aviNews International July 2021

Issue Nº 5

July 2021

THE BENEFITS BEHIND THE

INTERNET OF ANIMALS Edgar O. Oviedo Rondón

p. 4

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POINTING IN THE RIGHT DIRECTION

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EDITOR

B

roiler growing is a profession. Not just raising birds in a couple of weeks to their slaughter weight and not caring for the flock in a proper way. On the contrary! Professional broiler growers are dedicated to their job. They care for their birds.

Yet, regrettably the public opinion is often still negative in this respect. At least in my home country The Netherlands, animal rights watch “Wakker Dier” (animal awake) created the phenomenon “exploding chicken”.

Professional poultry producers across the globe do understand this reality.

Yet they make efforts to further improve and professionalize production practices. In this context the International Poultry Council (IPC) was founded in 2005. In this organization poultry producers and processing associations are represented, as well as affiliate members.

Currently, IPC represents 88 percent of the world’s commercial poultry production and 95 percent of global poultry meat trade.

And together all these have the aim to no just further professionalize the industry, but also tell their story to the consumer. Stress on the importance and professionalism of this sector.

After all, poultry plays an important role in feeding the growing world population.

“There’s a job to do for IPC in this respect”, says IPC present Robin Horel in an interview in this edition of aviNews. “We need to be transparent to the consumer. And tell the story about the value of healthy and safe food from poultry origin.”

The IPC therefore also has strong links with global bodies like the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), the World Organization for Animal Health (OIE,) the World Health Organization (WHO) and World Poultry Foundation (WPF) . Through intense cooperation, IPC together with these organizations, aims to secure food supply to every world citizen. And steadily they achieve this goal.

A very good example of professional broiler growing, is the farming operation of Bart Janssen in The Netherlands.

He is raising 500,000 birds in 2 ages. Bart is using on-farm hatching, a system whereby incubated eggs are taken to the prewarmed houses on day 18.

This demands very professional, tight management. But the reward are healthy birds from the moment of hatch. The chicks then experience minimum stress. Moreover, they have direct access to feed and water.

This strongly activates the immune system in their early stage of life. Bart’s story fully complies with the objectives of IPC . Read all about this and other interesting articles in this edition of aviNews.

Enjoy and learn! Ad Bal

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1 aviNews International July 2021

04

The benefits behind the Internet of animals

19

Michael Czarick and Brian Fairchild College of Agricultural and Environmental Sciences, University of Georgia

Edgar O. Oviedo-Rondón North Carolina State University, Prestage Department of Poultry Science, Raleigh, NC

The adoption rate of new technologies in the poultry industry is one of the highest in the agricultural sector. One of the most disruptive technologies is the Internet of Things (IoT), the network of interconnected devices and software without human intervention.

14

Cleaning and disinfection, an essential part of broiler production Andrea Pizzabiocca, DVM Senior Manager Technical Services Italy Cobb Europe

The first step to reach the desired performance is to provide the flock with a clean environment where the risk of flock infection at placement is minimal.

Reducing the risk of infection requires a clear and complete cleaning and disinfection program.

Poultry housing tips target temperature changes with heating system type

The ability of chicks to regulate their body temperature is limited during the first few days of life. Whereas with market-age birds house temperature can easily drop ten or more degrees below the target without adversely affecting the bird’s body temperature, a chick’s body temperature can decrease with house temperature changes of five degrees or less...

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Chick body temperature: from hatchery to farm Juan Carlos López, PhD Hendrix Genetics, Kitchener, Ontario, Canadá

At the time of hatching in poultry, there are three physiological systems that are not fully developed: Digestive, Immune and the Temperature regulation.

In this article we will talk about temperature regulation.

2 aviNews International July 2021

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Ensuring flock performance, health and livability through a multifactorial approach

68

Edgar O. Oviedo-Rondón and Luke Borst North Carolina State University, Prestage Department of Poultry Science and College of Veterinary Medicine, Raleigh, NC

Dr. Guillermo Zavala Avian Health International, USA

Antimicrobial use in commercial poultry has been drastically reduced or eliminated in recent years.

Improved livability without the need for medication is definitely a reality today in various breeds and breed crosses of commercial egg layers. It is important to review some of the factors involved in maintaining flock health and performance without the need for medication.

Vertebral osteomyelitis or kinky back ranked among the top ten broiler diseases in countries like the US and Brazil and has been reported in many other countries worldwide. While many bacteria can cause vertebral infection in individual birds, Enterococcus cecorum causes outbreaks affecting whole flocks.

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42

Vision of poultry

Interview with Robin Horel IPC President

Alongside Avian Influenza, Newcastle disease virus (NDV) represents one of the two most significant avian diseases. This is possibly due to their rapid spread globally and the high mortalities they leave behind.

Lohmann Breeders GmbH

The science behind poultry vision is an interesting one which has been under scrutiny for many years.

Current research tends to focus on light spectrums i.e. the colours hens see and how it affects natural behaviours.

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Enterococcal Spondylitis

78

Current trends in vaccine development

Farm Report: On-farm hatching is beneficial

Edgar O. Oviedo-Rondón North Carolina State University, Prestage Department of Poultry Science, Raleigh, NC

Pedro Villegas, DVM, MS, Ph.D. Professor Emeritus, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Georgia

Alongside Avian Influenza, Newcastle disease virus (NDV) represents one of the two most significant avian diseases. This is possibly due to their rapid spread globally and the high mortalities they leave behind.

TECHNICAL direction

Controlling Newcastle Disease Virus

Edgar Oviedo

Extension poultry specialist and broiler management Technical Direction

EDITOR

58

The responsibility for the articles, reports, press releases and communications falls exclusively on the authors. The editor is only responsible for his articles or editorials. Neither the publisher nor the authors assume any responsibility for the damages that may be generated, whatever their nature, as a consequence of the use of the data and information contained in this magazine.

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TECHNICAL partner

This article intends to review the trends in vaccine development with a special focus on bacterial poultry vaccines.

Eduardo Cervantes

Editor avinews International

International Poutry Processing Consultant Technical Direction

3 aviNews International July 2021

THE

BENEFITS

BEHIND THE

INTERNET OF ANIMALS

Edgar O. Oviedo-Rondón North Carolina State University, Prestage Department of Poultry Science, Raleigh, NC

Production

The adoption rate of new technologies in the poultry industry is one of the highest in the agricultural sector. One of the most disruptive technologies is the Internet of Things (IoT), the network of interconnected devices and software without human intervention.

In the poultry sector, the Internet of Animals (IoA) starts when these interconnected systems transfer data to the network related to the animal environmental conditions and the animal responses to be used in decision-making or to take immediate actions.

The IoA belongs to the technological movement of smart farming and precision livestock farming technologies.

The poultry industry has been receiving some of the benefits of the rapid expansion of electronic sensors, devices, telecommunications, software, internet, and cloud-based connectivity. However, new developments in these areas can take us to a whole new level.

The IoA can help to improve the efficiency, biosecurity, food safety, welfare, sustainability, and transparency of the poultry industry.

We’ll make a short review of the current and potential applications.

4 aviNews International July 2021 | The benefits behind the Internet of Animals

THE AUTOMATIC DATA COLLECTION The automatic data collection, communication, and analysis provide solutions and improvement opportunities by obtaining insightful information.

Real-time collection of body and egg weights, feed, and water consumption can help with planning in the production chain, logistics, and processing plants.

The ability to modify machine and housing equipment settings using automatic and remote control allows intervention promptly to guarantee optimum environmental conditions.

Production

Automatic alarm systems and anomaly detection systems can be implemented with IoA to prevent catastrophic losses and detect the onset of potential behavioral or health issues reducing risks and treatment costs.

The IoA technologies can implement non-invasive, non-disruptive animal welfare assessments in hatcheries, farms, and processing plants.

Also, it can help detect Salmonella, Campylobacter, E. coli, among other bacterial and viral infections or parasitic infestations, to ensure food safety and control of infectious diseases that can become potential zoonotic concerns.

The environmental conditions in the hatchery, farm, and transportation can be monitored and modified timely and with more precision.

Flocks’ feed and water intake, behaviors, sounds, movements, and physiological responses can be measured with electronic sensors, devices, or machine vision.

5 aviNews International July 2021 | The benefits behind the Internet of Animals

Data collected in different production locations can be centralized for analysis in shorter periods than manual methodologies.

BLOCKCHAIN Concerning data sharing, technologies like blockchain allow transferring data safely among devices and databases.

Blockchain is a distributed or decentralized ledger technology used with IoT and now with IoA to make machine-to-machine transactions possible.

Production

Blockchain is a structure that stores transactional records or information known as “blocks” in several databases known as the “chain” in a network connected through peer-to-peer nodes.

The storage is referred to as a digital ledger which is verified by multiple sources. In this way, it creates a permanent, unalterable record.

Blockchain provides traceability to animal feed and final products for processing, which is the best way to offer transparency in the production chain required nowadays by customers at all levels.

Currently, the initial economic investment to acquire and install sensors, devices, and software could be a limitation. But, soon, the return on investment could be attractive enough to make the massive implementation of these technologies a need for a more productive system.

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Technology is not anymore a limitation to applying IoA. Regional difficulties of telecommunications and connectivity to the internet can be overcome soon.

The technologies already used in the poultry industry for a couple of decades have been proven to be resilient and affordable.

The information obtained from the IoA can guide software that controls other devices or advise human decisionmakers to increase production, drive efficiency, reduce operational risks, help to take immediate and timely actions, and optimize time and resources.

The IoA inevitably brings all the conditions to work with Big Data analytics and decision support systems for complex decision-making processes.

Integrating this data with mathematical models can create more accurate warning or anomaly detection systems to sense potential deviations from the target environmental conditions or performance parameters.

These warning systems are one of the greatest benefits of IoA. The knowledge in data analytics and mathematical model development in the poultry technical personnel is the biggest limitation of applying and profit from IoA technologies.

The skills required include automatic data warehousing, data integration, and statistical analysis to obtain the desired information.

Data governance and security is another aspect to address when using IoA.

The privacy and security of the data are important for the ones that invest in IoA. The IoA also implements cybersecurity rules using rigorous security standards to protect data at rest or stored in databases and motion or during the transactions among devices, apply detailed access controls, and monitor malicious behavior.

BENEFITS FOR PRODUCTION AND WELFARE The producer’s uncertainty about environmental conditions and animal performance during the production cycle can be solved with real-time monitoring and automatic responses of devices connected to the IoA. The consumer’s concerns about animal welfare or food safety can be addressed using constant monitoring and recording with new specialized sensors.

These data can provide to all parties interested in these topics a multitude of parameters to assess at any moment the productive efficiency, welfare, and health conditions of poultry flocks.

Production

The use of all the data collected by these systems is still a challenge.

The lack of enough trained and experienced people to oversee poultry flocks constantly is a common and increasing challenge worldwide. Automation is becoming necessary in many countries.

Animal welfare regulations and consumer demands to know more about animal welfare status have been receiving increased attention.

All attempts to simplify current welfare assessment protocols for poultry still impose biosecurity challenges and more production costs. The new electronic and telecommunication technologies could solve most of these problems.

7 aviNews International July 2021 | The benefits behind the Internet of Animals

ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING AND CONTROL Many of the environmental issues occur when poultry workers cannot be present. Then, automation becomes a need to achieve the desired level of poultry management assurance.

Undesirable in-house environmental conditions are sometimes inevitable, but quick modifications can be made to minimize exposure to those conditions.

Production

This ability for faster intervention could be one of the main benefits of the IoA. The multi-sensing monitoring and electronic controllers can indicate to devices actions that they must do when humans are not present.

Multiple electronic sensors can currently monitor temperature, relative humidity, light intensity, carbon dioxide (CO₂) or monoxide, ammonia, ventilation rate, and airspeed to determine and modify the incubator or in-house environment.

