximity of their water source. Many are unsafe for small AWT Members have sponsored all 12 families to receive: children.

•• Personal Hygiene Training Diarrhea, intestinal worms, and other waterborne illnesses are widespread, impacting all members of the community.

• Home Hygiene Training •AWT Members have sponsored all 12 families to receive: Environmental Hygiene Training •• Water Source Protection Training Personal Hygiene Training •• Community Agent Training: Training of volunteers in the community Home Hygiene Training who serve as an extension of the PWW team to support safe and • Environmental Hygiene Training proper use of the water, hygiene, and sanitation tools and practices.

• Water Source Protection Training • Point-of-Use BioSand Water Filter Installation • Community Agent Training: Training of volunteers in the community • Latrine Building Training & Materials for Constructing Home Latrine who serve as an extension of the PWW team to support safe and • Monitoring and Follow-Up: Measure Impact & Support Sustainability proper use of the water, hygiene, and sanitation tools and practices.

• Point-of-Use BioSand Water Filter Installation Funds from AWT’s 2019 Convention Golf Tournament and Silent Auction will pay for a comprehensive WASH (water, sanitation and • Latrine Building Training & Materials for Constructing Home Latrine hygiene) program at El Horconcito’s community school, including: • Monitoring and Follow-Up: Measure Impact & Support Sustainability •Funds from AWT’s 2019 Convention Golf Tournament and Silent Rainwater Harvesting System, as there is no water at the school •Auction will pay for a comprehensive WASH (water, sanitation and Gender-Specific Latrines •hygiene) program at El Horconcito’s community school, including: Handwashing Station •• BioSand Water Filter in the School Rainwater Harvesting System, as there is no water at the school •• Teacher Training Gender-Specific Latrines •• Hygiene Training, including Menstrual Hygiene Training Handwashing Station •• Monitoring and Follow Up BioSand Water Filter in the School

Project will begin in October with expected completion by December 31, • Teacher Training 2019. Updates to come, including photos and stories from families.

• Hygiene Training, including Menstrual Hygiene Training Pure Water for the World, Inc. | Dedicated to Safe Water and Sanitation for All. • Monitoring and Follow Up

PO Box 55 | Rutland, VT 05702 | Tel (802) 747 0778 | www.purewaterfortheworld.org | info@purewaterfortheworld.org

Project will begin in October with expected completion by December 31, 2019. Updates to come, including photos and stories from families.

Pure Water for the World, Inc. | Dedicated to Safe Water and Sanitation for All. PO Box 55 | Rutland, VT 05702 | Tel (802) 747 0778 | www.purewaterfortheworld.org | info@purewaterfortheworld.org

Is Greywater a Sustainable Alternative for Cooling Water Makeup?

Brad Buecker and Ray Post, P.E., ChemTreat

Abstract

By choice or mandate, owners and design engineers for many new power and industrial plants are selecting alternatives to fresh water for plant makeup. An increasingly common choice is effluent from a publicly owned treatment works (POTW), commonly known as municipal wastewater treatment plant effluent, greywater, or “purple pipe water” after the color used to designate recycled water. These waters typically contain elevated concentrations of ammonia, nitrite/nitrate, organics, phosphate, surfactants, and suspended solids, all of which, if left untreated, can lead to a nightmare scenario of microbiological fouling in cooling towers and cooling systems. But with proper pretreatment and cooling water chemical treatment, these makeup supplies can be successfully used. Methods to adapt greywater for use in cooling systems include robust pretreatment of the 10

makeup, consistent and reliable biocide feed to the recirculating water, and use of polymer treatment for scale/ corrosion control in place of the phosphate/phosphonate programs of the past. The latter has been gaining impetus due to concerns about the environmental impacts of phosphorus discharge to lakes and rivers.

Introductory Example

The mindset that “water is water” among some design engineers and plant operators continues to persist even though the evidence is overwhelming against this simplistic view. The lead author was recently involved with a project in which secondary-treated POTW effluent was chosen for makeup to a combined-cycle power plant, most of it to supply the plant cooling tower.

The design engineers originally selected just basic clarification (for suspended solids removal) as pretreatment for the Analyst Volume 26 Number 4

the plant makeup. Their thought was that a more sophisticated pretreatment scheme would make the overall project bid non-competitive.

Figure 1. Fouled cooling tower film fill.

When the anticipated water quality was given to a major cooling tower manufacturer, the firm’s personnel quickly replied that film fill could not be used in the tower due to the fouling potential, and that the tower would have to be designed with splash fill. Figure 1 shows what fouled cooling tower film fill looks like.

Because of the proposed type of water quality, the increase in tower size would have raised the project’s cost by nearly eight figures. This was a real eye-opener for the engineers, who then realized that their water group co-workers had been correct in insisting on more robust pretreatment.

The key point, examined in the remainder of this article, is that water reuse, while being an environmentally beneficial concept, requires proper pretreatment for successful application.

Greywater Constituents

Table A outlines the primary constituents from several different water sources around the United States.

Table A: Comparison of Several U.S. Waters

Surface Water Supplies Mineral, Analyte VA pH 7.0 Conductivity (µS/cm) 70 M-Alkalinity 28 Ca hardness (mg/L) 9 Mg hardness (mg/L) 10 Iron (mg/L) 0.1 Sodium (mg/L) 3 Potassium (mg/L) 2 Chloride (mg/L) 4 Sulfate (mg/L) 6 Silica (mg/L) 11 Nitrate (mg/L) 0 Ammonia (mg/L) 0 0.0 Ortho PO4 (mg/L)

Carterville,

GA 7.1 98 34 24 13 0.3 3 2 4 5 7 0 0 0.4

Oak Ridge, TN 7.6 302 106 102 46 0.0 5 1 12 22 6 1 0 0.0

11

Greywater Lansing, MI 7.8 729 299 231 125 0.4 13 2 16 66 14 1 0 0.0

McAllen, TX 7.4 2,400 118 393 191 0.1 291 26 443 412 23 75 2 10.0

Forney, TX 6.9 1,162 97 183 35 0.1 156 21 174 176 18 69 -12.0

the Analyst Volume 26 Number 4

Sonora, Mexico 7.7 1,643 417 91 52 0.1 296 14 214 203 29 0 27 5.9

Pittsburg, CA 7.9 1,797 256 117 99 0.1 230 15 293 218 19 1.50 38 0.7

Is Greywater a Sustainable Alternative for Cooling Water Makeup? continued

For purposes of this discussion, compare the surface water supplies from Mineral, VA; Cartersville, GA; Oak Ridge, TN; and Lansing, MI, with the greywater supplies from McAllen, TX; Forney, TX; Sonora, Mexico; and Pittsburg, CA. Easily distinguishable in the greywater are the much higher concentrations of the major cations (calcium, magnesium, potassium, sodium), anions (chloride, nitrate, phosphate, sulfate), and, of course, conductivity. Ammonia in surface waters is typically inconsequential, but for greywater, it is often in the double digits as milligrams per liter (mg/L) as in the Sonora and Pittsburg waters, unless the POTW employs a nitrification facility to convert the ammonia to nitrate. Not shown is total organic carbon (TOC), which is also typically much higher than in fresh water, even in POTWs that have effective tertiary treatment.

So, with untreated POTW effluent as makeup, the cooling system would receive plenty of organic food and the nutrients nitrogen and phosphorus. With regard to the latter impurities, many cooling towers still operate on phosphate/phosphonate chemistry, and thus the argument could be made that POTW influent does not introduce phosphorus nutrients where none previously existed. But, introduction of extra and variable concentrations of phosphate via the makeup water can play havoc with control of the cooling tower treatment program. (As will be examined later in this article, a trend is growing toward nonphosphorus cooling water treatment chemistry because of phosphorus discharge issues and associated environmental concerns.)

Conditioning Greywater for Makeup

Basic clarification, as mentioned in the case history above, only removes suspended solids for the most part, although some large organics may precipitate as well.

Also, use of an aluminum or iron-based coagulant will precipitate phosphate, and thus, basic clarification can often serve a valuable purpose in this regard.

Many POTW effluents contain high and variable levels of phosphate that present difficulties with respect to controlling calcium phosphate deposition on heat transfer surfaces and contribute to nutrient loading in the effluent receiving stream. If the makeup water is high in hardness, lime-softening clarification may be in order, although lime softening generates large quantities of sludge that must be disposed. Lime softening also removes bicarbonate alkalinity, which reduces acid requirements for pH control and efficiently removes phosphate.

Like other technologies, clarifier design has been significantly enhanced over the large, circular types that were ubiquitous during the last century. A common rise rate (effluent flow divided by the surface area at the top of the clarifier) of 1 gallon per minute per square foot (gpm/ft 2) or slightly less is a common standard for these older designs, as the gentle flow allows particles to settle.

But now, in systems such as the ballast type (typically micro-sand or magnetite), the influent, after receiving coagulant, encounters a ballasted recirculating flow in the flocculation zone. Figure 2 shows a schematic of a ballasted clarification process.

Figure 2: Schematic of a ballasted clarification process. Figure courtesy of Veolia Water Technologies.

12

the Analyst Volume 26 Number 4

Is Greywater a Sustainable Alternative for Cooling Water Makeup? continued

The microsand or magnetite is much heavier than the coagulated solids, which attach to the ballasted material, and thus, settling is much faster in the clarifier. Rise rates as high as 25 gpm/ft 2 or even higher have been reported for some of these technologies. The ballast material is recovered in hydrocyclones (via the underflow stream) for reuse, while the sludge exits from the hydrocyclone overflow to disposal. Clarification does nothing for nitrogen-based impurities, however, particularly ammonia and nitrite/nitrate. Also, most organics carry through a clarifier. Thus, even with clarification for suspended solids and phosphate removal, much food/nutrients will still enter the cooling system. These aspects are driving selection of biological treatment methods for pre-treatment.

Biological methods to treat both municipal and industrial wastewater have been in place for many years.

Very common is the activated sludge process, in which, following large solids and grit removal, the waste stream flows into a large basin or basins filled with beneficial microorganisms that consume the organics and nitrogen/ phosphorus nutrients. The term “activated� comes from the fact that air is injected or blended into the pond volume, often at numerous locations, to provide an aerobic environment for the microbes. A common variation on this technology was that of the trickling filter, in which the wastewater flowed over fixed media to which the organisms are attached. Thus, the microbes had a stable base to carry out waste removal.

A difficulty with either of these technologies is that the treatment processes are slow and require large pond volumes or media surface area. In today’s world of fast-start plants and, especially in the case of the power industry, high-cycling facilities, more robust biological treatment methods are necessary. Biological aerated filtration (BAF) has proven to be a mature technology for some applications, and two other technologies have emerged as leading candidates. These are membrane bioreactors (MBR) and moving-bed bioreactors (MBBR). A basic schematic of the former is outlined in Figure 3.

13

Figure 3: Basic MBR design.

The fundamental process is that of return activated sludge, wherein beneficial microorganisms consume the food and nutrients that enter the main vessel via the mixing zone. A recycle stream helps to bring active, well-established organisms to the inlet of the mixing zone. A major difference of MBR from conventional activated sludge is the use of microfilter membranes rather than a traditional clarifier to separate solids from the effluent. The microfiltration process produces a very clear stream, essentially free of suspended solids.

One deficiency of this most basic MBR process is that ammonia in the stream is converted to nitrite/nitrate, but the nitrogen remains. Thus, the nitrogen can still serve as a nutrient in the plant cooling water system.

This problem can be solved, if necessary, by expanding the MBR system to include anoxic or anaerobic reaction chambers, with microorganisms that convert nitrite/nitrate to elemental nitrogen. However, this adds complexity to the process, which plant personnel may not desire. Of note is that MBR has also become accepted technology for raw wastewater treatment in smaller applications (1).

Regarding MBBR, the main reaction vessel includes mobile plastic media that serves as sites for the beneficial microorganisms to attach and then consume the nutrients and food from the influent. Figure 4 shows an MBBR reaction vessel diagram with mobile media.

the Analyst Volume 26 Number 4

Is Greywater a Sustainable Alternative for Cooling Water Makeup? continued

Advanced Cooling Water Treatment

Figure. 4: MBBR reaction vessel diagram showing mobile media.

An evolution is underway regarding scale and corrosion control in industrial cooling-tower-based systems. For four decades, the most common treatment programs have been based on a core chemistry of inorganic and organic phosphates (the latter typically go by the name of phosphonates or phosphinates) that combine with potential scale-forming elements, most notably calcium, and whose reaction products precipitate at anodes and cathodes of metal surfaces to inhibit corrosion. Of growing concern, however, is the discharge of phosphorus to natural bodies of water and the effects of such discharge on proliferation of toxic algae blooms. An example of a toxic algae bloom in Lake Erie is shown in Figure 5.

Figure 5: Toxic algae bloom in Lake Erie (2011).

Figure courtesy of Veolia Water Technologies.

MBBR can in some respects be thought of as a very advanced version of the trickling bed wastewater treatment process, where the beneficial microbes were attached to fixed media and then consumed nutrients and food as water flowed over and along the media. Due to the use of solid media in the reaction vessel, filtration membranes cannot be placed in this compartment.

Rather, filtration must be performed separately.

MBR and MBBR staffing. One concern often raised at industrial plants is providing staff, both from a quality and quantity standpoint, to operate these seemingly complex systems. Two ideas immediately come to mind.

First, if the plant is located close to the POTW, it may be possible to place the MBR or MBBR at the POTW and have that staff operate it. Secondly, many of the reputable manufacturers offer “build-own-operate-maintain (BOOM)� programs, where, for an annual fee, they will take care of all equipment details.

Photo courtesy of the National Aeronautics and Space Administration, Washington, USA. Available from https:// earthobservatory.nasa.gov.

Phosphate also drives algae growth in cooling towers, increasing chlorination costs and the production of undesirable chlorinated organics. Figure 6 pictures algae hanging from cooling tower fill.

Figure 6: Algae hanging from cooling tower fill.

So, we have now examined several cutting-edge technologies for preparing greywater for use as makeup. But even with these methods being available, other issues continue to gain momentum. One is increasing concern with phosphorus discharge to the environment, and how to reduce such discharge in cooling tower blowdown while still protecting the cooling systems from corrosion and scale formation.

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the Analyst Volume 26 Number 4

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Is Greywater a Sustainable Alternative for Cooling Water Makeup? continued

At many locations now, phosphorus discharge is limited if not entirely banned. Also being restricted is discharge of metals, including zinc—a common key ingredient in phosphate/phosphonate formulations for additional corrosion inhibition. These restrictions have led to development of alternative, polymer-based programs that offer a more sustainable alternative to algae control in cooling systems.

Polymer formulations containing the carboxylate group have been successfully used for decades to control calcium carbonate (CaCO3) scale in cooling water. Figure 7 is an illustration of the carboxylate functional group.

Figure 7: Carboxylate functional group.

Many other scaling compounds are possible, however, including calcium and magnesium silicates, calcium sulfate, calcium fluoride, and manganese dioxide, to name some of the most common. The need to combat these and other scale-formers has generated development of co- and ter-polymers containing more than one functional group. Figure 8 illustrates basic structures of important co- and ter-polymers.

The polymers inhibit scale formation by two mechanisms: crystal modification and ion sequestration. A low part-per-million (ppm) residual is often sufficient to inhibit scale formation, but the choice of polymer or polymer-blend is in large part dependent on the chemistry of the cooling water. That is why, especially for new plants, comprehensive and ideally historical makeup water analyses are necessary. Too often, project designers only receive partial water quality data, which makes it very difficult to select proper treatment chemistry and makeup water treatment equipment. The pretreatment facilities should be flexible and robust, since POTW makeup water quality tends to worsen over the long term, and can experience short-term upsets because of “combined sewer overflow” during periods of heavy rainfall.

Enhancements to environmentally friendly non-phosphorous and non-zinc chemistry have also improved corrosion protection in cooling systems. Particularly effective is a chemical formulation best described generically as a reactive polyhydroxy starch inhibitor (RPSI) (2). The chemistry is capable of providing a number of critical benefits in cooling systems, most notably: General corrosion protection of carbon steel Passivation of rusted steel surfaces Improved protection of stainless steels from chlorideinduced crevice and pitting corrosion (Figure 9)

Figure 8: Basic structures of important co- and ter-polymers.

16

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Is Greywater a Sustainable Alternative for Cooling Water Makeup? continued

Figure 9. Type 304 stainless steel stress cracking coupons subjected to 1,000 mg/L chloride at 105 °C for 15 days under air. Note the absence of staining, pitting, and cracking in the specimen treated with the RPSI inhibitor as compared to the untreated control.

kill organisms before they can settle on heat exchanger tubes, cooling tower fill, and other locations. Chlorine was the workhorse for many years, where, when gaseous chlorine is added to water, the following reaction occurs as seen in Equation 1: Cl 2 + H 2O ↔ HOCl + HCl

Eq. 1

HOCl, hypochlorous acid, is the killing agent and functions by penetrating cell walls and then oxidizing internal cell components. The efficacy and killing power of this compound are greatly affected by pH due to the equilibrium nature of HOCl in water, as shown in Equation 2.

HOCl ↔ H+ + OCl-

Corrosion inhibitors such as RPSI contain functional groups that attach to the base metal, upon which the organic components form a passive film. This is much different than corrosion protection in the phosphate-based programs, where the reaction products with calcium and other species formed a barrier.

