aviNews International

Issue Nº 7

December 2021

A NEW

VISION

FOR THE

POULTRY BUSINESS,

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POINTING IN THE RIGHT DIRECTION aviNews International the English-language poultry magazine for the international market aviNews® International agriNews®

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THE POWER OF SCIENCE

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Editor aviNews International +31 629791019 avinewsmagazine@grupoagrinews.com avicultura.info

EDITOR

K

nowledge is the basis of progress. This holds for literally everything, like for the development of the poultry business around the world.

This was recognized over one hundred years ago already, when the World’s Poultry Science Association (WPSA) was founded. Poultry scientists originating from 14 countries around the world, had come together in 1912 in London and they had found out that creating an official organization would be useful. And so happened with the foundation of WPSA. The first official world congress was held in The Hague in the Netherlands in 1921, after which international cooperation between poultry scientists took off. Hence, the WPSA congress is celebrating its centennial this year.

“Tremendous progress has been made ever since”, says current WPSA President Professor Dr Ning Yang from China in an exclusive interview in this edition of aviNews. Poultry scientists, connected to universities, research institutes and companies across the world, are sharing their knowledge to further professionalize the poultry business. And thus contribute to feeding the world population.

Literally all topics on raising poultry are being studied permanently, resulting in today’s achievements. Feed conversation has gone down to the lowest level ever and commercial layers nowadays are able to lay up to 500 eggs during their productive life. According to Professor Ning Yang, two years ago poultry meat surpassed pork and is now the favorite protein source of animal origin around the world.

This would never have been possible without the knowledge which poultry scientists have shared during the past century.

This knowledge is also being shared with you, like through this edition of aviNews.

All these articles display the level of knowledge which has been achieved during the past century and in which WPSA has played a pivotal role. “But we are not there yet”, Professor Nang Ying concludes. There are still many challenges ahead he says, for which poultry scientists are needed more than ever to share their knowledge and work together to feed the world. Hands on for them!

Read it all in this edition of aviNews. Enjoy and learn!

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Hence, it is not without reason that the motto of WPSA is “Working together to feed the world”.

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1 aviNews International December 2021

04

The benefits behind the Internet of animals

21

Eduardo Cervantes López

Edgar O. Oviedo-Rondón North Carolina State University, Prestage Department of Poultry Science, Raleigh, NC

The adoption rate of new technologies in the poultry industry is one of the highest in the agricultural sector. One of the most disruptive technologies is the Internet of Things (IoT), the network of interconnected devices and software without human intervention.

14

Five common issues during brooding Dr. Brian Fairchild Extension poultry scientist University of Georgia, USA

The brooding period is important to getting chicks off to a good start and influences flock performance. Depending on the market weight, the brooding period represents as much as 1/3 of the grow-out period. The chick is still developing and will grow rapidly during this period. The objective is to minimize stress on the chick so that the majority of the energy is directed towards growth and development.

2 aviNews International December 2021

Chicken processing: Managing with the senses

International Consultancy - Productive and Innovative Management in Poultry Processing

Chicken processing is a relatively fast activity: In less than 30 minutes, a shipment can be processed and sent to the cooling zone, regardless if using water or air systems. For this reason, plant managers must hone their senses of: Observing, listening, smelling and touching, in order to have a real-time and detailed view on how the processes are progressing.

26

Update on Solutions for Wooden Breast Research Edgar O. Oviedo-Rondón North Carolina State University, Prestage Department of Poultry Science, Raleigh, NC

Wooden breast (WB) continuous to be the main syndrome affecting the meat quality of broiler chickens. Significant advances have been made in understanding the myopathy’s cellular, histological, metabolic, and physiological effects. This article attempts to summarize the new conclusions and how they are related to previous results and practical observations.

34

Influence of breeder nutrition and management on flock performance

64

Winfridus Bakker

Edgar O. Oviedo-Rondón North Carolina State University, Prestage Department of Poultry Science, Raleigh, NC

World Technical Support Services Cobb-Vantress

The management and nutrition of breeders are important for the performance of the birds in order to achieve the maximum number of vigorous and viable chicks. This article summarizes some important aspects for optimizing chick quality.

41

This article intends to review the trends in vaccine development with a special focus on bacterial poultry vaccines.

Chick body temperature: from hatchery to farm Juan Carlos López, PhD Hendrix Genetics, Kitchener, Ontario, Canadá

72

Farm Report: On-farm hatching is beneficial

77

Interview with Professor Dr. Ning Yang President WPSA

At the time of hatching in poultry, there are three physiological systems that are not fully developed: Digestive, Immune and the Temperature regulation. In this article we will talk about temperature regulation.

46

Current trends in vaccine development

The World’s Poultry Science Association (WPSA) is celebrating its centennial this year (2021). Much has been achieved ever since. Which will be the future challenges however?

Ensuring flock performance, health and livability through a multifactorial approach Dr. Guillermo Zavala Avian Health International, USA

Promoting growth in an antibiotic-free environment Dr. Steve Leeson Professor Emeritus, Guelph University Ontario, Canada

TECHNICAL direction

Edgar Oviedo

Extension poultry specialist and broiler management Technical Direction

EDITOR

54

The responsibility for the articles, reports, press releases and communications falls exclusively on the authors. The editor is only responsible for his articles or editorials. Neither the publisher nor the authors assume any responsibility for the damages that may be generated, whatever their nature, as a consequence of the use of the data and information contained in this magazine.

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TECHNICAL partner

Antimicrobial use in commercial poultry has been drastically reduced or eliminated in recent years. Improved livability without the need for medication is definitely a reality today in various breeds and breed crosses of commercial egg layers. It is important to review some of the factors involved in maintaining flock health and performance without the need for medication.

Eduardo Cervantes

Editor avinews International

International Poutry Processing Consultant Technical Direction

3 aviNews International December 2021

THE

BENEFITS

BEHIND THE

INTERNET OF ANIMALS

production

Edgar O. Oviedo-Rondón North Carolina State University, Prestage Department of Poultry Science, Raleigh, NC The adoption rate of new technologies in the poultry industry is one of the highest in the agricultural sector. One of the most disruptive technologies is the Internet of Things (IoT), the network of interconnected devices and software without human intervention.

In the poultry sector, the Internet of Animals (IoA) starts when these interconnected systems transfer data to the network related to the animal environmental conditions and the animal responses to be used in decision-making or to take immediate actions.

The IoA belongs to the technological movement of smart farming and precision livestock farming technologies.

The poultry industry has been receiving some of the benefits of the rapid expansion of electronic sensors, devices, telecommunications, software, internet, and cloud-based connectivity. However, new developments in these areas can take us to a whole new level.

The IoA can help to improve the efficiency, biosecurity, food safety, welfare, sustainability, and transparency of the poultry industry.

We’ll make a short review of the current and potential applications.

4 aviNews International December 2021 | The benefits behind the Internet of Animals

THE AUTOMATIC DATA COLLECTION The automatic data collection, communication, and analysis provide solutions and improvement opportunities by obtaining insightful information.

Real-time collection of body and egg weights, feed, and water consumption can help with planning in the production chain, logistics, and processing plants.

The ability to modify machine and housing equipment settings using automatic and remote control allows intervention promptly to guarantee optimum environmental conditions.

production

Automatic alarm systems and anomaly detection systems can be implemented with IoA to prevent catastrophic losses and detect the onset of potential behavioral or health issues reducing risks and treatment costs.

The IoA technologies can implement non-invasive, non-disruptive animal welfare assessments in hatcheries, farms, and processing plants.

Also, it can help detect Salmonella, Campylobacter, E. coli, among other bacterial and viral infections or parasitic infestations, to ensure food safety and control of infectious diseases that can become potential zoonotic concerns.

The environmental conditions in the hatchery, farm, and transportation can be monitored and modified timely and with more precision.

Flocks’ feed and water intake, behaviors, sounds, movements, and physiological responses can be measured with electronic sensors, devices, or machine vision. aviNews International December 2021 | The benefits behind the Internet of Animals

5

Data collected in different production locations can be centralized for analysis in shorter periods than manual methodologies.

BLOCKCHAIN Concerning data sharing, technologies like blockchain allow transferring data safely among devices and databases.

Blockchain is a distributed or decentralized ledger technology used with IoT and now with IoA to make machine-to-machine transactions possible.

production

Blockchain is a structure that stores transactional records or information known as “blocks” in several databases known as the “chain” in a network connected through peer-to-peer nodes.

The storage is referred to as a digital ledger which is verified by multiple sources. In this way, it creates a permanent, unalterable record.

Blockchain provides traceability to animal feed and final products for processing, which is the best way to offer transparency in the production chain required nowadays by customers at all levels.

Technology is not anymore a limitation to applying IoA. Regional difficulties of telecommunications and connectivity to the internet can be overcome soon.

The technologies already used in the poultry industry for a couple of decades have been proven to be resilient and affordable.

The information obtained from the IoA can guide software that controls other devices or advise human decisionmakers to increase production, drive efficiency, reduce operational risks, help to take immediate and timely actions, and optimize time and resources.

The IoA inevitably brings all the conditions to work with Big Data analytics and decision support systems for complex decision-making processes.

Currently, the initial economic investment to acquire and install sensors, devices, and software could be a limitation. But, soon, the return on investment could be attractive enough to make the massive implementation of these technologies a need for a more productive system.

6 aviNews International December 2021 | The benefits behind the Internet of Animals

Integrating this data with mathematical models can create more accurate warning or anomaly detection systems to sense potential deviations from the target environmental conditions or performance parameters.

These warning systems are one of the greatest benefits of IoA. The knowledge in data analytics and mathematical model development in the poultry technical personnel is the biggest limitation of applying and profit from IoA technologies.

The skills required include automatic data warehousing, data integration, and statistical analysis to obtain the desired information.

Data governance and security is another aspect to address when using IoA.

The privacy and security of the data are important for the ones that invest in IoA. The IoA also implements cybersecurity rules using rigorous security standards to protect data at rest or stored in databases and motion or during the transactions among devices, apply detailed access controls, and monitor malicious behavior.

BENEFITS FOR PRODUCTION AND WELFARE The producer’s uncertainty about environmental conditions and animal performance during the production cycle can be solved with real-time monitoring and automatic responses of devices connected to the IoA. The consumer’s concerns about animal welfare or food safety can be addressed using constant monitoring and recording with new specialized sensors.

These data can provide to all parties interested in these topics a multitude of parameters to assess at any moment the productive efficiency, welfare, and health conditions of poultry flocks.

production

The use of all the data collected by these systems is still a challenge.

The lack of enough trained and experienced people to oversee poultry flocks constantly is a common and increasing challenge worldwide. Automation is becoming necessary in many countries.

Animal welfare regulations and consumer demands to know more about animal welfare status have been receiving increased attention.

All attempts to simplify current welfare assessment protocols for poultry still impose biosecurity challenges and more production costs. The new electronic and telecommunication technologies could solve most of these problems.

7 aviNews International December 2021 | The benefits behind the Internet of Animals

ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING AND CONTROL Many of the environmental issues occur when poultry workers cannot be present. Then, automation becomes a need to achieve the desired level of poultry management assurance.

Undesirable in-house environmental conditions are sometimes inevitable, but quick modifications can be made to minimize exposure to those conditions.

production

This ability for faster intervention could be one of the main benefits of the IoA. The multi-sensing monitoring and electronic controllers can indicate to devices actions that they must do when humans are not present.

The time of exposure to elevated levels of harmful gases like CO2 and ammonia can affect growth, feed conversion, immunological responses, and even increase mortality.

The increased exposure of chickens to more than 3,000 ppm of CO₂ during the first two weeks of life can worsen feed conversion and increase mortalities of broilers close to market age.

The greatest concentrations of CO₂ in poultry houses generally occur in the coldest hours of the day during the night or very early in the morning when workers are not present.

Without electronic sensors, constant real-time monitoring of multiple animal facilities 24 hours a day would not be possible seven days a week.

Multiple electronic sensors can currently monitor temperature, relative humidity, light intensity, carbon dioxide (CO₂) or monoxide, ammonia, ventilation rate, and airspeed to determine and modify the incubator or in-house environment.

Communications among these sensors and electronic controllers with customized software have automatized many procedures in poultry facilities.

For example, high levels of CO2 , ammonia gas, temperature, or humidity trigger that ventilation rate or fan time is increased.

8 aviNews International December 2021 | The benefits behind the Internet of Animals

Electronic water regulators will have great benefits in controlling water spillage without limiting water intake and controlling litter and air humidity.

