ASM Local & Transboundary Haze Study

ASM Local &

LOCAL & TRANSBOUNDARY HAZE STUDY

HAZE: Help Action toward Zero Emissions

2018

Local & Transboundary Haze Study Haze: Help Action Toward Zero Emissions Š Academy of Sciences Malaysia 2018 All Rights Reserved.

No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system,or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise without prior permission in writing from the Academy of Sciences Malaysia.

Academy of Sciences Malaysia Level 20, West Wing, MATRADE Tower Jalan Sultan Haji Ahmad Shah off Jalan Tuanku Abdul Halim 50480 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia Perpustakaan Negara Malaysia Cataloguing-In-Publication Data Local & Transboundary Haze Study Haze: Help Action Toward Zero Emissions eISBN 978-983-2915-42-3 1. Haze--Malaysia 2. Air--Pollution--Malaysia 363.739209595 ASM Advisory Report 10/2016 Endorsed: December 2016

CONTENTS Foreword 4 Preface 5 Advisory and Working Groups 6 List of Tables 8 List of Figures 9 List of Abbreviations 10 Executive Summary 12 Purpose of the Report 19 Methodology 20 Air Quality & Haze Episodes 22 Peat Area & Water Management 40 Waste to Resources: Energy or Materials 58 The Way Forward 75 Acknowledgment 80 Annexes A. Air Quality & Haze Episodes 84 B. Peat Area & Water Management 175 C. Waste To Resources: Energy Or Materials 277 References 345

FOREWORD In 2015, we experienced an unprecedented occurrence of haze where it lasted for more than two months, from August to October. 7,646 schools were closed impacting more than 4 million school children. 517 flights were either cancelled or rescheduled and thousands of travellers were stranded. To make thing worse, the source of haze was not within our boundary and we do not have direct control of the root cause of this daunting phenomenon.

When the Malaysian Prime Minister, Datuk Seri Najib Tun Razak, was officiating the third meeting of the Asia Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) Chief Science Advisors and Equivalents held in KL on 15-16 October 2015, he challenged the scientific community to come up with a scientific solution to the haze problem. What was once a local problem has now turned into a regional and global complication of huge proportion. There is a strong interest to find a solution to the 20-year haze problem afflicting our region. If 20-25 years is equivalent to a generation, then this could even be regarded as an intergenerational problem.

As a thought leader of the nation for matters related to science, engineering, technology and innovation, Academy of Sciences Malaysia (ASM) is compelled to analyse the situation and identify where science, engineering and technology (SET) can contribute to the solution and accordingly make recommendations to the government.

However, as is being agreed all round, this is not a simple SET issue but one with numerous social, economic, political and diplomatic consequences. Maslow’s hierarchy of needs is also at play. If we dig up the untold story behind the haze phenomenon, we will find evidence which suggests that it is a case of the continuing struggle between development and the environment. That in itself poses a challenge that we have to overcome.

I would like to take this opportunity to express my sincere appreciation to the Haze Task Force Committee and the Working Groups, led by Professor Dato’ Ir Dr A Bakar Jaafar, for their concerted works and efforts in carrying out the local and transboundary haze study and producing the draft report. We would also like to sincerely thank all government ministries, agencies, institutions of higher learning, research institutes as well as industry and corporate entities who have participated in providing inputs and data for not only the ASM Local & Transboundary Haze Study, but also our other studies related to sustainability science.

This is just the beginning. The findings and recommendations of this study open up more rooms for improvement in our needs to act either proactively or reactively in facing the haze. We invite you to provide us with your expert inputs in reviewing and enhancing the ASM Local & Transboundary Haze Study report. Our main aim is for the report to serve as a basis to establish the position of ASM and ultimately the Government of Malaysia. It is our hope that the recommendations made under the study will be finally brought to the ASEAN Secretariat (ASEC) level through the appropriate available channels.

Science is important to informed decisions on all levels of government. However, in order to catalyse and find lasting solutions to the haze problem and to sustain such efforts, strong political will and good governance are crucial. We also need to engage in science diplomacy. In order to solve this three-decade long South East Asian problem, we need to coordinate our efforts and continue our engagement through the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) community. In fact, science diplomacy would help our global fight against the impact of climate change in the long term.

Last but not least, I would like to thank one and all who have contributed either directly or indirectly to this ASM Local & Transboundary Haze Study.

Professor Datuk Dr Asma Ismail FASc President, ASM

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PREFACE The ever changing climate that is generally attributed either to the natural cycle, namely, El NiĂąo, the build-up of green-house gases in the atmosphere, or to both, has been no longer the controlling factor in explaining the increase in the frequency of haze episodes in the south-western part of the South East Asia. Since 1982, the frequency of the episodes has been reduced from once in nine years to every other year, if not once a year. There must have been other factors that compound the worsening environmental conditions: (i) the loss in the capacity of the natural forest eco-system to recover itself in after one dry season to another, and during wet seasons, and (ii) not only the traditional slash-and-burn, but also the increase in and the extent of open burning of both forested and peat areas during the dry periods, particularly during the inter-monsoon period over the months of August to October.

Established since 17 November 2015, the Academy of Sciences Malaysia Task Force on Haze (ASM H-TF) has been mandated to carry out intensive studies and review of the said episodes, and to develop a position for the Academy, and hopefully, for the relevant Ministries and the Government of Malaysia.

This task force is organised in three working groups: (i) assessment on air quality, haze episodes, and impacts on health, agriculture, transportation, tourism, and other sectors of the economy, (ii) peat area management, and (iii) conversion of biomass-waste to bioenergy or materials.

The Task Force is to focus its works specifically on the need (i) to manage peat areas by improving water management not only during dry seasons but also by channelling flood waters into peat areas, and any excess thereof, throughout the year; and (ii) to look into the techno-economic feasibility of biomass-waste conversion to either electricity, hydrogen fuel, or bio-energy such as ethanol. The proposed solution rests not so much on enforcement within the existing policy and legal framework, but the value it would create as such the biomass material after being cleared, not to be wasted nor to be burned off, but to be sent either to a nearby waste-to-energy conversion mobile-units, or to centralised Waste-to-Energy Facilities for a fee, to be paid by the owners of such facilities to settlers, farmers, or planters.

To disseminate the outcome produced by the Task Force and its Working Groups, ASM has established a dedicated website: http://haze.akademisains.gov.my which also serves to seek feedback or comments from all stakeholders and the public in general.

Everyone is most welcome to share your thoughts and suggestions by writing to ASM or participating in activities organised by ASM. Your invaluable contributions would certainly help towards achieving zero emissions for our region to be free from haze.

Prof Dato’ Ir Dr A Bakar Jaafar, PEng, FIEM, FASc Chairman, ASM Haze Task Force

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ADVISORY AND WORKING GROUPS

OTHER MEMBERS Prof Dr Mohd Talib Latif

The Academy of Sciences Malaysia (ASM) wishes to acknowledge the contribution of the following towards the ASM Report entitled “HAZE: Help Action toward Zero Emissions”:

Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia

STEERING COMMITTEE ADVISOR Academician Tan Sri Omar Abdul Rahman FASc

Professor Dr Haslenda Hashim

CHAIRMAN Professor Dato’ Ir Dr A Bakar Jaafar FASc

Dr Lulie Melling

ASM FELLOWS Academician Tan Sri Dato’ Ir (Dr) Hj Ahmad Zaidee Laidin FASc Academician Datuk Fateh Chand FASc Academician Professor Dato’ Ir Dr Chuah Hean Teik FASc Academician Professor Emeritus Tan Sri Dato’ Sri Dr Zakri Abdul Hamid FASc Academician Tan Sri Dr Salleh Mohd Nor FASc Professor Dato’ Dr Ahmad Ibrahim FASc Professor Dato’ Dr Mohd Jamil Maah FASc Professor Dr Fredolin Tangang FASc Professor Dr Heong Kong Luen FASc Professor Dr Lee Soo Ying FASc Professor Dr Low Pak Sum FASc Professor Dr Mohd Shafee’a Leman FASc Professor Dr Muhammad Awang FASc Professor Dr Raymond Ooi Chong Heng FASc Professor Dr Tan Soon Guan FASc Professor Dr Taufik Yap Yun Hin FASc Professor Dr Wickneswari Ratnam FASc Professor Dr Zaharin Yusoff FASc Datuk Dr Abdul Rahim bin Nik FASc Datuk Dr Ahmad Tasir Lope Pihie FASc Dr Francis S.P. Ng FASc Dr Goh Swee Hock FASc Dr Mazlan Madon FASc Dr Hj Rahimatsah Amat FASc Dr Selliah Paramananthan FASc Dr Tan Swee Lian FASc Ir Dr Salmah Zakaria FASc Ir Dr Ting Wen Hui FASc Ir Lalchand Gulabrai FASc

Hazami Habib

Dr Ahmad Hazri Abd Rashid

SIRIM Industrial Biotechnology Research Centre

Process Systems Engineering Centre (PROSPECT), Universiti Teknologi Malaysia

Founding President and Senior Fellow, ASM

Sarawak Tropical Peat Research Institute

Chief Executive Officer, ASM

CHIEF EDITOR

Dr Helena Muhamad Varkkey University Malaya

WORKING GROUPS AIR QUALITY AND HAZE EPISODES Professor Dr Fredolin Tangang FASc Co-Chair & Editor Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia

Professor Dr Mohd Talib Latif Co-Chair & Writer Unversiti Kebangsaan Malaysia

Puan Murnira Othman Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia

Puan Mashitah Darus Department of Environment

Zamzul Rizal Zulkifli Air Division, Department of Environment

Ms Wan Portia Hamzah Independent Consultant

Professor Dr Nik Meriam Nik Sulaiman University of Malaya

Dr Liew Juneng

Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia

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Dr Md Firoz Khan

WASTE TO RESOURCE: ENERGY OR MATERIALS

Centre for Tropical Climate Change System (IKLIM)

Dr Ahmad Hazri Abd Rashid

Assoc Professor Ahmad Makmom Abdullah Universiti Putra Malaysia

Co-Chair & Editor SIRIM Industrial Biotechnology Research Centre

Dr Mazrura Sahani

Professor Dr Haslenda Hashim

Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia

Co-Chair & Writer Process Systems Engineering Centre (PROSPECT), Universiti Teknologi Malaysia

Dr Jegalakshimi Jewaratnam University of Malaya

Dr Lim Jeng Shiun

Dr Nasrin Agha Mohammadi

Universiti Teknologi Malaysia

University of Malaya

Dr Tan Sie Ting

PEAT AREAS AND WATER MANAGEMENT

Universiti Teknologi Malaysia

Dr Lulie Melling

Professor Jean Marc Roda

Co-Chair & Editor Sarawak Tropical Peat Research Institute

CIRAD, Malaysia, CIRAD, France & UPM, Malaysia

Ir Lalchand Gulabrai FASc

Ir Dr Salmah Zakaria FASc Co-Chair & Writer

Dr Laili Nordin Independent Consultant

Nur Azima Busman Sarawak Tropical Peat Research Institute

Puvaneswari Ramasamy MYBiomass

Liew Yuk San NAHRIM Research Centre for River Management

Dr Ho Wai Shin

Process Systems Engineering Centre (PROSPECT)

Professor Dr Ahmad Ainuddin Nuruddin Institute of Tropical Forestry and Forest Product (INTROP)

Dr Alias Mohd Sood

Universiti Putra Malaysia

Faizal Parish

Global Environment Centre (GEC)

Ong Chu Lee @ Candice

Institute of Tropical Forestry and Forest Products

Julia Lo Fui San

Global Environment Centre (GEC)

Brenna Chen

Institute of Tropical Forestry and Forest Products

Kamaliah Kasmaruddin

ASM ANALYSTS Nitia Samuel Jagdish Kaur Chahil Muhammad Syazwan Alauddin Esther Wong Kum Yeen Abu Hanipah Jalil Fatin Athirah Amani Mohd Nasir Nurfathehah Idris Habibatul Saadiah Mohd Isa Padmini Karananidi

Wetlands International

Salahudin Yaacob

Roundtable of Sustainable Palm Oil (RSPO)

Tuan Haji Zubaidi bin Johar

NAHRIM Research Centre for River Management

Mavath Chandran

Independent Consultant

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LIST OF TABLES

Table 1. Value of Air Pollutant Index (API) and its relation with health effect Table 2. Aggregate value of haze damage in 1997 (Mohd Shahwahid & Othman, 1999) Table 3. Regional Measures in Terms of Preparedness and Prevention Table 4. Chemical properties of surface peat (0-50 cm) (Lim et al., 2012) Table 5. Benefits of intact peatlands Table 6. Oil palm crop area on peatland (Adapted from Wahid et al., 2010) Table 7. Summary Table Table 8. Land use in Sumatera in year 2015/2016 Table 9. Properties of biomass Table 10. Types of product derived from biomass Table 11. Characteristics of shredded and pelletised EFB Table 12. Summary of Biomass to Power Conversion Technologies Table 13. Ethanol production cost ($/l) reduction by improving the debt: equity ratio or interest rate

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LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1. Haze history in Malaysia Figure 2. Oil palm production by country in year 2014 (Mosarof et al., 2015) Figure 3. Contribution of different sources with API at 300 Figure 4. Map of peatlands in South East Asia (ASEAN Peatland Forests Project) Figure 5. Formation of tropical peatlands Figure 6. Percentage of oil palm area planted on peatland Figure 7. The components of Integrated Fire Management Figure 8. Land use distribution in Sumatera, Indonesia Figure 9. Conversion of biomass to product Figure 10. Process of biomass pelletising Figure 11. Process of conversion into biofuels and biochemicals Figure 12. Breakeven of electricity selling price for biomass-to-power in Malaysian context Figure 13. Breakeven of ethanol selling price for biomass-to-ethanol in Malaysian context Figure 14. The price of ethanol with different capacity and capacity cost

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LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

AMS APEC APFP-SEApeat API APMS APSMPE AQI ASEAN ISIS ASEAN ASEC ASM ASM h-TF ASMC Biomass-SP CAAP CBFiM CDM CIFOR COP CPC NOAA CSCAP D:E DOA DOE ECER EFB ENSO EPU ESA FDRS FELCRA FELDA FGV FiT GHG GIS GT Haze Agreement

ASEAN Member State Asia Pacific Economic Cooperation ASEAN Peatland Forests Project Air Pollutant Index ASEAN Peatland Management Strategy ASEAN Programme on Sustainable Management of Peatland Air Quality Index ASEAN Institute of Strategic and International Studies Association of Southeast Asian Nations ASEAN Secretariat Academy of Sciences Malaysia Academy of Sciences Malaysia Task Force on Haze ASEAN Specialised Meteorological Centre EU-Malaysia Biomass Sustainable Production Initiative Clean Air Action Plan Community Based Fire Management Clean Development Mechanism Center for International Forestry Research Conference of Parties Climate Prediction Center National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Council for Security Cooperation to the Asia Pacific debt:equity Department of Agriculture Malaysian Department of Environment East Coast Economic Region Empty Fruit Bunches El Niño - Southern Oscillation Economic Planning Unit Environmentally Sensitive Areas Fire Danger Rating System Federal Land Consolidation and Rehabilitation Authority Federal Land Development Authority/ Lembaga Kemajuan FELDA Global Ventures Holdings Bhd feed-in-tariff greenhouse gasses Geographic Information System gigatonnes ASEAN Agreement on Transboundary Haze Pollution

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HHV HYSPLIT IFM IPB IPBES IPCC iR KeTTHA Mha MMD MOA MOSTI MPIC MTy-1 NAP NBS NGOs NPV NRE NREL NTFP OPF OPT PAH PFE POIC PSF R&D S&T SEA SET SSF TPRL TWh UKM WG1 WG2 WG3

higher heating value Hybrid Single-Particle Lagrangian Integrated Trajectory Integrated Fire Management independent peat basin Intergovernmental Platform on Biological Diversity and Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Interest rate Ministry of Energy, Green Technology and Water million hectares Malaysian Meteorological Department Ministry of Agriculture and Agro-Based Industry Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation Ministry of Plantation Industries and Commodities metric tonnes per year National Action Plans National Biomass Strategy non-governmental organisations net present value Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment National Renewable Energy Lab non-timber forest products oil palm fronds oil palm trunks polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon Permanent Forest Estate Palm Oil Industrial Cluster peat swamp forests research & development science and technology South East Asia science, engineering and technology simultaneous saccharification and fermentation Tropical Peat Research laboratory Terawatt hours Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia Working Group 1 on Air Quality and Haze Episodes Working Group 2 on Peat Areas and Water Management Working Group 3 on Waste to Resource: Energy and Materials

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Executive Summary The recent haze episode in 2015 was roughly estimated to have cost Indonesia USD35 billion in losses, while Singapore is estimated to have suffered losses amounting to USD500 million over the same period of time. No latest figures for Malaysia are currently available, as research to calculate Malaysia’s losses during this period is still underway by the Ministry of National Resources & Environment (NRE). However, the 1997 South East Asian haze that lasted for three months had cost Malaysia approximately USD 320 million (RM801 million).

While waiting for the latest findings from the NRE, a simple calculation based on inflation rate would indicate that RM801 million in 1997 is worth about RM1.3 billion today. Hence, considering that conditions on the ground are the same or similar to that of 1997 (if not worse), Malaysia is potentially losing RM1.3 billion a year to the scourge of haze. Furthermore, this does not take into account the intangible costs of the haze, including but not limited to output loss as in the case of tourism, productivity loss in various economic sectors, reduced leisure time, increased anxiety due to loss of visibility and the risk of traffic collision, environmental costs and other intangibles detailed in the full report.

Cognizant of the costs and the dire urgency of the situation, the ASM Local & Transboundary Haze Study looks into the root causes of the haze from the following three main aspects:

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(i) Air Quality & Haze Episodes The haze has not only affected countries within the region but even beyond, impacting human health, the economy, agriculture, the environment, and biodiversity, and thus challenging international attempts to address these issues. Despite its perpetuity, haze is not a natural event but, as this and other studies have indicated, is made up of atmospheric pollutants that are mainly the result of anthropogenic activities. Although an El Niño event, along with prevailing wind directions, does intensify the severity of a haze episode, El Niño cannot be said to be the cause of haze. Digging deeper into the problem will reveal the complex socio-economic, ecological, and governance issues that require multi-pronged approaches including strong political will and good governance along with the engagement of science diplomacy at both the local and regional level.

(ii) Peat Area & Water Management Identified as one of the main sources of the miniscule particles that make up the transboundary haze, peat fires are closely linked to episodes of haze. Tropical peat deposits are generally carbon dated to have been formed more than 6,000 years ago, from tropical woods and vegetation, preserved within a high water table to maintain high water content. The deposit has a very high organic content, in many areas exceeding 90%, and if improperly drained and left dry can catch fire easily, releasing particles into the atmosphere.

Peatlands have a high degree of socio-economic and biodiversity importance, but are highly regarded for the purpose of timber extraction and agriculture in Malaysia. There are also the complementary needs to develop settlements and infrastructure in the vicinity and on the peat substrate, which in its natural form has very low bearing capacity, due to high water and organic content. While drainage will improve its properties, this may result in unequal settlement. Thus, appropriate design and construction methods are required to ensure minimal future destruction to these structures and to avoid any unintended drying of the peat substrate.

The associated risks of peat fires are due to a lack of knowledge and understanding of peatlands, not least due to a lack of science communication. This has resulted in poor land preparation, insufficient agro-environmental peatland management, ineffective policies, and various socioeconomic issues. Thus, the importance of sound peatland and water management in mitigating the transboundary haze problem needs to be acknowledged. Effective peat and water management policies and practises have to be implemented, including within areas that have been already opened up for development, abandoned areas, and pristine peatlands.

(iii) Waste to Resources: Energy or Materials Waste is by nature unwanted; however, there is the possibility that certain waste materials can be changed to something of value instead. In the case of plantations, there are substantial amounts of biomass residue (or ‘waste’) generated at various stages of land clearing, planting, harvesting, and replanting processes throughout the life of the plantation. These residues are often burnt in an attempt to get rid of them quickly, easily and cheaply, hence contributing to the haze. This study explores the possibility of utilising the biomass residue produced by land clearing to become higher value bio-products, with monetary returns to the plantations and farmers. If such strategy could incentivise plantations and farmers not to resort to fire as a primary way to clear the biomass residues, this would then be a positive step towards substantially reducing the severity of haze episodes in the region.

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In moving forward, this study concludes that a problem so rooted in socio-economics, such as the haze, would likewise require solutions rooted in socio-economics as well. The recommendations include:

1 Slash, not burn, to earn additional income

It is recommended that the concerned government should consider investing, through its privately linked companies, in the development of biomassto-material or biomass-to-energy conversion facilities through private-public equity partnerships.

In addition, the concerned government should also provide a conducive environment for investment, including low interest rates, competitive or subsidised pricing of bio-products, as well as through procurement of such products. There is also a need for well-planned concession areas (large enough to support a sustainable supply of biomass, and close enough to a designated conversion facility) in order to promote investment in the proposed facilities, either centralised or mobile.

The full report details a case study of biomass conversion to ethanol which demonstrates a favourable scenario to investors, detailing that with a financial interest rate of 3%, ethanol production is economically competitive in the current market. Noting that such proposed conversion of biomass to energy would likely be viable, it is recommended that the private sector should take the lead in the proposed investments.

This can be done with the participation of government investment arms or government linked companies, and with the cooperation of local communities made up of farmers, settlers, smallholders, and adjacent plantation companies.

Interested parties should conduct the necessary techno-economic environmental feasibility studies prior to investment, namely, the conversion of biomass to ethanol or biomass to electricity, or even hydrogen fuel by mobile gasification and hydrogen generation by electrolysis units as alternatives to overcoming the high cost of logistics to centralised facilities.

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2 Manage peat, keep the fire away

Recognising that water management is critical in peat areas, it is recommended that those who have received governmental permission to develop peat areas for plantations or any other agro-forestry land development should carry out the following measures to reduce fire risk:

Those who have already developed plantations in the peat areas should make it a priority to maintain a high water table by containing stream flows throughout the plantation irrigation systems.

Assuming the adoption of the IPB approach, existing plantations must be made aware of, and made responsible for the forested areas adjacent to the plantations that are within the same basin.

There is evidence showing the forest areas adjacent to the drains constructed along the periphery of plantation areas have caught fire, and those without such construction have not.

a) suitable site selection; b) maintenance of natural drainage or sound drain development; c) land clearing and stacking; d) compaction; and e) re-compaction.

All future planning for development on peatlands should be done using the independent peat basin (IPB) approach. IPB is a peat area bounded by mineral soils and/or river banks. As peatland is so porous, drainage in any part of an IPB will inadvertently drain the whole IPB, rendering the area above the water table dry in a relatively short time, and making it very combustible and a tinderbox for fire. It is recommended that development in peat areas is carried out on an IPB periphery basis. Likewise, the water management aspect should also consider the IPB boundary.

Disturbed, abandoned, or underdeveloped peat areas should be identified and promoted for rehabilitation by undertaking the above measures in order for such lands to no longer be fire hazards.

Excess flood waters could be redirected to these areas to encourage rehabilitation and reversion to its natural state of growth.

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3 Seeing through the haze

Recognising that transboundary haze cannot be effectively controlled at all times, it is recommended that the enforcement agencies enhance measures to ensure that no open burning is allowed, particularly during the southwest monsoon period from the months of June to early October. In addition, a local contingency plan should be developed and put into operation during any severe haze episode (Air Pollutant Index (API) of more than 500; emergency) in order to reduce local sources of pollution by the source apportionment method.

At the regional level, the fact that ASEAN is formally regarded by all member countries as one-ecosystem provides the basis for eventual movement towards an agreement on common breakpoints to be used to measure air quality in the region. Also, in the spirit of one-ecosystem, ASEAN should be encouraged to re-examine its understanding of the ‘true’ or real value of natural resources, such as forests, so that the way the resources are being used and the policy decisions made at both the national and regional level will reflect those values. Malaysia’s particular role at the regional level, as the ‘owner’ of the ASEANadopted Fire Danger Rating System (FDRS), could be to propose for the FDRS to provide the foundation for regional resource-sharing and for said resources to be deployed during times of extreme danger.

Acknowledging that El Niño does significantly influence the severity of haze, and that it is now possible to predict any El Niño event six months ahead of time, it is recommended that the relevant authorities should incorporate additional forecasting products e.g. Climate Prediction Center National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (CPC NOAA) El Niño forecasts and the multi-models seasonal climate forecasts used by the APEC Climate Centre, to further enhance the current forecasting system.

These forecasts and alerts should be more efficiently disseminated to all concerned; and at the same time, every relevant authority and other concerned stakeholders should take precautionary measures well in advance before any El Niño event sets in.

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4 Research and development areas

Noting that there are still gaps in our knowledge, it is recommended that systems studies, including socio-economic and legal implications of the proposed local contingency plans to respond in the event of severe haze episodes, be undertaken in order to formulate detailed measures to control local sources of pollution. Apart from that, R&D, including radioisotope tracing and modelling studies on the high percentage of unidentified sources of pollution, should also be carried out.

i. Peat soil survey and mapping, among others, to identify the peat basin boundaries, its topographies, and peat physical properties for the different peat types and the IPBs, as well as to identify subsidence levels in developed and developing areas and their susceptibility to increase flood waters. ii. Hydrological studies of the peat ecosystems inclusive of identification of the necessary boundary conditions of the relevant river basins. iii. Effective and innovative infrastructure design on peat including methodologies to maintain high water tables, innovative canal blocking, dam, building and road construction iv. Identification of plant species that are well-adapted for waterlogged conditions. v. Development of high yielding crop varieties on peat.

To better understand the impact of haze towards health, social life and the economy, studies need to be conducted especially in the areas most affected by haze episodes in Malaysia. Studies on health should focus on the toxicological properties of haze particles and systematically assess the health and social burden of diseases due to haze episodes. Among others, the proposed research areas should cover:

Admittedly, current research and development on potential biomass utilisation directly related to the mitigation of the haze problem is still at its infancy.

There is a need for more research funding in the area, as well as the development of databases and support systems for researchers to select the choice of technology or combination of technologies for a more detailed study. This will also be useful to determine with greater accuracy the required investments and the possible economic returns to complement the social and environmental benefits of potential solutions to the haze problem.

i. Epidemiological studies on the burden of diseases of air pollutants; ii. Toxicity assessments of particulates from forest fires; and iii. Evaluations of the indoor school environment during haze episodes.

Admitting that there is still a lot more to know about tropical peats, it is important that previous works be made available before moving forward to future R&D. All types of information particularly on the basics such as locations, areas and status of peatlands, supported by Geographic Information System (GIS) maps need to be compiled. Future research on management strategies could include:

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5 Communicating the sciences, for all

“How can current scientific knowledge be synthesised and translated into policy-relevant information to aid policy and decision-making, management and to suggest further research?”

This question addresses the all-important science -policy interface that is the core of ASM’s work.

At the policy-making level, the importance of communicating scientific findings to support policy development is especially important. A better communication policy could be realised by better coordination of research conducted by research institutions, better use of social media to promote and create public dialogue on critical issues, multi-stakeholder activities such as field visits and active public engagement with governmental agencies to positively influence the policy process.

especially during dry weather and the importance of staying vigilant) will not only help ensure these communities stay safe but can also help reduce the incidence of haze in the long run.

The public should also be encouraged to report fires and suspicious activities to the relevant authorities. Instructions to the public on ways to prevent, reduce risk and ameliorate results of fires can be shared through the media best available to the local community, for example through social media and mobile apps, apart from other physical community centres like religious centres and marketplaces.

While some of these recommendations may seem costly and difficult to implement in both the short and long term, such recommendations must be taken together with the understanding that the haze potentially costs Malaysia an estimated RM1.3 billion a year in losses.

Hence, any strategies moving forward that could potentially offset these needless losses, not to mention intangible losses as well, would be money well spent. It is with this hope and spirit that the ASM Local & Transboundary Haze Study concludes this report.

Realising that peatland issues are highly complex and that knowledge on these issues have thus far been mostly tailored for the scientific community, a systematic effort to reframe and communicate these issues to the public using common and accessible language is important. This will help sensitise the public on the negative impacts of forest and land burning on the environment, public health and the country’s economy, which is essential to eradicate forest and land burning practices particularly in the high fire-risk areas.

Such communication strategies that help create social norms among the fire-risk communities, for example through school activities and targeted campaigns (on dangers of setting fires

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Purpose of the Report

Background

The purpose of this report is to identify and establish a specific position for ASM in relation to the regional transboundary haze issue, addressing various stakeholders ranging from government ministries and agencies, policy makers, industry sectors, academics and the affected communities in Malaysia and the region.

The focus of the report is on the six members of ASEAN, namely, Brunei Darussalam, Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines, Singapore, and Thailand.

Since the first haze experience in Malaysia, the interval of the haze episode period has shortened from 9 years, to 7, 5, 3, and now, it has become an amost annual event come August-SeptemberOctober months. The changing climate is no longer the controlling factor; there are other factors that compound the increasing severity of the annual haze episode, including the capacity of the damaged ecosystem to recover itself during the wet periods. The lands have become drier, and there has been a continuing lowering of groundwater tables, particularly in the dried up low-lands that are made up of peat soils.

Specifically, the report aims to: a. Identify any existing and current policies, studies and/or initiatives relating to transboundary haze; b. Identify the gaps in knowledge, action and related issues; c. Identify and discuss technologies/methodologies/ solutions in combatting the root causes; d. Gather and document inputs from the various experts and stakeholders; and e. Provide policy inputs and recommendations on the transboundary haze issue to the Government of Malaysia and its relevant authorities.

No doubt, haze pollution gives rise to serious health and economic implications. Fires and haze alone cost 300 trillion to 475 trillion rupiah (USD 3.5 billion) of losses to Indonesia in the past few years (Chan, 2015; Meijaard, 2015). Apart from that, there is massive amount of greenhouse gases, including carbon dioxide, that are released into the atmosphere. It has been estimated that greenhouse gas emissions from the 2015 haze episode was as much as that of the yearly US carbon emissions, equivalent to power consumption of 3,000 Terawatt hours (TWh) generated from fossil fuels (citation required). Although some Nordic countries have long practised the burning of peat for energy generation, it is not encouraged in the tropical regions. This is because tropical peat is different in composition and characteristics from that of temperate peat since the dead plants that form the peat are different.

The production of this report is in fulfilment of ASM’s many functions, amongst which are to provide independent, evidence-based, reliable and timely advice to the government in order to solve national problems via the innovative use of S&T for a sustained and sustainable development. Subject to Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation (MOSTI)’s approval, we aim to produce a paper from this study to be tabled at the National Science Council chaired by the YAB Prime Minister, and a Cabinet Paper to advise the government on the transboundary haze problem. The report will also be disseminated and made available to the various relevant ministries, government agencies, higher education institutions, research institutes and non-profit entities for wider public consumption.

Improved understanding of the haze episodes would certainly call for necessary knowledge virtually in all science disciplines, but the solution to the problem would have to be found in the following four aspects of governmental and intergovernmental interventions: 1. Legal-policy framework; 2. Institutional arrangements; 3. Socio-economics; and 4. Science and technology.

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Methodology

In short, as guided by one of the principles embodied in the UN Declaration on Human Environment (Stockholm Declaration of 1972), a prior assessment is pre-requisite to effective management.

This report is a result of intense collaboration between a select group of academics, experts, practitioners and other individuals from all fields related to the study of haze and its mitigation, collectively known as the Academy of Sciences Malaysia Task Force on Haze (ASM H-TF).

The ASM H-TF team works on a collective understanding that not only prevention is better than cure, but also a thorough assessment of the issue at hand is a prerequisite to its effective management. This report is meant to serve as a tool for science diplomacy, where science can effectively contribute to informed decisions at all levels of government and other stakeholders.

In order to solve this over two-decade long South East Asian problem, there will be a need for a series of follow-up measures, including science diplomacy, by close collaboration, cooperation and coordination between Indonesia, Malaysia, and Singapore at sub-regional level as well as at the ASEAN regional level.

Those individuals initially involved in the work of the Task Force were identified by ASM. As the work of the Task Force evolved, other individuals were invited by the Task Force and working group Chairs to provide further inputs in their specific areas of expertise. All contributors are acknowledged at the end of this report.

The individual experts involved were organised by the Task Force with its three working groups: Working Group 1 on Air Quality and Haze Episodes (WG1), Working Group 2 on Peat Areas and Water Management (WG2), and Working Group 3 on Waste to Resource: Energy and Materials (WG3).

Each working group was co-chaired by an expert and a writer, and anchored by ASM Secretariat with a lead analyst and four (4) other supportive analysts, and a webmaster.

Due to time constraint and the nature of such a complex subject, the Task Force decided to focus its work by carrying out a desktop study, including literature review, as well as soliciting inputs, comments, or suggestions from those individuals or organisations involved, and by gaining access to a number of databases including the Department of Environment of Malaysia (DOE) relating to air quality data.

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The given terms of reference of each Working Group were as follows: i. to identify the issues and challenges; ii. to compile the relevant references and to analyse the required data and other supporting material; iii. to hold regular meetings at least once a month; iv. to formulate strategies to address those issues and to develop the required measures to overcome the identified challenges; and v. to make recommendations relating to policy implications and further research required.

In meeting those terms of reference, every Working Group’s draft was rapidly reviewed, commented upon, and re-edited by writers, editors, the Chief Editor, the Secretariat Analysts, and the Chief Writer. In finalising the drafts of every Working Group Report, the Task Force convened a Stakeholders’ Engagement Workshop on 12 May 2016. All stakeholders including any member of the public was also given the opportunity to comment on the final version of the Report that is accessible through the ASM Haze website (http://haze.akademisains.gov.my/). There is no definitive deadline for further inputs through this consultative mechanism.

While the ASM h-TF has attempted to be as exhaustive as possible given the resources available, executive decisions were made concerning the final scope of the study to ensure the report remains tightly focused on its original objectives. Hence, the ‘assessment’ portions of this study was limited to assessments of the situation (pertaining to air quality measurements, peatland management etc.) within Malaysia alone, and not throughout the region. Preventive measures were focused on the prevention of fires (in line with the ASEAN haze mitigation strategies) and did not include in-depth discussion on the prevention of land mismanagement. This area would require a separate study altogether.

Finally, it is important to note that although assessment is limited to Malaysia, it is hoped that the ‘management’ aspects of the study (moving forward) can offer some guidance for haze mitigation beyond Malaysia; in Indonesia, Singapore, Brunei Darussalam, and other parts of the South East Asian region.

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Air Quality & Haze Episodes

Air Quality & Haze Episodes

The followings are the highlights of the WG1 report:

Transboundary haze has been one of the major environmental issues plaguing South East Asia for more than three decades. ASEAN defines haze as ‘sufficient smoke, dust, moisture, and vapour suspended in air to impair visibility’, and haze pollution can be considered ‘transboundary’ if its density and extent is great at source that it remains at measureable levels after crossing into another country’s air space.

Haze History in Malaysia The Malaysian Air Pollution Index (API) is a type of Air Quality Index (AQI) indicator of the air quality including the haze and was developed for Malaysia based on scientific assessment to indicate, in an easily understood manner, the presence of pollutants in the air and its impact on health1.

Six criteria pollutants namely PM10, PM2.52, sulphur dioxide (SO2), nitrogen dioxide (NO2), ozone (O3) and carbon monoxide (CO) are measured and used to calculate the API. API indicators are used throughout this report summary to depict severity of haze episodes.

A summary of API indicators and their related health effects and advisory is listed in Table 1.

There is a common misperception that this haze is a ‘natural’ event. This misperception stems from the conscious choice by ASEAN member states to use the term ‘haze’ (denoting a natural event) at the regional level, instead of the more accurate term, ‘transboundary atmospheric pollution’ (not necessarily natural). Indeed, as the report details, there are complex socioeconomic, ecological, and governance issues involved in bringing about this almost annual phenomenon.

WG1 has released its detailed report as per Annex A of this Report. It attempts to address and correct this misperception, highlighting the controllable human factors that work hand-in-hand with meteorological factors to exacerbate haze conditions in the region. In relation to this, the report also evaluates the presently available air quality monitoring and weather-forecasting systems, its effectiveness in presenting accurate information on the haze phenomenon, its effects on health, the economy, agriculture, and also the broader environmental issues in the region. The report also provides an overview of haze related policies that are presently in place, and how these policies tie in with available air quality and weather-forecasting data in various efforts as much to prevent as to mitigate any effects of the haze.

While all countries calculate their AQI based on the method suggested by the United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA), the different countries use slightly different calculations due to different parameters, breakpoints and thresholds used. Singapore uses their Pollutant Standards Index (PSI) while Indonesia uses their Air Pollutant Standards Index (APSI).

2 While PM 10 has been more consistently recorded in Malaysia since the early years of air quality monitoring, in the recent years government agencies and researchers (see Pinto et al, 1998 and Amil et al, 2016) have been recording PM2.5 as well, to help provide a better understanding of the finer particulates in haze.

1

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Table 1: Value of API and its relation with health effect API

Status

Health Effect

Health Advice

0-50

Good

51-100

Moderate

• No restriction for outdoor activities to the public. Maintain healthy lifestyle • No restriction for outdoor activities to the public. Maintain healthy lifestyle

101-200

Unhealthy

201-300

Very Unhealthy

>300

Hazardous

• Low pollution without any bad effect on health • Moderate pollution that does not pose any bad effect on health • Worsen the health condition of high risk people who is the people with heart and lung complications • Worsen the health condition and low tolerance of physical exercise to people with heart and lung complications.

Affect public health • Hazardous to high risk people and public health

>500

Emergency

• Hazardous to high risk people and public health

• Public are advised to follow orders from National Security Council and always follow the announcement in mass media.

Haze was first formally recorded as a disruption to daily lives in Malaysia in late 1982. There were other moderate haze episodes recorded in 1991 and 1994, followed by a serious event in 1997. Certain parts of Malaysia were more seriously affected than others, with Sarawak declaring a 10-day emergency in September 1997 when the API went beyond 500. Haze again returned drastically in 2005, with the API reaching beyond 500, and this time, in the Peninsular. An emergency was again declared in August 2005 that lasted for three days. During this time, flights were suspended, schools were closed, and operations at one of Malaysia’s major ports, Northport, were also halted due to health and safety concerns. Both Peninsular Malaysia and Sabah-Sarawak experienced moderate haze episodes for several months in the years 2006 and 2009.

The haze episode in 2010 hit the southern part of Peninsular Malaysia very drastically, requiring the closure of all schools in the District of Muar, Johor on 21 October 2010 when the API reached 432.

• Limited outdoor activities for the high risk people. Public need to reduce the extreme outdoor activities.

• Old and high risk people are advised to stay indoor and reduce physical activities.

People with health complications are advised to see doctor.

• Old and high risk people are prohibited for outdoor activities. Public are advised to prevent from outdoor activities.

The years 2011, 2012 and 2013 saw the haze episodes returning in short periods but very intense during the dry months. The worst hit States during the 2013 episode were Melaka, Negeri Sembilan, and Johor. All schools in areas with API levels above 150 were advised to avoid outdoor activities, and over 600 schools were closed when API levels went beyond 300. Another haze emergency was declared in June 2013 for two days in the Muar and Ledang districts, Johor, where API levels surpassed the 500 mark. During the haze episodes of 2014 and 2015, schools were closed in the Peninsula, Sabah and Sarawak, as API levels reached ‘very unhealthy’ to ‘hazardous’ levels.

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As shown in Figure 1, throughout the period of 1982 to 2015, the Central Region of the Peninsula experienced the highest PM10 concentrations in the year 2005 and experienced a less severe haze episode in the year 2015. The Southern Region experienced the highest concentrations in the year 2013. For Sabah-Sarawak, PM10 concentrations were found to be the highest before the turn of the 21st Century. Sarawak recorded the highest concentrations in 1997 while Sabah experienced record high concentrations of PM10 in 1998.

Figure 1 Haze history in Malaysia

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Air Quality Measurement

Hybrid Single-Particle Lagrangian Integrated Trajectory (HYSPLIT) modelling uses the movement of air parcels to determine the source locations of haze-producing fires. Using such method in 2001, researchers found that the thick smoke from fires in Sumatra was transported and dispersed by the circulation of wind to Malaysia, as well as Singapore and Brunei Darussalam.

The DOE monitors the country’s ambient air quality through a network of 52 stations. These monitoring stations are strategically located in residential, commercial, and industrial areas to detect any significant change in the air quality that may be harmful to human health and the environment.

Other than the five criteria pollutants, namely, PM10, SO2, NO2, ground level O3, and CO, PM2.5 and several heavy metals such as lead (Pb) are measured once in every six days. Most of these air quality stations are equipped for climatological measurements: wind speed, wind direction, temperature, relative humidity, solar radiation, etc. so that simultaneous and continuous observation of both meteorological and air pollution conditions could be recorded. This is also to ensure that a comprehensive data set comprising of both air quality and meteorological data would be available for assessment of any air pollution event.

In the urban context, severe pollution episodes in urban environment are related not only to sudden increases in the emission of pollutants, but also to certain meteorological conditions that diminish the ability of the atmosphere to disperse pollutants (Kalkstein and Corrigan, 1986). These include climatology parameters like wind direction and speed in a horizontal plane, atmospheric stability, precipitation scavenging, and radiation and sunshine in photochemical processes. Man-made structures in the urban area complicate the airflow pattern and hence air pollutants dispersion (Sham, 1979; 1987; 1991).

In addition to the monitoring carried out by the DOE, individual groups of researchers, namely from Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia (UKM) also monitor and analyse the composition of particulate matter in order to establish the sources of haze.

For instance, carcinogenic substances such as polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) levels were recorded as eight times higher on hazy days compared to clear ones in Kuala Lumpur (Omar et al., 2006). PAHs are usually released into the atmosphere as a result of combustion from biomass burning (Shen et al., 2013). This stud and other related studies do confirm positively the link between forest fires, combustion of fossil fuels and related economic activities, and haze in Malaysia.

Researchers have found that the situation in Klang Valley, Malaysia during haze episodes is complex due to the area’s unique topography. Sani (1991) noted in his study that surface inversion had an effect of trapping haze particles within the Klang Valley. Dispersion of haze in the area is blocked by the mountain range surrounding the Klang Valley.

A study by Keywood et al. (2003) showed that the composition of atmospheric aerosols in urban areas increase in potassium (K) and oxalate on days of excessive haze. Sulphate is a major composition of atmospheric aerosols during haze episodes, but the variation of its composition at different locations during haze suggests the influence of other local sources of SO2 before it was oxidised to sulphate.

Motor vehicles, industries and coal-fired power plants are among major local sources to contribute to the amount of sulphate in the atmosphere.

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Sources of Haze

Barber et al. (2000) and Qadri (2000) explained how the timber boom, i.e. human intervention that began with timber extraction from virgin forest, saw the beginnings of vast areas of forest been cleared for agricultural development in the region.

This later involved forest and land use policies of various South East Asian governments, especially Indonesia, encouraging the development of oil palm and pulp and paper plantations (Dauvergne, 1998; Cotton, 1999; Barber et al., 2000; Seth-Jones, 2006; Tacconi et al., 2006; Varkkey, 2011; 2013).

Based on the scientific data discussed above, the sources of the South East Asian haze can be broadly categorised into two: land use change (particularly the use of fires in this context), and non-agricultural sources. Fire is commonly used in Indonesia as well as in the rest of South East Asia to clear land and to get rid of the plant residues for the establishment of plantations and other crops. But more often than not, the fires blaze out of control especially during the dry seasons and the flames engulf vast areas thus causing smoke or haze to blanket the region. It became more serious than otherwise when the peat areas caught fire.

Oil palm is currently enjoying unprecedented expansion in the region, thanks to the wide application of palm oil in the production of food and other products, as well as biodiesel. The crop grows well in the Indonesian and Malaysian climate, as it requires a fair amount of sunshine, a hot climate, and wet and humid tropic conditions with high rainfall rate (Awalludin et al., 2015). Oil palm also enjoys a comparatively low production cost and high productivity if compared to other major oil crops (Murdiyarso et al., 2010). About 85% of world’s crude oil palm is supplied by Malaysia and Indonesia (Sulaiman et al., 2011). Clearing palm oil plantation land by fire is also common, especially in Indonesia, and to a lesser extent in Malaysia. A study by Gaveau et al. (2014a) found that 52% of the total burned area (84,717 ha) in Borneo during the 1997/1998 fires was within concessions, i.e. land allocated to companies for plantation development. The detection of two excavators preparing land for planting in the burned areas one month after fire suggests these fires were associated with agricultural (oil palm) expansion.

An empirical model developed by Azman and Abdullah (1993) to quantify the contribution of particulates from external and local sources indicated that emissions from external sources (largely forest fires) while virtually insignificant during the nonhaze period, became more dominant during the haze.

Research into large fire events of 1997/1998 found that both smallholders and large-scale plantations used fire as a tool, primarily for land clearing but also in specific contexts in extractive activities (Applegate et al., 2001; Suyanto et al., 2002). The smallholder context is categorised by slash and burn practices. Sedentary farmers burn their small plots of land after harvest to rejuvenate the soil and to keep their land free of weeds (Wosten et al., 2008). Shifting cultivators, on the other hand, practice the slash-and-burn technique to clear a stretch of the forest for cultivation. Sometimes, these indigenous peoples have also deliberately set fires on plantations in protest to their lands being taken away. Vogl and Ryder (1969) have reported that the process of slash-and-burn affected the physical structure of the soils due to the high temperature of the burning and addition of ash and charcoal. The damage usually persists for 15 years or longer. As these farmers have no knowledge on soil properties and soil management, they tend to use the slash-and-burn practices without understanding its impact. However, often the scale and effects of fires from shifting cultivation are less severe than those from large-scale commercial burning, as detailed in the following paragraphs.

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35

Production (MT)

30 25 20 15 10 5 0

Indonesia

Thailand

Malaysia

Colombia

Nigeria

Papua New Guinea

Figure 2 Oil palm production by country in year 2014 (Mosarof et al., 2015)

The rapid expansion of oil palm plantation in Indonesia and Malaysia increases demand for large land areas which include not only natural tropical forests but also peatland forests. Research has shown that fires in the peat swamp forest zone produce a disproportionately large amount of smoke and haze per hectare burnt (Murdiyarso et al., 2002).

Indeed, fires in peatland areas have been found to be the main cause of haze episode in the region.

Particularly, Fuji et al. (2015)’s results show that Indonesian peat fires strongly contributed to the carbonaceous organic elements in PM2.5 found in Petaling Jaya in 2011 and 2012. Working Group 2’s report on Peat Area & Water Management provides an in-depth discussion of the peat-haze connection.

Non-agricultural sources of haze are mainly contributed by anthropogenic activities related to transportation, industrial and biomass burning (Du et al., 2011). Afroz et al. (2003) have discovered that the major non-agricultural source of air pollution in Malaysia comes from motor vehicles (70-75% of total air pollution). Petrol combustion from motor vehicle emissions affects the spatial and temporal distribution of ambient concentrations of particles (Kim and Guldmann, 2011). Biomass (open) burning in rural areas also contributes to this. Open burning pollutants are diffused to urban areas, which then mix with emissions from fossil fuel combustion (Wang et al., 2009). Industrial emissions can also contribute to air pollution and haze, and is a major source of metal particles in the air.

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Meteorological Conditions

for the 2006 (El Niño) and 2007 (normal) South East Asia fire seasons, Xian et al. (2013) concluded that smoke typically lasts longer and can be transported farther in El Niño years compared with non El Niño years. This wind pattern facilitates the long-range transport of smoke from Sumatra and Kalimantan northward to Singapore, Peninsular Malaysia, Sarawak, Brunei, and Sabah.

Much of the misperception of the ‘natural’ nature of transboundary haze is a lack of understanding of the weather patterns, particularly the El Niño - Southern Oscillation (ENSO) in the region. This stems from the fact that there is a clear cycle of wet and dry seasons in the region, and haze tends to occur more frequently during the dry seasons.

However, this rather simplistic conclusion warrants further analysis.

Although it is expected that the role of El Niño in haze would be secondary in nature since the fire is associated primarily to human related activities in agriculture, forestry, and plantation sectors (e.g.

Field et al., 2009), El Niño plays an important role in altering the regional atmospheric composition via the modification of the atmospheric meteorological field (Inness et al., 2015) as well as the emission and transport characteristics.

The surface climate over the Southeast Asian region is dominated by two monsoon regimes – the winter and summer monsoons, which modulate the annual wet and dry seasons in the region. In addition to this seasonal cycle, the year-to-year (interannual) variability associated to ENSO is also considerably large. The ENSO is a coupled atmosphere-ocean phenomenon over the Pacific Ocean.

The warm phase of ENSO is called El Niño while the cold phase is called La Niña.

Research by Juneng and Tangang (2008) has shown that precipitation anomalies in the region can be forecasted at least five months in advance using sea surface temperatures in the tropical Pacific as predictors. Given the fact that an El Niño is a predictable event by at least six months in advance (e.g. Latif et al., 1998; Tangang et al., 1998), regional climate forecast information is invaluable in mitigating the risk of forest fires. While long-range forecasts are useful for mitigation and better fire management, near real-time (short) forecast of accurate air quality can be crucial for emergency response. Hertwig et al. (2015) demonstrated that by using satellite derived emissions and a Lagrangian dispersion model, the PM10 concentrated at the surface over the region can be quantitatively forecasted up to several days lead time.

In normal years, the South East Asian region is fed by moisture convergence brought by the low level trade winds to sustain the deep convection and create a low-pressure system over the South East Asia.

However, during an El Niño event, the anomalous warming of the tropical Pacific sea surface temperature shifts the low-pressure centre from the South East Asia region to the central Pacific Ocean.

This establishes an anomalously high pressure and a strong divergence centre over South East Asia, causing drier than normal conditions during an El Niño event.

This dry conditions coupled with warm temperatures associated with El Niño (e.g. Tangang et al., 2007) create an extremely friendly environment for large-scale fire outbreaks in Sumatra and Kalimantan (Tangang et al., 2010; Reid et al., 2012), as well as certain parts of Malaysia. However, these conditions do not start the fires; they merely provide a suitable environment for the fires to flourish, once lit. It also provides a suitable environment to facilitate the transboundary transmission of the smoke.

Anomalous winds during El Niño is southerly i.e. the winds blow to the north from Kalimantan and Sumatra. Using a numerical modelling experiment

Therefore, it is obvious that both long-range and near real-time forecasting is important in combating haze. However, currently, forecasting does not play a major role in both national and regional haze mitigation strategies. Since short-term forecasts depends critically on quality of the local observation, the dense network of air quality monitoring stations already available in Malaysia (as detailed above) and in other parts of the region (like the ASEAN Specialised Meteorological Centre or ASMC) can be incorporated into the development of an accurate and useful forecasting system.

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Impacts of Haze

in Malaysia, hazy days between 2000 and 2007 were responsible for an immediate increase (19%) in mortality from respiratory causes. This research also concluded that exposure to haze events indicated not only immediate, but also delayed effects on mortality. At the regional level, Johnston et al.

(2012) estimated that landscape fire smoke caused about 296,000 premature deaths annually in South East Asia. This echoes the findings of Faustini et al. (2015) which concludes that forest fire smoke is associated with cardiovascular mortality in urban residents in southern Europe.

The transboundary impacts of the fires, smoke and haze are hardly limited to reduced visibility. As mentioned above, severe haze episodes have been related to school, airport and sea port closures, as well as national emergencies. Researchers have also carried out detailed investigations into specific impacts of transboundary haze on human health, the economy, agriculture, and also broader environmental effects.