Communications among these sensors and electronic controllers with customized software have automatized many procedures in poultry facilities.

For example, high levels of CO2 , ammonia gas, temperature, or humidity trigger that ventilation rate or fan time is increased.

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The time of exposure to elevated levels of harmful gases like CO2 and ammonia can affect growth, feed conversion, immunological responses, and even increase mortality.

The increased exposure of chickens to more than 3,000 ppm of CO₂ during the first two weeks of life can worsen feed conversion and increase mortalities of broilers close to market age.

The greatest concentrations of CO₂ in poultry houses generally occur in the coldest hours of the day during the night or very early in the morning when workers are not present.

Without electronic sensors, constant real-time monitoring of multiple animal facilities 24 hours a day would not be possible seven days a week.

Other sensors can detect water flow and water pH or Oxidation-Reduction Potential.

Electronic water regulators will have great benefits in controlling water spillage without limiting water intake and controlling litter and air humidity.

Water quality is critical for animal health and optimum digestibility.

Sensors can detect how much time fans, sprinklers, heating, and cooling systems work to improve incubator or house energy efficiency

Water additives like acidifiers have proven benefits, but general recommendations may not be the optimum under all circumstances.

Evaluations of water quality parameters are conducted periodically in labs, while the water quality may vary even during a day.

Water quality sensors and IoA can aid in determining the appropriate levels of water additives to use under each water quality condition.

Production

Airspeed sensors can check the uniformity of air velocity across the facility.

Many times, acidifiers or other water additives are overused, and there is uncertainty about the efficacy of water sanitation systems.

Sensors can help us track this variability, evaluate its impact, and the methods chosen to control it.

Automatic weighing equipment provides immediate feed intake and body weights, which could be associated with changes in diet composition, feed additives, feedstuff quality, and feed manufacturing.

The turbulent nature of airflow in mechanically ventilated houses requires continuous measurements to obtain valid averages per house to make improvements.

Studies have indicated that only automatic, omnidirectional speed sensors can accurately measure airspeeds in poultry houses.

Light sensors can determine light intensity in different areas, the specific photoperiod in a house, which are important factors during the whole life of chickens, breeders, and layers.

Wireless accelerometers can be used to track bird activity affected by environmental stress, disease, or infestations with parasites like northern fowl mites in layers.

9 aviNews International July 2021 | The benefits behind the Internet of Animals

Multi-sensing systems and electronic controllers for machine incubators, hatchery facilities, and farms have been in the market worldwide for more than two decades.

Great advances in environmental control have been made, but there are frequent mechanical, calibration, and maintenance issues to overcome.

Training of local personnel to take the corrective actions timely is necessary.

Production

The IoA can connect existing and new devices across multiple protocols and standards, merge data streams, and optimize acquired data for relevancy and context.

The constant monitoring may help remediate underperforming processes and develop new opportunities to build better and new strategies.

FUTURE OF WELFARE AND HEALTH ASSESSMENTS On the other side electronic sensors that measure physiological parameters can mark the difference in welfare assessments in the future.

Measuring sound can detect stress, infectious and parasitic diseases, or alterations in feed intake.

Imaging technologies such as optical flow can detect gait problems, feather pecking, and the first signs of infectious diseases.

Infrared technologies can evaluate a bird’s thermoregulatory features and metabolism changes due to diets, environmental or social stress.

We will review some of the sensors currently under evaluation and some already used for poultry welfare assessments.

For example, biosecurity and food safety can be improved using tracking devices for hatchery, farm, and processing staff or equipment, recording movements real-time to decrease risks when people or equipment don’t respect the desired boundaries.

All these technologies can aid in obtaining better embryo and bird growth or egg production, improve welfare and health while preventing management problems, and improving energy efficiency.

All these benefits combined may minimize production costs and increase poultry flock efficiencies.

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ACOUSTIC SENSORS Bioacoustic sensors are helping to collect the large variety of sounds emitted by birds.

Birds rely on acoustic communication for their social interactions and alarm signaling.

The frequency of specific emitted vocalizations can be correlated with stress indicators. Software like Raven from the Cornell Lab of Ornithology made possible the analysis of these sounds.

The behavior of birds is key to detect their welfare status.

We are lucky that birds vocalize most of their behaviors; now, we need to understand them.

Technologies based on sound analysis are used in commercial hatcheries worldwide to minimize the hatching window or synchronize the hatch.

This technique was developed based on detecting the sound emitted by embryos when they reach or pass the internal pipping stage.

Sound analyses can also help detect the adequacy of the thermal environment for broilers and laying hens.

The models developed with the amplitude of vocalizations, the noise frequency spectrum, the energy, and the bandwidth of the signals have 98% accuracy in detecting stress episodes for birds.

Once the peak frequency of the sounds is detected, the incubator machine can adjust the temperature profile and the CO2 concentrations by closing and opening the dampers to narrow the hatching window stimulating other chickens with the same stage of embryonic development to hatching.

In farms, vocalization frequency can detect episodes where broilers or hens can not have access to feed.

Higher rates of squawks and total vocalizations can signal the start point of feather pecking issues.

The sound signals related to feather pecking have been characterized by a sudden increase in amplitude followed by a sudden decrease of signals between 1000 Hz to 5000 kHz.

Production

Broilers have a peak frequency of 600 randomly selected vocalizations, and the peak frequency of vocalizations decreased when broilers grew larger.

Broiler breeder hens have specific vocalizations when deprived of nesting.

Sound signals have also been evaluated to detect and diagnose diseases.

An Iranian group of researchers lead by Sadeghi detected necrotic enteritis derived from the infection of Clostridium perfringens from sound signals analyzed with artificial neural networks.

The diagnostic accuracy was 66% six days post-infection and 100% eight days post-infection.

The frequency of rales produced by chickens infected with infectious bronchitis virus can help detect the disease before clinical signs become evident in infected chickens.

Diagnosing diseases like these by non-invasive and objective methods will be a great advance in poultry production.

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IMAGE TECHNOLOGIES

MOVEMENT SENSORS

Video images can be analyzed automatically to detect flock activity index and severe leg problems in broiler houses. Image analysis can also be implemented to score footpad dermatitis, improve carcass inspection, or automatically detect myopathies in processing plants.

The optical flow analysis allows the automatic and continuous evaluation of moving images containing hundreds of birds in a house.

Freedom of movement is an important component of animal welfare. Measuring movement or lack of it are direct indicators of welfare status in a flock.

The system detects the brightness change rate in pixels of video images.

High stocking density, house environmental conditions, health status, among other factors, can affect movement.

Production

In layer aviaries, a combination of Geographic Information System (GIS), wireless radio ID tags, and 3-axis accelerometers attached to the hens, and video recordings have been evaluated to detect the movements, behaviors, and landing forces when hens jump from perches.

This generates statistics of the images that can be associated with specific locomotion parameters like gait score, pododermatitis, hock burn, and mortalities in broiler flocks.

Optical flow can also help to detect infection with microorganisms. For example, optical flow patterns have detected Campylobacter infected chickens 7 to 10 days after hatch.

These systems have been able to correlate the movements of hens with the keel fracture incidence.

Broiler movement patterns can be recorded with systems like eYeNamic camera surveillance and software systems. These systems can assess gait scores in broilers with continuous and objective surveillance.

But, not only animal movements can be tracked. Humans can also be vectors that transmit diseases. Then, monitoring human activities in various facilities can help to control disease transmission and improve biosecurity.

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Infrared thermal imaging has been used to detect the best air velocity and optimal temperatures for broilers.

Infrared images can also assess feather coverage in hens or notice changes in diet and any stress levels.

Finally, non-contact Raman spectroscopy is a technology to assess the sex of chicken embryos in ovo. This technology can help to reduce the issues of culling males in layer flocks by removing embryos before they hatch or reduce the costs of manual sexing in day-old chickens.

Production

Campylobacter typically does not induce clinical signs in chickens, but it causes flock activity patterns different from healthy flocks. This type of technology can help detect infected flocks, identify the source of infection, and implement preventive measurements.

Finally, the IoA can also integrate data collection performed by humans.

Many observations of poultry workers are frequently not taken into consideration in data analysis.

These are valuable assessments that should be shared and stored in a way that can be analyzed. Appropriate formatting of observational records can be added to understand better the results of data automatically collected by sensors and devices.

The benefits of IoA are numerous, and investments in this area have a guaranteed return. Learning more about the emerging technologies associated with the IoA is necessary to mine more advantages and profits.

The benefits behind the Internet of Animals

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13 aviNews International July 2021 | The benefits behind the Internet of Animals

CLEANING AND DISINFECTION, AN ESSENTIAL PART OF BROILER PRODUCTION Andrea Pizzabiocca, DVM Senior Manager Technical Services Italy Cobb Europe The cleaning and disinfection program should be rigorous and consistent between every flock.

biosecurity

To achieve the genetic potential of our broilers, it is important to provide them with everything they require, including the correct temperature and ventilation conditions along with a good feed and water management program.

The first step to reach the desired performance is to provide the flock with a clean environment where the risk of flock infection at placement is minimal. Reducing the risk of infection requires a clear and complete cleaning and disinfection program.

It is important to note that even if the previous flock had no outward signs of infection or if there were no sanitary issues in the house, that does not necessarily mean pathogens were not present.

Thorough cleaning must be done regardless of an outgoing flock’s status.

Chicks are more susceptible to disease than adults, and if cleaning is done poorly, any pathogens present during placement could create significant risks to the flock.

The written cleaning procedure must be simple and easy for all personnel to understand. Although each operation is unique, the cleaning and sanitizing steps will be the same and must be performed correctly and thoroughly.

Additionally, all personnel using chemicals for cleaning and disinfection must use personal protective equipment (PPE) including masks, gloves, goggles, and overalls according to the chemicals safety guidelines.

This will ensure human welfare and that the procedure is completed correctly.

14 aviNews International July 2021 | Cleaning and disinfection, an essential part of broiler production

INSECTICIDE FIRST After the flock has left the farm, apply an insecticide to the litter. Allow the insecticide time to work (at least 24 hours), then remove the litter from the houses and take it at least one kilometer away from the farm.

Additionally, a common mistake is to remove litter from one house after other houses on the farm have already been cleaned.

This can cause the contamination of cleaned houses by insects, organic materials, and even pathogens.

If more than one house on a farm is cleaned on the same day, take steps to prevent contaminating cleaned houses.

Once the organic material has been removed, start washing the house and equipment. Begin with the top of the house and work down.

If any equipment cannot be washed, remove it and dry clean it. (The durability and waterproof characteristics of equipment must be considered when purchasing.)

biosecurity

Keep the litter covered as some insects can fly away from the litter and relocate to other houses on the farm.

The cleaning procedure must include all rooms in direct and indirect contact with the poultry houses, including showers and storage facilities.

It is important to clean the outside of air inlets and curtains so that when the ventilation is activated, contaminated dust is not drawn inside the house.

Apply a foam detergent and leave it for the correct time according to the manufacturer’s instructions. Rinse with high-pressure water, working in one direction from top to bottom to prevent recontamination.

Treat the litter with an insecticide before removing it from the house.

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CLEAN SURFACES At this point, reinstall all the equipment and start with the disinfection. There are several chemicals available for disinfection, but for optimal efficacy, follow the manufacturer’s instructions.

Be aware that some chemicals have specific temperatures and concentrations at which they work best.

Apply the disinfectant with low-pressure water to ensure that it reaches all surfaces.

biosecurity

Start from the end of the house and proceed toward the entrance, again to prevent recontamination.

After liquid disinfection has finished and all equipment has been reinstalled, it is time to fumigate.

Back Side

1 Entry

2

Organic matter interferes with the activity of disinfectants; therefore, it’s very important that surfaces are clean before disinfecting.