Such “protective” deposits have limitations, including porosity and a propensity to be washed away by the cooling water flow. Beyond that issue, mistakes in chemical dosage and/or a change in water chemistry have the potential to induce severe deposition, most notably of calcium phosphate. Compounds such as RPSI do not rely on precipitation reactions.

The Importance of Cooling Water Fouling Control

Although many papers have been given over the years regarding biological control in cooling water systems, both micro- and macro-fouling continue to affect many cooling systems. Given the retirement of many experienced industrial personnel and an influx of new employees who may be “green” in this regard (pun intended), it is worth reviewing some of the most important chemistry, with an emphasis on current technology.

The core of virtually all cooling water microbiological treatment programs is feed of an oxidizing biocide to 18

Eq. 2

Hypochlorite (OCl-) is a much weaker biocide than HOCl, probably because of the fact that the charge on the OCl- ion does not allow it to effectively penetrate cell walls. The killing efficiency of chlorine dramatically declines as the pH goes above 7.5. Because most cooling tower scale/corrosion treatment programs operate at an alkaline pH, chlorine chemistry may not be the best choice in some applications. Chlorine efficiency is further influenced by ammonia and organics in the water, which react irreversibly with the chemical and increase chlorine demand. This is yet another reason why ammonia removal from greywater is very important.

Due to safety concerns, liquid bleach (NaOCl) feed has replaced gaseous chlorine at many facilities, although bleach is more expensive. Bleach contains a small amount of sodium hydroxide, so when it is injected into the cooling water stream it raises the pH, perhaps only slightly, but if the water is alkaline to begin with, most of the reactant will exist as the OCl- ion.

A popular answer has been bromine chemistry, where a chlorine oxidizer (bleach is the common choice) and sodium bromide (NaBr) are blended in a makeup water stream and injected into the cooling water. The chemistry produces hypobromous acid (HOBr), which has similar killing powers to HOCl, but functions more effectively at alkaline pH. Figure 10 compares the dissociation of HOCl and HOBr as a function of pH.

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Is Greywater a Sustainable Alternative for Cooling Water Makeup? continued

Figure 10: Dissociation of HOCl and HOBr versus pH.

Other alternatives include chlorine dioxide (ClO2), monochloramine (NH 2Cl), and monobromamine (NH4Br). The latter two are weaker oxidizers than the others but appear to be more effective at penetrating the protective slime layer that bacteria produce and then directly attacking the organisms. Also to be considered are onsite hypochlorite generating systems where no oxidizer needs to be stored.

A factor that influences the efficacy of many oxidizers, and most notably the strong oxidizers such as chlorine and bromine, is the ability, or lack thereof, to penetrate the polysaccharide (slime) layer that bacteria form for protection.

Sessile microbiological colonies may be almost impossible to destroy with standard treatment. Recently developed is a new halogen stabilizer/biodetergent, which is applicable for bleach-only oxidizing treatment. The product itself has no biocidal properties and thus does not fall under regulatory guidelines, but it helps to stabilize chlorine and reduce losses from irreversible reactions. Also, the biodetergent portion of the formulation, as its name implies, disperses the biofilm formed by the organisms and allows the biocide to contact the organisms directly.

In many cases, oxidizer feed is limited to two hours per day, which gives microbes time to settle and form colonies during off times. A supplemental feed of a non-oxidizing biocide on perhaps a once-per-week basis can be quite effective in controlling biological growth. These non-oxidizers in conjunction with biodetergents reduce overall chlorine usage and do not produce halogenated byproducts such as THMs. Table B lists properties of some of the most common non-oxidizers.

Table B: Non-Oxidizing Biocides

Chemical 2,2-dibromo-3-nitrilo-pro-pionamide (DBNPA) Glutaraldehyde Isothiazoline

Quaternary amines

Advantages Fast acting, effective against bacteria, degrades quickly to nonhazardous byproducts.

Effective against sulfate-reducing bacteria (SRB).

Effective against bacteria, particularly nitrifiers, and fungi. Works well with oxidizing biocides. Active over a wide pH range.

Effective against most microorganisms, particularly algae. Active over a wide pH range.

20

Disadvantages Degrades quickly above pH 9, not very effective against fungi and algae.

Degraded by reducing conditions.

Incompatible with ammonia and some amines. Weak on algae.

Skin sensitizer. Degraded by sulfide, sulfite, and reducing conditions.

Can cause foaming. Efficacy reduced by hardness. Interacts with anionic dispersants and fluorescent tracers.

the Analyst Volume 26 Number 4

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Is Greywater a Sustainable Alternative for Cooling Water Makeup? continued

A careful evaluation of the microbial species in the cooling water is necessary to determine the most effective biocides. Antimicrobial compounds should not be used or even tested without approval from the appropriate regulating agency. They must be incorporated into the plant’s National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) permit. Also, as with all chemicals, safety is an absolutely critical issue when handling biocides.

Conclusion

Alternatives to fresh water are becoming increasingly common for industrial plant makeup. Rigorous pretreatment of these waters, and in particular POTW effluent, is necessary to protect the plant, especially the cooling water system. And even with good pretreatment, cooling water process chemistry must not be neglected. The cooling system offers the ideal environment—warm and wet—for microbes, and if they are allowed to settle and establish colonies, severe fouling is typically the result.

Also, new methods of scale/corrosion control offer great promise in improving cooling system efficiency and reliability.

References 1. Buecker, B. (March 2013). Trip report from visit to the De Soto, KS, wastewater treatment plant, information courtesy of Smith & Loveless.

2. Post, R.M.; Kalokodimi, R.P. (Oct. 26, 2017). “The Development and Application of Non-Phosphorus Corrosion Inhibitors for Cooling Water Systems,” presentation at the World Energy and Environmental Congress, Atlanta, GA.

Brad Buecker is senior technical publicist with ChemTreat. He has 36 years of experience in or affiliated with the power industry, with nearly two decades of it in steam generation chemistry, water treatment, air quality control, and results engineering positions at City Water, Light & Power (Spring field, IL), and Kansas City Power & Light Company’s La Cygne, KS, station. His experience includes 11 years at two engineering firms. Mr. Buecker has authored many articles and three books on power plant water/steam chemistry and air pollution control topics.

He has a B.S. in chemistry from Iowa State University and is a member of the American Chemical Society, the American Institute of Chemical Engineers, the American Society of Mechanical Engineers, the Association of Iron & Steel Technology, the Cooling Technology Institute (corporately), and the National Association of Corrosion Engineers. He can be reached at bradley.buecker@chemtreat.com.

Ray Post has more than 40 years of industrial water treatment experience, including the development, application, and evaluation of cooling water treatment programs. Prior to his retirement as the director of cooling water technology at ChemTreat in 2019, Mr. Post held several positions with Betz Laboratories and GE Water, including global technical leader for cooling water chemistry, power industry technical manager, senior technical consultant, and positions in product development, product management, and technical services. Mr. Post is a licensed professional engineer and a member of the Cooling Technology Institute and the National Society of Professional Engineers. Mr. Post also served as an advisor to EPRI on water conservation research and served on the EPRI Open Cooling Water Chemistry and Closed Cooling Water Chemistry Task Groups. He holds three U.S. patents and has authored more than 50 technical papers on industrial water treatment. Mr. Post may be contacted at raypostwater@gmail.com.

This paper was originally presented at the International Water Conference, which was conducted from November 4–8, 2018, in Scottsdale, Arizona.

More information is available at www.eswp.com/water.

22

the Analyst Volume 26 Number 4

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the Analyst Volume 26 Number 4

Keeping Up With Legionella Testing: Standards, Accreditations, and Customer Perspectives Patsy Root and Kristin Majeska, IDEXX

The purpose of this article is to help prepare water treaters to advise and serve their water management/ treatment customers because they understand 1) the practical implications of recent and pending changes to industry standards and guidance in the United States and internationally; 2) the requirements for Legionella testing of different customer types; and 3) Water Safety Management (WSM) Plan validation testing choices.

Overview Thoughts

Microbiology Laboratory Accreditation Program (AIHA EMLAP), and an increasing number of state accreditation programs. Routine validation testing performed by an accredited laboratory, and following a quality assurance project plan (QAPP) is most likely to produce data of known and documented quality, ensuring the WSM Plan team can both take the appropriate actions to protect public health and control costs for all parties and, if needed, provide the most legally defensible data.

Water treatment professionals should be aware of evolving guidelines, standards, and tools that can help them, and their customers, reduce the public health risk of Legionnaires’ disease on their premises and mitigate potential reputational, financial, and legal problems.

Facility owners and their water treatment partners should consider following emerging industry standards, most notably the American National Standards Institute (ANSI)-approved American Society of Heating, Refrigeration and Air-Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE) 188 Standard, to develop WSM Plans to reduce risk from waterborne Legionella pneumophila, the primary cause of Legionnaires’ disease. Over time, this standard may be adopted into state building or plumbing codes. In the interim, it represents a consensus view of best practices for managing Legionnaires’ disease risk from building water systems.

Note: please refer to the list of terms and acronyms at the end of the article.

To determine whether a WSM Plan is effectively controlling the target pathogen, facility owners of all types should incorporate routine validation testing, in the form of testing water samples for L. pneumophila, as part of their WSM Plans. Routine validation testing has already become more commonplace in healthcare, thanks to the 2017 CMS memo (1). Testing for the pathogen provides equally valuable protection for commercial and industrial building owners, hospitality and fitness industry players, and employers of all types.

Most standards organizations are voluntary and consensus-based, and the resulting outputs are offered for adoption without being mandated in law. However, some standards become mandatory legal requirements, such as when standards are adopted into regulations or state building or plumbing codes. Other times, standards are considered a “standard of care.” In this case, someone choosing not to follow the industry standard of care could be held liable for any negative outcomes, including illnesses and deaths, and it could result in the loss of funding or insurance coverage. The take-home message: industry standards incorporate best practices from industry experts and should be implemented for the protection of both the public and industry members.

According to industry standards like ASHRAE 188, when choosing a laboratory to conduct routine monitoring analyses, WSM Plan teams should give preference to laboratories that have demonstrated their capability to detect and quantify L. pneumophila by gaining accreditation from a nationally recognized accrediting body.

Nationally recognized accreditations can be granted through the TNI, ISO (ISO 17025), the American Industrial Hygiene Association, the Environmental 25

Evolving Legionella Standards Have Common Themes What Are Standards and Guidelines?

Industry standards and guidelines are valuable tools for ensuring consistent processes and outcomes across different organizations. Consensus standard development organizations develop and publish standards and guidelines that are typically specific to the core competencies (e.g., water treatment) of the organization’s membership.

The standards organization will solicit input from a variety of stakeholders to develop a standard or guide that is based on a holistic view of the subject and is in line with industry best practices.

Which standards and guidelines are relevant to managing waterborne disease risk? There are a number of rules, standards, and guidelines to help building and cooling tower owners to manage the risk from the waterborne pathogens such as Legionella pneumophila, the causative the Analyst Volume 26 Number 4

Keeping Up With Legionella Testing: Standards, Accreditations, and Customer Perspectives

agent of Legionnaires’ disease. The list of standards and guidelines below is not exhaustive but does highlight some of the many documents currently available: 1. Rules and Directives: Centers for Medicaid and Medicare Services (CMS), Federal Rule, Code of Federal Regulations 42 CFR §482, 483 & 485 US Veteran’s Affairs (VA), Federal Policy, 2015, VHA DIRECTIVE 1061: Prevention of Healthcare-associated Legionella disease and scald injury from potable water distribution systems 2. Global or Federal Guidelines World Health Organization (WHO) International Guide, 2007, Legionella and the prevention of legionellosis U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), Federal Guide, 2016, Technologies for Legionella Control in Premise Plumbing Systems U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), Federal Guide, 2017, Developing a Water Management Program to Reduce Legionella Growth & Spread in Buildings 3. Accredited Standards ASHRAE 188:2018, Standard, Legionellosis: Risk Management for Building Water Systems American Society of Testing and Materials (ASTM), Standard, 2015, D5952 – 08(2015) Standard Guide for the Inspection of Water Systems for Legionella and the Investigation of Possible Outbreaks of Legionellosis (Legionnaires' Disease or Pontiac Fever) 4. Industry Guidelines or Position Papers ASHRAE Guideline 12, Guide, 2000, Minimizing the risk of legionellosis associated with building water systems, (currently in revision – expected 2020)) Association of Water Technologies (AWT), Legionella 2019: A Position Statement and Guidance Document NSF P453, Protocol (Guide), 2017, Cooling Towers – Treatment, Operation, and Maintenance to Prevent Legionellosis American Industrial Hygiene Association (AIHA), Guide, 2015, LEGG15-781: Recognition, Evaluation, and Control of Legionella in Building Water Systems 26

continued

Cooling Technology Institute (CTI), Guide, 2008, Legionellosis Guideline: Best Practices for Control of Legionella Occupational Safety and Health Association (OSHA) Federal Technical Manual, 1999, OSHA Technical Manual (OTM), TED 01-00-015 [TED 1-0.15A], Chapter 7 American Society of Healthcare Engineers (ASHE) Guide, 2017, Water Management in Health Care Facilities: Complying with ASHRAE Standard 188 Of the documents listed, the ASHRAE Standard 188:2018 is the only ANSI-approved standard in North America, making it the leading document used for WSM planning in the United States. ASHRAE anticipates submitting Standard 188 to the International Code Council (ICC), which is a precursor to states adopting ASHRAE 188 into building or plumbing codes.

Standards that are adopted into state codes then become mandatory and enforceable by the state.

The CDC Toolkit is a publicly available plain-language distillation of ASHRAE 188 that is more focused on healthcare and includes checklists and advice on treatment strategies. The EPA document lists several of the most used and effective water treatment options available to mitigate growth of L. pneumophila and other waterborne pathogens.

A committee is being formed to prepare a new standard: ASHRAE Guideline 514, Minimizing Risk of Disease and Injury Associated with Building Water Systems, for managing other waterborne pathogen risks in buildings (including healthcare-associated buildings) and cooling towers.

The various standards and guides follow a similar set of activities to mitigate risk of Legionnaires’ disease and other waterborne pathogens. The outcome is often termed a Water Safety Management Plan, referenced here as the WSM Plan. The basic steps of a WSM Plan are clearly outlined in the CDC Toolkit shown in Figure 1 and described below.

the Analyst Volume 26 Number 4

Keeping Up With Legionella Testing: Standards, Accreditations, and Customer Perspectives

continued

Figure 1: Elements of a Water Management Program (from CDC Toolkit).

1. Create a Water Safety Management Team that includes individuals with relevant experience, such as building/cooling tower owner, facilities/maintenance, Certified Water Technologist, industrial hygienist or safety officer, microbiologist/testing laboratory, environmental health specialists, and state or local health officials.

2. Describe the water system/cooling tower using simple text or diagrams. Describe the system to be managed, flows of hot and cold water, return loop systems, where water enters the building or tower, and other details (see Figure 2 [2]).

3. Identify areas of risk, such as stagnant water areas, areas where high-risk populations reside, where water use could create aerosolization, or where there could be a low-disinfectant residual.

4. Decide where to apply control limits. What should the temperature of hot water be at various locations?

What levels of disinfectant should be applied to ensure L. pneumophila or other target pathogens are maintained at a predetermined level?

27

5. Corrective actions. Determine what will be done if verification testing indicates a part of the system is out of control limits; have a documented action plan.

6. Verification and validation. Verification testing monitors control limits such as water temperature and disinfectant levels to determine if a WSM Plan is being implemented as designed. Validation testing determines if the WSM Plan is effectively controlling the pathogen (L. pneumophila or other targets) by testing water samples from the building/ cooling tower for the presence of the pathogen.

7. Documentation. All good WSM Plans are well-documented according to the requirements listed here, with emphasis given to documenting verification and validation testing (3).

8. Continuous improvement. Just writing a plan and testing isn’t enough, the WSM team should, on some pre-determined basis, review the plan, incorporate changes (e.g., due to construction), and update the plan at least annually.

the Analyst Volume 26 Number 4

Keeping Up With Legionella Testing: Standards, Accreditations, and Customer Perspectives

continued

Figure 2: Describing building water systems example from CDC Toolkit (2).

Water Testing Testing water samples for bacteria, including tests for L. pneumophila, should be performed using a laboratory accredited to a national or international standard such as ISO 17025, AIHA/EMLAP, TNI, or state accreditation programs, with demonstrated proficiency in enumerating the bacteria of interest. This means the laboratory is able to provide data of known and documented quality. This practice aligns with the recently updated ANSI accredited standard ASHRAE 188:2018, Annex C (4).

WSM Plans While WSM Plans should be developed by an interdisciplinary team with specific knowledge in diverse areas, an outside consultant is often helpful to expedite WSM Plan writing and to ensure all areas of the standard or guide are followed. A working group of ASSE International, the plumbing and mechanical services certification body, is currently drafting the Professional Qualifications Standard for Legionella Water Management Specialists, which promises to be a valuable resource for assessing potential consultants.

28

Use of Standards and Guidelines Encouraging Risk Reduction The best time to implement a standard or guideline is before an outbreak occurs instead of in reaction to a disease case or outbreak. In fact, implementing a comprehensive WSM Plan is the most recognized way to prevent an outbreak. According to the 2017 CDC Vital Signs publication, nine out of 10 outbreaks could have been avoided if a WSM Plan had been in place (5). Of course, standards and guidelines are only effective if the correct knowledge base is represented on the WSM team, and if the plan is properly written and implemented and then followed up with verification and validation data to understand if the risk is truly being managed.