Air pollutants, especially fine particulate matters, released in the air during transboundary haze can cause severe impact on human health. A systematic analysis of all major global health risks reported in the Lancet found that outdoor air pollution in the form of fine particles is a much more significant health risk than previously known, contributing to over 3.2 million premature deaths worldwide and over 74 million years of healthy life lost annually (Murray et al., 2015). Particles, as small as one micrometre, can easily infiltrate buildings, making exposure unavoidable even for people who remain indoors (Kunii et al., 2002). Smaller particles are more hazardous because they remain longer in the atmosphere and also penetrate more deeply into the lungs. The long-term health effects of isolated haze events are difficult to document, due to the difficulty to separate its effects from general air pollution (Glover and Jessup, 1999, Kunii et al., 2002, Johnston et al., 2012). However, a study

by Othman et al. (2015) on specific haze-related illnesses during the 1997 haze period (August – September) revealed that there were significant increases in asthma and acute respiratory infections in Kuala Lumpur.

Likewise, economic effects of haze are also difficult to determine, as not every possible damages could be valued due to limited data and estimation methods. However, Mohd Shahwahid and Othman (1999) made a valiant effort to find the aggregate value of haze damage to Malaysia in 1997, as shown in the table below. Their calculations included the reduced industrial and commercial activity due to the ten-day state of emergency in Sarawak. The second major loss is the decline in the number of tourist arrivals. While there has not yet been another study as extensive as Shahwahid and Othman’s report in 1999, both Othman and Shahwahid has separately reported updated figures for health effects for haze in the recent years. Shahwahid (2016) studied the June 2013 haze episode in Peninsular Malaysia and estimated the cost of illness alone at RM 410.6 million, almost 20 times the estimate of the 1997 episode, which was RM 21.02 million. If this exponential increase in cost of illness is any indication, it can be expected that all other areas (like productivity, tourist arrivals, cloud seeding and other expenditure) has surely risen exponentially as well. A more specific study by Othman et al. (2014) focused on valuation of health impacts of smoke haze pollution in the Klang Valley. Based on the unit economic value of USD53 (RM160) for an average hospital stay of two days, haze damage was valued at USD91,000 (RM 0.273 million), or USD 4,789 (RM14,368) per hazy day.

Outpatient visits in Kuching, Sarawak, increased between 100-200% during the peak haze period while daily respiratory illness outpatient visits to Kuala Lumpur General Hospital increased by 200%.

According to Sahani et al. (2014), in a case-crossover analysis of forest fire haze events and mortality

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Table 2 Aggregate value of haze damage in 1997 (Mohd Shahwahid and Othman, 1999) Type of damage

RM Million

USD Million

Percentage (%)

Adjusted cost of illness

21.02

8.41

2.62

Productivity loss during the state of emergency

393.51

157.40

49.07

Decline in tourist arrivals

318.55

127.42

39.72

Flight cancellations

0.45

0.18

0.06

Decline in fish landings

40.58

16.23

5.00

Cost of fire-fighting

25.00

10.00

3.12

Cloud seeding

2.08

0.83

0.26

Expenditure on masks

0.71

0.28

0.09

Total damage cost

801.90

321.00

100

Hazy conditions, especially in terms of its effect on sunlight and resultant photosynthetic activity and transpiration in plants, have also been shown to affect agricultural and natural fauna productivity in Malaysia. A research by the Forest Research Institute of Malaysia found that two varieties of hybrid rice in Malaysia, MR151 and MR123, experienced a 50% reduction in growth rate during the haze. A more pertinent study was carried out by Henson (2000), which modelled the effects of haze on oil palm productivity and yield. As mentioned above, the oil palm requires high amount of sunlight for optimal growth. The study indicated that the reductions in solar radiations due to haze could have long-term effects of oil palm yields. Similarly, reduced photosynthetic activity and transpiration in plants can affect the food chain for wildlife which in

turn will influence animal health and behaviour.

Loss of fruit-trees can also lead to overall decline in bird and animal species that rely on fruits for food.

The haze also brings about a myriad of broader negative environmental effects. Firstly, forest fires unlock carbon and other greenhouse gasses stored in soil and allow it to escape into the atmosphere.

This contributes to global warming and climate change, and has catapulted Indonesia to a position among the top carbon emitters in the world. In the longer term, lands that are burned are at higher risk of further burning in the future, due to excessive dryness. Repeated burning will lead to loss of habitat and shelter and is detrimental for forest biodiversity.

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Haze Related Policies

Other related initiatives at the national level include the Peatland Management Programme and the FDRS. The Peatland Management Programme is an imitative to prevent peat fires through the construction of check dams, tube wells, and watch towers.

The FDRS was developed to provide early warning of the potential for serious fire and haze events, using data available from the Malaysian Meteorological Department (MMD). The effectiveness of the FDRS however is dependent on a good understanding of local fire behaviour and reliable forecasted weather data. The CAAP mentioned above includes provisions for the development of expertise in air quality prediction and modelling; however, there is still room for improvement for the incorporation of forecasting techniques in Malaysia’s air quality measurement and prediction systems.

Compelled by the severe effect of the haze as detailed above, the Malaysian Government has incorporated fore, smoke and haze considerations into their policymaking and administrative frameworks. This has been complemented by policies and initiatives at the ASEAN level as well, which shall be discussed in detail below.

One of the most significant policies at the Malaysian level in relation to this was the Environment Quality Act 1974, which was amended in 1998 to provide a more stringent policy for open burning offences.

According to the Act, any person found guilty shall ‘be liable to a fine not exceeding RM500,000 or to imprisonment for a term not exceeding 5 years or both’. In addition to this, the Environmental Quality (Declared Activities) (Opening Burning) 2003 act that prohibits open burning of certain activities under specified conditions and in certain designated areas came into force on 1 January 2004. The zero burning technique was developed and promoted by Malaysian agencies as a way of replanting without violating any of the regulations mentioned above.

The technique is an environmentally sound practice in which the old strands of oil palm or other tree crops are felled and shredded, and left in situ to decompose naturally. The technique also replenishes soil organic matter, improves the physical and chemical properties of the soil and thus enhances its fertility.

The ASEAN approach to environmental management stresses three norms (Koh & Robinson, 2002): non-interference or non-intervention in other Member States’ domestic affairs, consensus building and cooperative programme preferred over legally-binding treaties, and preference for national implementation rather than reliance on a strong region-wide bureaucracy. Haze was first placed on the regional agenda in 1985, with the adoption of the Agreement on the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources, that made a significant reference to air pollution and ‘transfrontier environmental effects’. The Informal ASEAN Ministerial Meeting on the Environment held in 1995 witnessed the declaration that ASEAN constituted ‘one-ecosystem’, an acknowledgement that in principle, environmental problems could not be adequately addressed solely within the domestic context and would require a regional approach (Wan, 2012).

To further complement these policies, the Government of Malaysia established the National Haze Committee which is made up of representatives of all relevant agencies. The Committee meets regularly to assess weather conditions, the preparedness of the relevant agencies in dealing with fires and the transboundary haze as well as to consider further actions that needed to be taken. The Committee’s activities are guided by the National Haze Action Plan (steps to be taken at different API alert levels), the Fire Prevention Action Plan (surveillance to curb and prevent open burning activities in fire prone areas), and the Clean Air Action Plan (CAAP; strategies to improve air quality, including public awareness).

A series of regional documents and initiatives relating to haze followed, including the 1995 ASEAN Cooperation Plan on Transboundary Pollution, the Haze Technical Task Force 1995, the 1997 Regional Haze Action Plan, the ASEAN Peatland Management Initiative, the ASEAN Peatland Management Strategy (through which the National Haze Action Plans were developed), culminating in the 2002 ASEAN Agreement on Transboundary Haze Pollution (Haze Agreement) and its related follow-up

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documents and initiatives. At the same time, dialogues on Transboundary Haze Pollution were initiated at the Track 2 level, led by the ASEAN Institute of Strategic and International Studies (ASEAN ISIS) and the Council for Security Cooperation to the Asia Pacific (CSCAP). These dialogues were useful in garnering the involvement from many different stakeholders, including regional non-governmental organisations (NGOs), not-forprofit associations, think tanks, academic institutions as well as private sector companies.

The Haze Agreement was adopted in June 2002 and entered into force in November 2003, with the ASEAN Environment Ministers meeting as Conference of Parties (COP) responsible for its implementation. It is legally-binding and reaffirms Principle 2 of the Rio Declaration, which states that sovereign states have a ‘… sovereign right to exploit their own resources pursuant to their environmental and development priorities, and the responsibility to ensure that activities within their jurisdiction do not cause damage to the environment of other States’. It provides a collective framework for dealing with forest burning and transboundary haze problem within the overall context of sustainable development. However, the Agreement is constrained by weak, ‘non-intrusive’ parameters range from requesting and giving assistance, monitoring, reporting, exchanging information to absence of enforcement and liability provisions. After 13 years, in 2015, Indonesia finally ratified the Agreement.

The following table gives a helpful overview of the obligations of each ASEAN Member State (AMS) or organisation involved within the ASEAN haze cooperative framework:

Table 3 Regional Measures in Terms of Preparedness and Prevention Lead Country / Organisation

Details

ASEC (under IFAD/ GEF Project), AMS

• Implementation of the ASEAN Peatland Management Strategy (APMS)

AMS

• Implementation of zero burning and controlled burning practices through laws or regulations and several other legislations related to environmental pollution, natural resources management and land use planning.

AMS

• Enhancement / capacity building for law enforcement and prosecution at national level

AMS

• Regular forum / dialogue with international donor community and other stakeholders to promote the implementation of the Haze Agreement

Indonesia / AMS

• Conduct of table top and simulation exercises to enhance joint emergency response

ASMC / AMS

• Development of comprehensive fire prediction and monitoring system

ASEC in consultation with AMS

• Development of targets for fire prevention and transboundary haze control, e.g. air quality indicators

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There are many constraints to the success of these national and ASEAN level initiatives. Studies by scholars such as Koh [no date]; Tay (2002); Tan (2005); Nguitragool (2011); Quah and Varkkey (2013); and Varkkey (2013) have documented the complexity and magnitude of the problem, ranging from the law and policy to the changing political scenario, economics and the rise of oil palm (an important export crop), as well as the socio-cultural dimensions. Firstly, effectiveness of ASEAN level initiatives like the Haze Agreement depends very much on compliance from one state party – Indonesia. The complexities of compliance at the Indonesian level can only be understood by appreciating the political economy of forest resource exploitation, environmental governance, and regional autonomy of Indonesia (Wan, 2012). Indonesia faces problems of weak enforcement because of its relative poverty and legal shortcomings as well as the decentralised democratic system in Indonesia.

Indonesia’s own anti-burning law does exist and the penalties are not inconsequential; however, there are conflicting applications of rules such as Indonesia’s Law 32 that allows burning in forests for traditional uses, which further complicates enforcement.

On a more local level, Malaysia is currently studying the possibility of adopting the Singaporean model of a Transboundary Haze Pollution Act, which empowers a country to take legislative measures against local or foreign companies that cause or contribute to the haze pollution in that country. However, Malaysia must be wary of the similar types of challenges that Singapore is currently facing in the effort to implement this law, including the difficulty of obtaining indisputable evidence, proving causation, and evaluating claims for damages.

Conclusion The report produced by Working Group 1 has highlighted several important things. Most significantly, haze is generally not a natural phenomenon, but is often caused by human activity. Indeed, wildfires have been a feature of South East Asia ecology for centuries. However, in recent years, increasing evidence has surfaced linking fires and haze to manmade activities, namely slash-and-burn activities by smallholders, and land clearing activities of medium- and large-scale plantations. In relation to this, the perception that haze is directly linked to the El Niño phenomenon is flawed. While El Niño does not start the fires, the phenomenon merely provide a suitable environment for the fires to flourish, once lit. It also provides a suitable environment to facilitate the transboundary transmission of the smoke. However, good knowledge of ENSO patterns allow for effective long-range and near real-time forecasting for better haze mitigation and fire management, and also for quicker emergency response.

Despite the availability of forecasting technologies, its applicability in Malaysia’s FDRS, and the CAAP initiative that provides for the development of expertise in air quality prediction and modelling, there is still room for improvement for the incorporation of forecasting techniques in Malaysia’s air quality measurement and prediction systems. Furthermore, haze mitigation at the ASEAN level is constrained by the unwillingness of ASEAN member states to impose ‘state responsibility’ on particular states.

Another factor is the sheer cost of clearing land using zero burning techniques. Malaysia’s zero burning technique was adopted at the ASEAN level in 1999. However, costs related to zero burning can be as high as USD 665 per hectare (estimate

by Center for International Forestry Research or CIFOR), when burning methods can be as low as USD 7 per day. In legal terms, international law holds that a state is responsible for transboundary harm that results in activities on its territory, caddied out by the state, or within its control.

However, ASEAN member states, including Malaysia, are constrained by the ‘ASEAN Way’ which makes it unlikely that any ASEAN member state will impose ‘state responsibility’ on Indonesia (Tay, 1999). Indeed, the usage of the term ‘haze’ by ASEAN was a diplomatic choice, to avoid having to confront the state that causes the problem by linking it with principles of state responsibility under international law.

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Way Forward

Secondly, science involves complexity, uncertainty and indeterminacy but science produce knowledge as well as to a lesser extent predictions (van den Hove, 2007). As pointed out, El Niño is a predictable event, and the information is relevant in preventing the risks of fires and recurrence of haze. Seasonal forecast outlooks by meteorological centres (such as the APEC Climate Center) are increasingly becoming more accurate especially during El Niño years. Moving forward, it is crucial to perform more related research, for example, the influence of El Niño and how the trajectory of the haze is likely to change in the future. Other targeted studies should also include the relevance of climate change for El Niño periods which may change future drought characteristics. The information on the forecastibility of the El Niño phenomenon is important for Malaysia and ASEAN in designing a more viable policy framework to respond pro-actively to the challenges. For instance, it has been discussed above how improved forecasting can greatly improve the effectiveness of Malaysia’s FDRS system. A preventive approach would be of great benefit to the region.

There is renewed vigour at the ASEAN level following Indonesia’s ratification process in 2015. However, in connection to this, the Indonesian President Joko Widodo recently announced that “it would take three years for results to be seen from efforts to end the huge annual fires” (The Jakarta Post, 30 September 2015). While three years may be considered highly ambitious by some scholars, Working Group 1 has explored prospective options that could be implemented at within this timeline and beyond, which could bring about more effective and innovative approaches to the transboundary haze problem.

On climate science, various members of Working Group 1 have drawn extensively on their knowledge and expertise to create a vision for moving forward.

The group has also put forward recommendations for future trajectories from the perspectives of health, economy, and engagement at the regional as well as society level. By bridging lessons learned from the research findings and by analysing viable science-policy options, it is hoped that this paper can shed some light on achieving real progress.

Thirdly, and more generally, innovative efforts are also emerging with mapping software and tools.

Available technologies are also being constantly upgraded, hence, there are opportunities to look into the usage of things like special sensors and drones to map burn scars to indicate a more reliable percentage of real fires.

Firstly, scientists could contribute to a better understanding of the characteristics and origin of transboundary haze. The composition of organic and inorganic substances in atmospheric aerosols or haze particles, for example, could be traced back to biomass burning and in some cases be identified as an ideal indicator or marker of biomass burning.

Equally important is the understanding of meteorology and the ability of the atmosphere to disperse or dilute pollutants, for example, the source of the pollutants (biomass burning or vehicular emissions) as well as the impact on the air quality in urban areas (e.g. the effect of inversion) during the haze. At the same time, weather data is crucial for the FDRS to mitigate fire-related problems. On the other hand, while better and more advanced satellite technology is helping to identify locations and patterns of fires, the pairing of satellite data with on-the-ground investigations is crucial. Thus, strengthening the science-policy interface calls for the scientific parameters described to be included in future analyses to address transboundary haze.

In the field of health, the short-term mortality effects of high air pollution suggest that there may be long-term effects associated with exposure to elevated levels of air pollution over an extended period.

There is tremendous value in shedding light and developing a better understanding of the mortality and morbidity particularly in areas of high exposure and equally important of the long-term effects of air pollution even though the interpretation is not straightforward. One implication of the results from studying the short-term effects in Malaysia of the haze is that the effects in Indonesia itself must have been huge. The indications of mortality effects in Malaysia many miles away from the main fires strongly support this notion. Another implication

36

is that like many other environmental risk factors such as unsafe water, air pollution, the mortality burden attributable to haze falls disproportionately on low-income regions of ASEAN.

Public concerns about environmental problems such as transboundary haze create narrative structures that do have an influence on policy by allocating roles of blame, responsibility and appropriate behaviour. Hence, the potential role of the public cannot be ignored, as haze mitigation efforts do not need to be confined solely to the government or academia. One area that is worth exploring is in terms of public pressure on errant companies, a strategy that has proven to be very powerful in other parts of the world.

To overcome the economic challenges standing in the way of proper implementation of policies in Indonesia and elsewhere, the working group proposes the stakeholders’ approach to cost-sharing.

The idea is that the cost of an effective fire prevention and control programme in Indonesia should be shared among the various stakeholders and other interested institutions both inside and outside the region (Tan, 2005). For instance, it is not uncommon to witness at the international level, processes such as Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) and Intergovernmental Platform on Biological Diversity and Ecosystem (IPBES) reinforcing their interfaces and shaping responses to global environmental challenges. Past pilot ‘Adopt-a-District’ projects in Riau (supported by Malaysia) and Jambi (supported by Singapore) can be re-examined and adapted to fit this cost-sharing approach, focusing particularly on maximum stakeholder involvement for maximum ownership at all levels.

As a whole, the recommendations to the government as presented by Working Group 1, roughly progressing from national to regional level, can be summarised as follows: (1) The government should invest in enhanced monitoring and the inclusion of other scientific parameters even at times when there is an economic downturn.

(2) A priority area of transboundary haze risk management should be the development of systematic health preparedness. Towards this goal, the government should support the development of a better understanding on not only mortality, but also morbidity related to haze, particularly over long periods of exposure (long-term effects) and in areas of especially high exposure.

(3) There is a need to recognise a country’s limitations and explore collaborative actions in monitoring, predicting and conducting assessments. Related to this, efforts by Malaysia in Riau and Singapore in Jambi should be re-examined so as to address the gaps and get full participation of the target groups such as the small-holders and the large actors in future initiatives.

(4) At the ASEAN level, Malaysia should propose for its FDRS to be adopted at the ASEAN level, and to provide the foundation for regional resource-sharing and for the resources to be deployed during times of extreme danger.

(5) ASEAN should enshrine and adopt the concept of a ‘true’ or real value of the natural resources (such as forests) so that the way the resources are being used and the policy decisions made will reflect those values. This would complement the already accepted concept of ASEAN as ‘one ecosystem’. This unified concept of an ecosystem would also help in moving towards some region-wide consensus on breakpoints used, for a more uniform and useful AQI.

Another way to overcome economic constraints is the ecosystem services approach. Ecosystem services are the economic benefits that ecosystems provide to humanity. According to Schrier-Uijl et al. (2013), tropical forests provide a large number of ecosystem services both at the global level (e.g. climate control) and at the local level, including cultural, provisioning and regulating services such as soil erosion, hydrological control, delivery of natural forest products, fisheries and tourism. Under the ‘one ecosystem’ concept, ASEAN can adopt this approach to help member states understand the ‘true’ or real value of the natural resources (such as forests) so that the way the resources are being used and the policy decisions made will reflect those values.

The increasing interest and concern from society concerning haze issues in general also provides an interesting opportunity to move forward. Media content research by Forsyth (2014) for example, has discovered that the public is increasingly critical of the policy approaches to haze as well as the errant companies that are investing in palm oil activities.

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While all the suggestions above may fall into the category of ‘long-term’ strategy and planning, one particularly interesting finding highlighted by Working Group 1, which could be useful for more immediate policy intervention, is research by Amil et al. (2016). This research estimated source apportionment during haze episodes of around 300 API, pictured below. These findings may be useful to determine what local level action can be taken during severe haze episodes and emergencies (since regional level action may be slow or improbable). The illustration below shows that about 18% of the haze can be traced back to local sources. Hence, these could be potential targets for policy intervention during periods of emergency; particularly the government to call for an immediate stop to local burning, fuel combustion, industry activity and traffic, which may bring down haze levels by at least 18% - a significant amount.

Assumption if API is 300 PM10 = 286 μg/m3, PM2.5 = 201 μg/m3

Mixed Sources

UD

82 μg/m3 (41%)

Transboundary Haze 50 μg/m3 (25%)

Transboundary & Natural Sources

Mineral Dust 23 μg/m3 (11%)

Sea Salt

9 μg/m3 (99%)

Local Burning

Local Sources

24 μg/m3 (12%)

Fuel Combustion 8 μg/m3 (4%)

Industrial & Traffic

Emissions 4 μg/m3 (2%)

Figure 3 Contribution of different sources with API at 300

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Peat Area & Water Management

Peat Area & Water Management

both in Indonesia and Malaysia. Therefore, given the current situation, it is important to shed light on best management practices on peatlands that have already been developed, to reduce as far as possible the negative impact of human disturbances so that untoward incidences, like fires, can be avoided or reduced in the future.

As indicated in the previous summary report, fires in peatland areas have been found to be the main cause of haze episode in the region. This is because fires in the peat swamp forest zone produce a disproportionately large amount of smoke and haze per hectare burnt (Murdiyarso et al., 2002). The partial combustion from peat fires produces more smoke and the particles released from these fires takes longer time to settle, allowing it to float in the air and drifting with the wind crossing boundaries, hence the term transboundary, and contributed 90% to the ASEAN transboundary haze (Heli, 2007).

Although only 40% of the fires during the 2016 haze episode are attributed to the peat (Paramananthan, 2016b), coming from 14% of total land area, as in the case of Indonesia’s peatland (Paramananthan, 2016a), this suggests that peat lands are more susceptible to fire.

Malaysia has committed at the ASEAN level to achieve zero haze emissions by 2020. Hence, a better understanding of tropical peat and its sustainable management will help Malaysia achieve this commitment. As such, tropical peatlands deserve to be better studied and understood so that all stakeholders can take preventive and remedial action to overcome this annual scourge which affects populations, economies and international relations. The detailed report of Working Group 2 is reproduced at the end of this publication; however, the key findings of the report are highlighted here.

Tropical Peat

Rapid expansion of plantations in the South East Asian region, especially in Indonesia and Malaysia, has increased demand for peatland forests for development. Peatlands are very delicate ecosystems that are very sensitive to disturbances, and extreme disturbances will result in fires.

Tropical peatlands are found in South East Asia (SEA), the Caribbean, Central America, South America and Central Africa. Page et al. (2011) estimated the area of tropical peatlands at 44.1 million hectares (Mha), equivalent to 11% of the global peatland area. 56% of the world’s tropical peatlands are located in South East Asia, equivalent to approximately 23.7 Mha (Page et al., 2011).

Peatlands in South East Asia mostly occupy low-altitude coastal and sub-coastal environments and are usually located at elevations from sea level to about 50m (Rieley et al., 2008). Peatland distribution in the region is presented in the following map.

There is currently an active debate in academic circles on whether peatlands should be preserved in its pristine condition, or if it can be developed, in a sustainable manner. Working Group 2 does not intend to provide a conclusive answer to this debate, but instead takes a pragmatic approach that accepts that vast swathes of peatlands have currently already been developed for plantations,

42

Figure 4 Map of peatlands in South East Asia (ASEAN Peatland Forests Project)

43

Peat is comprised of partially decayed organic matter such as leaves, stems and roots. Most of the peat found worldwide is temperate peat (peat found in temperate regions), which is largely composed of non-woody material such as sedges and mosses. However, the peat found in Malaysia and Indonesia is considered tropical peat (peat that is found in tropical regions), consisting largely of un-decomposed and semi-decomposed woody materials originating from dead trees and often contains logs and tree roots.

Tropical peats have very low bulk density (compared to mineral soils) and extremely high compressibility, porosity and permeability. Tropical peat comprises largely of organic carbon, ranging from 35% to 60% in dry weight (Melling and Henson, 2011). Other chemical properties of peat are presented in the table below.

Table 4 Chemical properties of surface peat (0-50cm) (Lim et al., 2012) Chemical Properties

Lim, 2006 (Riau, Indonesia)

Melling et al., 2006 (Sarawak, Malaysia)

pH

3.7

3.7

Organic Carbon (C) (%)

41.1

45.4

Total Nitrogen (N) (%)

1.56

1.69

C/N ratio

26.3

26.9

Exch. Calcium (Ca) (cmol/kg)

6.68

0.76

Exch. Magnesium (Mg) (cmol/kg)

9.55

1.01

Exch. Potassium (K) (cmol/kg)

0.61

0.19

Cation Exch. Capacity (CEC) (cmol/kg)

70.8

41.4

Extr Phosphorus (P) (mg/kg)

120.0

21.4

Total Copper (Cu) (mg/kg)

4.1

1.4

Total Zinc (Zn) (mg/kg)

28.0

17.1

Total Boron (B) (mg/kg)

5.0

1.1

Total Aluminium (Al) (mg/kg)

1.35

Total Iron (Fe) (mg/kg)

108.8

44

67.7

STAGE

Hydrology is the dominant factor controlling peat formation (size, functions and ultimately the preservation of peat swamps) (UNDP, 2006). Peat water contains tannins that are derived from incompletely decomposed organic matter. The tannins give peat water its characteristic appearance: tea-coloured by transmitted light and black by reflected light. Moisture content increases with depth, from 100-400% at about 50cm depth to about 1200% to 1400% at 1m depth. The waterlogged condition creates an anaerobic environment which slows down the decomposition of organic matter. Peat is formed when the accumulation rate of organic matter exceeds its decomposition rate. Peat accumulates in layers year after year to form deposits which may reach 20m deep. A peat swamp can be regarded as a single hydrological unit which may consist of various interconnected sub-catchments (Kselik and Liong, 2004). Lowland peatlands are characteristically dome-shaped (the cross section is lenticular or lens-shaped) and thus the peat thickness varies - shallower at the peatland edge and increasing towards the peat dome apex. A depiction of how the peat dome is formed is available below.

1

Water is retained in the depression from nearby river flows and rainfall River

STAGE

Mineral soil

2

Waterlogged soils

Alluvial soil

Development of marsh vegetation

River

STAGE

Water colour changes to brownish black

3

pH 2.5 - 4.5

• Organic matter from leaf and tree litter accumulates (fibric in nature) • Decomposition is slowed down - poor aeration, anoxic conditions • Microbial degradation is retarded

Alluvial deposition slows down

Development of freshwater swamp forest

River

Peat layer formed after many years (estimate 2.5 - 4.5 mm per year of peat deposit)

Figure 5 Formation of tropical peatlands 45

Alluvial soil

Malaysian peat soils are defined as soil with high organic matter content (more than 65%) and a depth of at least 50cm. Estimates of the extent of peatlands in Malaysia range from 2.3 to 2.8 Mha with most around 2.7 Mha. Originally, peat swamp forests (PSF) covered all peatlands in Malaysia. Over the years development pressures on PSF have seen its total area reduced. An estimated 1.5 Mha of PSF still remains in Malaysia; 70% located in Sarawak, less than 20% in Peninsular Malaysia and the remainder in Sabah (UNDP, 2006).

The area of PSF under Permanent Reserved Forest in Peninsular Malaysia is 0.26 Mha (Forestry Department of Peninsular Malaysia, 2014), and in Sarawak 0.32 Mha remains as Permanent Forest Estate (PFE) (Chai, 2005).

Importance of Tropical Peatlands The uniqueness of tropical peat allow it to support a unique ecosystem that is an important reservoir of biodiversity, performs invaluable ecosystem services, and have national and local economic significance as well as educational and research value, as detailed in the table below.

Table 5 Benefits of intact peatlands Grouping

Benefit

Direct uses (goods)

Forestry, agriculture, plant gathering, wildlife capture, fish capture, tourism / recreation, water supply

Funstions (services)

Water storage / retention, carbon storage / sequestration, flood mitigation, maintenance of base flow in rivers, sediment, nutrient and toxicant removal

Attributes

Biological diversity, cultural / spiritual value, historical value, aesthetic value

Whilst PSFs are less species-rich than mixed dipterocarp forest in terms of tree species, it comprises vegetation communities that are globally significant for biodiversity conservation (most significantly those of the peat domes in Sarawak).

For example, Alan (Shorea albida) and Kapur paya (Dryobalanops rappa) trees are endemic to northwest Borneo. These ecosystems are also home to many rare and endemic flora and fauna species due to the ecosystem’s unique characteristics (Posa et al., 2011). They are home to at least 60 vertebrate species listed as globally threatened. These include the Orang-utan (Pongo pygmaeus), Proboscis monkey (Nasalis larvatus), and Sumatran rhinoceros (Dicerorhinus sumatranus) (UNDP, 2006). A range of reptile species has been recorded in peatlands in Malaysia, including four species of global significance. The black waters of the peat swamp forests are known to have some of the highest freshwater fish biodiversity in the world.

The peatland ecosystem provides various ecosystem services to communities (Maltby and Acreman, 2011), especially in terms of reservoirs of water. As explained above, in their natural state, peatlands are waterlogged due to a high water table, high permeability and high water retention capability.

During periods of heavy rainfall, peatlands act as natural reservoirs, absorbing and storing water like a sponge and thus, mitigating floods. They release this water gradually during dry periods, thereby maintaining base flows in rivers and mitigating droughts in surrounding areas. Other hydrological functions are sediment removal and prevention of saline water intrusion (UNDP, 2006). Thus, peatlands can provide a supply of water for potable and industrial purposes year-round. Such functions are crucial to maintaining the integrity of downstream ecosystems and in preventing economic losses to agriculture and industry.

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Tropical peat forest also provides climatic regulation services on a global level (UNDP, 2006). Peatlands are one of the few ecosystems which, in their natural state, accumulate carbon. Carbon dioxide (CO2) is sequestered as organic carbon in the dead organic matter comprising the peat. Peatlands are thus important carbon sinks, preserving carbon in the organic matter accumulated over long periods of peat formation (Page and Banks, 2007). Maltby (1997) estimates that 70 gigatonnes (GT) or up to 20% of total soil carbon, is stored in peatlands.

On a larger scale, peatlands are also important in terms of its role in the oil palm sector. In 2014, Malaysia contributed 42% of the global palm oil trade, making it the fourth largest contributor to the Malaysian economy, employing some 600,000 people (JPM, 2015). World demand has led to the opening of even more areas for plantations, and the scarcity of suitable agricultural land areas forces peatland areas to be used. In 2009, 13% of total plantation area was on peatlands (Wahid et al., 2010). Sarawak has 37% of its oil palm plantations on peat, as shown in the figure below. These plantations have brought socio-economic benefits to rural communities, especially in terms of employment. In this way, local communities living on peatland areas are able to supplement their income received from collecting NTFPs.

Peatlands also play an important role in a country’s economy, as a source of both timber and non-timber forest products (NTFP). In Malaysia, a substantial number of poor households live on and adjacent to peatlands which can play a vital socio-economic role in local communities’ well-being. The ecosystem has long provided these local communities with sustenance (meat from wild animals, fish), building materials, and NTFP such as vegetables and medicinal, ornamental, or resin-producing plants.

They collect these for their own usage or to sell in exchange for cash (Page et al., 2006). They also use peatlands as reserve areas for agricultural extension.

Percentage (%)

40

30

20

10

0 Peninsular Malaysia

Sabah

Sarawak

Figure 6 Percentage of oil palm planted on peatland area

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Peatlands are also a precious educational and research resource. Peatlands’ unique ecosystems provide huge potential for research and development in various scientific fields such as socio-economics, biodiversity, climate change, and biotechnology. It is also likely that many new plant and animal species will be discovered in peat swamp forests in the future, since only a relatively small number of biodiversity surveys have so far been conducted in PSF, compared to other types of forest in Malaysia.

for agricultural purposes in Malaysia. To prepare peatlands for agriculture purposes, canals have to be built to lower the water table, vegetation (including the stumps of residual trees) has to be removed, and sometimes the peat has to be compacted to improve water moisture management. Because of the high moisture levels, only certain crops are suitable, for instance oil palm, rubber, sago, coconut, paddy, and pineapple. In Malaysia, oil palm occupied the largest agricultural area on peat with a total of 666.038 ha, with 66% of the total area in Sarawak, as shown in Table 6.

Peatland Use and Conversion

Table 6 Oil palm crop area on peatland (Adapted from Wahid et al., 2010)

Even though it is clear that pristine peatlands offer many important benefits, developmental pressures on PSF have seen a substantial change in its use.

Land-use change in the peatlands in South East Asia, especially in Indonesia and Malaysia, can be broadly categorised into three types: timber extraction, conversion to agriculture, and to a lesser extent, development of settlements and infrastructure3.

Although the variety of timber species in PSF is lower compared to its lowland counterparts, the species found in PSF are of high value, for example, the highly sought-after Ramin (Gonystylus bancanus) (Fatimah & Indraneil, 2006; Chai, 2005). Ramin and other commercial species are harvested from tropical PSFs, mostly under selective management system monitored by the forest departments, but also sometimes illegally. Illegal logging in PSFs is often linked to clear-felling as a way to prepare for conversion into agriculture. Timber extraction in a PSF required canals to be built to transport the logs out of the forest.

Region Area

ha

%

Peninsular Malaysia Sabah Sarawak

207,458 21,406 437,174

31.2 3.2 65.6

Total

666,038

100

The conversion and development of peatlands without proper management can result in various deleterious outcomes. Peatland conversion leads to changes in the composition and structure of the pre-existing vegetation. For instance, logging leads to a loss of canopy cover. Miettinen et al. (2011) showed high levels of canopy loss in peatland areas of South East Asia that relate positively with the rate of deforestation. In less than 20 years, 5.1Mha of the total 15.5Mha of peatlands had been deforested (Miettinen et al., 2010).

Agriculture has also been a major driver for landuse change in peat areas. Over the past 20 years, more than 1Mha of peatlands have been converted

The high costs involved in specific construction methods to avoid consolidation and settlement makes urban development rare on peat.

3

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Canals that are constructed for logging and other drainage activities inevitably drain the water out of the peat dome and lead to changes in the hydrological regime, causing a decrease in peat moisture (Seigert et al., 2001; Ainuddin et al., 2006). Dry peat is extremely combustible and fires spread easily even when water tables are close to the surface (Sabah Forestry Department, 2005; Lo and Parish, 2013). Most fires burning in peat soil occur as smouldering combustion below the peat surface, and can persist for weeks or longer. Fires have been found to occur in unmanaged peatlands commonly within or near plantations. Fire incidents in Raja Musa Forest Reserve for the past 10 years have been linked back to drainage resulting from existing logging canals. Furthermore, there is a trend of recurrent fires in peat areas. Grasses such as Lallang (Imperata cylindrica) and ferns such as Gleichenia spp. colonise burnt peat swamp forest and suppress the regeneration of trees (Ainuddin and Goh, 2010). The burnt areas are thus open and become drier and more flammable during dry periods and these conditions encourage the recurrence of fires.

gasses (GHG) like methane (CH4) into the atmosphere (Page et al., 2002), due to the decomposition and degradation of the exposed and burnt organic materials. CO2 emissions from drained peatlands in South East Asia were estimated at between 355 and 855 metric tonnes per year (MTy-1) in 2006 (Hooijer et al., 2010). CO2 is also, of course, implicated in global climate change.

Policy and Administrative Frameworks The use and conversion of peatlands in Malaysia is underpinned by an extensive policy and administrative framework, with a general aim to reduce the negative impacts of peatland development as detailed above. These policies further intend to integrate biodiversity conservation and ecosystem management in development and planning processes.

While land and natural resources in Malaysia are mainly managed at the state level, there are several overarching national policies that guide the formation of state government’s own policies and regulations4. The National Forest Policy 1978 (amended 1992) was formulated to ensure sustainable forest resource management and development including in peat swamp forests are in line with national interests and goals. In 1992, the policy was revised as a consequence of growing concern over the importance of the conservation of biological diversity and sustainable use of genetic resources and the role of local communities in forest development. The policy establishes that PFE should comprise sufficient areas, strategically located throughout the country and designated in accordance with the concept of rational land use5. Other policies that support the National Forest Policy are the National Policy on Biological Diversity 1998, the National Policy on the Environment 2002, the National Agricultural Policy 2003, and the Common Vision for Biodiversity 2009. Malaysia’s Five-year Development Plans also reflect the promotion of natural resources management.

Burning causes changes in peat physical characteristics such as hydraulic conductivity and peat bulk density (Lailan et al., 2004). Combustion of biomass fuels also produces gases such as carbon monoxide (CO), methane and nitrogen oxide. High concentrations of total suspended particulates (in smoke) degrade air quality, cause light scattering and lower visibility, or in other words, haze (Cheang et al., 1991). Other detrimental impacts of peat fires include the significant decrease or loss of important endemic flora and fauna populations (which may lead to a long term reduction in biodiversity), and negative effects on the socio-economic status of communities dependent on peatland resources.

Most importantly, fires can also cripple an important ecological service that is provided by peatlands, which is carbon sequestration. Fires lead to the release of high levels of CO2 and other greenhouse

In Sarawak, the Sarawak Forest Ordinance 1954 provides the necessary legal framework while in Sabah, the Sabah Forest Enactment 1968 provides the legal backing to ensure the implementation of state forest policy (Woon and Norini, 2002).

5 The peatlands classified under PFEs in Sarawak are managed under this policy.

4

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There are also policies that more specifically deal with peatland management. The National Wetland Policy 2004 calls for sustainable and wise use of wetlands with respect to their ecological characteristics. The National Physical Plan complements this policy by recommending that all important wetlands be conserved and gazetted as Protected Areas and managed as Environmentally Sensitive Areas (ESA) (areas of critical importance in terms of the goods, services and life-support systems they provide, such as water purification, pest control, and erosion regulation). All these policies are tied in to Malaysia’s larger National Policy on Climate Change 2010, due to peatlands’ well-understood role in climate regulation.

Under this framework, the key ministries and agencies involved in forest, land, agriculture, water, and wildlife resources management include the Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment (NRE) and its DOE, Ministry of Plantation Industries and Commodities (MPIC), Ministry of Agriculture and AgroBased Industry (MOA), Ministry of Energy, Green Technology and Water (KeTTHA), Ministry of Urban Wellbeing, Housing and Local Government, MMD, and the Department of Agriculture (DOA).

At the regional level, there are several peatland specific plans that have been briefly mentioned in Working Group 1’s report, which can be dealt with in a more detailed manner here. Specifically, the ASEAN Peatland Management Strategy (APMS) 2006 aims to promote sustainable management of peatlands in ASEAN region through collective actions and enhanced cooperation to support and sustain livelihoods, reduce risks of fire associated haze, and contribute to global environment management.

Implementation at the national levels would be through the development and implementation of National Action Plans (NAP). Implementation at the regional level is through the ASEAN Peatland Forests Project (APFP-SEApeat) (2009-2014) run

by Global Environment Facility and funded by the European Union. Following the success of the APFP and SEApeat projects, the ASEAN Environment Ministers endorsed the development of the ASEAN Programme on Sustainable Management of Peatland Ecosystem (APSMPE) for the years 2014-2020.

The above policies are supported by institutional arrangements consisting of both formal government organisational structures as well as informal structures6 that are in place. These arrangements are crucial as they provide the government at all levels (federal, provincial, and local) with the administrative framework within which to formulate and implement policies. In Malaysia, federal level agencies are responsible for implementing policies, action plans, and guidelines. They require state governments’ cooperation on enforcement because land is a state matter and state governments decide on land-use planning and enforce the necessary requirements. As such, coordination between different agencies, both at the federal and national level, is important to ensure the success of any programme related to conservation of natural resources.

In terms of an overall administrative framework, the Economic Planning Unit (EPU) under the prime Minister’s Department has established an Environment and Natural Resource Economic Section that is responsible for leading and coordinating the national environmental and natural resources stability with better efficiency and effectiveness.

Informal institutional structures include the general public, non-government organisations and private sector groups that are not official institutions.

6

50

Issues and Challenges

guidelines and local communities to make decisions on how to make a sustainable living from peatlands. Furthermore, there are also difficulties in accessing whatever existing information from government ministries, departments, and agencies.

Consequently, stakeholders often disregard the complexity of peatlands, resulting in outcomes such as peatland utilisation heavily focused on meeting short-term objectives rather than long-term sustainability.

With continuous peatland degradation and fire incidences taking place, questions are being asked about the effectiveness of the available governance infrastructure and tools detailed above. The root cause of these problems must be identified in order to move forward towards a haze-free region.

Working Group 2 has identified several root causes, namely ineffective policies and implementation, improper peatland and water management, and socio-economic issues. These root causes lead to further issues, e.g. failed projects on peatlands and abandoned degraded peatlands.

A lack of understanding of peatlands leads to another problem, which is the lack of knowledge on how to safely prepare land on peat for development.

Identifying independent peat basin (IPB) boundaries is key to any peatland area development. The selected site must be assessed thoroughly (including its topography, types, depth, and hydrology of the IPB as a whole) to ensure the correct implementation of various operations during land clearing and preparation. However, this is rarely conducted because it is a very laborious and time consuming process. The drainage process must also be done very carefully. From a hydrological perspective, peat swamp forest and adjacent peatlands must be managed and monitored as a single hydrological unit (as one IPB) in order to maintain the integrity of a healthy peat swamp forest (Zakaria, 1997; Pahang Forestry Department, 2005), and this is difficult to do without proper knowledge. Thus, drainage in developed areas often influences adjacent non-drained peat areas, exacerbating the drying process. As a whole, peatland utilisation without proper management is subject to inherent degradation which continuously lowers the land’s economic value. Over time, these landscapes may achieve low productivity or lack productivity, leading to a largescale abandonment. These abandoned areas are at an even higher risk of fires because of a lack of active management.

If examined closely, it becomes clear that the plethora of policies detailed above are actually not harmonised, especially in terms of peatland management. The Malaysian policy framework suffers from serious gaps that create conflicts for peatland management, and are insufficient to prevent peatland degradation and particularly fires. Sometimes, resistance from stakeholders have prevented certain sensitive things to be included into policy guidelines, like preventing soil emissions from being better represented in the formulation of climate policies. The potential for peatland management measures to mitigate soil emissions could be better utilised by reviewing agricultural and land use policies to include soil type and societal costs as criteria in decisions affecting croplands management.

Policies should be supported by other mechanisms to yield success stories about GHG mitigation by land use measures. This is further compounded by ineffective law enforcement that enables illegal activities in forest and peatland areas, such as land clearing by burning, particularly in forest and land concessions belonging to corporations.

Apart from policy weaknesses, peatlands in Malaysia are poorly managed because there is a lack of understanding of peat in itself. The lack of understanding on peatlands is exemplified by the lack of an approved definition for, and classification of, peatlands, largely due to a poor understanding of peatland ecosystems, functions, issues, and management options. Such knowledge is important for policy makers to write policy, land use decision makers to base decisions, management to write

Another challenge in land preparation is the land clearing work. When a peat swamp forest is initially cleared for development, the surface is full of un-decomposed woody materials. The presence of these materials prevents the land from being used for cultivation. It is difficult and expensive to use heavy machinery to clear these woody ‘waste’ as the peat soil is soft. Thus, smallholders and

51

developers often resort to using fire as a cheaper alternative to clear these materials. Working Group 3 specifically focuses on this challenge, namely on how to incentivise smallholders and developers not to burn these waste materials.

aware of their impact on the peatlands. Commercial developers are also no different, suffering from a combination of ignorance and also the impetus to be most economically efficient in their business.

The policy and administrative frameworks presently in place in Malaysia and at the regional level are still inadequate and ineffectively implemented, made obvious by the fact that peatlands in the region continue to be degraded and catch fire at an alarming rate. A serious underlying cause for all this is the unique nature of tropical peat, which requires highly specialised knowledge to manage and conserve effectively. There is much room for improvement, especially in communicating the uniqueness and importance of these peatlands to all stakeholders involved.

All the above are out of reach for local communities living around peatlands and relying on these lands for their livelihoods. Most people living in and around peatlands are relatively poor and possess only primary levels of education. They may inadvertently degrade peatlands through the way they manage the land, which will result in gradual losses of their livelihoods. And of course, they may also resort to burning for their own agricultural needs simply because they cannot afford to do it any other way. There is a lack of material designed to engage society and make the scientifically complex and technical ideas related to sustainable peatland use understandable to local communities. Cross- or inter-sectoral coordination and communication between the government agencies, scientists and other stakeholders with local communities are essentially weak. This has further led to the emergence of conflicts over peatland utilisation, and as mentioned above, sometimes communities resort to burning to resolve these conflicts.

Way Forward The above exercise to determine peatland-related issues and challenges in the Action Area section allow strategies to be developed that are focused directly at the source of the problem. Working Group 2 has harnessed its group members’ immense expertise in various aspects of peatland-related knowledge to come up with an extensive plan moving forward. Working Group 2’s strategy is divided into two clear approaches; one being solutions that can be implemented in the short-term, and the other for the long-term outlook. As a whole, these recommendations aim to, first, reduce and eventually eliminate haze-causing fires on peatlands (especially in Malaysia), and secondly, to ensure best management practices on developed peatlands in general. This strategy is clearly depicted in the table below.

Conclusion The report produced by Working Group 2 has highlighted several important things. It has clearly sown the importance of, firstly, the conservation of pristine peatlands, and secondly, the sustainable management of peatlands that have already been developed. Both of these things are vitally important in terms of the maintenance of biodiversity, the provision of ecosystem services (water management and climate regulation), economic livelihoods of surrounding communities, and most importantly, the avoidance and reduction of fire incidences which lead to haze episodes. However, it has become clear that the sustainable management of peatlands face many challenges. Communities living adjacent to peat areas often are not made

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Table 7 Summary Table Solutions

Details

Short Term

Strategies to prevent, reduce risk of, and ameliorate results of fire through Integrated Fire Management (IFM).

Long Term

Effective Policies and Regulations

Effective Communication • Current knowledge, understanding and technology need to be circulated transparently through the peat knowledge chain.

• Society need to be educated on the importance of continued protection and rehabilitation of damaged peatland forests

Effective Peatland Management • Accurate and up-to-date information • Good land selection and preparation based on the IPB method • Best water management practices

Prevention of fire on abandoned peat swamp forest.

• Dam construction and canal blocking strategies

Research and Development

Social and Economic Issues • Introducing sustainable income-generating activities to local communities.

In the short term, Working Group 2 prescribes strategies to prevent, reduce the risk of, and ameliorate results of fire through the Integrated Fire Management (IFM) method. The IFM method aims to address the problems and issues posed by unwanted fires holistically within the context of the natural environment and socio-economic systems. It combines the components of fire management, namely Prevention, Preparedness, Response and Recovery, to provide a holistic and scalable framework. It also provides all stakeholders with guidance on how to implement actions at the appropriate time and scale to prepare for, and manage any fire situation. The 80:20 rule is key to this approach: 80% of the effort/resources need to be put into fire prevention as compared to 20% toward fire suppression. A failure to emphasise the prevention and preparedness aspects of fire management (even if there are only limited resources to begin with) will cause the continued cycle of unwanted fire spreading across the wider peatland landscapes. IFM should be coupled with Community Based Fire Management (CBFiM) planning, which enables the landscape to be drafted out according to local knowledge and planning for peatland ecosystem management and protection from fire. Detailed stepby-step guidelines of the recommended IFM method is outlined in the following page (Figure 7).

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• 80% of fire management resources (money and people) should be allocated towards fire prevention efforts.

• Reduce ignition sources

PREVENTION

PREPAREDNESS

• Think ahead and plan for scenarios.

• Maintain and resupply equipment especially for communications.

• Train the right people at the appropriate time

Integrated Fire Management • Assess, report and alleviate human, economic and environmental impact.

RECOVERY • Rehabilitate and restore baseline hydrological condition to prevent future fires.

RESPONSE

• Smallest fires are the cheapest to extinguish.

• Rapid response is only possible with pre-planning efforts.

• Specialise equipment is required for peatland fires.

Figure 7 The components of Integrated Fire Management

In the long term, Working Group 2 has proposed six areas to improve upon moving forward: policies and regulations, management of issues related to socio-economic conditions, communications, peatland management, prevention of fire on abandoned peatland, and research and development.

In the effort to improve policies and regulations, the group proposes the ‘multi-door approach’ that seeks to establish coherence between the inquiry, investigation and prosecution of forestry crimes. This approach encourages the consideration of environmental crimes as equivalent to crimes such as corruption, money laundering, and tax evasion, and prioritises crimes committed by corporations or corporate actors. Under this approach, several changes should be done to the present system of policy implementation in Malaysia: (1) Investigators should collect data on landowners at the beginning of planting season to ensure accountability. This can be done with the assistance of satellite technology (2) Licences and permits for activities in peatland areas to concessionaires who cause fires should be immediately revoked (3) Dedicated personnel must ensure that the land that are now under government control is well managed and there is no effort from other entities to convert the land into plantations or sell the cleared land to individual investors (4) All this must be coupled with strong public campaigns to sensitise the public and targeted stakeholders to the dangers of fires and peat degradation

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In terms of improving the management of issues related to socio-economic conditions of the communities living adjacent to peatlands, there should be efforts to introduce sustainable income-generating activities to them. This will provide the locals with more livelihood options and could potentially contribute to solving other more complex social problems related to peatland management.

To improve the effectiveness of peatland management in the long term, three things are needed: accurate and up-to-date information, good land selection and preparation based on the IPB method, and best water management practices. In terms of information management, the locations, areas, and status of peatlands are a basic need, and this would require investment and adoption of the latest GIS technologies. Particularly, there is a need for a nationwide survey of peatlands to identify all IPBs.

Communication is definitely key in resolving an issue as complex as peatland and fire management.

According to recent research by Lakoff (2010), reframing complex problems for public engagement is fundamental to break through communication barriers and generate new ways of thinking by stakeholders. At the technical level, current knowledge, understanding, and technology need to be circulated transparently through the peat knowledge chain. This will help ensure a continued sense of ownership and empowerment at all levels of society and stakeholders to protect the remaining peat landscape. At the policy-making level, the importance of communicating scientific findings to support policy development is especially important. This was demonstrated during a recent survey (Padfield et al., 2014) when respondents gave the highest priority (38%) to the question: “How can current scientific knowledge be synthesised and translated into policy-relevant information to aid policy and decision-making, management and to suggest further research?� A better communication policy could be realised by better coordination of research conducted by research institutions, better use of social media to promote and create public dialogue on critical issues, multi-stakeholder activities such as field visits, and active public engagement with governmental agencies to positively influence the policy process. Working Group 3’s report contains a detailed case study on the Tropical Peat Research laboratory (TPRL) and its efforts to engage in effective scientific communication with local communities in Sarawak for sustainable peatland management, which could potentially be applied to other parts of the country.

In terms of land selections, all new developments on peat should be designed and developed based on the whole IPBs, prioritising or starting with development of smaller more manageable IPBs. Good planning and the correct sequence of land preparation steps are important prerequisites prior to peatland conversion in order to achieve high yields, lower susceptibility of these lands to fire, and overall sustainable peatland development. There has to be concerted efforts to educate and assist stakeholders on proper site selection (including IPBs, topography, types, depth, and hydrology), drain development (based topographical surveys that can indicate the best location of outlets), and compaction or re-compaction (to increase water retention capacity). Detailed explanations of each of these methods are available in the full Working Group 2 report in the Annex.

A good water management plan is an essential part of a good management plan for any plantation on peat, not least to reduce the fire risk. A good water management system for oil palm on peat is one that can effectively maintain a water level of 5070cm below the bank in collection drains or a 4060cm groundwater piezometer reading. The moist peat surface at this water level should also help to minimise the risk of accidental peat fires. Water management on peat is site specific and needs to consider the wider implications on surrounding areas, stormwater detention periods, as well as to avoid un-drainable situations, especially in areas where the mineral subsoil is below Mean Water Levels. Stakeholders and developers must also be educated and assisted in the elements of a good water management system on peatlands.