In some cases, I have seen people not washing but only disinfecting to speed up the procedure, and this is completely ineffective.

Removing the litter and washing the house reduces the microbial load by 90% while disinfection in general represents only 10%.

Organic material

1 2 Cleaning

When cleaning, begin at the top of the walls and ceiling and work downward to prevent recontaminating cleaned areas.

Again, for it to be effective, use the right concentration (normally calculated in m³) at the correct temperature for the correct time following the manufacturer’s instructions.

Following treatment, ventilate the house to remove any chemical residual.

After litter placement, the house can be fumigated again; however, use caution with products that require ignition as they present a fire hazard. Spray disinfectants are also available but can leave residues that are potentially harmful to chicks.

3 Disinfection

16 aviNews International July 2021 | Cleaning and disinfection, an essential part of broiler production

THE CASE OF BACTERIAL POULTRY VACCINES To assess cleaning efficacy, samples must be taken after disinfection.

Swab all surfaces and equipment and send them to a certified laboratory for microbiological analysis.

Therefore, when a house is clean, take steps to keep it clean by keeping doors closed and putting footbaths at every entrance with a boot change for all people.

Measure the total viable counts (TVC) per cm² and culture for Salmonella.

The TVC represents the quantity of microorganisms on a surface.

biosecurity

It is not possible to achieve sterilization, but TVC counts for floors should not exceed 1,000 TVC/cm² and all other surfaces must not exceed 100 TVC/cm².

No Salmonella bacteria should be isolated.

If the results of the analysis exceed these limits, assess the cleaning and disinfection program. The most common reasons for high TVC counts are using the wrong disinfectant, poor application of the disinfectant, poorly trained and/or equipped staff, insufficient time for different procedures, and reinfection of cleaned houses by vermin or personnel.

Personnel are a leading cause of contaminating a clean house. Footbaths and clean boots must be available at the entrance to every house.

There is a direct correlation between cleaning and final performance of the flock.

Create a precise and written program for your cleaning procedures based on the chemicals used and follow it without taking any shortcuts.

Cleaning and disinfection, an essential part of broiler production

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Remember, the aim is not to eliminate all microorganisms but to decrease them to a minimum.

Clean poultry houses are the basis for a healthy and productive flock.

17 aviNews International July 2021 | Cleaning and disinfection, an essential part of broiler production

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POULTRY HOUSING TIPS TARGET TEMPERATURE CHANGES WITH HEATING SYSTEM TYPE

environmental control

Michael Czarick y Brian Fairchild Universidad de Georgia . EEUU, Departamento de Ciencias Agrarias y Ambientales

The house has been preheated for 36 hours to 92oF. The chicks will be arriving in a few hours and the controller’s six temperature sensors (positioned one foot above the floor) indicate the air temperature is between 91 and 92oF (Figure 2).

A thermal image indicates the floor temperature is between 87 and 102oF (Figure 1) There is no measurable ammonia due to the fact that litter treatment that was applied three days prior and the litter is dry.

19 aviNews International July 2021 | Poultry Housing Tips - Target Temperature Changes With Heating System Type

Feeders as well as supplemental feeders are full of feed and the water lines set to the proper height.

Minimum ventilation fans are operating 30 seconds out of five minutes and the humidity is approximately 60%.

Both types of heating systems can, and have been, successfully used for decades to provide the supplemental heat during brooding, but that being said, they heat a house very differently.

Nothing makes this point more clearly than when the thermal image of the end equipped with forced air furnaces (Figure 3) is compared to the end heated by the radiant brooders (Figure 1).

environmental control

Everything appears to set for getting the chicks off to a good start.

On one end, 12 radiant brooders are installed and on the other, three forced air furnaces.

40.55 ° C 38 32 27 23.8 ° C Figure 1. Thermal image end of broiler house heated by radiant brooders Figure 2. Controller display day of chick placement

40.55 ° C 38

But, this farm is a little different from most. First, the farm manager does not use partialhouse brooding, and more importantly the heating systems installed on each end of the house are different.

32 27 23.8 ° C Figure 3. Thermal image of end of broiler house heated by forcedair furnaces

20 aviNews International July 2021 | Poultry Housing Tips - Target Temperature Changes With Heating System Type

31 °F -3 4° 34 F -37 ° 37 F -40 ° 40 F -43 ° 43 F -46 ° 46 F -49 °F

°F

28

-31

°F

-28

-25

25

Although the floor temperature on the radiant brooder end was between 87oF and 102oF, the floor temperature on the end heated with forced-air furnaces was between 78oF and 87oF...roughly 10oF cooler.

75 65 55 45 35 25 15 5 0 23

The controller indicated that the air temperature on each end of the house was essentially identical, but thermal images tell a different story.

Percent of floor area (%)

Figure 4. Floor temperature profile on each end of the house

Floor Temperature (° F)

Figure 4 is a histogram floor temperatures on each end of the house.

On the end of the house with furnaces 72%, of the floor area was between 81oF and 84oF.

Radiant Brooders

Figures 5 and 6 were taken 24 hours after the chicks were placed. The adjustments to forced-air furnaces’ controller temperature settings helped to increase floor temperatures from those seen 24 hours earlier.

On the end with radiant brooders, 85% of the floor was between 90oF and 96oF.

40.55 ° C 38 32

Though air temperature is obviously important to a day-old-chick, floor temperature is just as important, if not more important, to chick thermal comfort, considering they will be sitting on the floor and the cooler it is the more heat they will potentially lose to the floor.

When the farm manager was shown the thermal images, he was surprised by the difference and immediately adjusted controller settings to increase the temperature on the end the house with forced-air furnaces (lowered the calibration of the controller sensors on the nonbrooding three degrees).

27 23.8 ° C Figure 5. Thermal image 24 hours after chick placement (radiant brooders)

40.55 ° F 38 32 27 23.8 ° C Figure 6. Thermal image 24 hours after chick placement (furnaces)

aviNews International July 2021 | Poultry Housing Tips - Target Temperature Changes With Heating System Type

21

environmental control

Furnaces

Figure 9. Floor temperature profile comparison (Furnace end vs. Radiant brooder end)

75

Percent of floor area (%)

65 55 45 35 25 15 5 °F -49

°F

46

43

-46

°F

40

-43

°F -40

°F

37

-37

34

4° F -3

°F

31

-31

°F

28

-28 25

23

-25

°F

0

environmental control

Floor Temperature (° F) Furnaces

Radiant Brooders

An analysis of the thermal images indicated that on average the floor temperatures on the furnace end were only 3oF cooler than those on the radiant brooder end of the house (Figure 9).

Interestingly, though the differences in floor temperatures between the two ends of the house were relatively minimal, the chicks on the end of the house with forced-air furnaces appeared much cooler than those on the end of the house equipped with radiant brooders (Figures 5 and 6).

The chicks were huddling near the feed lines and the level of activity was noticeable lower (Figures 7 and 8).

Figure 7. House conditions 24 hours after chick placement (radiant brooders)

Figure 8. House conditions 24 hours after chick placement (furnaces)

22 aviNews International July 2021 | Poultry Housing Tips - Target Temperature Changes With Heating System Type

1

First, young chicks have a fairly narrow band of temperatures they find acceptable.

2

Secondly, optimal target temperature during brooding will vary with the type of heating system used.

3

Last but not least, there isn’t a single optimal brooding temperature that will work for all chicks under all situations.

In a way, a young chick is more like a reptile than a bird.

House temperature decreases a few degrees and their body temperature will decrease in response.

To maintain their body temperature when the house is lower than the chicks desire, they will huddle, which reduces their surface area exposed to cooler house temperatures.

Though the huddling will help a chick to maintain its body temperature, the more time it spends huddling the less time it will spend eating and bird performance as well as health will suffer.

The ability of chicks to regulate their body temperature is limited during the first few days of life.

Whereas with market-age birds house temperature can easily drop ten or more degrees below the target without adversely affecting the bird’s body temperature, a chick’s body temperature can decrease with house temperature changes of five degrees or less.

Forced-air furnaces are very tricky to manage with young birds for a number of reasons.

First, furnaces tend to do a very good job of heating the ceiling and not good job of heating the floor due to the simple fact that the hot air produced by furnaces quickly rises to the ceiling.

This results in the ceiling temperatures often being 10 to 20oF higher than they are at floor level.

23 aviNews International July 2021 | Poultry Housing Tips - Target Temperature Changes With Heating System Type

environmental control

This house provided a good example of a few very important points when it comes to brooding chicks.

Furthermore, floor temperatures will always be lower than the temperature of the air next to floor. How much lower depends on factors such as house tightness, the use of circulation fans, furnace spacing, and preheat time.

environmental control

The net result is that floor temperature, which in many ways more important than house temperature to a young chick, will often be two to ten degrees lower than the air temperature a controller’s sensors, positioned a foot or two above the floor, are indicating.

Secondly, since forced-air furnaces tend to produce fairly uniform floor temperatures, a chick has a limited ability to self regulate its body temperature by moving to a warmer or cooler area of the house.

Add to this the fact that all chicks may not want/need the same house temperature.

Variations in chicks size, breeder flock age, etc. can affect the house/floor temperature a chick will seek.

Since the chicks have a limited ability to self regulate their thermal environment in houses with forced-air furnaces, it is the farm manager’s responsibility to closely watch chick behavior and make adjustments to house environmental controller settings accordingly, possibly multiple times a day.

It is important to keep in mind that the house temperature a chick wants will change based on a variety of factors such as chick size, humidity, air movement, house tightness, litter moisture, and even time of day.

24 aviNews International July 2021 | Poultry Housing Tips - Target Temperature Changes With Heating System Type

As mentioned previously, the greater the amount of time a chick spends huddling, the less feed it will consume, and the more likely performance as well as bird health will suffer.

The radiant heat produced by the brooder will cause the floor temperature in the vicinity of the brooder to be warmed above house air temperature.

When comparing Figures 7 and 8, it is clear that optimal set temperatures for young chicks will vary with the type of heating system used.

Though air temperature on both ends of the house was essentially identical, the chicks level of thermal comfort was not.

How much the floor is warmed above air temperature is primarily a function of distance from a radiant brooder. It can be as little as a degree or two eight to ten feet from the brooder to as much as 30 degrees directly below a brooder.

CONCLUSIONS Regardless, there is a range of floor temperatures for chicks to chose from to meet their individual needs. As a result, if the house air temperature is not optimal, the chicks have the ability to self regulate by moving closer or farther away from a brooder.

In houses with forced air-furnaces, if the temperature is lower than the chicks desire, the only option is to stay huddled with other chicks for warmth.

environmental control

The primary advantage of radiant brooders over forced-air furnaces is that a portion of the heat produced is delivered directly into the litter.

Generally, higher set temperatures have to be used with forced-air furnaces than with radiant brooders because floor temperatures will tend to be lower than air temperature.

Most farm managers have found through experimentation that with forced-air furnaces house temperatures often need to be set 3 to 5oF higher than those heated with some type of radiant heaters. This of course will vary with sensor height, houses tightness, use of circulation fans, etc.

25 aviNews International July 2021 | Poultry Housing Tips - Target Temperature Changes With Heating System Type

It is important to recognize that controller set temperatures may also need to be adjusted for different types of radiant heating systems. The more floor area covered with radiant heat, the lower the set temperature can be without adversely affecting chick comfort.

environmental control

Therefore, the larger the number and/or size of radiant heaters, the more floor area covered with radiant heat, and the more forgiving the birds will be if house temperature is not optimal.

Poultry Housing Tips - Target Temperature Changes With Heating System Type

The lesson to be learned is poultry house controllers, no matter how advanced, are only designed to control house air temperature ... not bird thermal comfort.

Any brooding target temperature provided by a poultry company, primary breeder, equipment company, or university is at best a starting point. Nothing will ever replace the importance of simply going into a house at least a few times a day, and taking a few moments to simply watch the chicks.