So why don’t all buildings and cooling towers have a WSM Plan in place? There is no single answer. Lack of education on the benefits of WSM planning processes, apprehension about the cost to implement a WSM Plan, and/or a reluctance to put measures in place unless the Analyst Volume 26 Number 4

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Keeping Up With Legionella Testing: Standards, Accreditations, and Customer Perspectives

obligated to do so are common explanations. However, now that an ANSI-accredited standard is in place through ASHRAE, opportunities to compel its use are emerging.

Use as Industry Standards In June 2017, the CMS published a memo that mandated implementing WSM Plans at all healthcare facilities it funds, creating an industry standard in the process. The CMS memo informed healthcare owners and managers that they could use ASHRAE 188 and the CDC Tool Kit as the basis for WSM planning, and that healthcare accreditation inspectors would now include a review of such plans. If a WSM Plan is not in place, reimbursement from CMS can be affected (6). By enforcing its rule, CMS intends to lower the risk of illness and death due to waterborne disease.

The question remains: What could encourage building and cooling tower owners outside of the healthcare industry to implement similar risk management steps?

Once an accredited standard is publicly available, it can become adopted by the International Code Council (ICC) and integrated into the International Building Code; states are then obliged to adopt similar language into their state building codes (7). When an accredited ICC code-enabled standard for managing Legionnaires’ disease risk like ASHRAE 188 is adopted, all building owners will be mandated to adopt WSM Plans.

In the meantime, the National Academies of Science, Engineering and Medicine (NASEM) organized a group of key opinion and thought leaders to make recommendations on how to universally manage the risk of Legionnaires’ disease.

Federal and educational backers of the effort include the EPA, the CDC, the Office of Veterans Affairs, and the Sloan Kettering Foundation. The group plans delivered policy and training recommendations answering questions such as What policies, regulations, codes, or guidelines affect the incidence, control, quantification, and prevention of legionellosis? How might they be built upon to better protect the public? How can Legionella control be best balanced with other water priorities?

30

continued

The five policy recommendations in the NASEM group’s 2019 pre-publication report include: Expand CMS memo to require monitoring for Legionella in environmental water samples.

Register and monitor cooling towers.

Require water management plans in all public buildings, including hotels, businesses, schools, apartments and government buildings.

Require a temperature of 60 °C (140 °F) at hot-water heaters and 55 °C (131°F) to distal points.

Recommend a minimum disinfectant residual throughout public water systems and concomitant monitoring for Legionella. (8).

Reducing Building Owner and Water Treater Liability In the meantime, building and cooling towers owners and their water treatment providers should adopt and help implement WSM Plans, not only to reduce illness and death, but also to protect their brands and reduce the chance of litigation and loss of insurance coverage.

Once a standard is established in an industry, it becomes a “standard of care” in the eyes of insurance companies and litigators and it becomes much harder for courts to dismiss claims of negligence if the standard is not followed.

Historically, courts have cited the existence of multiple different guidance documents for Legionella risk management, rather than a single accepted “industry norm,” and the lack government regulations surrounding Legionella prevention when dismissing legal claims, as was noted in the Taylor v. Aria Resort & Casino LLC decision in 2015 and subsequently described by Adam Green of Baker Donelson (9). According to attorneys at Goldberg Segalla, however, “uncertainty regarding the existence and scope of a standard of care relating to Legionella control in building water systems may soon change due to the efforts of ASHRAE” (10).

The ANSI-accredited ASHRAE 188 standard has been published, even before it has been adopted into building codes. According to “Legionella Lawyer” John Denenea, “Standard 188 is likely to be considered very seriously the Analyst Volume 26 Number 4

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Keeping Up With Legionella Testing: Standards, Accreditations, and Customer Perspectives

by a court whenever a judge is asked to determine an applicable “standard of care” if negligence is alleged in a Legionnaires’ disease outbreak lawsuit” (11).

Evolving International Standards

Guidance and legislation are also evolving beyond U.S. borders. Across the globe, countries have put in place guidance and regulations with different action limits. Two recent regulatory developments could have particular ripple effects for water treaters and their customers in Europe.

European Drinking Water Directive In February 2018, for the first time, the European Commission included Legionella as a parameter for routine monitoring in its proposal for a revised Drinking Water Directive. The Directive’s purpose is to improve the quality of publicly provided drinking water across its 28 member states. For this, the proposal requires an assessment of risks linked to domestic drinking systems, including risks from “products and materials that come into contact with drinking water,” such as lead and Legionella. Once finalized, the 28 member states will be required to translate the Drinking Water Directive into their own national legislation and have the option to also include additional requirements (12).

In the draft recast of the Directive released by the European Parliament in May 2018, Legionella pneumophila was listed as the primary parameter for monitoring (at a threshold of 1,000 colony forming units per liter [CFU/L]), with monitoring for Legionella species included as a secondary parameter with a threshold of 10,000 CFU/L. The obligation that member states ensure access to “priority premises” for sampling purposes was also clearly stated (13). This proposal was approved by the exiting European Parliament in March 2019 and is the Parliament’s version that will be discussed during the European Union Drinking Water Directorate’s trialogue process.

New German Cooling Tower Regulations In July 2017, Germany implemented legislation mandating proactive management of Legionella risk in cooling towers, wet scrubbers, and evaporative cooling equipment. The legislation includes a requirement for Legionella testing within four weeks of start-up of a cooling tower and every three months thereafter. The law works in concert with the VDI 2047 Part 2 of 32

continued

The Cooling Tower Code of Practice draft, released November 2017, which applies to “evaporative cooling systems and apparatus where water is trickled or sprayed over a surface or can otherwise come into contact with the atmosphere” and VDI 2047, Part 3, (April 2018) which applies to cooling towers with a cooling power greater than 200 MW per air outlet, as is common in the power generation industry (14, 15).

Validation Testing

Microbiological water testing has been an integral part of the strategy to ensure water safety in the United States for decades. Despite stringent and well-established requirements for water treatment, the EPA nonetheless requires routine testing of drinking water and wastewater to ensure that treatment is working and to enable a quick response when routine testing results show a system is out of control.

The teams responsible for reducing Legionnaires’ disease risk from building water have a similar responsibility to ensure their systems are controlling Legionella pneumophila according to their WSM Plan action limits.

The CDC Toolkit calls out this responsibility in plain language: “Make sure the program is running as designed and is effective” (16). This step encompasses both “verification” that planned activities are correctly implemented and “validation” that those activities are effectively controlling the disease-causing agent.

Commercial and Industrial Building Owner Concerns Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) published guidelines to help business owners reduce Legionella risk for their employees almost two years ago and recently updated its position on specific action expectations for Legionella testing results to align with the WMS Plan process outlined in ASHRAE 188. At the same time, Principe et al.’s 2016 article on legionellosis in occupational settings made clear that this threat to employees is still real. Their review of 805 workers’ cases found that industrial settings and office buildings were most frequently associated with occupational legionellosis, but that cases could also be traced to sewage plants, ships, truck parks, and a variety of other workplaces (17).

Industrial hygienists in all industries are tasked with ensuring the safety of workers and building occupants.

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Keeping Up With Legionella Testing: Standards, Accreditations, and Customer Perspectives

American Industrial Hygienists Association (AIHA) Working Group stated “proactive sampling and analysis for Legionella should be included as an integral part of any building water program” and explained its rationale in concrete terms: “By implementing administrative, engineering and protective measures, based upon empirical measurement of the organism responsible for the disease in question, health risks to worker and building occupants can be reduced (18).” AIHA guidance documents released in 2016 provide examples of recommended sampling and testing frequencies that range from monthly testing for cooling towers and indoor fountains to annual testing of incoming municipal water (19).

As case study after case study demonstrates, the cost and effort of regular monitoring as part of a WSM Plan pales in comparison to the tremendous costs of months of testing, remediation, and likely legal fees in the face of a disease outbreak and a finding that a system is or was out of control. Accordingly, building owners and managers are increasingly consulting ASHRAE Standard 188’s informative Appendix C for guidance on testing and selecting Legionella testing laboratories. Table A highlights the benefits of preventative measures.

Table A: The Benefits of Prevention

Reasons building owners and managers are increasingly asking about Legionella testing:  To reduce the risk of a deadly outbreak “on their watch”  To reduce their liability  To reduce the risk to their reputation  To reduce their insurance cost or exposure New York State and New York City regulations requiring routine testing for cooling towers and healthcare facilities are also contributing to a slow shift of norms from “don’t test” to “test” for building owners, water treaters, and water management planners in regions far beyond that state’s jurisdiction. The Code of Ordinances of the city of Garland, Texas, already requires registering and testing for L. pneumophila in cooling towers in multi-family housing (20).

In 2017, New Orleans, Louisiana, adopted a similar Code of Ordinances that requires regular maintenance of cooling towers and HPC testing, with Legionella testing required, for example, if the total bacteria count exceeds certain levels (21).

34

continued

As the awareness of potential liability and the case history grows, insurance firms that cover companies developing and implementing WSM Plans are also increasingly requiring testing be performed, or excluding the resulting costs from their coverage if routine testing is not part of a plan. On the flipside, for those treating the water, regular monitoring for L. pneumophila can provide testament to their effectiveness of the company’s work and its responsiveness and problem-solving abilities if a test result indicates a need to make a change before any cases are identified and the alarm bells sound.

Testing for Healthcare Facilities The Department of Veterans Affairs led the way in setting the expectation that testing is necessary to ensure that WSM Plans are effectively reducing the risk to the immunocompromised populations so often concentrated in healthcare settings. The Veterans Healthcare Administration Directive 1061 requires that at least 10 hot and 10 cold potable water outlets are tested quarterly for L. pneumophila and that different levels of remediation actions are implemented if positive results are found (22).

The CDC’s 2017 findings on rates of Legionnaires’ disease likely acquired in healthcare facilities, and that the mortality rate for these cases was a shocking 25%, shone a broader spotlight on the need to reduce waterborne pathogen risks from both potable and nonpotable water for this vulnerable population (23). The updated 2017 CDC Toolkit highlights “being a healthcare facility that provides inpatient services to people who are at increased risk for Legionnaires’ disease” as a factor that might make Legionella testing important (24). But it was the subsequent CMS requirement that has really put teeth into the hospital and long-term care facilities’ need to reduce their risk from Legionella and other waterborne pathogens.

The memo spelled out that these covered facilities must demonstrate they are taking measures to not only reduce but “minimize risk of Legionnaires’ disease” in order to remain compliant with their joint commission accreditation. After conducting a risk assessment, each facility must implement a program that “includes control measures such as physical controls, temperature management, disinfectant level control, visual inspections, and environmental testing for pathogens.

Facilities are then required to respond to these findings and “document the results of testing and corrective the Analyst Volume 26 Number 4

Keeping Up With Legionella Testing: Standards, Accreditations, and Customer Perspectives

actions taken,” ensuring that the testing is meaningful and leads to improved conditions (25).

In its July 2018 memo, CMS clarified for providers, auditors, and surveyors that it does not specifically require water cultures for Legionella or other waterborne pathogens and explained that the facilities are free to determine their preferred testing protocols (26). However, all facilities are still required to document that they have an effective water management plan, including “a facility risk assessment and testing protocols,” and auditors may well agree with the experts that there is no way to validate that a water management plan is effective without testing to understand levels of the pathogens in the water.

Hospitality and Fitness Industry Priorities ASHRAE Standard 188 explicitly covers buildings with centralized hot water systems “like a hotel or high-rise apartment complex.” Indeed, more than 20% of all Legionnaires’ disease cases reported to CDC are travel-associated (27). Well-publicized outbreaks have occurred in hotels and gyms in Texas, Mississippi, Nevada, Florida, and elsewhere. There are several subsequent court cases that offer a clear rational for lodging and fitness center owners to consider implementing water management plans with a testing component that attests to the plan’s effectiveness and their owners’ vigilance in reducing the risk to their guests. The combined threat of lost revenue from closures associated with Legionnaires’ disease cases and long-term damage to the property’s reputation are coupled with fear of liability that could arise from not having taken sufficient precautions.

The need to reduce risks associated with hot tubs is called out in ASHRAE Standard 188, and both pools and hot tubs are becoming a particular concern for the hospitality industry. According to the CDC’s May 2018 Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, one-third of treated recreational waterborne disease outbreaks from 2000 through 2014 occurred specifically in hotel pools or hot tubs.

During this period, 648 documented disease cases associated with outbreaks were caused by Legionella (27).

The cruise ship industry has been one of the hospitality industry groups most consistently testing for Legionella to reduce shipboard risks to their passengers and crew.

Cruise ship operators are wise to be particularly cautious, given that their passengers spend long periods of time in a single environment and are often older, and because 36

continued

water features such as hot tubs are often prominent on board. The CDC highlighted this concern as early as 2005 after documenting eight cases of Legionnaires’ disease contracted on cruise ships in an 18-month period (29). Indeed, according, some cruise ships have changed names and even owners after being linked to cases of legionellosis (30).

Water Safety Management Plan Testing to validate a WSM Plan involves the routine sampling of water in a building or cooling tower using fixed sample sites, regular timing and conditions of sampling, and the use of an accredited laboratory for testing for bacteria in the water samples. A well-formulated WSM Plan can mitigate the risk of waterborne pathogen exposure. However, the intention of a WSM Plan is not necessarily to eradicate bacteria in a system, an almost impossible task, but to manage it. The best way to ensure that risk is managed is to focus validation testing on the pathogen of highest risk; in the case of managing Legionnaires’ disease, this pathogen is L. pneumophila.

Data from validation testing is used to determine if actions are required, as described in the WSM Plan.

The Plan should have various levels of action based on results of validation testing, and those actions should clearly describe what the Plan manager must do if limits of bacteria (i.e., L. pneumophila) indicate that the system is out of Plan compliance. This means any validation data that drives decision-making on Plan actions must be reliably produced. Not only must validation data be reliably produced for any corrective actions, but to also ensure corrective actions are truly required and avoid unnecessary cost for building owners.

Since highly reliable data is required for correct decision-making on the WSM Plan’s effectiveness, the WSM Plan team should follow ASHRAE Standard 188, Appendix C guidance and contract with a laboratory accredited to one or more nationally recognized ANSI or International Standards Organization (ISO) standards, such as ISO 17025, AIHA/EMLAP, or the TNI Standard, with demonstrated proficiency in enumerating the bacteria of interest. Using an accredited laboratory for testing is also the most defensible strategy in a courtroom. A list of accredited laboratories that perform Legionella testing is available in the Legionella Resources section of the AWT website. Note: The CDC’s Environmental Legionella Isolation Techniques the Analyst Volume 26 Number 4

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Keeping Up With Legionella Testing: Standards, Accreditations, and Customer Perspectives

Evaluation (ELITE) program is not a national or recognized accreditation program. Nonetheless, the test samples prepared on behalf for the CDC ELITE program for use with various different methods may be submitted as proof that applicants have met one of the required components of a rigorous accreditation process.

For validation testing to provide reliable data, several factors should be considered by the WSM Plan team: Request a copy of both the laboratory’s accreditation certificate and Scope of Accreditation.

Determine that the testing laboratory can identify the pathogen target, L. pneumophila; this avoids implementing WSM Plan actions and incurring cost for detecting nonpathogenic bacteria.

Confirm the laboratory has performed the required accredited proficiency test samples for the pathogen target.

Ask the laboratory for its Chain of Custody and Sampling Protocols and train all sampling personnel.

Note: many accredited laboratories provide proper sampling bottles and protocols on handling/shipping, and some laboratories offer accredited sampling personnel.

Request a blinded copy of a data report. All reports should include associated quality control (QC) and quality assurance (QA) requirements and be signed by the laboratory’s QA officer.

continued

Develop a QAPP with the testing laboratory and sampling partners for each building or cooling tower; a QAPP will outline the agreed-upon sampling and testing parameters of the WSM Plan and should include: • Where water samples are taken in the building or cooling tower, having a protocol and/or map of sampling sites if preferable.

• How often water samples are taken.

• How many water samples are to be taken per testing event.

• Who takes water samples and retains the Chain of Custody paperwork.

• How samples are shipped or maintained in transit, including acceptable sample temperature upon receipt in the laboratory.

• Which testing method the laboratory will use to count bacteria in each sample, including the test method’s 95% confidence limit and measurement uncertainty parameters.

An example of what routine validation testing charts may look like over time is shown in Figure 3. This example chart uses the original OSHA action limits as a guide for this WSM Plan. Month 9 clearly shows the WSM Plan bacterial counts are outside of the OSHA limits and suggests corrective steps (listed in the WSM Plan) would have to be taken to reduce the pathogen target.

Figure 3: Validation testing trending example.

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Keeping Up With Legionella Testing: Standards, Accreditations, and Customer Perspectives

The time has come for routine validation testing to be a standard component of WSM Plans. Fortunately, an increasing number of laboratories across the country are qualified to meet that demand. In the United States, the TNI Environmental Laboratory Accreditation Program (ELAP) accredits or recognizes laboratories for testing of water such as drinking water and wastewater in a majority of states. These state ELAP groups are known as the “Accreditation Body” or AB. TNI state ABs are in turn accredited to assess laboratories for compliance to the TNI standard. State ABs can fully support laboratories adding L. pneumophila testing capability for premise water to their ELEP accreditations, as has been done in New York, Florida, New Hampshire, and other states.