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This would include an initial hydrological survey of the area, an integrated flood water management and water level management system, good utilisation of water management maps, and continuous drainage system improvement and maintenance.

In addition, oil palm plantations should also have the in–house proficiency to develop and implement good water management plans that take into account impacts on the surroundings. Details into each of these steps are also available in the full Working Group 2 Report.

Finally, there is a lot more that we still do not know about tropical peatlands. Research findings are the drivers for informed policy developments and effective peatland management to prevent peat fires and other adverse environmental impacts.

The goal of zero haze in the region requires science that bridges institutions and comes from various fields: natural disaster (fire science), soil, ecosystem, hydrology, policy, politics, and industry. Urgent areas of study include the invention and deployment of technologies to preserve intact peatlands, build dams and canals on peatlands developed for plantations, and hybrid engineering systems to monitor and manage water tables in peatlands to prevent over-draining that could lead to peat fires.

Researchers from multidisciplinary research areas need to communicate with each other to close the knowledge gaps especially for tropical peat, and more importantly to speak to the debate over utilising versus conserving peat.

Abandoned peat swamps pose high risk of fires, not to mention the deleterious impacts on the global climate. These abandoned areas thus must be managed ‘back to life’. New knowledge is needed on the current status of abandoned agricultural peatland, the cause of abandonment, the impacts of abandonment, and restoration approaches. Re-creation of moist conditions (usually through dam construction and canal blocking) is believed to prevent fire outbreaks and help initiate the re-establishment of forest vegetation. However, recent research by Baekman (2006) indicates that there may be problems with the use of dams in peat areas in the long term, so this area requires further investigation.

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Waste to Resources: Energy or Materials

Waste to Resources: Energy or Materials

no longer used, there should be much less incidences of haze resulting from manmade fires that have spread out of control. This would then be a positive step towards substantially reducing the severity of haze episodes in the region.

As the previous two sections have elaborated, finding long-term solutions to alleviate the regional haze problem is a complex challenge. The earlier working groups have proposed multi-pronged strategies ranging from a direct approach of causal elimination with the banning of open burning through legislation and enforcement, to a more indirect socio-political approach of dealing with the root cause which many believe to be associated to land grabbing. Other initiatives such as plans to build drainage/canal systems in peatland areas as a means of underground soil wetting have also been considered.

Various technologies exist to convert biomass resources into heat and power, such as gasification and direct firing combustion. However, technologies for converting bioenergy are still new and only several have been successfully commercialised. Many of these technologies are still being piloted or are in the R&D stage. This report explores technologies related to the conversion of biomass into heat and power as well as bioethanol, considering the suitability of each method as a promising strategy to help mitigate transboundary pollution experienced in the region. Case studies are also presented for possible extension into detailed studies at a later stage.

Working Group 3 focuses on another possible solution: an economic one. This working group focuses on the fact that a substantial amount of biomass residues are generated at various stages of the planting and harvesting process on (small-, medium-, and large-scale) plantations. A lot of residue is produced in the process of clearing undergrowth and vegetation, especially in the preparation stage.

Often times, due to, among others, the time-consuming mulching process and also as a form of pest control, these plantations resort to burning the biomass residues on site, as a quick and easy way to get rid of them. As detailed in the previous working groups, such burning activity is a significant contributor to smoke in the atmosphere during the haze season. Such a situation is especially dire when the burning is done on fire-prone peatlands.

Biomass Residues Biomass refers to any organic, decomposable matter derived from plants or animals available on a renewable basis. Its availability is distinguished between those generated on the site of growth (forests, plantations) and those generated at the point of processing. Biomass residues generated in the forests, fields or plantations are the major contributor to haze episodes in South East Asia due to on-site fires occurring during the dry, field preparation season. Additionally, parts of Malaysia and Indonesia are made up of large areas of peat forest which is also highly combustible during dry season.

As explained in the previous working group report, peat forest fire becomes very difficult to control, due to its abundance of underground biomass.

Hence, Working Group 3 explores a potential economic solution to the above scenario; the possibility of utilising the biomass produced on plantations to become a higher value bio-product. The rationale is that the creation of value for the hitherto burnt biomass should provide the incentive for plantations and farmers to view the biomass as a source of ‘wealth’, not ‘waste’. Should this sustainable practice of economic harvesting (‘earn, not ‘burn’!) prove to be economically sound, there should be less plantations and farmers resorting to fire as a way to clear the biomass residues. When fires are

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For example, the island of Sumatera, Indonesia, consists of 9,680,020ha of dipterocarp forest, 7,447,358ha of peat forest, and 12,209,475ha of oil palm plantations, as shown in the map and table below. In the year 2015, it was estimated that approximately 5,385,815,232Mg of biomass could be obtained from Sumatera, with 1,675,655,508Mg of biomass from peat forests and 1,080,538,533Mg of biomass from oil palm plantations.

Figure 8 Land use distribution in Sumatera, Indonesia

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Table 8 Land use in Sumatera in year 2015/2016 Type of Land use

Area (Ha)

Biomass (Mg/ha)

Dipterocarp Forest

9,680,020

149

1,439,419,021

Peat Forest

7,447,358

225

1,675,655,508

Mangrove Forest

4,675,206

250

1,168,801,419

Oil Palm

12,209,475

89

1,080,538,533

Rubber

2,922,534

2

6,517,252

Paddy

741,089

2

1,482,178

Other Agriculture

6,700,660

2

13,401,320

Non-vegetated

3,000,000

-

-

TOTAL

47,376,343

For the purpose of this report, only lignocellulosic biomass residues originating from primary or secondary forest, agricultural plantations and peat forests shall be considered. The typical composition of lignocellulosic biomass is 5-30% lignin, 19-27% hemicellulose and 30-50% cellulose (Liu et al., 2014).

Biomass (Mg)

5,385,815,232

The forest biomass showed a higher value of C (48.10%) as compared to the trunk (40.64%) and frond (44.50%) of oil palm. In terms of the lignocellulosic content, which is the important composition indicator for conversion to biofuels and biochemical, Empty Fruit Bunches (EFB) have highest amount of cellulose (57.80%), while each type of biomass have similar lignin and hemicellulose contents. The higher heating value (HHV) of the biomass was also compared, where EFB has the highest value of HHV with 20.54MJ/kg, while both the trunk and frond has slightly lower HHV than the EFB, with 17.27MJ/kg and 17.28MJ/kg respectively.

Open burning of forest biomass residues and oil palm plantation biomass residues have been found to be the most likely sources of smoke haze. The chemical composition of forest biomass and oil palm plantation biomass are shown in the table below. The ultimate analysis measured the elemental contents for carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen and sulphur (C, H, O, N, and S) which are important indicators for energy processes and gas emissions during combustion of the resource materials.

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Table 9 Properties of biomass

Forest biomass

a

Moisture content Volatile matter Fixed carbon Ash

Cellulose Hemicellulose Lignin HHV (MJ/kg)

8.34 79.82 13.31 6.87

16.00 83.50 15.20 1.30

4.68 76.85 5.19 18.07

40.64 5.09 53.12 2.15 -

44.58 4.53 48.80 0.71 0.07

46.36 6.44 38.91 2.18 0.92

Lignocellulosic content (wt% dry basis)

45.80 24.40 28.00 -

(Source: a. Saidur et al., 2011

d. Guangul et al., 2012

d,e

Ultimate analysis (wt% dry basis)

48.10 5.99 45.72 - -

b,c

Proximate analysis (wt% dry basis)

- - - 1.70

Carbon (C) Hydrogen (H) Oxygen (O) Nitrogen (N) Sulphur (S)

Oil Palm Plantation Biomass Empty Fruit Bunch Oil Palm Trunk Oil Palm Frond (EFB) c,f

45.90 25.30 18.10 17.27

b. Nimit et al., 2012 e. Abnisa et. al., 2011

50.33 23.18 21.7 17.28

57.80 21.20 22.80 20.54

c. Oil palm biomass (www.bfdic.com) f. Abdullah and Sulaiman, 2013)

Conversion Pathways Transforming biomass residues to value-products and energy or biofuels involve thermochemical, biochemical, and physical conversion processes. The pathway is best illustrated in Figure 9. Products that can be derived from biomass can be categorised based on economic value, namely low, medium and high value products, as shown in the table below. Low value products, such as compost, require very low investment cost and simple conversion technologies. Heat and power products from biomass are considered as medium value products, while biofuel and biochemicals products require high investment cost resulting in the highest product value among the three categories.

Table 10 Types of product derived from biomass Type of product

Product

Low value product Medium value product High value product

Compost Heat and power Biofuel and bio-chemicals

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Composting (low)-Aerobic composting is the most commonly used biological treatment for the conversion of organic portions of waste. It is defined as the biological decomposition and stabilisation of organic substrates under conditions that allows development of thermophilic temperatures as a result of biologically produced heat and compost.

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Figure 9 Conversion of biomass to product

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Biofertilizer microorganisms are incorporated into the biomass compost to produce bioorganic fertilizer or biofertilizer. Examples of biofertilizer microorganisms are N2 fixing bacteria (Rhizobium spp., Azospirillum spp. Azotobacter spp.), phosphate solubilising microbes (Bacillus spp., Klebsiella spp., Penicillium spp) and plant-growth-promoting rhizobacteria, (Azotobacter spp., Enterobacter spp.).

particularly urea, and partly to awareness on green technology for crop production. It is estimated that 60% of costs of production in oil palm are on fertilizers. On top of that, Malaysia is facing infertile soil due to the loss of top soil and years of planting on the same soil, in addition to increasing pest and diseases.

Power generation (medium)-Conversion of biomass resources to power and heat requires several steps including biomass fuel preparation (pre-treatment, pre-drying, size reduction) and selection of conversion technology. The fuel preparation (pelletising) process as shown in the figure below improves the physical, chemical and combustion properties over those of the raw biomass. It also improves the characteristics of the biomass in its utilisation as direct fuel as shown in the table below.

Several large plantation companies in Malaysia, e.g. Federal Land Development Authority (FELDA), Federal Land Consolidation and Rehabilitation Authority (FELCRA) and Sime Darby are embarking on their own biofertilizer production, especially for oil palm. Oil palm production has largely been dependent on chemical fertilizers. These companies’ interest in biofertilizer is partly due to the increasing cost of chemical fertilizers, >

Biomass

Drying

>

Grinding

>

Pelletising

Figure 10 Process of biomass pelletising

Table 11 Characteristics of shredded and pelletised Empty Fruit Bunch (EFB) Characteristics

Shredded EFB

Pelletised EFB

Calorific value, CV (kJ/kg)

8500

15051

Moisture content (%)

45

12

Amount of fuel required to produce 1 tonne of steam

350-400 kg

200 kg

Fuel cost (RM/tonne)

RM 15 – 70

RM 450

Bulk Density (kg/m3)

150

689

Combined Cycle Efficiency (%)

31.8

32.3

Electricity generation

0.063

0.072

1

1

1

Cost (USD/kWh) Transportation cost

RM 45/tonne for distance of 80-100 km, extra cost will be charged for additional distance

(1Source: Pirraglia et al., 2012)

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Biomass to power conversion systems fall into two categories, i.e. the direct-fired and gasification systems.

The direct-fired category includes stoker boilers, fluidised bed boilers, and co-firing. The gasification category on the other hand includes fixed bed gasifiers and fluidised bed gasifiers. The technologies for conversion of biomass for power generation are summarised in the table below.

Table 12 Summary of Biomass to Power Conversion Technologies Biomass Conversion Technology Direct Firing

Gasifiers

Common Fuel Types

Feed Size (inches)

Moisture Content (%)

Capacity Range (MW)

Stoker grate, underfire stoker boilers

Sawdust, bark, chips, hog fuel, shavings, end cuts, sander dust

0.25 - 2

10-50

4-300

Fluidised bed boiler

Wood residue, peat, wide variety of fuels

<2

< 60

300

Cofiring— pulverised coal boilers

Sawdust, bark, shavings, sander dust

< 0.25

< 25

1000

Cofiring— stoker, fluidised bed boilers

Sawdust, bark, shavings, hog fuel

<2

10-50

300

Fixed bed gasifier

Chipped wood or hog fuel, shells, sewage sludge

0.25 - 4

< 20

50

Fluidised bed gasifier

Most wood and agriculture

0.25-2

15-30

25

The current application of biomass to power in Malaysia is focused on the utilisation of EFB due to its high HHV content and abundant feedstock from palm oil mills. To date, there is no implementation of forest biomass or oil palm plantation biomass to power in Malaysia. Nevertheless, forest biomass and oil palm plantation biomass has been shown to have similar HHV content as EFB (20 MJ/kg and 17MJ/kg respectively), hence making these materials a potential source for power generation.

generating heat and power for demands within the company mill (kernel crushing), refinery and surrounding communities. The project was the first Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) Project in Malaysia. With the investment cost of RM38 million, the biomass power plant successfully reduced 377,902t of CO2 emission by the end of 2012 (CDM, 2006). The project is marked as one of the key success of renewable energy development in Malaysia as it is the first large scale cogeneration plant in the world to solely utilise treated EFB combustion fuel. Malaysia’s industries were encouraged by the government to invest R&D efforts and to study the feasibility of applying this model throughout the country’s industrial sector.

Malaysia started utilising biomass in power generation in the year 2003, where a 7.5MW integrated biomass co-generation plant was established in FELDA Sahabat, Lahad Datu, Sabah by the FELDA Global Ventures Holdings Bhd (FGV). The power plant uses EFB as feedstock 67

Biomass to Biofuel/Biochemical (high)-Maximum valorisation (value) of biomass can be achieved by its conversion into biofuels and biochemicals. The conversion of lignocellulosic biomass to biofuels and biochemicals follow similar routes that consists of pretreatment, hydrolysis, microbial conversion and purification, as illustrated below. While the process of conversion to biofuels in the form of bioethanol has been commercially established, the processes for conversion to other biofuels such as butanol and biochemicals are not commercially available at the present time.

Pretreatment

>

Hydrolysis

>

Coversion

>

Purification

Figure 11 Process of conversion into biofuels and biochemicals

Pretreatment is required to disrupt the lignin outer layer and expose the carbohydrates for hydrolysis to produce monomeric sugars compatible for fermentation. This may encompass physical (i.e. crushing, pulverisation, etc.) and thermo-chemical processes optionally coupled with biological pretreatment.

The monosaccharides formed by the hydrolysis process are then fermented to produce ethanol (conversion). Industrial yeasts such as S. cerevisiae have proven track records with high yields in the brewery and wine industries. However, wild S. cerevisiae is capable of fermenting onl C6 hexoses which makes it incompatible for saccharification of a large proportion of hemicellulosic biomass mainly constituted by pentose sugars such as D-xylose (Martin et al., 2002). In response to such limitations, genetically engineered microorganisms have been extensively employed and are capable of concurrently fermenting pentose and hexose sugars with little amounts of toxic end-products, while having high tolerance to chemical inhibitors derived from the pretreatment and hydrolysis processes. Process variations such as a simultaneous saccharification and fermentation (SSF) process has been developed to enable parallel hydrolysis and fermentation reactions in one single reactor, but these processes tend to compromise on yields due to different operating temperatures of the hydrolysis and fermentation processes.

Hydrolysis refers to processes that convert the polysaccharides into monomeric sugars prior to microbial conversion. There are two different types of hydrolysis; acid hydrolysis and enzymatic hydrolysis. While acid hydrolysis is able to produce high yields of simple sugars, it suffers from the disadvantage of extensive acid requirement, costly acid recycling and undesirable degradation of products which renders it commercially less appealing. Enzymatic hydrolysis needs an efficient pretreatment which increases the porosity of the lignocellulosic substrate, making the cellulose more accessible to cellulases and improving the enzymatic digestibility of the substrate. Cellulase enzymes from the fungus Trichoderma reesei have a proven efficiency and productivity in this function.

Advances in enzyme-based technology for ethanol production have been substantial over the years, and as a result, ethanol production costs have been reduced considerably.

In the final step, the ethanol is then recovered and purified through a distillation process incorporating normal and azeotropic distillation.

68

Economic Potential

electricity through extraction-condensing turbine.

The biomass feed stock used for power generation is assumed to have calorific value of 15.82MJ/kg with 16% moisture content (dry basis) (Fiseha et al., 2012). The direct combustion technology has a 30year plant life with investment cost of USD900/kW and USD1050/kW for boiler and turbine respectively.

Economic conversions of biomass range from low investment and low returns biofertilizer to high investment and high returns biochemicals.

Biofertilizers are economical only when the biomass residues are readily available for conversion without additional transportation costs such as EFB from palm oil mills. Biopellets can command a higher price, but only if exported to energy deficient countries. It is not economical for local consumption due to the abundance of biomass available locally and the extra costs involved in the pelletising process. Biochemicals on the other hand are not fully commercialised yet. Most of the biochemicals produced are still in piloting stage, hence the lack of data available for the purpose of this study. Thus, this report focuses on the economic potential of biomassto-power and biomass-to-ethanol conversions.

Using the net present value (NPV) economic analysis, the correlation between the minimum electricity production cost and the equity financing is presented in Figure 12. Minimum electricity product cost ranged from USD0.23/kWh to USD0.19/kWh with variations of equity financing share of 30% to 70%. The minimum product cost is consider high even with the equity financing adoption as compared to the current feed-it-tariff (FiT) incentive of USD0.10/kWh. The case study is repeated with different capacities (2000t/d, 1000t/d, and 500t/d)as shown in Figure 12. It can be seen that there is only a marginal reduction in the minimum electricity price (ranged from USD0.24/kWh to USD0.19/kWh) due to economy-of scale capacity increment. This is due to the high fixed investment cost (approximately USD3000/kW), while the current FiT scheme is relatively low. The low FiT scheme renders the biomass-to-power to be less competitive at the current power industry market.

Taking off from the FELDA case stated earlier, this report presents the economic potential using 2,000t/d forest and oil palm plantation biomass (OPF and OPT) as the feedstock for power generation with main focus on electricity production. The proposed technology is a 27MW capacity direct combustion system with a 76% efficiency comprising of a pre-treatment drying system, fluidised bed boilers for conversion of biomass to heat and steam, and generation of

Breakeven Electricity Produce Cost (USD/kWh)

Minimum Electricity Product Cost (USD/kWh)

0.25 0.20

2000t/d 1000t/d

0.15

500t/d FiT: USD 0.10/kWh

0.10 0.05

70:30

60:40

50:50

40:60

30:70

Equity Financing (%) Figure 12 Breakeven of electricity selling price for biomass-to-power in Malaysian context

69

Electricity price for changes of equity financing for conversion of biomass to power-For the case of biomass to bioethanol, an economic evaluation was also performed to determine the minimum selling price of ethanol and power in the current economic conditions.

The case study for biomass to bioethanol presents the economic potential using 2000t/d biomass as the feedstock. The proposed technology is enzymatic hydrolysis followed by fermentation with the cellulosics content in biomass of 70% and conversion yield of the cellulosics to C5 and C6 sugar of 95%. The fermentation process uses high substrate tolerant recombinant yeast capable of converting 30% fermentable C5and C6 sugars to 15% ethanol. The technology has a 30-year plant life with a total capacity cost of USD1,094,065,600.00 The major variable cost is assumed to be the enzyme cost of about USD0.6/gal of ethanol.

Breakeven Ethanol Produce Cost (USD/L)

0.70 1000t/d, USD 0.6/L enzyme 0.65

2000t/d, USD 0.6/L enzyme

0.60

2000t/d, USD 0.3/L enzyme 2000t/d, USD 1.0/L enzyme

0.55

market price: USD0.58/L

0.50

70:30

60:40

50:50

40:60

30:70

Equity Financing (%) Figure 13 Breakeven of ethanol selling price for biomass-to-ethanol in Malaysian context

0.68

NREL 2000t/d

0.66

Ethanol Cost (USD/L)

Minimum Ethanol Product Cost (USD/L)

0.75

Local Scenario 2000t/d

0.64 0.62 0.60

1000t/d 0.58

0.56

0

0.0002

0.0004

0.0006

0.0008

0.001

0.0012

0.0014

0.0016

0.0018

Capacity/Capital Cost (ton/USD) Figure 14 The price of ethanol with different capacity and capacity cost 70

0.002

Using the NPV economic analysis, the correlation between the ethanol production cost and equity financing is presented in Figure 13. For a production capacity of 2000t/d, the production cost ranged from USD0.64/L to USD0.62/L with the movement of equity financing share from 30% to 70%, which is higher than the current market ethanol price of USD0.58/l. Figure 13 also shows the variation of ethanol production cost at different capacities and with variation in enzyme costs. The plot demonstrates that economic viability from lower ethanol production cost can be achieved at favourable equity financing ratios, higher capacities (due to economy of scale) and lower enzyme costs.

Figure 14 shows the price of ethanol for different capacities and capacity costs. The analysis compared the local scenario as presented above to the U.S scenario as per the National Renewable Energy Lab (NREL) report.

In U.S scenario, the production cost is USD0.67/L while in the local scenarios it is USD0.58/L and USD0.63/L for capacities of 1000t/d and 2000t/d, respectively. It is shown that with the localised condition, the value of ethanol cost can be significantly reduced.

Table 13 Ethanol production cost (USD/L) reduction by improving the debt: equity ratio or interest rate Debt : Equity ratio

8%

Interest Rate 5%

3%

95:5

0.77

0.61

0.52

70:30

0.73

0.60

0.53

60:40

0.71 (0.57 )

0.60

0.53

50:50

0.69

0.60

0.54

40:60

0.67

0.59(0.52 )

0.54

a

b

Table 13 presents the potential of ethanol production cost reduction by improving the debt: equity (D:E) Ratio or interest rate (iR). It is shown that at the iR of 3%, the ethanol production cost could be reduced significantly and makes it competitive to current market value.

as various renewable energy resources have been more economically competitive in recent years.

In order to promote the utilisation of biomass to power, the current Fit should be reviewed and revised.

The case study of biomass to ethanol, on the other hand, demonstrated a favourable scenario to investors demonstrating that with a financial interest rate of 3%, ethanol production is economically competitive in the current market.

Nevertheless, the current interest rate stands at the rate of 5%-8% and with high cost of enzyme in Malaysia, there needs to be some policy and technology intervention to enable a sustainable bioethanol industry in Malaysia.

The two case studies presented above reviewed the economic potential of localised biomass-topower and ethanol in current market. For biomassto-power, the current FiT scheme is relatively lower than the electricity production cost, rendering the biomass-to-power option less attractive to investors. The rate of FiT scheme in Malaysia was established in year 2011, and is considered not up-to-date on current renewable resources market 71

Challenges of Biomass Conversion in Malaysia

Moving on, costs associated with transportation and logistics vary for different biomass residues and the sites of its availability. Biomass which is generated post-processing such as EFBs, rice husks and wood chips are available at the processing sites so transport costs are minimised. However, for non-processed biomass such as oil palm tree trunks, rice straws, and non-processed forest products, the transportation costs are a function of its distance to the transportation network. Cost estimates range from RM0.20 to RM10 per kilometre per tonne based on road transport (trucks), but may differ upon the availability of other modes of transport such as trains or barges. However, in these cases, transport interfaces need to be factored in. For long distance haulage, compression and pelletisation of biomass resource into compact forms (i.e. pellets or briquettes) would be required (BioEnergy Consult, 2016).

In addition to pricing constraints as discussed above, there are also other challenges in the way of biomass conversion in Malaysia, including investment, technology or technical, transportation and logistics, and also socio-cultural awareness on the issue. The following discussion details each of these challenges in turn.

Briefly, full-scale investment into biomass conversion technologies in Malaysia is hindered by several factors, including limited access to biomass feedstock, limited financing resources for biomass conversion technologies, and a lack of support from domestic market.

The technological and technical challenges of biomass conversion into Malaysia can be divided according to type of product. Composting (low value) technology is mature and anaerobic composting process is commonly applied. However, this technology would result in large carbon footprint, and would lead to odour problems if there is no proper containment of biomass waste being composted.

Low socio-cultural awareness among stakeholders on the importance and benefit of achieving sustainability via maximum harnessing (reuse) of biomass could be another challenge in Malaysia. Locally, the concept of carbon footprinting is not widely adopted or understood, and sustainability is not a major concern in business decision-making. Moreover, in Malaysia, the concept of environmental sustainability is not ingrained among the population. Among the three pillars of sustainability (i.e. economic, social and environmental), practical engineering considerations only emphasise the first two aspects.

Without the enforcement of regulations, application of biomass resources for the sake of environmental protection is not imperative for existing businesses.

For biomass-based power generation (medium value), gasification and pyrolysis are generally less mature than direct combustion, and are more vulnerable to technical breakdowns, accidents, or explosions due to malfunctioning. In particular, pyrolysis has low thermal stability, and has been associated with corrosion problems, which may hinder further upgrading of the product into bio-oils (for more market value) (McKendry, 2002a).

The full Working Group report in the Annexe provides a biomass to pellet business model that can potentially overcome logistical issues of biomass handling, storage, and transportation. The full report also provides a case study in Thailand where socio-cultural awareness was boosted through local initiatives.

In terms of biochemical and biofuel production (high value), biorefinery processes designed to synthesise biochemicals (i.e. lactic acid, bio-sugar, polylactic acid, food additives, zeolite and catalysts, etc.) is still at its infancy in Malaysia. This is manifested in the lack of pilot or demonstration plants, a deficit of market-focused research and development (R&D), and a lack of local market support for these technologies due to their high technical and financial risks. IPs for conversion technologies for biochemical production are now highly prized and are in the domain of large international private companies such as DuPont and DSM. 72

Science and Policy Interface

The above discussion has detailed how biomass residue can potentially be turned into value-added products such as compost, fuel, power, and biochemicals. This will potentially create economic benefits for the stakeholders involved, and ultimately reduce open burning practices and contribute to haze mitigation. However, the preliminary findings of this working group show that at current local economic conditions, products from biomass would be more expensive than the currently available energy and fuel. In addition to this economic challenge, other issues like investment, transportation, and awareness may create further resistance to this solution.

The Malaysian Government has declared biomass as a potentially important source of energy for Malaysia. In order to promote and enhance the development of biomass energy, several energy policies have been developed, including: a) Fifth Fuel Policy (2000) b) National Bio-fuel Policy (2006) c) National Green Technology Policy (2009) d) National Renewable Energy Policy (2010) These policies have been developed based on three principals, which focus on supply, utilisation and the environment. The Government of Malaysia has also launched several programmes to explore and promote the use of renewable energy as an alternative fuel source. The on-going incentives and programmes include FiT, EU-Malaysia Biomass Sustainable Production Initiative (Biomass-SP), East Coast Economic Region (ECER), Palm Oil Industrial Cluster (POIC), and the National Biomass Strategy (NBS) 2020. The applicability, or lack thereof, of these existing policies into the proposed strategies will be discussed further in the ‘way forward’ section further below.

However, such a situation is not all that stark.

There have been many instances where a potentially beneficial strategy is not immediately economically viable and cannot break even, due to, among other, the lack of market demand. It is then the role of the government or other interested parties to create various incentives to close the economic gap, to enable these strategies to take hold in the market, until demand is sufficient. Potential approaches in the effort to make biomass residue conversion in Malaysia viable are expanded in the ‘Way Forward section’ below.

Conclusion

Way Forward

As haze episodes may evolve into potentially complex emergencies, the development of an effective technology for biomass utilisation is critical.

Hitherto, burning has been the preferred method for clearing biomass residue as it is the most economical form of land clearance. Hence, it can be said that one of the main causal factors of the transboundary haze is in fact economic motivation.

In the same way, this working group proposes an alternative economic motivation, to dis-incentivise burning and incentivise ‘earning’ instead. The group argues that if an economically sound method can be presented to plantations and farmers, this will be a great motivator for them to move away from firebased methods of land clearing, which do not yield any economic benefits.

As mentioned above, governments and other interested stakeholders should play an important role in creating various incentives to create markets for certain beneficial technologies and to make them more economically feasible. Especially in the case of the transboundary haze, which amounts to billions of ringgit of economic losses throughout the Malaysian economy on an almost yearly basis, the Government of Malaysia should be even more interested to invest in a solution that could have a positive trade-off towards a haze free Malaysia.

73

While the utilisation of biomass for lower value products such as fertilizers and fuel in direct combustion is now well established in the Malaysian commercial domain, there are still challenges in moving up the value chain to biochemical conversion (which include the biofuels ethanol or butanol).

Through the years, the Government of Malaysia has formulated policies and programmes related to the utilisation of biomass for economic gains (as detailed above). However, these policies lack specificity and still have room for improvement. In particular, to complement existing policies, further policies should be developed for (1) securing biomass resources; (2) supporting biotechnologies; and (3) creating a platform for biomass product marketing

The economic case for bioethanol or any biochemical is not helped by the imperfect development of the local biomass market. As it stands, the local biomass market is quite fragmented and unorganised, and is far from a full-fledged commodity market. In order to ensure proper management and trading of biomass, this working group proposes the establishment of a â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;Centre for Sustainable Mobilisation of Biomass Resourcesâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;, which would include within its remit biomass logistics and trade centres.

The Centre and complementary regional branches should help to optimise logistics and trading organisation, where different biomass fuels such as firewood, chips, pellets and energy crops can be marketed at guaranteed quality and prices. Both of the above suggestions will also go a long way in helping to create the market demand among public which is so needed for a sustainable commodity.

One hurdle related to this is the Malaysian Governmentâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s lack of mandate on biodiesel B5 and bioethanol E10 which hinders full uptake on any bioethanol investment. Without a firm biofuel policy mandate, the case for bioethanol is hard to defend due to its high investment cost. This is further compounded when investments are undertaken through the acquisition of bank loans, hence increasing operational costs due to interest repayments. Working Group 3 proposes that the government provides significant funding involvement (that can be converted into equity) to minimise the interest charges from massive loans. In other words, from a purely financial standpoint, the equity-loan ratio needs to be optimised to maximise margins on the sale of ethanol. This will help enable ethanol to competing against traditional fuels at a similar price point.

Admittedly also, current research and development on potential biomass utilisation directly related to the mitigation of the haze problem is still at its infancy. There is a need for more research funding in the area, as well as the development of databases and support systems for researchers. More specifically related to this report, the choice of technology or combination of technologies to be selected for possible demonstration or even commercialisation requires a more detailed study. This is to determine with greater accuracy on the investments needed and the possible economic returns to complement the social and environmental benefits of potential solutions to the haze problem.

74

The Way Forward

75

1.

2.

Recognising that “slash, not burn, to earn additional income,” as a fresh approach to solving haze problem, it is recommended that:

Noting that the proposed conversion of biomass to energy would be viable, it is recommended that:

i. The concerned government should consider investing through its privately linked companies in the development of biomass conversion to material or energy facilities through private-public equity partnership; and

i. The private sector ought to be encouraged to take the lead in the proposed investments with the participation of government investment arms or linked companies, as well as with local communities made up of farmers, settlers, smallholders, and adjacent plantation companies; and

ii. The concerned government should provide a conducive investment environment, including low interest rates and concession areas7, in order to promote investment in the proposed facilities.

ii. Interested parties should conduct the necessary techno-economic environmental feasibility studies prior to investment, namely, conversion of biomass to ethanol or biomass to electricity, or if not, hydrogen fuel by mobile8 gasification and hydrogen generation (by electrolysis) units.

“Concession area” refers to the size of a land area that could support a sustainable supply of biomass to a designated biomass-to-energy conversion facility.

8 This is an alternative to overcoming the high cost of logistics to centralised facilities.

7

76

3.

4.

Recognising that water management is critical in peat areas, it is recommended that:

Recognising that not at all times transboundary haze could be effectively controlled, it is recommended that:

i. Those who develop peat areas for plantation or any other agro-forestry land development should carry out the following measures: (a) suitable site selection, (b) maintenance of natural drainage9 or sound drain development, (c) land clearing and stacking, (d) compaction, and (e) re-compaction to reduce the fire risk

i. The enforcement agencies must step up measures such that no open burning be allowed, particularly during the southwest monsoon period from months of June to early October; and ii. A local contingency plan be developed and put into operations during any severe haze episode11 in order to reduce local sources of pollution by source apportionment method.

ii. Those who have developed plantations in the peat areas have to maintain high water table by containing stream flows throughout the plantation irrigation systems; and iii. Disturbed, abandoned, or underdeveloped peat areas should be identified and promoted for rehabilitation by undertaking the above measures (3 (i) and (ii)) in order for such lands to be no longer a fire hazards. iv. If not, such disturbed peat areas should receive excess flood water by allowing a return to its natural flow10.

9

10 11

There is evidence showing the forest areas adjacent to the drains constructed along the periphery of plantation areas have caught fire, and those without such construction have not.

There is evidence that where by not allowing its natural flow, disturbed peat areas have caught fire.

It is generally understood when API reaches 500 and beyond 77

5.

6.

Acknowledging that El NiĂąo does significantly influence the severity of haze, and that it is now possible to predict any El NiĂąo event six months ahead of time since well-established forecasting systems are already in place, it is recommended that:

Noting that there are still gaps in knowledge, it is recommended that: i. Systems studies, including socio-economic and legal implications of the proposed local contingency plans to respond in the event of severe haze episode, be undertaken in order to formulate the detailed measures to control local sources of pollution; and

i. The relevant authority should disseminate the forecast and alert all concerned; and

ii. R&D, including radioisotope tracing an modelling studies, on the high percentage of unidentified sources of pollution be carried out.

ii. Every relevant authority and other concerned stakeholders take precautionary measures, well in advance before any El NiĂąo event set in.

iii. To better understand the impact of haze towards health, social life and economy, studies need to be conducted especially in the areas that are most affected by haze episodes in Malaysia.

Studies on health should focus on the toxicological properties of haze particles and to systematically assess the health and social burden of diseases due to haze episodes.

Among others are: a. Epidemiological study on the burden of diseases of air pollutants; b. Toxicity assessment of particulates from forest fires; and c. Evaluation of the indoor school environment during haze episode.

iv. Since the current R&D on potential biomass utilisation directly related to the mitigation of the haze problem is still at its infancy stage, there is a need for more research funding in the area, as well as the development of databases and support systems for researchers.

More specifically, related to this report, the choice of technology or combination of technologies to be selected for possible demonstration or even commercialisation requires a more detailed study. This is to determine with greater accuracy on the investments needed and the possible economic returns to complement the social and environmental benefits of potential solutions to the haze problem.

78

7.

8.

“How can current scientific knowledge be synthesised and translated into policy-relevant information to aid policy and decision-making, management and to suggest further research?”

Realising that peatland issues are highly complex and that knowledge on these issues have thus far been mostly tailored for the scientific community, it is imperative to establish a systematic effort to reframe and communicate these issues to the public using common and accessible language in order to:

This question addresses the all-important science-policy interface that is the core of ASM’s work. At the policy-making level, the importance of communicating scientific findings to support policy development is especially important.

A better communication policy could be realised by better coordination of research conducted by research institutions, better use of social media to promote and create public dialogue on critical issues, multi-stakeholder activities such as field visits and active public engagement with governmental agencies to positively influence the policy process.

i. sensitise the public on the negative impacts of forest and land burning on the environment, public health and the country’s economy, which is essential to eradicate forest and land burning practices particularly in the high fire-risk areas; ii. create social norms among the fire-risk communities, for example through school activities and targeted campaigns (on dangers of setting fires especially during dry weather and the importance of staying vigilant) that will not only help ensure these communities stay safe but can also help reduce the incidence of haze in the long run; iii. encourage the public to report fires and suspicious activities to the relevant authorities; and iv. deliver information and instructions to the public on ways to prevent, reduce risk and ameliorate results of fires through the media best available to the local community, for example through social media and mobile apps, apart from other physical community centres like religious centres and marketplaces.

79

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ASM Transboundary Haze Study would not have been possible without the contributions and inputs from numerous individuals and organisations. In particular, ASM would like to thank various ministries, agencies and departments under the Malaysian Government, private sector, NGOs and individuals who are involved either directly or indirectly in this study.

Collaborating Organisations: Association of Environmental Consultants and Companies of Malaysia (AECCOM) Centre for Tropical Climate Change System (IKLIM) CERAH Group Department of Standards Malaysia Energy Commission Malaysia Environmental Management and Research Association of Malaysia (ENSEARCH) Felda Global Ventures Holdings Bhd (FGVH) France CIRAD G&P Water and Maritime Sdn Bhd Global Environment Centre (GEC) Institute for Environment and Development (LESTARI), UKM International Institute of Applied Systems Analysis (IIASA) Malaysia Agro-Biotechnology Institute (ABI) Malaysia CIRAD Malaysia Department of Environment, NRE Malaysia Industry-Government Group for Hight Technology (MiGHT) Malaysia Institute for Medical Research Malaysia Institute of Health Management Malaysia Institute of Strategic & International Studies (ISIS) Malaysia Japan International Institute of Technology (MJIIT) Malaysia Medical Association Malaysia NAHRIM Research Centre for River Management Malaysia National Solid Waste Management Department Malaysia Office of The Prime Minister Malaysia Sarawak Tropical Peat Research Laboratory (TPRL) Malaysia Solid Waste Management and Public Cleansing Corporation (SWCorp Malaysia) Malaysian Agriculture Research and Development Institute Malaysian Investment Development Authority (MIDA) Malaysian Meteorological Department (MetMalaysia) Malaysian Ministry of Domestic Trade, Co-operatives and Consumerism (KPDNKK) Malaysian Ministry of Energy, Green Technology and Water (KeTTHA) Malaysian Ministry of Natural Resources & Environment (NRE) Malaysian Paediatric Association Malaysian Remote Sensing Agency Malaysian Timber Council Messrs Wan Azlian & Co MYBiomass NexjenIP Occupational Health and Environmental Sector, Ministry of Health Malaysia Process Systems Engineering Centre (PROSPECT) Questel Roundtable of Sustainable Palm Oil (RSPO) SIRIM Industrial Biotechnology Research Centre Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia (UKM) Universiti Putra Malaysia (UPM) Universiti Selangor (UNISEL) Universiti Teknologi Malaysia (UTM) University of Malaya (UM) University of Nottingham University Teknologi MARA (UiTM) UPM Institute of Tropical Forestry and Forest Product (INTROP) Wetlands International World Wide Fund for Nature Malaysia (WWF-Malaysia) 80

Fellows Academy of Sciences Malaysia (ASM), Members, ASM Haze Task Force and Working Groups and other Contributing Individuals

Liew Juneng, PhD Liew Yuk San Lim Jeng Shiun, PhD Low Pak Sum FASc, Professor Dr Lulie Melling, PhD Markus Amann, PhD Mashitah Darus Mavath Chandran Matthew Ashfold, PhD Mazlan Madon FASc, PhD Maznorizan Mohamad Mazrura Sahani, Dr (PhD) Md Firoz Khan, PhD Md Mizanur Rahman, PhD Mohamad Iqbal Mazeli, DrPhD Mohamad Yusof Mohd Azuwan Abdullah Mohd Erwan Misran Mohd Fairuz Md Suptian Mohd Jamil Maah FASc, Professor Dato’ Dr Mohd Shafee’a Leman FASc, Professor Dr Mohd Talib Latif, Professor Dr Mohd Zefri Mohd Zulkefli Muhamad Awang FASc, Emeritus Professor Dr Muhamad Fathorossoim Al Sani Abdullah Sani Muhamad Zakaria, Professor Dr Muhammad Amir Kamaluddin, PhD Muhammad Awang FASc, Professor Dr Muhammad Azahar Zikri Zahari Muhammad Syazwan Alauddin Murnira Othman Nasehir Khan EM Yahya, Professor Ir Dr Nasrin Agha Mohammadi, PhD Nik Meriam Nik Sulaiman, Professor Dr Nitia Samuel Norehan Kadir Norehan Kadir Norhafiezah Mohd Asheri Nur Azima Busman Nur Hashimah Hanafi Nurfaiqa Dyana Mazlan Nurfatehah Idris Nurul Aina Abdul Aziz Nurul Hanim Razak Omar Abdul Rahman FASc, Academician Tan Sri Ong Li Ling P Lal Chand Gulabrai FASc, Ir Padmini Karunanidi Puvaneswari Ramasamy Rahimatsah Amat FASc, Dr Hj Raymond Ooi Chong Heng FASc, Professor Dr Saiful Suhairi Suarni Saiful Suhairi Suarni Salahudin Yaacob Salleh Mohd Nor FASc, Academician Tan Sri Dr Salmah Zakaria FASc, PhD Selliah Paramananthan FASc, PhD Selva Kumar Sivapunniam, Dr Siti Atikah Mohamed Hashim Subramaniam Karuppanan Tan Sie Ting, PhD Tan Soon Guan, FASc, Professor Dr

A Bakar Jaafar FASc, Professor Dato’ Ir Dr Aainaa Kamilah Roslee Abd Malik Tussin Abdul Rahim Nik FASc, Datuk Dr Abu Hanipah Jalil Ahmad Ainuddin Nuruddin, Prof Dr Ahmad Hazri Abd Rashid, PhD Ahmad Ibrahim FASc, Datuk Paduka Dr Ahmad Khudri Abd Razak Ahmad Makmom Abdullah, Assoc. Prof Dr Ahmad Tasir Lope Pihie FASc, Datuk Dr Ahmad Zaidee Laidin FASc, Academician Tan Sri Dato’ Ir (Dr) Hj Ain Fatiha Aidil Fitri Aini Hairida Mohamad Abas Alia Husna Abdullah Alias Mohd Sood, PhD Aminah Ismail Anis Salwa Kamarudin, Dr Azizah Ariffin Brenna Chen Jia Tian Candice Ong Chu Lee Chong Sun Fatt, Ir Chuah Hean Teik FASc, Academician Professor Dato’ Ir Dr David Yap Eric Deleglise Esther Wong Ezahtulsyahreen Abd Rahman Fadilah Baharin, Datuk Faizal Ahya Faizal Parish Fateh Chand FASc, Academician Datuk Fatin Athirah Amani Mohd Nasir Fazrina Mohd Masrom Fera Fizani Ahmad Fizri Francis Ng S.P. FASc, PhD Fredolin Tangang FASc, Professor Dr G Lalchand, Ir Goh Swee Hock FASc, PhD Habibatul Saadiah Isa Hanashriah Hassan Haslenda Hashim, Assoc Prof Dr Hazami Habib Helena Muhamad Varkkey, PhD Heong Kong Luen FASc, Professor Dr Ho Wai Shin, Dr Intan Nurul Azlina Intan Sazrina Saimy Jagdish Kaur Chahil Jayakumar Gurusamy, Prof Dr Jean-Marc Roda, Professor Dr Jegalakshimi Jewaratnam, PhD Jicqueline Mitchell V Ratai Julia Lo Fui San Kamaliah Kasmaruddin Khalid Yusoff FASc, Senior Professor Dato’ Dr Laili Nordin, PhD Latifah Nor Ahmad Sidek Lee Soo Ying FASc, Professor Dr

81

Tan Swee Lian FASc, PhD Tan Yew Chong, Dato’ Dr Taufik Yap Yun Hin FASc, Prof Dr Tengku Nazihah, Datuk Veliana Ruslan Wai Shin Ho, PhD Wan Azlian Ahmad Wan Portia Hamzah Wen Hui Ting FASc, Ir Dr Wickneswari Ratnam FASc, Professor Dr Yong Huai Mei Zaharin Yusoff FASc, Professor Dr Zaharin Zulkifli Zakri Abdul Hamid FASc, Academician Professor Emeritus Tan Sri Dato’ Sri Dr Zamzul Rizal Zulkifli Zara Phang Zarina Ab Muis, PhD Zubaidi Johar, Tuan Haji Zuriati Zakaria FASc, Prof Datin Dr

82

Annex A:

Air Quality & Haze Episodes

LIST OF FIGURES Figure A-1 .

Trends of PM1 0 daily mean concentration from year 1 996 to 201 5 and juxtaposed of El Niño period (in grey lines) for several stations according to the regions in Malaysia

Figure A-2.

Measurement of PM2.5 from August 201 1 to July 201 2 (Amil et al., 201 6)

Figure A-3.

Source apportionment of PM2.5 and other parameter (temperature, relative humidity, rainfall, wind speed) for annual and haze episode concentration in year 201 1 and 201 2 (Amil, 201 6)

Figure A-4.

Contribution of different sources when API achieved 300. This assumption calculated based on values recorded by Amil et al. (201 6)

Figure A-5.

Haze trajectory based on forecasting meteorological and hotspot data in October 201 5

Figure A-6.

Satellite images during haze episode

Figure A-7.

Oil palm production by countries in year 201 4 (Mosarof et al., 201 5)

Figure A-8.

Oil palm plantation area in Malaysia (Awalludin et al., 201 5)

Figure A-9.

The spatial pattern of the loadings of the most dominant mode of the anomalous Southeast Asia precipitation using the Extended Empirical Orthogonal Function (EEOF) analysis. The shaded values represent the eigenvector of the EEOF(Juneng & Tangang, 2005)

Figure A-1 0.

The time series represent the temporal evolution of the dominant pattern of the Southeast Asia anomalous rainfall shown in Figure A-9 and that of the anomalous sea surface temperature anomaly in the tropical Pacific Ocean shown in Figure A-1 1 (Juneng & Tangang, 2005).

Figure A-1 1 .

As in Figure A-9 except for the anomalous sea surface temperature.

These patterns reflect the warming of sea surface temperature in the Pacific and Indian Oceans during an El Niño event (Juneng & Tangang, 2005)

Figure A-1 2.

Oceanic Nino Index showing El Niño and La Niña Index from 1 950 until 201 6 (NOAA, 201 6b)

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Figure A-1 3.

The standardised time series of the defined annual haze index calculated for Jerantut and Petaling Jaya

Figure A-1 4.

Correlation maps between the Petaling Jaya annual PM1 0 index and the quasi-global sea surface temperature during both Jun-Jul-Aug and SepOct-Nov period

Figure A-1 5

The APEC Climate Center rainfall probabilistic forecast for February to April 201 6 issued in January 201 6 (APEC, 201 6)

Figure A-1 6.

201 3 Annual Average PM2.5 (Âľg/m3)

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LIST OF TABLES Table A-1 .

Summary of haze history in Malaysia

Table A-2.

Value of Air Pollutant Index (API) and its relation with health effect

Table A-3.

Lists of instruments used by DOE in the air quality monitoring network in Malaysia

Table A-4.

Lists of instruments used by DOE in the air quality monitoring network in Malaysia

Table A-5.

Singapore Air Quality Standard and Health Impacts

Table A-6.

Indonesia Air Quality Standard and Health Impacts

Table A-7.

Mass concentration of PM2.5 and its chemical composition in Malaysia and Indonesia in November 1 997

Table A-8.

Hotspot locations and date of HYSPLIT simulation

Table A-9.

El NiĂąo years from 1 950

Table A-1 0.

The correlation coefficients between the constructed annual PM1 0 index with multivariate ENSO Index (MEI) at different seasons

Table A-1 1 .

Aggregate value of haze damage in 1 997

Table A-1 2.

Regional Measures in Terms of Preparedness and Prevention

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BACKGROUND Working Group 1 (WG1 ) on Air Quality and Haze Episodes is tasked to examine the problem of transboundary haze, that is, amongst others, to identify any existing and current policies, studies and/or initiatives relating to transboundary haze; to identify the gaps in knowledge, action and related issues.

While the main purpose of the study initiated by the Academy of Sciences Malaysia (ASM) is to present a viable solution to all relevant stakeholders, there seems to be a strong emphasis throughout the Steering Group discussions to also push for an economic solution and promote the conversion of biomass into energy or some useful material in order to eliminate the use of fire for land preparation and thereby transform palm oil production or shift towards sustainable production practices.

Much has been documented and debated on the transboundary haze. This study by WG1 will focus first on our perception on the nature of the problem. Framing the problem will then help us to shape our response.

Haze was used by ASEAN to play down the impact of the Indonesian fires. First, this paper will address the misconception that transboundary haze is a ‘natural’ event and will only pose a problem to the region during the months of an El Niño phenomenon. To this end, WG1 , based on the review process, will indicate the scientific evidence to what extent the intensity of the haze is influenced by the El Niño, the correlation and hence the importance of forecastibility of the El Niño in order to provide information to the decision-makers and thereby initiate the science-policy intervention at the national and ASEAN level. Second, WG1 will also indicate whether the current scientific knowledge could provide enough information on source apportionment of the transboundary haze as this will also give impact on policy decisions.

Changing our perception and moving forward to achieve a viable solution will require some serious assessments. This study will also suggest the inclusion of other parameters for air quality measurement, a better understanding of the meteorological conditions and the wideranging impacts of haze on human and the environment to help us think preventively.

Addressing the transboundary haze lies in reducing forest and plantation burning in Indonesia; but unfortunately, this is a task Indonesia is still trying to prioritise. Overcoming the formidable financial incentives that lie behind the burning is crucial for effecting changes.

The effort taken by WGI, based on the review process, aims to push forward some issues as well as measures and at the same time to gain the support of the government, the business

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and civil society to complement one another to help in strengthening the research, predicting and monitoring capacity, to improve on the technology as well as to explore collaborative possibilities to address the problem of transboundary haze.

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METHODOLOGY The methodology involves a rapid scan for documents on the definition and history of the haze. The study quickly traces the causes of transboundary haze in terms of land use and abuse as well as the influence of climatic factors. The gaps in terms of measurement of the air quality index, the nature of the El Niño phenomenon as well as the gaps in determining the association between the haze and the El Niño will be highlighted. As national documents, journals, reports, and data-sets are collected, they will be assessed for relevance and breadth of content. This will be followed with discussions and analyses for the science-policy interventions and calls for an action plan.

CHAPTER LAYOUT The final report is organised into eight chapters; from initial conceptualisation of the problem; haze episodes; a review of the air quality measurements and meteorological conditions; the El Niño phenomenon; a snapshot of the impacts and policy framing to the eventual emergence of science-policy interventions and plans of action.

CHAPTER 1 opens with a background on the nature of transboundary haze, problem framing and the attempts to address the misconception.

CHAPTER 2 provides a historical background on the transboundary haze and delves into the air pollutant index (API) to indicate the severity and duration of the problem. This is followed by describing the contribution of particulates from local and external sources as well as the increasing emissions from external sources during the haze.

CHAPTER 3 discusses the air quality measurement and explains the characteristics of air pollutants during the haze. Different parameters analysed in a number of studies to provide the knowledge gap in terms of biomass burning are also discussed. It finally touches on the satellite imagery to provide the accuracy of fire detection.

CHAPTER 4 traces the sources of transboundary haze and highlights land-use changes as well as the slash-and-burn technique.

CHAPTER 5 analyses the meteorological conditions and ENSO as a major contributing factor that induces a drier than normal condition. Of significance is the forecastibility of ENSO and the policy implications.

CHAPTER 6 outlines the wide-ranging impacts of fires and associated transboundary haze on public health, tourism, biodiversity and the national economy

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CHAPTER 7 extracts policy directions at the national and ASEAN level. The information is then briefly analysed to indicate whether the policy measures instituted have tackled the transboundary haze and supported zero-burning.

CHAPTER 8 is where all the findings from the previous chapters are gathered and proposes the science-policy interventions. It includes an action plan for moving forward.