In the end, how well the chicks are spread out across a house, their level of activity, the sounds they are making, are more important in determining if they comfortable than the display screen on a house’s environmental controller.

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26 aviNews International July 2021 | Poultry Housing Tips - Target Temperature Changes With Heating System Type

© Petersime 2021 - All rights reserved.

Maximize your profit for life The success of your hatchery entirely depends on the quantity and quality of the chicks you can produce and on the efficiency of your operations. At Petersime, we fully grasp this and understand what you need to run a successful business.

We provide world-leading incubators and complete hatchery solutions, combined with 24/7 support and expertise. This ensures you get the best economic return out of your hatchery; not just right now, but during its entire lifetime. Maximum profit for life is what we stand for.

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CHICK BODY

TEMPERATURE:

FROM THE HATCHERY TO THE FARM

hatchery

Juan Carlos López, PhD MSD, Salud Animal

A

At the time of hatching in poultry there are three physiological systems that are not fully developed:

Digestive Immune Temperature regulation

In this article we will talk about temperature regulation.

29 aviNews International July 2021 | Chick body temperature: from the hatchery to the farm

Body temperature at hatch Upon hatching, the birds are poikilothermic animals: their body

Egg ha

ing tch

temperature will rise or fall depending on the environmental temperature, requiring a metabolic effort by the birds.

It will take around 4 days for chicks

Body temperature as a function of external temperature

coming from adult flocks and 5 to 6 days for birds from young flocks for the thermoregulatory system to behave as homeothermic animals –constant body temperature–.

hatchery

It is proposed that birds from younger flocks present a different composition of lipids in their yolk, this being the factor that makes they need more time to go completely from poikilothermic to homeothermic.

Comfort zone There is a range of body temperature

Definition

known as the comfort zone, where the birds are comfortable with the temperature that surrounds them:

Minimal metabolic activity

Low energy expenditure

The ideal temperature should be between 39.5 – 40.5oC (103 - 105°F) the first three to four days after hatching.

At 7 days the cloacal temperature tends to exceed 41,1 oC (106°F).

The cloacal temperature is above or below this range, adjustments should be made to the ambient temperature.

30

If the cloacal temperature is above or below this range, adjustments must be made to the ambient temperature.

aviNews International July 2021 | Chick body temperature: from the hatchery to the farm

Where to measure the cloacal temperature?

This information will help

Hatcher

6 hours before taking the chicks out.

At the moment of taking them out.

us adjust the hatcher temperature and ventilation according of the hatcher according to the flock that that is currently inside the machine.

If the birds’ temperature is above 40.5 °C (105 °F) and the machine’s cooling system does not allow the temperature to be lowered further, the birds must be removed and they must be placed in a room where they find their comfort zone.

hatchery

The bird on the left, after hatching, was exposed to the correct temperature in the hatcher and removed on time for sexing and processing.

The bird on the right was exposed to high temperatures for a prolonged period of time inside the hatcher. The dehydration of the breast of the bird on the right is striking.

After processing or service During sexing, vaccination, or in the beak or spur treatments, the temperature of the birds will drop to ranges of 38.3 - 38.9 °C (101-102 °F).

Particular care should be taken with birds after being exposed to spray vaccines, as their temperature can drop greatly if the drop is not correct. At the end of these operations, in the waiting room to be loaded in the truck, the birds must recover their body temperature between 39.5 - 40.5 ºC (103-105 °F).

31 aviNews International July 2021 | Chick body temperature: from the hatchery to the farm

During transportation Upon arrival at the destination farm, as chicks are being unloaded from the truck, it must be monitored the temperature of the birds inside the boxes.

hatchery

Preferably, the temperature of birds from different parts of the truck should be monitored, particularly when it is a large truck.

At the farm In addition to the correct air temperature of the house, it is important that the floor is acclimatized before the birds arrive.

The picture shows how the birds are distributed in a receiving ring depending on the litter temperature.

33.3 oC 91.94 oF

31.1 oC 87.98 oF 30.0 oC 86 oF

Note: not only the low temperature but also the high temperature will make the birds not look for feed and water. They will survive two or three days because of the nutrients they have in the yolk sac, but they will eventually die.

32 aviNews International July 2021 | Chick body temperature: from the hatchery to the farm

The photo shows a common error in some companies.

The birds, after being unloaded from the truck, spend long periods inside the stacked boxes under inadequate temperature before they get access to feed and water.

If the birds decide not to drink and eat as a result of a very adverse environmental situation, the necropsy will show signs of:

hatchery

Emaciation and dehydration, kidney inflammation Distended ureters with urates Increased gallbladder size and distention with bile Darkened and dehydrated muscles, especially the breast which lose its fleshy appearance

The body temperature of our birds depends entirely on how we handle them during the first days.

As the birds are out of their comfort zone 39.5–40.5 ºC at cloaca level (103-105 ° F) they will make metabolic adjustments that generate energy expenditure.

Chick body temperature: from hatchery to farm

The energy expenditure associated with different metabolic adjustments will be reflected in low weight gain, poor feed conversion ratio and lack of uniformity.

If the heat stress situation is strong and prolonged, the birds will stop drinking and eating to such an extent they will die.

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33 aviNews International July 2021 | Chick body temperature: from the hatchery to the farm

ENSURING FLOCK PERFORMANCE, HEALTH AND LIVABILITY THROUGH A

MULTIFACTORIAL APPROACH

layers

Dr. Guillermo Zavala Avian Health International, USA

Antimicrobial use in commercial poultry has been drastically reduced or eliminated in recent years.

Improved livability without the need for medication is definitely a reality today in various breeds and breed crosses of commercial egg layers.

It is important to review some of the factors involved in maintaining flock health and performance without the need for medication.

Improving livability through genetic selection is a complex matter that is directly connected to the ability of flocks to achieve longer egg production cycles while maintaining excellent performance and without experiencing significant losses.

In the past, it was necessary to cut production cycles short or to induce molting in order to avoid metabolic diseases, reduce mortality and maintain eggshell quality. Today, long production cycles are common in many egg layer operations around the world.

Flocks can sustain long production cycles without significant detriment to their health, bone integrity and eggshell qualities.

A large part of the reason why chicken flocks can now achieve a production of up to 500 eggs by 100 weeks of age, is because livability to 100 weeks has improved dramatically in recent years.

And also because eggshell quality and proper egg size can be sustained for a long time without being affected detrimentally by age.

100 Weeks

500 Eggs

34 aviNews International July 2021 | Ensuring flock performance, health and livability through a multifactorial approach

INFRASTRUCTURE, HOUSING AND EQUIPMENT

Some general guidelines for promoting health and performance through management are listed as follows.

What is important is that the investment in infrastructure is geared to ensure permanent bird comfort, shelter from diseases and predators and minimal risk for foodborne pathogen contaminations.

Farm isolation contributes to minimizing disease risks. Additionally, a common mistake is to remove litter from one house after other houses on the farm have already been cleaned.

layers

Despite hens living better and longer, it is important to do everything possible to protect their health and welfare without the need for medication. In order to accomplish this goal, various aspects must be emphasized.

Farm and house design should always match the biosecurity and welfare needs of pullets and hens. Regarding infrastructure, it is not absolutely necessary to have the best and most expensive facilities.

Multiage megafarms represent an attractive economic formula, but they are a challenge when it comes to maintaining flocks disease-free.

The type of housing and equipment should ensure thermal comfort at all times, excellent air quality and proper ventilation to reduce manure moisture and insect proliferation.

If pullets or hens are in cages, adequate bird density is absolutely critical for bird comfort, livability and performance.

If birds are on the floor, the litter must be managed such that it is never too dry or too humid.

35 aviNews International July 2021 | Ensuring flock performance, health and livability through a multifactorial approach

Whatever the infrastructure and equipment might be, one should always keep in mind the primary goals

LITTER Excessively dry litter is not conducive to proper resistance against coccidiosis after vaccination and is more prone to induce respiratory diseases.

Excessively moist litter contributes to fly proliferation, ammonia production and increased humidity in the air adding to bird discomfort.

layers

Birds with access to the outdoors should be provided with adequate shelters and drinking water in order to maintain health and livability.

AIR QUALITY Poor air quality leads to respiratory disease. It is imperative that dust particles are maintained at low levels as much as possible through ventilation in cage facilities, a task that is more difficult to accomplish in cage-free operations Dust particles may carry bacteria along and when inhaled, they contribute to a chronic challenge to the respiratory tract.

Ammonia can be a significant problem in certain types of housing. Moderate to high ammonia concentration in the air may lead to paralysis of cilia in the upper respiratory tract and impairment of the phagocytic or antigen-processing ability of inflammatory cells when dealing with airborne pathogens.

36 aviNews International July 2021 | Ensuring flock performance, health and livability through a multifactorial approach

THERMAL COMFORT

Cold house temperature may result in higher feed consumption and increased egg size.

Hot house temperature may result in lower feed consumption and lower egg size or egg mass.

In addition, decreased feed consumption without adjusting calcium contents in the diet may result in decreased eggshell quality, increased downgrades at the egg grading and packing plant and/or increased egg losses during transportation and/or loss of bone mineralization.

WATER AVAILABILITY AND WATER QUALITY Water consumption should not be averaged to account for individual bird consumption per day. If possible, it is important to make sure that birds consume as much water as they need at critical times during the day and an effort should be made to determine water consumption patterns throughout the day and even in different areas of the barn.

In some locations water consumption might be highest during the hottest hours of the day.

However, in environmentally controlled houses, water consumption is highest in the last few hours of the day, before the lights are turned off. If low water pressure or drinker condition hinder water consumption at this critical time, egg production and health may be affected eventually.

Ideally, drinking water should be sourced out of closed reservoirs or water systems instead of using open bodies of water as a source.

Open bodies of water may occasionally display significant levels of bacterial contamination.

In addition, water sourced out of open reservoirs is a major risk for avian influenza contamination in areas where aquatic birds roam. Water with high mineral contents might also exert a detrimental impact on livability and performance.

37 aviNews International July 2021 | Ensuring flock performance, health and livability through a multifactorial approach

layers

Maintaining pullets and hens within their proper thermal comfort zone at all ages and stages of production is essential for health, welfare, livability and performance.

LIGHTS Artificial or natural lighting can influence productivity, bird behavior and even the livability of chicken flocks.

Pullets and hens exposed to excessive light intensity may exhibit a nervous and even aggressive behavior.

Higher mortality in rows of cages exposed to direct sunlight is not uncommon.

layers

Occasionally, there may be a discrepancy between the light intensity required by animal welfare auditors and what the flocks actually need.

Many times, it is necessary to dim the lights to below required levels to reduce hen nervousness, trauma and mortality.

HOUSING AND EQUIPMENT The type of housing and equipment design and maintenance can have a significant impact on flock health, welfare, livability and performance.

Cage design influences many aspects of production, health, welfare and even product wholesomeness.

The width, depth and height of cages influence feeder space, ease of access to drinking water, potential for feed contamination with feces, pullet or hen access to feces on the manure belts if the cage tops are too low, increased or reduced exposure to light, etc.

Some aviary systems are more conducive than others to trauma, keel deformities, feed and nest contamination with feces, coccidiosis, etc. Keeping chickens outdoors makes them more susceptible to predation if proper sheltering is not available.

House design and equipment distribution might make it easier or more difficult to vaccinate chickens successfully either in rearing or during production.

38 aviNews International July 2021 | Ensuring flock performance, health and livability through a multifactorial approach

NUTRITION AND FEEDING

FEED FORMULATION Feed formulation itself exerts a direct impact on bone integrity, hen activity, egg production and egg quality. In addition, certain nutrients can have a direct impact not only on production but also on health and livability.