Water quality is critical for animal health and optimum digestibility.

Water additives like acidifiers have proven benefits, but general recommendations may not be the optimum under all circumstances.

Many times, acidifiers or other water additives are overused, and there is uncertainty about the efficacy of water sanitation systems.

Evaluations of water quality parameters are conducted periodically in labs, while the water quality may vary even during a day.

Sensors can help us track this variability, evaluate its impact, and the methods chosen to control it.

Water quality sensors and IoA can aid in determining the appropriate levels of water additives to use under each water quality condition.

Automatic weighing equipment provides immediate feed intake and body weights, which could be associated with changes in diet composition, feed additives, feedstuff quality, and feed manufacturing.

Sensors can detect how much time fans, sprinklers, heating, and cooling systems work to improve incubator or house energy efficiency

Airspeed sensors can check the uniformity of air velocity across the facility.

The turbulent nature of airflow in mechanically ventilated houses requires continuous measurements to obtain valid averages per house to make improvements.

Studies have indicated that only automatic, omnidirectional speed sensors can accurately measure airspeeds in poultry houses.

Light sensors can determine light intensity in different areas, the specific photoperiod in a house, which are important factors during the whole life of chickens, breeders, and layers.

Wireless accelerometers can be used to track bird activity affected by environmental stress, disease, or infestations with parasites like northern fowl mites in layers.

9 aviNews International December 2021 | The benefits behind the Internet of Animals

production

Other sensors can detect water flow and water pH or Oxidation-Reduction Potential.

Multi-sensing systems and electronic controllers for machine incubators, hatchery facilities, and farms have been in the market worldwide for more than two decades.

Great advances in environmental control have been made, but there are frequent mechanical, calibration, and maintenance issues to overcome.

production

Training of local personnel to take the corrective actions timely is necessary.

The IoA can connect existing and new devices across multiple protocols and standards, merge data streams, and optimize acquired data for relevancy and context.

The constant monitoring may help remediate underperforming processes and develop new opportunities to build better and new strategies.

For example, biosecurity and food safety can be improved using tracking devices for hatchery, farm, and processing staff or equipment, recording movements real-time to decrease risks when people or equipment don’t respect the desired boundaries.

All these technologies can aid in obtaining better embryo and bird growth or egg production, improve welfare and health while preventing management problems, and improving energy efficiency.

All these benefits combined may minimize production costs and increase poultry flock efficiencies.

FUTURE OF WELFARE AND HEALTH ASSESSMENTS On the other side electronic sensors that measure physiological parameters can mark the difference in welfare assessments in the future.

Measuring sound can detect stress, infectious and parasitic diseases, or alterations in feed intake.

Imaging technologies such as optical flow can detect gait problems, feather pecking, and the first signs of infectious diseases.

Infrared technologies can evaluate a bird’s thermoregulatory features and metabolism changes due to diets, environmental or social stress.

We will review some of the sensors currently under evaluation and some already used for poultry welfare assessments.

ACOUSTIC SENSORS Bioacoustic sensors are helping to collect the large variety of sounds emitted by birds.

Birds rely on acoustic communication for their social interactions and alarm signaling.

The frequency of specific emitted vocalizations can be correlated with stress indicators. Software like Raven from the Cornell Lab of Ornithology made possible the analysis of these sounds.

The behavior of birds is key to detect their welfare status.

We are lucky that birds vocalize most of their behaviors; now, we need to understand them.

10 aviNews International December 2021 | The benefits behind the Internet of Animals

This technique was developed based on detecting the sound emitted by embryos when they reach or pass the internal pipping stage.

Once the peak frequency of the sounds is detected, the incubator machine can adjust the temperature profile and the CO2 concentrations by closing and opening the dampers to narrow the hatching window stimulating other chickens with the same stage of embryonic development to hatching.

In farms, vocalization frequency can detect episodes where broilers or hens can not have access to feed.

Higher rates of squawks and total vocalizations can signal the start point of feather pecking issues.

The sound signals related to feather pecking have been characterized by a sudden increase in amplitude followed by a sudden decrease of signals between 1000 Hz to 5000 kHz.

Sound analyses can also help detect the adequacy of the thermal environment for broilers and laying hens.

The models developed with the amplitude of vocalizations, the noise frequency spectrum, the energy, and the bandwidth of the signals have 98% accuracy in detecting stress episodes for birds.

Broilers have a peak frequency of 600 randomly selected vocalizations, and the peak frequency of vocalizations decreased when broilers grew larger.

Broiler breeder hens have specific vocalizations when deprived of nesting.

production

Technologies based on sound analysis are used in commercial hatcheries worldwide to minimize the hatching window or synchronize the hatch.

Sound signals have also been evaluated to detect and diagnose diseases.

An Iranian group of researchers lead by Sadeghi detected necrotic enteritis derived from the infection of Clostridium perfringens from sound signals analyzed with artificial neural networks.

The diagnostic accuracy was 66% six days post-infection and 100% eight days post-infection.

The frequency of rales produced by chickens infected with infectious bronchitis virus can help detect the disease before clinical signs become evident in infected chickens.

Diagnosing diseases like these by non-invasive and objective methods will be a great advance in poultry production.

11 aviNews International December 2021 | The benefits behind the Internet of Animals

IMAGE TECHNOLOGIES

MOVEMENT SENSORS Freedom of movement is an important component of animal welfare. Measuring movement or lack of it are direct indicators of welfare status in a flock.

production

High stocking density, house environmental conditions, health status, among other factors, can affect movement.

In layer aviaries, a combination of Geographic Information System (GIS), wireless radio ID tags, and 3-axis accelerometers attached to the hens, and video recordings have been evaluated to detect the movements, behaviors, and landing forces when hens jump from perches.

These systems have been able to correlate the movements of hens with the keel fracture incidence.

Video images can be analyzed automatically to detect flock activity index and severe leg problems in broiler houses. Image analysis can also be implemented to score footpad dermatitis, improve carcass inspection, or automatically detect myopathies in processing plants.

The optical flow analysis allows the automatic and continuous evaluation of moving images containing hundreds of birds in a house.

The system detects the brightness change rate in pixels of video images.

This generates statistics of the images that can be associated with specific locomotion parameters like gait score, pododermatitis, hock burn, and mortalities in broiler flocks.

Optical flow can also help to detect infection with microorganisms. For example, optical flow patterns have detected Campylobacter infected chickens 7 to 10 days after hatch.

Broiler movement patterns can be recorded with systems like eYeNamic camera surveillance and software systems. These systems can assess gait scores in broilers with continuous and objective surveillance.

But, not only animal movements can be tracked. Humans can also be vectors that transmit diseases. Then, monitoring human activities in various facilities can help to control disease transmission and improve biosecurity.

12 aviNews International December 2021 | The benefits behind the Internet of Animals

Infrared thermal imaging has been used to detect the best air velocity and optimal temperatures for broilers.

Infrared images can also assess feather coverage in hens or notice changes in diet and any stress levels.

Finally, non-contact Raman spectroscopy is a technology to assess the sex of chicken embryos in ovo. This technology can help to reduce the issues of culling males in layer flocks by removing embryos before they hatch or reduce the costs of manual sexing in day-old chickens.

production

Campylobacter typically does not induce clinical signs in chickens, but it causes flock activity patterns different from healthy flocks. This type of technology can help detect infected flocks, identify the source of infection, and implement preventive measurements.

Finally, the IoA can also integrate data collection performed by humans.

Many observations of poultry workers are frequently not taken into consideration in data analysis.

These are valuable assessments that should be shared and stored in a way that can be analyzed. Appropriate formatting of observational records can be added to understand better the results of data automatically collected by sensors and devices.

The benefits of IoA are numerous, and investments in this area have a guaranteed return. Learning more about the emerging technologies associated with the IoA is necessary to mine more advantages and profits.

The benefits behind the Internet of Animals

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13 aviNews International December 2021 | The benefits behind the Internet of Animals

FIVE COMMON ISSUES DURING BROODING

management

Dr. Brian Fairchild Extension poultry scientist University of Georgia Athens, GA USA

T

he brooding period is important to getting chicks off to a good start and influences flock performance. Depending on the market weight, the brooding period represents as much as 1/3 of the grow-out period. The chick is still developing and will grow rapidly during this period. The objective is to minimize stress on the chick so that the majority of the energy is directed towards growth and development. Below are five common issues seen during the brooding period that can have negative influence on broiler performance.

Once chicks have been hatched, the growing period is taking off.

That can only be successful if all conditions in the growing house are under full control. Proper managing five critical factors is of great importance.

14 aviNews International December 2021 | Getting the basics right during brooding

2

BEDDING MATERIAL

The floors in broiler houses are covered with bedding material. The main purpose of bedding material is to absorb moisture.

Broilers retain approximately 20% of the water they consume and the other 80% is excreted or expired into the house environment.

In addition to moisture absorption, bedding insulates the birds from the cool house floor which is either packed dirt or concrete, provides a cushion for the birds as they walk around the house, and helps dilute manure as birds scratch around in the material.

FEED AND WATER

Feed and water are two of the basic needs of broilers during the grow-out period. It is important that chicks find feed and water in the first 48 hours. Extra feeders are placed to increase feeding space and are then removed at the end of the brooding period.

In order to reduce feed wastage, the feeder system is often operated manually as long as the supplemental feeders are being used.

Automatic operation of the feeder systems may overfill supplemental feeders when trays are used. Chicks will tend to scratch the feed out of overfilled trays, wasting it on the floor.

management

1

Common materials used as bedding include but are not limited to: pine shavings, peanut hulls and rice hulls. A minimum of 3 inches (7.6 cm) in thickness is required from wall to wall in the house and will vary with the bedding material that is used. Another way to look at this is to compare the litter base to a sponge.

Figure 1. Broiler house brooding example

A thicker sponge will absorb more water.

Improper amounts of litter will result in litter quality deteriorating more rapidly even under proper ventilation rates.

Poor litter quality can increase ammonia production, microbial loads, foot pad dermatitis, coccidiosis, and dermatitis.

The drinker systems used in the majority of broiler houses today have a pin that the bird pushes to get water.

The drinker height and water pressure are adjusted according to the bird age and size. As the birds get bigger, the drinker system will need to be raised and the water pressure will need to be increased.

Poultry farmers should manage the drinker height and water pressure according the drinker manufacturer guidelines.

15 aviNews International December 2021 | Getting the basics right during brooding

The increased activity enhances the probability that the chicks will consume feed and water thus helping the digestive system to upregulate the processes needed to digest the carbohydrates in the feed. Prior to this the nutrients the chick/embryo has been consuming is lipid based, so it will be of benefit to the bird for this system to mature quickly after placement on the farm. A typical lighting program is located in the Table 1 below.

management

Table 1. A common lighting program for birds marketed at 42 days of age

AGE (DAY)

AGE (DAY)

LIGHT:DARK (HOURS)

LIGHT INTENSITY (FTC/LUX)

0

23:1

3.0/30 or greater

4

20:4

3.0/30 or greater

7

20:4

0.5/5

0

LIGHT:DARK (HOURS) 10 23:1

4

20:4

7

20:4

10

18:6

0.5/5

35

22:2

0.5/5

35

16 aviNews International December 2021 | Getting the basics right during brooding

LIGHT INTENSITY (FTC/LUX) 18:6 0.5/5 3.0/30 or greater 22:2

3.0/30 or greater 0.5/5 0.5/5

3

LIGHTING

Lighting programs can vary greatly throughout the broiler industry.

Light intensity during brooding should not vary more than 20% from the brightest point in the house to the darkest point and this is more critical during the brooding period than the rest of the grow-out.

During the first three days, efforts should be made to encourage chick activity so they can search out and learn where food, water and heat sources are located.

The hours of darkness will increase as the birds get older. The hours of dark will depend on the market age of the birds.

Birds that are marketed at 49, 56 or 63 days of age will usually have more hours of dark. Other examples can be found on the primary breeder websites.

4

TEMPERATURE

Chicks cannot regulate their body temperature at hatch and are dependent on the house and floor temperature. If the house and floor temperature is warm then the chicks will be warm, if theses temperatures are too cool then the chicks will be cool. Radiant brooders work well for heating broiler houses as the majority of the heat is directed to the floor.

management

Typically, the lighting program for chicks at placement is 23 hours of light at 3.0 ftc (30 Lux) or higher for the first three days. Bird activity is directly correlated with light intensity, which means they are more active as the light intensity increases.