1

Introduction

Transboundary haze (or ’haze’ for the purpose of this study) is one of the major environmental issues in Southeast Asia for the last three decades. The haze not only affect the countries within the region but even beyond because of the impacts on environmental concerns with greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and biodiversity thus challenging international attempts to address these issues. According to the ASEAN Haze Action Online, ‘haze’ consists of sufficient smoke, dust, moisture, and vapour suspended in air to impair visibility and haze pollution can be considered ‘transboundary’ if its density and extent is so great at source that it remains at measureable levels after crossing into another country’s air space. The use of the term ‘haze’ as opposed to ‘transboundary atmospheric pollution’ in ASEAN is to play down the impact of Indonesian fires even though the fires and associated haze could pose risks to human health and the environment. The usage of ‘haze’ is a diplomatic way to avoid having to confront the State that causes the problem by linking it with principles of state responsibility under international law.

The perception or the term ‘haze’ therefore takes the attention away from the fires that cause the transboundary pollution. ‘Haze’ suggests that if winds change direction or the strength and duration of the El Niño phenomenon that induces a drier than normal condition is absent, there will be no problem. But perceptible haze from local pollutant emission, particularly during adverse weather conditions, does occur especially in the Klang Valley following rapid urbanisation and industrialisation. However, the times when transboundary haze is blanketing parts of Malaysia and the neighbouring countries, the composition as well as the concentration level of the pollutants is different as confirmed in many of the studies.

Studies by several researchers such as Emmanuel (2000), Abas et al. (2004), Aouizerats et al.

(201 5) and Behera et al. (201 5) indicated that the concentration of particulate matter with aerodynamic size below 1 0 micrometres (PM1 0) increased significantly and that visibility was reduced to 0.5km during the haze. Dominick et al. (201 2) and Azmi et al. (201 0) also observed

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that the level of air pollutants was high during the haze particularly between June and September.

High concentrations of fine particulate matter particularly from biomass burning will reduce visibility as well as affect human health. Haze events are further accentuated during the dry seasons as air pollution clouds take longer to dissipate (Nobre et al., 201 6). A study by Forsyth (201 4) reported that severe haze occurred in Indonesia, Singapore and Malaysia as a result of forest fires in 1 997, 2005 and 201 3. The haze, spreading to other countries, is predominantly caused by forest and peat fires in Sumatra and Kalimantan as highlighted by several researchers including Mayer (2006), Khan et al. (201 5a, 201 5b), and Amil et al. (201 6).

But it is misleading to think of â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;firesâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; as the problem because complex socioeconomic, ecological and governance factors are involved. In addition, contributory and influencing factors such as climate variations do play a significant role. Framing the problem from a new angle and finding an innovative solution is the next step forward.

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2

Haze History in Malaysia

The chronology of haze in Malaysia may go back to the year 1 983 as the first record of haze considered disrupting the daily life in Malaysia. Subsequently, in the year 1 991 , the forest fires in Sumatra was said to cause very hazy weather condition in the country. Three years later, a more severe haze than 1 991 occurred during the month of September and lasted for over a month. The main cause of the problem was identified as forest fires in Kalimantan and Southern Sumatra. Haze in Malaysia occurred again in 1 997 and the dry weather and stable atmospheric conditions coupled with emissions from local pollution sources such as from motor vehicles, industries, and open burning of wastes also aggravated the situation (Keywood et al., 2003). This haze episode was considered one of the worst situations due to co-occurrence of El Niño, which prolonged the dry condition in that year. The air quality worsened at several places in Sarawak to such an extent that between 1 9 September and 28 September 1 997 (1 0 days), a ‘Haze Emergency’ had to be declared in Sarawak when the API reached above the 500 value. The air quality returned to normal in November 1 997 coinciding with the arrival of the northeast monsoon season. The summary of haze history in Malaysia from year 1 983 to 201 5 shows in Table A-1 .The association of API value and its impact to human health threshold has been summarised in Table A-2.

Table A-1 Year

Summary of haze history in Malaysia

1 983

Highest Air Pollution Index Value (Venue) No data

El Niño year

Notes

Yes



First record of haze in Malaysia

1 990

No data

No



Total Suspended Particulate Matter (TSP) exceeding 500 µg/m3at certain places Delayed in aircraft departure Visibility up to 1 .6km

  1 991

No data

Yes

 

Transboundary haze cause by forest fire in Kalimantan Visibility impairment in October 1 991

1 994

No data

No



Visibility impairment in September 1 994

1 997

839 (Kuching)

Yes

  

Worsened by El Niño Haze emergency declared in Sarawak Caused by forest and peat fires

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Year

Highest Air Pollution Index Value (Venue)

El Niño year

Notes

 

29 Continuous Air Quality Monitoring Stations (CAQMS) had PM1 0 concentration exceeding the Malaysian Ambient Air Quality Guidelines (MAAQG) Visibility below 0.5km in Kuching

1 998

459 (Kota Kinabalu)

No



Only several places recorded high concentration of PM1 0 and API value for example Kota Kinabalu, Bintulu and Klang

2005

551 (Kuala Selangor)

No

 

Haze emergency was declared in 1 1 August Few flight was suspended

2006

222 (Sri Aman)

No



Moderate haze episodes in mid-July, mid-August and late September to October 2006 20 stations in Peninsular Malaysia recorded API value between 1 01 -200

 2009

347 (Sibu)

No

 

Haze began in early June 2009 and progressively became worse toward July Primary cause of this event was the slash and burn practices used to clear land for agricultural purposes in Sumatra, Indonesia

201 0

432 (Muar)

Yes

  

Short period of haze episode from 1 9 to 23 October Occurred in southern part of Peninsular Malaysia 1 70 schools were closed in Muar on 21 October

201 1

1 65 (Tanjung Malim)

No



Short period of haze

201 2

305 (Miri)

No



Short period of haze

201 3

663 (Muar)

No



Short period of severe haze episode from 1 5 to 27 June 201 3 due to transboundary pollution There were 437 hotspots detected in Sumatra on 21 June 201 3 The most affected areas were Johor, Melaka and Negeri Sembilan More than 600 schools closed in areas of Johor

  

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Year

Highest Air Pollution Index Value (Venue)

El Niño year

Notes



201 4

358 (Klang)

No

   

201 5

307 (Shah Alam)

Yes

  

where the API readings had exceeded the hazardous point Haze Emergency was on 23 June 201 3 in Muar and Ledang Districts, Johor. The Haze Emergency was lifted on 24 June 201 3 Short moderate haze episode Affected areas and states were the Klang Valley, Perak, Melaka, Negeri Sembilan and Johor Caused by forest and peatland fires in several states namely in Selangor, Perak, Pahang, Johor, Kedah, Kelantan and Terengganu.

203 schools in the Klang and Kuala Langat Districts in Selangor were closed as the API reached very unhealthy levels of more than 200 Deterioration of air quality from August to September due to massive land and forest fires in Sumatra and Kalimantan All schools in the states of Putrajaya, Kuala Lumpur, Selangor, Negeri Sembilan, Sarawak and Melaka were closed when API reached 200 This haze episode is considered as the worst after 1 997 due to the prolonged haze duration, which is more than 2 months

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Table A-2

Value of Air Pollutant Index (API) and its relation with health effect

API

Status

Health Effect

Health Advice

0-50

Good

 Low pollution without any bad effect on health

51 -1 00

Moderate

1 01 -200

Unhealthy

201 -300

Very unhealthy

301 -500

Hazardous

 Moderate pollution that does not pose any bad effect on health  Worsen the health condition of high risk people who is the people with heart and lung complications  Worsen the health condition and low tolerance of physical exercises to people with heart and lung complications. Affect public health.  Hazardous to high risk people and public health

 No restriction for outdoor activities to the public. Maintain healthy lifestyle  No restriction for outdoor activities to the public. Maintain healthy lifestyle  Limited outdoor activities for the high risk people. Public need to reduce the extreme outdoor activities  Old and high risk people are advised to stay indoors and reduce physical activities. People with health complications are advised to see doctor

 Old and high risk people are prohibited for outdoor activities.

Public are advised to prevent from outdoor activities

An empirical model developed by Azman and Abdullah (1 993) to quantify the contribution of particulates from external and local sources had indicated that emissions from external sources (largely forest fires) became more dominant during the haze and virtually insignificant during the non-haze period. Evidently, the increase in particulate emission was a result of an increase in a number of acres of land burned from wildfires and also due to exhaust emissions and from construction sources which have increased over the last few years, particularly in the Klang Valley. According to Afroz et al. (2003), during extreme haze episode, the visibility can be limited to only 500meter and particulate concentration up to 500 µg/m3. The visibility impairment increased greatly particularly in October 1 991 , September 1 994 and July to October 1 997 (Awang 1 998).

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Based on air quality data in Malaysia from year 1 996 to 201 5, the API value was calculated for several monitoring stations that was located in few regions that were Background (Jerantut), Central (Petaling Jaya), East (Kuantan), North (Pulau Pinang), South (Johor Bharu), Sabah (Kota Kinabalu) and Sarawak (Kuching and Miri) regions. Jerantut station was considered as Background station established by Malaysian Department of Environment. The trend of daily API value and Ocean Nino Index value from year 1 996 to 201 5 was shown in Figure A-1 where the data with the missing value more than 20% was excluded. (a) Background station: Jerantut

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(b) Central: Petaling Jaya

[Figure A-1 continues next page]

(c) South: Johor Bahru

97

(d) North: Pulau Pinang

(e) East: Kuantan

[Figure A-1 continues next page]

98

(f) Sabah: Kota Kinabalu

(g) Sarawak: Kuching

99

(h) Sarawak : Miri

Figure A-1

Trends of daily API and Ocean Nino Index value from year 1 996 to 201 5 period (in grey lines) for several stations according to the regions in Malaysia

For Background monitoring station, the highest peak of API was recorded at the end of the year 1 997. Several peaks were also observed in the year 2005, 201 3, and 201 5 where the API value exceeded 1 50. High API value in the year 1 997 and 201 5 was also coincided with high value of Ocean Nino Index. For Central region, the highest peak of API value was recorded in the year 2005 that exceeded 400 while the year 1 997 and 201 5 recorded as the second and the third highest API value. The API values for Southern region was relatively lower than 200 except for several days in year 201 3, 201 4 and 201 5 where the highest API value was recorded as 352. North region had the highest API value in year 201 5 while in year 2005 another peak of API was recorded that was exceeded 1 50.

For Sabah region, the highest API value was recorded in year 1 998 which also had high value of Ocean Nino Index (> 2.0). For Sarawak region, particularly Kuching station, high API value was recorded in year 1 997, 1 998, 2006, and 201 5 while for Miri station, low API value (below 1 50) was recorded for the year 201 5 which was inconsistence with other regions which had high API value in the year 201 5. East region recorded the API value lower than 1 50 except for the year 201 3 and 201 5 where in the year 201 4, Ocean Nino Index value was lower than zero.

The trend of API value shows that the highest API value was found in the year that had high Ocean Nino Index value, which was 1 997, 1 998 and 201 5. However, high API value which

100

higher than 1 50 but lower than zero value of Ocean Nino Index in the year 201 4 shows that haze is not usually related to El NiĂąo phenomenon.

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3 3.1

Air Quality Measurement Air Quality Monitoring Network

The Malaysian Department of Environment (DOE) monitors the countryâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s ambient air quality through a network of 52 stations. These monitoring stations are strategically located in residential, business and industrial areas to detect any significant change in the air quality which may be harmful to human health and the environment. Five criteria pollutants namely PM1 0, SO2, nitrogen dioxide (NO2), carbon monoxide (CO) and ground level ozone (O3) are measured and used to calculate the API. The API is an indicator of the air quality including the haze and was developed based on scientific assessment to indicate, in an easily understood manner, the presence of pollutants in air and its impact on health.

Particulate matter with aerodynamic diameter less than 1 0micrometre (PM1 0), particulate matter with aerodynamic diameter less than 2.5micrometre (PM2.5) and several heavy metals such as lead (Pb) are measured once in every six days. The major gaseous and particlephase air pollutants monitored using in-situ measurement include O3, SO2, oxides of nitrogen (NOx), CO, PM1 0 and PM2.5. In the case of Malaysian Meteorological Department (MMD) stations, parameters monitored include rainwater acidity and aerosols (total suspended particulate, TSP and PM1 0), but the Petaling Jaya station also monitors atmospheric O3 (monitoring of vertical O3-profile and total column O3). Most of these air stations are colocated with climatological stations (where wind speed, wind direction, temperature, relative humidity, solar radiation etc. are measured) so that simultaneous and continuous observation of both meteorological and air pollution parameters can be carried out. This ensures that a comprehensive data set comprising both air quality and meteorological data would be available for assessment of any air pollution event. In addition, there are also several other academic institutions which involves in the investigation of air quality, chemical speciations, characterisation, source apportionment and their health and ecotoxicological concerns.

The major air pollutants e.g. TSP, PM1 0, PM2.5, O3, SO2, NOx, CO, methane (CH4) and nonmethane hydrocarbon (NmHC) are measured by in-site monitoring instruments in Malaysia.

The TSP, PM1 0 and trace gases along with other meteorology related variables e.g. wind speed and direction, temperature, relative humidity, solar radiation, etc. are monitored by DOE. The details of the methods and instruments used are shown in Table A-3. As part of the monitoring and management of the air quality, the Government of Malaysian formulated the New Malaysia Ambient Air Quality Standard as shown in Table A-4.

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In conjunction with the New Malaysia Ambient Air Quality Standard, DOE introduce a revised API which includes PM2.5 into calculation. The revised API is calculated based on the six criteria air pollutants which are SO2, NO2, CO, PM1 0, PM2.5 and ground level O3. DOE will update this revise API to the public when it is ready.

Table A-3 Variables

Lists of instruments used by DOE in the air quality monitoring network in Malaysia Instrument (Teledyne, USA) Analyser 400A

Measurement principal

Precision

Chemi-luminescence

0.5% (<1 0s)

NO, NO2 , NOx SO2 CO

API 200A

Chemi-luminescence

0.5%

0.4 ppb

API M1 00A API M300 APIM4020

0.5% 0.5% (<1 0s) 1%

0.4 ppb 0.04 ppm

CH4 NmHC

APIM4020

1%

-

TSP PM1 0

HVAS BAM 1 020

Florescence Non-dispersive infrared absorption (NDIR) Flame ionisation detector (FID) Flame ionisation detector (FID) Met-One Beta Attenuation

O3

-

<1 .0 μg m-3 (24 h) Note: ‘-’: no data, API: advanced pollution instrumentation, HVAS: High volume air sampler, BAM: Beta Attenuation monitor

103

-

Detection limit (DL) 0.04 ppm

Table A-4

New Malaysia Ambient Air Quality Standard

Pollutants

Particulate Matter with diameter size of less than 1 0 micrometre (PM1 0) Particulate Matter with diameter size of less than 2.5 micrometre (PM2.5) Sulphur Dioxide (SO2)

Averaging Time

Unit

Ambient Air Quality Standard

1 Year 24 Hour

μg/m3 μg/m3

50 1 50

45 1 20

Standard (2020) 40 1 00

1 Year 24 Hour

μg/m3 μg/m3

35 75

25 50

15 35

ppm ppm ppm ppm ppm ppm ppm ppm

0.1 3 0.04 0.1 7 0.04 0.1 0.06 30.57 8.73

0.1 1 0.03 0.1 6 0.04 0.1 0.06 30.57 8.73

0.1 0.03 0.1 5 0.04 0.09 0.05 26.2 8.73

1 Hour 24 Hour Nitrogen Dioxide 1 Hour (NO2) 24 Hour Ground Level Ozone 1 Hour (O3) 8 Hour Carbon Monoxide (CO) 1 Hour 8 Hour

IT-1 (2015)

IT-2 (2018)

Source: DOE 201 6

3.2

Different Calculation of Air Quality Indexes

Air quality index (AQI) is the main parameter that is usually determined during haze episode in Southeast Asia. In Southeast Asia, there are several different calculations of AQI based on different countries due to different parameters used and the different thresholds used to determine health impact of air pollutants to human health. Overall, all countries calculate their AQI based on the method suggested by the United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA).

The AQI runs from index value 0 to 500. The higher the AQI value is, the greater the level of air pollution and its associated health concern. An AQI value of 50 indicates that the air quality is good and is with little potential negative implication to the public health, while an AQI value over 300 represents hazardous air quality. An AQI value of 1 00 generally corresponds to the national air quality standard for the pollutant, a level which USEPA has set to protect public health. AQI values below 1 00 are generally thought of as satisfactory air quality. When the AQI value is above 1 00, the air quality is considered to be unhealthy for

104

certain sensitive groups of people. Should the AQI value get any higher, the air quality is then considered to be unhealthy for everyone.

The purpose of establishing AQI is to help ordinary people to understand on what scale the local air quality is impacting the human health, and how their daily life is hence being impacted. The generalised equation of AQI calculation: đ??ź

â&#x2C6;&#x2019;đ??ź

đ??żđ?&#x2018;&#x153; (đ?&#x2018;&#x2039;đ?&#x2018;&#x192; â&#x2C6;&#x2019; đ??ľđ?&#x2018;&#x192;đ??żđ?&#x2018;&#x153; ) + đ??źđ??żđ?&#x2018;&#x153; (Eq. 1 .1 ) đ??źđ?&#x2018;? = đ??ľđ?&#x2018;&#x192;đ??ťđ?&#x2018;&#x2013;â&#x2C6;&#x2019;đ??ľđ?&#x2018;&#x192; đ??ťđ?&#x2018;&#x2013;

đ??żđ?&#x2018;&#x153;

Where Ip = the index for pollutant p Xp = the rounded concentration of pollutant p BPHi = the breakpoint that is greater than or equal to Xp BPLo = the breakpoint that is less than or equal to Xp IHi = the AQI value corresponding to BPHiâ&#x20AC;¨ ILo = the AQI value corresponding to BPLo The main problem with the different AQI calculations during haze episode is the breakpoints used by different countries such as Singapore Pollutants Standard Index (PSI) and Malaysian Air Pollutants Index (API) are different. The measurement of parameters such as PM2.5 increases the value of PSI compared to API calculation using PM1 0.

3.2.1 Air Quality Index Measurement in Singapore and Indonesia a) Singapore With effect from 1 April 201 4, Singapore had moved to an integrated air quality reporting index, where PM2.5 had been incorporated into the current Pollutant Standards Index (PSI) as its sixth pollutant parameter. The PSI will therefore reflect a total of six pollutants â&#x20AC;&#x201C; sulphur dioxide (SO2), particulate matter (PM1 0) and fine particulate matter (PM2.5), nitrogen dioxide (NO2), carbon monoxide (CO) and ozone (O3). The 3-hr PSI will take into account PM2.5 concentrations. In addition, Singapore National Environmental Agency (NEA) will also publish the 1 -hr PM2.5 concentrations every hour during haze episode.

The health impact of haze is dependent on oneâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s health status (e.g. whether one has preexisting chronic heart or lung disease), the PSI level, and the duration and intensity of outdoor activity as shown in Table A-5. Reducing outdoor activities and physical exertion can help limit the ill effects from haze exposure. Persons who are not feeling well, especially the

105

elderly and children, and those with chronic heart or lung conditions, should seek medical attention.

Table A-5

Singapore Air Quality Standard and Health Impacts

24-hr PSI

Healthy persons

Elderly, pregnant women, children

Persons with chronic lung disease, heart disease Normal activities

â&#x2030;¤1 00 Normal activities (Good/Moderate)

Normal activities

1 01 - 200 (Unhealthy)

Minimise prolonged or strenuous outdoor physical exertion Minimise outdoor activity

Avoid prolonged or strenuous outdoor physical exertion Avoid outdoor activity

Avoid outdoor activity

Avoid outdoor activity

201 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; 300 (Very Unhealthy) >300 (Hazardous)

Reduce prolonged or strenuous outdoor physical exertion Avoid prolonged or strenuous outdoor physical exertion Minimise outdoor activity

Source: NEA, 201 6 Note:

Prolonged Strenuous Reduce Minimise Avoid

= = = = =

continuous exposure for several hours involving a lot of energy or effort do less do as little as possible do not do

106

b) Indonesia Air Pollutant Standard Index (Indeks Standar Pencemar Udara, ISPU) is the air quality index to explain to the public how clean or polluted the air quality and the impact on health after inhaling the air for several hours per days per months. The ISPU takes consideration of the levels of air quality on human health, animals, plants, buildings and aesthetic value. The summary is shown in Table A-6.

Table A-6

Indonesia Air Quality Standard and Health Impacts

Air Pollution Standard Index (Indeks Standar

Health Impact

Pencemar Udara, ISPU) Good (0–50)

The level of air quality doesn’t have any effects to the health of humans or animals and have no effects on plants, buildings or aesthetic value

Moderate (51 –1 00)

The air quality that doesn’t affect the health of humans and animals but the affects the sensitive plant and aesthetic value

Unhealthy (1 01 –1 99)

Air quality level that is harmful to the human or animal groups that sensitive or could lead to damage to the plants or aesthetic value

Very Unhealthy (200–299)

The level of air quality that can be detrimental to health in a number of segments of exposed populations

Hazardous (300–500)

The level of hazardous air quality in general can seriously harm the health of the population

Source: Kementerian Lingkungan Hidup dan Kehutanan, 201 6

3.3

Physical and Chemical Properties of Particulate Matter During Haze Episode

In addition to the main criteria of air pollutants, research groups at the university also monitored composition of particulate matter during haze episode in Malaysia. The composition of inorganic and organic matter has indicated the possible sources of particulate matter as well as health impact of aerosols from biomass burning. Several inorganic and

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organic substances in particulate matter have been identified as good indicator of biomass burning in Southeast Asia. Further studies on the composition of particulate matter are necessary to determine the impact of particulate matter to health risks of population in Malaysia during haze episode.

Simultaneous measurement of TSP and PM1 0 during haze episode in 1 997 recorded at Malaysian Meteorological Department in Petaling Jaya showed that both TSP and PM1 0 during haze episode exceeded the limit of concentration as suggested by Malaysian Department of Environment for TSP (260 µg/m3) and PM1 0 concentration (1 50 µg/m3). On average PM1 0 represent about 66% of total TSP recorded during haze episode between July and mid November 1 997. When the PM1 0 concentration exceeded 1 50 µg/m3, the PM1 0/TSP ratio ranged between 70 and 93% (average 78%) (Heil and Goldammer, 2001 ). Further studies on PM1 0 concentration during haze episode has been conducted by several researchers such as Mahmud (2009), Azmi et al. (201 0) Sansuddin et al. (201 1 ), Aouizerats et al. (201 5), Khan et al. (201 5c) which also showed that the concentration of PM1 0 exceed the limit of 1 50 µg/m3 as suggested by Malaysian Department of Environment. The concentration of organic substances and selected ions as well trace metals dominated the concentration of PM1 0 compare during non-haze episode.

3.3.1 PM2.5 during Haze Episode A study on PM2.5 and its composition during haze episode had been initiated by USEPA project in 1 997. The study was conducted by Pinto et al. (1 998) at Petaling Jaya, Malaysia and two sites in Indonesia that were Palembang and Sriwijaya University. The results on PM2.5 concentration and its composition recorded at these three areas are listed in Table A-7. The PM2.5 concentration recorded in Palembang and Sriwijaya University with average concentration of 341 and 264 µg/m3 where the biomass burning took place were far higher compared to the PM2.5 recorded Petaling Jaya (62.1 µg/m3). All these values exceed the concentration of 25 and 35 µg/m3 as suggested by World Health Organisation (WHO) and United State Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA), respectively, for 24 hour averaging time.

Other comprehensive study on the concentration of PM2.5 during non-haze and haze period (201 1 -201 2) has been conducted by Amil et al. (201 6) in Petaling Jaya station of Klang Valley area. The time series of the PM2.5 concentration during haze episode in year 201 1 and 201 2 were reported in Figure A-2. Overall, the annual PM2.5 mass concentration during these years averaged at 28±1 8 μg/m3. This is almost triple (2.8 fold) higher than the WHO PM2.5 annual mean guideline, 2.33 fold higher than the USEPA NAAQS PM2.5 annual standard of 1 2 μg/m3

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and 1 .1 2 fold higher than the European Union (EU) PM2.5 annual standards set at 25 μg/m3 (European Commission 201 5). The concentration of PM2.5 during haze events for this study averaged at 61 .24 μg/m3, which is higher than 201 1 haze episode documented for Bangi area at 48.32±1 0.07 μg/m3 by Amil et al. (201 4).

Table A-7

PM2.5 mass concentration and its chemical composition in Malaysia and Indonesia in November 1 997

Elements

Malaysia (Petaling Jaya)

PM2.5 Organic carbon Elemental carbon Metal oxides Sulphate

62.1 26.1 1 .9 10 10

Al Si S Cl K Ca Ti V Cr Mn Fe Ni Cu Zn As Se Br Pb

Indonesia Indonesia (Sriwijaya (Palembang) University) 3 Composition in µg/m 341 264 282 200 5.4 3.2 15 13 44 29 Trace elements in ng/m3 bd Bd 200 115 1 1 000 6900 4500 4600 1 400 1 500 79 47 11 6.5 Bd Bd Bd Bd 1 .7 Bd 83 71 3.8 <0.1 2.1 3.9 13 6.4 1 .2 1 .3 3.9 1 .4 95 72 64 7.7

bd 1 60 2400 70 280 98 27 9.3 0.2 4.5 1 20 2.2 9.3 34.3 2.3 0.7 9.8 39

Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbon (PAHs) in ng/m3

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Elements Naphthalene Acenapthylene Acenapthene Fluorine Phenanthrene Anthracene Fluoranthene Pyrene benz[a]anthracene Chrysene benzo[b]fluoranthene benzo[k]fluoranthene benzo[e]pyrene benzp[a]pyrene indeno[1 ,2,3-cd]pyrene dibenzo[a,h]anthracene benzo[g,h,i]perylene Coronene Perylene Total PAHs

Malaysia (Petaling Jaya) <4.9 6.0 3.9 1 2.5 50.9 1 2.1 1 0.9 1 1 .9 <4.1 <4.1 <6.5 <4.0 <4.0 <3.8 <3.6 <4.4 <4.1 <4.7 <4.0 1 35.0

Indonesia (Palembang) 1 2.1 1 1 .8 <2.8 47.8 1 87.8 32.8 38.5 42.8 8.7 1 1 .7 1 0.4 <4.0 6.3 7.1 4.8 <4.4 5.8 <4.7 <4.0 31 8.0

Note: bd: beneath detection limit, (Pinto et al., 1 998)

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Indonesia (Sriwijaya University) <4.9 <4.0 <2.8 26.9 1 08.6 1 7.1 21 .0 1 8.1 <4.1 <4.9 <6.5 <4.0 <4.0 <4.0 <3.6 <4.4 <4.1 <4.7 <4.0 222.0

Figure A-2

Measurement of PM2.5 from August 201 1 to July 201 2 (Amil et al., 201 6)

3.3.2 Inorganic Composition of Particulate Matter Results from several studies indicated that elements such as black carbon, potassium (K+), chloride (Cl-), sulphate (SO42-), zinc (Zn), and silicon (Si) dominated the composition of inorganic substances in aerosols source from biomass burning (Allen & Miguel, 1 995; Pinto et al., 1 998; Yamasoe et al., 2000; Hsu et al., 2009). Results from the study by See et al. (2007) in three sampling stations in Sumatra, Indonesia showed that other than black carbon, aluminium (Al), Zn, titanium Ti, sodium (Na+), SO42- and nitrate (NO3-) are among the major substances in atmospheric aerosols during biomass burning in Southeast Asia. High ionic content in biomass burning especially from plant materials may be related to the characteristics of the ecosystem where the trees have grown (Gonรงalves et al., 201 0). Study

by Liu et al. (2000) revealed that major inorganic fine particle types that were emitted during the flaming phase of forest fires consisted of pure compounds of potassium chloride (KCl) and ammonium chloride (NH4Cl). Acidification reaction with SO2 with various sources including the biomass burning increased the concentration of K-Sulfate and NH4-Sulfate in atmospheric aerosols within only a short distance from the fire.

Detail study on the composition of PM2.5 concentration during haze episode by Pinto et al.

(1 998) (Table 7) and Amil et al. (201 6) showed that high proportion of SO42-, metal oxides, dust and black carbon as major elements. Other elements such as Cl, K, NH4 and Si were recorded as several dominant inorganic elements. As reported by Pinto et al. (1 998), the occurrence of biomass burning was proved by the abundance of K in PM2.5 concentration

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while other areas for example the composition of aerosol in Los Angeles and Philadelphia recorded very low concentration. Amil et al. (201 6) which found out the concentration of black carbon that was 8% of PM2.5 concentration during haze event reported that this value was still low compared to a study in Southeast Asia that conducted by Reid et al. (201 3).

3.3.3 Organic Composition and Bioindicators of Biomass Burning Numerous studies, predominantly laboratory-based, have contributed to the current knowledge of the organic products of biomass combustion (Balasubramanian et al.., 2003; Jones et al., 2005; Simoneit et al., 2004a; Simoneit et al., 2004b). The studies found that more than 50% of biomass burning are organic compositions and dominated by high molecular weight molecules range from C25-C36 (Vasconcellos et al., 201 0).

Vegetation is the major fuel consumed in biomass burning and is composed predominantly of cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin. Together, these three polymeric materials account for over 90% of the dry weight of most vascular plants, with the remaining mass being composed of various lipids, protein, and other metabolites, as well as mineral and water. The combustion of organic components of biomass involved a complex series of physical transformations and chemical reactions including pyrolysis, depolymerisation, water elimination, fragmentation, oxidation, char formation and votalization (Shafizadeh, 1 984; Graham et al., 2002).

Combustion from biomass burning during haze episode also found to distribute the amount of carcinogenic substances such as polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) (Shen et al., 201 3). According to Reisen and Brown (2006), PAH levels were recorded 3-36 times higher than the level normally measured during haze episode in Indonesia. In Kuala Lumpur, PAH measurement found to be eight times higher during hazy episode than those recorded on clear day (Omar et al., 2006). The levels of benzo(a)pyrene were 1 5 times higher than the normal levels. Other than that, blockage of sunlight during haze episode may promote the spread of harmful bacteria and viruses that would otherwise be killed by ultraviolet B (Afroz et al., 2003). A comprehensive study by See et al. (2007) shows that Phenanthrene is the dominant PAH molecules in atmospheric aerosols during haze episode in Sumatra. By using average Ind/Ind + BPe of PAH ratio during haze episode in Sumatra, the study showed that the value of 0.62 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; 076 which indicates the biomass burning contributes to the amount of PAH in atmospheric aerosols during haze episode were originate from combustion processes with average Ind/Ind + BPe value of 0.68. The ratio value lower than 0.20 imply direct emissions from petrogenic sources while ration between 0.20 and 0.50 imply liquid fossil fuel and ratio more than 0.50 imply grass, wood and coal combustion. The concentration of PAH during

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haze episode in the year 1 997 by Pinto et al. (1 998), had a result of 1 35 ng/m3 in Petaling Jaya, 31 8 ng/m3 at Palembang (Indonesia) and 222 ng/m3 at Sriwijaya University (Indonesia) where Phenanthrene recorded as highest element concentration in PAH (Table 6). These high PAH concentration was contributed from incomplete combustion of biomass and fossil fuel combustion.

Small molecular weights of organic acids were also detected during the haze episode. A study by Yang et al. (201 2) on the impacts of biomass burning smoke on the distributions and concentrations of low molecular weight C 2-C 5 dicarboxylic acids (DCAs) acids and corresponding dicarboxylate salts (DCS) in a tropical urban environment of Singapore shows that total dicarboxylates (summation of DCAs and DCS), on average, increased more than two times compared to normal days (without haze episode). Malic acid concentration increased more than 3.5 times indicating the influence of photo-oxidation process to the higher molecular weight of organic substances.

Previous characterisation of biomass burning aerosol has focused on identifying tracer compounds in either the gas or particle phase (e.g. methylhalides, K, levoglucosan, and acetone) (Andreae & Merlet, 2001 ; Hawkins & Russell, 201 0). Dicarboxylic acids and sugars are two major compound classes that significantly contributed to water-soluble organic carbon (WSOC) in aerosol particles and can be contributed by biomass burning and photooxidation processes. In the ambient aerosols, dicarboxylic acids are mainly produced by photochemical processes (Kawamura & Yasui, 2005). The heat intensity, aeration and duration of smouldering and flaming conditions shape the distribution and ratio of the natural versus altered compounds in the smoke (Simoneit et al., 1 999; Abas et al., 2004; Simoneit et al., 2004b).

According to Simoneit et al. (2002), cellulose is mainly responsible for the structural strength of wood. Plant biomass is composed mainly of cellulose, hemicelluloses, and lignin, with some extractives and ash components. Cellulose contains only anhydrous glucose whereas hemicelluloses contain, besides glucose, many other sugar monomers, for instance, arabinose, galactose, mannose, and xylose. When cellulose and hemicelluloses burn, several organic compounds are produced, including monosaccharide anhydrides (MAs) such as levoglucosan, mannosan, and galactosan (Saarnio et al., 201 0; Schmidl et al., 2008).

Levoglucosan (1 ,6-anhidro-β-D-glucopyranose) is an organic molecule that can be used as an indicator for biomass burning (Abas et al., 1 995; Abas et al., 2004; Bergauff et al., 2008; Elias et al., 2001 ; Engling et al., 2006; Kumagai et al., 201 0; Mayol-Bracero et al., 2002b; Puxbaum et al., 2007; Simoneit & Elias, 2000; Wang et al., 2007). It is formed through the

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thermal breakdown alteration of the cellulose present in vegetation (Dos Santos et al., 2002).

Levoglucosan has been reported to be present in the fine particle phase of residential wood smoke and has been found to have an emission rate with a range of 2-1 8 mg/min from a typical wood stove (Simoneit, 2002). It is s in the atmosphere, where it showed no decay over an 8-hour exposure to ambient conditions and sunlight (Larsen III et al., 2006; Puxbaum et al., 2007). According to Schkolnik and Rudich (2006) and Fraser and Lakshmanan (2000), levoglucosan does not undergo acid-catalyzed hydrolysis over the transport times of several days from source to receptor site and recognised as a stable biomass molecular marker. Its stability and occurrence in large quantities in the atmosphere, specifically from cellulose containing substances, means that it meets the criteria as an ideal molecular marker for biomass burning (Simoneit et al., 1 999; Fraser & Lakshmanan, 2000; Simoneit et al., 2004b; Holmes & Petrucci, 2007; Puxbaum et al., 2007).

As atmospheric tracer, levoglucosan represents a simple, cheap and readily accessible means for quantifying the contribution of wood smoke to the atmosphere. Levoglucosan is always accompanied by other stereo isometric monosaccharides anhydrides (mannosan and galaktosan) (Medeiros et al., 2006). The existence of mannosan and galaktosan due to the combustion process results from the pyrolisis of hemicellulose, although the emitted amount from previous studies are substantially lower than those of levoglucosan (Abas et al., 2004; Claeys et al., 201 0; Hsu et al., 2007; Puxbaum et al., 2007; Shafizadeh, 1 984).

A recent study examined the molecular profiles of dicarboxylic acids (C2-C1 1 ) and related compounds (ketocarboxylic acids and dicarbonyls) in aerosols samples from the intensive biomass burning campaign and found higher ratios of the latter compounds to biomass burning tracers (i.e., levoglucosan, K+) during daytime, suggesting the importance of photochemical production (Claeys et al., 201 0).

3.3.4 Humic Substances and Biomass Burning The organic material within smoke aerosols is composed of a highly complex mixture of compounds covering a wide range of molecular structures, physical properties, and reactivity. Research on WSOC in aerosols collected from the Amazon Basin during the 1 999 burning season indicated that these materials are a mixture of oxygenated compounds (Graham et al., 2002). Study by Mayol-Bracero et al. (2002a) using high performance liquid chromatography(HPLC) analysis of the WSOC from biomass burning, shows that poly-acids account for up to 32% of water-soluble carbon. These poly-acids are thought to consist predominantly of high molecular weight â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;air polymersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; with properties resembling those of humic substances (Havers et al., 1 998; Zappoli et al., 1 999; Graham et al., 2002).

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HULIS is brown colour substances that have characteristics similar to humic acids (HAs). In the atmosphere, this HULIS is usually associated with WSOC (Gelencsér et al., 2003; Andreae & Gelencsér, 2006; Hoffer et al., 2006). Atmospheric humic-like substances are regarded as molecular system of multi-component organic compounds and oligomers that exhibits many properties similar to those of humic matter (Graber & Rudich, 2006; Salma et al., 201 0).

HULIS or ‘brown carbon’ has the ability to absorb ultraviolet (UV) radiation. The fact that brown carbon has progressively stronger absorption in the UV seriously calls into question whether measurements of light absorption at a single wavelength in the mid-to-upper visible can be used to infer absorption of solar radiation in the troposphere (Gelencsér et al., 2003).

The amount of WSOC correlates to the concentration of cloud condensation nuclei (CCN) in atmospheric aerosols which has the ability to increase the number of cloud droplets led to the albedo effect and climate change (Yamasoe et al., 2000; Lee et al., 201 0; Rose et al., 201 0; Kaskaoutis et al., 201 1 ). There is no study conducted to determine the amount of HULIS and WSOC in atmospheric aerosols during haze episode in Southeast Asia (Zheng et al., 201 3).

3.3.5 Source Apportionment During Haze and Non Haze Episode To investigate the sources of PM2.5, multivariate receptor models have been used since decades. Khan et al. (201 6) discussed the detailed advantage of the application of receptor models with a provision on how to generate robust result with minimum uncertainty.

Multivariate receptor models are very useful tools in the studies of source apportionment of pollutants, especially in environmental studies. The most commonly and widely used receptor models are: a) chemical mass balance models (CMB) (Watson et al., 1 990), b) positive matrix factorisation (PMF) (Paatero, 1 997; Paatero & Tapper, 1 994), c) UNMIX (Henry, 1 987), d) principal component analysis coupled with absolute principal component score (PCA/APCS) (Thurston & Spengler, 1 985). Among these multivariate receptor modelling techniques, PMF is the most preferred and trusted one. A study by Amil et al. (201 5) using PMF couple with multiple linear regression (MLR) had determined the source apportionment of PM2.5 for annual and haze episode in year 201 1 and 201 2 (Figure A-3).

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Figure A-3

Source apportionment of PM2.5 and other parameter (temperature, relative humidity, rainfall, wind speed) for annual and haze episode concentration in year 201 1 and 201 2 (Amil 201 6)

Calculation made based on the values suggested by Amil et al. (201 6), show when API values achieved 300, the concentration of PM1 0 is around 286 µg/m3 and the concentration of PM2.5 is 201 µg/m3 (based on 70% of PM1 0 is PM2.5) (Figure A-4). Based on the study, the dominant composition of PM2.5 during haze is organic substance (unidentified, UD from Amil, 201 6). The contribution from biomass burning is 50 µg/m3 (25%), mineral dust (23 µg/m3, 1 1 %) and the composition of mineral dust is 9 µg/m3 (9%). These three sources are considered sources that can be avoided during haze episode. Another two sources are local burning (24 µg/m3, 1 2%), fuel combustion (8 µg/m3, 4%) and industrial/traffic emission (4 µg/m3, 2%). During haze episode, local burning, fuel combustion and industrial/traffic emission are among sources than can be reduced or avoided to reduce the concentration of PM2.5 in the atmosphere around 36 µgm-3 or 1 8% of total PM2.5 weight.

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Figure A-4

Contribution of different sources when API achieved 300. This assumption calculated based on values recorded by Amil et al. (201 6)

3.3.6 Dustfall during Haze Episode Major source contributor of PM2.5 was identified as mixed secondary inorganic aerosol and biomass burning (secondary inorganic aerosol refers to aerosol that undergo gas to particle conversion that produced inorganic species such as SO42- and NH4+) (Amil et al., 201 6).The long-range transport of pollutant and local agriculture/anthropogenic activities was suggested to contribute to this source. Least source contributor of PM2.5 was determined as mixed traffic and industrial factor for both annual and haze episode of year 201 1 -201 2 which indicated that traffic and industrial emission not significantly contribute to the concentration of PM2.5 in Malaysia. Moreover, other parameters such as temperature (TยบC) and average rainfall (mm) average values were decreased during haze episode compared to annual values while wind speed (WS, m/s)and relative humidity (RH, %) average values not showing much difference for annual and during haze episode. Fujii et al. (201 5) had studied the possible source of the carbonaceous PM2.5 in Petaling Jaya in year 201 1 and 201 2. The results showed

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that the Indonesian peat fires strongly contributed to the PM2.5 organic elements for example organic carbon, levoglucosan, mannosan, galaktosan and p-hyroxybenzoic acid. Other source contribution was identified as petrogenic source and mix (softwood and hardwood) biomass burning source.

In urban atmosphere, particles collected in haze conditions are expected to be derived from both biomass combustion and vehicular emissions which expected to influence the human health. Severe pollution episodes in the urban environment are not usually attributed to sudden increases in the emission of pollutants, but to certain meteorological conditions which diminish the ability of the atmosphere to disperse pollutants (Kalkstein & Corrigan, 1 986). The ability of the atmosphere to dilute contaminants depends mainly to climatology parameters which include wind direction and speed in a horizontal plane, atmospheric stability, precipitation scavenging, and radiation and sunshine in photochemical processes.

Urban environment can affect the total of sunshine duration (9 - 1 0% less), humidity and surface wind greater than 1 .5 m/s. Building and man-made structures in the urban area complicate the airflow pattern and hence air pollutants dispersion (Sham, 1 979; 1 987; 1 991 ).

The situation in urban area e.g. in Klang Valley, Malaysia during the haze episode is complex, especially due to the unique Klang Valley topography. Study by Keywood et al. (2003) during the haze episode in the Klang Valley showed the composition of atmospheric aerosols in urban areas increase in K and oxalate, suggesting that on days of excessive haze, smoke from biomass burning makes a larger contribution to the aerosol. Sulphate is a major composition of atmospheric aerosols during the haze episode, but the variation of its composition at different location during haze episode suggested the influence of other local sources of SO2 before it was oxidised to SO42-. Motor vehicles, industries and coal-fired power plant are among major sources to contribute the amount of SO42- in the atmosphere other than biomass burning during haze episode.

Study by Latif and Rozali (2000) during the haze episode in 1 997 showed that the concentration of dust fall is very high during the haze episode in September. The concentrations of dust during haze episode 2007 were recorded around 300-450 mg/m2day1 far above the concentration suggested by Malaysian Department of Environment (1 30 mg/m2day1 ). The composition of dust fall was dominated by SO42-- (anion) and NH4+ (cation).

Due to the high amount of alkaline elements, the pH value of rainwater during haze episode was not acidic. Similar results were also mentioned by Balasubramanian et al. (1 999) who recorded the composition of wet deposition in Singapore during haze episode in 1 997. The mean pH values recorded by the study ranged from 3.79 to 6.20. The relatively high concentrations of SO42â&#x2C6;&#x2019;, NO3â&#x2C6;&#x2019; and NH4+ observed during the burning period were attributed to

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a long residence time of air masses, leading to progressive gas to particle conversion of biomass burning emission components. The decrease in pH of precipitation in response to the increased concentrations of acids is only marginal, which is ascribed to the neutralisation of acidity by NH3 and CaCO3. Further study by Sundarambal et al. (201 0) in the coastal area of Singapore observed that the average concentrations of nutrients increased approximately by a factor of 3 to 8 on hazy days when compared with non-hazy days. The estimated mean dry and wet atmospheric fluxes (mg/m2/day) of total nitrogen (TN) were 1 2.72 ± 2.1 2 and 2.49 ± 1 .29 during non-hazy days and 1 32.86 ± 38.39 and 29.43 ± 1 0.75 during hazy days.

3.4

Hybrid Single-Particle Lagrangian Integrated Trajectory (HYSPLIT) modelling and Satellite Imagery

Based on the movement of air parcel determined using HYSPLIT Model, the source of haze from hotspots region can be determined. The trajectories of atmospheric pollutants were determined by using the Hybrid Single Particle Lagrangian Integrated Trajectory (HYSPLIT), A model introduced by the National Oceanographic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA 201 6a). The HYSPLIT model was executed to predict the number of hotspots in the Southeast Asian region as reported in Table A-8. On 1 9 October 201 5, there were 41 6 hotspots recorded over the Southeast Asia region and the majority of the hotspots were located at Kalimantan.

The pathways of trajectories calculated by using HYSPLIT modelling on 1 9, 22 and 26 October 201 5 were shown in Figure A-5.

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Table A-8

Hotspot locations and date of HYSPLIT simulation

Hotspot location

Date of HYSPLIT simulation 1 9 Oct 201 5

22 Oct 201 5

26 Oct 201 5

Kalimantan

376

0

111

Java

2

0

7

Myanmar

0

0

0

Peninsular Malaysia

0

3

0

Philippines

0

4

0

Sulawesi

28

43

2

Sumatra

2

37

0

TLCV

5

1

14

Total Hotspot

41 3

88

1 34

Note: TLCV is Thailand, Laos, Cambodia and Vietnam

Haze in Southeast Asia is a regional issue affecting each of the neighbouring countries. For example, in the year 2001 , smoke pollution captured by satellite indicated the transboundary character, i.e., air currents can transport the smoke far from the source (Figure A-6(a)).

Outdoor fire hotspots were found in several areas in Sumatra and the thick smoke was transported and dispersed by the circulation of wind to other areas including Malaysia, Singapore and Brunei. For the haze episode in 201 5, hotspots were again detected in Sumatra, where the surface temperature was abruptly high, which causes fires to peat soil and forest (NASA, 201 5) (Figure A-6(b)).These true colours satellite images clearly indicate that the occurrence of fires was largely prone in the similar part of Sumatra where the land is mainly accumulated layer of peat soil. Additionally, several hotspots were found in Peninsular Malaysia which contributed to the high aerosol loading during the haze episode.

The dispersion of air pollutants resulting from peat fires and biomass burning can significantly contribute to a high aerosol loading. Moreover, secondary aerosol can be originated through the mechanism of gas to particle conversion during the haze condition (Ram et al., 201 2).

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(a) Forecast date: 1 9th October 201 5

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(b) Forecast date: 22nd October 201 5

122

(c) Forecast date: 26th October 201 5

Figure A-5 Haze trajectory based on forecasting meteorological and hotspot data in October 201 5

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(a) Satellite image during haze episode in (b) Haze episode in September 201 5 (NASA, 2001 (NASA, 201 6) 201 5) Figure A-6

Satellite images during haze episode

Briefly note that ASEAN Specialized Meteorological Centre (ASMC) was established in January 1 993. ASMC in collaboration with United States National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) receives the images from several satellite sources, i.e., terra, aqua etc. and process the images for regional haze map and hotspots statistics due to the peatland fires and biomass burning.

4 Sources of Haze 4.1

Land-use Changes

While the aim of this study is to understand the problem of transboundary haze and the implications for Malaysia in seeking an innovative solution, this paper will greatly benefit from the brief reviews provided by experts who have studied the ‘drivers’ of forest destruction and plunder in Indonesia resulting in the human and environmental disaster. The forest and land-use policies designed by former President Suharto and the ever expanding culture of ‘crony capitalism’, witnessed destructive logging practices, clear-cutting of forests for oil palm and pulp plantations as well as the suffering of millions of forest-dependent people living in traditional communities (Dauvergne, 1 998; Cotton, 1 999; Barber et al., 2000; SethJones, 2006; Tacconi et al., 2006; Varkkey, 201 1 ; Varkkey, 201 3).

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Fire is commonly used in Indonesia as well as in Southeast Asia to clear land and to get rid of the debris or waste for the establishment of plantations and other crops. But very often, the fires blaze out of control especially during the dry seasons and the flames engulf vast areas thus causing smoke or haze to blanket the region.

While wildfires have been a feature of Southeast Asia ecology for centuries, made possible by periods of reduced rainfalls, the past fires were smaller in area and more spread out over time. Forest fires in Borneo (including in Sabah and Sarawak) and Sumatra have been reported a number of times over the last 1 00 odd years. But the naturally caused fires or human use of fires in the past caused insignificant deforestation. Barber et al. (2000) reported that a 1 924 forest map of what consist of now the provinces of Central, East, and South Kalimantan showed that 94% of this area in Borneo was still covered by forest.

According to Barber et al. (2000) and Qadri (2000), the timber boom, i.e. the human intervention that began with timber extraction from virgin forest, saw vast areas cleared.

Qadri (2000) added that observations during the fires and haze of 1 997-1 998 as well as the earlier cases indicated that the intensity of fire in logged area was directly related to the intensity of logging. However, fires and resulting haze are not only associated with the destruction of tropical forests but also with the draining of peatlands, which are carbon-rich areas, to make way for oil palm plantations. Of concern is that the land for plantations is increasingly coming from drained peatlands (Varkkey, 201 1 ) â&#x20AC;&#x201C; dried peat when ignited by fire can smoulder for months contributing to the transboundary haze.

The destruction of tropical forests and the draining of swampy, carbon-rich peatland for oil palm plantation proved to be associated with forest fires through slash and burn method resulting in haze. Field et al. (2009) reported that large fire events were recorded since 1 980 in Sumatra and Kalimantan and the events were noticed to occur since 1 960. Field et al.

(2009) further demonstrated that large-scale deforestation is a driver of fire emissions in the region by comparing visibility records from airports on Sumatra and Borneo. They indicated that in Sumatra a clear relationship between drought and haze since 1 960 but on Borneo major haze events occurred prior to 1 982. They attribute this difference to different patterns of changes in land use and population density. Field et al. (2009) explained that Sumatra had relatively high rates of deforestation during the second half of the 20th century, driven in part by surges in population during the 1 960s and 1 970s. In contrast, Borneo became the target for settlement and development projects by the Indonesian government only later, during the 1 980s and 1 990s. Forest clearing and peatland drainage associated with one of these projects, the Mega Rice Project, contributed substantially to the emissions observed during the 1 997 El Nino (Page et al., 2002; Field et al., 2009).

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Large fire events of 1 997/1 998 on Sumatra and Borneo drew sustained international attention and investigation of the underlying causes showed that both smallholders and large-scale plantations used fire as a tool, primarily for land clearing but also in specific contexts in extractive activities (Applegate et al., 2001 ; Suyanto et al., 2002). Gaveau et al. (201 4a) support the argument of forest conversion by showing that the native forests of Borneo have been impacted by selective logging, fire, and conversion to plantations at unprecedented scales since industrial-scale extractive industries began in the early 1 970s. They estimated that about 30.2% reduction from the 737,1 88 km2 of Borneoâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s forested area until 1 973. Gaveau et al. (201 4b) later examined the pollution levels generated, assessed climatic conditions prior to the fires, and quantified the area burned and prior vegetation cover and land ownership preceding the fires in Sumatra using satellite imageries. They found that 52% of the total burned area (84,71 7 ha) was within concessions, i.e. land allocated to companies for plantation development. However, 60% of burned areas in concessions (50,248 ha, or 31 % of total burned area) was also occupied by communities. This scenario made attribution of fires problematic. The remaining 48% of the total burned land (79,01 2 ha) was owned by Indonesia's Ministry of Forestry (under central government). These areas were deforested prior to fires and their ownership is often contested by the local government. The detection of two excavators by the UAV preparing land for planting in the burned areas one month after fire suggests fires were associated with agriculture. Last but not least was a detailed study by Vaydaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s (1 998) that observed the incidence of accidental fires (fires that are set by smallholders for a purpose but which spread accidentally) may have been higher than it is conventionally believed, particularly in Borneo. Moreover, it has become clear that fires in the swamp forest zone produce a disproportionately large amount of smoke/haze per hectare burnt, and this ecological zone should thus receive specific attention (Murdiyarso et al., 2002).It is therefore important to address the practices that make the landscape more flammable and it is here that the study by Working Group 2: Peat and Water Management will be of relevance.