The interactions of nutrition, feeding and flock health and performance are complex and too many to be discussed herein.

However, it should be mentioned that nutrition for pullets must focus in preparing the flock for a long cycle of production.

It is imperative that the pullets achieve the body weight, frame and uniformity recommended for the breed before they are transferred to the production facility.

Even if pullets appear clinically healthy, underweight birds may not contribute to peak egg production and may not be able to confront disease challenges effectively.

Often times, individual hens with higher feed consumption and a bigger body frame are more capable of coping with adversity, including infectious diseases.

Items as simple as feed and feed particle presentation can have a significant impact in pullet and hen health long term.

Excess sodium may result in flushing, while insufficient sodium in the diet depresses water and feed consumption and could even induce partial molting and egg production drops if the levels are too low for an extended period of time.

Excess calcium results in visceral gout, while deficient calcium causes loss of bone mass.

Choline chloride deficiency can lead to fatty liver hemorrhagic syndrome and mortality.

Abrupt reductions of methionine, lysine/methionine, tryptophan or crude protein in general could potentially cause behavioral changes, nervousness, feather loss and increased mortality.

HUSBANDRY AND WELFARE Good husbandry practices and preserving the welfare of chickens is essential to maintain their comfort, livability and performance at the highest possible levels.

Poor husbandry is detrimental to the welfare of chickens and often results in increased disease susceptibility, suboptimal performance and higher mortality.

39 aviNews International July 2021 | Ensuring flock performance, health and livability through a multifactorial approach

layers

Low calcium levels lead to loss of bone mass and if too severe, may cause lameness or lack of mobility, making chickens more prone to being trampled or unable to move to reach water and feed.

BIOSECURITY AND IMMUNIZATION A bio secure environment is an essential component of disease prevention. It is always prudent to immunize chickens by vaccination against common infectious diseases potentially present in the area.

Biosecurity should be designed to minimize the risk of infection, whereas immunization is done to increase resistance against disease.

layers

The pathogen dose required to successfully infect chickens increases in vaccinated chickens.

Vaccination may prevent infection and disease altogether or it may reduce clinical signs, pathogen shedding (excretion), production losses and mortality.

Flocks that are sheltered against disease through vaccination and biosecurity are also less likely to require therapeutic support through the use of antimicrobials.

Before the advent of effective vaccines, various infectious diseases used to require preventative treatment with anti-parasitic or antimicrobial drugs. Today, the combination of improved livability through genetic selection and better nutrition, husbandry, housing and equipment, biosecurity and vaccination can result in excellent flock health and performance without the need for antimicrobial use.

Ensuring flock performance, health and livability through a multifactorial approach

Source: Hendrix Genetics https://layinghens.hendrix-genetics.com/en/

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40 aviNews International July 2021 | Ensuring flock performance, health and livability through a multifactorial approach

Specialized in poultry equipment Best performance Project suppor t Customer service

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with 35 years

oultry

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Polígono Morea Norte, Calle C - Nº 2 • 31191 Beriáin, Navarra (Spain) +34 948 368 301 • contact@zucami.com • www.zucami.com

VISION

OF POULTRY Lohmann Breeders GmbH

T

he science behind poultry vision is an interesting one which has been under scrutiny for many years.

Current research tends to focus on light spectrums i.e.

management

the colours hens see and how it affects natural behaviours.

The main goal is to assimilate natural daylight within the poultry house with an aim to improve flock performance and behaviour.

While a lot of the latest research can be confusing and complicated, it is worth being aware of the basics of poultry vision and the influence of lighting systems.

Hens have a highly developed visual system developed over many years in the wild designed to meet the requirements necessary for social interactions, foraging, mate identification and survival.

We have outlined some of the basic characteristics on the following pages.

42 aviNews International July 2021 | Vision of Poultry

Hens can move each eye independently and have a panoramic vision field of almost 300 degrees even without turning their head.

This panoramic view, alongside their binocular vision which allows them to focus on more than one object at once is what makes them so difficult to catch for example.

Their binocular vision is essential in the wild: as while the right eye is busy looking for food, the left is keeping a wary eye out for predators.

management

Pineal gland In addition to the retinal light perception in the eyes, poultry can sense light through the pineal and hypothalamic glands which are the main influencers for setting the circadian rhythm and production cycles.

This is triggered by light of a certain wavelength penetrating the skull and triggering the associated glandular activity.

Hypothalamus

Poultry can see a wider range of visible light on the spectrum (ca. 360-750 nm) than humans (ca. 410-730 nm).

This ability makes it possible for the birds to perceive Ultraviolet-A light.

This important characteristic is crucial for birds in recognizing their environment, searching for feed (foraging), and mating behavior.

Poultry Human 43 aviNews International July 2021 | Vision of Poultry

One other major difference between our vision and the hens is the amount of visual sequences they can process per second.

Light Sources

We can process around 25-30 images (or frames) per second while for the hens its around 150-200 images per second.

However, there is a drawback with these enhanced visual capabilities, which is known as the flicker response.

Poultry can recognize flickering of light sources operating in low frequency ranges outside the range of human perception.

This is most often seen when using fluorescent tubes and

The most common ones are

some energy saving lamps.

management

Incandescent lamps incandescent lamps, tubular fluorescents and energy-saving lamps.

However, these often don’t consider the poultry light spectrum. This

150-200

frames per second

25-30

frames per second

is why incandescent systems are being banned in many countries.

LED light systems More and more people are turning to poultry specific LED light systems not only for the improved energy efficiency,

This flickering can be a contributor to many negative behavioural effects such as nervousness, feather pecking and cannibalism.

but also for the improved light spectrum they offer which is generally much closer to that offered by natural daylight.

Therefore, light sources such as LED-lights; which are generally more energy-efficient and long-lasting, are fast becoming the light

There are many different light

source of choice in modern poultry houses.

sources used in poultry houses.

Many of these systems claim to offer improvements in production and behavioral responses.

44 aviNews International July 2021 | Vision of Poultry

Regardless of which lighting system you choose, there are some basic guidelines we should follow: If switching to LED, opt for a system specifically designed for poultry. These systems may be a little more expensive than others but will be designed with poultry vision in mind and will offer a light spectrum most closely related to natural daylight.

The frequency of the emitted light should be at least 150 Hz to avoid flickering.

Many light sources you come across will mention the term Kelvin. This is the measurement used to describe the

management

colour temperature of the light source.

Warmer lights Cooler lights

The lower numbers are considered warmer and focus on the red area of

Cooler lights will have a

the light spectrum.

higher number and be more represented by the blue end of the spectrum.

45 aviNews International July 2021 | Vision of Poultry

For poultry lighting a light source between 2700 – 3000 Kelvin should be considered.

When measuring light intensity in the poultry house, we need to remember that what we see and what the hen sees is completely different. They will see an intensity far higher than we do. Modern LUX meters are designed for human vision and therefore have limitations when measuring the correct light intensity for birds. Keep this in mind and focus on balancing the light intensity where possible.

For measuring the correct intensity of LED-Light, a specific

management

Lux-Meter for LEDs is required.

Light sources for birds should be fully dimmable. Not all systems have this ability and can cause increased flickering and undue stress on the

Light sources should be designed to withstand the rigours of the poultry house environment. Most will be rated dependent on their capabilities to withstand breakages and water damage.

flock when light is reduced.

Vision of Poultry

Independent light controls should

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be utilized within the system where possible. This will allow for much more control over management.

Disclaimer

The number one point of consideration in poultry house lighting is to provide balanced light distribution throughout the house, eliminating shadowing and excessive light and dark areas.

This TOOLBOX article remains the property of LOHMANN BREEDERS. You may not copy or distribute any portions of the article without the prior written consent of LOHMANN BREEDERS. For more information and further toolbox articles, please visit our website www.lohmann-breeders.com or contact us directly: LOHMANN BREEDERS GMBH Am Seedeich 9 – 11 27472 Cuxhaven / Germany E-mail: info@lohmann-breeders.com

46 aviNews International July 2021 | Vision of Poultry

It still takes a lot to crack a LOHMANN egg – now more than ever!

FOR EVERY MARKET THE RIGHT EGG www.lohmann-breeders.com

BREEDING FOR SUCCESS... TOGETHER

CURRENT TRENDS IN VACCINE DEVELOPMENT Edgar O. Oviedo-Rondón North Carolina State University, Prestage Department of Poultry Science, Raleigh, NC

vaccine

Vaccines boost the animal’s immune system to produce local and systemic humoral and cellular responses to fight the infection caused by specific organisms.

First of all, keep in mind that the efficacy of vaccines to control poultry diseases depends on many factors.

It is important to select the right type of vaccine.

The best adjuvant.

The correct time of application.

The growing demand for antibiotic-free and organic productions and the rising antimicrobial resistance fuels the interest in using immunological control methods for many infectious diseases as an alternative to traditional chemotherapy.

Viral variants increase the pressure to develop vaccines that keep up with virus evolution and minimize potential mutations among vaccine viral strains.

It has been estimated that the market of poultry vaccines will grow 6% in the next five years worldwide.

This article intends to review the trends in vaccine development with a special focus on bacterial poultry vaccines.

Avoid errors in vaccine storage and transportation.

And optimize administration methods to cover the population.

Vaccine failure also can occur due to: Host factors such as stress.

Immunodepression.

Interference with maternally derived antibodies.

Nutritional status.

Among other factors.

The new vaccines have been designed to overcome many of the most common issues observed in practical applications.

48 aviNews International July 2021 | Current trends in vaccine development

THE EVOLUTION OF POULTRY VACCINES POULTRY VACCINES HAVE EVOLVED IN THREE MAIN GENERATIONS The first one was based on the whole microbial organism, either live-attenuated or inactivated with the killed agent.

2

The second generation of vaccines includes vectors or subunits of the microorganism expressing proteins or metabolic products like the toxoids for bacterial vaccines.

3

And, the third generation employs vaccination by transferring specific antigens generated by molecular manipulations or the nucleic acids into the host to stimulate the expression of the appropriate antigen.

ADJUVANT FORMULATIONS THE TRADITIONAL ADJUVANTS HAVE BEEN GROUPED INTO THREE CATEGORIES: 1

Water in oil.

2

Oil in water.

3

Aluminum hydroxide.

vaccine

1

They are used with the inactivated vaccines. The choice among them for specific vaccines depends on what is proven to be safer and more efficacious.

All three generations of vaccines will continue impacting poultry medicine as technologies related to adjuvant formulations, delivery mechanisms, and molecular methods advance.

Recently, registered new adjuvants have replaced the mineral oils and included immunomodulators.

However, it is understandable that live attenuated vaccine development will decrease while nucleic acid, subunit, vector, and DNA vaccines will increase. Let’s review each one of these three aspects that can improve vaccine development.

These molecules boost both humoral and cellular immunity.

Additionally, triglycerides, acrylic polymers, and cholesterol have improved the adjuvant effect and the delivery mainly of nucleic acids and proteins.

The formulations that include these components are called lipid nanoparticle platforms or LNPs.

49 aviNews International July 2021 | Current trends in vaccine development

DELIVERY FORMULATIONS The LNPs could include single to multiple ingredients and can be optimized to carry RNA, mRNA, DNA, plasmids, immunomodulators, and select antigenic proteins. The new LPNs have reduced the volume to deliver per vaccine dose, reducing manufacturing costs and the efficacious dose.

vaccine

MOLECULAR DEVELOPMENTS Molecular technologies like next-generation sequencing (NGS), DNA printing and assembly, and Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats-associated protein 9 (CRISPR-cas9) provide several opportunities for vaccine development.

It is now possible to create completely safe and efficacious live and inactivated vaccinations for long-lived birds.

Additionally, developing vaccines faster and obtaining regulatory approvals will be feasible since their development does not include pathogens or animal products.