In addition, if a laboratory is already accredited through another nationally recognized standard, such as ISO 17025 or AIHA/EMLAP, that laboratory can add a L. pneumophila testing capability at any time. Table B lists several acronyms for laboratory accreditation purposes.

Closure

To summarize, validation data is the routine testing of water samples to ensure the WSM Plan is effectively controlling the pathogen target (L. pneumophila) over time. Pathogen target limits that are predetermined in the WSM Plan will guide the Plan managers to action if the data indicate action is necessary. The use of a QAPP from an accredited testing laboratory assures everyone associated with managing the WSM Plan knows the data is reliably produced and can be counted on to make sound decisions.

Useful Terms

continued

Association, Environmental Microbiology Laboratory Accreditation Program ISO: International Standards Organization Legionellosis: the term used to describe two disease states associated with Legionella infection: Legionnaires’ disease and Pontiac fever QAPP: Quality Assurance Project Plan TNI: The NELAC (National Environmental Laboratory Accreditation Council) Institute

References

1. U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) (2017). Federal Guide, Developing a Water Management Program to Reduce Legionella Growth & Spread in Buildings, Version 1.1.

2. U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) (2016). Federal Guide, 2016, Developing a Water Management Program to Reduce Legionella Growth and Spread in Buildings, Version 1.0.

3. U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) (2017). Federal Guide.

4. American Society of Heating Refrigeration and Air-Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE) (2018). ASHRAE Addendum g to ANSI/ ASHRAE Standard 188: Legionellosis: Risk Management for Building Water Systems.

5. U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) ( June 2017).

Vital Signs, accessed at https://www.cdc.gov/vitalsigns/pdf/201706-vitalsigns.pdf.

6. Centers for Medicaid & Medicare Services (CMS) ( June 2, 2017; revised June 9, 2017). Memorandum, “Requirements to Reduce Legionella Risk in Healthcare Facility Water Systems to Prevent Cases and Outbreaks of Legionnaires’ Disease,” accessed at https://www.cms.gov/Medicare/ Provider-Enrollment-and-Certification/SurveyCertificationGenInfo/ Downloads/Survey-and-Cert- Letter-17-30.pdf.

7. International Code Council (2017). 2018 International Building Code, accessed https://codes.iccsafe.org/public/document/IBC2018/copyright 8. National Academies of Science, Engineering and Medicine (NASEM) (2019). Management of Legionella in Water Systems (prepublication version), accessed at https://www.nap.edu/read/25474/chapter/7.

9. Baker, D. (2018). Notable Legionella Case Law.

10. Bernier, T., Smith, S. (April 2014). “The Standard of Care Defense in Emerging Toxic Tort Claims: Lessons Learned from Legionnaires’ Disease Litigation,” For the Defense, pp. 24–29.

AB: Accrediting body.

ANSI: American National Standards Institute ASHRAE: American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers CMS: Centers for Medicaid and Medicare Services ELAP: Environmental Lab Accreditation Program TNI: The NELAC (National Environmental Laboratory Accreditation Conference) Institute AIHA EMLAP: American Industrial Hygiene 39

11. Denenea, J. (n.d.). “Who is Liable for a Legionnaires’ Disease Outbreak?”

The Legionaires’ Lawyer, accessed at http://www.thelegionnaireslawyer. com/legionnaires-disease-determining-liability/.

12. European Commission, (n.d.). The Directive Overview, originally accessed at http://ec.europa.eu/environment/water/water-drink/legislation_en.html.

13. European Parliament, Committee on the Environment, Public Health & Food Safety (2018). “Draft Report on the Proposal for a Directive of the European Parliament and of the Council on the Quality of Water Intended for Human Consumption (recast) (COM (2017)0753 – C8-0019/2018 – 2017/0332(COD)).

14. VDI, The Association of German Engineers (2017). Draft, VDI 2047 Blatt 2 “Open Recooler Systems—Securing Hygienically Sound Operation of Evaporative Cooling Systems (VDF Cooling Tower Code of Practice).

15. VDI, The Association of German Engineers, (2018). VDI 2047 Blatt 3 Open Recooler Systems—Securing Hygenically Sound Operation of Evaporative Cooling Systems—Cooling Towers with a Cooling Power greater thyan 200 MW, VDI Cooling Tower Code of Practice.

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Keeping Up With Legionella Testing: Standards, Accreditations, and Customer Perspectives continued

16. U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) (2017). Federal Guide, p. 21.

17. Principe, L., Tomao, P., Visca, P. (October 2016). “Legionellosis in the Occupational Setting,” Environmental Research 152, pp. 485–495.

18. American Industrial Hygiene Association (2014). “Comments on BSR/ASHRAE Standard 188P Legionellosis: Risk Management for Building Water Systems,” accessed at https://www.aiha.org/ government-affairs/PublicPolicy/ASHRAE%20FINAL%2011-10-14.pdf 19. American Industrial Hygiene Association (AIHA) (2015). Guide, LEGG15-781, “Recognition, Evaluation and Control of Legionella in Building Water Systems, p. 16.

20. City of Garland, Texas (n.d.). Code of Ordinances Section 32.04(D)(6) of Chapter 32: Neighborhood Sanitation and Housing Services, accessed at https://z2.franklinlegal.net/franklin/Z2Browser2. html?showset=garlandset.

21. City of New Orleans, Louisiana (n.d.), Code of Ordinances Sec. 26-17 (Section 154) Cooling Towers and Water Cooled Chillers, accessible at https://library.municode.com/la/new_orleans/codes/code_ of_ordinances?nodeId=PTIICO_CH26BUBUREHOST_ARTIINGE_S26-17SAME.

SPERISTALTIC SERIES PUMP For Demanding Chemical Treatment Applications

22. Veterans’ Health Administration (VHA) (2014). VHA Directive 1061: Prevention of Healthcare-Associated Legionella Disease and Scald Injury from Potable Water Distribution Systems.

23. U.S. CDC ( June 2017). Vital Signs.

24. U.S. CDC (n.d.). Federal Guide.

25. Centers for Medicaid and Medicare Services (CMS) (n.d.). Memorandum.

26. Centers for Medicaid and Medicare Services (CMS) ( June 2, 2017; revised July 6, 2018).

Memorandum, “Requirements to Reduce Legionella Risk in Healthcare Facility Water Systems to Prevent Cases and Outbreaks of Legionnaires’ Disease”, accessed at https://www.cms.gov/ Medicare/Provider-Enrollment-and- Certification/SurveyCertificationGenInfo/Downloads/ Survey-and-Cert-Letter-17-30.pdf.

27. U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) (2018). Yellow Book, accessed at https:// wwwnc.cdc.gov/travel/yellowbook/2018/conveyance-transportation-issues/cruise-ship-travel.

28. Hlavsa, M.C.; Cikesh, B.L.; Robers,VA., et al. (2018). “Outbreaks Associated with Treated Recreational Water – United States 2000–2014”, MMWR Morb Mortal Weekly Report 2018:67:547-551, accessed at https://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/volumes/67/wr/mm6719a3.htm?s_ cid=mm6719a3.

29. U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) (2005). “Cruise-Ship-Associated Legionnaires Disease, November 2003–May 2004,” MMWR Morbidity/Mortality Weekly Report, 54, 1153–1155.

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go to tion, Tr a c k a m r fo st o re i n m/ F a For m.stenner.co www

30. Rowbotham, T. (1998). “Legionellosis Associated with Ships: 1977 to 1997,” Commun. Dis. Public.

Health 1, pp. 146–151.

Patsy Root is North American regulatory affairs manager for IDEXX. She is currently a member of ASHRAE SSPC 188, the Association of Public Health Laboratories (APHL) Environmental Laboratory Science committees, and a member of the Executive Board of TNI, a body that develops and oversees laboratory accreditation standards and procedures. Ms. Root also is a reviewer and contributor to Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater, Part 9000. Ms. Root is a national expert who routinely works with public health laboratories to provide Water Safety Management Program development and implementation training and resources. She has published several articles and papers on effective water safety planning to reduce Legionnaires’ disease. She may be reached at patsy-root@idexx.com.

Kristin Majeska is senior manager of strategic initiatives at IDEXX and global product manager for IDEXX culture tests Legiolert and Pseudalert. She works with researchers and stakeholders throughout the world to encourage proactive water safety management programs that are effective at reducing Legionnaires’ disease risk. Ms. Majeska’s background includes both national healthcare policy work and extensive experience helping small and medium-size businesses enjoy profitable growth. She may be contacted at kristin-majeska@ idexx.com.

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Peter Meyers, ResinTech Inc.

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Preface

Disposal of ion-exchange (IX) resins is Part 4 of a series of articles that cover various aspects of how IX resins are used. Not the actual applications mind you, but the physical aspects of touching resins, feeling them, and caring for them. This part covers resin disposal, including general requirements, disposal of hazardous resins, transportation, and miscellaneous disposal topics.

old resin and replace it with new IX resin. In Figure 2, a vacuum truck is unloading spent IX resin into a dumpster from a vacuum truck.

Figure 1: The author preparing to help install new resin and remove old IX resin.

Disposal of Resin Uncontaminated Resin IX resins are generally considered nonhazardous. Neutral salt forms of used IX resin are accepted as ordinary trash by most landfills and do not require any special precautions or paperwork. This only applies to new or uncontaminated used resins that are pH neutral and dewatered, and that were not used to remove any hazardous contaminant. If unsure, it is best to send a sample to a certified lab for verification. 40 Code of Federal Regulations (CFR) Section 261.24 discusses requirements for solid waste. The Toxicity Characteristic Leaching Procedure (TCLP) test is commonly used to judge if spent resin should be considered hazardous waste.

Materials that are collected on the resin beads during service can change the hazard rating of the spent resin.

For example, if a resin was used to remove hazardous metals from a wastewater stream, and those metals remain on the resin at time of disposal, the spent resin would then be considered a hazardous or toxic material. Since waste disposal requirements vary regionally, it is important to check with the proper local and state authorities before disposing of resin that may have been in contact with heavy metals or other hazardous materials.

Resins are most easily disposed of in their exhausted or salt form. This may require contacting the resin with several bed volumes of dilute (2% to 10%) sodium chloride. Further neutralization with sodium bicarbonate may also be needed to remove the last traces of acidity or causticity from the spent resins. Without neutralization, cation resins that were used in the hydrogen form may have too low a pH for nonhazardous disposal, and anion resins used in the hydroxide form may have too high a pH to be disposed of as ordinary trash. Figure 1 shows the author preparing to assist an end-user site to take out 45

Figure 2: Spent IX resin being unloaded by a vacuum truck into a roll-off dumpster.

Reuse possibilities for uncontaminated resin. Resins are sometimes removed from service before their useful life is completely over. Resins used in polishing applications may still be perfectly okay for less critical use in makeup or wastewater processes. Some installations choose to change out resins during outages as preventive the Analyst Volume 26 Number 4

Part 4—What Is the Right Way to Dispose of IX Resins?

continued

maintenance rather than take a chance on having their IX system fail and cause an unscheduled outage. Resins removed from clean water systems that still have good capacity, are in good physical condition, and have not been exposed to any hazardous substances can often be reused in wastewater or other noncritical IX processes.

The most commonly repurposed resins are single-use mixed-bed polishers reused as regenerable makeup mixed beds. This is often done in ultrapure water systems as a way of off-setting some of the replacement cost. The spent resins resale value may only be a fraction of new resin, but the sale price often offsets disposal costs and reduces the environmental impact of placing them in a landfill. In these cases, what might otherwise be trash can be turned into cash.

The buyer should beware, though, and thoroughly analyze the resin to be sure they know what they are getting. Not all problems with resins can be fixed, and capacity that has been lost chemically cannot be restored.

In addition, resins that are dirty or badly fouled may require so much time and effort to clean that new resin is a better option. Lastly, resins that have been exposed to any hazardous substance should not be reused, for obvious reasons.

Contaminated Resin As mentioned in the previous section, resins that have been contaminated by some hazardous substance then take on the characteristics of that substance and are therefore transported and disposed of in like fashion.

The two most common types of hazardous contaminants found on resin are radioactivity and heavy metals.

pCi is also equal to 3.7 becquerals. 1 curie of radiation is quite dangerous. The federal concentration and mass limits for disposal of uranium (and thorium) are as follows: Above 0.05% by weight uranium exceeds the “unimportant quantity” Above 0.05% and 15 pounds (lb) total uranium by weight exceeds the “small quantity” When the “unimportant quantity” is exceeded, it is subject to regulation by state and federal laws. When the small quantity is exceeded, it is necessary to obtain a general license for LLRW disposal. Such waste must generally be disposed of at a licensed LLRW landfill (e.g., Energy Solutions and WCS). A general license prohibits more than 150 lb stored on site at any one time.

This limit is easily exceeded in large systems.

Radium is not included in these restrictions, only uranium and thorium (thorium limits are the same as uranium).

TENORM. The general TENORM limit is 2,000 pCi/ gram, although most TENORM landfills limit acceptance to about 1,800 pCi/g. This works out to about 2.7 grams U/kilogram total mass (0.27% by weight). For strongly basic anion resin (apparent density 0.72), the limit would be 1,350,000 pCi/L or 2.0 g/L. The TENORM limit for radium is generally the same as for uranium. However, the mass of radium depends on the ratio of 226 and 228 isotopes and is tiny compared to uranium because radium is significantly more radioactive than uranium.

Transportation limits for resins that are slightly radioactive. The U.S. Department of Transportation (DOT) transportation limit for radium as nonhazardous waste is 2,700 pico curies per gram (pCi/g). The DOT’s transportation limit for uranium as nonhazardous waste is 270 pCi/g (about 400 milligrams per Liter [mg/L] of uranium). Above these values, a radioactive waste material would generally be considered as Class A LLRW (low-level radioactive waste).

RCRA hazardous waste. Requirements for transport and disposal of hazardous waste are generally more stringent than DOT standards and are governed under the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA), 40 CFR 260 through 273. Deciphering the RCRA text is formidable, and interpretation is best left to experts.

Consult local authorities for advice.

Guidelines related to disposal of LLRW-contaminated resin. pCi/g is a common unit of measure for radioactivity equal to 3.7 1,010 disintegrations per second. 1

Incineration. IX resins have a reasonably high BTU value and can be incinerated. Moist resins contain roughly 20 Kcal per kilogram, roughly half of pure polystyrene.

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Part 4—What Is the Right Way to Dispose of IX Resins?

continued

Resins release strong acids (such as hydrochloric, nitric, and sulfuric) and other toxic gases as they burn. Resin chars at approximately 450 °C, but a complete combustion requires approximately 800 °C (700 °C minimum).

Most trash-burning power plants accept nonhazardous spent resin.

Loading and unloading should be done under conditions of cleanliness that are consistent with product use. Avoid unnecessary or prolonged exposure to air, especially for mixed-bed and hydroxide-form anion resins. Consider additional PPE for workers, both to protect them and to prevent contamination of the resin.

Storage or Disposal Containers Resin can be unloaded into a variety of containers, from sacks to drums to totes, to various tanks, or even temporary tanks such as above-ground swimming pools. Since resin is almost always removed as a slurry, the volume in the containers must account for excess water as well as resin. If the resin is going to be put back into the vessel (as is sometimes necessary following tank repairs), a plastic tank or above-ground swimming pool is often the best choice.

Considerations for Ugly Water Resins Resins used in wastewater treatment or to remove radioactive or other hazardous substances take on some of those hazardous attributes. Therefore, they need to be handled in the same way as the hazardous substance itself. Extra planning is needed to minimize risk, especially that of wastewater disposal and potential worker exposure.

If the resin will be thrown away, then bulk sacks may be better. Standard unlined bulk sacks are inexpensive and convenient because they allow excess water to pass while retaining resin. However, they do have to be supported until the excess water has largely drained; otherwise, they can easily tip over and spill. For smaller tanks, burlap or other cloth sacks can be used, the smaller size allowing for more convenient manual handling.

Wrapping Up

Wrapping up, a few comments about special considerations are worth mentioning. In today’s world, documentation can be very helpful, both to protect yourself and also as an aid to those who come after you. Resins used in ultrapure water and in ugly water (used for wastewater, or to remove radioactive or other hazardous substances) require additional care beyond resins used for drinking water or general pure water applications.

These applications also require a bit of additional thought regarding storage.

Closure

This discussion about disposal of IX resins is Part 4 of a multi-part article series describing the physical aspects of how resins are used. Other parts include an introduction to using IX resins, storage, moving resins (from place to place), loading, unloading, and step-by-step procedure outlines.

Peter Meyers is the technical director for ResinTech Inc., an ion exchange resin manufacturer. Mr. Meyers has more than 45 years of experience covering a wide range of ion exchange applications, from demineralizers, polishers, and softeners to industrial process design and operation. Mr. Meyers is co-inventor along with Mike Gottlieb of a hybrid ion exchanger used to remove arsenic from potable water. He can be reached at pmeyers@resintech.com.

This article is based on a paper presented by the author at the 2018 AWT Annual Conference, which was conducted September 26–29, 2018, in Orlando, Florida.

Considerations for Ultrapure Resins For resins used for ultrapure water (especially nuclear power plants and semiconductor manufacturing), there is an extra level of concern about the integrity of the resin.