4.1.1 Slash and burn Cotton (1 999) and Seth-Jones (2006) were some of the early researchers who identified and described the three groups responsible for the fires: traditional cultivators, small-scale investors and large-scale investors. The traditional cultivators are the sedentary farmers who burn their small plots of land after harvest to rejuvenate the soil and to keep their land free of weeds (Wosten et al., 2008). Others include the shifting cultivators who practice the slashand-burn technique to clear a stretch of the forest for cultivation. Slash and burn is a cheap land clearing technique usually used for agricultural development especially in western

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Africa, South America and Southeast Asia (Nganje et al., 2001 ; Varma, 2003). Slash and burn is also part of traditional livelihood where small farmer practised this system from one generation to another specifically in developing country. According to Seth-Jones (2006), the traditional cultivators have open up new plots for themselves and started selling their original lands to larger investors. But it has also been reported that traditional cultivators and the indigenous people in forested areas, have deliberately set fires on plantations in protest to their lands being taken away.

The problems of slash and burn practice particularly related to food security where the farmer has no education on cropping technique and practice and economic aspect as well.

According to FAO (1 985) and Nganje et al. (2001 ), slash and burn practice has weak potential to provide adequate food supplies or sufficient income for the rural population. Moreover, referring to Vogl and Ryder (1 969), the proses of slash and burn affected the physical structure of the soils due to the high temperature of the burning and addition of ash and charcoal. The damage usually persists for 1 5 years or longer. As the farmer has no knowledge on soil properties and soil management, they tend to use slash and burn practice without understanding the impact of their activity not only to the forest condition but also the problem arise in the future. The slash and burn practice also gives negative impact to the economy. A study by Varma (2003) revealed an estimated loss of USD20.1 billion in the economic impact of slash and burn that caused the forest fire in 1 997/1 998.

Slash and burn practise was discussed widely for its contribution to the forest alteration and large scale forest burning. Slash and burn was criticised as the factor that cause the biodiversity loss and global warming impact due to reduction of global forest area (Varma, 2003). According to Nganje et al. (2001 ), the factor that causes reduction of forest area and deforestation is mainly based on increased of population pressure, land tenure, government policies and price risk. All of these factors explained the reason why the farmers especially in developing country applied slash and burn that finally contribute to deforestation. Thus, there are several recommendations from Hecht et al. (1 995) and Fujisaka and Escobar (1 997) that suggested the use of crop-fallow time ratios, cropping system, clearance system, level of technology, and the allocation and organisation of labour in order to prevent deforestation from slash and burn practice.

4.1.2 Oil Palm Plantation The wide range usage of oil palm from food preparation and production of many products to biodiesel trigger its unprecedented plantation expansion and forest destruction. In 201 1 , Ansari (201 1 ) estimated that there will be higher demand of oil palm product in the next two

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decades because of the European countries target for the use of biofuel for transport by year 2020. About 85% of worldâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s crude oil palm is supplied by Malaysia and Indonesia (Sulaiman et al., 201 1 ). The world oil palm production in year 201 4 is shown in Figure A-7. In Malaysia, to date, about 1 9.667 million tonnes of palm oil has been produced from about 5.392 million hectares of land with the largest plantation area is located in Sabah (Mosarof et al., 201 5).

There is dramatic expansion of oil palm plantation area in Malaysia for the last three decades as shown in Figure A-8. In Malaysia, the planted oil palm trees are mainly from species Elaeis guineensis which originated from Africa. The species grows well in Malaysian climate in which it requires a fair amount of sunshine, hot climate, wet and humid tropic conditions with high rainfall rate (Awalludin et al., 201 5). Moreover, another factor that contributed to the high oil palm production was the low production cost and high productivity among major oil crops (Murdiyarso et al., 201 0). The rapid expansion of oil palm plantation in Malaysia and Indonesia increases demand for large land areas which include not only natural tropical forest but also peatland forest.

Production (Million Tonnes)

35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 Indonesia

Malaysia

Thailand

Colombia

Nigeria

Papua New Guinea

Country

Figure A-7

Oil palm production by countries in year 201 4 (Mosarof et al. 201 5)

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Palm oil planted area in Malaysia (Million Hectares)

6 5 4 3 2 1 0 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2014 Year

Figure A-8

Oil palm plantation area in Malaysia (Awalludin et al., 201 5)

Rapid economic development triggers the exploration of forest areas that are rich in habitat and natural carbon pool such as peatland forest. The main driver of peatland deforestation is oil palm plantation and pulpwood plantation particularly in Indonesia and Malaysia (Murdiyarso et al., 201 0; Busch et al., 201 5). The area of peatland especially in Southeast Asia is about 24.8 million hectares which is 56% of the tropical peatland area and 6% of global area (Jauhiainen et al., 201 1 ). Peatland ecosystem is typically waterlogged environment consisting of dead decomposed plant material that accumulated for thousand years (Jaenickle et al., 2008). However, peatland is threatened with drainage activity in order to convert this area to agricultural area or plantation that leads to its degradation.

Tropical peat forest ecosystems are one of the most important terrestrial carbon stores on earth. According to Schrier-Uijl et al. (201 3), conversion of forest for agricultural development is a one-point emission in time, while emissions resulting from peat drainage are continuous processes. Emissions due to peat drainage are not caused just by land-use change, which generally involves a loss of biomass, but rather to its long-term effects on the carbon store. The situation is different in the case of deforestation where the biggest proportion of emission results from the loss of biomass at the time of land use change.

However, there is still much to be learned. The assessments of GHG emissions have an element of uncertainty because of the approaches used and the lack of studies on the long-

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term rates of GHG emissions or uptake of carbon in tropical peats as well as examining the variables involved in the process.

4.1.3 Peat Combustion Economic development leads to deforestation of peatland areas. The exploitation of peatland includes all activities that change the pristine ecosystem of peatland such as logging, agriculture and water drainage. The gas fluxes between peatland areas and atmosphere was also affected by these destructive activities on peatland ecosystem (Miettinen & Liew, 201 0).

The main threat to peatland is fires. Peatland fires have not only occurred in tropical area but also in moderate and northern climates areas especially during drought season (Grishin et al., 2009).

Fires in peatland are the main cause of haze episode in the region. Harrison et al. (2009) reported that the peatland fires particularly in Indonesia caused by illegal human activity such as land clearing activities, use of fire as weapon to reclaim land in land tenure activities, fire for resource extraction such as burning waste and accidental fires. As fire was used by farmers and plantation companies for the land clearing activities, the risk of peatland fire is very high. Moreover, the peatland ecosystem was disturbed by drainage activities. According to Usup et al. (2000), fire that occurred in peatland area is due to the organic matter either already decomposed or still continue to decompose which are prone to fire. Moreover, Page et al. (201 1 ), Hooijer et al. (201 2) and Spessa et al. (201 5) also reported that drained peatland leads to increases of fire activity due to the lower water table that exposing a greater depth of dry peat to burn.

Dried peat is very susceptible to fire with the aid of dry season usually last from May to October (Jaenicke et al. 201 0). Organic peat soil that ignited will burn steadily and slowly without flame into the soil (Rein et al., 2008). This process of burning is usually known as smouldering fires. Smouldering fires can be described as slow, low temperature, flameless form of combustion and the most persistent type of combustion (Zaccone et al., 201 4). Peat fires are difficult to extinguish where it can smoulder deep underground and burn again during the next dry period (See et al., 2007; Blake et al., 2009). The fire in peat soil can persist for long period and providing the fire enough time to spread deep underground (Zaccone et al., 201 4). Grishin et al. (2007) that studied the mechanism of peat combustion found that in deep layer of peat, the temperature of combustion was higher compared to the temperature of the combustion at its surface with the rate of combustion that depend on their moisture content, botanical composition and density. The process of peat combustion will continue until the water table is restored.

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The study by Gaveau et al. (201 4b) showed fires were short-lived (one week) and limited to a localised area in Central Sumatra (1 .6% of Indonesia): burning an estimated 1 63,336 ha, including 1 37,044 ha (84%) on peat. Most burning was confined to deforested lands (82%; 1 33,21 6 ha). The greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions during this brief, localised event were considerable: 1 72 +/- 59 Tg CO2-eq (or 31 +/- 1 2 Tg C), representing 5-1 0% of Indonesia's mean annual GHG emissions for 2000-2005. The observations also showed that extreme air pollution episodes in Southeast Asia are no longer restricted to drought years. The authors reported that major haze events are expected to be increasingly frequent because of ongoing deforestation of Indonesian peatlands.

4.2

Non-agriculture Sources

Local sources of haze are mainly contributed by anthropogenic activities related to transportation, industrial and biomass burning (Du et al., 201 1 ). Referring to Azimi et al.

(2005) and Han and Naeher (2006), the anthropogenic air pollutant can be categorised by mobile or non-mobile source (stationary source). There are also natural sources that can contribute to haze episode such as sea spray and soil particle. Moreover, biomass burning in rural area contributed high amount of pollutant, which than further diffuse to urban area and mix with the emission from fossil fuel combustion resulting to haze episode (Wang et al., 2009). According to Keywood et al. (2003), the emission from combustion process such as vehicle emission, industrial emission and biomass burning produced high amount of particle that influence the formation of haze. Other air pollutant emission from motor vehicle and other burning process are NOx, CO, SO2 and carbon dioxide (CO2). According to Wolf et al.

(1 986), sulphate aerosol is the most important haze-producing species. Atmospheric conversion of SO2 to SO42- produced sulphur in airborne particulate matter (Hopke et al., 2008). The emission of SO2 came from motor vehicle, high sulphur fuel dependency for industrial production and electric power generation (Abdullah et al., 201 2).

Motor vehicle produced significant emission of air pollutant. As reported by KeTTHA (201 1 ), there are increasing numbers of vehicles where in the year 2009, more than one million units of new vehicle were registered and there were approximately 20 million registered vehicles on the road. Increasing number of vehicle contributes to high amount of pollutant due to petrol combustion. Referring to Afroz et al. (2003), the major air pollution in Malaysia came from motor vehicle that contributes to at least 70-75% of total air pollution. Motor vehicle emissions consequently impacted the spatial and temporal distribution of ambient concentration that also determined by meteorological factors (Kim & Guldmann, 201 1 ).

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Other source of air pollution that can contribute to haze problem is stationary sources such as industrial emission due to urbanisation. According to Abdullah et al. (201 2), in the year 1 998 to 2008, the industrial and urban areas contributed high concentration of PM1 0 which exceeded Malaysia Ambient Air Quality Guideline permissible level. Moreover, the concentration of PM1 0 in urban area is usually higher than rural area. Industrial areas in Malaysia are highly concentrated in Selangor, Sarawak, Johor, Sabah, Perak, and Pahang, which also producing high demand of fossil fuel and energy (Afroz et al., 2003). According to Duh et al. (2008), industrial emissions contain source of several air pollutants which increased dramatically in Asia for over the last 20 years. Metals are one of the elements in air pollutant that related to industrial emission. According to Lopez et al. (2005), air pollutants with high concentration of copper and nickel are relatively related to industrial sources.

Open burning source is one of the main contributors for high air pollutant concentration that enhance the haze episode. According to Lemieux et al. (2004), any combustion of materials in ambient environment described the open burning activity that include unintentional forest fires, burning of grain field for the preparation of next growing season and also fireworks at public celebration. Referring to Yu et al. (201 2), open burning is the major source of global air pollutant that is responsible for 40% of all emitted CO, 32% of emitted CO2, 20% of emitted aerosol and 50% of emitted PAH. In Malaysia, the penalty for open burning has been raised from RM1 00,000 to RM500,000 to show the seriousness of this action towards environmental pollution (Afroz et al., 2003). A study by Latif et al. (201 1 ) found that a concentration of 31 .8 Âľg/m3 for suspended particulate with particle size < 1 .5 Âľm was closely related to open burning in agricultural area in Sekinchan, Selangor. This result indicates that high concentration of particulate with small particle size during open burning can contribute to degradation of air quality and severe haze episode.

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5 5.1

Meteorological Condition El Niño - Southern Oscillation (ENSO)

The surface climate over the Southeast Asia region is dominated by two monsoon regimes – winter and summer monsoon, which modulate the annual wet and dry seasons in the region.

In addition to this seasonal cycle, the year-to-year (interannual) variability associated to El Niño - Southern Oscillation (ENSO) is also considerably large. The ENSO is a coupled atmosphere-ocean phenomenon over the Pacific Ocean. The warm phase of ENSO is called El Niño, while the cold phase is called La Niña. The Southeast Asia regions receive the direct influence of this phenomenon as it is located over the rising branch of the Walker Circulation (Tangang et al., 201 0).

In normal years, the Southeast Asia regions are fed by moisture convergence brought by the low level trade winds to sustain the deep convection and create low-pressure system over the Southeast Asia. However, during an El Niño event, the anomalous warming of the tropical Pacific sea surface temperature shifts the low-pressure centre from the Southeast Asia region to the central Pacific Ocean. This establishes an anomalously high pressure and a strong divergence centre over Southeast Asia, causing drier than normal condition during an El Niño event.

An El Niño event usually develops in spring, evolves and peaks in winter and its signature does not remain static over the entire Southeast Asia during its evolution. The rainfall anomaly (changes with respect to mean) associated to the El Niño evolution show considerably spatial and temporal variations. Several studies have examined relationship between anomalous rainfall over the Southeast Asia region and the evolution of ENSO (e.g.

Aldrian & Susanto, 2003; Chang et al., 2003; Tangang & Juneng, 2004; Juneng & Tangang, 2005). Juneng and Tangang (2005) showed that the most dominant mode of inter-annual variability of anomalous precipitation and its evolution over the Southeast Asia region accounted for ~20% of the total interannual variance. This variation is spatially and temporally modulated by the ENSO phenomenon evolution (Figure A-9). The shaded values in Figure A-9 represents the so-called the empirical orthogonal function (EOF) loadings of the first mode of the extended EOF (EEOF) analysis. During an El Niño event, negative values (blue) represent anomalously lower rainfall while positive values (red) indicate higher rainfall.

The period from JJA(0) to MAM(1 ) represents the one year evolution period of a typical El

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NinĚ&#x192;o from the July-June-August (JJA) season of the El NinĚ&#x192;o year (i.e. year 0) to the MarchApril-May (MAM) season of the following year (i.e. year 1 ).

Figure A-9

The spatial pattern of the loadings of the most dominant mode of the anomalous Southeast Asia precipitation using the Extended Empirical Orthogonal Function (EEOF) analysis. The shaded values represent the eigenvector of the EEOF (Juneng & Tangang, 2005)

The blue line in Figure A-1 0 depicts the time evolution of the rainfall anomaly patterns (Figure A-9) plotted with the time evolution of the most dominant mode of anomalous sea surface temperatures of the tropical oceans (red line), which the spatial patterns are shown in Figure A-1 1 . Figure A-1 1 clearly shows the sea surface temperature anomaly in the Pacific

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Ocean associated with ENSO evolution. The strong positive correlation between the time series suggests that the seasonal evolution of the anomalous Southeast Asia precipitation in Figure A-9 is not random but strongly associated with the spatio-temporal evolution of the sea surface temperature anomaly associated with El NinĚ&#x192;o.

The sequence of rainfall anomaly patterns shows a north-eastward propagation of the drought prone area from the initial El NinĚ&#x192;o state to the termination. This evolution is associated to the strengthening of the regional ocean-atmosphere interactions in the Southeastern Indian Ocean (SIO) during the SON(0) and in the western north Pacific (WNP) region during the DJF(0/1 ) period (Wang et al., 2003; Juneng & Tangang, 2005).

Figure A-1 0. The time series represent the temporal evolution of the dominant pattern of the Southeast Asia anomalous rainfall shown in Figure A-9 and that of the anomalous sea surface temperature anomaly in the tropical Pacific Ocean shown in Figure A-1 1 (Juneng & Tangang 2005).

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Figure A-1 1 As in Figure A-9 except for the anomalous sea surface temperature. These patterns reflect the warming of sea surface temperature in the Pacific and Indian Oceans during an El Niño event (Juneng & Tangang 2005) During the early stage of an El Niño (JJA(0)), almost the entire Maritime Continent region experiences drier than normal condition, particularly over Sumatra and Kalimantan. This dry condition coupled with warm temperature associated with El Niño (e.g. Tangang et al., 2007) creates an extremely favourable and conducive environment for large-scale fire outbreaks in Sumatra and Kalimantan (Tangang et al., 201 0; Reid et al., 201 2). Anomalous wind during JJA(0) is southerly i.e. the winds blow to the north from Kalimantan and Sumatra. This wind pattern facilitates the long-range transport of smoke from Sumatra and Kalimantan northward to Singapore, Peninsular Malaysia, Sarawak, Brunei and Sabah. During the SON(0) period, the southern parts of Sumatra and Kalimantan continue to experience deficit rainfall with affected area extended to the entire Borneo. The fire activities can become very active during this period of time over southern Sumatra and Kalimantan. This condition continues until the mature phase of El Niño (DJF(0/1 )) but only northern Borneo (northern Sarawak and Sabah) is affected. The occurrence of haze in northern Sarawak, Brunei and Sabah in 1 998 was related to local fires associated with dry conditions in this region (Radojevic, 2003). By the MAM(1 ) period, only the northern tip of Borneo is anomalously drier. During both the DJF(0/1 ) and MAM(1 ) periods, the conditions in Peninsular Malaysia, Sumatra and Kalimantan return to normal or slightly below normal, minimizing the risk of fire outbreak in this region. This evolution pattern seems to be followed by the anomalous rainfall induced by the current 201 5/201 6 El Niño. Prolonged drought condition was experienced in Sumatra and Kalimantan from June to November 201 5, providing a favourable condition for uncontrolled forest fires to occur and haze episode to recur. By January – March 201 6, the drought-

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stricken area moves to northern Sarawak, Sabah and southern Philippines. The drier-thannormal condition in Sabah is expected to continue until end of April 201 6. There have been numerous reports of forest fires and haze episodes in Sabah and northern Sarawak due to local forest fires during January to March 201 6. These occurrences of forest fires and haze episodes are likely to recur until at the end of April 201 6. Interestingly, while northern of Sarawak and Sabah experience drier-than-normal condition since January 201 6, the southern part of Sarawak and western Kalimantan experienced wetter-than-normal condition. In fact, floods occurred in Kuching and surrounding areas, as well as Pontianak in Kalimantan, in January and February 201 6. This pattern is consistent with the condition depicted in Figure 6c and 6d.

The evolution of rainfall related anomalies over the Malaysia and Indonesia from the JJA(0) to the MAM(1 ) periods unveils the susceptibility of the region to El Niño associated drought.

During the period of June to November of the El Niño year, the risk of uncontrolled forest fires in Sumatra and Kalimantan increases because of the drier than normal condition induced by the El Niño. This typical evolution of ENSO signature in rainfall and atmospheric circulation provides useful meteorological information for long-range forecast. Juneng and Tangang (2008) showed that precipitation anomalies in the region can be forecasted at least 5 months in advance using sea surface temperatures in the tropical Pacific as predictors. Given the fact that an El Niño is a predictable event by at least 6 months in advance (e.g. Latif et al., 1 998; Tangang et al., 1 998), regional climate forecast information is invaluable in mitigating the risk of forest fires.

5.2

ElNiño and its influence on Haze

The Oceanic Nino Index (ONI) is a common time series index used for examining and monitoring the time evolution of El Niño and La Niña (Figure A-1 2). From the monthly values of the central Pacific sea surface temperature anomalies, period of El Niño and La Niña with different intensities can be identified (Table A-9). The strong El Niño modulated the regional circulation and led to prolonged dry condition in Southeast Asia especially in Sumatra and Kalimantan. Although the main source of the haze - forest burning, is mainly anthropogenic, the transport and extension of the haze has to be modulated by the ENSO variations which control the regional surface circulation and climatic conditions.

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Figure A-1 2 Oceanic Nino Index showing El Niño and La Niña Index from 1 950 until 201 6 (NOAA 201 6b) Table A-9

El Niño years from 1 950

Weak 1 951 -52* 1 952-53 1 953-54 1 958-59 1 968-69* 1 969-70 1 976-77 1 977-78 1 979-80* 1 994-95* 2004-05 2006-07 Source: NOAA 201 6b

Mod 1 963-64 1 986-87 1 987-88* 1 991 -92 2002-03 2009-1 0

Strong 1 957-58 1 965-66 1 972-73

Very Strong 1 982-83 1 997-98 201 5-1 6

Although large-scale fires in Indonesia have occurred throughout palaeo-history, their frequency before the 1 960s was relatively rare (Field et al., 2009). Since the early 1 960s, these events have occurred more frequently across maritime continent, particularly in the southern region of Kalimantan and eastern Sumatra, due to the increased land use activities in the regions (Field et al., 2009; Spessa et al., 201 5). These episodes are nearly always associated

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with El Niño events. As discussed earlier, El Niño tends to cause prolonged drought episode over these regions during the developing phase (JJA(0) and SON(0)). In addition to increasing of risk of uncontrolled forest fires, rainfall deficiency also prolongs the atmospheric residence time of fire products as they are less influenced by precipitation (Heil & Goldammer, 2001 ). This situation often deteriorates the anthropogenic forest fires and causes wide spread of smoke over the Southeast Asia region. Although we expected the role of El Niño would be secondary in nature since the fire is associated primary to human related activities in agriculture, forestry, and plantation sectors (e.g. Field et al. 2009), El Niño plays an important role in altering the regional atmospheric composition via modification of atmospheric meteorological field (Inness et al., 201 5) as well as the emission and transport characteristics.

The influences of El Niño on widespread of haze episodes, especially the transport patterns, had been extensively studied since the disastrous haze event during the 1 997/98 El Niño. A recent general overview of climate variability and its impact on the Southeast Asia smoke haze is reported in Tangang et al. (201 0). Reid et al. (201 2) provided an overview of the fire hotspot activity over the maritime continent and how these fire activities are related to atmospheric oscillation of different time scales. They concluded that El Niño is the dominant factor that promotes fire activities over the region.

To further demonstrate the association between the local annual haze condition in Malaysia and the ENSO, local annual haze index was constructed. The annual index was calculated as the 95th percentile values of the daily PM1 0 concentration for each of the years. The interannual variations of the constructed time series for two local stations (Jerantut and Petaling Jaya) are shown in Figure A-1 3. For comparison, the multivariate ENSO index (MEI) averaged over the Jun-Jul-Aug is also depicted. It is noted that the year-to-year variability of local PM1 0 is strongly associated to ENSO with correlations values of 0.71 -0.87 (Table A-1 0).

This suggests that ENSO explains remarkably 50-75% of the local PM1 0 interannual variances. To further illustrated the relationship between the PM1 0 fluctuations and ENSO, the annual PM1 0 index from Petaling Jaya is correlated to the sea surface temperature to create the correlation coefficient map (Figure A-1 4). The correlation maps show typical El Nino patterns with warm sea surface temperature extending from the eastern Pacific and dominating the equatorial Pacific. The correlation is slightly higher during the Jun-Jul-Aug season.

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Figure A-1 3 The standardised time series of the defined annual haze index calculated for Jerantut and Petaling Jaya

Table A-1 0

The correlation coefficients between the constructed annual PM1 0 index with multivariate ENSO Index (MEI) at different seasons

Station Jerantut Petaling Jaya

Jun-Jul-Aug 0.79 0.87

Sep-Oct-Nov 0.71 0.85

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Figure A-1 4 Correlation maps between the Petaling Jaya annual PM1 0 index and the quasiglobal sea surface temperature during both Jun-Jul-Aug and Sep-Oct-Nov period.

The results illustrate the importance of ENSO in modulating the year-to-year characteristics of haze in Malaysia. Note that there are still 25-30% of the variations that are due to other factors. It is clear that at shorter time scale (happen within a much shorter period of a few days to weeks) the haze occurrence in Malaysia depends largely on the anthropogenic burning in the region. While the large-scale fire activities over the region is strongly influenced by El Niño, its by-products transport pattern is also strongly tight to the El Niño modulated low-level circulation. The smoke is generally transported by the cross-equatorial flow north-westward south of the equator and north-eastward north of the equator. During the October–November transitional period, smoke transport paths are more zonally oriented compared to June–September (Xian et al., 201 3). Using a numerical modeling experiment for the 2006 (El Niño) and 2007 (normal) Southeast Asia fire seasons, Xian et al. (201 3) concluded that smoke typically lives longer and can be transported farther in El Niño years compared with non El Niño years. During El Niño periods, due to stronger easterly winds in the region, there is much stronger westward transport to the eastern tropical Indian Ocean.

5.3

Forecastibility

Skilful forecasts of fire activities and its by-product transportation can provide invaluable information for decision makers at various levels. Tangang et al. (201 0) suggests that long range (a few months lead time) forecast of fire activities and smoke haze events should be feasible given the fact that the fire activities is strongly tight to the El Niño variations and that the El Niño itself is predictable with at least 6 months lead time. Wooster et al. (201 2) demonstrated that the extent and magnitude of fire activity over maritime continent could be forecasted a few months in advance based on El Niño indexes. Also, using a more physically based method, Spessa et al. (201 5) developed a long range fire forecasting system for

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Indonesia which shows appreciable skills. A number of international meteorological and climate forecast centres regularly issue seasonal forecasts based on general circulation model (GCM). During El Niño year, this kind of forecasts can be very reliable given the strong influence of El Niño. In fact, the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) Climate Center (APCC) in Busan, South Korea, had also issued a forecast of a probabilistic forecast in January 201 6 based on a number of GCMs that covers a period from February to April 201 6 with 80% likelihood of drier-than-normal condition for northern Sarawak and Sabah, while 80% likelihood of wetter-than-normal condition for southern Sarawak and Kalimantan (Figure A-1 5). This forecast is considered accurate given its ability to pinpoint the opposite condition in southern Sarawak and northern Sarawak – Sabah. The next 2 months (March and April 201 6), northern Sarawak and Sabah are expected to continue experiencing much drierthan-normal condition. Given the minimal climatological rainfall during these months over these regions, the condition in the next 2-3 months would be expected to be critical especially in rural areas.

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Figure A-1 5 The APEC Climate Center rainfall probabilistic forecast for February to April 201 6 issued in January 201 6 (APEC 201 6) While the long-range forecast is useful for mitigation and better fire management, near realtime (short) forecast of accurate air quality can be crucial for emergency response. Hertwig et al. (201 5) demonstrates that by using satellite derived emission and a Lagrangian dispersion model, the PM1 0 concentrate at the surface over the Southeast can be quantitatively forecasted up to several days lead time. They also recommended a real time bias correction for the forecast output in order to use the forecast operational. Since the bias correction depends critically on quality of the local observation, the dense and quality network of air quality monitoring over the Southeast Asia is crucial to warrant the accuracy and usefulness of the forecasting system developed. It is also worth to mention that the Monitoring Atmospheric Composition and Climate (MACC) project (Wagner et al., 201 5) has a global near-real time forecast of atmospheric compositions up to 5 days lead time. It is operational since 201 5 to produce global analyses and forecasts of reactive gases and aerosol fields. The operational product will be able to provide regional air quality guidance over the Southeast Asia. It is expected that the forecast products can be further downscaled either dynamically or empirically, to enable day-to-day emergency response and mitigation and to allow better understanding of the local air quality processes from various perspective.

5.4

Inversion in Upper Air During Haze

The haze event was also related to the inversion of air in the upper air. Inversion layer formed near the earth surface due to nocturnal cooling during night and early morning where then the temperature in the air increase with height due to rapid cooling of earth surface (Sani 1 991 ). As been discussed by Sani (1 991 ), during the haze episode year 1 991 , the surface inversion near the earth surface has an effect of trapping the haze particle which then carries the haze particle upward. The haze particle in Klang Valley was also blocked by the mountain range in Peninsular Malaysia which prevents its dispersion.

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6 6.1

Impact of Haze Health Impact

Air pollutants, especially fine particulate matters, released in the air during transboundary haze can cause severe impact on human health. Particles as small as one micrometre can easily infiltrate indoor air making exposure unavoidable even for people who remain indoor (Kunii et al., 2002). Smaller particles are more hazardous because they remain longer in the atmosphere and also penetrate more deeply into the lungs. Epidemiological evidence from acute and chronic exposure to PM in ambient air has been linked to a number of different health outcomes, ranging from modest transient changes in the respiratory tract and impaired pulmonary function, through increased risk of symptoms requiring emergency room or hospital treatment, to increased risk of death from cardiovascular and respiratory diseases or lung cancer. The effects of long-term PM exposure on mortality seem to be attributable to PM2.5 rather than to coarser particles. The latter, with a diameter of 2.5–1 0 μm (PM2.5–1 0), may have more visible impacts on respiratory morbidity (WHO 2006). In 201 3, 87% of the world’s population lived in areas exceeding the World Health Organization Air Quality Guideline of 1 0 μg/m3 PM2.5 (annual average). Between 1 990 and 201 3, global populationweighted PM2.5 increased by 20.4% driven by trends in South Asia, Southeast Asia, and China. (Figure 1 5) (Brauer et al., 201 6.)

Figure A-1 6. 201 3 Annual Average PM2.5 (µg/m3) Source: Brauer et al., 201 6 A systematic analysis of all major global health risks reported in the Lancet found that outdoor air pollution in the form of fine particles is a much more significant public health risk

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than previously known, contributing annually to over 3.2 million premature deaths worldwide and over 74 million years of healthy life lost (Murray et al., 201 5). It now ranks among the top global health risk burdens (HEI, 201 2). Overall Global Burden of Disease 201 0 (GBD, 201 0) estimates over 2.1 million premature deaths and 52 million years of healthy life lost in 201 0 due to ambient fine particle air pollution, fully two third of the burden worldwide (Lim et al., 201 2). The World Health Organization estimated that exposure to fine particulate air pollution caused 800,000 deaths and 6.4 million lost years of healthy life in the worldâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s cities in 2000.

The developing countries of Southeast Asia accounted for two-thirds of this burden (Cohen et al., 2004). Wan Mahiyuddin et al. (201 3) reported significant association between short-term exposure to air pollutants and natural mortality in the Klang Valley region as a result of exposure to PM1 0 and O3. The study found statistically significant effect of PM1 0 at lag 1 (RR = 1 .009, 95% CI = 1 .009â&#x20AC;&#x201C;1 .01 9) and 5-day cumulative effect of O3 (RR = 1 .022, 95% CI = 1 .001 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; 1 .020).

The magnitude of health impacts from the haze and possible long-term human health effects present technical challenges and are more difficult to determine (Glover & Jessup, 1 999; Kunii et al., 2002; Johnston et al., 201 2). The short-term effect of exposure to high levels of air pollution, such as the transboundary haze, can lead to acute conditions, such as respiratory infections or exacerbation of chronic respiratory illnesses, such as asthma and chronic obstructive airway diseases. Chronic long-term effects of these exposures are not well studied or established, more need to be done in this area (Sastry, 2000; Afroz et al., 2003). According to Goldammer et al. (2009), smoke from fires causing the haze contain compounds which are respiratory irritants (irritants that can cause inflammation of mucous membranes), asphyxiants (substances that interfere with the oxygen uptake and transport), carcinogens (chemicals known or believed to cause cancer in human), mutagens (agents that can change the genetic material) and systemic toxins (chemicals that can cause toxic effects). The air pollutants during any haze episode may contain hundreds of chemicals and numerous other elements such as toxic metals that can significantly affect human health.

Referring to Khillare and Saarkar (201 2), some of the metals in the atmospheric pollutants can trigger neurological disorder, various types of cancer and other diseases. Khan et al.

(201 6) investigated in the tropical environment, the monsoonal effect on the variability of PM2.5, its chemical composition and health risk. This study found that the non-carcinogenic risk posed by the exposure of PM2.5 was at a considerably safer level. However, the associated lifetime cancer risk posed by the exposure of hazardous metals in PM2.5 is 3 to 4 per 1 million population, a slightly above the acceptable cancer risk level as recommended by USEPA. Brunekreef and Holgate (2002) and Heil et al. (2007) estimated that any increase in the level of particulates may increase the risk of morbidity and mortality following exposure to the

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haze even though the air pollutants are with the limits allowed. For example, an increase of 1 0 Âľg/m3 of daily PM1 0 level can cause a 0.5% increase in daily mortality and an increase of 1 .5% of daily hospital admission due to respiratory diseases (Brunekreef & Holgate, 2002).

Sahani et al. (201 4), in a case-crossover analysis of forest fire haze events and mortality in Malaysia, pointed out that hazy days between 2000 and 2007 were responsible for an immediate increase 1 9% in mortality from respiratory causes. This study also found that exposure to haze events showed immediate and delayed effects on mortality. A different increment of risk on respiratory mortality for males and females was reported. The findings indicated that the effects of haze events on respiratory mortality for all ages, all males and elderly male residents were more acute when compared with the delayed effects on natural mortality among children and on respiratory mortality among adult females.

The more common health symptoms following high exposure to air pollutants during the haze include throat irritation, coughing, difficulty in breathing, nasal congestion, sore eyes, cold attacks and chest pain (Mohd Shahwahid & Othman, 1 999). During the 1 997 haze, Kuala Lumpur General Hospital recorded a substantial increase in cases of upper respiratory tract infections, conjunctivitis, and asthma, with a 2-day delayed effect for asthma incidences. For example, in June, there were only 91 2 cases of asthma recorded in Selangor, while in September, more than 5000 cases were recorded (Awang et al., 2000). Brauer and HishamHashim (1 998) investigated haze-related illnesses during the 1 997 haze period (August â&#x20AC;&#x201C; September) and reported significant increase in asthma and acute respiratory infections in Kuala Lumpur hospital. In Kuching, Sarawak, outpatient visits increased between two to three times during the peak haze period while respiratory disease outpatient visits to Kuala Lumpur General Hospital increased from 250 to 800 a day (WHO, 1 998).

A study on distributions and health risks of PAHs in atmospheric aerosols of Kuala Lumpur

by Omar et al. (2006) highlighted that the ambient level distributions of PAHs were lower than that of street level samples and that their occurrence was attributed to vehicular emissions. However, in haze particles, a different pattern of PAHs was observed, characterised by a relatively low concentration of benzo[a]pyrene (BaP) and high concentration of benzofluoranthenes, a sum of BbF and BkF (BFs). The benzo[g,h,i]perylene was also shown relatively high concentration among the PAHs determined in the haze samples. The BaP equivalency results showed that the potential health risk associated with haze smoke particles was four times higher than that of street level particles whereas the lowest health risk was associated with ambient atmospheric particles. BaP, is one of the most toxic polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) and is usually used as an indicator for cancer risk assessment (Jung et al., 201 0).

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Populations closest to the fires are often highly impacted. In a study of the health impacts on the population of the city of Jambi during the 1 997 haze; more than 90% of respondents reported some level of respiratory problem. There are other studies showing the magnitude of haze-related health impacts on exposed population in Indonesia. In Singapore, the situation is slightly different because the residents have greater access to health care and filtered air. Reports following the 1 997 haze in Singapore indicated that while there was a 30% increase in outpatient medical care due to haze-related conditions; neither hospital admissions nor mortality increased significantly (Goodman & Mulik, 201 5).

6.2

Economic Impact

Transboundary haze and the low visibility can also affect the economy of the affected ASEAN member countries. Air, land and sea transport services were affected by the poor visibility in the various haze episodes. The New York Times on September 27, 1 997 reported that the Indonesian Airbus A-300, Garuda Airlines, crashed on the neighbouring island of Sumatra, part of a vast region covered by haze from the forest fires. Visibility was reported to be onethird of a mile at the time of crash. CNN (1 997), on the same day, reported the collision of a supertanker and a cargo ship in the Strait of Malacca which occurred just hours after the crash of the Indonesian jetliner.

Zulhaidi et al. (201 0a; 201 0b), did an interesting study on weather as a road safety hazard in Malaysia. His data dated back to the years before 2009. The report supports the fact that serious haze episodes did cause reduced driversâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; vision. However, the period indicating impaired visibility did not show any record of increasing number of road accidents. On average, only 6% of the reports on total road accidents in Malaysia came with recorded weather conditions. In the five years from 2003 to 2007, 37000 accidents that occurred on PLUS highways had information on weather conditions. Accidents occurring during foggy and haze periods were less than 1 %. Of the total, 73% of road accidents on PLUS highways happened during non-adverse weather conditions and 26% during the rain. The authors added that the accidents during the rain could be a combined effect of reduced visibility caused by fog/haze. A more accurate conclusion can be derived if all the road accidents in Malaysia come with a weather classification.

In the study edited by Glover and Jessup (1 999), there was an attempt to assess the extent of the damage caused by the fires and transboundary haze. Although the study was truncated and assessed only the damages for the 1 997 transboundary haze episode and even then not every possible damage could be valued because of limited data and estimation methods; the

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study did point out that the estimates presented are lower bounds and that the damages could be much higher.

The cost of damage during the 1 997 haze episode is shown in Table A-1 1 below. The hazerelated production losses include the reduced industrial and commercial activity due to the ten-day state of emergency in Sarawak. The second major loss is the decline in the number of tourist arrivals. According to Glover and Jessup (1 999), tourism was Malaysiaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s second largest foreign exchange earner and brought USD4.5 billion into the Malaysian economy in 1 996. Other losses are the result of flight cancellations which then caused direct loss of profit opportunities from the cancellations as well as from airport operations and foregone profits from fishing due to reduced visibility.

Table A-1 1

Aggregate value of haze damage in 1 997

Type of damage

RM Million USD Million Percentage (%)

Adjusted cost of illness

21 .02

8.41

2.62

Productivity loss during the state of emergency 393.51

1 57.40

49.07

Decline in tourist arrivals

31 8.55

1 27.42

39.72

Flight cancellations

0.45

0.1 8

0.06

Decline in fish landings

40.58

1 6.23

5.00

Cost of fire-fighting

25.00

1 0.00

3.1 2

Cloud seeding

2.08

0.83

0.26

Expenditure on masks

0.71

0.28

0.09

Total damage cost

801 .90

321 .00

1 00

Source: Mohd Shahwahid & Othman (1 999) Othman et al. (201 4) studied the economic valuation of health impacts of smoke haze pollution in Malaysia but the study area was confined to Kuala Lumpur and adjacent areas in Selangor state. Secondary data was collected from seven hospitals for the years 2005, 2006, 2008 and 2009. Based on the unit economic value of RM1 60 for an average hospital stay of two days, haze damage was valued at RM0.273 million . This averages RM23,000 per month or RM766 per day, or an average of RM1 4,368 per hazy day. The research team pointed out that such estimates are rather small in both absolute and relative terms and that the

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estimated value only reflects productivity loss due to hospital admissions but has important consequences particularly for the allocation of scarce public healthcare resources. The study also highlighted that extreme haze may result in a number of other impacts which can be measured by preventive costs, mitigation costs for outpatient treatments, potential output loss as in the case of tourism, productivity loss in various economic sectors, reduced leisure time, increased anxiety due to loss of visibility and the risk in traffic collisions.

6.3

Agricultural Impact

Chameides et al. (1 999), from the case study of the effects of atmospheric aerosols and regional haze on agriculture (in China), reported that reduction in total solar radiation can affect crop productivity. This is because during the haze, settling of aerosols such as dust, soot and fly ash on the leaves can shield them from solar radiation and reduce photosynthesis. Referring to Meena et al. (201 3), in addition to the change in total solar radiation, the aerosols or haze particles have an impact on the direct and scattered radiation thus affecting plant growth. The indirect effect can arise from the haze radiative forcing on the hydrological cycle and therefore can be a limiting factor for agriculture. Pathak et al.

(2003) examined the effect on the yields of rice and wheat crops due to a reduction in the solar radiation and concluded that any change in weather such as increase in temperature and change in solar radiation will significantly affect crop production.

According to Nichol (1 997), a research by the Forest Research Institute of Malaysia found that two varieties of hybrid rice in Malaysia, MR1 51 and MR1 23, experienced a 50% reduction in growth rate and abnormal ripening while paddy rice in Indonesia suffered a 2-3% reduction in yield during the haze period in year 1 994. Of significance for this study is the research by Henson (2000) on modelling the effects of â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;hazeâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; on oil palm productivity and yield. The increasing incidence of transboundary haze in the region leading to substantial reductions in solar radiation initiated concern over the possible long-term effects of oil palm yields. There are several shortcomings to the models used in the study but the models have succeeded in demonstrating the feasibility of yields being sustained under low radiation in otherwise favourable environment.

6.4

Biodiversity Impact

The ASEAN region houses a rich biodiversity but little attention has been paid to the impact of fires on forest biodiversity especially for the tropics (Nasi et al., 2001 ). At the global level, fires cause carbon emission which could lead to biodiversity changes. At the regional and local level, the fires lead to change in biomass stocks, alter the hydrological cycle with

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subsequent effects on marine ecosystem especially the rich ASEAN Coral Triangle as well as impact on plant and animal species functioning.

An interesting article by WWF-Malaysia (201 5) pointed out to the possible long-term impacts of haze on wildlife. Fires and transboundary haze can significantly hinder photosynthetic activity and transpiration in plants, thus affecting the food chain for wildlife which in turn will influence animal health and behaviour. Loss of fruit-trees can also lead to overall decline in bird and animal species that rely on fruits for food. This could be observed a few months after the 1 982-1 983 fires in Kutai National Park in East Kalimantan where the fruit eating birds like the hornbills declined drastically (Nasi et al., 2001 ).

One of the ecological effects of burning is the increased probability of further burning in subsequent years as seen in Indonesia. The consequences of repeated burning will lead to loss of habitat and shelter and is detrimental for forest biodiversity particularly the key organisms such as invertebrates and pollinators. The WWF-Malaysia paper highlighted that the transboundary haze is almost an annual occurrence but is not continuous throughout the year and the impact on the flora and fauna is still poorly understood.

According to another source by Forsyth (201 4), who conducted content analysis of 2231 articles from representative newspapers in Indonesia, Malaysia and Singapore; indicated that references to biodiversity â&#x20AC;&#x201C; as a subject in its own right â&#x20AC;&#x201C; were slim. In Indonesia, references to biodiversity were only explicitly made in 1 997 (0.03 per story) and in Singapore, the references were 0.01 (1 997), 0.04 (2005) and 0.01 (201 3). In Malaysia, these were: 0.01 (1 997), 0.02 (2005) and 0 (201 3). Schrier-Uijl et al. (201 3) recommended that strategies should be developed to make human-dominated areas more hospitable for forest biodiversity and that the conservation strategy should get the involvement of local communities as well as other stakeholders.

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7

Haze Related Polices

7.1 7.1.1

National Policy and Administrative Framework Legislation and Enforcement

The Environmental Quality Act 1 974 was amended in 1 998 to provide a more stringent penalty for open burning offences. According to the Act, â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;any person who contravenes shall be guilty of an offence and shall, on conviction, be liable to a fine not exceeding RM500,000 or to imprisonment for a term not exceeding 5 years or bothâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;. The Environmental Quality (Declared Activities) (Opening Burning) 2003 Order came into force on 1 January 2004. It prohibits open burning of certain activities under specified conditions and in certain designated areas.

To enhance the enforcement capacity, the Department of Environment (DOE), the agency entrusted to enforce the law against open burning, has delegated powers to officers of the Fire and Rescue Department, the Royal Malaysia Police, Ministry of Health and the local authorities to assist in the investigation of open burning activities.

7.1.2

National Haze Committee

Malaysia established the National Haze Committee which is chaired by the Honourable Minister of Natural Resources and Environment with representatives from the relevant agencies such as the Malaysian Meteorological Department, Fire and Rescue Department, National Security Council, Ministry of Health, Ministry of Education, Forestry Department of Peninsular Malaysia and Department of Agriculture. The Committee meets regularly to assess, amongst others, the weather conditions, the preparedness of the relevant agencies in dealing with fires and the transboundary haze as well as to consider further actions that needed to be taken especially during any prolonged dry weather condition.

7.1.3

National Haze Action Plan

The National Haze Action Plan was drafted and the objectives include actions to be taken by the relevant agencies and other stakeholders such as industries, developers and the general public at the different alert levels based on the specified air pollutant index.

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7.1.4

Fire Prevention Action Plan

At the operational level, ground and air surveillance to curb and prevent open burning activities in the fire prone areas will be intensified especially during the dry seasons. At the state level, the State Department of Environment has developed a specific plan of action to prevent fires in their respective state. The components of the plan among others include: i. ii. iii. iv. v.

7.1.5

Map of fire prone areas; Enforcement and monitoring programmes; Awareness programmes; Preparedness for fire-fighting; and Communication network to coordinate complaints and investigate cases of open burning.

Clean Air Action Plan (CAAP)

Under the DOE, the Clean Air Action Plan (201 0-2020) was established in 201 1 and it contains five main strategies in order to improve the air quality. The strategies are described as follows: i. ii. iii. iv. v.

to reduce emissions from motor vehicles; to prevent haze pollution from land and forest fires; to reduce emissions from industries; to build institutional capacity and capabilities; and to strengthen public awareness and participation.

In order to prevent haze from land and forest fires, a two-prong approach was adopted prevention and control at national as well as at the regional level. Amongst the actions taken at the national level include the implementation of Fire Prevention and Peatland Management Programme and strengthening the enforcement on open burning.

To reduce emission from motor vehicles, the focus is on sharing the development of better fuel and engine technology as well as the development of a roadmap for the implementation of a more stringent emission standard. Further initiatives are also encouraged to further reduce the emissions from industrial activities such as reviewing existing emission standards, improving emission inventories, encouraging the concept of self-regulation and performance-monitoring of anti-pollution equipment by industries as well as promoting the best available air pollution control technology.

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The CAAP is also aimed in addressing the need to strengthen institutional capacity such as the development of expertise in air quality prediction and modelling and the development of a new ambient air quality standard. Public awareness and public participation programmes are given a new push to attract the interest of the students, environmental practitioners, corporate leaders and decision-makers.

7.1.6

Fire Prevention and Peatland Management Programme

Initiatives to prevent peat fires started in the mid 2009 with the construction of three types of infrastructures: check dams, tube wells, and watch towers. The construction was made possible under the 1 NRE spirit involving the cooperation of various agencies under the Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment (NRE) which are the DOE, the Department of Irrigation and Drainage (DID), the Department of Mineral and Geosciences (DGM) and the Forestry Department of Peninsular Malaysia. The purpose of a check dam is to maintain a minimum water level in peatlands, while a tube well is used not only to maintain the water level but equally important to extract ground water as well as to supply water for fire suppression. A watch tower is built to monitor the occurrence of fire in peatlands and the surrounding areas. Until the end of 201 5, the number of infrastructures constructed was 236 check dams, 59 tube wells and four watch towers in various fire-prone peat areas in Selangor, Pahang, Johor, Terengganu, Kelantan, Sarawak, and Sabah.

A â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;Fire Danger Rating Systemâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; (FDRS) was developed for Malaysia to provide early warning of the potential for serious fire and haze events. Since weather data is required to operate the system, the Malaysian Meteorological Department (MetMalaysia), is therefore tasked to undertake the function. The system can identify the time periods when fires can readily start and spread to become uncontrolled fires and time periods when smoke from smouldering fires will cause an unacceptably high level of haze (de Groot et al., 2006). For Malaysia, the FDRS was developed by adapting components of the Canadian Forest Fire Danger Rating System (CFFDRS). FDRS maps are made available and are provided to users such as DOE, the National Security Council, the Fire and Rescue Department as well as the other relevant agencies. MetMalaysia also provides regional fire danger maps for ASEAN. The activities however must be based on an understanding of local fire behaviour and for FDRS to be of even greater potential i.e. predict fire danger into the future, reliable forecasted weather data must be made available.

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7.1.7

The Zero Burning Policy of Oil Palm Cultivation

The zero burning technique is an environmentally sound practice in which the old strands of oil palm or other tree crops are felled and shredded and left in situ to decompose naturally.

In contrast with the clean clearing method where the old strands are burned, the zero burning allows replanting to be done without violating the Environmental Quality (Clean Air) Regulations 1 978 of Malaysia. The technique is also less dependent on weather conditions and is reported to have a shorter fallow period than clearing by burning; crop plants can be planted within two months of felling and shredding; the latter provides faster coverage of the ground and minimises soil loss and pollution through run-off (ASEAN Secretariat 2003). The application of the technique on a commercial scale was carried out by Malaysian plantation companies such as the former Golden Hope from as early as 1 989 and the best practice was promoted to the ASEAN level.

To-date, research and commercial experience on the zero burning approach have been focused on oil palm plantations. The technique replenishes soil organic matter, improves the physical and chemical properties of the soil and thus enhances its fertility. While the policy on zero burning technique may provide useful inputs for Working Group 3: Waste to Resources: Energy or Materials, there are limitations. There is a potential risk of infestation of the rhinoceros beetle and the basal stem rot disease caused by Ganoderma boninense, particularly in localities where the pest or disease is endemic. Another problem is that the stacked biomass of the preceding plantation crop could provide a breeding ground for rats.

The next problem is associated particularly with peatlands. By using the technique, the zero burn areas have been found to be more susceptible to attacks by termites. But of major concern is that the technique may not be applicable to smallholders as they may not have the necessary resources or economies of scale to implement the zero burning technique.

7.2

Comparison of local policies with the regional policies

To prevent and monitor transboundary haze pollution as a result of land and forest fires; Malaysia, Indonesia and Singapore share the common policies as stipulated in Article 4: General Obligations of the ASEAN Agreement on Transboundary Haze Pollution. This article requires ASEAN Member States (AMS) to take legislative, administrative and measures to implement their obligations under the Agreement as shown in Table A-1 2.

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Table A-1 2

Regional Measures in Terms of Preparedness and Prevention Details

Lead Country/ Organisation ASEC (under IFAD/ GEF Project), AMS



Implementation of the ASEAN Peatland Management Strategy (APMS)

AMS



Implementation of zero burning and controlled burning practices through laws or regulations and several other legislations related to environmental pollution, natural resources management and land use planning

Indonesia/AMS



Conduct of table top and simulation exercises to enhance joint emergency response

AMS



Enhancement/ capacity building for law enforcement and prosecution at national level

AMS



Regular forum/dialogue with international donor community and other stakeholders to promote the implementation of the Haze Agreement

AMS



Harmonisation of air quality indices

ASMC/AMS



Development of comprehensive fire prediction and monitoring system

ASEC in consultation with AMS



Development of targets for fire prevention and transboundary haze control, e.g. air quality indicators

With regards to legislative instruments, Singapore is the only country in ASEAN that has enacted the Transboundary Haze Pollution Act 201 4, which allows Singapore to take legislative measures against local and foreign companies that cause or contribute to haze pollution in Singapore. The Singapore government’s response to the haze problem has shifted from state responsibility towards a civil liability regime (Laely N, 201 5). One of the key features of the Act is the ‘extraterritoriality’ factor. The Act claims to apply to any entity anywhere in the world whose conduct affects Singapore’s air quality (Ser et al., 201 6). It is based on extraterritorial environment legislation found in other countries such as the United States. According to the paper, in practice, it is likely to be used against entities with a link to Singapore, e.g. a Singapore’s subsidiary of an Indonesian plantation company (the subsidiary

155

being incorporated and having a presence in Singapore, but owing or operating the land in question). It was pointed out that the greatest advantage of the Act is that the Singapore government can engage directly with local or foreign entities that contribute to transboundary haze pollution by applying liability when there is sufficient evidence to deduce causality. According to a news report, Malaysia is studying the possibility of adopting a similar law (The Malay Mail, October 21 201 5). But Malaysia must be aware of the challenges faced by Singapore such as obtaining indisputable evidence of fire-burning activities.

Although current technology can identify the location of forest fires hot spots, it cannot identify the actor responsible. The problem is that there is no one-map policy in Indonesia for identification of concession holders and oil palm plantations. Moreover, land tenure is often disputed in Indonesia. In seeking compensation or remedies, not only proving causation and identifying polluters are barriers but evaluating claims for the damages can also pose a constraint. .