The NGS has become a common tool in diagnostic laboratories.

DNA printing and rapid assembly techniques have allowed creating both DNA and RNA microorganisms in vitro without using animal origin materials.

This technology helps with the production of vaccines without the regulatory difficulties that traditional methods had.

Furthermore, these technologies allow vector optimization, rapid microbial genome deletions, insertions, and mutations needed to manipulate the microbial genome for genome optimization and compartmentalization.

In the same manner, the CRISPR-cas9 technology allows cutting the microbial genome at specific locations.

Consequently, the existing microbial genes can be edited, removed and new genes can be added.

This is another technology for vector optimization and microbial genome deletion.

For example, in a recent study lead by Chang et al., 2019 the gene-editing tool CRISPR-cas9 was used to insert an avian influenza gene into the turkey herpesvirus (HVT) used in Marek’s disease vaccines. The gene codes for haemagglutinin (H7), an influenza protein pivotal for virus entry into host cells.

The complete genome of bacteria, viruses, and parasites is elucidated to determine factors related to pathogenicity and virulence.

With the new bioinformatics tools, it has been possible to decide on genes of interest to insert them in established vectors to deliver more efficacious antigens.

50 aviNews International July 2021 | Current trends in vaccine development

This methodology helps to create a bivalent vaccine to stimulate host immune response to block infection of both Marek’s and avian influenza. These technologies are helping to develop attenuated microorganisms and more antigenic products in a shorter period.

Bacterial pathogens resist most disease control methods like antimicrobials.

Sanitation and reduced transmission are probably still the more effective methods. Vaccines play a role in reducing transmission and infection rates.

Bacterial poultry vaccines were traditionally developed from the whole bacteria, and they could be either live or inactivated.

Nowadays, other vaccines have been developed with subunits, recombinant DNA, and DNA vaccines.

VACCINES: The living vaccines include attenuated non-pathogenic strains, low virulence microorganisms, and gene deletions.

THE LIVE ATTENUATED VACCINES The live attenuated vaccines contain living microorganisms capable of multiplication within the host, but they are either avirulent or have been attenuated.

These vaccines stimulate cell-mediated responses similar to natural infection.

Salmonella typhimurium, S. enteritidis, and S. gallinarum 9 R strain vaccines have been developed in this way.

But the issue is that some vaccine strains can be transmitted from vaccinated birds to unvaccinated birds.

Vaccine strains of Mycoplasma gallisepticum like ts-11 and 6/85 have been transmitted in this way to unvaccinated flocks.

vaccine

THE CASE OF BACTERIAL POULTRY VACCINES

To avoid this issue some vaccines, contain specific bacteria strains that have been genetically manipulated to delete particular genes that make them self-limiting and, in this way, do not persist in the bird.

The methods of inactivation for killed vaccines include heat, chemicals, and radiation. All these inactivated vaccines are metabolic product vaccines or toxoids.

There are also subunit vaccines containing whole-bacteria-cell proteins, outer membrane proteins, purified flagellar proteins or flagellins, fimbrial proteins, pilus proteins, and lipopolysaccharides. These proteins are very variable, but there are some regions well-conserved and with immunogenic properties.

As examples in the market, there are live attenuated and live mutant E. coli vaccines with deletion of aroA gene or crp gene, respectively.

Attenuated or avirulent bacteria can be used as vehicles for the delivery of other vaccines. For example, attenuated Salmonella strains can be carrier vaccines to prevent necrotic enteritis.

Other vaccines have been produced by recombinant DNA technology or are DNA vaccines.

51 aviNews International July 2021 | Current trends in vaccine development

INACTIVATED OR KILLED VACCINES Inactivated or killed vaccines are also called bacterins. They can be obtained by heat (60 oC for one hour), chemical (ethylene oxide, ethyleneimine acetylmethylamine, and β-propiolactone), and gamma radiation (cobalt 60) inactivation.

Many times, these bacterins are combined with more than one microorganism inducing a wider spectrum of protection. It has been common to apply a combination of live and inactivated vaccines to provide better protection.

vaccine

TOXOIDS Soluble toxins rendered non-toxic by the addition of formalin, carbonation, or gentle heating can induce immunity against diseases like Salmonella or Clostridium perfringens.

These vaccines are called toxoids.

SUBUNIT VACCINES The second generation of bacterial vaccines is subunit vaccines using one or a few immunogenic epitopes of the infectious agent.

Subunit vaccines are safer since they are unable to replicate.

However, in some cases, multiple doses with these acellular fractions might be needed to confer long-lasting immunity.

Whole-cell proteins have been used with surface antigen proteins of E. coli, ammonium sulfate perceptible proteins of Pasteurella multocida serotype 6 B, or outer membrane proteins of S. enteritidis, and Campylobacter jejuni.

Bacterial vaccines also have been developed with purified native flagellin or fimbrial proteins of C. jejuni, S. enteritidis, and P. aureginosa.

Vaccines against E. coli have been developed with pilus proteins or capsular polysaccharides subunits.

Despite the great variability on these subunits, the ones selected for vaccines can stimulate immunity against a great variety of field strains.

52 aviNews International July 2021 | Current trends in vaccine development

C

M

Y

CM

MY

CY

CMY

K

POINTING IN THE RIGHT DIRECTION

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Additionally, particles protect the antigens from the digestive system and prolong antigenic exposure.

DNA VACCINES Finally, DNA vaccines use the DNA encoding the gene of the antigen protein ligated to a plasmid to directly inoculated the plasma into the host tissues.

The nanoparticles are formulated with copolymer, methyl vinyl ether, and maleic anhydride.

This plasmid will cause the expression of the antigen protein within the transfected cells. The expressed protein is the one that stimulates the bird’s immune system.

The protective effects of nanoparticles for Salmonella subunit vaccine were recently evaluated with success by Ochoa-Reparaz et al., 2021.

These vaccines have many advantages like no risk of infection, no purification costs, or antigen denaturation during preparation.

THE THIRD GENERATION OF BACTERIAL VACCINES INCLUDES RECOMBINANT DNA TECHNOLOGIES Identifying antigenic-coding genes has allowed these isolated genes to be ligated to a cloning vector or plasmid in a bacterial vector-like E. coli or yeast cells.

The produced recombinant antigen is identified with markers in the grown culture to be purified and used as a vaccine.

This methodology has been used for vaccines against S. enteritidis, Campylobacter jejuni, Pasteurella multocida, and P. haemolytica.

vaccine

Some conserved surface molecules of these bacteria can serve as protective antigens. Adjuvants are used to increase the effectiveness of acellular vaccines.

However, particulate carrier systems such as microparticles and nanoparticles may enhance antigenic mucosal bioavailability even after one single dose.

The endogenous production of these antigenic proteins enhances cell-mediated immunity.

The vaccine is very stable to temperatures and consequently reduces the costs of cold chains.

The DNA vaccines do not interfere the maternal immunity, and with a single dose, they could induce long-term immunity.

For these advantages, the trend on vaccine development is to use more of these DNA vaccines in the future.

However, consumer perceptions due to a general lack of understanding of immunology could be a limitation.

55 aviNews International July 2021 | Current trends in vaccine development

AUTOGENOUS VACCINES

Another trend to consider in vaccine development is the production and use of autogenous vaccines that complement vaccination programs using tailor-made antigenic variants specific to some companies or regions.

Autogenous bacterins and toxoids were probably the first ones to be developed.

Currently, antigenic variants of reovirus, infectious bursal disease virus (IBDV), and infectious bronchitis virus (IBV) are frequently isolated.

vaccine

The antigenic and pathogenic characteristics of virus isolates are determined to evaluate modifications in the vaccination programs and the potential for developing autogenous vaccines.

Several companies are offering these services in many countries.

After complete studies of pathotypification and genotypification, emerging antigenic variants of IBDV and reovirus are discovered and used to produce autogenous vaccines.

These vaccines are applied to breeders to expand antigenic diversity and coverage of the vaccination program.

The efficacy of these vaccines is evaluated in several ways, but especially in the broiler progeny.

Autogenous vaccine development has to follow local regulations. Still, there is plenty of evidence that autogenous vaccines have been a solution to local poultry emerging disease challenges for many poultry companies.

IN CONCLUSION

The experience has been that IBV variants generally are not antigenically different from already utilized vaccines. The full study of isolation, serotypification, and challenges help determine changes in administration methods, vaccine doses, and vaccination age.

Molecular methods guide the development of safer and more efficacious vaccines while keeping up with the evolution of diseases.

The new vaccines may overcome issues related to thermal stability and the need for a cold chain of vaccines.

Many other problems of vaccine stability and efficacy could be solved soon.

Current trends in vaccine development

DOWNLOAD AS PDF DOCUMENT.

56 aviNews International July 2021 | Current trends in vaccine development

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CONTROLLING

NEWCASTLE DISEASE VIRUS Pedro Villegas, DVM, MS, Ph.D. Professor Emeritus, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia

T

pathology

ogether with Avian Influenza, Newcastle disease virus (NDV) represents one of the two most significant avian diseases. This is possibly due to their rapid spread globally and the high mortalities they leave behind.

Outbreaks are notifiable to the World Organization for Animal Health (OIE). They are also published in different media to prevent their spread to the poultry industries of other countries.

NDV is classified in the family Paramyxoviridae, genus Avulavirus. The different virus strains are further classified in different groups depending on their pathogenicity.

58 aviNews International July 2021 | Controlling Newcastle Disease Virus

2

The disease

1

When infection is caused by viruses of low virulence, the clinical signs include respiratory problems with rapid spread and lesions in the respiratory system, including the air sacs.

This causes a reduction in the productive parameters of the birds and an increase in the percentage of discarded birds in slaughterhouses.

Infection with virulent viruses: The symptoms are varied depending on the type of virus causing the outbreak, therefore, anything from conjunctivitis, dyspnea, inflammation around the eyes, diarrhea, severe depression to death can be observed.

Nervous signs like torticollis, and wing & leg paralysis may be seen in the final stages of the disease. Production is also significantly affected in adult birds. Deformed eggs with weak shells, pigmentless shells are common, as well as a general drop in lay. Mortality in young birds can reach 100%.

pathology

In general, the disease can be observed in two different forms:

59 aviNews International July 2021 | Controlling Newcastle Disease Virus

Transmission The virus is released through the respiratory and intestinal tracts and is transmitted to other birds by aerosol or by ingestion of viral particles present in the feces and the environment, mainly the litter.

The incubation period varies from 3 to 8 days and the clinical consequences depend on factors such as: Virus type

The virus can also be transmitted by direct contact with infected birds, contaminated feed, objects and personnel, etc.

Viral load Vaccination plan and type of vaccines Immune status of birds

Figure 1.

Transmission methods of NDV

Stool/Manure Infected houses

Live birds

Vehicles/Equipment

pathology

Droplet inhalation

Meat and byproducts

Feeding/ Hydrating Contaminated eggs

Wild birds

Contact

Personnel

Vectormediated

Water/Feed Pests/Insects

Diagnosis Macroscopic lesions are variable depending on the type of virus affecting the birds. In some cases the lesions may be similar to those of avian influenza. Therefore, definitive diagnosis requires the identification of the virus either by virus isolation or by molecular methods.

60 aviNews International July 2021 | Controlling Newcastle Disease Virus

Current definition of Newcastle HemagglutininNeuraminidase

Fusion protein

The World Organization of Animal Health (formerly Office International des Epizootics -OIE) includes Newcastle disease and avian influenza viruses in the A list. In other words, they are diseases with serious socioeconomic or public health consequences. These viruses have significant implications on the international trade of animals and their by-products.

Lipid bilayer Matrix protein Hydrophobic protein

Nucleocapside phosphoprotein

Differential diagnosis Newcastle disease virus must be differentiated from avian influenza, as these virus cause similar clinical symptoms.