Consider maintaining a chain of custody for each activity (unloading, storage, loading, rinsing, among other activities). Consider segregation, quarantining, and container-locking devices to ensure container integrity.

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Industry Notes Grady Willis Joins ResinTech Technical Sales Team

Ion exchange manufacturer ResinTech announced that Grady Willis joined its Midwest Technical Sales team. Mr. Willis brings over two decades of industry experience, including 17 years in the power and water industry sector.

Before joining ResinTech, Willis held positions at GE Water and Process Technologies, GE Betz, Nalco Chemical Company, GE Digital Energy, and PMC Biogenix. Grady Willis graduated from the U.S. Merchant Marine Academy at Kings Point and was an LCDP in the Naval Reserve.

“Grady’s wealth of experience in the Midwest market, his credibility in the water industry sector, and his business development track-record position him to expand our Midwest business. We are all delighted he has chosen to join ResinTech,” said the company president, Larry Gottlieb. The addition of Mr. Willis comes at a time when ResinTech is expanding its ion exchange production domestically. The company recently broke ground on a $138.8 million global headquarters capable of producing nearly 1 million cubic feet of cation resin annually. It plans to consolidate operations of its filter and lab water unit, Aries FilterWorks, and its resin regeneration division, ACM Technologies, into the new building. For more information, visit www.resintech.com.

Stenner Releases the New S40 Model, of the S Series Smart Pump Line, With Expanded Flow Rate Outputs

Built to NEMA 4X, the S Series S40 is equipped with a pump head with stainless steel latches (larger than the S30 model) and offers flow rate outputs up to 60 gpd with operating pressures to 100 psi, and up to 150 gpd with operating pressures to 25 psi. Fine-tune the pump to fit your application with multiple modes of operation and programmable performance indicators for efficient interface with process control systems.

Operational modes include scalable 4–20mA or 0–10VDC input, Hall Effect (frequency), PPM feed, pulse, and timer functions. Program up to three output relays for conditions such as tube leak, drive fault, process alarms, or transfer operation to a backup pump.

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H2O Tube replacement without tools is standard with Stenner pumps. The totally enclosed pump has a brushless DC motor with ball bearing support for durable and quiet operation. Agency listings include NEMA 4X, NSF 61 and 372, cULus indoor/outdoor. NSF 50 and CE IP65 are available. Go to www.stenner.com/fasttrack for 2 4 information on the S Series pumps.

H SO

NHL Partnership Highlights Role of Water in Daily Life

Evoqua Water Technologies Corp. announced a joint community program with the NHL’s Pittsburgh Penguins to help build a stronger connection with youth hockey associations across greater Pittsburgh and underscore the important role water plays in all aspects of daily life.

As part of the program, called “A Great Day for Our Ice,” Evoqua will provide vials for local youth hockey associations to collect ice shavings from their home rinks. The shavings were collected during the Penguins' annual Free Game for Kids, which was held September 28 at the PPG Paints Arena. Once the melted ice from local youth hockey rinks is filtered and treated using Evoqua systems, the water will then be transferred to the Evoqua Zamboni and smoothed into the PPG Paints Arena’s ice surface. For more information, visit https:// www.evoqua.com/en.

Italmatch Chemicals Group Acquires Water Science Technologies

Italmatch Chemicals Group (Italmatch), a specialty chemical group focused on the production and marketing of performance additives for water and process treatment, oil and gas, industrial lubricants, and plastics acquired Water Science Technologies (WST), a blender and chemical solutions provider. Grace Matthews Inc. advised WST on this transaction.

Headquartered in Birmingham, Alabama, WST serves the North American industrial water treatment and oil and gas industries and operates four facilities in the Analyst Volume 26 Number 4

Industry Notes continued

North America. The acquisition by Italmatch, headquartered in Genoa, Italy, strengthens its leadership in the North American oil and gas market, broadening the Italmatch Global Advanced Water Solutions business unit product portfolio. For more information, visit www.italmatch.com.

United States Now Biggest Sales Market for Endress+Hauser After 65 years, the United States replaced Germany as Endress+Hauser’s largest sales market. China sales also grew at a double-digit pace. Company officials said that if the trend continues, China could soon take over the top spot. Overall, the company increased net sales by 9.5% to €2.455 billion ($2.73 billion), despite facing strong headwinds from foreign exchange rates.

Operating profit (EBIT) increased by 31.4% to €330.6 million. Even though no one-off income was recognized in 2018, in contrast to the prior year, profit before taxes (EBT) still rose by 14.6 percent to €15.7 million. Return on sales (ROS) climbed 0.6 points to 12.9 percent. For more information visit www.us.endress.com/en.

AP Tech Expands Technical Sales Support Team With the Addition of Matt Haikalis and Evan Sturm With the expansion of AP Tech’s Global Headquarters in 2019, AP Tech revved up its Technical Sales and Support Team.

Matt Haikalis has joined the team as technical sales director. In this role, he will create business development strategies, provide direct technical and commercial support for AP Tech partners, and keep up to date with water treatment market advances.

Matt comes to APTech with 18 years of experience in the water treatment industry. Areas of expertise include boiler, cooling, and closed-loop chemical treatment; pre-treatment systems; system design; and troubleshooting. Most recently he was the Midwest district manager at Veolia Water Technologies. Notable in this position was his responsibility for supporting a sales/ service team with business development and customer account management.

“We are very excited to have Matt join the AP Tech team. Matt’s experience in water treatment and chemistry will help APTech better serve its partners, focused on value-added support,” said AP Tech Group’s managing director, Matt Horine.

Matt is a graduate of the University of Illinois and holds a bachelor of science degree in chemical engineering along with a master’ degree in business administration.

Evan Sturm joined AP Tech by fulfilling the technical sales specialist role. “Evan expands our technical capabilities for optimizing programs that already use solids, helping partners determine if making the switch from a liquid program to a solid chemistry program is right for their customers, and boosting liquid programs with complimentary solid sticks,” said Matt Horine, AP Tech managing director.

Evan supports partners as they research their customer’s needs and helps them recommend the most efficient and effective water treatment program. He consults on products, equipment, applications, and individual water treatment situations.

Evan regularly seeks input from distributors in the field about what challenges they face and where AP Tech can help. He conducts trainings on solid chemistry products and consults on where solids are best used and the best practices for using them. He conducts business reviews to help water treatment professionals optimize and strengthen programs.

“Prior to joining AP Tech, I had seen solids in the field and was curious. I had been in a lot of situations where I wished I had a product like AP Tech’s solids. I often had to carry 5-gallon pails of liquid chemistry because there was no way of getting bulky and cumbersome 30-gallon drums where I needed them. The 5-gallon pails were the only option, but the systems were big enough that they required the pails to be swapped out every few days. So, if you don’t have an attentive staff who is properly trained to handle hazardous liquids, you won’t have an effective program.”

Evan continues, “Having a product that consolidates all of your active ingredients into a solid product makes your entire water treatment program have a smaller footprint. continued on page 51

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Association News

AWT Names 2019 Founder’s Award, Ray Baum Water Technologist of the Year, and Supplier of the Year Award Recipients

AWT presented the Founder’s Award, the Ray Baum Memorial Water Technologist of the Year, and the Supplier of the Year award during the AWT Annual Convention & Exposition’s Reception and Awards Dinner, held September 12 in Palm Springs, California.

Brent Chettle, CWT Emeritus, received the Founder’s Award. Created in 2015 to honor an icon in our industry— Chuck Brandvold—this award recognizes someone who has spent his or her lifetime serving AWT, water treatment companies, and our industry. In addition to being an AWT past president and a Ray Baum Memorial Water Technologist of the Year recipient, Brent helped create the CWT program and write the very first CWT exam. He continues to advise on the current exam and, even in retirement, is a very active AWT volunteer, not only serving on the Certification Committee but also creating resources for the industry.

John Zibrida, president at ZIBEX, Inc., was awarded the prestigious Ray Baum Memorial Water Technologist of the Year, established to recognize entrepreneurial spirit and outstanding contributions to the field of water treatment and for service to AWT and its members. John has been a member of AWT for many years and, during that time, has served as chair of the Boiler Subcommittee and produced many technical papers and resources for AWT. Zibex was the 2005 recipient of the AWT Supplier of the Year award.

HC Info received the Supplier of the Year award.

Founded in 1995 by its president, Matt Freije, the company provides LAMPS, a cloud-based application for water management plans used to reduce the risk of Legionella and other pathogens in hospitals, nursing homes, hotels, commercial buildings, etc. in compliance with CMS, ASHRAE Standard 188, and New York Legionella requirements.

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“Winners like Brent, John, and HC Info exemplify the best in our industry,“ said Heidi Zimmerman, CAE, executive director of AWT. “We are delighted and proud to call them AWT members, and we thank each of them for their dedication and service to the field of water treatment.”

First AWT Silent Charity Auction a Success

At the 2019 Annual Convention in Palm Springs, California, AWT held its very first silent auction benefiting the association’s charity partner, Pure Water for the World (PWW). With more than 50 items donated by more than 25 donors, AWT was able to raise more than $20,000 that will go to creating sustainable clean water solutions to underserved communities.

In addition to the auction, AWT members contributed individual donations through the golf tournament as well as at the PWW booth. All together, donations totaled a record-breaking $29,872. Because of these efforts, AWT will be sponsoring its very own community in Honduras.

This is a high-need area where the drinking water can often come from rainwater in puddles. Thanks to AWT, this community will be able to set up proper filtration systems and create long-term sanitation solutions that will reduce disease and promote overall heath to the population. Updates on these efforts will be provided throughout the year.

Get Involved When you give to PWW, you will be recognized for your contribution. With giving levels beginning at less than $100 all the way up to more than $2,500, there are new AWT benefits to giving. For more information on these levels, please visit the AWT charity website at www.awt.org/charity.

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Association News continued

A big thank you to everyone who bid on an item, as well as all of our donors: Advantage Controls AMSA, Inc. AP Tech Group AquaPhoenix Scientific Bio-Source, Inc. Brenntag North America Carlon Meter, Inc. CDG Environmental, LLC

French Creek Software HC Info Pulsafeeder Kevin Cope Marlo, Inc. Masters Company, Inc. McGowan Insurance Group Omni Louisville

Stenner Pump Company Pure Water for the World Pyxis Lab, Inc. QualiChem, Inc. Quantrol, Inc. Radical Polymers Solid State Technologies, LLC

Taylor Technologies Vector Industries Inc. Walchem Water Science Technologies

The Charity Task Force will be working throughout the year on supporting continuing efforts, so if you are interested in participating, please contact Sara Wood at swood@awt.org.

See pages 8–9 for more information on the silent auction and new PWW communities.

Industry Notes continued

It’s easier to handle and easier to implement. I really believe solids deserve broader adoption and traction in the water treatment market place.”

Prior to joining AP Tech, Evan gained field experience as a water and energy manager focusing on product

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implementation, equipment diagnoses and trouble-shooting, and installing and repairing equipment.

Evan holds a mechanical engineering degree from the University of Cincinnati.

For more information, visit www.aptechgroup.com.

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Membership Benefits

AWT provides a plethora of resources to help its members learn and stay informed about issues that affect the water treatment industry. Those resources include training, complimentary webinars, certification, publications, The Exchange, regulatory updates, and committee generated technical resources.

AWT’s focus is on value to its members; providing useful resources is the first step to our success. That said, if members don’t take full advantage of them, then they are not receiving the biggest bang from their membership buck!

As we approach our new dues year, please take a moment to visit the AWT Members Only page at https://www.awt. org/members_only/ Make yourself familiar with all member benefits, especially those you may have missed or forgotten you have access to.

Biofilm Collection Tool Resources

The amazing work of the Cooling Subcommittee from its year-long biofilm device study is now on the AWT Members Only page.

Practical Field Use of Biofilm Collection and Analysis Tools Paper This report provides information on the passive monitoring devices used to collect biofilm for analysis and the methods used to sample and quantify biofilm collected with the monitoring devices. The report presents data collected by four experienced water treatment professionals during a six-month monitoring program, along with a thorough discussion of the data. Perhaps most importantly, the report provides an assessment by the participants of their experience with the monitoring devices, the analytical methods, and the additional effort (and cost) required to incorporate biofilm monitoring into their regular monitoring programs.

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Microbiological Monitoring Methods Reference Tool The AWT Microbiological Monitoring Methods Reference listing was prepared by the Microbiological Monitoring Methods Task Group. The listing provides supportive information on three broad categories of monitoring platforms, describing various tools and relevant supplier information. The reader can view and gain information about available tests for measuring biocide residuals, field tests used to monitor microbial activity, and supportive laboratory services. Entries made are for methods available to monitor cooling, process cooling, or chilled waters.

These resources and many others can be found on the Members Only section of the AWT website at https:// www.awt.org/members_only/cooling_resources.cfm.

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Making a Splash

John D. Caloritis, CWT The Metro Group, Inc. Technical Director

What prompted you to start volunteering at AWT? Our company has roots back to the beginning of AWT. By the time I started in 1983, I was the beneficiary of much insight, technology, and knowledge—passed along through other members of our firm.

So, it wasn’t necessary for me to get directly involved back then. Still, over the years, I spent far too much time “sitting on the sidelines,” only volunteering occasionally.

Fear is really what held me back. I was always concerned about the amount of time that might be consumed in AWT, leaving less time for my employer.

What really changed it for me, however, was observing colleagues operate during my routine involvement on the Cooling Water Subcommittee. After a few months, it became completely clear that the work I would be volunteering to do for AWT would also directly benefit my employer as well as the rest of the industry. I came to see directly that committee work so often overlaps the issues we wrestle with daily.

What better place to tackle the issues at hand? Being on a committee doesn’t mean we have to have all (or any) of the answers. In fact, nobody does. It is reassuring to realize that other members also have the same questions, concerns and opportunities in their businesses. Often a project becomes a chance to collaborate, learn, and contribute—with everyone working from a blank slate.

It can be a platform to create something larger than you might be able to alone.

Why would you encourage others to volunteer?

Volunteering produces many important outcomes. The water treatment business is phenomenal on multiple levels. Where else can a person compete and consult using the combined scientific disciplines of chemistry, biology, physics, engineering, and human relations all at the same time? When you begin to volunteer, the 53

expertise in each of these areas is shared overwhelmingly and openly by some of the greatest minds in the business.

But we all have different talents and ways to contribute.

Giving back by volunteering a portion of our time also breaks down barriers, allows us to start new friendships, and can even bring a greater sense of meaning to the individual. It connects us to the industry we love on a different level.

Finally, volunteering provides the opportunity to identify areas of need within the industry. If you have a problem, chances are you are not alone. So, it places people into a direct feedback mechanism and allows the volunteer to shape issues, define problems, and especially contribute to solving them (or add value to something already under way).

The more people contribute, the louder AWT’s voice will be. My advice would be not to wait—get on a committee and raise your hand for any task that has a need. You probably won’t have to raise it more than once though.

Tell us about current projects your committee is working on.

The Cooling Water Subcommittee has several interesting projects actively percolating here in 2019, some of which were highlighted during the Learning Lounge in Palm Springs. Here are a few of the active work groups and projects underway: Biofilm Monitoring Technique Comparison Demystifying Online Instrumentation Microbiological Monitoring Methods Listing Shared Water Treatment—Program Control Responsibilities Biocide Use Survey

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Making a Splash continued

Each of these projects was built from either a need expressed directly by a member or was readily surfaced through a brainstorming session. Committee members have a both a voice and a forum to work on priorities for the industry.

What is a past project you worked on that you feel has had the greatest impact on AWT and why?

Over the past few years, I was a contributing member of the Legionella Task Force. That group’s work led to the relaunch of Legionella 2019: A Position Statement and Guidance Document, intended to be the primary source of all relevant information on this all-important subject.

Much had changed since the original 2003 document, and the AWT board felt strongly that this work needed special focus and attention. It could be argued that this document is one the most relevant and necessary resources for AWT companies and their clients. The members of that task force are a world-class group, and I was humbled to participate as one of the firms offering perspective from the WTSC point of view.

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the Analyst Volume 26 Number 4

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CWT Spotlight Craig Bodenmiller, CWT

Water Treatment Division Manager.

Technical Resources Group

What prompted you to obtain your CWT and when did you begin the process by taking the test?

After joining the Association of Water Technologies a few years ago, I attended my first AWT technical training seminar, then the annual convention, and began listening to the Scaling Up podcasts. Hearing from other CWTs about how challenging the exam is and what the certification has done for their career was the biggest motivator for me. I am someone who likes to set goals for myself, and I work tirelessly to achieve them, whether it is in my personal or professional life. It was at that time, I purchased the Technical Training Manual and really started to dedicate my spare time to preparing for the CWT examination.

What advice would you give those thinking about taking the exam?

The best advice that I was given, and that I would recommend to those wanting to become a CWT, is to schedule the exam. Whether it is three or 12 months down the road, pick a date and get the examination on your calendar. Knowing when I was scheduled to take the examination made it easier for me to buckle down and really start preparing for it. Also, I would recommend purchasing the Technical Training Manual and attending the technical training seminar. There is a lot of valuable information that can be obtained from both of those, and at the technical training seminars, there are so many experts in the field that are willing to give their time to answer any other questions you may have.

How did you prepare for the test?

I prepared for the test by purchasing the Technical Training Manual and going through it section by section.