The brooders should be installed and operated at a height recommended by the manufacturer, but in general, radiant brooders are operated six feet or higher depending on the model. Temperature profiles will vary from breed to breed and from company to company, but they usually start out around 93°F.

Light intensity is decreased to half a foot candle or five lux to reduce bird activity which in turn helps with feed efficiency and weight gain.

120 ºF 120 110 100 90

Radiant brooders direct the majority of the heat produced to the floor where it is needed.

Chicks will find their comfort zone.

80 70 60.0 ºF

17 aviNews International December 2021 | Getting the basics right during brooding

5

VENTILATION

The purpose of minimum ventilation during the brooding period is to control moisture and air quality. Whether the house is using fresh shavings or used litter, the house has to be ventilated from day 1.

It is more efficient to provide the correct environmental conditions from the beginning rather than trying to correct a problem from poor management later on during the flock.

The energy and labor costs will be less and the environment for bird performance (weight gain, feed conversion, livability) is optimized.

Mistakes during the brooding period are difficult to compensate for later on in the flock, so it is best to provide an optimum environment from the beginning.

DATE

Getting the basics right during brooding

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18 aviNews International December 2021 | Getting the basics right during brooding

31-JAN

30-JAN

29-JAN

28-JAN

27-JAN

26-JAN

25-JAN

24-JAN

23-JAN

100 95 90 85 80 75 70 65 60 55 50 45 40 22-JAN

Figure 1. RH trending up due to insufficient ventilation rate

TEMPERATURE - Rh

management

The goal is to keep the relative humidity (RH) between 40-60%.

If the RH gets above 70%, litter quality will deteriorate rapidly resulting in increased ammonia production and incidence of footpad dermatitis.

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An excellent Feed Conversion Rate thanks to maximum feed intake and minimal waste

FEEDING

DRINKING

NESTING

HEATING

VENTILATION

CHICKEN PROCESSING

MANAGING WITH THE SENSES

processing

Eduardo Cervantes López International Consultancy - Productive and Innovative Management in Poultry Processing

C

hicken processing is a relatively fast activity: In less than 30 minutes, a shipment can be processed and sent

to the cooling zone, regardless if using water or air systems. For this reason, plant managers should hone their senses of: Observing, listening, smelling and touching, in order to have a real-time and detailed view on how the processes are progressing.

20 aviNews International December 2021 | Chicken processing: Managing with the senses

OBSERVE : Chickens frantically flapping once hung on the air conveyor.

Some Everyday Situations

Consequences: Their stress increases. bleeding, bruising, fractures, etc. occur.

Although it’s true that the senses are always

LISTEN: Noise level in the environment - fans, motors. etc.

at play when evaluating our surroundings, it is recommended to prioritize the tasks to be carried out when one is in the plant supervising the process.

Therefore, attention should be focused on one point at a time. This increases the possibility to take in as much

Consequences: In the waiting and hanging areas, they cause stress to the birds.

SMELL: To determine foul odours, due to improper cleaning and disinfection of equipment and facilities.

Consequences: They affect the sanitary quality of the chickens that are being processed.

information as possible,

TOUCH: Products in process to get a rough idea of

evaluate them and take

surface temperature and texture..

processing

immediate corrective actions if need be.

21 aviNews International December 2021 | Chicken processing: Managing with the senses

All of the above comprise an effective routine that is carried out during broiler rearing and fattening.

This skill is achieved if one draws a mental map of each area of the plant.

This requirement becomes critical whether slaughtering at speeds of 1, 2 or 3 chickens/ second. If the pertinent actions are not taken as soon as possible, the losses in quality and yield will lead to an increase in the cost per kilo of processed meat. This consequently

processing

affects the product’s competitiveness in the

OTHER MESSAGES TO BE DETERMINED WITH GREATER ACCURACY. With the help of special portable

market.

measuring devices,

Management Actions

internal temperatures

the external and of the birds should be monitored in different

To get the most out of all the information

parts of the processing:

processed by our senses, it is necessary to implement the following introspective

At the breast level when entering

procedure:

the scalding machine.

What messages that can be derived from what was sensed?

Same process once again, after exiting the scalder.

Prior to entering the plucker.

Did they occur at the same time or

After exiting it as well as from the

throughout the processing?

other machines.

Why are they happening?

What am I supposed to do now? Take immediate action or analyze a little more, to find a comprehensive solution.

CONTROL TOOLS Digital thermometers Laser thermometers Thermometer environmental hygrometer Lux meter Noise meter

22 aviNews International December 2021 | Chicken processing: Managing with the senses

CUT-UP PRODUCT

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TEAMS - CRITICAL POINTS By way of illustration, we have highlighted some very important aspects that should be monitored in each of the following equipment.

Shackles: Should be filled with chickens.

Their legs must be properly supported at the bottom.

Reason: To prevent them from falling during the different stages.

Stunner: Pre-Shocking should be

If statistical data derived from the

avoided so that chickens don’t flap

yield of chickens processed are not

intensely and pass out.

properly analyzed, its collection

Objective: To reduce risks that can damage the wings

processing

Comparative Database Management

and cause bruises and hemorrhages in the breast, ideally at 100% effectiveness.

Scalding machine: Chickens should be brought in completely dead. If this condition is not met, they will die from drowning. their coloration will be reddish after plucking. The birds should move completely submerged. Water

translates into a regrettable waste of time. This will also have a demotivate those who worked rigorously in obtaining them.

For this reason, the operational and administrative activities that should be carried out as described: COLLECTION: Obtain the required data and make the calculations to establish the corresponding results that serve as a reference point.

turbulence should be uniform within the

ANALYSIS: Compare the data with the

tank.

management parameters, to determine

Pluckers: Remove more than 95% of the feathers, with a gentle adjustment of the plucker fingers on the chickens.

Problems of skin tearing and wing

dislocations are reduced.

if they are within standard. If, for some reason, these values are unknown, the results of the previous batches of the same farm can be used as a reference points to conclude if the new batch has: improved, worsened or similar.

IMPLEMENTATIONS: Prepare the improvements to be made. Define execution times, budgets and results to be achieved.

24 aviNews International December 2021 | Chicken processing: Managing with the senses

Management Parameters They are a set of data established to evaluate the operations of a process.

These values are benchmarks, which can be likened to world records. They are surpassed at any time, as a result of the continuous will of the operators to improve their performance. As a guide, the following are listed below: Asphyxiated (dead) chickens dremoved from cages and/or

In summary, in order to develop an Effective Management using the SENSES as a natural working tool, the following basic aspects must be known: Administration Raw Material: Chickens

Hot climate: 0.05% - 0.1% Cold climate: Less than 0.05%

processing

Anatomy

containers:

Physiology Environment Operational Environment

Seizures (Seconds): 0.1% of the total chickens processed.

Waste (Parts fallen to the floor during cutting and / or deboning): Less than 0.005% of the total kilos processed.

Dry yield of the carcass without neck and legs, leaving the abdominal fat: 74% Count of live chickens hanging from the overhead conveyor Taken out of the cages at a rate of: 1800 chickens/ hour - worker.

Badly bled chickens (red): 0.03% of the total of processed chickens.

Chicken processing: Managing with the senses

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25 aviNews International December 2021 | Chicken processing: Managing with the senses

UPDATE ON RESEARCH SOLUTIONS FOR WOODEN BREAST Edgar O. Oviedo-Rondón

broilers

Wooden breast (WB) continuous to be the main syndrome affecting the meat quality of broiler chickens. Significant advances have been made in understanding the myopathy’s cellular, histological, metabolic, and physiological effects.

The onset of this muscle metabolic disorder has been described, but the specific etiologies or factors that trigger the problem are still unclear.

We will review some recent research findings indicating that myopathies are related to particular changes in metabolic pathways.

However, linking the metabolic disorders with nutritional modifications to mitigate WB incidence has not been very successful.

These facts give an idea of the complexity to solve the WB issue and indicate that better comprehension of all findings is vital to design strategies to mitigate this myopathy.

This article attempts to summarize the new conclusions and how they are related to previous results and practical observations.

26 aviNews International December 2021 | Update on Research Solutions for Wooden Breast

THE MUSCLE TISSUE AND MEAT IMPLICATIONS Let’s start understanding the histological modifications observed in WB myopathy There is fibrosis, re-assembling and increase in extracellular matrix proteins, especially collagen type I and III, proteoglycan, and glycosaminoglycans.

The lesions may be observed in some individuals in the first week of age. Some reports have shown similar histological lesions at hatch.

The muscular fibers of affected fillets have variable sizes.

There is interstitial inflammation and frequently mononuclear cell infiltration, especially near small veins.

broilers

The increased fat infiltration, fibrosis, and collagen changes cause the white strips, paler appearance, and more rigid texture typical of the WB.

Many muscle fibers are too large compared to normal muscle and have permanent contraction or necrosis.

The hardness is more evident in the breast muscle’s cranial region, but it occasionally extends throughout the muscle.

Inflammation processes near the muscle’s vascular system reduce oxygenation, increase oxidative stress, and muscle cell death.

A good description of the severity of the pathology with all histological findings is presented in Figure 1.

Figure 1. Broiler chicken Pectoralis major showing the WB myopathy scores, 1 – 4.

A gradual progression in the diseased tissue can be observed in the images.

Lesions consist of muscle fiber swelling, necrosis, degeneration, regeneration, and lymphocytic vasculitis.

Diseased muscle fibers become separated and connective tissue develops around the fibers and between muscle bundles.

Score 1

Score 2

Score 3

Score 4

Source: US Poultry and Egg Association Research Project 691. Barnes et al., 2017.

27 aviNews International December 2021 | Update on Research Solutions for Wooden Breast

The impact of muscle fiber alterations is not only on texture, but the shear force also increases.

This implies that the consumer will feel tougher meat during chewing. broilers

In fact, organoleptic testing panels have confirmed several differences with non-affected fillets.

Additionally, protein and fat ratios are altered in WB muscle and, consequently, meat contains 1.2 to 1.3% more fat.

Also, meat pH and water holding capacity (WHC) is reduced. The lower pH is responsible for approximately one-third of the reduction of WHC. The higher contraction degree of WB muscle fibers during rigor mortis could reduce the space for water storage.

With lower WHC, the meat has a lower ability to absorb marinades and flavorings.

Consequently, depending on storage time, processing, cooking methods, and consumer taste, the affected meat’s acceptability could be significantly reduced.

28 aviNews International December 2021 | Update on Research Solutions for Wooden Breast

METABOLIC AND CELLULAR ORIGINS OF MYOPATHIES The findings of the group led by Dr. Behnam Abasht from the University of Delaware published in the past months reveal abnormalities in muscle fat metabolism and a shift from glycolysis or carbohydrate catabolism to the use of lipids.

The modifications using fat in the muscle increases the production of free radicals that damage the muscle cells.

Hypoxia and oxidative stress have always been detected in muscles affected by WB, and now it has a link with the altered lipid metabolism.

The injured muscle signals an immunological response that ends up causing phlebitis or inflammation of the vein’s walls.

The reactive oxygen species

Interestingly, that research group has also found that broilers affected with WB present pulmonary phlebitis, demonstrating that metabolic or immunological changes maybe not be limited only to the breast muscle.

free radicals include changes in

Similarly, a Finnish group from the University of Helsinki linked WB with the more flawed broilers’ gait.

or free radicals are in elevated concentrations in these myopathies.

The cellular damage caused by these sodium/potassium-ATPase channels.

These ion changes have been confirmed in meat and cause muscle alterations of ion balance that affect calcium metabolism, increasing its intracellular concentrations.

The modifications in free calcium and ions explain the excessive muscle contraction during rigor mortis.

Together with free radicals, it could be causing mitochondrial dysfunction, abnormal oxidative muscle metabolism, and oxidative instability in WB meat reported recently.

29 aviNews International December 2021 | Update on Research Solutions for Wooden Breast

broilers

These alterations were labeled as glucolipotoxicity.

ROLE OF GENETIC SELECTION AND ENVIRONMENT In the past years, several studies conducted by Aviagen have demonstrated that breast muscle myopathies’ heritability ranges from 0.04 to 0.25, which is very low and variable.

broilers

The genetic correlation of myopathies with body weight and breast meat yield ranges between -0.06 to 0.41.

These values indicated a shallow relationship between myopathies and performance and a low capacity to transmit the disorder from generation to generation.