OIE Commentary and Definition on Newcastle The large variations in virulence and clinical signs of Newcastle disease viruses make it necessary to carefully define what constitutes Newcastle for purposes of international trade, control measures and policies.

pathology

Viral RNA polymerase

NDV is defined as an infection of birds caused by an avian paramyxovirus serotype 1 virus (APMV-1) that meets one of the following virulence criteria:

The virus has an intracerebral pathogenicity index (ICPI) equal to or greater than 0.7.

Photo 1. Hemorrhagic lesions in the proventriculus that can be caused by Newcastle virus or avian influenza.

Demonstration of the presence of multiple basic amino acids in the F2 protein and phenylalanine at residue 117, which is the amino terminus of the F1 protein.

61 aviNews International July 2021 | Controlling Newcastle Disease Virus

Serological controls Serological controls for measuring Newcastle disease antibody levels include the routinely used haemagglutination inhibition tests (HI test) and the ELISA test.

The results obtained through the ELISA test facilitate the interpretation and comparison of results with other countries or with other companies that use this system, since there is uniformity in the way results are expressed.

In the IH test, a great variability of results is sometimes observed due to: Variety of antigens used Antigen quantity How the test is read

pathology

Serotype & genotypes As noted above, there is a single serotype for all Newcastle virus strains. However, due to the progress of molecular tests to study and sequence the genomes of viruses, studies conducted in recent years show that there are differences in virus genotypes.

In the year 2008 in my laboratory at the Poultry Disease & Research Center (PDRC) of the University of Georgia, together with Drs Francisco Perozo (Venezuela), Rubén Merino (Mexico) and Claudio Afonso (Argentina), we conducted a study with 11 viral Newcastle disease nucleic acids from Mexico and found that all were classified in genotype V. At this time, there were only 7 genotypes described in the literature. Currently, there are more than 18 genotypes that have been characterized.

United States

In Venezuela, a high percentage of protection against challenge with a genotype VII strain was also observed in birds vaccinated with a live virus vaccine (VG / GA strain) and an inactivated one (Ulster strain).

62 aviNews International July 2021 | Controlling Newcastle Disease Virus

Venezuela

Using reverse genetics technology, a genotype VII vaccine was developed in China that protected against challenge with the original pathogenic strain of the same serotype.

China

Vaccine strains such as La Sota and others belong to genotype II. Work carried out in South Korea showed that birds vaccinated with vaccines based on the La Sota and Ulster 2C strains (genotype II) protected against the challenge with the new genotype VII strains.

United States pathology

At the Southeast Poultry Research Laboratory in Athens, Georgia, Dr. Claudio Afonso’s group found protection in birds vaccinated with the La Sota strain (genotype II) when challenged with a strain of geese isolated in China belonging to genotype VII.

Korea

It should be well understood that Newcastle viruses belong to a single serotype and traditional vaccines belonging to genotype II offer protection against mortality.

In all cases, the “traditional” vaccine strains belonging to genotype II protect against the challenges with strains of heterologous genotypes when the parameter to measure protection is mortality and morbidity.

However, when parameters such as challenge virus clearance are included, homologous vaccines have a much better impact.

63 aviNews International July 2021 | Controlling Newcastle Disease Virus

Current situation of Newcastle disease in America and the world

pathology

Outbreaks caused by highly pathogenic (Velogenic) strains of Newcastle disease in the world are compiled by the OIE and the summaries include tables and maps that are published at the following address: www.oie.int.

Readers can access this site to find the countries where recent outbreaks of pathogenic NDV have occurred.

Consulting OIE data

Latin America

In Latin America, there are some countries where outbreaks caused by highly virulent Newcastle virus frequently occur.

There are also many countries that are considered free of highly virulent viruses.

United States

With respect to the United States, outbreaks of highly virulent Newcastle virus have occasionally been reported caused by the illegal transport of birds from countries that harbour the pathogenic viruses.

However, the US is considered ND-free because, the virus has not been present in the commercial poultry industry for many years and rare instances of outbreaks are immediately dealt with by slaughtering the infected flocks.

64 aviNews International July 2021 | Controlling Newcastle Disease Virus

Newcastle disease control United States

The control of Newcastle disease is basically carried out by two systems:

Australia

Eradication of highly virulent virus strains: eliminating birds that carry these viruses when outbreaks occur. This eradication method has been practiced by numerous countries, including Australia, the US, and EU countries.

2

Immunization, using both live, inactivated or vectorized (recombinant) virus vaccines.

pathology

1

European Union

Live virus vaccines The vaccine strains used worldwide are the La Sota strain (and its clones), B1, F, VG/GA, Queensland V4, Ulster 2C and some others that have been developed in different countries and used locally.

Inactivated vaccines

These vaccines don’t produce a respiratory type postvaccination reaction, offering adequate levels of protection against field strains.

The vector virus used is the Herpes virus of turkey (HVT).

A Newcastle virus protein is “inserted” into this vector, generally the fusion protein that is responsible for the pathogenicity of the virus.

Inactivated, oil emulsified vaccines are in common use especially in long-lived birds, such as commercial layers and breeders.

Vectorized or Recombinant Vaccines These vaccines have greatly helped in controlling the disease, as they’re sometimes combined with other pathogens (such as Gumboro). Their application is done either in-ovo or at one day of age.

65 aviNews International July 2021 | Controlling Newcastle Disease Virus

Vaccination Vaccination is carried out with three types of vaccines —live, inactivated and vectored or recombinant.

Live vaccines are based mainly on the La Sota strains (with their respective clones) and the B1 strain. Other strains with special characteristics may also be included, like VG/GA, Ulster, C2 and Queensland V4.

Vaccination plans practiced in breeders and commercial layers during the rearing and growing periods generally include the use of 3 vaccinations with live virus products.

pathology

In breeders, vaccination with an oil emulsion vaccine (with various other antigens such as Gumboro, bronchitis or reovirus) is practiced before the birds enter production, generally between 18 and 20 weeks of age.

In commercial layers, vaccination with live virus vaccines is practiced or in some cases an inactivated product is used before onset of production.

Revaccination during production is practiced with some frequency in both layers and breeders.

In layers and breeders, the live Newcastle vaccine is administered in drinking water at intervals ranging from 60 to 90 days.

This vaccine can be monovalent or bivalent, accompanied by the infectious bronchitis virus.

66 aviNews International July 2021 | Controlling Newcastle Disease Virus

Broiler Vaccination Vaccination plans are widely varied: In countries like USA and others where there is no field challenge with very virulent (velogenic) strains, vaccination is normally done at the hatchery using the “in ovo” method.

Also, simultaneous vaccination with live and inactivated vaccines is common. This helps induce humoral antibodies at the local level (immunoglobulin A) and in the circulatory system (immunoglobulin G). Consequently, adequate levels of immunity and protection are achieved against pathogenic ND strains.

pathology

In countries with severe challenge with NDV velogenic strains, broilers are vaccinated twice with live vaccines during the first 2-3 weeks of age.

Controlling Newcastle Disease Virus DOWNLOAD THE PDF

The control of Newcastle disease constitutes a continuous challenge for those countries that “live” with the pathogenic viruses.

Commercial vaccines control the expression of these viruses in the field thus avoiding mortality. The viruses have the ability to persist in backyard birds, pet birds, fighting cocks and other types of birds. This characteristic makes it a continuing threat to the commercial poultry industry.

The application of modern molecular tests has allowed for the rapid identification of the virus.

This in turn led to better control of the disease as well as carrying out epidemiological studies to compare viruses from different regions of the world.

Technical advances in the poultry industry has been successful in eliminating or controlling pathogenic viruses via appropriate vaccination programs.

67 aviNews International July 2021 | Controlling Newcastle Disease Virus

ENTEROCOCCAL SPONDYLITIS Edgar O. Oviedo-Rondón and Luke Borst North Carolina State University, Prestage Department of Poultry Science and College of Veterinary Medicine, Raleigh, NC

Vertebral osteomyelitis or kinky back ranked among the top ten broiler diseases in countries like the US and Brazil and has been reported in many other countries worldwide.

health

While many bacteria can cause vertebral infection in individual birds, Enterococcus cecorum causes outbreaks affecting whole flocks.

E. cecorum is a gram-positive bacterium, which is facultative anaerobic and a non-spore former.

This coccus was known only as an enteric commensal of poultry.

The commensal strains of E. cecorum can be detectable in the gut of chickens during the third week of life and become dominant in broilers’ intestinal microbiome.

68 aviNews International July 2021 | Enterococcal Spondylitis

Pathogenic strains of E. cecorum have been identified as a major cause of lameness and mortality in broiler and broiler breeder flocks.

In addition, this bacterium causes septic disease in Pekin ducklings and racing pigeons.

Enterococcus faecalis, Enterococcus hirae, Escherichia coli, and Staphylococcus aureus have been isolated. Several authors have indicated that ES caused by a single agent has a lower frequency than multi-species infections.

health

The most common disease presentation in broilers and broiler breeders is vertebral osteoarthritis, kinky back, or, more technically, Enterococcal Spondylitis (ES).

It is important to indicate that more than one Enterococcus species and other microorganisms have also been detected in these vertebral lesions in several studies in other countries.

Figure 1. Clinical presentation In this presentation, the affected chickens display a typical hock sitting position. A similar clinical presentation is seen in a developmental abnormality of the spinal column known as spondylolisthesis which causes compression of the spinal cord.

Figure 2. Clinical presentation

However, in outbreaks of ES, 5 to 15% of flocks will show signs of infection which differentiates from the spinal column's developmental malformation, where rare individual birds are affected.

69 aviNews International July 2021 | Enterococcal Spondylitis

PATHOGENESIS

The clinical signs for diseases affecting the free thoracic vertebra are very similar. Symmetrical hind limb paraparesis and paralysis are observed in broilers between four and eight weeks of age.

Strains of E. cecorum causing ES are more virulent compared to commensal isolates. Using genetic fingerprinting methods, pathogenic E. cecorum strains were very similar but shared only 70% similarity to the commensal strains.

Bacteremia measured by splenic infection precedes clinical signs by two to three weeks.

In a national surveillance program funded by the US Department of Agriculture, the lab of Dr. Borst has accumulated more than 3,000 isolates of pathogenic E. cecorum from outbreaks of ES in different regions of the US.

Mortality is mainly due to paralysis, which impairs feed and water intake.

Paralysis in ES is due to the compression of the thoracolumbar spinal cord by chronic inflammation that starts in the cartilage and bone of the fourth thoracic vertebra, also called free thoracic vertebra.

Using this collection, they have identified potential virulence genes, including those that encode for a polysaccharide capsule.

Figure 3. Early spine lesion with osteochondrosis dissecans and inflammation under cartilage.

Figure 4. ES with spine lesion, lateral cut section.

ORIGIN & DISSEMINATION

health

Both E. cecorum pathogenic and commensal strains tend to have multidrug resistance.

Generally, each strain has shown resistance to more than two antibiotics, with pathogenic strains showing increased resistance to gentamycin and tylosin.

The origin and rapid dissemination of these strains globally are not well understood.

Vertical transmission has not been completely proven but is suspected.

Infections can occur during In Ovo vaccination.

Infection at the farm may explain the repeated outbreaks in certain farms; however, an on-farm reservoir has not been identified.

Figure 5. ES lesion from the frontal view.

70 aviNews International July 2021 | Enterococcal Spondylitis

Infection can occur during the first week of life, and colonization with pathogenic E. cecorum strains occurs earlier in life than commensal strains.

between E. cecorum infected broilers or healthy chickens.

Even the infection with coccidian parasites which significantly increased gut inflammation, actually decreased the bacteremia due to E. cecorum.

These findings indicate that gut inflammation or activated gut immunity can minimize ES.