I read the same section several times before moving on to make sure that I fully understood the content. I found that the best time to do this was before going to the training seminars. This allowed me to write down questions that I had and gave me the opportunity to ask experts in the industry, which I found to be very helpful.

The AWT online library and water treatment modules were also a great resource for me.

Why do you feel this credential was important to have?

I felt becoming a CWT was important, because I think that it shows your current and potential customers that you have the knowledge and work ethic to provide them with the best service possible. This certification was also important to me, because I have a Class III potable water certification as well; I feel that the more certifications I can obtain in the field of water and wastewater treatment, the more opportunities it will provide for our company and myself. Achieving my CWT has enhanced my self-confidence tremendously.

What has been your greatest professional accomplishment?

Passing the CWT examination and receiving the news from Angela Pike, congratulating me on becoming a CWT has been the greatest professional accomplishment so far for me in my young career. The examination was very difficult, as advertised; therefore, it was great to see that all of the studying I had been doing over the past few years paid off.

Congratulations to Our Newest CWTs Please join us in congratulating the latest individuals to become CWTs (July 25, 2019–November 5, 2019) Stephen Anderson, CWT, Nashville Chemical & Equipment John Dunford, CWT, Bond Water Technologies, Inc. James Jackson, CWT, Guardian-IPCO, Inc. Louis Koenig, CWT, Merton Consulting LLC

Travis Marks, CWT, Guardian CSC Chris Olson, CWT, Earthwise Environmental, Inc. Amy Pollock, CWT, Chemtron Corporation Eric Yandell, CWT, Weas Engineering, Inc.

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T.U.T.O.R.

Technical Updates, Tips, or Reviews

What Is Electrodeionization (EDI)?

By Wes Byrne, Purewatercloud LLC

This article promotes electrodeionization (EDI) as a legitimate way to purify water when appropriately applied. It is meant to assist those who might be unfamiliar with the technology and might otherwise wonder whether a box/cylinder with an attached electrical cord is some sort of gimmick.

There was once a gag gift called an electric hammer that simply had an electrical cord attached to a standard hammer. To confuse unknowing viewers, a knowing person would plug the hammer into an electrical outlet at which point he would vigorously shake the hammer, thus giving others the illusion of it being self-propelled. The viewers would then be tempted to try out this automated hammer only to be embarrassed at their gullibility.

When EDI units are powered up, they do actually remove dissolved salts. This article will address how well the EDI systems remove the salts, under what conditions, and whether this removal will continue reliably over a lengthy period of time without extensive maintenance.

The imbalance between positively and negatively charged ions in the region around each of the electrodes causes ions to migrate in and out of that region as necessary to maintain a charge balance, which affects ions in the region immediately adjacent and so on until the charge can be balanced at the two electrodes and everywhere between. Positively charged cations (like the sodium ion, Na+) will migrate to the region of high-hydroxide ion concentration at the cathode, while negatively charged anions (like the chloride ion, Cl-) will migrate to the region of high-hydrogen ion concentration at the anode.

This movement of ions completes the electrical circuit and can only occur in normal electrolysis if there are dissolved salts in the water to assist with the movement of charge. Figure 1 demonstrates how the creation of hydroxide and hydrogen ions drives the migration of ions between the anode and cathode.

Figure 1: The creation of hydroxide ions at the cathode and hydrogen ions at the anode drives the migration of ions between electrodes.

EDI Development

EDI technology developed from electrodialysis reversal (EDR). Both are driven by electrolysis, where two electrodes are given opposite electrical charge in creating an electrolytic cell. The direct current (DC) voltage difference between the electrodes is sufficient to split water molecules apart at each electrode. At the negatively charged cathode (opposite charge association from that of a battery), electrons are passed to the water molecules to enable the formation of hydrogen gas (H 2) and alkaline hydroxide ions (OH-). Equation 1 illustrates how the cathode impacts water chemistry. At the positively charged anode, electrons are pulled from water molecules, resulting in the formation of oxygen gas (O2) and acidic hydrogen ions (H+). Equation 2 shows the effect an anode will have on water chemistry.

Cathode: 4H 2O + 4e- ďƒ 2H 2 + 4OH-

Eq. 1

Anode: 2H 2O ďƒ O2 + 4H+ + 4e

Eq. 2

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the Analyst Volume 26 Number 4

T.U.T.O.R. continued

Polymeric membranes can be inserted between the electrodes to direct the ion movement into chambers. These membrane sheets are manufactured to have the same charged functional groups attached to their backbone polymers as ion-exchange resin beads. This means that one type of membrane sheet can have strong-acid cation functionality, while another can have strong-base anion functionality.

When these two types of membrane sheets are alternately inserted between the two electrodes, contaminant ions will be directed out of one chamber, resulting in this chamber water (called the dilute or product chamber) becoming increasingly pure, while the adjacent chambers collect ions and increase in their salt concentrations, and so are called the concentrate chambers. A set consisting of a product/dilute chamber, a cation sheet, a concentrate chamber, and an anion sheet is called a cell pair, or simply a cell. The more of these cells that are between the electrodes, the less current that is required for the electrodialysis process to occur, although it also results in the need for increased voltage across the unit. Figure 2 shows what an EDR cell pair might look like and how the electrically charged membranes direct the movement of ionic contaminants from the dilute to the concentrate and electrode chambers.

Figure 2: Ions are directed by charged membrane sheets from the product/dilute chambers into the concentrate and electrode chambers. A set comprising a concentrate and a dilute chamber with their membrane sheets would define one cell or cell pair.

“This movement of ions completes the electrical circuit and can only occur if there are dissolved salts in the water�

As the water in the product/dilute chambers becomes more pure, fewer ions are available to carry the electrical charge across those chambers. This creates more electrical resistance until it potentially reaches a point where there is insufficient voltage to be able to continue the movement of ions out of the dilute/product chambers. This limits EDR systems to producing water that still may contain several hundred parts per million total dissolved solids (TDS).

EDR as a water purification technology may compete in some ways with reverse osmosis (RO) technology in the basic removal of dissolved salt, a market that RO has come to dominate. Yet, EDR offers unique capabilities that are applied to various challenging water sources, such as in the further concentration of super-saturated salt solutions.

EDI is similar to EDR technology, but it is able to produce much higher quality product water. By filling the dilute/product chambers with a conductive media, such as ion exchange (IX) resin beads, the electrical resistance across the chamber can be reduced so as to allow the continued movement of trace concentrations of dissolved salts out of the chamber. Contaminants are removed by displacing ions from the charged functional groups on the IX resin.

Internal Water Splitting

Even with the conductive media in the product/dilute chambers, the declining concentration of ions in the chamber will result in the electrical resistance and associated voltage difference across each chamber increasing.

When a sufficient voltage drop has been exceeded, water molecules will split into hydrogen ions (H+) and hydroxide ions (OH-) at a point where cation functionality meets anion functionality. These ions will then continue the transportation of charge through the dilute/product chambers. As they move through the IX resin they may displace contaminant ions, thus regenerating the resin and enabling it to continue removing contaminant ions from the water stream. Figure 3 shows how water molecules split at the cation-anion interfaces of an EDI system.

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T.U.T.O.R. continued

Figure 3: Water molecules split at cation-anion interfaces, creating hydrogen and hydroxide ions that drive ions to migrate in opposite directions via the displacement of other like-charged ions.

Reducing the ion concentration sufficiently to achieve an effluent water conductance of less than 0.06 microsiemens/centimeter (µS/cm) (less than about 0.03 milligrams per liter [mg/L] of dissolved salt) will require that the EDI create a lot of excess hydrogen and hydroxide ions via water splitting within its product/dilute chambers. It is common for the electrical efficiency in the removal of trace contaminants to be as low as 10%—as compared to the current required for normal electrodialysis—when targeting effluent water quality in excess of 18 megohm-cm resistivity (less than 0.056 µS/cm).

All of the contaminant ions removed within the EDI will end up in the concentrate and electrode chambers, along with the excess hydrogen and hydroxide ions, although they enter from opposite sides of a concentrate chamber. The locally high hydroxide ion concentration as it passes through the anion membrane sheet can create a high-pH environment where magnesium hydroxide scale may form, or hardness ions like calcium and magnesium may combine with alkalinity or silica to form other salty scales on the membrane surface.

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EDI Pretreatment

Preventing scale formation requires a limitation on the inlet concentration of hardness ions, alkalinity, and dissolved silica. Particles and suspended solids that might plug the spacing between the IX resin should also be removed from the inlet water. As a minimum, RO is a required pretreatment to an EDI. Depending on the raw water quality, a single-pass RO, where the purified water permeates the membrane a single time, may not necessarily reduce the concentration of these critical contaminants sufficiently to meet the guidelines of the EDI manufacturer. Two-pass RO may be required, where the purified water from the first pass is sent through another RO membrane system. Softening the feedwater or permeate of a single-pass RO may provide an alternative to two-pass RO when the dissolved silica and TDS in the raw water is not particularly high.

Single- or two-pass RO is also needed for reducing the TDS in the EDI inlet water. Excessive TDS may keep the EDI unit from ever achieving the water purity within its product/dilute chambers that is needed to reach the electrical resistance and voltage drop to split water molecules. This splitting has to occur for the EDI to produce higher purity effluent water.

EDI Internal Regions

In the entry end of the product/dilute chamber, the TDS may be high enough for ions to migrate out of the chambers simply driven by the polarity at the electrodes, as in normal electrodialysis. In this region, no water splitting occurs, and the IX resin has ions attached to its charged sites as opposed to hydrogen and hydroxide ions.

As the water passes further through the chamber and the concentration of ions declines, only then might the resistance and associated voltage across the chambers become sufficiently high for water splitting to occur as needed to “regenerate” the IX resin.

With anion resin now in the hydroxide form, dissolved carbon dioxide (CO2) and its associated carbonic acid (H 2CO3) will react with the hydroxide to form bicarbonate ion (HCO3-) on the resin. The bicarbonate ion is then displaced by hydroxide ions created by water splitting, and the bicarbonate will migrate out of the dilute/product chamber by displacing other ions attached to the functional groups on the IX resin. It then migrates through the membrane sheet into the concentrate the Analyst Volume 26 Number 4

T.U.T.O.R. continued

What Can Go Wrong?

chamber by displacing the ions attached to the functional groups within the membrane sheet.

Most of the hydroxide ions created in this initial region of water splitting will be consumed in regenerating this newly created bicarbonate ion from the resin. Deeper into the product/dilute chamber, enough anion resin will be present in the hydroxide form to create local areas of sufficiently high pH to remove poorly charged anions, like dissolved silica (i.e., silicic acid), boron (i.e., boric acid), and organic acids.

Achieving higher purity effluent water from the EDI requires that the feedwater contain low concentrations of both dissolved salts and dissolved carbon dioxide so that there is a sufficiently large region of highly regenerated resin. This then means that the EDI effluent quality may be related to the influent concentration of dissolved salts and CO2, at least until the effluent quality approaches 18 megohm-cm resistivity. This quality potential as well as the relationship with inlet salt concentration and CO2 relative to flowrate will be different for each of the EDI manufacturers and their models. In Figure 4, we see an illustration of an EDI’s initial region, known as the “working bed.” Here, enough residual ions need to be removed for water splitting to occur in the “polishing bed” region of the EDI. Figure 4: EDI initial region referred to as the “working bed,” where sufficient residual ions must be removed for water splitting to occur in the “polishing bed” region.

A well-designed and maintained EDI system may operate for years without problems, although the cells and other components will eventually need replacement as the IX components approach 10 years in age.

Below are five of the more common EDI problems: 1. Maintaining the correct pretreatment of the water entering the EDI system is critical to minimizing its maintenance requirements. If hardness, dissolved silica, alkalinity and carbon dioxide are all within the guidelines of the manufacturer, and if the EDI stack is operated with a nominal product flowrate and a nominal recovery (typically 90 to 95%), the potential for scale formation is low. However, the current/voltage setting should also be nominally set, as based on the manufacturer’s recommendations. Excessive current generation may result in an excessive concentration of hydroxide ions passing through an anion membrane sheet into the concentrate chamber, where they can potentially contribute to scale formation.

2. If chlorine should get through the RO pretreatment into the RO system, it is likely that chlorine will also pass through the RO membrane into the permeate and on into the EDI system. Free chlorine is not rejected by the RO membrane, and the rejection of chloramines is fairly low, 75% or less, depending on pH. It can be said that the EDI is as sensitive to free chlorine as the RO membrane, and even more sensitive than RO to chloramines. The chloramines will break down into free chlorine that will damage the anion resin and membrane sheets.

3. If sodium bisulfite is excessively being injected into the RO feed stream, it will react with dissolved oxygen in the water and create an environment conducive to heavy slime formation from anaerobic bacterial activity. This will carry through to the concentrate chambers within the EDI units.

“A well-designed and maintained EDI system may operate for years without problems.”

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T.U.T.O.R. continued

4. To minimize the concentration of carbon dioxide that is entering the EDI stacks, it is a common practice to raise the water pH prior to an upstream RO pass using caustic injection. How well this is performed can have a significant impact on EDI performance. If there is a break tank between the RO and the EDI system that is open to the atmosphere with no nitrogen blanket, carbon dioxide will absorb back into the water while it sits within this storage tank. If the caustic injection system should dump caustic into the RO when it shuts down and the line pressure is relieved, this will result in slugs of high-pH permeate water passing into the tank.

The higher pH water in the tank will then have an increased ability to absorb carbon dioxide because more of it will convert into the bicarbonate ion. This may overload the EDI units with bicarbonate ion and dissolved carbon dioxide.

5. Water must be continually flowing through every chamber of an EDI stack while it is under power.

Any obstruction that might prevent the water flow in any chamber can result in fairly rapid overheating of the water within the chamber, potentially resulting in a meltdown of its plastics. The system should be protected from these events with low-flow alarms and interlocked power disengagement features. If there are numerous stacks plumbed for parallel operation, it would be best to have individual stack flow sensors and alarm systems to protect against the potential for the flow rates to get out of balance between the parallel stacks.

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Closing Thought

All of the preceding problems can be prevented with the correct design and operation of the EDI system and its pretreatment. It can therefore be summarized that EDI is a viable technology for removing low-concentrations of dissolved salts. In the next tutorial article on EDI, the optimum application of EDI as well as its monitoring and maintenance will be addressed.

Wes Byrne is president of Purewatercloud LLC. He has 40 years of RO and high-purity water treatment experience and authored the book Reverse Osmosis, A Practical Guide for Industrial Users (2nd edition, 2002, Tall Oaks Ventures LLC). Purewatercloud LLC provides consulting, online training and training seminars, membrane cleaning, software development, and RO monitoring products to support the needs of RO, UF, IX, and EDI manufacturers and end users. Mr. Byrne may be reached at WesByrne@purewatercloud.com or visit his website.

the Analyst Volume 26 Number 4

T.U.T.O.R. continued

A Review of Plastic Piping for Water Handling and Treatment

By David A. Seiler Sr., Eugene Alpin, and Robert Lowrie, Arkema Inc.

Plastic piping for industrial applications has made great strides since Chasis (1) wrote the first and second editions of Plastic Piping Systems, found in university libraries in the 1980s. Chasis wrote that “plastic pipe, fittings, and valves are capable of handling 65% to 70% of all industrial applications in this market, but yet, there are less than 5% of dollar volume purchases of plastic pipes, valves, and fittings.”

Probably to the happiness of that author, the situation has changed, and in 2019, due to the understanding of materials by good engineers, plastic pipe is now considered in just about every application where it is appropriate. In fact, it is a common thought process by chemical and mechanical engineers that when a water-handling system is being designed, before considering piping materials of construction, one should first investigate and “rule out” plastics as an option before considering non-plastic materials (2).

Plastics afford the user the following potential benefits: Light weight Ease of joining Multiple methods of joining Easily cut Reduction of sharp edges No rusting Abrasion resistant Corrosion resistant Ability to clean with multiple disinfectants Reduced coefficient of friction for design Potential cost savings Ability to 3-D print for emergency repair

reinforced plastic (FRP) are also used for water-handling systems, but they are fabricated in a much different manner and would be a subject of a report in itself.

Plastic piping systems can be joined by several methods.

Each method exists because there is some kind of advantage, whether it is cost of installation, ease of installation, mechanical integrity, dimensional needs, code/regulation/standard requirements, fluid flow requirements, system purity requirements, or ability to disassemble (3).

As it relates to water processing, the needs could span from high-purity process water (microelectronics and biotech) to consumable water (potable water and food processing), to industrial water (wastewater, cleaning water, commercial water, laboratory water), to residential and municipal water. Each application has a special need that could lead to a different plastic preference for each industry segment, or even special niches for certain types of plastic piping and joining methods within the same industry segment. Figures 1 through 5 show various types of thermoplastic piping products and examples of installation of plastic piping for containing and moving industrial water.

Figure 1: High-purity water system made with PVDF resin.

Photo courtesy of Simtech USA.

There are many types of plastics used to make piping systems, and there are many types of applications for water handling if we define this as “fluid processes that contain at least 80% water.” To further frame the limits of this discussion, the focus will be on thermoplastic systems where the plastic used can be injection molded, extruded, welded, and even fully reprocessed to make final components. Thermoset plastics such as fiberglass 62

the Analyst Volume 26 Number 4

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T.U.T.O.R. continued

Thermoplastic Materials

Often within the same construction project, there will be a preference for several types of thermoplastic piping materials. This is because there will often be several different issues related to chemical resistance, temperature limits, sunlight exposure, and even criticality of the process within the system. To this point, the requirements of a condensation drain pipe system will often be less stringent than a pressurized pipe system that undergoes bleach cleaning followed by hot water or even steam.