In effect, research conducted by a group led by Dr. John Barnes at North Carolina State University reported that these myopathies could also be observed at a histological level in random-bred genetic lines from the 1950’s when raised under similar conditions with modern broilers.

But this disorder does not progress more in those slow-growing birds due to the small size and slow development of their breast muscles.

Almost 72% of the variation in myopathies’ incidence is explained by variables not related to genetics.

On the other hand, research has also demonstrated that genetic lines of broilers selected for fast growth and higher meat yield have many metabolic differences with slow-growing animals.

High meat yield broilers have reduced capillary blood supply to Pectoralis major and minor.

There is less space in the connective tissue between myofibers and muscle fiber bundles, and the myofibers are three to five times larger than those of slower-growing chickens.

Larger muscle fibers in modern broilers have more difficulty obtaining oxygen and nutrition and disposing of metabolic waste.

Many other studies have shown a greater susceptibility of modern broilers to present muscle damage under normal environmental conditions.

Similar damages have been observed in samples of unaffected chickens’ muscles, but WB affected broilers had just more lesions.

Research in genetic selection has also proven that it is possible to reduce in 18% WB incidence while increasing in 1.02% breast meat yield.

30 aviNews International December 2021 | Update on Research Solutions for Wooden Breast

Research led by Dr. Craig Coon from The University of Arkansas has determined that modern broilers also naturally have a higher muscle degradation rate.

Then, genetic selection may play a role in the increased myopathy incidence more as a factor that causes susceptibility to myopathies than as the cause or origin of these myopathies.

Modern high-yield broilers are just more susceptible to environmental stresses

Heat stress has been one of the environmental factors more related to muscle damage, metabolism alterations, and even some myopathies.

Birds can face elevated temperatures even during embryo development.

Suboptimal incubation conditions may cause some eggs in commercial setters and hatchers to endure stressful situations that affect all tissues and organs.

Other metabolic disorders like ascites have been proven to have an origin and solutions during incubation.

The hypothesis that temperature and hypoxia stresses during incubation could influence myopathy incidence and severity was discussed recently by our group at NC State University and Dr. Sandra Velleman from The Ohio State University.

This information was published in a chapter of the e-book Avian Muscle Development and Growth Mechanisms: Association with Muscle Myopathies and Meat Quality. Several pieces of evidence demonstrated that myopathies could be triggered by perinatal heat stress or even hypoxia during pipping at hatching.

Myopathies or muscle damage caused by heat stress during brooding or due to high stocking density during grow-out has been published in numerous studies in the past three years. Ventilation, cooling capacity, and lighting may affect the chicken activity and thermal comfort that influence muscle development.

Minimizing failures in optimal environmental conditions may help reduce the severity and incidence of the WB, but more research is needed in this area.

31

aviNews International December 2021 | Update on Research Solutions for Wooden Breast

broilers

The change in the rates of muscle anabolism and catabolism in fast-growing birds can make them even more susceptible to myopathies when muscle regeneration mechanisms are affected.

ROLE OF NUTRITION When a disease issue has metabolic implications, the logical conclusion is that the primary mechanism to control it could be a nutritional intervention. Several dietary interventions have been tested to minimize the incidence of the WB. All methods that reduce growth rate and muscle yield can partially mitigate the severity of myopathies in the same way that processing at an early age or by lowering slaughter body weight.

broilers

LYSINE RATIO Strategic feed restriction during the grower phase, or reducing the amino acid density, especially lysine, has shown benefits in myopathies while maintaining borderline targets of performance and yields. Probably the most impacting benefit of reducing lysine is the increase in the arginine: lysine ratio.

GUANIDINO ACETIC ACID AS FEED ADDITIVE Another feed additive that has been tested with some success is the guanidino acetic acid that also has decreased myopathies while enhancing performance and meat yield. The guanidino acetic acid has arginine sparing functions and direct effects on muscle energy metabolism.

ARGININE : LYSINE RATIO Arginine is an amino acid essential to nitrogen metabolism and nitric oxide production in the tissues, an important vasodilator. It is believed that higher arginine levels may increase the oxygenation of muscle cells by producing more nitric oxide en lugar de by more nitric oxide production. Supplementation of arginine with crystalline sources is now possible at affordable commercial prices.

It has recently been proven that arginine: lysine ratios higher than 1.27 could help minimize myopathies while improving performance.

VITAMINS AND ORGANIC TRACE MINERALS Vitamins and organic trace minerals have been tested extensively without observing significant reductions in myopathies incidence.

Only Vitamin C has shown to have a positive effect. In a study conducted by the group led by Dr. Jason Lee described in Table 1, Vitamin C supplementation at 94 ppm reduced wooden breast incidence by 41%.

Simultaneously, high arginine (1.20 to 1.41 arginine: lysine ratios) only caused a 20% reduction of fillets with medium and severe WB. Vitamin C maintained the live performance of broilers raised to 45 days but decreased breast meat yield by almost 0.6%.

32 aviNews International December 2021 | Update on Research Solutions for Wooden Breast

Table 1. Meat quality measurements and woody breast profile of male broilers that are fed diets with a higher ratio of dArg: dLys, vitamin premix, vitamin C, and/or a lower digestible amino acid ratio

Woody breast profile

Ave. woody breast score

Ave. white striping score (0-3)

Score of 0, %

Score of 1, %

Score of 2, %

Score of 3, %

Score of 0&1, %

Score of 2&3, %

Control

1.84a

1.29

2.81

35.90

37.20

24.40a

38.70c

61.30a

High Arginine1

1.49b-d

1.19

7.90

42.91

41.64

7.73b

50.73a-c

49.27a-c

Vitamin C2

1.25d

1.09

14.50

50.00

32.38

3.50b

64.12a

35.87c

2XVitamin3

1.75a,b

1.30

2.81

37.10

42.90

17.10a,b

40.00b,c

60.00a,b

Reduced AA4

1.53b,c

1.20

13.10

36.45

35.18

15.55a,b

49.18a-c

50.82a-c

Combination5

1.42c,d

1.09

7.16

54.20

27.30

11.40a,b

61.30a,b

38.70b,c

PSEM

0.053

0.031

1.492

2.532

2.592

1.914

3.098

3.098

P-value

<0.001

0.548

0.083

0.126

0.451

0.033

0.048

0.048

a-d Means in columns with different superscripts differ significantly at P ≤0,05 Source: Bodle et al., 2018. Poultry Science Journal.

In conclusion, we have an advanced understanding of the pathobiology of WB, the relations with genetics and environment.

Some mitigation options reduce WB severity and should be tested by poultry companies, but the search for better WB control strategies continues.

Update on Solutions for Wooden Breast Research

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33 aviNews International December 2021 | Update on Research Solutions for Wooden Breast

broilers

Meat quality measurements

Treatment

INFLUENCE OF

breeders

BREEDER NUTRITION & MANAGEMENT ON FLOCK PERFORMANCE Ing. Winfridus Bakker Cobb World Technical Support Team

T

he management and nutrition of breeders are important for the performance of the birds in order to

achieve the maximum number of vigorous and viable chicks.

This article summarizes some important aspects for optimizing chick quality: Breeding uniformity Conditioning of the female - muscle development and fat reserves at the time of light stimulation Importance of health programs Quality of fertile eggs

34 aviNews International December 2021 | Influence of breeder nutrition and management on flock performance

Reference guide for the evaluation of muscle development in the breast of heavy breeders during breeding.

Egg uniformity In broiler farms, uniform chicks from not too young breeders are preferred to prevent them from being too small

2

1

5

4

3

and less viable.

Conditioning (Fleshing) (%)

This factor will depend on the uniformity of the eggs and the

Week

2

3

management of the breeders,

12

70%

30%

especially during rearing.

16

45%

55%

18

14%

20 21 STD 21 Weeks

4

Pelvic fat

79%

6%

41%

6%

69%

25%

76%

4%

56%

41%

87%

50%

50%

90%

The uniformity in the size of birds is achieved mainly during the first 8 weeks.

From 16 weeks on, uniformity in muscle development (fleshing) and fat deposits become more significant in achieving good sexual uniformity.

Egg uniformity

80

88

84 65 82

Egg weight

60

80

55

78

Egg uniformity

86

70

Egg weight

Table 1 shows the expected rapid changes in muscle development (70% with grade 2 fleshing at 12 weeks; 79% of females with grade 3 fleshing at 18 weeks; and 97% of birds with a grade 3 or 4 at 21 weeks).

Figure 1 illustrates an example of the correlation between uniformity and egg weight for Cobb 500 FF (fast feather) hens.

90

75

breeders

Table 1. Conditioning (Fleshing) and pelvic fat of females

The average uniformity is 88.2%, with a spread of +/- 10%.

This means that the chicks should show > 80% uniformity at hatch, which is very acceptable.

76

50 25

30

35

40

45

50

55

60

Figure 1. Monitoring of egg weight and uniformity in a flock of Cobb 500 FF breeders

At 25 weeks, eggs weighing more than 50 g reach a uniformity> 80%, and this stabilizes at approximately 89%.

35

aviNews International December 2021 | Influence of breeder nutrition and management on flock performance

Light stimulation Normally there is a positive correlation

Chick feed conversion and growth

between the total amount of feed

can be improved simply by selecting

consumed and the body condition of the

broodstock that show better fleshing

females at the end of rearing - 21 weeks of

and a correct proportion of body fat,

age. This directly influences chick viability,

which is critical at the time of the first

at least during the first 6-8 hatches.

lighting stimulation, with the following objectives: Good sexual timing in females High peak and persistence of production High hatch rate, quality and vitality of chicks from an early age Reduction of mortality at the beginning of production

breeders

Progeny of breeders that did not receive enough nutrients or when a poorly balanced formula has been used may show higher early mortality.

36 aviNews International December 2021 | Influence of breeder nutrition and management on flock performance

12 weeks

It’s not easy to get the correct amount of total body fat just by measuring

Females should acquire age-appropriate conditioning

abdominal fat.

After 12 weeks of age, females should acquire age-appropriate conditioning, expressed through the level of muscle

At the level of muscle development

At the level of degree of accumulation

development and the degree of accumulation of pelvic fat.

Evaluate the condition of the females (fleshing)

It is important to analyze weekly weighing data along with feed consumption and uniformity, as well as observations on the birds themselves and the houses.

16, 19 and 21 weeks of age: evaluate the conditioning (fleshing) of the females.

19 and 21 weeks: assess pelvic fat stores.

A lower feed intake during rearing in productivity.

Overly restricting feed for example, results in an incorrect

breeders

25, 30 and 40 weeks: assess the level of abdominal fat stored to more accurately calculate reductions in feed consumption.

can produce very negative results

> 50 females at the aforementioned ages should be examined to assess and weigh abdominal fat and count the number of follicles > 2 cm in diameter.

body condition in females when stimulating them lightly, which is a catastrophic error.

It is extremely important to have fat storage.

No of follicles 9

3,0

7 6

2,5

5 4

2,0

3 2

1,5

1 0

Abdominal fat (%)

We must develop a feeding program that guarantees that at the time of light stimulation, more than 95% of the females have a muscular development of grade 3-4 (scale from 1 to 5 see Table 1), and more than 90% of the females must have sufficient pelvic fat.

3,5

8

Number of follicles

The age at which the breeders will start production must be determined (23-24 or 25 weeks of age) -

Abdominal fat 48

12

16

20

24

28

32

36

1,0

Number of birds

Figure 2. Relationship between the number of follicles and abdominal fat in 25-week-old female breeders

37 aviNews International December 2021 | Influence of breeder nutrition and management on flock performance

Egg production (HD %) Feeding of females (g) Male weight (g) Female weight (g) Average egg weight (g)

90 80

Percentage

70

7,0 6,5 6,0 5,5

60

5,0

50

4,5

40

4,0

30

3,5

20

3,0

10

2,5

0

Weight (kg)

60 weeks - 164,6 HE/HH 65 weeks - 172 HE/HH

100

2,0 20

24

28

32

36

40

44

48

52

56

60

64

Weeks

Figure 3 shows the performance of the flock up to 60 weeks with the body weight curve in females and males, the weights of the eggs and the amounts of feed supplied.

Figure 3. Performance of a breeder flock up to 60 weeks of age HH = Housed females; HE = hatching eggs 4000

2,7

Body weight

3900

2,6

3800

breeders

2,0

3600

3640 3560

3500

1,7

3300

3280

3200

1,5

3100 25

1,4

Abdominal fat

1,2 1,0

30

35

40

45

50

55

60

Hen age (weeks)

Figure 4. Percentage of abdominal fat and body weight during production

Females mobilize energy reserves from fat stores to meet their energy requirements.