Research results from field and experimental infection cases have indicated that these lesions of OCD are cofactors that predispose individuals to ES. The increasing severity of OCD lesions was highly correlated with ES-positive cases.

Unfortunately, OCD of the free thoracic vertebra is common in broiler chickens with similar prevalence in broilers of different genetic lines.

health

But several research projects led by our research team at North Carolina State University have demonstrated no differences in the intestinal health

OSTEOCHONDROSIS DISSECANS (OCD)

It has been speculated that intestinal diseases cause or increase infection with E. cecorum.

Key to the formation of ES lesions is the presence of a common cartilage lesion called osteochondrosis dissecans (OCD). These OCD lesions result from cartilage necrosis, with parts of the cartilage at risk of loosening or dislodging from the joint.

Figure 6.

Histopathological view of ES with E. cecorum infection in the cartilage.

71 aviNews International July 2021 | Enterococcal Spondylitis

H ea l

I

ine

m

y intest th

munity

Nevertheless, these effects may need to be tested in vivo. Feed additive modulators of the microbial populations should be tested to control this microorganism.

health

Pathogenic E. cecorum has prolonged longevity in the environment of poultry houses.

Temperatures of 25 and 15

oC

and

low relative humidity facilitate the survival of this bacteria.

Prolonged down-times in between flocks and proper pre-heating of the house to temperatures close to 34 oC could minimize the infection of the following flock.

After an outbreak, a complete depopulation, complete removal or successful composting of the litter, and adequate cleaning and sanitation of water lines are necessary to avoid infection in the

Micr o

al Modul bi

n

Bacillus strains used as probiotics have in vitro inhibitory properties against pathogenic isolates of E. cecorum.

cination ac

io at

Maintaining good gut health, immunity, and microbial modulation is, at this point, the best way to avoid E. cecorum pathogenicity. Currently, there is no effective control or treatment for this disease.

V

CONTROL

Our group developed a polyvalent bacterin representing the most common genotypes of E. cecorum observed in the US in the past years.

While intramuscular vaccination of broiler-breeder hens stimulated the production of specific antibodies against E. cecorum, protection was not observed in experimentally infected embryos or chicks from vaccinated hens.

The antibodies produced by hens were used in an in vitro macrophage killing assay.

In this assay, we saw that while these antibodies increased the killing of commensal strains, pathogenic E. cecorum evaded killing.

This means that these bacteria may have virulence mechanisms that evade the immune system’s ability to control infection, complicating vaccine development.

subsequent flocks.

This a disease of concern, and more needs Enterococcal Spondylitis

DOWNLOAD IN PDF

72 aviNews International July 2021 | Enterococcal Spondylitis

to be learned about the onset of infection and methods to control pathogenicity to avoid future outbreaks.

interview

INTERVIEW

IPC PRESIDENT ROBIN HOREL

by Ad Bal

“We have to keep moving” “There’s a strong need to show to the world that professional poultry production truly contributes to feeding the world population. For that reason the international Poultry Council (IPC) plays an important role to make this possible”, says IPC President Robin Horel.

74 aviNews International July 2021 | Interview with IPC President Robin Horel

“We certainly managed to reach our goals during the years thereafter”, says Horel. “Nowadays we have 33 member countries and 58 associate members, all having a strong link with either the domestic or global poultry industry. Our associate members range from suppliers to the industry, to food processing companies and distributors & customers.

From the relatively small organization in 2005, IPC grew up till its current size, representing 88 percent of the world’s commercial poultry production and 95 percent of global poultry meat trade.

We may proudly say that this is quite an achievement, making IPC a relevant body in the world’s food production.

We are fully recognized by important global public organizations such as FAO, OIE and Codex Alimentarius.

Of course this is impossible, first of all because of biosecurity restrictions, but also for practical reasons. It makes clear however that we feel the need to communicate our message to the public. And create trust.

Our organization operates in a “bottom up” model: our members discuss issues and agree to policies and procedures through consensus. The result is found in a number of position papers which we have published and which can be found on our website. One of these is the IPC position on the responsible use of antibiotics in poultry production. I believe many consumers are confused by the term antibiotic free (ABF), believing that if a package of poultry is not labeled ABF, then it has antibiotics in the meat.

Our industry has standards, processes and testing in place to ensure that there are no residue issues. “We are doing our part in combatting antibiotic resistance by using antibiotics responsibly, for example to treat illness and ensure good animal health and welfare in our flocks. Transparently letting consumers know this will lead to more public trust. Again a matter of communication.”

interview

Understanding the necessity of international cooperation, IPC was founded in 2005 as a relatively small organization. It started with member associations from 11 countries across the globe. Its objective was to share common objectives between these member countries and to be the voice of the global poultry industry.

Transparent “Looking ahead, we need to be transparent to the consumer”, Horel continues. “Tell the story about the value of healthy and safe food from poultry origin. Most consumers are a long way removed from farming. We would love to take consumers inside our breeder and broiler houses, as well as into processing plants and show to them the reality and professionalism behind the scenes.

75 aviNews International July 2021 | Interview with IPC President Robin Horel

Securing food supply We take our responsibility to securing food supply to every world citizen. For that reason IPC is closely linked to the World Poultry Foundation (WPF), of which my predecessor Jim Summer is founding member and currently president. The aim of WPF is to improve lives globally through the production and consumption of poultry while empowering farmers in developing regions.

This is much in line with “Declaration of Sao Paulo”, which was adopted in 2019 during the annual meeting of IPC in Sao Paulo, Brazil.

This declaration is the commitment of IPC as a leader in transforming the world through environmental and sustainable practices, in partnership with the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO).

Our “bottom up” process results in all members of IPC supporting the declaration, making clear that our industry is committed to sustainability.

interview

Working groups Having an ambition of course is a good starting point. Implementing our objectives however, is largely the result of the “heavy lifting” of our working groups, of which there are five. It was our Animal Health & Welfare working group that did the underlying work resulting in our position paper on Responsible Use of Antibiotics in Poultry Production and our Sustainability working group that spearheaded the efforts that resulted in the Declaration of Sao Paulo. We also have active working groups on Food Safety, Communication and Trade Policy and we have produced statements on various issues with the help of these working groups.

These groups bring together country and associate members to carry out IPC’s agenda.

“I’m grateful for the support of our members and for their efforts through the working groups to advance our industry. As proud as I am of our accomplishments from our first 14 years, I think the potential is even brighter for both our industry and for International Poultry Council.”

76 aviNews International July 2021 | Interview with IPC President Robin Horel

Robin Horel - biography Robin Horel has spent his whole career in the poultry industry. Robin was the Canadian representative when the International Poultry Council (IPC) was founded in 2005. Currently Robin is the voting delegate representing Canada at IPC and has the privilege of being the IPC President.

Robin was the President & CEO of Canadian Poultry & Egg Processors Council (CPEPC) from 2003 to 2019. Based in Ottawa, CPEPC is the national trade organization representing the interests of more than 200 Canadian poultry processors, egg processors and hatcheries. In addition, their membership includes over 60 national and international industry partners who have joined the Council as Associate Members.

interview

Prior to that date Robin worked for Maple Leaf Foods and its predecessor, Canada Packers Poultry, for 27 years. Robin’s career with Maple Leaf was spent entirely in the poultry industry, and included various management roles in sales, operations, procurement and industry relations in four provinces across Canada.

Throughout his poultry career, Robin has served in roles as Director and Chair on various industry related Boards both within Canada and internationally. Robin lives in Ottawa, Canada’s capital city.

Interview with IPC President Robin Horel

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77 aviNews International July 2021 | Interview with IPC President Robin Horel

ON-FARM

farm report

HATCHING IS BENEFICIAL

O

n-farm hatching offers healthy birds with a better feed conversion and higher

slaughter weight. These and other advantages are the result of early feeding in broiler growing. Bart Janssen from The Netherlands has been using this system on his farm successfully for six years already.

By Ad Bal.

78 aviNews International July 2021 | On-farm hatching is beneficial

farm report

“On-farm hatching is an excellent way to grow broilers”, says Bart Janssen. “I am convinced about that.”

The on-farm hatching Bart, together with his wife Ellly, owns and

system, is used in each

runs a broiler growing farm nearby the

house, making this farm

village of Zuidvelde in The Netherlands.

peculiar. Apart from that, an

Their farm is not very regular. Yet it is truly

impressive wood burning system is

a full size professional operation. The farm

heating all of the poultry houses,

has capacity for 500.000 broilers, which are

as well as the living houses of Elly

kept in two ages and in thirteen houses.

and Bart and his parents. In order to let this be possible, the aim is

Bart took over the farm from his parents,

to have a stock supply of 6.000

who started in the year 1975 with 10.000

cubic meters of chopped wood

birds only. Within a period of 5 years,

at the end of winter. Indeed this

capacity moved up to 90.000 birds and

is quite an impressive volume,

onwards to its current size. Bart (age

piling at the yard.

43) joined the family owned farm in the year 2000 and moved on in further professionalizing the operation.

79 aviNews International July 2021 | On-farm hatching is beneficial

Serious investment Most remarkable asset of this farm however, is the X-Treck system in which Bart first invested in 2015.

farm report

Bart: “Vencomatic earlier introduced the Patio system and we had closely followed the results of this system.

Both bird performance and economic results appeared to be positive. We were more interested in the X-Treck floor system however, which is based on the same principle. To find out whether or not we would go for this, we decided to install the system in one of our houses when it was first introduced. Since this turned out to be very positive, we decided to fully switch to this system in all of our houses.”

“The investment in such a system is of course serious business”, Bart continues. “Compared to the traditional system, the investment is by around 7-8 percent higher. However, return on investment is only 3 years. And the reward from then on is considerable.

The great benefit of on-farm hatching is raising healthy birds from the moment of hatch. The advantage is that the chicks then experience minimum stress. And not just that, also they have direct access to feed and water. This strongly activates the immune system in their early stage of life. Another benefit is that we buy incubated eggs, rather than day old chicks. Usually cost price of an egg is by around 2 eurocent lower compared to a day-old chick. “

From the moment of hatch, the chicks have immediate access to feed and water

80 aviNews International July 2021 | On-farm hatching is beneficial

Tight schedule A very tight management and planning schedule are needed however for running the system successfully, says Bart.

Bart Janssen is growing 500.000 birds in 13 houses, in all of which the Vencomatic X-treck system is installed

“Otherwise you will lose time and then the investment will not be profitable. Our birds are taken to processing on Monday and Tuesday. On Wednesday immediately thereafter, everything must be cleaned and disinfected.

On Thursday we put new litter on the floor and fumigate the house with ammonia to expel formaldehyde. On Friday the eggs arrive at day 18 of incubation. In order to let eggshell temperature stay at a temperature of 36-37 degrees Celsius, temperature inside the house must be 33 degrees Celsius at the moment the eggs are placed in the racks at about 15 centimetres above floor level. The two temperatures are related to each other and this is essential for successful hatching. “

Bart Janssen: “On farm hatching is very beneficial, but demands tight management”

Efficient and profitable From the moment of hatch, the growing cycle starts. According to Bart, in most cases hatchability is by around 98-99 percent. Mortality is not really lower, but the Feed Conversion Ratio is 3 to 4 points better and on average we achieve 100 grams higher weight at slaughter.

Moreover, the immune system of the birds is triggered in an early stage. As a result,

“On-farm hatching truly demands tight management.

It is a comprehensive approach and not just one element to improve”, Bart summarizes. “However, it makes us more flexible and it is an efficient and profitable way of running our business. Next step will be receiving the incubated eggs at day 19. That will make on-farm hatching even more beneficial. Make your own calculation: 500.000 birds times 1 day gain, times 7,5 growing cycles per year.. Truly successful and beneficial”, Bart Janssen concludes.

the use of antibiotics in our flocks is substantially lower.

On-farm hatching is beneficial

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