In other cases, a drain system could require the most robust plastic material because it could end up handling a combination of many chemicals, experience exothermic reactions as these chemicals combine with water, and may need to pass certain flame and smoke requirements if it is in a contained area that is hard to access (4).

Figure 2: Buried polypropylene drain piping system at food plant. Photo courtesy of Simtech USA.

Polyvinylchloride (PVC): This category includes pigmented PVC and clear PVC. Illustration 3 shows the chemical makeup of PVC. Illustration 3.

Polypropylene (PP): This category includes homopolymers and copolymers of polypropylene and glassfilled polypropylene. The chemical makeup is seen in Illustration 4.

Illustration 4.

Based on the above, the leading suppliers of plastic piping systems will generally offer a range of materials. That range will often include three or more of the following polymers:

Chlorinated PVC (CPVC): CPVC is similar to PVC but has additional chlorine content, giving it the ability to withstand higher temperatures (Illustration 5).

Illustration 5.

Polyethylene (PE): This category includes low-density PE (LDPE), high-density PE (HDPE), and crosslinked PE (PEX). They are shown in Illustrations 1 and 2.

Illustration 1.

Illustration 2.

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the Analyst Volume 26 Number 4

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T.U.T.O.R. continued

Polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF): This category includes PVDF homopolymer and vinylidene fluoride–hexafluoropropylene copolymers. Illustration 6 shows the chemical makeup of PVDF. Illustration 6.

Many other less common plastic piping systems are used to handle water for various applications, all with good reason. It is not the intent to ignore these products, but these plastics are not as prominently offered in complete systems of piping, fittings, valves, and pumps.

This article will not discuss the following thermoplastic piping materials: acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene (ABS); polybutylene (PB); various specialty fluoropolymers (ECTFE, ETFE, FEP, PFA, PTFE); acrylics (PMMA); polyamides; polyphenyl sulfide (PPS); and polyaryletherketones (PAEK).

Explanation of Common Piping System Materials

PE is a thermoplastic polymer that has a great amount of technology behind it. PE plastic pipe and fittings materials are defined by ASTM D4976. PE as a class of polymer is mass produced in very high quantities for all kinds of applications, including pipe. In fact, PE is the single largest volume polymer produced worldwide at 84 million tons per year (5).

Several global manufacturers offer different versions of this product that vary in temperature resistance, chemical resistance, strength, and other qualities. Polyethylene is broken down into high-density polyethylene (HDPE), medium-density polyethylene (MDPE), low-density polyethylene (LDPE), linear low-density polyethylene (LLDPE), ultrahigh molecular weight polyethylene (UHMWPE), and cross-linked polyethylene (PEX).

This product family is known to be low cost, lightweight, easy and safe to fabricate, and ductile. Polyethylene stands up to mild water contact reliably up to 60 °C and arguably up to 80 °C with modifications.

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“PVC, at 20 °C, is known to have good physical strength and chemical resistance to water, acids, salts, bases, alcohols, and oils.”

PVC is the most common polymer used for plastic piping. PVC is defined by ASTM D1784. PVC is well known for its use in chemical drain pipes, wastewater treatment, chilled and cooling tower water, water distribution, and irrigation sprinkler systems. PVC, at 20 °C, is known to have good physical strength and chemical resistance to water, acids, salts, bases, alcohols, and oils. It is known to have resistance issues with non-ionic surfactants, organic chemicals, aromatics, and chlorinated hydrocarbons. These issues can happen quite quickly with concentrated exposure. This thermoplastic can be compliant with food contact regulations.

PVC piping is generally limited to a maximum 60 °C service temperature (6). It can be offered in a clear piping product for applications where seeing the fluid stream is important.

PP is considered to have excellent chemical resistance for the cost of the material. PP is defined in ASTM D4101. PP is a standard material in wastewater drainage systems, and while it is flammable, there are some versions that can be flame suppressed. This is called flame retardant polypropylene (FR-PP). It is offered in a homopolymer that is considered the most chemically resistant and as a copolymer that is considered the most ductile. PP is chemically resistant to water, acids, bases, salts, and solvents. PP is known to have resistance issues to oxidizers and bleach, very strong acids, and brominated water over time. PP can be compliant with food contact regulations. The use of this piping material is generally limited to a maximum of 80 °C service temperature. However, it can be glass filled for higher temperature use in molded valves. PP is not highly resistant to UV but can be offered in black color for longterm outdoor use (6).

CPVC is a polymer created by the post-chlorination of PVC polymer. CPVC is defined in ASTM D1784.

This thermoplastic is largely compared to PVC but with a higher overall use temperature to 100 °C and slightly broader chemical resistance. CPVC is well known to be the Analyst Volume 26 Number 4

T.U.T.O.R. continued

“PVDF piping is generally limited to

Figure 3 shows a plenum-rated acid waste drainage pipe made from a PVDF fluoropolymer material, while Figure 4 shows PVDF used in a semiconductor application.

a maximum of 150 °C in short-term applications and 140 °C for continuous-

Figure 3: Plenum rated acid waste drainage pipe made from a PVDF fluoropolymer. Photo courtesy of Arkema Inc.

use temperature.” used for fire sprinkler systems and hot water distribution in housing construction. It is considered resistant to hot water, acids, salts, bases, and most oils. Like PVC, CPVC is known to have resistance issues with non-ionic surfactants, organic chemicals, ketones, and aromatics.

CPVC can be compliant with food contact regulations.

An advantage over PVC is that CPVC systems can be designed for slightly elevated temperature application with fewer supports (6).

PVDF is a polymer classified as a fluoropolymer. PVDF is defined in ASTM D3222, and PVDF copolymer is defined in ASTM D5575. PVDF is generally an upgrade in performance range and cost compared to the other polymers already mentioned. PVDF is a standard piping material used in the semiconductor industry for the highest purity deionized water, in the biotech industry as a pure material able to stand up to steam and aggressive cleaning solutions, and in chemical waste pipe applications where ASTM E84 (25/50) unmodified testing is required for building safety in plenums and concealed spaces.

Figure 4: High-purity valves and fittings used in semiconductor piping systems. Photo courtesy of Georg Fischer.

In these applications, PVDF has replaced glass or stainless steel as the first material of choice. PVDF is very chemically resistant and is almost universally resistant to solutions that are largely water in concentration. In pressure systems under strain, some issues exist with strong bases of pH 12 or greater. Additionally, while PVDF is virtually unaffected by sunlight for tens of years at a time, in the containment of chlorinated liquids, it needs to be protected from sunlight so that the UV does not pass through the PVDF and create free radical chlorine ions that are highly aggressive to the pipe. PVDF can be compliant with food contact regulations. PVDF piping is generally limited to 150 °C short-term application and 140 °C continuous-use temperature.

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T.U.T.O.R. continued

Table A lists the physical and mechanical characteristics of the most popular thermoplastic piping materials. The properties are tested at either 23 °C or 26 °C and are used in conjunction with a derating factor shown in Table B. The reader should keep in mind that in the case of each of these generic polymer families, many manufacturers use multiple manufacturing processes, and the properties and claims can change. Individuals well-versed in polymer science know quite well that improving one specific property to a maximum value will often reduce the preferred performance of another property.

With this in mind, Table A and Table B cross-reference several publications to give general numbers that can vary significantly from manufacturer to manufacturer. However, the authors believe that the tables offer a useful guide to match up the key differences in the thermoplastic piping materials discussed in this article.

Table A: Physical and Mechanical Characteristics of Select Thermoplastic Piping Materials

Physical Property Specific gravity Water absorption (% in 24 hr at 73 °F (23 °C) Tensile strength (psi at 78 °F [26 °C]) Flexural strength (psi at 73 °F [23 °C]) Izod impact strength (ft-lb/in notch) Coefficient of thermal expansion (in/in/°F x 105) Thermal conductivity (BTU/hr/ft2/°F/in) Maximum recommended continuous use temperature (°C)

Test Method (ASTM) D-792 D-570 D-638 D-790 D-256 D-696

PE 0.95 0.03 3,300 3,000 7.0 7.8

PVC 1.38 0.05 7,200 14,500 0.7 3.0

PP 0.91 0.10 5,000 6,000 2.1 5.5

CPVC 1.55 0.05 8,000 15,350 3.0 3.8

PVDF 1.78 0.03 7,500 10,000 3.8 7.0

C-177 --

7.0 60

0.7 60

2.1 80

3.0 100

3.8 150

Table B: Temperature Correction Factors for Pressure Rating of Thermoplastic Piping Materials

Operating Temperature (°C) 20 30 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 80 90 100 105 120 130 140

PVC 1.00 0.80 0.60 0.48 0.39 0.29 0.22 N/R N/R N/R N/R N/R N/R N/R N/R N/R

PE 1.00 0.90 0.78 0.73 0.68 0.62 0.40 0.20 N/R N/R N/R N/R N/R N/R N/R N/R

PEX 1.00 0.90 0.87 0.85 0.81 0.79 0.76 0.72 0.70 0.60 0.50 N/R N/R N/R N/R N/R

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PP 1.00 0.88 0.72 0.65 0.57 0.50 0.40 0.38 0.36 0.25 0.12 0.10 N/R N/R N/R N/R

CPVC 1.00 0.90 0.75 0.70 0.63 0.56 0.50 0.44 0.38 0.27 0.20 0.18 N/R N/R N/R N/R

the Analyst Volume 26 Number 4

PVDF 1.00 0.90 0.80 0.75 0.70 0.65 0.60 0.58 0.55 0.48 0.42 0.38 0.35 0.29 0.25 0.20

T.U.T.O.R. continued

Standards

Each of these plastic materials has specific standards for types of piping and even for joining methods. It is useful to refer to those standards to understand suggested requirements for the performance of the plastic and the fabrication and sizing requirements, and for the type of service (e.g., hot/cold, chemical exposure, above-ground/ underground applications). The American Society of Testing Materials (ASTM), the American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME), the Plastic Pipe Institute (PPI), and the National Sanitation Foundation (NSF) are examples of organizations that develop standards. Several other organizations globally offer published standards and guidelines. The pipe manufacturers are usually able to assist in making recommendations to suitable standards, as they have to be familiar with these documents in order to mark their pipes and other fluid handling components accurately.

End-User Applications

Each polymer piping material has a place in the water industry, depending on the specific application. Table C provides an overview in simple terms where each material may best fit. This includes the benefits and the inadequacies of each material.

In general with engineering design, one would start with the least expensive potential piping system and check off the boxes to design if the plastic material can be used for the application. Some of the process conditions or installation methods can be redesigned if necessary to meet budget, or to allow the use of a preferred material, based on other important conditions. Done properly, this is a very long list and is worth pointing out some of the most obvious considerations:

must be compatible with these treatments for a desired lifetime.

Mechanical strength: The material must meet the pressure ratings at the temperatures expected as well as at upset conditions. If it does not, there is a possibility to use composites or polymer lining of FRP or metal to increase the use temperature of the polymer system.

Ductility: The material must have properties that conform to stresses that may be imparted on the system.

Expansion/contraction, bending, water hammer, and the pipe’s ability to withstand potential impact are considerations that must be taken into account when selecting a particular piping material.

Processability: Welding considerations, joining considerations, and machining guidelines must be considered.

PVC and CPVC are the most effective thermoplastic systems if gluing is preferred.

Permeation resistance: For underground applications, it is especially important that containment of contaminated water is maintained. It is possible to use the concept of double containment for added safety in buried or above ground pipe.

Figure 5: Installation of a polypropylene doublecontainment piping system used for wastewater drainage at a chemical plant. Photo courtesy of Simtech USA.

Price: It cannot be prohibitive to design the system based on an acceptable budget. Price must consider piping material, joining methods, and the expected service life of the piping system.

Temperature range: High and low temperatures must be considered. This includes hot water or steam cleaning as well as freezing temperatures.

Chemical resistance: If the water system has other chemical components for bacteria control and necessary cleaning agents are periodically used, the material 69

Swelling: In long run plastic piping systems, or in pump products, if a particular chemical will swell the material the Analyst Volume 26 Number 4

T.U.T.O.R. continued

of construction, there could be stresses added that prevent optimum operation that could lead to failure.

For example, a 300-foot length of continuous pipe that grows only 3% in length due to swelling is now 309 feet long, but the system is designed to be 300 feet. Such a change would place pressure on anchors designed to hold a 300-foot-long piping system. Likewise, if a thermoplastic pump part is supposed to be 2 inches in diameter but swells 10% due to a chemical compatibility issue, the change can impact pump functioning.

longer life or simple barriers can be used to avoid the UV effects of sunlight.

Abrasion resistance: Slurries of hard particles in water can create wear on a material of construction over time and lead to brittle failure.

Flame and smoke emissions: Certain plastics can be a fuel for a burning fire. There are standards in the industry used to test plastics for flame propagation and smoke development. The need to comply with such standards could require that the plastic material needs other additives to suppress flame or reduce smoke generation.

These additives need to be considered because they could also change the chemical resistance, purity, and mechanical properties of the polymer if used in large amounts.

Exposure to sunlight: Sunlight can degrade plastic piping over time with UV rays and heat generation.

There is a big difference in the performance of certain plastic materials exposed to 5 years of continuous sunlight. In some cases, pipes can be pigmented for a

Purity: Many water applications require extreme purity.

Additives and residual reaction products in a polymer can leach into a pure water stream and create issues with food compliance and taste. Additionally, for high-purity applications like microelectronics, pharmaceuticals, or power generation, such leachables can force shutdown of a production process.

Table C: Review of Plastic Piping Materials Attributes and Applications

Material Best Used in Applications Requiring…

PE • Little to no stresses on the pipe • Low-cost solutions • Ease of fabrication • Low temperature ratings PEX • Little to no stresses on the pipe • Ease of fabrication • Medium temperature ratings • Low temperature ductility PVC • Solvent weldable • Moderate chemical resistance • High-pressure rating at ambient • Low temperature rating CPVC • Solvent weldable • Moderate chemical resistance • High-pressure rating up to moderate temperature • High temperature ratings PP • Reasonably high purity • Good chemical resistance • Medium temperature rating PVDF

• Ultra-high purity • Extreme chemical resistance • Very high temperature ratings • Long-term outdoor exposure • Excellent flame and smoke rating • Abrasion resistance

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Application Examples • Municipal water piping • Potable water handling • Cooling lines • Municipal water piping • Potable water handling • Cooling lines • Basic water filtration • Point-of-use water distribution • Moderate wastewater chemical handling • Hot water handling up to 60 °C • Moderate wastewater handling • Hot-water handling up to 100 °C • High-pressure fluid handling • Biopharmaceutical water handling • Chemical waste drainage piping • Wastewater treatment chemical handling • Hot-water handling up to 80 °C • Semiconductor process water • Biopharmaceutical water for injection • Wastewater treatment chemical handling • Plenum-rated chemical waste drainage piping • Steam sterilization

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T.U.T.O.R. continued

Conclusion

Plastic piping has become very popular for use in handling a variety of water-related applications. The wide range of available plastics allows the designer to cost-effectively cover a complete range of chemical and temperature considerations and purity requirements.

Inexpensive materials like PVC and PE can provide simple solutions for noncritical applications. As the water applications become more challenging in temperature and chemical resistance, PP and CPVC offer good mechanical properties and performance at elevated temperatures. For special applications where the chemicals used in the system are very aggressive or when ultra-high purity is required in the process, then PVDF dominates the engineering decision. In addition, PVDF offers compliance with the most difficult flame and smoke code requirements and is most often chosen in lieu of glass or stainless steel for plenum rated waste systems that use a wide combination of chemicals.

Acknowledgements

The authors would like to acknowledge contributors who were either interviewed or sent written information in order to help with the generation of the information given: Steve Mutton and Peter Kundla of Simtech USA and Tom Sixsmith of Georg Fischer Piping Systems.

Mr. Sixsmith has also authored the book Handbook of Thermoplastic Piping System Design (1997), which was useful in helping to organize the information presented in this article.

References

1. Chasis, D.A. (1988). Plastic Piping Systems, 2nd ed., Industrial Press Inc., New York, NY. 2. Phillips, J.D. (March 2019). “Polymers Used in HCl Absorption”, Corrosion 2019 Proceedings, National Association of Corrosion Engineers, Nashville, TN.

3. Seiler, D.A. (November 1995). “Joining Systems for PVDF: What to Consider?”, CLEANROOMS, pp. 28-31.

4. Carey, J. (April 2012) “Not All Piping Systems Are Created Equal – Lab Waste Systems Should Use Polypropylene and Polyvinylidene Fluoride to Conserve Water”, Water/Waste Processing, pp. 14-16.

5. Dobbin, C. (2017). “An Industrial Chronology of Polyethylene”, Chapter 1 in Handbook of Industrial Polyethylene and Technology, Spalding, M.A., and Chatterjee, A.M., eds., pp. 3-24, Scrivener Publishing, Beverly, MA, and Wiley, New York, NY. 6. Chemtrol® Plastic Piping Handbook (2014). 2014 ed., Nibco, Elkhart, IN.