It is critical to start the production cycle with sufficient fat storage, but without confusing a sufficient amount of storage at the start of the lighting program with excess body weight.

A higher body weight is not necessarily equivalent to a higher amount of fat reserve.

If the energy reserves at the beginning and during the peak of production are low, the feeding amount must be reduced more slowly.

Fat reserves are essential to obtain a good performance of the breeders

Figure 2 shows data from 36 females at 25 weeks with an average abdominal fat of 2%, which is considered adequate as an energy reserve. There is a tendency to have a greater number of follicles in birds with a higher percentage of fat.

2,0

1,6

Standard body weight

3020

2,2

1,8

1,7

3400

3000

3680

and a very good chick quality via the transfer of nutrients through the egg yolk.

38 aviNews International December 2021 | Influence of breeder nutrition and management on flock performance

Abdominal fat (%)

2,4

3700

Body weight

Females would be losing body fat up to 40 weeks of age (Figure 4), and then begin to accumulate fat again if feed intake is maintained or if feed reductions occur slowly.

2,8

Health program The deterioration of the quality of the shell indirectly affects the quality of the chicks. Vaccination programs should prevent diseases such as Newcastle disease, infectious bronchitis or avian influenza, which affect the external quality of the egg.

Consider the following: Simplify the program as much as possible Give vaccines correctly

The management of fertile eggs should keep the main objective to achieve a shell of optimal structure and cleanliness.

Shell contamination Disinfect fertile eggs immediately after collection to avoid bacterial contamination Implement a program to reduce floor eggs to <1% due to a 10% lower hatch rate and higher

good immune response

bacterial load

Vaccinations induce stress in

Correct distribution of equipment and

the feeding program, diverting

correct conditioning and percentage of

the necessary nutrients for the

pelvic fat so that females are inclined

development of the females

to use the nests more

Vaccinate with inactivated vaccines

Maintain optimal litter quality so

in the groin to reduce stress

that nests are kept clean

breeders

Distribute vaccinations to achieve a

Implement an immune system surveillance program

For the chicks to have excellent

Periodically review the vaccination

viability and achieve good body weight

program and implement any

in the first week of life, it is essential

necessary modifications

that they be of excellent quality.

The latter will depend on uniform

Shell quality Protect the shell against diseases that affect its integrity.

breeders with correct conditioning and sufficient fat reserves at the time of light stimulation.

This will be a sign that there has been

Avoid ingredients that affect hatch and

a good incorporation of nutrients

shell quality.

that will eventually be transferred

For crumbs, use fine-grained limestone.

Use > 50% coarse limestone rock (2-3 mm). Supplement with coarse calcium

to the fertile egg and will ultimately contribute to the vitality and productivity of the newborn chicks.

particles in the afternoons on the litter, particularly from 10 weeks before a substantial deterioration in the quality of the shell takes place.

Influence of breeder nutrition and management on flock performance

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39 aviNews International December 2021 | Influence of breeder nutrition and management on flock performance

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CHICK BODY

TEMPERATURE:

FROM THE HATCHERY TO THE FARM

hatchery

Juan Carlos López, PhD MSD, Salud Animal

A

At the time of hatching in poultry there are three physiological systems that are not fully developed:

Digestive Immune Temperature regulation

In this article we will talk about temperature regulation.

41 aviNews International December 2021 | Chick body temperature: from the hatchery to the farm

Body temperature at hatch Upon hatching, the birds are poikilothermic animals: their body

Egg ha

ing tch

temperature will rise or fall depending on the environmental temperature, requiring a metabolic effort by the birds.

It will take around 4 days for chicks

Body temperature as a function of external temperature

coming from adult flocks and 5 to 6 days for birds from young flocks for the thermoregulatory system to behave as homeothermic animals –constant body temperature–.

hatchery

It is proposed that birds from younger flocks present a different composition of lipids in their yolk, this being the factor that makes they need more time to go completely from poikilothermic to homeothermic.

Comfort zone There is a range of body temperature

Definition

known as the comfort zone, where the birds are comfortable with the temperature that surrounds them:

Minimal metabolic activity

Low energy expenditure

The cloacal temperature is above or below this range, adjustments should be made to the ambient temperature.

The ideal temperature should be between 39.5 – 40.5oC (103 - 105°F) the first three to four days after hatching. At 7 days the cloacal temperature tends to exceed 41,1 oC (106°F).

If the cloacal temperature is above or below this range, adjustments must be made to the ambient temperature.

42 aviNews International December 2021 | Chick body temperature: from the hatchery to the farm

Where to measure the cloacal temperature?

This information will help

Hatcher

6 hours before taking the chicks out.

us adjust the hatcher

At the moment of taking them out.

according to the batch of

temperature and ventilation eggs that is currently inside the machine.

If the birds’ temperature is above 40.5 °C (105 °F) and the machine’s cooling system does not allow the temperature to be lowered further, the birds must be removed and they must be placed in a room where they find their comfort zone.

hatchery

The bird on the left, after hatching, was exposed to the correct temperature in the hatcher and removed on time for sexing and processing.

The bird on the right was exposed to high temperatures for a prolonged period of time inside the hatcher. The dehydration of the breast of the bird on the right is striking.

After processing or service During sexing, vaccination, or in the beak or spur treatments, the temperature of the birds will drop to ranges of 38.3 - 38.9 °C (101-102 °F).

Particular care should be taken with birds after being exposed to spray vaccines, as their temperature can drop greatly if the drop is not correct. At the end of these operations, in the waiting room to be loaded in the truck, the birds must recover their body temperature between 39.5 - 40.5 ºC (103-105 °F).

43 aviNews International December 2021 | Chick body temperature: from the hatchery to the farm

During transportation Upon arrival at the destination farm, as chicks are being unloaded from the truck, it must be monitored the temperature of the birds inside the boxes.

hatchery

Preferably, the temperature of birds from different parts of the truck should be monitored, particularly when it is a large truck.

At the farm In addition to the correct air temperature of the house, it is important that the floor is acclimatized before the birds arrive.

The picture shows how the birds are distributed in a receiving ring depending on the litter temperature.

33.3 oC 91.94 oF

31.1 oC 87.98 oF 30.0 oC 86 oF

Note: not only the low temperature but also the high temperature will make the birds not look for feed and water. They will survive two or three days because of the nutrients they have in the yolk sac, but they will eventually die.

44 aviNews International December 2021 | Chick body temperature: from the hatchery to the farm

The photo shows a common error in some companies.

The birds, after being unloaded from the truck, spend long periods inside the stacked boxes under inadequate temperature before they get access to feed and water.

If the birds decide not to drink and eat as a result of a very adverse environmental situation, the necropsy will show signs of:

hatchery

Emaciation and dehydration, kidney inflammation Distended ureters with urates Increased gallbladder size and distention with bile Darkened and dehydrated muscles, especially the breast which lose its fleshy appearance

The body temperature of our birds depends entirely on how we handle them during the first days.

As the birds are out of their comfort zone 39.5–40.5 ºC at cloaca level (103-105 ° F) they will make metabolic adjustments that generate energy expenditure.

Chick body temperature: from hatchery to farm

The energy expenditure associated with different metabolic adjustments will be reflected in low weight gain, poor feed conversion ratio and lack of uniformity.

If the heat stress situation is strong and prolonged, the birds will stop drinking and eating to such an extent they will die.

DOWNLOAD THE PDF

45 aviNews International December 2021 | Chick body temperature: from the hatchery to the farm

ENSURING FLOCK PERFORMANCE, HEALTH AND LIVABILITY THROUGH A

MULTIFACTORIAL APPROACH

layers

Dr. Guillermo Zavala Avian Health International, USA

Antimicrobial use in commercial poultry has been drastically reduced or eliminated in recent years.

Improved livability without the need for medication is definitely a reality today in various breeds and breed crosses of commercial egg layers.

It is important to review some of the factors involved in maintaining flock health and performance without the need for medication.

Improving livability through genetic selection is a complex matter that is directly connected to the ability of flocks to achieve longer egg production cycles while maintaining excellent performance and without experiencing significant losses.

In the past, it was necessary to cut production cycles short or to induce molting in order to avoid metabolic diseases, reduce mortality and maintain eggshell quality. Today, long production cycles are common in many egg layer operations around the world.

Flocks can sustain long production cycles without significant detriment to their health, bone integrity and eggshell qualities.

A large part of the reason why chicken flocks can now achieve a production of up to 500 eggs by 100 weeks of age, is because livability to 100 weeks has improved dramatically in recent years.

And also because eggshell quality and proper egg size can be sustained for a long time without being affected detrimentally by age.

100 Weeks

500 Eggs

46 aviNews International December 2021 | Ensuring flock performance, health and livability through a multifactorial approach

INFRASTRUCTURE, HOUSING AND EQUIPMENT

Some general guidelines for promoting health and performance through management are listed as follows.

What is important is that the investment in infrastructure is geared to ensure permanent bird comfort, shelter from diseases and predators and minimal risk for foodborne pathogen contaminations.

Farm isolation contributes to minimizing disease risks. Additionally, a common mistake is to remove litter from one house after other houses on the farm have already been cleaned.

Multiage megafarms represent an attractive economic formula, but they are a challenge when it comes to maintaining flocks disease-free.

The type of housing and equipment should ensure thermal comfort at all times, excellent air quality and proper ventilation to reduce manure moisture and insect proliferation.

If pullets or hens are in cages, adequate bird density is absolutely critical for bird comfort, livability and performance.

If birds are on the floor, the litter must be managed such that it is never too dry or too humid.

47 aviNews International December 2021 | Ensuring flock performance, health and livability through a multifactorial approach

layers

Despite hens living better and longer, it is important to do everything possible to protect their health and welfare without the need for medication. In order to accomplish this goal, various aspects must be emphasized.

Farm and house design should always match the biosecurity and welfare needs of pullets and hens. Regarding infrastructure, it is not absolutely necessary to have the best and most expensive facilities.

LITTER

Whatever the infrastructure and equipment might be, one should always keep in mind the primary goals

Excessively dry litter is not conducive to proper resistance against coccidiosis after vaccination and is more prone to induce respiratory diseases.

Excessively moist litter contributes to fly proliferation, ammonia production and increased humidity in the air adding to bird discomfort.

layers

Birds with access to the outdoors should be provided with adequate shelters and drinking water in order to maintain health and livability.

AIR QUALITY Poor air quality leads to respiratory disease. It is imperative that dust particles are maintained at low levels as much as possible through ventilation in cage facilities, a task that is more difficult to accomplish in cage-free operations Dust particles may carry bacteria along and when inhaled, they contribute to a chronic challenge to the respiratory tract.

Ammonia can be a significant problem in certain types of housing.

Moderate to high ammonia concentration in the air may lead to paralysis of cilia in the upper respiratory tract and impairment of the phagocytic or antigen-processing ability of inflammatory cells when dealing with airborne pathogens.

48 aviNews International December 2021 | Ensuring flock performance, health and livability through a multifactorial approach

THERMAL COMFORT

Cold house temperature may result in higher feed consumption and increased egg size.

Hot house temperature may result in lower feed consumption and lower egg size or egg mass.

In addition, decreased feed consumption without adjusting calcium contents in the diet may result in decreased eggshell quality, increased downgrades at the egg grading and packing plant and/or increased egg losses during transportation and/or loss of bone mineralization.

WATER AVAILABILITY AND WATER QUALITY Water consumption should not be averaged to account for individual bird consumption per day. If possible, it is important to make sure that birds consume as much water as they need at critical times during the day and an effort should be made to determine water consumption patterns throughout the day and even in different areas of the barn.

In some locations water consumption might be highest during the hottest hours of the day.

layers

Maintaining pullets and hens within their proper thermal comfort zone at all ages and stages of production is essential for health, welfare, livability and performance.

However, in environmentally controlled houses, water consumption is highest in the last few hours of the day, before the lights are turned off. If low water pressure or drinker condition hinder water consumption at this critical time, egg production and health may be affected eventually.

Ideally, drinking water should be sourced out of closed reservoirs or water systems instead of using open bodies of water as a source.

Open bodies of water may occasionally display significant levels of bacterial contamination.

In addition, water sourced out of open reservoirs is a major risk for avian influenza contamination in areas where aquatic birds roam. Water with high mineral contents might also exert a detrimental impact on livability and performance.