7.3

Regional Policy

The recurrent nature of the transboundary haze pollution created a feeling of common vulnerability and the problem is considered serious since it is created from within ASEAN. That the problem is linked to land use, land tenure and economic development in Indonesia has also been long recognised. Numerous mechanisms to address the problem have been proposed â&#x20AC;&#x201C; but the Plan, Resolution, or Accord beautifully crafted from as early as 1 990s by ASEAN for ASEAN to take action did not manage to stop the transboundary pollution. To understand the difficulty, one needs to trace back and appreciate ASEANâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s approach to environmental management, which stresses three norms (Koh & Robinson, 2002): Noninterference or non-intervention in other Member Statesâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; domestic affairs, Consensus building and cooperative programme preferred over legally-binding treaties, and Preference for national implementation rather than reliance on a strong region-wide bureaucracy. This is understandable looking at how the ASEAN institutional structure has evolved reflecting modest undertaking and giving priority to the preservation of national sovereignty. This process must be recognised to appreciate the development of regional approaches in dealing with environmental problems (Wan, 201 2).

Furthermore, since ASEAN embraces the principle of common but differentiated responsibilities, it must be noted that Member States would carry out common and agreed measures or actions at the national level based on the different levels of development and capacities of each Member State.

156

Environmental issues and regional cooperation on the environment gained prominence in the 1 970s with the First-ASEAN Sub-regional Environmental Programme (ASEP-I).

Subsequently, other environmental programmes such as ASEP-II and ASEP-III frame specific projects, soft law declarations and other related activities. But one significant early initiative was in 1 985 with the adoption of the Agreement on the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources which made a significant reference to air pollution and ‘transfrontier environmental effects’. Unfortunately, the Agreement until today is not in force due to lack of interest among, or implications for, ASEAN member countries.

The early collaboration among ASEAN member countries to address the problems of forest fires and haze saw a series of meetings among ASEAN ministers and senior officials in the early 1 990s (Koh, 2007; Letchumanan, 201 0). Key documents resulting from these meetings include: i. 1 990 Kuala Lumpur Accord on Environment and Development ii. 1 992 Singapore Resolution on Environment and Development iii. 1 994 Bandar Seri Begawan Resolution on Environment and Development Recurrent haze episodes in 1 994 and 1 995 led to the convening of the Informal ASEAN Ministerial Meeting on the Environment, which then witnessed the declaration that ASEAN constituted ‘one ecosystem’, an acknowledgement that in principle, environmental problems could not be adequately addressed solely within the domestic context and would require a regional approach (Wan, 201 2). a) 1 995 ASEAN Cooperation Plan on Transboundary Pollution This plan was designed to address transboundary pollution from various sources including atmospheric pollution such as haze. While specific measures to build capacity in terms of prevention and mitigation of forest fires and initiate information-sharing were included, it did not specify a time-line for implementation nor make reference to resource management as a measure to reduce haze. The plan was silent on issues that Member States considered would interfere with domestic politics. But it was the absence of specific operational directives that rendered the plan ineffective (Varkkey, 201 1 ). b) The Haze Technical Task Force (HTTF) 1 995 That the transboundary haze was observed to affect only a few of the ASEAN member countries and thus considered a sub-regional issue, a Haze Technical Task Force (HTTF) was

157

established to operationalise the ASEAN Cooperation Plan of 1 995 and to improve capacity for climate prediction and fire-fighting techniques. Not only the Task Force not only established two Sub-Regional Fire-Fighting Arrangements (SRFA) and facilitated the movement of resources from one member country to the other, it also established a SRFA Legal Group to examine legal and enforcement issues relating to forest fires (Varkkey, 201 1 ).

In addition, the Task Force also helped in the preparation of the Regional Haze Action Plan (RHAP) which was approved by the ASEAN Ministerial Meeting on Haze for implementation without going through the tedious process of national ratification as required by the 1 969 Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties (Florano 2004). c) 1 997 Regional Haze Action Plan (RHAP) The RHAP when crafted, and conforming to the ASEAN way, did not highlight any Member State as being responsible for the 1 997 haze disaster (Florano, 2004). Unlike the 1 995 Plan, it adopted an operational focus requiring Member countries to draw up national plans based on the regional plan and to specify measures to prevent, mitigate, and monitor land and forest fires. It also established an ASEAN Policy on Zero Burning. But the guidelines for zero burning did allow controlled burning to be continued under ‘specific situations’. The RHAP specified haze mitigation roles according to the country’s expertise at the ASEAN level with Indonesia for fire-fighting, Malaysia for prevention and Singapore for monitoring. However, being a legally non-binding soft law, compliance by Parties is voluntary with national governments retaining their freedom to decide on the contents of their national plans relevant to the haze problem, including the adoption and implementation of national policies. d) 2002 ASEAN Agreement on Transboundary Haze Pollution (ATTP) The Haze Agreement was adopted in June 2002 and entered into force in November 2003. The Agreement is legally-binding and reflected the ‘pragmatic approach’ of ASEAN member countries – capable of transcending the ASEAN Way when necessary - opting for a hard law to the more often preferred soft laws or cooperative and consensual discussions. The Agreement reaffirms Principle 21 of the Stockholm Declaration and Principle 2 of the Rio Declaration. The latter states “…sovereign right to exploit their own resources pursuant to

their environmental and development priorities, and the responsibility to ensure that activities within their jurisdiction do not cause damage to the environment of other States’.

The Agreement also provides a collective framework for dealing with forest burning and transboundary haze problem within the overall context of sustainable development. Standard Operating Procedure (SOP) that provides the procedures and guidelines for the implementation of monitoring and assessment (articles 7-8 of ATTP) and joint emergency

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response (articles 1 2-1 5 of ATTP) was adopted by the ASOEN-Haze Technical Task Force (HTTF) on 1 6 February 2006 and are used as a regional SOP. However, the Agreement is reportedly constrained by mechanisms that support the nonintervention norm or the ASEAN Way. The weak ‘non-intrusive’ parameters range from requesting and giving assistance, monitoring, reporting, exchanging information to absence of enforcement and liability provisions. The Agreement also seeks to eliminate forest fires, a goal difficult to achieve. Expert opinion suggests an emphasis on controlling peat fires rather than eliminating forest fires as well as taking into account the costs and benefits of policies rather than the costs of forest fires.

The potential effectiveness of the Agreement can be appreciated by understanding the political economy of forest resource exploitation, environmental governance, and regional autonomy of Indonesia (Wan, 201 2). This Agreement is observed problematic because compliance and effectiveness depends only on one state party – Indonesia. Indonesia finally ratified the Agreement in 201 5, after 1 3 years, partly because the economic, political, social and environmental effects of its action and the way different sectors within the country perceived the costs and benefits of these effects influenced the Indonesian response.

Malaysia’s continuous support to the implementation of the ASEAN Agreement on Transboundary Haze Pollution includes knowledge sharing, assistance in fire suppression, capacity building, technology transfer on control and zero burning practices, and sustainable peatland management. Malaysia supports in providing assistance to combat fires such as in 1 997 whereby our firemen were sent to assist fire suppression in Sumatra and the latest in October 201 5 our water bombing air crafts (bombardiers) were sent to combat raging fires in Palembang. Under the Regional Haze Training Network, capacity building amongst others is enhanced in the areas of haze management, sustainable peatland, monitoring and early warning system and enforcement related to open burning. e) 2004 Panel of ASEAN Experts on Fire-and-Haze Assessment and Coordination The Panel of ASEAN Experts on Fire-and-Haze Assessment and Coordination was established by the ASEAN Environment Ministers in October 2004 and set up by the ASEAN Senior Officials on the Environment (ASOEN) in August 2005 to ensure speedy and timely response during critical periods of fire and haze. The Panel is mobilised during potential or impending critical period to gather the latest information on fire-and-haze situation on the ground, conduct rapid assessment of the fire-and-haze situation, and if necessary,

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recommend the type and scope of resources that are needed to be mobilised to mitigate the fires and haze. f) 2004 Conference of Parties (COP) to the ASEAN Agreement on Transboundary Haze Pollution (AATP) The COP on AATP was established in 2003 and became an annual meeting. The COP shall continuously review and evaluate the implementation of ATTP and, amongst others, take action to ensure effective implementation of the Agreement and consider to adopt any review, amendment to the Agreement and to undertake necessary actions that may be required for the achievement of the objective of the Agreement. The latest development of COP to the ATTP are the road map to ASEAN Free Haze by 2020 and the establishment of the ASEAN Coordinating Centre (ACC) in Jakarta for the purpose of facilitating cooperation and coordination among the Parties in managing the impact from transboundary haze pollution as a result of land and forest fires. The ASEAN Secretariat office has been the temporary or interim ACC since ATTP was signed. Indonesia agreed to establish the ACC this year since the country has rectified and became a Party to ATTP in early 201 5. g) 2006 Sub-Regional Ministerial Steering Committee (MSC) on Transboundary Haze Pollution Following the haze episode in October 2006, a Ministerial Steering Committee (MSC) on Transboundary Haze Pollution was established to implement short-term and long-term measures to tackle land and forest fire problems. The MSC comprises Environment Ministers from Brunei, Indonesia, Malaysia, Singapore and Thailand. The first MSC Meeting in November 2006 held in Cebu, Philippines endorsed a comprehensive Indonesiaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Plan of Action (PoA) in Dealing with Transboundary Haze Pollution. The MSC still runs as a platform for south ASEAN countries to discuss among member states contributions in dealing with land and forest fires and to implement programs related to mitigating land and forest fires; capacity building, sharing of fire and haze occurrence information and action plans to reduce the occurrence of fires or number of hotspots by each member state. h) Other Strategies The ASEAN Peatland Management Strategy (APMS) was developed by ASEAN Member Countries to guide actions to support the management of peatlands in the region in the period of 2006 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; 2020 (ASEAN, 2007). The APMS was developed within the framework of the ASEAN Peatland Management Initiative (APMI) and the ASEAN Agreement on Transboundary Haze Pollution. The strategy was designed to serve as guidance to ASEAN Member Countries

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and other implementing bodies and collaborating partners through specific action plans and timeframe for actions. The strategy was also crafted to play a greater role in providing the formal cooperation among ASEAN Member Countries to solve peat-related problems in the region. Details will probably be addressed by Working Group Two.

7.3.1 Track 2 Diplomacy Initiatives The ASEAN leading track two networks namely, the ASEAN Institute of Strategic and International Studies (ASEAN ISIS) and the Council for Security Cooperation to the Asia Pacific (CSCAP) began to include â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;human securityâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; and the expanded notion of security comprising of economic security, food security, health security, and environmental security amongst others in the discourse.

Dialogues on Transboundary Haze Pollution initiated at Track 2 level attracted various representatives from regional non-governmental organisations (NGOs), not-for-profit associations, think tanks, academic institutions as well as private sector companies such as Sime Darby Berhad of Malaysia, Asia Pacific Resources International Ltd, and Sinarmas Forestry of Indonesia.

The early dialogues called attention to the haze and fires in Indonesia and for Indonesia to ratify and implement the ASEAN Haze Agreement. One of the earlier dialogues also called for coordinated action among the regional countries and ASEAN to consider making contributions and pledges to the Haze Control Fund. The dialogues also noted that NGOs can contribute to solutions to the fires and called for greater coordination between NGOs working in Indonesia, the region and at the international level. In all the dialogues sessions, calls for studies to estimate costs and implications of the haze and fires as well as the policies were made.

All the major dialogue sessions reiterated that the haze and the fires cause enormous harm which can be foreseen, given climatic forecasts and patterns of land and forest use especially in the sensitive areas. Also highlighted was the damage to the global commons by the release of GHGs and by the loss of biodiversity. The early dialogues also indicated that the haze and fires potentially may get worse in years to come as a result of increasing land development that is inappropriate and unsustainable. Other observations noted that a number of private sector companies in the palm oil industry, and pulp and paper industry have sought to increase their corporate social responsibility and to ensure the sustainability of their commercial activities,

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Various other issues and proposals were raised during the different dialogue sessions. These included a Protocol to strengthen the Haze Agreement taking into account the developments, efforts in providing operational details and commitments to the Agreement and moving towards procedures for monitoring, compliance and assistance. Next, the importance of enforcement and improving governance were also highlighted. Calls were made for cooperative projects between Indonesia â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Singapore and Indonesia - Malaysia to attract more responsible private companies as partners as well as to reach out to smaller and mediumsized companies to participate. In addition, companies are encouraged to move forward towards certification scheme and adopt sustainability standards. Proposals highlighting efforts to link the climate change regime to the problems of deforestation and fires and the opportunities under the Reducing Emission from Deforestation and Forest Degradation (REDD) initiative were tabled. Amongst others, there were also calls for coordinated responses across different agencies beyond the environmental agencies as well as for the ASEAN Leaders to give due attention to the transboundary haze and to provide the political will.

7.3.2 The ASEAN Charter The discussion will not be complete without highlighting the ASEAN institutional framework.

The ASEAN Charter entered into force in December 2008. To realise the objectives of the Charter, the ASEAN Leaders adopted a Roadmap comprising of three community blueprints â&#x20AC;&#x201C; political-security, social-cultural, and economic â&#x20AC;&#x201C; and the initiative for ASEAN integration Second Work Plan (Letcumanan, 201 0). Each of the three Communities will have new ASEAN Community Council which will, among others, ensure the implementation of the relevant decisions of the ASEAN Summit, and coordinate the work of the different sectors under its purview and on issues which cut across the other Community Councils. The ASEAN SocialCultural Community Council will oversee the work of the ASEAN Environment Ministers.

The ASEAN Environment Ministers meeting as Conference of Parties (COP) is responsible for the implementation of the ASEAN Agreement on Transboundary Haze Pollution. At the same time, sub-regional institutional frameworks in southern ASEAN and Mekong have been established to address the fires and transboundary haze problem.

7.4

Constraints

The analyses and effectiveness of the various policies including the Haze Agreement went through uncountable hours of discussions and writings. Many ASEAN and international

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scholars have given their views from the diplomatic, legal, economic, scientific and social perspectives.

There is an ASEAN way of doing things – polite discussions, non-confrontational approaches and non-legalistic procedures – which can pose a real constraint. There was diplomatic tension in 2006 when Singapore raised the issue of the haze at the General Assembly of the United Nations and called for international support and expertise. Indonesia reacted and declared that the move as tantamount to interference in internal affairs of a member state.

But Singapore pointed out that there was intrusion in its domestic environment as stated in Article 2 of the ASEAN Agreement on Transboundary Haze Pollution which mentions that transboundary haze should be prevented and monitored by domestic effort as well as international cooperation (Cheng, 201 5).

From the legal perspective, again, the biggest challenge is the ASEAN Way. International law holds that a state is responsible for transboundary harm that results from activities on its territory, carried out by the state or within its control. The 1 941 Trail Smelter case where Canada was held liable for damage done to American crops due to pollution from a smelting operation has often been quoted. However, there are difficulties in applying the Trail Smelter case within ASEAN and it is unlikely that any of the ASEAN member-states will impose state responsibility on Indonesia (Tay, 1 998).

The next challenge is the lack of enforcement because of Indonesia’s relative poverty and legal shortcomings as well as the decentralised democratic system in Indonesia. Indonesia’s own anti-burning law does exist and the penalties are not inconsequential. However, there is a conflicting application of rules such as Indonesia’s Law 32 that allows burning in forests for traditional uses. This raises the question what is considered ‘traditional uses’ and who or which communities are allowed the practice. Some Malaysians who are involved in smallscale oil palm plantations in Sumatra and Kalimantan have raised this issue – the land “Hak Guna Usaha” very often is reduced to only 40% to 70% for the Malaysians involved to use for planting. The remaining percentage is claimed by the local communities as their right and burning activities are very much the norm as allowed under Indonesia’s Law 32.

From the economic perspectives, during some recent private discussions with nongovernmental organisations from Indonesia, many of the members have voiced cost of clearing land as the major problem. While different figures were quoted, companies are reported to pay locals about USD1 00 per hectare to burn land in Indonesia but it is not easy to trace since payments are often made through a third party. At the same time, it would also depend on the areas concerned with some areas preferring to pay the locals on a daily basis

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at the rate of USD7 per day. In comparison, to clear land by other means such as zero burning is reported to cost USD600 per hectare. Quoting an estimate provided by CIFOR, the total cost of clearing is estimated to be USD665 per hectare. About 1 4% of this value is given to the people who cleared the land using slash and burn method, about 1 2% is given to the people for tree-cutting, and 50% may be given to the local farmers’ organisation. Other parties such as the village heads, officers and land owners who are involved in the sale of the land may share about 1 3% of the cost (the remaining percentage is not accounted for).

In terms of scientific challenges, it is difficult to predict how long the haze will remain or the intensity. Many of the variables depend on the number of “hotspots” – burning activities resulting in haze as well as the meteorological conditions such as the atmospheric ability to dilute and disperse the pollutants. The situation becomes even more complex in city areas following modification of the atmosphere or even the ‘inversion’ factor as described by Sham Sani (1 991 ). Unfortunately, there has been very little follow-up study in this area Next, in the case of El Nino, since it is a predictable event, the information is relevant in mitigating the risk of fires and recurrence of haze. Moving forward, research is crucial to study, for example, how El Nino may change future drought characteristics within the ASEAN region.

Similarly, the Fire Danger Rating System or FDRS is important in providing early warning on fires but the study on fire science to operate FDRS and the need to develop system calibration so that FDRS could be used for other future applications will be crucial.

From the social angle, it is interesting to see public concerns about transboundary haze.

Forsyth (201 4) conducted an analysis of public concerns based upon content analysis of key newspapers in Indonesia, Malaysia and Singapore for the haze episodes in 1 997, 2005 and 201 3. The analysis offers insights into how public concerns create environmental narratives or storylines. The storylines are important to get a better understanding of how different societies identify the causes and possible solutions, with implications of ‘blame’ and ‘responsibility’ or ‘urgency’ and ‘responsible behaviour’ for different political actors such as the governments and citizens. He came to the conclusion that the analysis has an important value and that the public is increasingly critical of the policy approaches to haze as well as the errant companies that are investing in palm oil activities. However, it cannot be denied that there is still widespread apathy regarding the haze.

Information given to the public by government authorities such as Department of Environment and Department of Meteorology as well as mass media is important for public awareness during the haze episode. Study by De Pretto et al. (201 5) indicate that the provision of accurate and timely information about air quality to residents will translate into beneficial practices, at least among particularly exposed individuals, such as amateur athletes who

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regularly practice. Itâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s also important for people who work outdoor most of their time and school children to take precautions during haze episode.

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8

Way Forward

With the future of transboundary haze hanging over the region – since President Joko Widodo announced that “it would take three years for results to be seen from efforts to end the huge annual fires” (The Jakarta Post, 30 September 201 5) – it could not be more timely to explore prospective options that could bring about a more effective/innovative approach to respond to the haze problem.

However, in a private discussion with a member of a renowned think-tank in the region, the period of three years to tackle the haze problem is considered very ambitious. This is largely because of the nature of the haze problem itself.

Transboundary haze has often been considered an environmental issue and has become stuck partly because the initial debates were steeped in a series of misconceptions. The misconceptions allowed policy makers to think that haze, an environmental problem with intergovernmental cooperation limited to Ministries of the Environment, was not that difficult to address. They persisted that a ‘political apology’ and ‘ambition’ was all that was needed.

The problem, however, is that transboundary haze is not just an environmental issue.

Cooperation calls for stronger coordination with other ministries responsible for key areas of the economy, finance and industry or with other strategic areas of ASEAN’s agenda on economic integration, food security and agriculture.

Studies by scholars such as Koh (undated), Nguitragool (201 1 ), Quah and Varkkey (undated), Tan (2005), Tay (2002) and Varkkey (201 3) have documented the complexity and magnitude of the problem, ranging from the law and policy to the changing political scenario; economics and the rise of oil palm, an important export crop; as well as the socio-cultural dimensions.

With so much written, this paper only noted the complexity highlighted.

On climate science, various members of Working Group 1 have drawn extensively on their knowledge and expertise to create a vision for moving forward. By bridging lessons learned from the research findings and by analysing viable science-policy options, it is hoped that this paper can serve to shed some light on achieving real progress.

8.1

Science Policy Interface/Intervention

Science-policy interfaces/interventions are complex - understanding what they are and how they work or why they fail - but critical in shaping ‘environmental’ governance. The interfaces/interventions allowing for exchanges and joint construction of knowledge with the

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aim of enriching decision-making and the need to move forward, will involve scientists and other actors in the policy process. While it is important for researchers and experts communicate their findings in an appropriate and accessible manner to policy-makers in order for them to make the right policy choices aiming at sustainable solutions, it is equally important for policy-makers to inform the scientific community about their needs for scientific knowledge. Policy-makers also need to be equipped with tools to assess and manage scientific uncertainties and risks.

Strengthening and advancing the science-policy interface/intervention through review of documentation, bringing together dispersed information and assessments will be important.

It is here that the study by Working Group 1 plays a significant role.

First, the sciences could contribute to a better understanding of the characteristics and origin of transboundary haze. (i)

(ii)

The composition of organic and inorganic substances in atmospheric aerosols or haze particles, for example, could be traced back to biomass burning and in some cases be identified as an ideal indicator/marker of biomass burning. Based on the review process, PM1 0 and PM2.5 are some of the parameters used for air quality monitoring and the composition of PM1 0 and PM2.5 during haze and non-haze episodes could be analysed. What must be highlighted is that the air quality index, the main parameter used to determine the haze, can give rise to unwarranted comparisons or confusion because of the different breakpoints used, such as with the Singapore Pollutants Standard Index (PSI) and Malaysian Air Pollutants Index (API). The measurement of PM2.5, for example, increases the value of PSI compared to API using PM1 0. Recommendation to the government: Strengthening the science-policy interface calls for enhanced monitoring and the inclusion of other scientific parameters as discussed even at times when there is an economic downturn and the fact that ASEAN is regarded as 1 -ecosystem, proposes that ASEAN come to some kind of agreement on the breakpoints to be used.

Equally important is the understanding of meteorology and the ability of the atmosphere to disperse/dilute pollutants in order to understand better, for example, the source of the pollutants (biomass burning or vehicular emissions) as well as the impact on the air quality in urban areas during the haze (because pollution dispersion is reportedly different from that observed in rural areas). Of significance is the source apportionment studied during haze and non-haze episodes. The study, having noted the complex urban environment and topography of Klang Valley for example, indicated that smoke from biomass burning makes a

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(iii)

larger contribution to atmospheric aerosol during the haze but the variation of the sulphate content at different locations suggest the influence of other local sources of SO2. Recommendation to the government: It is here that science policy intervention again becomes important and that pollutants from local anthropogenic sources be reduced at the onset of haze.

Next, weather data or meteorological variables (such as temperature, relative humidity, rainfall and windspeed) become crucial for the Fire Danger Rating System (FDRS) to mitigate fire-related problems or to support fire management.

An early warning system to identify critical periods of extreme fire danger in advance of their occurrence - incorporating measures of uncertainty and the likelihood of extreme conditions - is essential for forest and land related management agencies as well as for land owners and communities. FDRS early warning information is often enhanced with satellite data, such as hot spots, and with special data on land cover and fuel conditions will enable appropriate fire prevention, detection, preparedness and fire-response plans (De Groot et al., 2006). However, while better and more advanced satellite technology is helping to identify locations and patterns of fires, the pairing of satellite data with on-theground investigations is crucial. According to a WSJ Report (201 3), determining how a fire started requires approaching the fire site as one would a crime scene, ideally within a day of the event, which according to the Indonesian investigators, have not been easy. Recommendation to the government: There is a need to recognise a countryâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s limitations and explore collaborative actions in monitoring, predicting and conducting assessments. At the ASEAN level, Malaysia can propose for FDRS to provide the foundation for regional resource-sharing and for the resources to be deployed during times of extreme danger.

The second point, science involves complexity, uncertainty and indeterminacy but science produces knowledge as well as to a lesser extent predictions (van den Hove, 2007). As pointed out, El Nino is a predictable event; the information is relevant in preventing the risks of fires and recurrence of haze. The information on the forecastibility of the El Nino phenomenon is important for Malaysia and ASEAN in designing a more viable policy framework to respond pro-actively to the challenges. A preventive approach would be of great benefit to the region.

Note that economic researchers do not waste the opportunity to use any information that will impact on profitability or interest of the investors. It is interesting that The Edge Malaysia (201 5) quoted that CIMB, in a research report, did highlight the effect of moderate and strong El Nino on global palm oil production 201 5/201 6, even detailing companies with the largest

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exposure to the El-Nino-led dryness, as well as how the length and severity of the dry spell will play a role in crude palm oil (CPO) prices and planters’ earnings. Recommendations to the government: (i)

(ii)

Moving forward, research is crucial to study, for example, the influence of El Nino and how the trajectory of the haze is likely to change in the future. Other targeted studies should also include the relevance of climate change for El Nino periods, which may change future drought characteristics.

It is equally important that more attention – instead of just channelling efforts on fire-fighting – be directed towards preventive measures including no open burning, better land and water management as well as poverty alleviation (which will be more appropriately addressed by WG2 and WG3.)

Third point, innovative efforts are emerging with mapping software and mapping tools.

Technology is also being constantly upgraded and while many of the technologies have yet to be applied on a wide scale; the use of special sensors and drones to map burn scars so as to indicate a higher percentage of real fires should be further explored. Recommendation to the government: Scientific collaboration is critical to provide the collaborative relationship at the ASEAN level – the goal is to improve foreign policy action in addressing the haze through the use of scientific knowledge or technological solution. Scientists as knowledge brokers and technology developers have a responsibility, but at the same time, the interface processes must be such that they allow scientists to exercise their responsibility.

Next point is over the last two decades, many scientists, non-governmental organisations, and governments have looked into the impacts of transboundary haze although the attempts have been sporadic. In the field of health, the short-term mortality effects of high air pollution suggest that there may be long-term effects associated with exposure to elevated levels of air pollution over an extended period. Components of smoke haze, particularly polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, are known carcinogens whose effects may not be apparent for years (Sastry, 2000). The consequences may be more severe for children, because the particulates that they inhaled are high relative to body size and the children may be at some critical periods of development.

One implication of the results from studying the short-term effects in Malaysia of the haze is that the effects in Indonesia itself must have been huge. The indications of mortality effects in Malaysia many miles away from the main fires strongly support this notion. Another implication is that like many other environmental risk factors such as unsafe water, air pollution, the mortality burden attributable to haze falls disproportionately on low income

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regions of ASEAN. Recommendation to the government: There is tremendous value in shedding light and developing a better understanding of mortality and morbidity particularly in areas of high exposure and equally important of the long-term effects of air pollution even though the interpretation is not straight forward.

That the haze affects health and human security has to be recognised and this requires commitments. ASEAN, together with World Health Organisation, should introduce standard government response guidelines to long-term and severe exposure to haze (CaballeroAnthony and Goh Tian, 201 5). Response guidelines can help governments to implement measures such as activation of evacuation plans based on air quality readings, identification of vulnerable groups and provision of immediate aid. Recommendation to the government: Policy interface should look into systematic health preparedness measures which form an important part of transboundary haze risk management Next point, the science policy intervention also takes the economic challenges. In addressing the challenges, one interesting framework recommended by an ASEAN scholar was the stakeholders’ approach to cost-sharing. He argued that the cost of an effective fire prevention and control programme in Indonesia should be shared among the various stakeholders and other interested institutions both inside and outside the region (Tan, 2005).

Sharing the burden of costs associated with the development and implementation of an effective land fire prevention and control was analysed with Malaysia’s and Singapore’s effort were used as case studies. Recommendation to the government: Moving forward in terms of stakeholders’ approach to cost-sharing, efforts by Malaysia in Riau and Singapore in Jambi should be re-examined so as to address the gaps and get full participation of the target groups such as the small-holders and the large actors in future initiatives.

Another economic approach is through the ecosystem services, which is not new but an approach that has been studied and should be reconsidered. Ecosystem services are the economic benefits that ecosystems provide to humanity. According to Schrier-Uijl et al.

(201 3), tropical forests provide a large number of ecosystem services both at the global level (e.g. climate control) and at the local level, including cultural, provisioning and regulating services such as soil erosion, hydrological control, delivery of natural forest products, fisheries and tourism. Vincent (201 2), drawing from four years of research in Malaysia, presented the econometric analysis of the watershed services of tropical forests. According to a recent report by The Economics of Ecosystems and Biodiversity (TEEB), the economic costs of GHG emissions, loss of natural resources, loss of nature-based services such as carbon storage, climate change and pollution-related health could be huge. The global top 1 00 environmental externalities cost the world economy USD4.7 trillion a year (Badgery-

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Parker, 201 3). Recommendation to the government: ASEAN should therefore examine and understand the â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;trueâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; or real value of the natural resources (such as forests) so that the way the resources are being used and the policy decisions made will reflect those values.

8.1.1 Regional Governance The policy on zero-burning was adopted by ASEAN in 1 999 to promote its application by plantation companies, timber concessionaires and other relevant parties in the region. The policy reflects ASEANâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s commitment in containing land and forest fires and the associated transboundary haze. But the constraints must be well understood to address the sustainability factor and the haze. As highlighted, the cost of clearing at roughly USD600 per hectare is a huge constraining factor compared to the cost of slash and burn at USD1 00 per hectare or USD7 per day. The effort to utilise palm oil as a source of renewable energy will not work if burning is still practised and if economical logistics cannot be organised to make sure that the biomass be brought to a central factory or processing plant. The WG3 will be in a better position to address this challenge. Recommendation to the government: Search for a more viable economic option to encourage zero-burning.

It is not uncommon to witness at the international level, processes such as Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) and Intergovernmental Platform on Biological Diversity and Ecosystem (IPBES), re-enforcing their interfaces and shaping responses to global environmental challenges. Ways to innovate new forms of interaction including improved dialogues on transboundary haze involving the various stakeholders will be needed. Recommendation to the government: Encourage ASEAN to take the lead in bringing business and society back together. There are sophisticated business and thought leaders that can move beyond the social responsibility mindset and search for the principle of shared value which involves creating economic value in a way that also creates values for society by addressing its needs and challenges.

The role of the public as highlighted cannot be ignored. Public concerns about environmental problems such as transboundary haze create narrative structures that do have an influence on policy by allocating roles of blame, responsibility and appropriate behaviour. The public in countries like Singapore and Malaysia is already annoyed with the policy approaches to haze and is arguing for an alternative governance structure. Alternatives being explored including public pressure on errant companies that could have an impact on markets that are not ready to work closely with sustainability as well as push for corporations to create shared value and not just profit. Recommendation to the government: Encourage Public-PrivatePeople partnership to address the transboundary haze problem.

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8.1.2 Research and Development Continuous research and development is very important to solve the issues of haze episode in Southeast Asia. Collaboration and networking among researchers in Southeast Asia will help to produce new knowledge the composition of particulate matter, influence of meteorological factors, forecasting and modelling as well as the impact of haze toward human health, economy and social life.

Study on the variability of weather condition especially related to El NiĂąo - Southern Oscillation (ENSO) and its influence to haze episode is very important for forecasting haze episode in the future. El NiĂąo and dry weather condition has been found to contribute to worst haze conditions as in 1 997 and 201 5. With detail information on weather and dry period forecasting, early preparation for haze mitigation can be conducted by related agencies.

Other than that, weather forecasting can be used for regional and daily local forecasting for air pollutant concentrations. This study need to be carried out along with emission inventory studies which should be conducted together with Malaysian Meteorology Department and Department of Environment. Chemical transport can be used for detail air quality forecasting during haze episode. Detailed air quality modelling tools available in Malaysia would allow for a better understanding of the sources of the haze and how transboundary and local pollution interact, and enable day-to-day emergency response and mitigation based on predictions.

Based on the knowledge on particulate matter during haze episode so far, there is a need to further study on the fine particle compositions which dominated the composition of particulate matter. Study should emphasise on the composition of PM2.5 and below. Detail on source apportionment study using receptor models can help researchers to know the contribution of transboundary biomass burning and local contribution of fine particle during haze episode. Comprehensive studies on the composition of inorganic substances as well as organic substances compositions will help to investigate the possible sources of fine particles. Various methodologies of particle identification and finger printing should be used including isotope ratios, radon activity decay and radiation X-ray fluorescence spectrometry (SR-XRF). The detail information on transboundary sources and contribution by local sources can help to reduce pollutants emit by sources that can be controlled or reduced by local authorities such as motor vehicles emission, local open burning, power plant industrial emission.

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Health, social life, and economy are three major impacts that influenced by haze episode. The study on impacts from haze is crucial for better understanding the impact of haze in Southeast Asia region, particularly in Malaysia. Study on health should focus on the toxicological properties of haze particles and to systematically assess the health and social burden of diseases due to haze episode. Among others are i. ii. iii.

Epidemiological study on the burden of diseases of air pollutants Toxicity assessment of particulates from forest fires Evaluation of the indoor school environment during haze episode

The impact of haze towards social life and economy needs to be conducted through comprehensive survey especially in the areas that most affected by haze episode in Malaysia.

8.2

Conclusion

This paper noted the efforts to address the transboundary haze at the ASEAN level which predominantly has been a top-down approach. But the efforts, demonstrating greater cooperation among the ASEAN Member Countries, while highly commended, have failed after over 20 years of almost annual recurrence. There is renewed vigour at the ASEAN level following Indonesiaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s ratification process. Also highlighted was Singaporeâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s response to the haze problem which has shifted from state responsibility towards a civil liability regime for transboundary pollution. For Malaysia, the government is still considering partly because of the political hurdles in implementing such a transboundary law.

In this study, WG1 has attempted to focus on the sciences in taking the preventive approach.

The group noted the presence of the El Nino Southern Oscillation phenomenon associated with warming of the waters of the equatorial Pacific Ocean. The study reiterated that the effect of El Nino is to exacerbate the fires that are being set, and not to cause the fires themselves. The El Nino phenomenon that led to the drought conditions in the region also plays an important role in altering the regional atmospheric composition even affecting the dissipation of the haze particles. That the period between the haze episodes has been reduced is now well recognised. Haze has been occurring almost every year. It is important to note that since haze affects Malaysia, Singapore and to a lesser extent Brunei as well as southern Thailand, it is important that no open burning be allowed during the dry period and the forthcoming predicted El Nino phenomenon.

The study also noted the properties and composition of particulate matter or atmospheric aerosols during the haze and that the composition could be traced back to biomass burning,

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and in some cases, be identified as an ideal indicator/marker of biomass burning. This is significant because it can help in understanding the trajectory of the haze. Equally important, the findings on source apportionment of pollutants will have a policy implication and that is to reduce pollutants from local anthropogenic sources at the onset of haze.

Little could be done to combat the smoke haze once fires are raging. The economic, health and diplomatic impacts of the haze, as well as problems such as impact on GHG emissions, loss of biodiversity, consequences of traditional livelihoods, and destruction of natural and cultural capital are again well recognised. There is a need to come to a common understanding of the complex interconnectivity of causes and the roles that the various actors including scientists and financial markets can play in preparing for future haze events, creating shared value and addressing the processes that are driving the forest and plantation fires.

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Annex B:

Peat Area& Water Management

LIST OF FIGURES Figure B-1 . Scenario of haze Figure B-2. Peat Fire Figure B-3. Distribution of lowland peats in Malaysia and Indonesia (Rieley et al. in S. Paramananthan, 201 6) Figure B-4. Formation of tropical peatlands Figure B-5. Peat Swamp Figure B-6. Cross-section of a peatland showing peat dome. (Source: Melling and Hatano 2004) Figure B-7. Simplified Key to the Identification of Great Groups of Histosols (Paramananthan, 201 0b) Figure B-8. Structure of the proposed unified classification system by COMSSSEM (Source: Uyo et al., 201 0) Figure B-9. Subsidence post in peat area in Everglades, Florida (Source: Newswise.com, 201 4).

Figure B-1 0. Ground level subsidence in years (Source: US Geological Survey, Circular 1 1 82, 1 999) Figure B-1 1 . Bulk density with respect to depth Figure B-1 2. Subsidence rate with respect to temperature and water table level (Source: FAO Soils Bulletin 59) Figure B-1 3. Outlet structure rendered obsolete in Pontian circa 1 988, Johore Barat and Tg Bijat, Sri Aman, Sarawak, 1 1 Mac 1 998, respectively.

Figure B-1 4. Unequal settlements Taman Padri, Sri Aman, Sarawak, March, 1 998 Figure B-1 5. Peat soil in the Everglades, United States. (Source: US Geological Survey, Circular 1 1 82, 1 999) Figure B-1 6. The effect of drainage to peat subsidence Figure B-1 7. Reclaiming peat swamps for Western Johore IADP in the 1 970s (from the files of S Zakaria) Figure B-1 8. North and South Langat peat swamps (from the files of S Zakaria) Figure B-1 9. Peat Subsidence in Pekan Nenas, Pontian circa 1 986. Then, the surface has subsided to about 1 meter, reaching the underlain clay soil. Initial peat surface is marked white on the measuring pole, near the hand of the man in white (from the files of S Zakaria) Figure B-20. Peat Subsidence in Benut, Pontian circa 2000. The surface is more than 1 meter below the initial surface. Initial peat surface is at the

176

tip of the extended hand of the lady in stripes. This area caught fire the year before (from the files of S Zakaria) Figure B-21 . Areas under oil palm in Peninsular Malaysia, Sabah and Sarawak (Source: MPOB Annual Report) Figure B-22. Percentage of oil palm area planted on peatland.

Figure B-23. Sarawak coastal peat Figure B-24. Steps for developable independent peat basin Figure B-25 (a) to (e). – Independent peat basins in Sarawak Figure B-26. A decision tree for choice on potential peatland use Figure B-27. Strategies to mitigate peatland issues and manage peatland in Malaysia Figure B-28. Sarawak’s peat basins Figure B-29. Sarawak’s river basins Figure B-30. Flow Chart for Water Management Figure B-31 . Illustrations on MIKE SHE Modelling Figure B-32. Illustrations on Seepage Irrigation Method Figure B-33. The Emergency Management Cycle Figure B-34. The components of Integrated Fire Management Figure B-35. Communication to the society

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LIST OF TABLES Table B-1 .

Table B-2.

Table B-3.

Table B-4.

Table B-5.

Table B-6.

Table B-7.

Table B-8.

Table B-9.

Table B-1 0.

Table B-1 1 .

Table B-1 2.

Table B-1 3.

Table B-1 4.

Table B-1 5.

Table B-1 6.

Table B-1 7.

Comparison of Estimates of undisturbed Peatlands in Southeast Asia Extent of Organic Soils in Malaysia Extent of Peatland Developed for Agriculture in Malaysia The Utilisation of Peatland for Agriculture in Peninsular Malaysia and Sarawak Summary of History of Organic Soil Classification Systems Used in Peninsular Malaysia Histosols of Sabah (Acres et al., 1 975) Family and Series Differentiae Used for Organic Soils of Sarawak (after Tie, 1 982 and Teng, 1 996) Summary of Criteria Used to Classify Organic Soils of Malaysia (Paramananthan, 201 0a) Differentiae Used at the Different Categoric Levels by COMSSSEM (Uyo et al., 201 0) Physical properties of peat Chemical properties of peat (0-50 cm depth) Oil palm crop area on peatland Benefits of intact peatlands Areas in Raja Musa Forest Reserve damaged by fires Summary of conferences and workshops organised by TPRL Economic importance of oil palm on peatland to Sarawak Summary Table

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1

Introduction

Frequent haze episodes that have occurred in recent decades affect millions of people in Southeast Asia. Recently, occurrences of haze in Malaysia have been increasingly severe.

From June to September 201 5, Malaysia experienced incidences of haze with high levels of suspended particulate matter that led to the closure of schools for a week. From 1 7-1 8 August 201 6, 523 hot spots were detected in Indonesia (Tempo.Co, 201 6; Today online, 201 6).

By 26 August, six Indonesian provinces had declared a state of emergency due to the fires; Central Kalimantan, Jambi, Riau, South Kalimantan, South Sumatra, and West Kalimantan (Endi, 201 6). On 1 7 August 201 6, Malaysia's Air Pollutant Index surpassed 1 00 (the 'unhealthy' level) for the first time in 201 6 (Today Online, 201 6). The Star Online report of 30 August 201 6 anticipated that more smoke from forest fires in Riau province could head towards Singapore and Malaysia in the next few days due to a change in wind direction.

However, Indonesiaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s National Disaster Management Agency (BNPB) noted that it recorded a 61 % decline in the number of hot spots this year, attributing it to favourable weather conditions, as well as a more cohesive public-private sector approach in preventing and fighting fires.

The worsening haze problem marked by very low visibility (Figure B-1 ) has been attributed to improper peatland management, although findings from WG1 noted that only 40% the sources of haze originated from peat area.

Figure B-1

Scenario of haze

179

Figure B-2

Peat Fire

Although only 40% of the fires are attributed to the peat (Paramananthan, 201 6b), the smouldering fire from the organic-rich dry peat contributed 90% to the ASEAN transboundary haze (Heil, 2007). The partial combustion from peat fires produces more smoke and the particles released from these fires takes longer time to settle, allowing it to float in the air and drifting with the wind crossing boundaries (ibid), hence the term transboundary. Furthermore, 40% attribution to fire from 1 4% of total land area, as in the case of Indonesiaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s peatland (Paramananthan, 201 6a), suggested that peat lands are more susceptible to fire.

A literature review indicated that peatland fires were assumed to be mainly fueled by vegetation cleared for plantation establishment. The peat substrate may also be ignited when farmers burn the vegetation on their land during dry weather, prior to planting their crops. The peat burns as smouldering fires, often spreading below the soil surface and are difficult to extinguish. Poorly planned or executed burning will cause long-term damage to peat soil and peatland hydrology. Peatland fires have been assumed to be the source of what has become known as â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;transboundary hazeâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;. Forest fires produce and release particulates and gases into the atmosphere (Heil et al., 2007). Particulate matter emitted from smouldering combustion produces smoke, degrades the air quality and reduces atmospheric visibility. Emission of fine particles which exceeds the limits stated in WHO guidelines may pose serious health threats. Pollutants from forest fires can cause various respiratory difficulties such as in asthma patients (Awang et al., 2000). Gases such as

180

carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxide, methane and carbon dioxide are also produced during the combustion of peatlands (Levine, 1 999).

The cause of haze are from the burning of organic matter â&#x20AC;&#x201C; leaves, branches, twigs, wood etc., occurring on the soil surface of smallholders and plantation, both on peat and mineral soils. In a peat swamp forest reserve, after a long dry period, the water table can drop to below one meter from the surface, making the peatland a tinderbox for fires. Hunters or travelers along the roads may throw a cigarette butt and the fire then starts and spreads (Paramananthan, 201 6b).

The peats are generally waterlogged with acidic conditions and as such support small native communities who collect wood and fish for their subsistence living. Due to increasing population pressure, the paucity of good arable land, the need to produce more food and the need to eradicate rural poverty, both the Governments of Indonesia and Malaysia have with varying success, drained and developed some of these peatlands for agriculture. Many of the failures were partly due to the lack of understanding of the structure and hydrology of these peatlands. These peatlands were treated as any other waterlogged mineral swamp and large drains were dug to remove excess water. This has resulted in the subsidence and sometimes decomposition of the organic materials. Often the wrong choice of crop may contribute to the failure (Paramananthan, 201 6a).

This analysis of WG2 focuses on â&#x20AC;&#x153;Peat Area and Water Managementâ&#x20AC;? and also includes minimising the haze from burning non-peat areas through various fire-fighting measures and incentives. To understand the critical importance of water management in peat areas, it is imperative to understand that peats were formed in the presence of water and/or moisture. Thus, peat physical and chemical properties are very much influenced by moisture content, local vegetation and the surrounding environment. Peat classification, at groups and sub groups levels, is critical for cross-border and international understanding in discussions on managing the different types of peat. Instituting a sustainable peat water management system, besides the physical properties, requires the need to identify various boundary conditions, such as peat basins and river basin boundaries. Hence, this chapter will focus on discussing and understanding the tropical peats, the various economic programs and how they will affect the peat soil and be affected in return.

181

2 2.1

Tropical Peat Distribution of Lowland Peats in Southeast Asia

[This sub-chapter 2.1 is an excerpt from Paramananthan (201 6a) Organic Soils of Malaysia: Their characteristics and management for oil palm cultivation. Published with courtesy and permission from the author and publisher.]

The estimate of the extent of peatlands in Southeast Asia varies with the source. Rieley et al.

(1 995) give the minimum and maximum extent of undisturbed peatlands in Southeast Asia (Table B.1 ). For comparison, values for the same countries quoted by Tie (1 990) are also given. It is clear that some very large differences exist, depending on the definition and source used. For Malaysia, these differences are difficult to explain as there is only one soil map each for Peninsular Malaysia, Sabah and Sarawak. Even within the data from Rieley et al. (1 995) their minimum and maximum values vary considerably. However, it is clear that within Southeast Asia, Indonesia has by far the largest extent of organic soils. The extent of organic soils in Indonesia and Malaysia is given below. The distribution of lowland peats in Indonesia and Malaysia is given in Figure B.3 (Paramananthan, 201 6).

2.1.1

Extent of lowland peats in Indonesia

The lowland peatlands of Indonesia are found mainly in Sumatra, Kalimantan and Papua (formerly Irian Jaya). A large proportion of these peatlands consist of ombrogenous and topogenous peats close to the coasts of Sumatra, Kalimantan, and Papua. Soekardi and Hidayat (1 988) estimated that the total extent of peat in Indonesia to be 1 8.480 million hectares. According to their estimates, 50.4% of Indonesiaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s peatlands occur in Kalimantan, 24.9% in Papua and 24.3% in Sumatra. Based on a survey of the tidal swamplands in parts of the Sumatra and Kalimantan, it was found that 36.2% of the Sumatra and Kalimantan peatlands were shallow (<1 00cm deep), 1 4.0% were of medium depth (1 00-200cm) and 49.8% were deep (>200cm) (Radjagukguk, 1 991 ; Paramananthan, 201 6).

2.1.2

Extent of lowland peats in Malaysia

The extent of lowland peats in Malaysia is summarised in Table B.2, while the land uses on these peat areas in Malaysia are summarised in Tables B.3 and B.4 (Paramananthan, 201 6).

It must be pointed out that some of these data are old and new data needs to be compiled urgently since peat soil mineralised and/or subsided rapidly in the tropics. A previously 1

182

meter deep peat area in Pekan Nenas, Pontian, had already reached the underlain clay soils as of mid-1 980s.

Table B-1

Comparison of Estimates of undisturbed Peatlands in Southeast Asia Rieley et al. 1995 (ha) Area

Country

x million ha

Tie, 1990 Area (x million ha) Percentage

Minimum

Maximum

Brunei Indonesia Malaysia Papua New Guinea Philippines Thailand

0.01 1 7.00 2.25 0.50 0.1 0 0.07

0.01 27.00 2.73 2.89 0.24 0.07

0.03 82.00 8.28 8.76 0.72 0.21

0.01 26.20 2.56 0.5 na 0.8

Total

1 9.93

32.94

1 00.00

30.07

Source: Rieley et al., 1 995 and Tie, 1 990

Figure B-3

Distribution of lowland peats in Malaysia and Indonesia (Rieley et al. in S. Paramananthan, 201 6)

183

Table B-2

Extent of Organic Soils in Malaysia Extent of organic soils

Region (and source)

State/Division

Peninsular Malaysia (Law and Selvadurai, 1 968)

Johore Kedah Kelantan Malacca Negeri Sembilan Pahang Penang/Province Wellesley Perak Perlis Selangor Terengganu Sub-Total (Peninsular Malaysia):

Sabah (Acres et al., 1 975)

Sarawak (Melling, 1 999)

Total land area (Ha) Area (Ha)

Sub-Total (Sabah): Kuching Samarahan Sri Aman Sarikei Sibu Bintulu Miri Limbang Sub-Total (Sarawak): Malaysia total:

% of State/Division

1 ,909,886 937,71 2 1 ,497,351 1 64,307 663,730 3,584,758 1 03,929 2,090,827 80,974 840,31 5 1 ,289,944

205,856 7,880 8,1 88 228,644 74,075 1 86,602 85,537

1 0.8 0.5 1 .2 6.4 3.5 22.2 6.6

1 3,1 63,733

796,782

6.1

7,563,600

200,600

2.6

455,955 496,745 964,699 433,235 1 ,527,590 1 ,21 6,621 2,677,707 779,001

26,827 205,479 340,374 1 72,353 502,466 1 68,733 31 4,585 34,730

0.2 1 .7 2.7 1 .4 4.0 1 .4 2.5 0.3

1 2,445,000

1 ,765,547

1 4.2

25,616,296

2,762,929

10.8

184

Table B-3

Extent of Peatland Developed for Agriculture in Malaysia

Region

State/Division

(and source)

Peninsular Malaysia (1 984) (after Abdul Jamil et al., 1 989)

Sabah

Sarawak (after Melling, 1 999)

MALAYSIA

Table B-4

Area developed for agriculture

Total area of peat

Johor Kelantan Negeri Sembilan Pahang Perak Selangor Terengganu

Ha

%

205,856 7,880 8,1 88 228,644 74,075 1 86,602 85,537

1 45,900 2,1 00 5,000 1 7,1 00 69,700 59,900 1 3,900

70.9 26.6 61 .1 7.5 94.1 32.1 1 6.2

Sub-Total (P.M.)

796,782

31 3,600

39.4

Sub-Total (Sabah)

200,600

Na

26,827 205,479 340,374 1 72,353 502,466 1 68,733 31 4,585 34,730

Na 50,836 50,836 61 ,1 1 2 269,571 47,591 66,1 1 4 8,71 5

Na 24.7 1 4.9 35.4 53.6 28.2 21 .0 25.1

Sub-Total (Part):

1 ,765,547

554,775

30.8

TOTAL (Part):

2,762,929

868,375

31 .4

Kuching Samarahan Sri Aman Sarikei Sibu Bintulu Miri Limbang

Na

The Utilisation of Peatland for Agriculture in Peninsular Malaysia and Sarawak

Type of crops

Peninsular Malaysia1 (Ha)

Sarawak2 (Ha)

Total area (Ha)

Oil palm Sago Rubber Coconut Padi Pineapples Mixed horticulture Miscellaneous

1 46,730 98,1 43 29,701 1 5,01 3 1 4,690 5,81 0 7,425

330,669 64,229 23,000 2,000 1 ,895 908 369

477,399 64,229 1 21 ,1 43 29,701 1 7,01 3 1 6,585 6,71 8 7,794

Total:

31 7,51 2

423,070

740,582

Source:

1 2

Abdul Jamil et al. (1 989) Melling (1 999)

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2.2

Genesis/formation of peat swamp.

Peats or organic soils technically known as Histosols are formed by the accumulation of organic soil materials above the mineral soils, often in stagnant water. Peat swamp comprises of an ancient and unique ecosystem characterised by waterlogging, with low nutrients and low dissolved oxygen levels in acidic water regimes (NRE et al., 2006). Their continued survival depends on a naturally high water level and/or high moisture content, that prevents the soil from drying out and prevents the combustible peat matter from being exposed. Peat forms when plant material, usually in marshy waterlogged areas, is inhibited from decaying fully by the high water tables acidic conditions and an absence of microbial activity. For example, peat formation can occur along the inland edge of mangroves where fine sediments and organic material become trapped in the mangrove roots.

The waterlogged condition creates an anaerobic environment which slows down the decomposition of organic matter. Peat is formed when the accumulation rate of organic matter exceeds its decomposition rate. Peat accumulates in layers year after year to form deposits which may reach 20m deep. Figure B-4 below portrays the formation process of tropical peatlands.