David A. Seiler received his B.S. in chemical engineering from Penn State University in 1983. He is employed by Arkema Inc. as the Americas Business Manager Industrial / Global Advisor Fluoropolymers, and has worked in the area of fluoropolymers for 36 years, polyamides for 24 years, and polyarylketones for two years. Mr. Seiler is currently a voting committee member on the ASME-BPE Polymers Group Sub-Committee, ASTM E—Fire Standards, ASTM F- Piping, and ASTM D- Materials.

Eugene Alpin has been a sales engineer for Arkema within its Technical Polymers Division for more than 3.5 years. Mr. Alpin graduated in 2016 with a B.S. in chemical engineering from Villanova University. He is a member of the American Institute of Chemical Engineers.

Robert Lowrie received his B.S. in chemical engineering from Villanova University in 2017. He works for Arkema Inc. as the Western U.S. sales engineer for the Fluoropolymer Division and was recently recognized by the International Association of Plastics Distribution (IAPD) for completing the IAPD Performance Plastics Level I Certificate Program.

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Capital Eyes

EPA Releases Draft Water Reuse Action Plan

By Janet Kopenhaver

The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) recently released its draft National Water Reuse Action Plan, which seeks to foster greater consideration of water reuse across the water sector. Water reuse can improve the security, sustainability, and resilience of our nation’s water resources through integrated and collaborative water resource planning. This draft plan consists of 46 proposed actions that support consideration and implementation of water reuse applications across 10 strategic objectives. Below are summaries of those actions of most interest to the water treatment industry.

Background

Within the next 10 years, 40 of 50 state water managers expect to face freshwater shortages in their states. In certain situations, water conservation and efficiency measures may not be enough to meet anticipated increases in demand. Water managers and users are increasingly evaluating reuse options to help diversify and extend their supplies.

The major sources of water for potential reuse include municipal wastewater, industry process water and cooling water, and stormwater, among others. National daily volumes from these source waters demonstrate significant reuse potential. However, water generated as discharge from these sectors is largely an untapped resource. For example, municipal wastewater facilities collectively treat an estimated 33 billion gallons per day, most of which is returned to the environment as treated effluent. Only an estimated 2.2 billion gallons per day is recovered for reuse.

The development of the draft Action Plan was guided by the following key principles: protect public health; protect the environment; promote action based on leadership, partnership, and collaboration; build on past 72

progress and experience; identify the most impactful actions; recognize distinct challenges posed by water reuse; consider water reuse in an integrated water resources management framework; and recognize and address state and local considerations.

Water Reuse Potential Through Reuse of Municipal Wastewater The National Research Council of the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering and Medicine completed a comprehensive study of reuse of municipal wastewater in 2012. The following are selected conclusions and recommendations from the study:

Municipal wastewater reuse offers the potential to significantly increase the nation’s total available water resources.

The de facto reuse of wastewater effluent as a water supply is common in many of the nation’s water systems, with some drinking water treatment plants using waters from which a large fraction originated as wastewater effluent from upstream communities.

A portfolio of treatment options, including engineered and managed natural treatment processes, exists to mitigate microbial and chemical contaminants in reclaimed water, facilitating a multitude of process combinations that can be tailored to meet specific water-quality objectives.

Reclamation facilities should develop monitoring and operational plans to respond to variability equipment malfunction and operator error to ensure that reclaimed water meets the appropriate quality standards for its use.

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Capital Eyes continued

Improved coordination among federal and nonfederal entities is important for addressing the long-term research needs related to water reuse.

When assessing risks associated with reclaimed water, the potential for unintended or inappropriate uses should be assessed and mitigated.

municipal and industrial wastewater recycling and stormwater capture projects. This suite of materials could be actively distributed to existing permit writers and inspectors to help foster better understanding of the potential for water reuse.

Guidance and user-friendly risk assessment tools would improve the understanding and application of these risk assessment methods.

Through the Environmental Financial Advisory Board’s Stormwater Infrastructure Funding Workgroup/Task Force, evaluate costs and funding options regarding stormwater capture as part of overall assessments of stormwater program funding needs and opportunities.

Bluefield research forecasts the municipal wastewater reuse segment to total an aggregate $21.5 billion from 2017 to 2027. With an infrastructure investment gap of more than $500 billion for drinking water and wastewater treatment over the next 20 years, wastewater reuse is expected to be a key part of the water supply solution.

Promote the consideration and inclusion of water reuse and stormwater capture and reuse through the Federal Emergency Management Agency’s Hazard Mitigation Grant Program, Pre-Disaster Mitigation Program, and Flood Mitigation Assistance Program projects to reduce long-term risk from natural hazards.

Some Proposed Actions

Compile existing fit-for-purpose specifications for different sources of water for potential reuse and end-use applications to inform water reuse best practices and facilitate broader implementation of reuse projects.

Explicitly recognize the importance of wastewater reuse, stormwater capture, and drinking water supply in the design of integrated water management plans and policies. This should include consideration of financial capacity to implement integrated solutions addressing combined sewer system wastewater, stormwater, and drinking water management needs.

Develop best practices describing how local pretreatment programs can mitigate and reduce problematic pollutants discharged into publicly owned treatment works and enhance reuse opportunities for reclaimed wastewater.

For example, this might involve convening pretreatment program coordinators to compile, share, and advance approaches and strategies for wastewater source control to support water reuse.

Identify, compile, and publicize programs that fund the planning, construction, and maintenance of water reuse projects, and explore opportunities to better coordinate and highlight funding programs.

Identify and compile information about the design and use of nontraditional reuse project funding and financing approaches, including credit trading programs, collaborative funding models, public-private partnerships, pay-for-performance procurement approaches, and innovative local fee-financing options.

Pollution prevention concepts and best practices can be applied to sources of waters for potential reuse.

Protecting various source waters from problematic contaminants can reduce treatment costs and expand opportunities to reclaim water. Compile and develop best practices for pollution prevention to reduce contamination and enhance opportunities for reclaimed water.

Identify, compile, and promote USDA funding opportunities for water and wastewater infrastructure projects that can advance reuse and conservation, such as Rural Development’s Water and Waste Disposal Loan and Grant Program and NRCS’s Conservation Innovation Grant. Provide information and technical assistance to both rural communities and farmers on assessing opportunities for water reuse.

Develop informational materials describing how NPDES permits can enable reuse associated with

Foster development and propagation of an operator certification program for water reuse applications that bridges continued on page 75 73

the Analyst Volume 26 Number 4

Ask the Experts The discussion below occurred on AWT’s online community, the Exchange. Be sure to join to be part of the conversation!

pH Discrepancy Question 1

registering stray voltages. I don't believe that is possible with most handheld pH meters.

Yesterday at an account we tested the pH in an aluminum tank that is used for cleaning flux off a stainless steel part by dunking those parts into the tank.

The tank holds approximately 400 gallons of water. The tank overflows with city water at a rate of approximately 8 gallons per minute. The flux is a composition of zinc chloride and acid.

The problem is most likely the reference electrode. At a pH of 7 (i.e., the intercept), you should have a 0 mV difference between the pH electrode and the reference electrode. At a pH of 8.0, that difference would be about 56 mV. Thus, you are likely picking up a voltage of close to 80 mV.

I have a phenomenon question regarding pH.

We had expected a low pH in the tank because of the flux, but when tested with a probe directly into the tank, the pH was higher than city water (7.0) at a pH of 8.4.

As we began to rack our brains as to why, we decided to test a few different spots, at which point we began to use a ceramic casserole sample dish. By chance, we took a sample of the tank water with the dish, retested, and found the pH to be the same as city water. We then retested the tank without the dish and again got 8.4.

My question is why the discrepancy? We had an electrician check for stray voltage in multiple locations on the tank including the water itself and found none.

There is some pitting on the tank itself. The reason for us being called in was some of the parts were seeing a rusty film which they think is residual flux somehow capturing free iron and oxidizing. Am I witnessing a battery? If yes, why was there no stray voltage?

I had no answer for them other than "voodoo." Hoping one of you has seen this before.

Answer 1 I suggest finding out what type or grade of aluminum was used and then contact that manufacture to state your case.

Answer 2 Years ago, I can recall having to ground the solution to the meter at the point of sampling to keep it from 74

I am an analytical chemist, not an electrician or probe manufacturer, but I think the reference electrode needs to be grounded somehow. That would require a different pH meter. Probably a desktop model.

Answer 3 In situations like this, pH can be double-checked using color indicators and a color comparator. For pH 6.6–8.4, use phenol red.

Answer 4 My electrochemistry is terrible, but I believe you are on the right track and that you are seeing a galvanic cell causing interference in the pH probe.

I would think to be able to measure the voltage of the galvanic cell you would need to have the electrodes of the multimeter on both the anode and cathode of the cell. So one on the outside of the tank and one would have to be on a zinc electrode within the solution. Maybe grab a zinc anode from a boat chandlery, connect it to the electrode, and pop it in the water?

Answer 5 You don't say what type of sensor/meter combination you used to test with, but an easy test to see if there is some electrical interference happening is to place the electrode in the dish and run a wire between the water in the dish and the water in the tank. If you see the offset again, then current is flowing between the tank, through the electrode, and to a ground at a different potential than the tank. Most meter inputs are isolated from earth the Analyst Volume 26 Number 4

Ask the Experts continued

Capital Eyes continued

ground so this can't happen, but sometimes that isolation is broken. We routinely measure pH in electroplating baths where there is intentionally DC current flowing between anode and cathode. It won't influence the reading of the pH electrode unless there is a path to earth ground through the electrode input circuit.

and complements existing water and wastewater certification programs. The program could address planned potable reuse technologies and be focused on the intersection of wastewater and drinking water programs.

Answer 6 Interesting. Did you perform any wet chemistry pH testing? Conductivity, alkalinity, aluminum, chlorides?

8 GPM in a 400-gal tank should be very close to city water with that amount of turnover. Is the water clear with no suspended solids at the bottom? I assume the temperature is not a factor as well.

Develop one or more approaches or methodologies to explore and clarify the national volumes of current water use and water potentially available for reuse. This protocol would also estimate or update the current baseline of water reused from key sources, including municipal wastewater, agriculture drainage, industry process and cooling water, and stormwater.

To read the plan in its entirety, visit www.epa.gov/ waterreuse/water-reuse-action-plan.

I would assume the field pH meter is having a bad day.

Response Thank you all for the responses, good stuff!

Janet Kopenhaver is president of Eye on Washington and serves as the AWT Washington representative. She can be reached at (703) 528-6674 or janetk@eyeonwashington.com.

The electrician grounded his meter to the wall socket and a support beam attached to the floor. From both grounding spots he checked the tank, one metal beam touching the tank, and the water itself. No detection in any.

We didn't do any wet chemistry onsite other than conductivity, which basically showed that it was city water after we saw the pH phenomenon.

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the Analyst Volume 26 Number 4

Financial Matters

Running Your Personal Finances Like a Business Most individuals don’t regard themselves as businesses, trying to turn a profit and beat the competition. But occasionally, it may help to look at your financial situation this way to determine where you might cut expenses and boost cash flow. Here are some tips.

Lay out your financials

Think about other insurance, too. Perhaps your home has increased in value, necessitating a corresponding increase in your homeowner’s coverage. Or maybe you no longer have enough life insurance to protect your growing family. Talk to your insurance professional to determine the right amount of coverage.

Where an executive might reach for financial statements to get a read on the company’s standing, you can create or update a net worth statement. Essentially a monetary scorecard, a net worth statement helps you determine where you stand financially and whether you’re on track to meet your goals.

Finally, check your credit report. If you wait until something is obviously wrong, it may be too late to prevent significant damage. Federal law requires the three major credit reporting agencies to provide you with one free report per year.

You can calculate your net worth by adding all your assets, including cash and cash equivalents, brokerage account balances, retirement funds, real estate and other fixed assets, and personal property. Then, subtract your liabilities, including mortgages, personal loans, credit card balances, and taxes due.

Business owners must think about succession planning.

But even if you don’t own a company, you should think about life after employment.

The result provides some important clues about where your money is going and how you might be able to trim spending and increase savings. Are you overrelying on credit cards with high interest rates? Could you cut back on food or entertainment costs?

Practice risk management

To maintain their companies’ financial health, business executives also practice risk management. You can do the same by first assessing compensation and benefits elections. A major life change—such as a marriage or birth—may require an update to your W-4 withholding allowances with your employer.

Unexpected medical costs can be a huge risk. Review your health insurance to ensure it’s providing the best value. Now might not be an ideal time to switch to a spouse’s plan but if it’s a better deal perhaps make a note to do so when you can. Also, if you have a Health Savings Account or Flexible Spending Account, make sure you’re using it to your full advantage.

Think about retirement

If your employer allows you to adjust your retirement plan contributions during the year, consider boosting them to take full advantage of tax-deferred compounding and, if available, employer matching. Similarly, if you plan to make an IRA contribution this year, do so as early as possible to give your assets more time to grow.

Also review your estate plan and, if necessary, update it.

Financial priorities change over time, so make sure the beneficiary designations for your retirement accounts and insurance policies still match your wishes. Check your will or living trust to ensure no changes are necessary.

And, if you’re looking to reduce the value of your taxable estate, remember that you can make $15,000 ($30,000 for married couples) in annual exclusion gifts per recipient this year without using up any lifetime exemption.

Get rolling

Some might say that the beginning of the year is the most important time for financial planning. Others might say it’s year end, when you start preparing to file your tax return. In truth, the whole year is important. And right now, with the arrival of spring and the year well under way, is a perfect time to adjust objectives set a few months ago—and really get rolling. Contact us for help. © 2019 Thomson Reuters

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Business Notes

Be Ready for Anything With Regular Business Valuations Do you know the current value of your business? Even if you’re not considering selling your company or otherwise transferring its ownership right now, it could happen sooner than you think.

In some cases, an ownership transfer becomes suddenly appealing when a company struggles to the extent that a sale becomes the best avenue for starting over. But more positive circumstances can drive the decision, too.

For example, a small to midsize business might do so well that it receives an acquisition offer that’s too good to pass up.

Whether it’s an impending ownership transfer or just a need to learn more about your company, it’s important to establish reasonable expectations of what a valuation provides.

Answering the right questions

Some owners mistakenly believe that the balance sheet tells how much a company is worth. But most businesses possess goodwill and other intangible assets—as well as unreported liabilities—that don’t show up on the financial statements.

In truth, cost-based valuation metrics aren’t often used in real-world transactions. Instead, the most popular methods for valuing private businesses include the discounted cash earnings, guideline company transactions, and capitalization of earnings techniques.

Calculating value under these methods requires the expertise of an outside valuation professional.

To better understand the valuation process, answer these basic questions: What’s the purpose? It could be as clear-cut as an impending sale. Or perhaps a divorce is on the horizon, and the owner must determine the value of the business interest that’s includable in the marital estate. In other cases, the valuation may be driven by tax, estate, or strategic planning.

77

What’s the appropriate standard of value? Generally, business valuations estimate “fair market value”—the price at which property would change hands in a hypothetical transaction involving informed buyers and sellers not under duress to buy or sell. But some assignments call for a different standard of value.

For instance, say you’re contemplating selling to a competitor. In this case, you might be best off determining the “strategic value” of your company—that is, the value to a particular investor, including buyer-specific synergies.

What’s the appropriate basis of value? There’s a hierarchy of different types of value based on the degree of control and marketability an interest carries. Investors place premiums on the abilities to 1) control business decisions and 2) sell the interest on the “market” as quickly and inexpensively as possible.

Digging deeper

Defining the appropriate basis of value in a business valuation isn’t always straightforward. Suppose a business is split equally between two partners. Even though each owner has some control, stalemates could impair decision-making.

On the other hand, a 2% owner might possess some elements of control if the remaining shares are divvied up equally between two 49% owners. Definitively establishing the basis of value requires careful consideration of who owns the rest of the business—and how that allocation affects value given applicable state laws and ownership agreements.

Getting it done right

Regular valuations can be an important management tool—particularly if you plan to sell or transfer your interest anytime soon. We can explain the valuation process to you further and work with an appraiser to get the job done right. © 2019 Thomson Reuters

the Analyst Volume 26 Number 4

Advertising Index 17 Albermarle

40 Myron L Company

63 AMSA, Inc.

19 North Metal & Chemical Company

29 AquaPhoenix Scientific Inc.

37 Nouryon (previously Akzo Nobel)

23 AquaPhoenix Scientific Inc.–LaMotte

2

43 Bio-Source, Inc.

21 QualiChem, Inc.

65 Brenntag North America

15 Sanipur US LLC

54 Bulk Systems, Inc.

80 Special Pathogens Laboratory

51 Chem-Met Company

42 Stenner Pump Company

35 Environmental Safety Technologies, Inc.

61 Uniphos, Inc.

31 IDEXX

33 Walchem, IWAKI America Inc.

78 LMI/Milton Roy

79 Water Science Technologies

Pulsafeeder, Inc.

55 Lovibond Tintometer

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the Analyst Volume 26 Number 4

SynAcid is a non-D.O.T. regulated synthetic acid similar to strong acids, but without many of the harmful side effects (28% HCl equivalent).

SynAcid D – SynAcid with a strong dispersant for cleaning systems with carbonate and iron scale and corrosion.

SynAcid F – SynAcid D with an added foaming surfactant. This product is to be used with foam cannons for cleaning tower fill and other similar applications.

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