49 aviNews International December 2021 | Ensuring flock performance, health and livability through a multifactorial approach

LIGHTS Artificial or natural lighting can influence productivity, bird behavior and even the livability of chicken flocks.

Pullets and hens exposed to excessive light intensity may exhibit a nervous and even aggressive behavior.

layers

Higher mortality in rows of cages exposed to direct sunlight is not uncommon.

Occasionally, there may be a discrepancy between the light intensity required by animal welfare auditors and what the flocks actually need.

Many times, it is necessary to dim the lights to below required levels to reduce hen nervousness, trauma and mortality.

HOUSING AND EQUIPMENT The type of housing and equipment design and maintenance can have a significant impact on flock health, welfare, livability and performance.

Cage design influences many aspects of production, health, welfare and even product wholesomeness.

The width, depth and height of cages influence feeder space, ease of access to drinking water, potential for feed contamination with feces, pullet or hen access to feces on the manure belts if the cage tops are too low, increased or reduced exposure to light, etc.

Some aviary systems are more conducive than others to trauma, keel deformities, feed and nest contamination with feces, coccidiosis, etc. Keeping chickens outdoors makes them more susceptible to predation if proper sheltering is not available.

House design and equipment distribution might make it easier or more difficult to vaccinate chickens successfully either in rearing or during production.

50 aviNews International December 2021 | Ensuring flock performance, health and livability through a multifactorial approach

NUTRITION AND FEEDING

FEED FORMULATION Feed formulation itself exerts a direct impact on bone integrity, hen activity, egg production and egg quality. In addition, certain nutrients can have a direct impact not only on production but also on health and livability.

The interactions of nutrition, feeding and flock health and performance are complex and too many to be discussed herein.

However, it should be mentioned that nutrition for pullets must focus in preparing the flock for a long cycle of production.

It is imperative that the pullets achieve the body weight, frame and uniformity recommended for the breed before they are transferred to the production facility.

Even if pullets appear clinically healthy, underweight birds may not contribute to peak egg production and may not be able to confront disease challenges effectively.

Often times, individual hens with higher feed consumption and a bigger body frame are more capable of coping with adversity, including infectious diseases.

Items as simple as feed and feed particle presentation can have a significant impact in pullet and hen health long term.

Excess sodium may result in flushing, while insufficient sodium in the diet depresses water and feed consumption and could even induce partial molting and egg production drops if the levels are too low for an extended period of time.

Excess calcium results in visceral gout, while deficient calcium causes loss of bone mass.

Choline chloride deficiency can lead to fatty liver hemorrhagic syndrome and mortality.

Abrupt reductions of methionine, lysine/methionine, tryptophan or crude protein in general could potentially cause behavioral changes, nervousness, feather loss and increased mortality.

HUSBANDRY AND WELFARE Good husbandry practices and preserving the welfare of chickens is essential to maintain their comfort, livability and performance at the highest possible levels.

Poor husbandry is detrimental to the welfare of chickens and often results in increased disease susceptibility, suboptimal performance and higher mortality.

51 aviNews International December 2021 | Ensuring flock performance, health and livability through a multifactorial approach

layers

Low calcium levels lead to loss of bone mass and if too severe, may cause lameness or lack of mobility, making chickens more prone to being trampled or unable to move to reach water and feed.

BIOSECURITY AND IMMUNIZATION A bio secure environment is an essential component of disease prevention. It is always prudent to immunize chickens by vaccination against common infectious diseases potentially present in the area.

Biosecurity should be designed to minimize the risk of infection, whereas immunization is done to increase resistance against disease.

layers

The pathogen dose required to successfully infect chickens increases in vaccinated chickens.

Vaccination may prevent infection and disease altogether or it may reduce clinical signs, pathogen shedding (excretion), production losses and mortality.

Flocks that are sheltered against disease through vaccination and biosecurity are also less likely to require therapeutic support through the use of antimicrobials.

Ensuring flock performance, health and livability through a multifactorial approach

DOWNLOAD IN PDF

Before the advent of effective vaccines, various infectious diseases used to require preventative treatment with anti-parasitic or antimicrobial drugs. Today, the combination of improved livability through genetic selection and better nutrition, husbandry, housing and equipment, biosecurity and vaccination can result in excellent flock health and performance without the need for antimicrobial use.

Source: Hendrix Genetics https://layinghens.hendrix-genetics.com/en/

52 aviNews International December 2021 | Ensuring flock performance, health and livability through a multifactorial approach

Specialized in poultry equipment Best performance Project suppor t Customer service

brand

The value of a

with 35 years

oultry

innovating in p

Polígono Morea Norte, Calle C - Nº 2 • 31191 Beriáin, Navarra (Spain) +34 948 368 301 • contact@zucami.com • www.zucami.com

PROMOTING GROWTH

IN AN ANTIBIOTIC-FREE ENVIRONMENT

nutrition

Dr. Steve Leeson Professor Emeritus, Guelph University, Ontario, Canada

D

igestibility has always been a topic of interest to poultry nutritionists. Over the last 50 years, we have come to appreciate

the role of various regions of the digestive tract and their impact on the digestion, absorption and maturation of poultry.

Since the development period of broilers has been reduced, the importance of these functions in the start-up phase has increased.

Nowadays, it is difficult to reach a weight at normal slaughter age if the growth rate is delayed during the first 7 days of growth, regardless of what the reasons for that may be.

54 aviNews International December 2021 | Promoting growth in an antibiotic-free environment

The study of digestion in young birds has revealed that the digestive ability of chicks is still “immature” and therefore, a new industry has emerged, supplementing feed with a variety of enzymes and other additives designed to limit early digestion.

The chick is born with an intestine practically free of microbes, so early colonizers tend to predominate. The undigested nutrients will be available to promote microbial growth in the distal portions of the intestine and cecum, and if they include pathogenic bacteria, the chick will be at a disadvantage.

The “normal” gut microbiota develops rapidly, so that the bacterial load and the species the delivery trucks and during the first days on the farm will determine early colonization.

The Nurmi concept of manipulation of the gut microbiota is based on the early introduction of non-pathogenic microbes.

Ideally, these microbes will help prevent pathogen colonization and competitive exclusion (CE), which will undoubtedly be one of the future management tools used in broiler production.

Early and rapid development of the intestinal epithelium is another prerequisite for normal digestion. Intestinal villi and microvilli grow rapidly in the first few days, and any delay in this process will lead to reduced nutrient uptake and increased nutrient availability for anaerobic pathogens.

55 aviNews International December 2021 | Promoting growth in an antibiotic-free environment

nutrition

present in the hatchery processing belt, inside

The presence of pathogens, mycotoxins, and animal & plant toxins delay the development of microvilli. The selection of highly digestible ingredients, free of natural toxins, is important to ensure a rapid and early bowel development.

Butyric acid, either in food or as a consequence of fermentation of non-starch polysaccharides, is important

Some bacteria are able to colonize

for the development of microvilli.

because they are able to break down

As the epithelium develops within the

this protective mucous layer.

microvilli, the secreted mucosa acts as an important barrier against pathogenic colonization and self-digestion by the bird’s own digestive enzymes.

Helicobacter pylori, the bacteria that causes gastric ulcers in people, secretes the urease enzyme that destroys the mucous lining,

nutrition

exposing the gastric wall to the action of hydrochloric acid and pepsin in the stomach.

It would be interesting to study the intestinal microbiota of birds fed with a soybean meal rich in urease.

Currently, the fate of undigested nutrients is taking on the same importance as that of digested nutrients.

In the past, 12-20% of indigestible ingredients were considered to be a problem associated with stool consistency and litter quality.

We now know that indigestible material influences microbial growth, especially in the large intestine and cecum.

Enhancing microbial growth will be of enormous importance in a setting where growth promoting antibiotics are no longer used, especially in the absence of anticoccidial ionophores.

56 aviNews International December 2021 | Promoting growth in an antibiotic-free environment

Carbohydrate digestion Most of the digestion occurs in the jejunum.

Approximately 60-70% of the starch present in cereals is in the form of mono- or di-saccharides by the time the digesta reaches the proximal ileum, while 95% of the starch is digested when it reaches the terminal ileum.

The main factor influencing carbohydrate digestion is the content of complex polysaccharides, such as cellulose and lignin. There is very little lignin in diets based on corn-SBM

nutrition

(corn and soybean meal), so that cellulose becomes the main limitation of digestibility.

Despite the fact that up to 10% of dietary cellulose disappears in the digestive tract, the greatest loss is associated with microbial activity in the large intestine and cecum, where the products of digestion have limited utility for the bird but favor microbial growth.

There are other polysaccharides that are of greatest interest to poultry nutritionists, such as hemicelluloses, pentosans, β-glucans and oligosaccharides (stachyose and raffinose) that are found in oilseed meal, and which together are known as non-starch polysaccharides (or NSPs).

57 aviNews International December 2021 | Promoting growth in an antibiotic-free environment

Normally, there is a negative correlation between carbohydrate digestibility and the high-level content of pentosans and β-glucans.

Unfortunately, these undigested polysaccharides have the adverse effect of absorbing large amounts of water from the digesta, creating a more viscous medium.

Consequently, there is less possibility of contact of all substrates with digestive enzymes and all digested products may not reach the intestinal microvilli.

These complex carbohydrates reduce the digestibility of all the nutrients present in the food bolus, not only that

nutrition

of carbohydrates, irremediably leading to bacterial overgrowth.

Fortunately, exogenous enzymes such as xylanase and β-glucanase can currently be added to the feed, eliminating the problems associated with its viscosity, thus improving digestibility of the nutrients and achieving a better balance of the intestinal microbiota.

Alpha-galactosaccharides, commonly known as oligosaccharides, account for up to 12% of the carbohydrates present in soybean meal.

The most common components are stachyose, raffinose and cellobiose.

Although they can be extracted with ethanol, these oligosaccharides are not removed from the soybean by chemical extraction of fat with hexane, the residue of which is partly responsible for the low amount of digestible energy in soybean flour for poultry farming.

Due to the absence of β-galactosidase activity in the intestinal mucosa, there is interest in adding exogenous enzymes to the feed and / or extracting the polysaccharides by ethanol.

58 aviNews International December 2021 | Promoting growth in an antibiotic-free environment

Protein digestion The proventriculus is the first point of protein degradation thanks to the action of secretions that include hydrochloric acid and the enzyme pepsin.

Before the feed reaches the proventriculus and the gizzard, the pH of the secretions may be as low as 1.5-2, but under the buffering conditions of the food the pH increases to 3.5-5.

An active gizzard with a low pH has great antibacterial properties, although it has less impact on the passage of coccidia oocysts.

nutrition

A considerable part of the endogenous protein enters the digestive tract in the form of saliva, gastric juices, pancreatic juices and desquamated epithelial cells from the intestinal mucosa and mucins. This endogenous protein should not be confused with endogenous nitrogen losses through urine, since endogenous protein is digested and used by the animal, while endogenous nitrogen lost through urine must be replenished daily by additional dietary protein.

The increased flow of endogenous nitrogen into the large intestine brings with it a greater potential for microbial overgrowth.

59 aviNews International December 2021 | Promoting growth in an antibiotic-free environment

Fat digestion The digestion and absorption of fat occurs mainly in the small intestine. Lipase activity increases rapidly during the first 10 days of life.

For example, at the level of the duodenum, lipase activity increases by up to 100 times between 4 and 15 days after birth.

Digestion is enhanced by the emulsifying properties of bile salts, since lipases are only active at an oil-water interface.

Medium chain fatty acids and triglycerides do not seem to need the prerequisite of micelles formation before digestion and absorption, so they are interesting ingredients in the case of starter diets.

Water-insoluble components such as fatty

nutrition

acids and monoglycerides cannot form micelles by themselves but can form stable mixed micelles with conjugated bile salts.

Saturated fatty acids, such as palmitic and stearic acids, are apolar, have high melting points and are only slightly soluble in the bile salt emulsion. However, they are remarkably soluble in the presence of a mixed micelle.

The balance between saturated and unsaturated fatty acids present in the diet and the amount of bile salts are important factors in fat absorption.

A saturated fatty acid will be easily absorbed if it is at position 2 of a triglyceride, since monoglycerides with saturated fatty acids are better absorbed than when they are in the form of free saturated fatty acids.