186

Figure B-4

Formation of tropical peatlands

Peat is more than 65% organic matter, composed largely of vegetation including trees, grasses, mosses, fungi and various organic remains including those of insects and animals.

The build-up of layers of peat and degree of decomposition depend principally on the local composition of the peat and the degree of waterlogging. Peat swamp forests develop on these sites. Water in peat swamps is generally high in humic substances [particulate organic carbon (POC) (humus) and humic acids] that give a typically dark brown to black colour to the water.

Tropical lowland peats often also have undecomposed or partly decomposed branches, logs or twigs. Peats have been mapped worldwide under many climatic zones from the arctic to the tropics. They are found both in the northern and southern hemispheres wherever suitable climatic and environmental conditions occur for their accumulation. Subtropical peatlands underlain by limestone as in the Everglades, United States of America (US), were widely cultivated for vegetables or truck crops (Zakaria, 1 992). It was a continuous body of

187

more than 800,000 hectares in 1 980 which have since mineralised reaching the underlain limestone subsurface layer. One of the main conditions necessary for the formation of peats is the conditions that limit the decomposition, a high moisture availability, to ensure accumulation of organic soil materials (Paramanathan, 201 6; Zakaria, 1 992). Tropical lowland peats, formed from the accumulation of logs, twigs and other woody plant remains, are distinctly different from temperate and boreal peats which are mainly formed by the accumulation of mosses, grasses and sedges. Their characteristics are highly influenced by the hydrological conditions i.e. pedohydrology. However, while peat swamps formation are due to high water content, they can be a tinderbox during prolonged droughts and are prone to fires which result in haze and air pollution. This can also occur under natural peat swamp forests conditions during prolonged dry periods when the watertable can drop to below 1 00cm of the soil surface.

Many lowland peatlands are characteristically dome-shaped (the cross section is lenticular or lens-shaped as shown in (Figure B-6) and thus the peat thickness varies - shallower at the peatland edge and increasing towards the peat dome apex. Within each lowland peat swamp, the specific peat basin, the flow of the drainage are radially from the peat dome apex to the periphery, and then through the lowest outlet to the rivers. The water table in a peat swamp (Figure B-5) is said to be stilted because it is at or close to the surface throughout the peat dome most of the year round. The water table does, however, fluctuate in accordance with the amount of rainfall received and the amount of groundwater discharged (Kselik and Tie, 2004). A peat swamp can be regarded as a single hydrological unit which may consist of various interconnected sub-catchments (Kselik and Tie, 2004).

Survey monitoring, tied to permanent bench mark, will determine the rate of subsidence of a drained peat dome. This monitoring is necessary as peats subside on drainage.

In Johore Barat, Peninsula Malaysia, Zakaria (1 992), noted a net annual surface subsidence of 27.1 1 mm in drained peat, monitored weekly using metal plates.

188

Figure B-5

Peat Swamp

Figure B-6

Cross-section of a peatland showing peat dome. (Source: Melling and Hatano, 2004)

189

2.3

Roles and importance of peatland swamp (in its natural form)

Tropical lowland peats are fragile swamp ecosystem. Their waterlogged environment has led to the evolution of many species of flora uniquely adapted to these conditions. Peat swamps are an important component of the worldâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s wetlands â&#x20AC;&#x201C; an important dynamic link between land and water, a transition zone where the flow of water, the cycling of nutrients and the energy of the sun combine to produce a unique ecosystem of hydrology, soils and vegetation (NRE et al., 2006). These swamps provide a variety of goods and services, both directly and indirectly, in the form of forestry and fisheries products, energy, flood mitigation, water supply and groundwater recharge.

Most of Malaysian peatlands are wetland swamps found in the lowland flood plains, and also served as detention/retention areas for flood waters coming from the upstream hinterland. Draining the peatland, for whatever economic activities, will initiate the induced consolidation process and hence subsidence. Subsequently, rapid mineralisation will further result in increased subsidence. Drainage not only will change the fragile ecosystem, the subsidence will lower the surface of the land further and may render it more susceptible to flood waters. These need to be taken into consideration during development planning of peat areas, particularly as climate change is expected to be significant in the Asia-Pacific region.

2.4

Peat classification

The purpose of a soil classification system is to group the soils with similar properties in the same class. The classification system should assist the reader to see similarities and differences between the soils classified. Relationships between the soils can also be made.

Thus, the classification system should enable the soils to be grouped at different levels depending on how detailed one wants to discuss the soils. The classification should also be able to classify all the soils mapped. Ideally a well-structured classification should also be universally acceptable and thus have wide application and not confined to one locality or country.

This chapter reviews the past definitions and classifications of Tropical organic soils and outlines completely new definitions and classification of organic soils of Malaysia as proposed by Paramananthan (1 998, 201 0a). This new unified classification, while based on the structure of Soil Taxonomy (Soil Survey Staff, 1 975; 1 999; 201 0), has been modified to suit Malaysian conditions so as not to upset existing soil series/families already in use in Malaysia. The criteria used in this classification include: drainage class, soil temperature

190

regime, thickness of organic deposits, nature of the dominant material in the subsurface tier, nature of the underlying substratum, reaction class, origin of the organic deposit, ash content, and the presence/absence of wood in the profile. With the recent information gathered this classification is being upgraded (Paramananthan, 201 5).

Malaysia consists of three main political regions namely, Peninsular Malaysia, Sabah and Sarawak. Due to historical reasons, soil mapping and classification in these three regions have been different in terms of methodology, definitions and classification. Thus, the mapping, classification and definitions used for organic soils during the reconnaissance surveys in these three regions are also different. It is pertinent, therefore, to review these past definitions.

Soil Mapping and Classification [This following box section is an excerpt from Paramananthan (201 6a) Organic Soils of Malaysia: Their characteristics and management for oil palm cultivation. Published with courtesy and permission from the author and publisher.]

Peninsular Malaysia Organic soils in Peninsular Malaysia were initially classified according to their inherent fertility status. Coulter (1 950) suggested the following classification for peat soils in Malaya: • Eutrophic group : high in mineral content; largely derived from marsh and grass; neutral or alkaline in reaction.

• Oligotrophic group : low in mineral content, especially in calcium, and acid in reaction.

• Mesotrophic group : intermediate between the first two types, with a pH about 5.0 and a high level of bases.

During the systematic reconnaissance soil surveys, organic soils received very little attention, often only being mapped as Inland Swamp Association (Null et al., 1 965; Wong, 1 966; Stensland, 1 966; Coulter, 1 956; Coulter et al., 1 956). Leamy and Panton (1 966), however, proposed that organic soils in Peninsular Malaysia be mapped using their loss on ignition as follows: Organic clay

– Loss on ignition of 20-35% and having an organic surface horizon of at least 1 5 cm (6 inches).

191

Muck

– Loss on ignition of 35-65% and having a thickness of at least 1 5 cm (6 inches). Muck layers were often 0.6 m (2 feet) thick and occurred along the edges of the peat soils.

Peat

– Loss on ignition of more than 65% and ranging in thickness of 0.6 to 7.5 m. Three common depth phases were mapped – shallow peat (0.0-0.6 metres or 0-2 feet); moderately deep peat (0.6-1 .5 metres or 2-5 feet); deep peat (over 1 .5 metres or 5 feet deep).

Thus in subsequent reconnaissance soil surveys these organic soils and related mineral soils were mapped as organic clays, organic clays and mucks and peat (Acton, 1 966; Panton et al., 1 965; Soo, 1 968; Ives, 1 967; Smallwood, 1 965, 1 966, 1 967).

The depths of peat used were subsequently modified during the semi-detailed soil surveys (Ariffin and Yew, 1 983) who proposed the following depths: Shallow peat – less than 1 50 cm deep Moderately deep peat – depth of 1 50-300 cm Deep peat – depth of more than 300 cm Perhaps the first attempt to try to adopt some of the criteria in Soil Taxonomy (Soil Survey Staff, 1 975) to organic soils of Peninsular Malaysia was suggested by Paramananthan (1 976) during the semi-detailed soil survey of the Johor Barat Project Area. Finally in an attempt to unify soil classification for the whole of Malaysia, particularly for organic soils, Paramananthan et al. (1 984, 1 992) proposed that in order to qualify to be an organic soil the cumulative thickness of the organic soil materials should make up more than half of the total thickness to a depth of 1 00 cm or to the top of a lithic/paralithic contact whichever is shallower. They also redefined the control section proposed earlier by Paramananthan (1 976) from 1 20 cm to 1 50 cm and proposed the depth classes as follows: Shallow Moderately deep Deep Very deep

– – – –

thickness 50-1 00 cm thickness 1 00-1 50 cm thickness 1 50-300 cm thickness 300+ cm

They also proposed the use of the terms “Topogenous” and “Ombrogenous” as defined by Driessen (1 977) in Indonesia using 1 50 cm thickness as a cut-off point.

This Unified Classification of Organic Soils of Malaysia has since been tested and

192

generally accepted for use in Malaysia. The terminology and criteria used for the classification of organic soils of Malaysia are defined in the Malaysian Soil Taxonomy – Second Approximation (Paramananthan, 1 998) and has now been updated (Paramananthan, 2008a, 201 0a, 201 5). This history of the classification of organic soils in Peninsular Malaysia is summarised in Table B.5.

Table B-5

Summary of History of Organic Soil Classification Systems Used in Peninsular Malaysia Author

Definitions used

Coulter, 1 950

Eutropic Mesotropic Oligotropic

Null, Acton and Wong, 1 965 Wong, 1 966

Inland Swamp Association

Leamy and Panton, 1 966

Paramananthan, 1 976

Organic clay

–

Muck

–

Peat

–

Loss on Ignition Minimum thickness Loss on Ignition Minimum thickness Loss on Ignition Shallow Moderately deep Deep

20-35%.

1 5 cm 35-65% 60 cm >65% <60 cm 60-1 50 cm >1 50 cm

Organic Soils Control Section

– –

Minimum thickness of 50 cm within upper 1 00 cm.

0-30, 30-90, 90-1 20 cm

Organic soils Control Section

– –

Minimum thickness of 50 cm.

0-50, 50-1 00, 1 00-1 50 cm Topogambist Peat 50-1 50 cm Ombrogambist Peat >1 50 cm Folist – Well drained peats Gambist – poorly drained peats

Paramananthan et al., 1 984 Proposed use Terric Paramananthan, 1 998

Proposed the Terms

Paramananthan, 201 0b

Developed Keys to the Identification of organic soils

–

Topogenous, Ombrogenous, Gambists

Sabah As in Peninsular Malaysia, mapping of organics in Sabah also received very little attention. Soil mapping in Sabah was carried out by a number of people mostly from the United Kingdom and finally all these surveys were combined to produce a 5volume report and maps entitled ‘SOILS OF SABAH’ (Acres et al., 1 975). In producing these reconnaissance soil maps of Sabah at a scale of 1 :250,000 the soil mapping units were defined based on the draft of the Soil Map of the World-Legend (FAO, 1 974). Thus in Sabah a definition of the organic soils or Histosols was used.

The Histosols were defined as follows:-

193

Histosols are soils which have an organic O horizon 40 cm (1 6 inches) or more [60 cm (24 inches) or more if the organic material consists mainly of sphagnum or moss or has a bulk density of less than 0.1 g cm-3]. This horizon may extend continuously from the surface or represent the cumulative depth of the organic layers within the upper 80 cm (32 inches) of the soil; the thickness of the O horizon may be less when it rests on rocks or on fragmental material of which the interstices are filled with organic matter. The Histosols were separated into two soil units â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Dystric and Eutric Histosols using the pH which were further separated into four soil families (Table B.6).

Table B-6

Histosols of Sabah (Acres et al., 1 975) Soil units

Dystric Histosol (pH < 5.5 in some part between 20-50 cm depth)

Eutric Histosol (pH > 5.5 in all horizons 20-50 cm depth)

Parent materials

Family

Peat (groundwater)

Klias

Peat (surface water)

Kaintano

Sulfidic Peat (> 0.75% sulfur)

Arang

Calcareous Peat

Mengalum

Sarawak Organic soils in Sarawak were first classified as Bog Soils (Dames, 1 962). Andriesse (1 972) introduced the term Peat Soils and also established a few soil families.

These organic soils were renamed by Scott (1 973) as Organic Soils, a term which was used until the end of 1 997. Tie (1 982) reviewed the history of soil classification in Sarawak while at the same time revised and updated the classification of Sarawak soils.

The identification and classification of organic soils proposed by Tie (1 982) consisted of a mixture of terms and definitions drawn from Soil Taxonomy (Soil Survey Staff, 1 975) and the FAO/UNESCO Soil Map of the World Legend (FAO, 1 974) with modifications to suit local conditions. The definition of organic soil materials was taken in toto from Soil Taxonomy (Soil Survey Staff, 1 975). Tie (1 982) also proposed the separation of Montane Peats from Lowland Peats; thickness of organic soil materials (Shallow or Topogenous Peat 50-1 50 cm thick and Deep or Ombrogenous Peat with a thickness of greater than 1 50 cm); the nature of the underlying

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substratum; the ash content and the mode of derivation of the organic soil materials into the classification (Table B.7) (Teng, 1 996).

Current status in Malaysia The different definitions and classifications used in Peninsular Malaysia, Sabah and Sarawak made it difficult not only to correlate soils between the three regions but also made the transfer of agrotechnology developed in one region to the others difficult. In order to rectify this problem, Paramananthan et al. (1 984) proposed a Unified Classification of Organic Soils in Malaysia. This proposal was initially tested and a revised proposal presented at the Second Meeting of COMSSSEM (Committee for the Standardization of Soil Survey, and Evaluation in Malaysia) held in Kuching in 1 992 (Paramananthan et al., 1 992). These proposals were further tested and finally incorporated into the Malaysian Soil Taxonomy â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Second Approximation (Paramananthan, 1 998).

These have been further revised and updated (Paramananthan, 2008a, 201 0a, 201 5).

Recent developments in the Classification of Organic Soils of Malaysia include proposals to the Committee for Soil Survey and Suitability Evaluation for Malaysia (COMSSSEM) by Uyo et al. (201 0) and Paramananthan (201 0a, 201 0b, 201 0c, 201 5, 201 6-2). Paramananthan proposed the criteria to be used at the different categoric levels in the Malaysian Soil Taxonomy â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Revised Second Edition (Paramananthan, 201 0a). This is given in Table B.5 and Figure B.7. The COMSSSEM Proposal of Uyo et al. (201 0) is incomplete at the lower categoric levels (Table B.8 and Figure B.8).

Table B-7

Family and Series Differentiae Used for Organic Soils of Sarawak (after Tie, 1 982 and Teng, 1 996)

Differentiae

Criteria used

Control section

1 50 cm or depth to lithic/paralithic contact

Depth of organic soil materials (cumulative)

Nature of mineral substratum

Remarks

Shallow

50-1 50 cm

Depth phases: 1 = 50-1 00 cm 2 = 1 00-1 50 cm

Deep

> 1 50 cm

Depth phases: 1 = 1 50-200 cm 2 = 200-250 cm 3 = > 250 cm

Sandy substratum (< 1 5% clay)

Applied only to shallow families

Clayey, sulfidic substratum (> 1 5% clay) Clayey, non-sulfidic substratum

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(> 1 5% clay) Surface vegetation Groundwater table

Ash content

Mode of derivation

Table B-8

Peat swamp forest

Lowland swamp forests

Montane forests

Altitudes over 1 ,000 m

Present

Unless artificially drained

Absent

Non-present but material may be saturated

High ash content

Weighted average ash content to 50 cm is > 1 0% (i.e. loss of ignition < 90%)

Low ash content

Weighted average ash content to 50 cm is < 1 0% (loss of ignition > 90%)

Autochthonous

In-situ build-up

Allochthonous

Alluvial accumulation

Summary of Criteria Used to Classify Organic Soils of Malaysia (Paramananthan, 201 0a)

Categoric level

Criteria used

Example

Order

• Minimum cumulative thickness of 50 cm of OSM within 1 00 cm or more than half to lithic/paralithic or terric layer

Sub-order

• Drainage Class – poor, well

Great group

Sub-groups

Family

HISTOSOLS GAMBIST – poorly drained FOLIST – well drained

• Thickness of organic layer – Ombro: >1 50 – Ombro – Topo: 50-1 50 – Topo • Dominant material in sub-surface (50-1 00 cm) tier – Terric, Sapric, Hemic, Typic (Fibric) • Nature of substratum – marine clay/sand – riverine clay/sand • Soil temperature regime – isohyperthermic/isomesic

Ombrogambist Topogambist Hemic Topogambist Sapric Ombrogambist BARAM FAMILY ADONG FAMILY BAREO FAMILY

Soil series

• Presence and nature of wood – no wood – wood decomposed – wood undecomposed • Mode of origin autochthonour/allochthonous

Baram series: Sapric Topogambist, marinesandy, isohyperthernic, non-woody, autochthonous.

Adong series: Hemic Ombrogambist, marinesandy, isohyperthermic, decomposed wood, autochthonous.

Bareo series: Typic Ombrogambist, fragmental/colluvium, isomesic, non-woody, autochthonous (High altitude)

Phase

• Depth – shallow: 50-1 00 cm – moderately deep: 1 00-1 50 cm – deep: 1 50-300 cm – very deep: 300+ cm

Baram/shallow Baram/moderately deep Adong/deep Adong/very deep

OMBROFOLISTS More than 1 50 cm thick Table 5.9

FOLISTS

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(HA) Well Drained Peats

TOPOFOLISTS

HISTOSOLS (H)

Less than 1 50 cm thick Table 5.9

Organic Soils

OMBROGAMBISTS

(organic soil materials dominate the upper 100 cm of soil profile)

More than 1 50 cm thick Table 5.1 0

GAMBISTS (HB) Poorly Drained Peats

TOPOGAMBISTS Less than 1 50 cm thick Table 5.1 0

Figure B-7

Simplified Key to the Identification of Great Groups of Histosols (Paramananthan, 201 0b)

Table B-9

Differentiae Used at the Different Categoric Levels by COMSSSEM (Uyo et al., 201 0)

Category

Differentiae

Example

Remarks

Order

Presence of 50 cm Organic Soil Material

Histosol

50 cm over what depth?

Sub-Order

Soil Temperature Regime Type of peat

Folist Topogenist Ombrogenist

Some Sub-Orders. Three syllables should be two.

Very shallow: 50-1 00 cm Shallow: Great Group

Thickness of OSM

Sub-Group

Dominant OSM in middle tier

1 00-200 cm Moderately deep: 200-300 cm Deep: >300 cm Fibrist Hemist Saprist

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Thickness now changed from Tie (1 982) and COMSSSM (1 984, 1 992) No names proposed.

Moss material.

Wood not considered.

Lithic Sand Sulphidic clay Non sulphidic clay

Substratum types incomplete.

No names proposed.

Soil Family

Nature of substratum

Soil Series

(Still to be finalised)

–

Definitions not proposed.

Soil Phase

(Still to be finalised)

–

Definitions not proposed.

Figure B-8

Structure of the proposed unified classification system by COMSSSEM (Source: Uyo et al., 201 0)

OTHER CLASSIFICATION SYSTEMS FOR ORGANIC SOILS OF THE TROPICS Indonesian system (LPT, 1980) The classification of organic soils in Indonesia is an adaption from the Soil Map of the World – Legend (FAO, 1 974). This system is outlined in Proyek Jenis dan macam tanah di Indonesia untuk keperluan survei dan pemetaan tanah (Order and Soil

198

Units in Indonesia for use in the survey and mapping of soils) (LPT, 1 980). In this system the organic soils are grouped as Organosols and are defined as:

Soils that have a layer or H horizon 50 cm or more (60 cm or more if the organic material consists mainly of sphagnum or moss or has a bulk density of less than 0.1 ) either extending from the surface or taken cumulatively within the upper 80 cm of the soil; the thickness of the H horizon may be less when it rests on rocks or on fragmental material of which the interstices are filled with organic matter.

Organosol (h) Organosols that are dominated by more than 50 cm thickness of fibric material within the upper 80 cm of the soil surface.

Organosol Fibrik (Hf) Other Organosols that are dominated by more than 50 cm thickness of hemic organic soil material within the upper 80 cm of the soil surface.

Organosol Hemik (Hh) Other Organosols Organosol Saprik (Hs) Recently the Indonesians have adopted the use of the Soil Taxonomy – Second

Edition (Soil Survey Staff, 1 999).

FAO – UNESCO Soil Map of the World – Revised Legend (FAO, 1990) The FAO – UNESCO Soil Map of the World – Revised Legend (FAO, 1 990) modified the earlier 1 974 Legend and the organic soils are now redefined as follows:Soils having a H horizon or an O horizon, of 40 cm or more (60 cm or more if the organic material consists mainly of sphagnum or moss or has a bulk density of less than 0.1 g cm-3) either extending down from the surface or taken cumulatively within the upper 80 cm of the soil; the thickness of the H or O horizon may be less when it rests on rocks or on fragmental material of which the interstices are filled with organic matter.

Histosols (hs)

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Histosols having permafrost within 200 cm of the surface.

Gelic Histosols (HSi) Other Histosols having a sulfuric horizon or sulfidic materials at less than 1 25 cm from the surface.

Thionic Histosols (HSt) Other Histosols that are well drained and are never saturated with water for more than a few days.

Folic Histosols (HSl) Other Histosols having raw or weakly decomposed organic materials, the fiber content of which is dominant to a depth of 35 or more from the surface; having very poor drainage or are undrained.

Fibric Histosols (HSf) Other Histosols. These Histosols have highly decomposed organic materials with only small amounts of visible plant fibres and a very dark grey to black colour to a depth of 35 cm or more from the surface, having an imperfect to very poor drainage.

Terric Histosols (HSs) Soil Taxonomy â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Second Edition (Soil Survey Staff, 1999), Keys to Soil Taxonomy (Soil Survey Staff, 2010) The Soil Taxonomy has undergone a series of revisions since it was initially published in 1 975 and finally a Second Edition was published in 1 999. A Key was also published in 201 0 (Soil Survey Staff, 201 0). The Soil Taxonomy is perhaps the most comprehensive system of soil classification available today particularly in terms of definitions and nomenclature. In this hierarchal system, soils are classified into seven categoric levels â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Orders, Sub-Orders, Great Groups, SubGroups, Families, Soil Series and Phases depending on amount of data available and the intended use. Organic soils are classified as Histosols.

The central concept of Histosols is that of soils forming over organic soil materials.

The general rule is that of a soil without permafrost is classified as a Histosol if half or more of the upper 80 cm is organic. A soil is also classified as Histosol if the organic materials rest on rock or fill or partially fill voids in fragmental, cindery, or pumiceous materials. If the bulk density is very low, less than 0.1 g cm-3, threefourths or more of the upper 80 cm must be organic. A summary of the criteria

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used to define the different categoric levels in Soil Taxonomy for organic soils is summarised in Table 5.6. *Excerpts taken from Paramananthan 201 6, Organic Soils of Malaysia, Chapter 5

2.5

Peat properties

Peat properties, both physical and chemical, are critical to the project planning such as in the drainage systems to be provided and the choice of crops or the macro nutrients that need to be augmented. These properties are influenced by the peat genesis as well as the environment, for example the underlain soils. In the Everglades, US, the underlying limestone provide the alkaline environment for the development of successful vegetable farming. Farming on naturally water-logged peat, requires drainage and with drainage will be the resultant subsidence as can be seen in the Figures B-9 and B-1 0 from the Everglades below:

Figure B-9

Subsidence post in peat area in Everglades, Florida (Source: Newswise.com, 201 4).

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Figure B-1 0 Ground level subsidence in years (Source: US Geological Survey, Circular 1 1 82, 1 999)

2.5.1

Peat physical properties

Issues of soil fertility and the agricultural crops chosen are assumed to have been agreed, prior to the design of the water management system. The peat soil physical properties are essential for the design of water management systems. These include parameters such as bulk density, void ratio, moisture content, soil-water potential and its components, moisture characteristic curve and capillarity. Bearing capacity will indicate the type of machinery that can be used on the land. Peat depth and subsidence rate with reference to water table depth and local temperature, are essential to determine the potential time that a specific area can be used for a chosen activity. The field elevation, topography, limit of the peat deposit and natural drainage outlets are boundary conditions needed when designing a drainage system.

As peat is a porous material, related theories on movement and flow of water through porous media such as Darcyâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Law, the saturated and unsaturated flow in soil, factors influencing the pattern of intake and infiltration rate and measurements of parameters related to soil water movement (including hydraulic conductivity, k) are also needed. Peat soils in its natural condition have very low bulk density and extremely high compressibility,

202

porosity and permeability. The bulk density values for tropical peat are low compared to those for mineral soil. Page et al. (201 1 ) used an average value of 0.09 g cm-3 in a review of the extent of and depth and carbon content for tropical peatlands. Bulk density varies with peat depth and peat types. Factors that affect the bulk density value include the type of plants that formed the peat, the degree of peat decomposition and compaction, the peat mineral content and water content and land use (Page et al., 201 1 ). Moisture content increases with depth, from 1 00-400% at about 50 cm depth to about 1 200% to 1 400% at 1 m depth. Melling (201 3) provided the following properties as in Table B-1 0 below.

Table B-1 0 Physical properties of peat

Physical Properties

Range

Bulk Density (g cm¯³)

0.1 0 - 0.1 3

Water filled pore space (%) 74.0 - 75.1 Total porosity (%) 95.3 - 97.5 Source: Melling (201 3) Paramanathan (201 6a) indicates that organic soils with fibric and hemic materials have low bulk densities of 0.01 -0.05 g cm¯³, thus indicating low bearing capacities. Zakaria (1 992), plotted varying bulk density at different depth for peat under different years of drainage as shown in Figure B.1 1 below. Regardless of the years of drainage, peat at 1 m depth seems to have a bulk density of around 0.05 g cm¯³. Surface bulk density varies from less than 0.1 g cm¯³ for newly drained area to more than 0.2 g cm¯³ for an area drained for the last 30 years.

203

Figure B-1 1 Bulk density with respect to depth For hydraulic conductivity (K), Zakaria (1 992), recorded values ranging from less than 1 to 33 m day-1 , with the average of around 5 m day-1 .

Preliminary tests indicated that bearing capacity for an area drained for more than 1 5 years, increases with deeper water table depth in the relationship given below;

y = 5.246 + 0.056x – 1 .1 02 (1 0-5) x-2 where y = bearing capacity in kN m-2 x= water table depth in mm Various other physical properties such as the soil moisture curves, capillarity and subsidence rate were also measured and/or monitored and discussed in Zakaria (1 992) as the study focuses on appropriate water management system design in deep peat soil.

Andriesse (1 988) in the “Nature and management of tropical peat soils”, FAO Soils Bulletin 59, provided the relationship between subsidence rate and temperature at the various drainage or water table depth. As indicated in the Figure B.1 2 below, at 30°C, at a water table depth of 60cm in the peat soil, an annual subsidence rate of 50mm can be anticipated.

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Figure B-1 2 Subsidence rate with respect to temperature and water table level (Source: FAO Soils Bulletin 59) Below are some pictures showing examples of subsidence in Pontian and Tanjung Bijat.

Figure B-1 3 Outlet structure rendered obsolete in Pontian circa 1 988, Johore Barat and Tanjung. Bijat, Sri Aman, Sarawak, 1 1 Mac 1 998, respectively.

205

Figure B-1 4 Unequal settlements Taman Padri, Sri Aman, Sarawak, March, 1 998

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Figure B-1 5 Peat soil in the Everglades, US (Source: US Geological Survey, Circular 1 1 82, 1 999)

2.5.2

Peat Chemical Properties

Tropical peat comprises largely organic carbon (C), usually expressed as a %. Values for percentage C (dry weight) in tropical peat ranged from 35% to 60% (Melling and Henson 201 1 ). The Carbon/Nitrogen (C/N) ratio of peat is based on the peat C content. This ratio indicates the degree of peat humification and the likelihood that micro-organisms will consume N when fertilizer is applied. Peat usually has a very low pH, i.e. pH 2 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; 4. Peat water acidity is caused by high concentrations of hydrogen ions stemming from fulvic and humic acid leached from the peat (Sabah Forestry Department, 2005). Peat water contains tannins that derive from the incompletely decomposed organic matter. The tannins give peat water its characteristic appearance: tea-coloured by transmitted light and black by reflected light. Other chemical properties of peat are presented in Table B-1 1 .

207

Table B-1 1

Chemical properties of peat (0-50 cm depth)

Chemical Properties

0-25 cm

25-50 cm

pH

3.5-3.7

3.4-3.7

Total C (%)

52.3-57.0

54.5 – 58.2

Total N (%) C/N ratio Exchangeable K (cmol kg¯¹)

1 .7 – 1 .9 28.2 – 31 .7 0.5 – 1 .0

1 .4 – 1 .8 30.3 – 41 .6 0.2 – 0.7

Exchangeable Ca (cmol kg¯¹)

3.1 -4.6

2.1 -2.4

Exchangeable Mg (cmol kg¯¹) 4.4-6.2 Exchangeable Na (cmol kg¯¹) 0.4 - 0.5 CEC (cmol kg¯¹) 29.6 - 38.5 Available P (mg kg¯¹) 1 20 - 220 Available Fe (mg kg¯¹) 1 41 - 227 Available Mn (mg kg¯¹) 1 1 .1 - 28.4 Available Cu (mg kg¯¹) 0.3 - 0.4 Available Zn (mg kg¯¹) 5.8 - 1 7.5 Available B (mg kg¯¹) 1 .7 - 1 .9 Source: Melling 201 3

208

3.7-5.2 0.4-0.5 30.3 - 41 .3 60.1 - 97.5 1 08 - 205 1 0.1 - 1 9.3 0.1 - 0.2 6.1 - 1 4.5 1 .4 - 2.0

3

Peatland use and conversion

Peatland land uses fall into two broad categories: activities which do not need drainage or need only minimal drainage, and those which need drainage. These then covers four specific areas of peatland use; sustaining the peat areas in its natural form, timber extraction, conversion to agriculture, and development of settlements and infrastructure.

3.1

Activities with non-drainage needs

Generally these activities do not need drainage. However, timber extraction may require drains as its transport system although there are areas which rails are used to transport the logs.

3.1.1

Conservation/Biodiversity Habitat

Conservation of the peatland ecosystem, flora and fauna for research, education and recreation represents another use of the ecosystem. This requires that the peat areas be sustained in its natural form. It is not as easy as it sounds, particularly if the area to be conserved formed part of the same peat basin being reclaimed. Examples are both the North and South Langat peat swamps, where frequent forest fire occurs in the vicinity of KLIA immediately after KLIA was constructed. This is because of the high porosity of the peat substrate and therefore the high K or hydraulic conductivity value, which induces flow of water in the peat basin to the lowest point in the basin. Unless steps are taken to ensure control and high water table in the area to be conserved, this area of peat marked for conservation will be inadvertently drained. A proposal is to identify and prioritise development for each and specific peat basin. The one specified for conservation should not be drained.

3.1.2

Timber extraction

Various commercial species can be harvested from tropical peat swamp forest under the selective management system monitored by the forest department. Although timber species in PSF is less in number compared to their lowland counterpart, revenue from timber extraction from PSF remains significant; commercial logging in PSF in Sarawak started in the 40â&#x20AC;&#x2122;s primarily for the high valued and most sought after timber species- Ramin (Gonystylus bancanus) (Fatimah & Indraneil, 2006; Chai, 2005). RM5 billion worth of timber products (33% of total export earnings of timber) are from Sarawak. Present rate of

209

extraction in natural forests 600,000m3 in PSF in Sarawak, mainly from areas designated as Permanent Forest Estate (Mamit, 2009).

It is interesting to note however, the total log production from Sarawak for January to May 201 6 was 3.1 25 million m3 with 97.2% coming from hill species and only 2.8% are from swamp species (Sarawak Timber Association Review, June 201 6). In addition, nearly all swamp logging in Sarawak are done using light rail systems with no canals being built for harvesting the timber. Thus, the risk of water drainage in PSF is minimised.

Often, timber production in a PSF required canals built as a mean of transportation of logs out of the forest. Such canals inevitably were draining the water out of the peat dome and lead to changes in the hydrological regime causing a decrease in peat moisture making it susceptible to forest fires (Seigert et al., 2001 ; Ainuddin et al., 2006). Fire incidents in Raja Musa Forest Reserve for the past 1 0 years indicated that existing canals (drainages or transport) in the forest reserve resulted in the lowering of water table and increasing the risk of fire especially from the activities from adjacent land use.

3.2

Activities requiring drainage needs and their consequent water management requirements

Peat areas in its natural environment have high water table and poor bearing capacity.

Drainage will result in water withdrawal and induced consolidation of the peat soil, which later will result in improved bearing capacity. Mechanical consolidation will improve the bearing capacity further. But drainage and the induced consolidation will result in subsidence. The introduction of air (and therefore oxygen) in the voids above the water level will ensure that oxidation continues which will result in further subsidence. Referring to the subsidence graph of Andriesse (1 988), Figure B1 2, at a water table depth of 60cm in the peat soil, the annual subsidence rate is anticipated to be 50mm per annum or 1 500mm (or 1 .5 m) in 30 years.

Below are the schematic drawings of an undrained and drained peat, bearing in mind the high porosity of peat soils and high water-filled pore space ranging respectively, between 95-97% and 74-75% (Section 2.5.1 ). The peat soil above the water level will lose its buoyancy and will exert an overburden pressure, further consolidating the soil below, and resulting in further surface subsidence.

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Figure B-1 6 The effect of drainage to peat subsidence, drawn by Ir Tan Woon Yang, DID Corporate Division, 2003 3.2.1

Agriculture

Agriculture is the driver for most land use changes. The clearing of forests or grasslands for croplands, pastures or plantations, including biofuel crops, is one major example of agriculture-driven land use change. Over the past 20 years increasing pressures on land for agriculture and infrastructure development have affected peatlands in Malaysia with more than 1 MHA of peatlands having been converted for agricultural purposes.

Peatlands can be utilised and managed for different agricultural purposes. Peatlands are prepared for agriculture by being drained (canals are built to drain the water out and lower the water table), removal of vegetation including the stumps of residual trees and sometimes compaction of peat to improve bearing capacity and moisture. Drainage, compaction and water management is a pre-requisite for any agriculture development on tropical peatland.

211

Figure B-1 7 Reclaiming peat swamps for Western Johore IADP in the 1 970s (from the files of Zakaria) In Malaysia, oil palm occupied the largest agricultural area on peat with a total of 666.038 ha, with 66% of the total area in Sarawak (refer Table B-1 2).

Table B-1 2

Oil palm crop area on peatland

Area

Region

ha % Peninsular Malaysia 207,458 31 .2 Sabah 21 ,406 3.2 Sarawak 437,1 74 65.6 Total 666,038 1 00 Source: Adapted from Wahid et al. (201 0) Oil palm plantations operated by commercial companies tend to have better management especially water management in addition to land preparation. On the other hand, smallholder often resort to the cheapest way for land clearing â&#x20AC;&#x201C; slash and burn, which inevitably resulted in peat fire and subsequent haze.

Different crops will require different water tables, depending on the depth/length of their root systems. While the water table requirements for oil palm are given above, Chapter 4, Vol. 3, Unit Perancang Negeri Sarawak (1 999), discussed peat land development in Sarawak.

212

Chapter 7 of Zakaria (1 992) discussed the various needs for field and arterial water management systems of various crop, focusing on pineapple. Drainage system design will start with identifying the optimum water level at the field level and iterate with the needed water management control at the primary and basin levels. This will require a full hydraulic analysis, which requires information on topography, rainfall, soil physical parameters and various boundary conditions. This will be discussed further in Section 7.5.3. Conceptual design for three sizes of peat basins, namely small, medium and large, were discussed in Volume 4 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Case Study, UPEN Sarawak (1 999). These basins are the Simunjan Basin, 600 ha; Tanjong Bijat, 1 600 ha; and Kabong, 1 9,000 ha, respectively.

3.2.2

Settlements/housing and infrastructure development

Peat soil physical characteristics (highly compressive, very high void ratio and low shear strength) are such that peatlands are seldom the first choice for urban settlements.

However, the developments of agricultural projects necessitate that settlement and housing be built to support such developments. The vicinity of peatlands, such as the North and South Langat peat swamps, to urban centres and paucity of suitable land renders the urban centres such as Cyberjaya be built in North Langat peat swamp and KLIA and KLIA2 be built in South Langat peat swamp (see below).

Figure B-1 8 North and South Langat peat swamps (from the files of Zakaria)

213

As noted previously, the peat characteristics lead to long term consolidation and subsidence, which can cause serious problems for construction. Estimation of the annual rate and total value is possible with detail physical properties. Thus, all development projects on peat, especially building and road construction require specific construction methods (Rashidah et al., 201 2). Among construction options that can be used in peatlands are excavation and displacement of peat (KLIA), ground improvement and reinforcement, and chemical admixture with materials such as cement and lime (Edil, 2003). In the bayous of the gulf states of the US, cantilevers and bridges, anchored to the stronger clay soils are used as viable alternatives. In many public agricultural projects in Malaysia, settlements are also planned on the periphery of the peat basin.

Note: One should not use concrete based piles and pipes as they will be weakened by the acid organic soils. Use silica-based materials, instead.

There are scopes for research on construction in peat areas, but one must always be reminded of the subsidence of the peat soil and its very small ash content. If the subsidence is at 50mm per annum, a 1 .5m deep peat deposit will be completely mineralised in 30 years.

If it is drained and dried, and then catch fire, the sub surface clay layer will be reached earlier than the anticipated 30 years.

Figure B-1 9 Peat Subsidence in Pekan Nenas, Pontian, circa 1 986. Then, the surface has subsided to about 1 m, reaching the underlain clay soil. Initial peat surface is

214

marked white on the measuring pole, near the hand of the man in white (from the files of Zakaria)

Figure B-20 Peat Subsidence in Benut, Pontian circa 2000. The surface is more than 1 m below the initial surface. Initial peat surface is at the tip of the extended hand of the lady in stripes. This area caught fire the year before (from the files of Zakaria) 3.2.3

Changes to peat properties on drainage

Peatland conversion to agriculture has led to changes in the physical properties of peat.

Figure B-1 1 illustrate changes on bulk density with length of drainage, with respect to depth.

Kurnain et al. (2006) too showed that the top 0-1 5cm layer of peat increases in bulk density with drainage. Furthermore, water release potential at low suction (high matrix potential) was significantly reduced in the top layer. As noted earlier, subsidence is anticipated following drainage due to drying, consolidation and mineralisation (oxidation). Subsidence as discussed by Andriesse (1 988) is illustrated in the pictures above.

It is necessary to caution that most of these changes are not only irreversible, but the subsidence, will have impact on the drainage status of the land and must be taken into account when planning development initiatives on peat.

215

3.3

Drainage requirements of abandoned peatland

It is important to understand why the land is abandoned. The area may have reached the underlain clay soil, as in Pekan Nenas, Pontian, circa 1 986. In this case, there is no more peat soil available in the area. If it has less than 0.5m deep peat soil it is technically no longer a peat deposit. Should it still be a peatland (more than 0.5m peat) and the interest is to rehabilitate the land and encourage the regeneration of plants, than all drainage outlets should be blocked and the area be designed to be permanently flooded. The land need to be continuously inundated with water so as to ensure the peat substrate is wet and can regenerate local flora. Such a system, if successful, will also prevent the peat soil from being burned and catching fire.

3.4

Implication of peatland use and conversion

Development and conversion of peatland without proper management can result in various deleterious outcomes. These include ecosystem changes and habitat loss, loss of biodiversity, significant loss of vital ecological services such as flood mitigation, groundwater recharge, prevention of saline water intrusion, sediment and toxin removal and micro-climate regulation, and ultimately, fire, and also economic and socio-economic issues.

3.4.1

Ecosystem changes

Peatland use leads to changes in the composition and structure of the pre-existing tropical peat ecosystem vegetation. Demand for energy, which in many developing areas is based on wood, leads to deforestation and forest degradation. One of the main changes to peatlands is loss of canopy cover, which can be detected by remote sensing (Koh et al., 201 1 ).

Miettinen et al. (201 1 ) showed high levels of canopy loss in peatland areas of Southeast Asia that relate positively with the rate of deforestation. Analysis of land cover changes in Peninsular Malaysia and in the islands of Sumatra and Borneo since 1 990 revealed a reduction in, and degradation of, the peat swamp forest ecosystem. In less than 20 years 5.1 MHA of the total 1 5.5 MHA of peatland had been deforested (Miettinen et al., 201 0).

3.4.2

Habitat and biodiversity reduction and loss

The change of tropical peat forest to other land uses has led to habitat reduction which affects the tropical peat forest ecosystem biodiversity (Koh et al., 201 1 ). Many endemic flora and fauna species are at risk of being further endangered due to the degradation of the

216

tropical ecosystem. This may result in long term loss of biodiversity of the tropical peat swamp forest (Posa et al., 201 1 ).

3.4.3

Loss or impairment of ecological services

Peatland development affects the ecological service of peatland carbon sequestration. Such development leads to greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions due to the decomposition and degradation of the exposed organic materials. The emissions comprise mainly carbon dioxide (CO2) and methane (CH4). Carbon dioxide emission from drained peatlands in Southeast Asia was estimated at between 355 and 855 million metric tonnes per year (MTy-1 ) in 2006, contributing 1 .3 - 3.1 % of current global CO2 emissions from the combustion of fossil fuel (Hooijer et al., 201 0). Carbon dioxide is, of course, implicated in global climate change. However, a study in Sarawak by Melling et al. (2005) showed that soil CO2 flux in oil palm and sago plantations was less than for the mixed peat swamp forest ecosystem.

Future climate changes may also affect GHG emissions. Li et al. (2007) examined rainfall variations in simulations for the 21 stcentury under the emission scenario A1 B for the Southeast Asia region using 1 1 climatic models. Of these, seven predicted a decrease in rain during the dry season which would result in lower water tables, exposing larger carbon stocks to aerobic conditions and so enhance decomposition and CO2 emissions (Hooijer et al., 201 0). Li et al. (2007) also surmised that future climate changes predicted by models will result in increased CO2 emissions from peatlands.

3.4.4

Peat fires

Dry peat is extremely combustible and fires spread easily especially during the dry season where the organic-rich dry peat may smoulder for days (Sabah Forestry Department, 2005; Lo and Parish, 201 3). Most fires burning in peat soil occur as smouldering combustion below the peat surface. A smouldering peat fire typically burns in a concentric pattern outwards from the ignition point resulting in a bowl-shaped burned depression (Lailan and Ainuddin, 2000). Burning stops when mineral soil is reached or when the peat moisture content prohibits further combustion. Fires in peatlands can persist for weeks or longer and fire intensity, duration and timing as well as peat moisture and peat characteristics, influence the fire severity.

Detrimental impacts of peat fires include the significant decrease or loss of important flora and fauna populations, environmental pollution and negative effects on the socio-economic status of communities dependent on peatland resources. Burning causes changes in peat

217

physical characteristics such as hydraulic conductivity and peat bulk density (Lailan et al., 2004).

Peat fires release particulates and CO2 into the atmosphere (Page et al., 2002). Combustion of biomass fuels also produces gases such as carbon monoxide (CO), methane and nitrogen oxide. High concentrations of total suspended particulates (in smoke) degrade air quality, cause light scattering and lower visibility. Smoke that fails to dissipate and annually blankets large areas in Southeast Asia is referred to locally as â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;hazeâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;.

3.4.5

Peat Subsidence and consequent implications

Peat subsidence is a consequence of drainage of peat areas. This subsidence brings another consequence to the peat area; a continuously lowered peatland surface over time and with drainage. Tropical peatland, normally occurring at the downstream of river basins, will subside with drainage, and over the years. The surface level will be incrementally lowered, becoming more and more flood prone, as the peatland surface become lower than the surrounding area. The intense wet and dry periods from climate change impacts can exacerbate the situation.

The potential for peat subsidence is indicated by the peat properties such as the low bulk density, the high void ratio and high moisture content.

Subsidence can come from multiple actions: a. Drainage of the peatland will drain the moisture content from the peat substrate, rearrange and consolidate the peat soil in a tighter arrangement, while in the process, lower the surface level. b. With drainage, the peat soil above the water table will lose its buoyancy, and will exert an overburden pressure on the lower level peat, consolidating the peat soil further, resulting in increased surface subsidence. c. Mechanical consolidation, to increase the bulk density and improve the bearing capacity, will have similar effect like the overburden pressure on the lower peat soil. d. With drainage, oxygen will enter the voids of the peat soil above the water table, encouraging oxidation or mineralisation of the organic peat, which is C-H-O. As hydrogen and oxygen are gases, the carbon of the peat will be the only solid component left. Peat soil with 99% organic material will decompose into oxygen, hydrogen and carbon.

218

e. As the peat soil dries, it will become extremely combustible. Subsidence through burning may be quicker and even more drastic (see Fig B-24). f. Surface subsidence of 27.1 1 mm in drained peat, monitored weekly over a year, was recorded in Zakaria, 1 992. Andriesse, 1 988, in the â&#x20AC;&#x153;Nature and management of tropical peat soilsâ&#x20AC;?, FAO Soils Bulletin 59, provided an empirical relationship between subsidence rate, temperature and the water table depth. From Figure B.1 2, section 2.5.1 , a subsidence estimate should be calculated when doing project planning not only to identify the length of time the peat soil will be available, but also the impact of potential flooding with surface subsidence.

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4

The roles and importance of tropical peatlands

Peatlands are extensive, have a range of values, perform various functions and play various vital roles. They support a unique ecosystem that is an important reservoir of biodiversity and performs invaluable ecosystem services, and have national and local economic significance as well as educational and research value. The benefits of intact peatlands are stated in Table B-1 3.

Table B-1 3

4.1

Benefits of intact peatlands

The tropical peat ecosystem

Tropical peatland supports peat swamp forest (PSF) - a unique ecosystem whose greatest extent is in Southeast Asia. The ecosystem is the habitat of numerous plant and animal species, some endemic to this area due to the ecosystemâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s unique characteristics (Posa et al., 201 1 ). Whilst peat swamp forest is less species-rich than mixed dipterocarp forest in terms of tree species it comprises vegetation communities that are globally significant for biodiversity conservation (most significantly those of the peat domes in Sarawak). The tropical peat forest ecosystem has many rare and endemic flora and fauna species. Alan (Shorea albida) historically formed unique, mono-specific stands over wide areas in Sarawak and is endemic to north-west Borneo, as is Kapur paya (Dryobalanops rappa). Alan and Kapur paya are not confined to peat swamp forest but mainly occur there.

220

4.2

Biodiversity

Interactions between the tropical peat forest ecosystemâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s physiography, plants and animals laid the foundation for its unique biological diversity. Peat swamp forests are vitally important in terms of faunal diversity since they are often the last intact forests remaining in the lowlands. They are home to at least 60 vertebrate species listed as globally threatened. These include the Orang-utan (Pongo pygmaeus), Proboscis monkey (Nasalis larvatus) and Sumatran rhinoceros (Dicerorhinus sumatranus) (UNDP 2006). In Pahang, 58 mammal species of have been recorded in peatland forests. Among these are the Smooth otter (Lutrogale perspicillata) and Malayan sun bear (Helarctos malayanus). In Sarawak and Sabah peatland forests support a range of mammal species including the Proboscis monkey, the Red-banded langur (Presbytis melalophos cruciger found in Maludam National Park) and a total of 36 bat species representing about one-third of the bat species found in Borneo (recorded from Loagan Bunut National Park). A range of reptile species has been recorded in peatlands in Malaysia, including four species of global significance. One of these is the Endangered Malayan false gharial (Tomistoma schlegelii) (Bezuijen et al., 2001 ).

Others are the Asian soft-shelled turtle (Amyda cartilaginea), the Painted terrapin (Callagur borneensis) and the Bornean river turtle (Orlitia borneensis). The black waters of the peat swamp forests are known to have some of the highest freshwater fish biodiversity in the world, one of them is Betta persephone, one of the critically endangered and stenotopic peat fish, which can only be found at Ayer Hitam peat swamp forest. It is likely that many new plant and animal species will be discovered in peat swamp forests since only a relatively small number of biodiversity surveys have so far been conducted compared to those in other types of forest in Malaysia. A number of fauna species are confined to peat swamp forests.

4.3

Peat ecosystem services

The peatland ecosystem provides various ecosystem services to communities (Maltby and Acreman, 201 1 ). Peatlands are important reservoirs of water and carbon. Tropical peat forest provides regulating services such as hydrological control and climatic regulation (UNDP, 2006).

4.3.1

Hydrological functions

In their natural state peatlands are waterlogged due to a high water table. Intact peat areas, i.e. those which have not been drained and generally have a canopy cover of more than 70%, act as huge water storage reservoirs. The peatâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s high permeability and high water retention

221

capability enables them to be effective in stabilising water levels. During periods of heavy rainfall peatlands act as natural reservoirs, absorbing and storing water like a sponge during the wet season and thus mitigating floods. They release this water gradually during dry periods, thereby maintaining base flows in rivers during dry periods and mitigating droughts in surrounding areas. Other hydrological functions are sediment removal and prevention of saline water intrusion (UNDP, 2006). The sub-surface outflow of water from peatlands suppresses the inflow of saline groundwater in coastal areas and reduces the intrusion of tidal waters thus helping to maintain freshwater quality. Thus, peatlands can provide a supply of water for potable and industrial purposes year-round. Such functions as flood control, flow regulation, water supply and prevention of saline water intrusion are crucial to maintaining the integrity of downstream ecosystems and in preventing economic losses to agriculture and industry.

4.3.2

Carbon sink and global climate regulation

Peatlands are one of the few ecosystems which, in their natural state, accumulate carbon.

Carbon dioxide (CO2) is sequestered as organic carbon in the dead organic matter comprising the peat. Peatlands are thus important carbon sinks, preserving carbon in the organic matter accumulated over long periods of peat formation (Page and Banks, 2007).

Maltby (1 997) estimates that 70 gigatonnes (GT) or up to 20% of total soil carbon, is stored in peatlands. Carbon sinks moderate greenhouse gas emissions. When peatlands are disturbed, by drainage, burning or both, carbon accumulated over millennia is rapidly released to the atmosphere contributing to the greenhouse effect and climate change.

4.6

Economic significance

Peatlands can play an important role in a countryâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s economy. They are the source of both timber and non-timber forest products (NTFP). In Malaysia, valuable timber species that are or have been exploited include Ramin (Gonystylus bancanus), the Meranti group, especially Alan (Shorea albida), Meranti paya / bersisik (Shorea platycarpa) and Meranti buaya (Shorea ulginosa), Kapur paya (Dryobalanops rappa), Jongkong (Dactylocladus stenostachys),Septir paya (Copaifera palustris), Durian paya / burong (Durio carinatus) and Kempas / Menggris (Koompassia malaccensis). Other important commercial species are Cratoxylum arborescens, Callophylum ferrugineum and Anisoptera marginata (Chin and Havmoller, 1 999).

Tropical peatlands have a high degree of socio-economic importance. The ecosystem has long provided local communities with sustenance (meat from wild animals, fish), building materials and non-timber forest products (NTFPs) such as vegetables and medicinal,

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ornamental or resin-producing plants. These they collect to use and also sell for cash (Page et al., 2006). They also use peatlands as reserve areas for agricultural extension.

In Malaysia, a substantial number of poor households live on and adjacent to peatlands, which can play a vital socio-economic role in local communities’ well-being. Fisheries may be important. Fish are often local people’s main protein source. Some also have commercial value as food (Tapah (Wallagoleerii), Forest snakehead (Channa lucius) and Peat swamp barb (Puntius rhomboocellatus)) and in the ornamental fish trade Arowana (Scleropages formosus), Chocolate gouramy (Sphearichthys osphromenoides) and Fighting fish (Betta splendens).