60 aviNews International December 2021 | Promoting growth in an antibiotic-free environment

Balanced feed formulation Although soybean meal diets are considered the standard in poultry farming, there is evidence that their digestibility is sub-optimal in the case of the young chick. Compared to expected values, there is a reduction of up to 10-15% in Apparent Metabolizable Energy and amino acid digestion in chicks less than 5-10 days old.

appears to be lysine and serine, and

formulations, the idea is to correct

limiting their flow into the large intestine

such deficiencies and increase the

using expensive animal proteins is one

rate of early growth and/or reduce

strategy for limiting bacterial overgrowth.

microbial overgrowth.

In the study of intestinal health we are

The application of newer techniques,

very limited by our lack of knowledge,

including the identification of microbial

with precision, of the normal microbiota

DNA, may shed light on the complexity of

present in healthy birds.

the microbes, especially how the change in

It has been suggested that, at most,

response to different types of diets.

conventional culture techniques manage to isolate only 5% of the bacterial species present in the intestine.

61 aviNews International December 2021 | Promoting growth in an antibiotic-free environment

nutrition

The limiting amino acid for clostridia In the case of starter diet

Future prospects

Regardless of the strategies employed in preventing the proliferation of pathogens in

Optimizing digestion, or rather minimizing indigestion, is a viable strategy to limit microbial overgrowth

production, we must remember that microbes are opportunists with a remarkable ability to adapt to new environments.

in the gut and cecum. There is no simple substitute for growth-promoting antibiotics, and future management guidelines need to be multifaceted.

No strategy is likely to be effective

Table 1 lists some of the approaches to

in the long term, so we must be

limiting the flow of nutrients to intestinal

prepared to be flexible with our

pathogens. There is an opportunity

dietary programs, food additives and

for feeding specialized starter diets

management practices.

and, although they are more expensive compared to conventional diets, they have the potential to provide long-term benefits beyond those observed at the Table 1. Potential actions to limit the supply of nutrients for intestinal pathogens

time of supply.

nutrition

Today, there is an extensive list of “alternatives” to antibiotic growth promoters, and many of these are

Food Nutrients

Reduce excess N Limit NDPs Adapt the fatty acid profile to the age of the bird Diet planning (changes)

Ingredients present in the food

Limit “low” quality proteins Optimize fat quality Strengthen QA procedures (Quality Assurance) for young birds Monitor the quality of SBM diets

Food Manufacturing

Thermal cooking?

Particle size of the ingredients Heat / QA procedure time Starter diets

Food Additives

Enzymes Probiotics Prebiotics Mananoligosaccharides (MOS), etc.

Organic acids Medium chain triglycerides In-ovo nutrition

Management

Incubation temperature Bed conditions

undoubtedly incorporated by the broiler industry.

As we learn more about bacterial populations, we gain knowledge about their nutritional needs and conditions of proliferation.

Our understanding of the interaction between microbial populations and digestion should not divert our attention from the importance of basic principles of broiler management. Incubation practices are increasingly important in optimizing normal intestinal function and minimizing pathogen growth.

Action

Area

Promoting growth in an antibiotic-free environment PDF DOWNLOAD

62 aviNews International December 2021 | Promoting growth in an antibiotic-free environment

CURRENT TRENDS IN VACCINE DEVELOPMENT Edgar O. Oviedo-Rondón North Carolina State University, Prestage Department of Poultry Science, Raleigh, NC

vaccine

Vaccines boost the animal’s immune system to produce local and systemic humoral and cellular responses to fight the infection caused by specific organisms.

First of all, keep in mind that the efficacy of vaccines to control poultry diseases depends on many factors.

It is important to select the right type of vaccine.

The best adjuvant.

The correct time of application.

The growing demand for antibiotic-free and organic productions and the rising antimicrobial resistance fuels the interest in using immunological control methods for many infectious diseases as an alternative to traditional chemotherapy.

Viral variants increase the pressure to develop vaccines that keep up with virus evolution and minimize potential mutations among vaccine viral strains.

It has been estimated that the market of poultry vaccines will grow 6% in the next five years worldwide.

This article intends to review the trends in vaccine development with a special focus on bacterial poultry vaccines.

Avoid errors in vaccine storage and transportation.

And optimize administration methods to cover the population.

Vaccine failure also can occur due to: Host factors such as stress.

Immunodepression.

Interference with maternally derived antibodies.

Nutritional status.

Among other factors.

The new vaccines have been designed to overcome many of the most common issues observed in practical applications.

64 aviNews International December 2021 | Current trends in vaccine development

THE EVOLUTION OF POULTRY VACCINES POULTRY VACCINES HAVE EVOLVED IN THREE MAIN GENERATIONS The first one was based on the whole microbial organism, either live-attenuated or inactivated with the killed agent.

2

The second generation of vaccines includes vectors or subunits of the microorganism expressing proteins or metabolic products like the toxoids for bacterial vaccines.

3

And, the third generation employs vaccination by transferring specific antigens generated by molecular manipulations or the nucleic acids into the host to stimulate the expression of the appropriate antigen.

All three generations of vaccines will continue impacting poultry medicine as technologies related to adjuvant formulations, delivery mechanisms, and molecular methods advance.

However, it is understandable that live attenuated vaccine development will decrease while nucleic acid, subunit, vector, and DNA vaccines will increase. Let’s review each one of these three aspects that can improve vaccine development.

ADJUVANT FORMULATIONS THE TRADITIONAL ADJUVANTS HAVE BEEN GROUPED INTO THREE CATEGORIES: 1

Water in oil.

2

Oil in water.

3

Aluminum hydroxide.

vaccine

1

They are used with the inactivated vaccines. The choice among them for specific vaccines depends on what is proven to be safer and more efficacious.

Recently, registered new adjuvants have replaced the mineral oils and included immunomodulators.

These molecules boost both humoral and cellular immunity.

Additionally, triglycerides, acrylic polymers, and cholesterol have improved the adjuvant effect and the delivery mainly of nucleic acids and proteins.

The formulations that include these components are called lipid nanoparticle platforms or LNPs.

65 aviNews International December 2021 | Current trends in vaccine development

DELIVERY FORMULATIONS The LNPs could include single to multiple ingredients and can be optimized to carry RNA, mRNA, DNA, plasmids, immunomodulators, and select antigenic proteins. The new LPNs have reduced the volume to deliver per vaccine dose, reducing manufacturing costs and the efficacious dose.

vaccine

MOLECULAR DEVELOPMENTS Molecular technologies like next-generation sequencing (NGS), DNA printing and assembly, and Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats-associated protein 9 (CRISPR-cas9) provide several opportunities for vaccine development.

It is now possible to create completely safe and efficacious live and inactivated vaccinations for long-lived birds.

Additionally, developing vaccines faster and obtaining regulatory approvals will be feasible since their development does not include pathogens or animal products.

The NGS has become a common tool in diagnostic laboratories.

The complete genome of bacteria, viruses, and parasites is elucidated to determine factors related to pathogenicity and virulence.

With the new bioinformatics tools, it has been possible to decide on genes of interest to insert them in established vectors to deliver more efficacious antigens.

DNA printing and rapid assembly techniques have allowed creating both DNA and RNA microorganisms in vitro without using animal origin materials.

This technology helps with the production of vaccines without the regulatory difficulties that traditional methods had.

Furthermore, these technologies allow vector optimization, rapid microbial genome deletions, insertions, and mutations needed to manipulate the microbial genome for genome optimization and compartmentalization.

In the same manner, the CRISPR-cas9 technology allows cutting the microbial genome at specific locations.

Consequently, the existing microbial genes can be edited, removed and new genes can be added.

This is another technology for vector optimization and microbial genome deletion.

For example, in a recent study lead by Chang et al., 2019 the gene-editing tool CRISPR-cas9 was used to insert an avian influenza gene into the turkey herpesvirus (HVT) used in Marek’s disease vaccines. The gene codes for haemagglutinin (H7), an influenza protein pivotal for virus entry into host cells.

This methodology helps to create a bivalent vaccine to stimulate host immune response to block infection of both Marek’s and avian influenza. These technologies are helping to develop attenuated microorganisms and more antigenic products in a shorter period.

66 aviNews International December 2021 | Current trends in vaccine development

Bacterial pathogens resist most disease control methods like antimicrobials.

Sanitation and reduced transmission are probably still the more effective methods. Vaccines play a role in reducing transmission and infection rates.

Bacterial poultry vaccines were traditionally developed from the whole bacteria, and they could be either live or inactivated.

Nowadays, other vaccines have been developed with subunits, recombinant DNA, and DNA vaccines.

VACCINES: The living vaccines include attenuated non-pathogenic strains, low virulence microorganisms, and gene deletions.

The methods of inactivation for killed vaccines include heat, chemicals, and radiation. All these inactivated vaccines are metabolic product vaccines or toxoids.

There are also subunit vaccines containing whole-bacteria-cell proteins, outer membrane proteins, purified flagellar proteins or flagellins, fimbrial proteins, pilus proteins, and lipopolysaccharides. These proteins are very variable, but there are some regions well-conserved and with immunogenic properties.

THE LIVE ATTENUATED VACCINES The live attenuated vaccines contain living microorganisms capable of multiplication within the host, but they are either avirulent or have been attenuated.

These vaccines stimulate cell-mediated responses similar to natural infection.

Salmonella typhimurium, S. enteritidis, and S. gallinarum 9 R strain vaccines have been developed in this way.

But the issue is that some vaccine strains can be transmitted from vaccinated birds to unvaccinated birds.

Vaccine strains of Mycoplasma gallisepticum like ts-11 and 6/85 have been transmitted in this way to unvaccinated flocks.

To avoid this issue some vaccines, contain specific bacteria strains that have been genetically manipulated to delete particular genes that make them self-limiting and, in this way, do not persist in the bird.

As examples in the market, there are live attenuated and live mutant E. coli vaccines with deletion of aroA gene or crp gene, respectively.

Attenuated or avirulent bacteria can be used as vehicles for the delivery of other vaccines. For example, attenuated Salmonella strains can be carrier vaccines to prevent necrotic enteritis.

Other vaccines have been produced by recombinant DNA technology or are DNA vaccines.

67 aviNews International December 2021 | Current trends in vaccine development

vaccine

THE CASE OF BACTERIAL POULTRY VACCINES

INACTIVATED OR KILLED VACCINES Inactivated or killed vaccines are also called bacterins. They can be obtained by heat (60 oC for one hour), chemical (ethylene oxide, ethyleneimine acetylmethylamine, and β-propiolactone), and gamma radiation (cobalt 60) inactivation.

Many times, these bacterins are combined with more than one microorganism inducing a wider spectrum of protection. It has been common to apply a combination of live and inactivated vaccines to provide better protection.

vaccine

TOXOIDS Soluble toxins rendered non-toxic by the addition of formalin, carbonation, or gentle heating can induce immunity against diseases like Salmonella or Clostridium perfringens.

These vaccines are called toxoids.

SUBUNIT VACCINES The second generation of bacterial vaccines is subunit vaccines using one or a few immunogenic epitopes of the infectious agent.

Subunit vaccines are safer since they are unable to replicate.

However, in some cases, multiple doses with these acellular fractions might be needed to confer long-lasting immunity.

Whole-cell proteins have been used with surface antigen proteins of E. coli, ammonium sulfate perceptible proteins of Pasteurella multocida serotype 6 B, or outer membrane proteins of S. enteritidis, and Campylobacter jejuni.

Bacterial vaccines also have been developed with purified native flagellin or fimbrial proteins of C. jejuni, S. enteritidis, and P. aureginosa.

Vaccines against E. coli have been developed with pilus proteins or capsular polysaccharides subunits.

Despite the great variability on these subunits, the ones selected for vaccines can stimulate immunity against a great variety of field strains.

68 aviNews International December 2021 | Current trends in vaccine development

Additionally, particles protect the antigens from the digestive system and prolong antigenic exposure.

DNA VACCINES Finally, DNA vaccines use the DNA encoding the gene of the antigen protein ligated to a plasmid to directly inoculated the plasma into the host tissues.

The nanoparticles are formulated with copolymer, methyl vinyl ether, and maleic anhydride.

This plasmid will cause the expression of the antigen protein within the transfected cells. The expressed protein is the one that stimulates the bird’s immune system.

The protective effects of nanoparticles for Salmonella subunit vaccine were recently evaluated with success by Ochoa-Reparaz et al., 2021.

These vaccines have many advantages like no risk of infection, no purification costs, or antigen denaturation during preparation.

THE THIRD GENERATION OF BACTERIAL VACCINES INCLUDES RECOMBINANT DNA TECHNOLOGIES Identifying antigenic-coding genes has allowed these isolated genes to be ligated to a cloning vector or plasmid in a bacterial vector-like E. coli or yeast cells.

The produced recombinant antigen is identified with markers in the grown culture to be purified and used as a vaccine.

This methodology has been used for vaccines against S. enteritidis, Campylobacter jejuni, Pasteurella multocida, and P. haemolytica.

The endogenous production of these antigenic proteins enhances cell-mediated immunity.

The vaccine is very stable to temperatures and consequently reduces the costs of cold chains.

The DNA vaccines do not interfere the maternal immunity, and with a single dose, they could induce long-term immunity.

For these advantages, the trend on vaccine development is to use more of these DNA vaccines in the future.

However, consumer perceptions due to a general lack of understanding of immunology could be a limitation.

69 aviNews International December 2021 | Current trends in vaccine development

vaccine

Some conserved surface molecules of these bacteria can serve as protective antigens. Adjuvants are used to increase the effectiveness of acellular vaccines.

However, particulate carrier systems such as microparticles and nanoparticles may enhance antigenic mucosal bioavailability even after one single dose.

AUTOGENOUS VACCINES Another trend to consider in vaccine development is the production and use of autogenous vaccines that complement vaccination programs using tailor-made antigenic variants specific to some companies or regions.

Autogenous bacterins and toxoids were probably the first ones to be developed.

vaccine

Currently, antigenic variants of reovirus, infectious bursal disease virus (IBDV), and infectious bronchitis virus (IBV) are frequently isolated.

The antigenic and pathogenic characteristics of virus isolates are determined to evaluate modifications in the vaccination programs and the potential for developing autogenous vaccines.

Several companies are offering these services in many countries.

The experience has been that IBV variants generally are not antigenically different from already utilized vaccines. The full study of isolation, serotypification, and challenges help determine changes in administration methods, vaccine doses, and vaccination age.

After complete studies of pathotypification and genotypification, emerging antigenic variants of IBDV and reovirus are discovered and used to produce autogenous vaccines.

These vaccines are applied to breeders to expand antigenic diversity and coverage of the vaccination program.

The efficacy of these vaccines is evaluated in several ways, but especially in the broiler progeny.

Autogenous vaccine development has to follow local regulations. Still, there is plenty of evidence that autogenous vaccines have been a solution to local poultry emerging disease challenges for many poultry companies.

IN CONCLUSION Molecular methods guide the development of safer and more efficacious vaccines while keeping up with the evolution of diseases.

The new vaccines may overcome issues related to thermal stability and the need for a cold chain of vaccines.

Many other problems of vaccine stability and efficacy could be solved soon.

Current trends in vaccine development

DOWNLOAD AS PDF DOCUMENT.

70 aviNews International December 2021 | Current trends in vaccine development

ON-FARM

farm report

HATCHING IS BENEFICIAL

O

n-farm hatching offers healthy birds with a better feed conversion and higher

slaughter weight. These and other advantages are the result of early feeding in broiler growing. Bart Janssen from The Netherlands has been using this system on his farm successfully for six years already.

By Ad Bal.

72 aviNews International December 2021 | On-farm hatching is beneficial

farm report “On-farm hatching is an excellent way to grow broilers”, says Bart Janssen. “I am convinced about that.”

The on-farm hatching Bart, together with his wife Ellly, owns and

system, is used in each

runs a broiler growing farm nearby the

house, making this farm

village of Zuidvelde in The Netherlands.

peculiar. Apart from that, an

Their farm is not very regular. Yet it is truly

impressive wood burning system is

a full size professional operation. The farm

heating all of the poultry houses,

has capacity for 500.000 broilers, which are

as well as the living houses of Elly

kept in two ages and in thirteen houses.

and Bart and his parents. In order to let this be possible, the aim is

Bart took over the farm from his parents,

to have a stock supply of 6.000

who started in the year 1975 with 10.000

cubic meters of chopped wood

birds only. Within a period of 5 years,

at the end of winter. Indeed this

capacity moved up to 90.000 birds and

is quite an impressive volume,

onwards to its current size. Bart (age

piling at the yard.

43) joined the family owned farm in the year 2000 and moved on in further professionalizing the operation.

73 aviNews International December 2021 | On-farm hatching is beneficial

Serious investment Most remarkable asset of this farm however, is the X-Treck system in which Bart first invested in 2015.

farm report

Bart: “Vencomatic earlier introduced the Patio system and we had closely followed the results of this system.

Both bird performance and economic results appeared to be positive. We were more interested in the X-Treck floor system however, which is based on the same principle. To find out whether or not we would go for this, we decided to install the system in one of our houses when it was first introduced. Since this turned out to be very positive, we decided to fully switch to this system in all of our houses.”

“The investment in such a system is of course serious business”, Bart continues. “Compared to the traditional system, the investment is by around 7-8 percent higher. However, return on investment is only 3 years. And the reward from then on is considerable.

The great benefit of on-farm hatching is raising healthy birds from the moment of hatch. The advantage is that the chicks then experience minimum stress. And not just that, also they have direct access to feed and water. This strongly activates the immune system in their early stage of life. Another benefit is that we buy incubated eggs, rather than day old chicks. Usually cost price of an egg is by around 2 eurocent lower compared to a day-old chick. “

From the moment of hatch, the chicks have immediate access to feed and water

Tight schedule A very tight management and planning schedule are needed however for running the system successfully, says Bart.

Bart Janssen is growing 500.000 birds in 13 houses, in all of which the Vencomatic X-treck system is installed

“Otherwise you will lose time and then the investment will not be profitable. Our birds are taken to processing on Monday and Tuesday. On Wednesday immediately thereafter, everything must be cleaned and disinfected.

On Thursday we put new litter on the floor and fumigate the house with ammonia to expel formaldehyde. On Friday the eggs arrive at day 18 of incubation. In order to let eggshell temperature stay at a temperature of 36-37 degrees Celsius, temperature inside the house must be 33 degrees Celsius at the moment the eggs are placed in the racks at about 15 centimetres above floor level. The two temperatures are related to each other and this is essential for successful hatching. “

74 aviNews International December 2021 | On-farm hatching is beneficial

farm report

Bart Janssen: “On farm hatching is very beneficial, but demands tight management”

Efficient and profitable From the moment of hatch, the growing cycle starts. According to Bart, in most cases hatchability is by around 98-99 percent. Mortality is not really lower, but the Feed Conversion Ratio is 3 to 4 points better and on average we achieve 100 grams higher weight at slaughter.

Moreover, the immune system of the birds is triggered in an early stage. As a result,

“On-farm hatching truly demands tight management. It is a comprehensive approach and not just one element to improve”, Bart summarizes.

“However, it makes us more flexible and it is an efficient and profitable way of running our business.

Next step will be receiving the incubated eggs at day 19.

That will make on-farm hatching even more beneficial.

Make your own calculation: 500.000 birds times 1 day gain, times 7,5 growing cycles per year.. Truly successful and beneficial”, Bart Janssen concludes.

the use of antibiotics in our flocks is substantially lower.

On-farm hatching is beneficial

DOWNLOAD PDF

75 aviNews International December 2021 | On-farm hatching is beneficial

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interview

PROFESSOR DR. NING YANG

INTERVIEW

PRESIDENT WPSA

by Ad Bal

“Scientific research remains of great importance” The World’s Poultry Science Association (WPSA) is celebrating its centennial this year (2021). Much has been achieved ever since. Which will be the future challenges however? With no doubt finding new feed sources, says WPSA present Professor Ning Yang. And for breeding companies to maintain genetic diversity. Scientific research remains of great importance across the globe.

77 aviNews International December 2021 | Interview with Professor Dr. Ning Yang, President WPSA

USA model copied “WPSA is the oldest and largest global organization, dedicated to poultry research and education in the industry”, says president Professor Ning Yang from China.

After having achieved this milestone, we can look back and see the tremendous progress that has been made over the years.

Poultry scientists across the globe have largely contributed to the growth of the poultry science community and the rapid

interview

development of poultry production.

This is of tremendous importance.

After all, poultry is the most affordable animal protein source in the world. It is nutritious and healthy food. Two years ago poultry meat even surpassed pork and is now the biggest animal protein source in the world. Of course, this was partly due to the outbreak of African Swine Fever (ASF) in Asia. Also without this epidemic however, chicken would have been in the favorite position like it is now. Also eggs are very good and

“On the meat side, the USA has taken the lead”, Dr Yang continues.

“The major breeding companies originate from this country and the USA model of raising high productive hybrid birds has been copied to other places in the world, like Thailand and China.

In China however, the market is diversified.

Consumers have other preferences. The yellow feathered, slow growing broiler is quite popular. This kind of bird is bred locally with indigenous breeds. The yellow feathered chicken is preferred because of the flavor and texture of the meat, and traditionally cooked as whole bird, for which the current global breeds are not suitable. Interesting to learn by the way, that there is a new type of hybrid chicken by crossing a heavy male from a meat type strain with dams from high productive layer line, which produces 260 hatching eggs. These chicks are much less expensive and less stressful than commercial broiler breeds, and can achieve marketing weight of 1.5-1.8 kg by 5-6 weeks of age. This new hybrid model can find significant application in the developing world.

affordable food, which is particularly favorable for developing countries. “

78 aviNews International December 2021 | Interview with Professor Dr. Ning Yang, President WPSA

This makes clear that there is not “one

For breeding companies therefore, both

size fits all” in poultry breeding and raising

on the egg and the meat side, it is an

around the world. But there are similarities

ongoing challenge to maintain genetic

as well and this is the basis for scientists

diversity and thus meet with the demands

working together and sharing knowledge

of the various regions and markets in the

within the global WPSA organization. In

world. Logically, science and knowledge

this context, scientists from commercial

will remain essential in the further

companies, research institutes and universities

development of the poultry industry.”

around the world join their forces to find

Ongoing challenge “It is an ongoing process”, Dr Yang continues. “However, we cannot close our eyes for reality. Feed conversion ratio (FCR) has gone down to the lowest level ever and commercial layers nowadays are able to produce even up to 500 eggs during their productive life

These birds are working so hard. But circumstances around the world much differ. Compare central Africa with

Ensuring feed supply What I see as the major challenges of the future? With no doubt feed supply will be the leading theme.

Soy and corn supply will be insufficient in the decades to come, to feed the growing world population. So first of all increasing efficiency, but also find alternatives in whatever way such as insects. Hands on again for WPSA scientists across the globe!”

the USA and Scandinavia for example.

There are major differences in terms of climate, housing conditions, tradition, religion, prosperity and so on.

79 aviNews International December 2021 | Interview with Professor Dr. Ning Yang, President WPSA

interview

even better ways of poultry production. “

100 years WPSA The World’s Poultry Association was officially founded in 1916 in London. In 1921 the first world congress was held in The Hague, The Netherlands. From then, with an interval of 3 years, these congresses were held around the world until World War II. During a 9 year period there were no world congresses.

From 1954, WPSA switched to a 4 year interval. As of the last world congress in Beijing China in 2016, professor Ning Yang took the position of President.

Last year, the World congress was scheduled to be held in Paris, France.

interview

And Professor Ning Yang should have handed over Presidency to the President of the French branch,

Professor Dr. Ning Yang biography

Dr. Michèle Tixier-Boichard.

Dr. Yang obtained his PhD in 1990 from Beijing Agricultural University and

Due to Covid 19 however, this

worked as visiting professor at Virginia Tech, USA.

congress is now scheduled for 2022.

An alternative celebration of the

Now he is Chair Professor of China

centennial of WPSA, is taking place

Agricultural University and Director of National Engineering Laboratory for

through webinars, allowing scientists to meet in a different way than usual.

Apart from the world congresses, also topic specific congresses are held regionally.

Nowadays, with its national branches, WPSA counts 8000 members and is represented in 80 countries across the world.

Interview with Professor Dr. Ning Yang, President WPSA DOWNLOAD THE PDF

Animal Breeding.

Since 2016 he is also serving as the President of World’s Poultry Science Association.

Dr. Yang is working in the field of animal genetics and breeding, with focus on poultry genomics and genetics; has published over 260 research papers in referred journals and book chapters.

He is the Chief Scientist for the National System for Layer Production Technology of China and plays leading roles in several academic associations and committees.

80 aviNews International December 2021 | Interview with Professor Dr. Ning Yang, President WPSA

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