The oil palm industry plays an important role in the Malaysian economy. It employs 600,000 people, in both high and low skilled occupations. In 201 1 , this industry was the fourth largest contributor to Malaysia’s economy, contributing RM53 billion to Malaysia’s Gross National Income (JPM, 201 2). In 201 4, 88% of domestic palm oil production was exported and Malaysia contributed 42 percent of the global palm oil trade (JPM 201 5).

The world demand for palm oil has led to an increase in the hectarage of oil palm plantation.

In Malaysia, oil palm plantation started with just 400 hectares in 1 920 (MPOB, 201 4), rising to 5.64 million hectares in 201 5 (MPOB, 201 5). Peninsular Malaysia has the largest area planted to oil palm with 2.66 million hectares (47 % of the total oil palm planted area in Malaysia) followed by Sabah with 1 .54 million hectares or 27%, followed by Sarawak with 1 .44 million hectares or 26% (MPOB 201 5). The rate of increase in area planted with oil palm differs for Peninsular Malaysia, Sabah and Sarawak (Figure B-21 ).

223

3000000

Peninsular Malaysia

Sabah

Sarawak

2500000

Hectares

2000000 1500000 1000000 500000 0 2011

2012

2013

2014

2015

Year Figure B-21 Areas under oil palm in Peninsular Malaysia, Sabah and Sarawak (Source: MPOB Annual Report) The demand for palm oil has led to the opening of ever more areas for oil palm plantation in Malaysia and the scarcity of suitable agricultural land areas forces peatland areas to be used. Peatlands were once considered problem soils for agriculture but with improved knowledge on peat characteristics, water management and oil palm nutritional requirements, planting oil palm on peatland has become technically feasible. As a result more and more peatlands are being opened for planting oil palm.

In 2009, 666,038ha of peatland were planted with oil palm (Wahid et al., 201 0). This area represents 1 3.29% of the total land area planted with oil palm. Sarawak has 37.45% of its oil palm plantation on peatland (Figure B-22.).

224

40

Percent

30 20

10 0

Peninsular Malaysia

Sabah

Sarawak

Figure B-22 Percentage of oil palm area planted on peatland Oil palm plantations, especially on peatlands, have brought socio-economic benefits to rural communities. Local communities living in peatland areas gain their livelihood by fishing and collecting fruits and non-timber forest products (NTFP). The income they obtain from these activities is usually not enough to support the family and they may be living near the poverty level. The labour requirements for land development, oil palm planting, management and harvesting have created employment opportunities for rural community members. This job creation has improved the rural economy and helped to increase people’s income and alleviate poverty in the region.

Oil palms planted on peatland have brought economic and social benefits to this country.

With management based on sound scientific principles, sustainable production will ensure that the peatlands are managed well.

4.5

An educational and research resource

Peatlands are ideal locations for environmental education and awareness programmes to increase people’s understanding of peatlands’ roles and functions and options for their sustainable management and utilisation.

Peatlands’ unique ecosystem provides huge potential for research and development in various scientific fields such as socio-economics, biodiversity, climate change and biotechnology. The physical characteristics of peat that are important for processes such as subsidence, drainage and crop water supply can be considered practically identical. This

225

means that peat soils will show similar subsidence behaviour and will respond similarly to drainage under the same land use and water management regimes. Therefore, any research on a particular peatland can be extrapolated to other peatlands in Malaysia.

5

Issues and challenges in peatland use

The Southeast Asian region, through its ‘ASEAN for Peat’ platform, has identified five common issues of concern relating to peatland forests in the region: (i) peatland fires and transboundary haze; (ii) carbon loss; (iii) degradation and loss of peatland forests and their services, including biodiversity; (iv) lack of knowledge and understanding regarding the peatland ecosystem; and, most importantly, (v) the lack of an integrated approach to managing peatland forests (D’Cruz, 201 4).

An analysis of peatland issues and challenges requires that the root causes of the various outcomes be identified first. Root causes can be subdivided into peat fire, ineffective policies and implementation, social, economic and communication issues and improper peatland management and water management. These root causes lead to further issues, e.g. failed projects on peatlands likely due to inappropriate land use decisions favouring short-term over long-term benefits or maybe resulting from inadequate financial analysis and peatlands improperly or not managed (i.e. when abandoned after failed projects) due to lack of, or incomplete management guidelines or lack of compliance with management guidelines.

5.1

Improper peatland and water management

The utilisation of tropical peatland for agriculture has been a serious concern due to its relation to peat fire incidents and haze issues. Controversies arise when cultivation on peatland is poorly managed. The main contributor to improper peatland management is lack of knowledge and understanding of peatlands and poor land preparation work.

5.1.1

Lack of knowledge and understanding of peatlands – possible independent peat basins

Information on the status and condition of peatlands is limited by either inadequate research or the lack of access to information. For instance, recent information is insufficient to draw any serious conclusions on the impacts of current slash and burn practices on rapidly accelerating peatland degradation. However, information is the basis on

226

which policy makers can write policy, land use decision makers can base decisions, management guideline writers can write guidelines and local communities can make decisions on how to make a sustainable living from peatlands.

Difficulties in accessing existing information from government ministries, departments and agencies has led to the lack of adequate information on sustainable peatland management.

The information that is available is scattered in various locations and institutions.

Consequently, decision makers, extension agents and society in general often disregard the complexity of peatlands, with results such as peatland utilisation heavily focused on meeting short-term objectives rather than long-term sustainability.

Lack of knowledge on peatlands is exemplified by the lack of an approved definition for, and classification of, peatlands. This leads to difficulties in developing general guidelines for peatland management. There is overall a poor understanding of peatland ecosystems, functions, issues and management options. The general public has a poor understanding of what causes the annual ‘haze’ and how it is related to forest fires and peatlands, although they are concerned about its deleterious effects on health and day-to-day activities. This can obviously be improved in the future through networking and the internet.

A potential approach for better peatland development is the “independent peat basin” approach. This was first recommended in the study on “Integrated Development Plan study for Coastal Peat Land Sarawak (UPEN Sarawak, 1 999).

227

Case Study: Developing Independent Peat Basins Unit Perancang Negeri Sarawak (1 999) noted the spread of the Sarawak coastal peat as indicated in Figure B-23, and recommended a summary of steps for â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;developable independent peat basinsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;, as in Figure B-24 below:

Figure B-23 Sarawak coastal peat

228

Figure B-24 Steps for developable independent peat basin This is to ensure that the peat areas to be conserved are not impacted by development on adjacent land. A preliminary process identified the independent peat basins as indicated in Figure B-25 (a) to (e) below.

229

(a)

(b)

230

(c)

(d)

231

(e) Figure B-25 (a) to (e. â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Independent peat basins in Sarawak A screening procedure was recommended to identify these independent peat basins. Briefly the protocols starts with a question on whether the peat area is independent by viewing a detailed reconnaissance soil map of scale 1 :1 00,000 to determine the boundary of the basins. And the procedure continues as discussed in Volume 2 of UPEN Sarawak (1 999) report. A soil mapping exercise would be able to confirm these independent peat basins.

The publication also proposed a decision tree for choice on potential peat users as shown in Figure B-26 below:

232

Figure B-26 A decision tree for choice on potential peatland use

Note: This screening procedure should first decide if a particular peat swamp should be developed or conserved.

5.1.2

Poor land preparation

Land preparation is the initial phase in peat development which later determines the course of management practices on cultivated peatland. The main challenges in land preparation are normally related to difficulties in following the sequence of preparation work.

233

Assessment of the selected site is required to gather essential information on the peat (including its topography, types, depth and hydrology) needed to ensure the correct implementation of various operations during land clearing and preparation. Peat surveys are essential if information is to be acquired but may not be conducted or are given little emphasis as they are very laborious, time consuming and difficult to conduct.

Another challenge in land preparation is the land clearing work. When a peat swamp forest is initially cleared for development the surface is full of un-decomposed woody materials.

The presence of these materials prevents the land from being used for cultivation and they need to be removed in order to proceed with next development phase. It is difficult to use heavy machinery to clear the woody materials as the peat soil is soft so intensive labour inputs are needed, with associated high costs. Smallholders may not be able to afford the costs of clearing the land so some still resort to ‘slash and burn’ which can cause peat fires.

5.2

Abandoned land

Peatland utilisation without proper management is subject to inherent degradation which continuously lowers the land’s economic value. Without proper management vast peat covered landscapes may achieve low productivity or lack productivity, leading to a largescale abandonment. Malfunctioning drainage systems installed during land preparation continue to work and drain the ecosystem even after abandonment. Over-drainage leads to lowered water tables and dry peat surfaces, factors which have been related to high greenhouse gas emissions and also susceptibility to large scale peat fire outbreaks, especially during prolonged dry seasons or El Niño events.

Indonesia, with about 4.4 MHA of abandoned peatland, has been experiencing the peat fire incidents. Boehm and Siegert demonstrated in 2001 that many locations in Indonesia’s abandoned peatlands were subjected to repeated fire outbreaks between 1 997 and 2006.

Langner and Siegert made the same observation in 2009 in a study using hotspot data.

Hooijer et al. (2006) estimated that from 1 997 to 2006, the average yearly CO2 emission was 1 ,400 MT, equivalent to almost 8% of global emissions from burning fossil fuels.

5.3

Peat fire

Peatland fire incidences in Malaysia and in the Southeast Asian region during the past 20 years have been closely linked with forest clearance and drainage activities by the forestry and agricultural sectors. It is evident that fires mostly occur in unmanaged peatlands and

234

therefore commonly within or near plantations. Incidences of fire have had in common an association with periodic drought. The El Niño cycles play a significant role. Annual burning events in Southeast Asia are exacerbated not only during El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO) events but also interactions between ENSO and other weather systems such as the Indian Ocean Dipole and the Madden-Julian Oscillation (van der Werf et al., 2008).

There is a growing trend towards recurrent fires in peat areas. This trend needs to be further investigated so that measures can be taken to reduce fire risk. Grasses such as Lallang (Imperatacylindrica) and ferns such as Gleichenia spp. colonise a burnt peat swamp forest and suppress the regeneration of trees (Ainuddin and Goh 201 0). The burnt areas are thus open and become drier and more flammable during dry periods and these conditions encourage the recurrence of fires. Table B-1 4 shows the areas affected by recurrent forest fires in a peat swamp forest, Raja Musa Forest Reserve, 40km N of Kuala Lumpur. The largest area affected by fires in 201 4 was the peat swamp forest.

Table B-1 4. Areas in Raja Musa Forest Reserve damaged by fires Year

‘02

‘03

‘04

‘05

‘06

‘07

‘08

‘09

‘10

‘11

‘12

‘13

‘14

Area (ha)

1 61

-

10

400

-

12

-

9.1 9

-

5.44

406.5

629.65

1 208.58

Source: Hulu Selangor District Forestry Department

5.4

Ineffective policies and implementation

Similar to most ASEAN countries, Malaysia has no harmonised policy related to the management of its peatlands. Peatlands are governed by policies related to environmental management, forestry, water resources, fisheries, water regulation, swamps, rivers, forest and land fire control, water pollution, protected areas and forest protection. Such policy frameworks often have gaps or create conflicts for peatland management. The many policies that pertain to peatland management (Section 5) appear to be insufficient to prevent peatland degradation and particularly fires. With continuous degradation taking place questions are being asked about the effectiveness of the available (governance) infrastructure and tools.

The potential for peatland management measures to mitigate soil emissions could be better utilised by reviewing agricultural and land use policies to include soil type and societal costs as criteria in decisions affecting croplands management. Policies should be supported by other mechanisms to yield success stories about GHG mitigation by land use measures.

International and national policies have been a driving force for peat soil conservation in

235

many countries. However, some stakeholdersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; resistance has prevented soil emissions from being better represented in the formulation of climate policies.

Law enforcement has not been an effective deterrent against crimes related to natural resources. In fact, ineffective law enforcement enables illegal activities in forest and peatland areas, such as land clearing by burning, particularly in forest and land concessions belonging to corporations, to continue. Burning in forest and land areas is not easily addressed or eradicated because it is linked to a spectrum of other forest and land management problems and illegal activities.

5.5

Social and economic Issues

Most people living in and around peatlands are relatively poor and possess only primary levels of education. They have limited options for employment to meet their economic needs.

The quick and easy option for them is to collect timber and non-timber products and carry out cheap land conversion by burning. Cash-strapped smallholders often resort to clearing land using the fast, cheap and only available tool - slash and burn - which may set forest fires. Communities that rely solely on peatlands for their livelihood may degrade peatlands through the way they manage the land. It is almost impossible to return degraded peatlands to their undisturbed state. This means the loss of livelihood for local communities that depend on peatlands and their biodiversity.

Awareness, advocacy and restoration programmes related to peatland issues receive insufficient attention let alone the financial resources from the global community, corporate and industrial bodies or governments that are vital to support them.

5.6

Communication issues

Discussions on peatland issues are mostly tailored to the scientific community and not the general public. Furthermore, communications are often diluted to make them easier for policy makers to understand. Any good science should be shared and transferred to the masses but this is lacking in peatland management science. There is a lack of material designed to engage society and make scientifically complex and technical subjects understandable, let alone materials tailored for particular audiences of different backgrounds, interests or educational profiles. Various modules are needed to raise awareness and/or for advocacy. Delivering the message to isolated rural communities may present a particular challenge.

Many stakeholders are involved in peatlands utilisation and management. However, crossor inter-sectoral coordination and communication between the central and local

236

governments, government agencies and local communities concerned with peatland management are essentially weak. This has led to the emergence of conflicts over peatland utilisation.

237

6

The frameworks underpinning peatland use and conversion

The use and conversion of peatlands in Malaysia is underpinned by an extensive policy and administrative framework

6.1

The policy framework

A sound policy framework is paramount for (i) effective land use planning that successfully incorporates the interests of a wide variety of user groups, and (ii) management of natural resources that maximises the efficiency and profitability of their use while maintaining their long-term viability. Policy-makers, developers and managers all need to understand the policy framework relating to peatlands planning and management.

An extensive policy framework underpins peatlands use, development and management in Malaysia. Policies pertaining to peatland conservation in Malaysia are in place that integrates biodiversity conservation and ecosystem management in development and planning processes. These are further explained in detail below. Malaysiaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Five-year Development Plans also reflect the promotion of natural resources management. Land and natural resources in Malaysia are mainly managed at state level and as a result state governments have established their own policies and regulations.

The following policies and action plans are relevant: a) National Forest Policy 1978, Amended 1992 In 1 977 the National Forest Council accepted a National Forest Policy. In 1 978 the National Land Council endorsed the policy and later all the state governments in Peninsular Malaysia accepted the National Forest Policy. This policy was formulated to ensure sustainable forest resource management and development including in peat swamp forests in line with national interests and goals. The scope of the National Forest Policy is to ensure uniform implementation of forest management, conservation and development strategies. The National Forest Act 1 984 and the Wood-Based Industries Act 1 984 were prepared to enhance policy implementation and harmonise laws regarding administration, management, conservation and development of forests within the different states.

In 1 992, the policy was revised as a consequence of growing concern over the importance of the conservation of biological diversity and sustainable use of genetic resources and the role of local communities in forest development.

The National Forest Policyâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s objectives are: to conserve and manage the nationâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s forests based on the principles of sustainable management; to protect the

238

environment as well as to conserve biological diversity and genetic resources, and to enhance research and education.

The policy establishes that Permanent Forest Estate (PFE) should comprise sufficient areas, strategically located throughout the country and designated in accordance with the concept of rational land use. The PFE is managed and classified under four major functions: Protection Forest, Production Forest, Amenity Forest, and Research and Education Forest. In Sarawak, the Sarawak Forest Ordinance 1 954 provides the necessary legal framework, while in Sabah, the Sabah Forest Enactment 1 968 provides the legal backing to ensure the implementation of state forest policy (Woon and Norini, 2002). b) National Policy on Biological Diversity 1998 This umbrella policy aims to conserve Malaysia’s biological diversity and to ensure that its components are utilised in a sustainable manner for the nation’s continued progress and socio-economic development. It has 1 5 strategies including one that calls for the conservation and sustainable use of the different ecosystems that the country has, including peatlands. c) National Policy on the Environment 2002 The National Policy on the Environment aims at Malaysia’s continued economic, social and cultural progress and enhancement of its people’s quality of life of through environmentally sound and sustainable development. d) National Agricultural Policy 2003 The National Agricultural Policy emphasises increasing productivity through efficient resource use and the wise use of land for agricultural activities. The policy’s main objective is to maximise income through optimum resource usage. It also emphasises the conservation and sustainable use of natural resources. e) National Wetland Policy 2004 Peatlands constitute more than 50% of the area of wetlands in Malaysia and are encompassed by this policy which calls for sustainable and wise use of wetlands with respect to their ecological characteristics.

239

f) Common Vision on Biodiversity 2009 The National Biodiversity and Biotechnology Council adopted the Common Vision on Biodiversity in 2009. The Vision aims to explain what biodiversity is, why it is important and what measures are required to ensure a constant provision of the ecosystem services essential for human life and livelihood. The Common Vision promotes a three-prolonged implementation approach and outreach strategy as follows: i.

Strengthen the protected area system ii. manage land/seascape biodiversity, and iii.

Mainstream biodiversity g) National Physical Plan, NPP 2010 The National Physical Plan (NPP) provides strategic policies for the purpose of determining the general directions and trends of the nation’s physical development.

The NPP’s role is to strengthen national planning and coordinate sectoral agencies by providing the spatial expression to sectoral policies. One of the NPP’s main objectives is to optimise land and natural resources utilisation for sustainable development. Its goal is to establish an efficient, equitable and sustainable national spatial framework to guide the country’s overall development towards achieving developed nation status by 2020.

The NPP for Peninsular Malaysia, approved by the Cabinet and the National Physical Planning Council in April 2005, considers wetlands to be under-represented amongst all protected ecosystems and under constant threat for short-term economic uses. The Plan, therefore, recommends that all important wetlands be conserved and gazetted as Protected Areas and managed as Environmentally Sensitive Areas (ESA) (areas of critical importance in terms of the goods, services and life-support systems they provide, such as water purification, pest control and erosion regulation). Areas that harbour the wealth of the nation’s biodiversity are also ESAs. Three ESA categories are derived through a composite analysis based on three broad ESA criteria: areas important for biodiversity; areas important for life support and areas vulnerable to hazards. Areas important for biodiversity are almost always also important for life support: ESA Rank 1 : No development, agriculture or logging shall be permitted, except for eco-tourism, research and education ESA Rank 2: No development or agriculture. Sustainable logging and eco-tourism may be permitted subject to local constraints ESA Rank 3: Controlled development where the type and intensity of the development shall be strictly controlled depending on the nature of the constraints

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Natural wetlands with high conservation value and wetlands outside protected areas are classified as ESA Rank 1 and Rank 2.

Note: Detailed soil mapping should underpin such classifications. Semi-Detailed soil map are not yet available to classify land into these categories. h) National Policy on Climate Change, NPCC 2010 The NPCC was formulated to coordinate, drive and determine the way forward for the country in addressing climate change. The Cabinet adopted the National Policy on Climate Change (NPCC) on 20 November 2009. Climate change not only involves the environment sector but also encompasses other key sectors such as development, transportation, energy, lifestyle, health, agriculture and trade. Climate change also heavily affects the country’s ability to grow and develop to achieve its sustainable growth aspirations in a climate-resilient manner.

The NPCC’s objectives are to: i.

Mainstream climate change through wise management of resources and enhanced environmental conservation resulting in strengthened economic competitiveness and improved quality of life ii.

Integrate responses into national policies, plans and programmes to strengthen the resilience of development from arising and potential impacts of climate change; and iii.

Strengthen institutional and implementation capacity to better harness opportunities to reduce negative impacts of climate change

Note: Again, no systematic mapping of peatlands has been conducted. i)

National Action Plan for Peatlands, NAPP 2011 The Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment (NRE) released the National Action Plan for Peatlands (NAPP) in May 201 1 . The NAPP was formulated through an open and transparent consultative process with all stakeholders. The NAPP’s goal is to manage peatlands in Malaysia in an integrated and sustainable manner to conserve resources, prevent degradation and fire and generate benefits for the current and future generations. The NAPP’s objectives are to: i. ii. iii. iv.

Enhance knowledge, awareness and capacity for sustainable peatlands management and development Conserve peatlands resources and reduce peatlands degradation and fire Promote sustainable and integrated management of peatlands Ensure effective multi-stakeholders cooperation

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j)

ASEAN Agreement on Transboundary Haze Pollution The ASEAN Agreement on Transboundary was signed by ten ASEAN Member States on 1 0 June 2002 in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia and came into force on 25 Nov 2003. The agreement contains provision on monitoring, assessment and prevention, technical cooperation and scientific research, mechanism for coordination, lines of communication and simplified customs and immigration procedures for disaster relief. All the 1 0 ASEAN countries had rectified the agreement with Indonesia being the last to rectify on 1 4 October 201 4.

k) ASEAN Peatland Management Strategy, APMS The APMS was endorsed by the 1 0th ASEAN Ministerial Meeting on Environment in 2006. The goal of the strategy is to promote sustainable management of peatlands in ASEAN region through collective actions and enhanced cooperation to support and sustain livelihoods, reduce risks of fire associated haze and contribute to global environment management. It has four general objectives and 1 3 focal areas.

Objectives: i.

Enhance awareness and capacity building ii.

Address transboundary haze pollution and environmental degradation iii.

Promote sustainable management of peatlands iv.

Promote Regional cooperation ASEAN Member States will be responsible to facilitate the implementation of the strategy at national level and to help ensure that the general and operational objectives are met. This would be done through the development and implementation of National Action Plans (NAPs).

As part of the implementation of APMS at the regional level, ASEAN implemented the ASEAN Peatland Forests Project (APFP) (2009-201 4) funded by Global Environment Facility and SEApeat funded by the European Union, to demonstrate, implement and upscale integrated management of peatlands in Southeast Asia through mainstreaming and improved governance, strengthened capacity and increased awareness, enhanced multi-stakeholder partnerships and innovative approaches to maintain and rehabilitate identified critical peatland sites.

Following the success of the APFP and SEA peat projects, the ASEAN Environment Ministers endorsed the development of the ASEAN Programme on Sustainable Management of Peatland Ecosystem (APSMPE) 201 4-2020.

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6.2

The administrative framework

Institutional arrangements include both formal government organisational structures as well as informal norms in place in a country for arranging and undertaking its policy work. These arrangements are crucial as they provide the government at all levels (federal, provincial and local) with the framework within which to formulate and implement policies. Informal institutional structures include the general public, non-government organisations and private sector groups that are not official institutions. The term ‘institutional arrangements’ incorporates the networks of entities and organisations involved in planning, supporting, and/or implementing programmes and practices. These arrangements include the linkages between and among organisations at the local, state/provincial and national levels, and between governmental and non-governmental entities, including local communities and business leaders. Institutional arrangements include involved and responsible organisations, their human resources, funding, equipment and supplies, leadership, effectiveness and the communication links between and among organisations.

An administrative framework is needed to implement policies and decisions and enforce laws and regulations. In Malaysia, federal level agencies are responsible for implementing policies, action plans and guidelines. They require state governments’ cooperation on enforcement because land is a state matter and state governments decide on land use planning and enforce the necessary requirements. As such, coordination between different agencies, both at the federal and national level, is important to ensure the success of any programme related to conservation of natural resources.

All aspects of natural resources planning, management and administration are organised on a sector basis. Several key ministries and agencies within these are involved in forest, land, agriculture, water, and wildlife resources management. Different departments and agencies play different roles. Hence, liaison and co-ordination between ministries, their departments and various agencies at both the federal and state level are critical to integrated natural resources management planning and ensuring effective implementation of activities to safeguard peatlands.

Key federal ministries and agencies are: a) The Economic Planning Unit (EPU) The EPU is responsible for Malaysia’s economic planning. Its mission is to manage the country’s socio-economic development in a strategic and sustainable manner.

The EPU’s Environment and Natural Resource Economic Section, established under the Macro Planning Division effective June 2003, is responsible for leading and coordinating the national environmental and natural resources stability with better efficiency and effectiveness.

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b) Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment (NRE) The NRE is responsible for leading the country in the sustainable management of natural resources and the conservation of the environment towards achieving the national Vision. The NRE is responsible for the natural resources management of forest management, irrigation and drainage management, wildlife management and minerals management. It is also responsible for peatland conservation and management of environmental and shelters (including environmental conservation). c) Ministry of Plantation Industries and Commodities (MPIC) The MPIC is responsible for the commodities that contribute to the countryâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s economy (rubber, palm oil, timber etc.). Its vision is to make Malaysia the centre of excellence for the commodity sector and a major producer of higher value-added commodity-based products in the global markets. The Ministry is responsible for regulating land conversion. d) Ministry of Agriculture and Agro-based Industry (MOA) This one-stop agency gives advice and provides expertise to the private sector on agricultural matters and also monitors and implements agricultural programmes. e) Ministry of Energy, Green Technology and Water (KeTTHA) KeTTHA is responsible for planning and formulating policies and programs that show a strong green technology. It also leads a new initiative addressing global issues such as environmental pollution, ozone depletion, 'global warming' and issues related thereto. f) Ministry of Urban Wellbeing, Housing and Local Government This ministry is responsible for determining the policies and direction to achieve the goals of housing and local governments. g) Forestry Department Peninsular Malaysia (FDPM) The Forestry Department Peninsular Malaysia (FDPM) is under the Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment and comprises the Forest Department Headquarters Peninsular Malaysia, 1 1 state forestry departments and 33 district forest offices located throughout Peninsular Malaysia. FDPM is responsible for the management, planning, protection and development of the Permanent Reserved Forests in accordance with the National Forest Policy 1 992 and the National Forestry Act 1 984. However, forest management at state level is under the control of state governments through their state forestry departments. h) Malaysian Meteorological Department (MET Malaysia)

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The Malaysian Meteorological Department (MET Malaysia) provides weather-related services and is also the focal point for the Fire Danger Rating System (FDRS). The FDRS’s main objective is to provide early warning of the potential for land and forest fires to assist management in implementing operations to prevent fires and effectively control them before they spread. Currently, MET Malaysia maintains the FDRS for Peninsular Malaysia, Sabah and Sarawak as well as for the ASEAN region. i)

Department of Environment (DOE) The Department of Environment (DOE)’s mission is to promote, enhance and sustain sound environmental management in the process of nation building. A key activity is to study and assess development projects subject to the Environmental Impact Assessment Order. The DOE also provides environmental input to federal and state agencies to ensure that use of land and other natural resources is carried out in a manner that complies with the concept of sustainable development. The DOE monitors and enforces regulations on open burning.

j)

Department of Agriculture (DOA) The Department of Agriculture (DOA) provides services to farmers and the private sector on crop technology, agro-based industries and regulatory services to increase national agricultural productivity. The DOA’s Information Technology Unit produces maps covering Soil Survey, Land Use and Agro-climatic zoning for each state of Peninsular Malaysia.

At state level, the State Executive Council (EXCO) is the highest administrative authority on any matter related to land administration and is answerable to the state legislative assembly. The EXCO has absolute power to decide on any land matter provided that the decisions do not contravene federal or state policies or laws agreed to by the National Land Council. Several bodies may be directly or indirectly involved in the management of land and forest, including peat swamp forests.

Different peatlands that have been reclaimed can be under the purview of different ministries and state authorities.

7

The Way Forward

Determination of peatland issues and challenges allows strategies to be developed that are focused directly at the source of the problem. Effective peatland utilisation that avoids peat degradation and fire issues leading to transboundary ‘haze’ requires that various prerequisites be in place. Accurate and up-to-date information is needed for the use of policy-makers, land use decision makers, writers of management guidelines and materials to raise awareness of peatland issues, peatland managers, peatland owners and local communities situated on peatlands. Next, an effective policy framework is required. There

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must be a functioning administrative framework to implement policies and decisions and enforce laws and regulations. Effective land use planning is required. There must be management guidelines for peatlands of different characteristics or being used for different purposes or crops (Zakaria, 1 992). And not least, there must be special measures to prevent fires, reduce fire risk and ameliorate the results of fire.

Figure B-27 Strategies to mitigate peatland issues and manage peatland in Malaysia Strategies to mitigate peatland issues and manage peatland in Malaysia require the approaches shown in Figure B.35. Creating key enabling conditions will help to restore the natural value of peatlands. Institutional arrangement is the key role to ensure success of peatland management. The agencies and institutional that responsible on peatland issues should be arrange and strengthen in order to enhance the peatland management. Besides, these agencies need to strengthen coordinated law enforcement in order to prevent related peat land issues such as haze. Last but not least, lot of awareness raising, campaigning and stakeholder engagements particularly institutions are needed. Increased levels of awareness will generate both global and national benefits by helping to ensure that the strategies to mitigate and manage peatland are successful (Zakaria, 1 992).

7.1

Effective peatland management

7.1.1 Accurate and up-to-date information

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All types of information need to be compiled. Locations, areas and status of peatlands, supported by GIS maps are a basic need. Before moving forward to future R&D on abandoned peatland management, it is important that previous work on the subject be compiled. Fields of study that must be taken into consideration are: a. Survey and mapping on extent of peatlands including the depth of each and their boundary conditions; to identify independent peat basins for potential development and to ensure optimum water management design for each. Since peatlands subside with drainage and over time, the peat depth is important to anticipate the length of time the deposit can last for a specific economic programme b. Peat classification; this will allow comparison between basins, regions and across international borders. c. The status of abandoned agricultural peatland, the cause of the abandonment and the socio-economic and environmental impacts of the abandonment d. The impact of prolonged drainage of peatland on the surrounding e. Potential restoration approaches of abandoned areas Information includes the methodologies used as well as the findings of studies.

7.1.2 Good land preparation Peatland development is ecologically sensitive and its genesis assumed each deposit is bounded by mineral soils and/or river banks. Peatland that is not properly developed can be linked to poor agricultural yields and is more susceptible to peat fires. The potential of developing within each independent peat basin and ensuring each of the basin be fully developed and the water management system well designed and managed, may allow better future control on spreading of wild fire. Following from identifying each specific independent basin, good planning and the correct sequence of land preparation steps are important prerequisites prior to land conversion in order to achieve high yields and sustainable peatland development. Peat has unique physical and chemical properties therefore peatland development has its own unique challenges. Peatlands with different characteristics or being used for different purposes or crops need specific guidelines as agricultural activities on peat can potentially have various adverse impacts (Zakaria, 1 992). a. Site Selection Peatland survey and mapping is an essential step that must be taken to have a clear understanding of a peatland areaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s potential for development and its suitability for particular crops. This will include the boundary conditions and peat properties of the identified independent peat basin. Once the peat is drained, the surface will begin to subside. The initial subsidence, depending on the in situ peat properties, can be substantial. The annual subsidence will be influenced by the peat properties and

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depth of water table in the basin. If the annual subsidence is 50mm, in 30 years (the life of a plantation), a 1 .5m subsidence can be anticipated. Thus, a peat deposit of 4.0m depth can be 2.5m at the end of the 30-year period. The 1 .5m subsidence may have impacts on drainability and flooding of the basin.

Planning, development and management of peatlands require the siteâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s topography and drainability be assessed with respect of the crop to be planted (Zakaria, 1 992).

For instance, for sustained gravity drainage and for the success of oil palms plantings on peatland of 2m depth or deeper, for 30 years, need to ensure that there is long term drainability of the area, as it subsides, in relation to the boundary conditions afforded by adjacent river courses. When drainage by gravity is not sustainable, the area will become waterlogged and flooded, and bunding and pumping will be required. This will add to future costs. Suitable sites are those where the natural water table can easily be maintained at 50-75 cm from the peat surface and are drainable by gravity during the rainy season when periodic flooding usually occurs. Development of certain peat areas should be avoided. Those with salinity and acid sulphate problems are problematic to manage. Such areas are usually located near the sea or subject to spring tidal influence. b. Maintenance of Natural Drainage or Drain Development In peatland use, maintaining the natural drainage system is the best option so as to reduce the disturbance to the peat ecosystem. As maintaining such a system will not be possible either for agriculture or settlements, a sound drainage system development has to be planned and implemented. Such a system will require knowledge of topography, hydrological boundary of the peat basins, peat physical properties and rainfall. Main or tertiary drains are constructed first to remove excess water from the project area. Main drains should be of a sufficient size to dry the area up quickly for subsequent mechanical works. These main drains must be designed to meet the flow boundary conditions of the local river basin. The main line, the governing line for all the drainage works in the development of an estate on peat, is normally established along the main flow gradient of the project area. Collection drains are normally aligned and constructed at 300m intervals in order to give a carrying distance of 1 50m. Main drains are aligned parallel to the main line and the collection drains with collection roads perpendicular to it. These drains are actually very much influenced by the peat physical properties and over time one may have developed â&#x20AC;&#x153;rule of thumbâ&#x20AC;? in the design. Nowadays, the collection drains are aligned and constructed closer; to around 200m intervals.

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Assuming the plantations are only part of an independent peat basin, they must be made aware of, and made responsible, for any forested areas adjacent to the plantations. There are examples of forest areas adjacent to the constructed drains having caught fire. c. Land Clearing & Stacking Slash and burn is the traditional method smallholders use to prepare land for cultivation. Fire may appear to be a cheaper way to clear land but it can lead to extensive wildfires if not properly controlled. Vegetation clearance and stacking in rows using heavy machinery is one of the methods that are currently practiced. This may be followed by compaction. d. Compaction Compaction will increase the soil bearing capacity through improved bulk density. It is essential in land preparation for agricultural development on tropical peatland.

Drainage itself will induce an initial consolidation/compaction of the peat soil, although this may be time dependent. Compaction increased the bulk density from an initial value of 0.1 0 to about 0.20 gm cm-3 (Melling and Goh, 2009), leading to a proportional decrease in macropores and an increase in micropores. This resulted in an increase in the water retention capacity and unsaturated hydraulic conductivity (Sillins and Rothwell, 1 998). Therefore, compaction reduces fertilizer leaching problems, increases nutrient supply and minimises the leaning of palm crops due to better anchorage. Compaction has secondary effects in that it also reduces susceptibility to fire outbreaks as lower soil porosity enhances the capillary rise of water in soil, keeping the peat moist and at the same time reduce the oxygen content in the peat which is an important element of fire combustion.

Peat soils are mechanically compacted by an excavator traversing the planting row and harvesting path. To ensure effective compaction, it is recommended that: i.

The forest type be identified ii.

The water table be lowered to about 80-90 cm from the peat surface before compaction iii.

A good destumping standard be maintained particularly along planting rows iv.

Two or three rounds of compaction be performed during land preparation v.

Compaction work is avoided during the rainy season

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e. Re-compaction In some cases, where a developed peat area has palm leaning problems, it is necessary to re-compact the peat soil. This is especially important for areas where peat soils were initially very raw and had a large proportion of woody material. The re-compaction should be practised within the first to third years of planting to minimise damage to the roots.

7.1.3 Independent peat basins (IPB) approach Discussions above (in sections 5.1 .1 ) identified independent peat basins (IPB), as an area bounded by mineral soils and/or river banks. As peatland is so porous, drainage in any part of an IPB will inadvertently drained the whole IPB, rendering the area above the water table dried in a relatively short time, and making it very combustible and tinder for fire.

As such in a study, UPEN Sarawak (1 999) recommended that development in peat areas be carried out on an IPB basis. To enable this proposal to be implemented, there is a need to have a complete detail survey of the peat areas to identify the boundaries of each IPB. Then, the development of IPB may be prioritised on smaller basins and basins nearer urban centres or other priorities that meet the development criteria of the time. However, once drainage is initiated, the whole IPB will be inadvertently drained. Non-targeted areas within each IPB must be provided with a water management system that will keep the water table high and the peat soil constantly wet.

The potential of developing within each independent peat basin and ensuring each of the basin be fully developed and the water management system be well designed and managed, may allow better future control on spreading of wild fire.

7.1.4 Best water management practices Holistic and Integrated Basin Management As previously noted, the genesis of the peat soil is very much related to a waterlogged, anaerobic environment, slowing down the decomposition of organic matter and forming the peat substrate. Thus, drainage is a prerequisite and a subsequent good water management system is essential for agriculture. Water needs for different crops will differ based on each plant physiology. Too much or too little water will affect the crop production.

Any best water management practices (BWMP) requires the peat area to be integrated within a holistic integrated basin management as each part of a land mass is part of a specific river basin. By the same token, the peat basins are very much part of the river basins, as can be seen in the example for Sarawak below in Figure B-28 & B-29. Water in each river basins gravitate to the main trunk system and then to the sea.

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Figure B-28 Sarawak’s peat basins

Figure B-29 Sarawak’s river basins Management of these river basins is the responsibility of line agencies like the Department of Irrigation and Drainage (DID). A river basin is the implementation unit of the IWRM (Integrated Water Resources Management) policy, which has been a Malaysian government policy since the 8th Malaysia Plan. The Water Committee of the Academy of Sciences Malaysia (ASM) has recently completed an advisory note on “The Transformation of the

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Water Sector: National IWRM Plan â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Strategies and Roadmapâ&#x20AC;? which is now being published after being endorsed by the ASM Council in June of 201 6. The advisory note looks at management of all water sub-sectors in an integrated and holistic manner, and includes wetlands such as peat areas.

River basin modelling and hydraulic modelling of peat basins are highly technical and require several boundary conditions, among which are the peat basin boundaries and other boundaries of each specific basin. These are within the domain of hydraulic experts and most civil consultancy works will be familiar with the various models currently in used such as the examples given below: Flood Water Management

i.

Flood simulation using InfoWorks Modelling Flood simulation study could assist the local authorities or any other relevant agencies to develop a master plan for effective and efficient measures to control and minimise flood extent. This procedure is carried out to view the behaviour of the river under particular conditions and the effects of the input or given boundary conditions to the modelled river over a period of time Flood risk maps produced can be a quick decision support system tool to study the impact or either planned or unplanned human activities at the area (Mah et al., 201 2).

A study had applied InfoWorks Collection System (CS) as the numerical modelling approach for water quantity aspect. The study shows that a constructed wet pond with wetland facilities is able to help in managing stormwater generated at source.

(Liew et al., 201 3). InfoWorks are able to help forecast and investigate the effect of certain hydraulic structure such as retention and retention pond on the peat area.

Figure B.30 shows the flow chart on how to tackle flooding in peat area. The InfoWorks modelling are able to help to forecast and monitor the flow in the peat area during wet season. The result will be used to help the authorities in making decision either they need to open or close the irrigation gate.

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Figure B-30 Flow Chart for Water Management ii.

Groundwater Modelling For fire hazard warning system and land utilisation and restoration planning, method such as groundwater level prediction maps can be perfectly practiced.

According to study, fire risks for each year are depending on rainfall, length of the dry season and consequent depth of the groundwater level below the peat surface (Wรถsten et al., 2007). The groundwater recharge pattern, the geometry and the hydraulic properties of the soils determined the groundwater regime of the peatlands. Any development toward the soil may alter the groundwater regime, which can consequently trigger a number of derivative impacts, such as soil subsidence and environmental degradation. It is, therefore, imperative to analyse and assess the groundwater system in any peatland development or conservation scenario. In this connection, groundwater level can be monitored through modelling.

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A wide variety of groundwater models are presently available. In the ongoing research on peatlands in Malaysia and Indonesia two groundwater modelling packages are being applied, MIKE SHE and MODFLOW. MIKE SHE It consists of a water movement module and several water quality modules. Able to simulate both surface and ground water with precision equal to that of models focused separately on either surface water or ground water. Figure B-31 shows the illustration on groundwater modelling in order to monitor the water level.

Figure B-31 Illustrations on MIKE SHE Modelling MODFLOW The model is based on the finite-difference calculation technique and is capable to simulate the effects of wells, rivers, drains, and other groundwater recharge (or discharge) functions (Ritzema and Jansen, 2008).

A groundwater flow simulation model can show that: i.

The Hooghoudt steady-state approach can be used to simulate fluctuation in the groundwater level in peat soils ii.

Over the whole year the simulated groundwater levels are in good agreement with the measured ones

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iii.

A time step of one day gives the best results. A time step of one week, however, is adequate to simulate long-term averages (monthly or yearly fluctuations)

The Hooghoudt steady-state approach can be used to simulate the effect of drained areas on the groundwater level in an upstream, un-drained area.

Other considerations are:

a) Soil mapping and hydrological Survey Soil mapping will identify the boundaries of specific peat basin and enable the hydrology of a peat basin, which is very site-specific to be identified and analysed. It is essential that a hydrological survey be conducted prior to any land preparation to ensure that a good water management plan can be developed.

b) Wet lands as detention/retention area Detention periods in wetlands should be considered as a distribution, i.e. there is a range of detention times that can occur. This distribution, which reflects the influence of the highly variable nature of inflow and antecedent storage conditions, is referred to as the â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;probabilistic residence time distributionâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; (PRTD) and varies with outlet type, storage volume and permanent pool volume. Recent research has shown that the combined effects of intermittent and unsteady storm water inflow, antecedent storage conditions within the wetland and outlet characteristics lead to wetland outflow having been subjected to a range of detention times.

The permanent pool in a wetland system is formed by the water level below the invert of the lowest wetland outlet. In the case of a wetland controlled by a weir, the permanent pool can make up a large proportion of the total detention storage of a wetland compared to one controlled by a riser.

In systems with a large permanent pool, the outflow following a small run-off event will often consist of runoff stored from previous events. The influence of the interevent dry period on the detention period of stormwater increases with increasing permanent pool storage. While systems with large permanent pool volumes promote long detention periods, they do not provide the wetting and drying cycles necessary for effective stormwater treatment and promotion of diverse wetland vegetation. Outlets that promote a more variable hydrologic regime are considered to be more desirable.

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Field Water Management As the name denotes, this will be at the level of water management in the field, in which different crops will require specific water management control depending on and added factor, each plant physiology. Most crops with fibrous root system such as oil palm and pineapple grow well on peat. Their fibrous root systems allow these crops to accommodate and settled together with the peat as it subsided incrementally with drainage. Rubber trees have tap root system, anchoring the rubber firmly to the ground. As the peat subsided around the rubber tree, exposing the root system, yield will reduce. In Pontian, yield of rubber on peat reduced drastically over the years. Cassava had their root systems exposed as the crop matures, making it easy to harvest. Vegetables, short-term crops and other annuals will not be very much affected by peat subsidence. Vegetables, normally, will require watering, just like on mineral soils. Water level requirement for short-term crops are quite similar to oil palm but since the vegetative part is not top heavy it will require a soil bearing capacity much less than the oil palm, usually as much as that needed by men walking on peat. Oil palm have a top heavy vegetative part, in which additional compaction will increase the bearing capacity of the peat soil.

Oil palm is the major crop grown on peat in Malaysia. In oil palm plantation on peat, effective water management and compaction is the key to achieve optimum yield of any crop planted on peat and reduce the fire risk. For oil palm too much or too little water affects the fruit production or yield (Lim et al., 201 2). A good water management system for oil palm on peat is one that can effectively maintain a water level of 50-70 cm below the bank in collection drains or a 40-60 cm groundwater piezometer reading. It should be able to remove excess surface and sub-surface water quickly during wet seasons and retain water for as long as possible during dry spells. The moist peat surface at this water level will also help to minimise the risk of accidental peat fires. A peat basin used for oil palm cultivation must not have conflicting land uses that require differential water levels. Furthermore, water management is site specific and needs to consider the wider implications on surrounding areas as well as to avoid un-drainable situations, especially in areas where the mineral subsoil is below Mean Water Levels.

A well-planned and executed field drainage system with water control structures should be used for drainage and effective water management. Water-gates and/or weirs should be installed at strategic locations along the main and collection drains to effectively control the water table at the optimum level. Automatic flap gates are usually installed at main outlets that are subject to tidal variations. It is generally not recommended to instal permanent (concrete) water management structures as subsidence will ruin the system. Use natural materials such as wood or sandbags to construct weirs / stop-offs (Parish et al., 201 2).

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(a) River water level in High Flow (Wet spells)

(b) River water level in Low Flow (Dry spells) Figure B-32 Illustrations on Seepage Irrigation Method Figure B-32 depicts the relationship between weir and seepage irrigation method (irrigation channel) for both dry and wet spells. Figure B-32(a) shows that during wet spells the irrigation channel gate is in shut position so that peat soil will not be washed away by floods water. While Figure B-32(b) shows that the irrigation channel gate is open in dry seasons in order to regulate the water table and to ensure that subsidence will not occur during dry season by means of seepage irrigation method. Besides the purpose of seepage irrigation, the constructed low-bund detention pond recharges groundwater underneath by means of infiltration. In this connection, groundwater level can be monitored through modelling.

Water management for crops require information on the differences in the quantity of water retained at field capacity and that retained at the permanent wilting point. Water retention values are particularly important in the management of organic soils. Compared to mineral soils, peat has a much higher infiltration capacity, drainable pore space and hydraulic conductivity but a lower capillary rise, bulk density and plant-available water. Several criteria have been proposed for water management in peatland areas in order to reduce subsidence and improve crop yield. These are based on a combination of drainage and water conservation measures, design for 1 in 5 years. The use of such measures should produce a drainage system that can: i.

Maintain a groundwater level throughout the year, generally within the range of optimum crop growth (water conservation criterion). The water conservation criterion is based on long-term (monthly or yearly) average rainfall values. A retention pond can be constructed at suitable location where floodwater can be

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diverted during the wet season into the retention pond for usage during the dry season in order to maintain a constant high ground water level. Rain water harvesting with underground tanks can be another option. ii.

Avoid flooding and drought stress during extreme wet or dry periods (drainage criterion). As the drainage design is 1 in 5 year return period, a failure of 1 in 5 years is anticipated.

Good field water management can most easily be realised in regions that rarely suffer from prolonged droughts during which rainfall deficits occur (i.e. evapotranspiration exceeds rainfall). In drought-prone regions, water levels will necessarily be more variable over time and it may be inevitable that water levels regularly drop lower than 0.6m below the peat surface. Under such conditions more effort will be needed to store enough water in the wet season to reduce water table drop in the dry season, than is needed in regions where dry seasons are mild (Parish et al., 201 2).

Drainage and irrigation are vital in any peatland conversion and subsequent management for agricultural use. Drains or canals are an important feature in any developed peatland.

Their main function is to lower the water table so that agricultural activities can be carried out.

It is important that any drainage system takes into consideration the micro-topography of the area to be developed. This can be done by incorporating the topography data into the drainage system design. A drainage system which does not follow the contours would likely result in areas with too little water and also areas with too much water. It is also critical that a drainability assessment be undertaken, projected over the lifetime of a plantation and beyond. This will determine whether a plantation can still be drained by gravity even after subsidence has occurred. Low-lying peatlands which are close to the level of a river during the wet season will face significant drainage problems.

Drains must be regularly maintained or maintained when required to keep the drainage system working properly (Zakaria, 1 992). Poor maintenance of the drainage system can be a cause of flooding in peatlands although this is often a consequence of subsidence relative to the surrounding landscape. Desilting of drains to required depths is best carried out prior to the rainy season. However, care needs to be taken to avoid cutting drains too deep.

Each peat estate should have a detailed water management map indicating the directions of water flow, flood-prone fields, locations of water-gates, stop-offs, water-level gauges, bunds, etc. This enables effective supervision and timely actions (Lim et al., 201 2). Water management maps for both dry and wet seasons permit greater efficiency in water management. The maps should be calibrated every few years in relation to possible impacts on water flow from subsidence. It should be noted that higher water levels (e.g. <40 cm

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from the peat surface) may reduce yields but would reduce GHG emissions and subsidence as well as increase the lifespan of a plantation that could, over time, reach an un-drainable situation or result in an acid sulphate soil.

The optimum water level for high oil palm yield on peat is 50-70 cm from the surface in collection drains and 40-60 cm for groundwater piezometer readings i.e. an average of 50 cm. It is important to note that higher water levels reduce GHG emissions and subsidence.

However, if the water table is too high, fertilizer input will also go directly into the groundwater rather than being taken up by the palms. A flooded field should be avoided as it will hinder all estate operations and add to methane and nitrogen oxide emissions.

The water table can fluctuate rapidly especially during wet or dry seasons so it is important to monitor it regularly. This can be done by: i. ii. iii.

Installing water gauges at strategic locations in the collection drain Installing piezometers in the middle of estate block Regular monitoring and analysis of data

Cooperation with local communities is advisable when implementing a water management system as local knowledge on the subject can be invaluable. However, oil palm plantations must have the in-house proficiency to develop and implement good water management plans that also take into account impacts on the surroundings (Parish et al., 201 2).

7.2

Prevention of fire on abandoned peat swamp forest

Abandoned peatland has potential deleterious impacts on the global climate. Various approaches have been applied to limit such impacts. Water level control and hence the recreation of moist conditions can prevent fire outbreaks and help initiate the reestablishment of forest vegetation. Dam construction and canal blocking strategies are the main approaches used so far. Dams act as barriers to prevent water flow from existing drains.

Disturbed, abandoned, or underdeveloped peat areas should be identified for rehabilitation so as to be no longer a fire hazard. Excess flood waters could be redirected to these areas to encourage rehabilitation and reversion to its natural flow. For this, it is imperative to know the topography of the area.

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7.3

Strategies to prevent, reduce risk of, and ameliorate results of fires.

Peatland management requires Integrated Fire Management (IFM). IFM aims to address the problems and issues posed by unwanted fires holistically within the context of the natural environment and socio-economic systems. IFM combines the components of fire management, namely Prevention, Preparedness, Response and Recovery, to provide a holistic and scalable framework (Figure B.36). IFM also provides all stakeholders with guidance on how to implement actions at the appropriate time and scale to prepare for, and manage any fire situation.

The use of a holistic cycle such as IFM planning, coupled with Community Based Fire Management (CBFiM) planning, is a valuable and useful first step towards fire management.

CBFiM enables the landscape to be drafted out according to local knowledge and planning for peatland ecosystem management and protection from fire. The combined efforts and resources (people, equipment, money, and time) must be applied to each section during the creation of a fire management system. A failure to emphasise the prevention and preparedness aspects of fire management (even if there are only limited resources to begin with) will cause the continued cycle of unwanted fire spreading across the wider peatland landscapes.

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Prevention

Preparedness

Recovery Response

Figure B-33 The Emergency Management Cycle

Figure B-34 The components of Integrated Fire Management

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Figure B-34 illustrates that for effective fire management 80% of the fire management resources must be allocated to fire prevention. This is contrary to current typical practices which focus more on fire suppression.

Prevention 

Prevention is better than cure Prevention is always better than cure; if fire management on mineral soil is challenging enough, then fire management on peat is doubly challenging. Peat fires, once started, required extraordinary efforts to suppress.



80:20 Rule The 80:20 rule states that 80% of the effort/resources need to be put into fire prevention as compared to 20% toward fire suppression. Most of the budget should be allocated for prevention activities to ensure that fire does not happen at all.



No ignition = no fire In tropical environments nearly 1 00% of fire ignitions are human induced.

Therefore, the focus should be to reduce human activities that will ignite a fire.



No fuel = no fire spread Fire can only spread if there is fuel on the ground that is dry enough to support the fire. In the peatland context, dried peat soil is the fuel source. Therefore, it is critical that a high water table be maintained. Wet peat soil will not be able to support the continued spread of a fire and therefore a focus on water management within peatland areas should be a priority consideration.

Cooperative Fire Management recognises that:  

Fire cannot be managed by one single agency or landholder, and Fire is a shared responsibility across all land managers in the public sector and private sector, both smallholders and large land holders.

To engage in successful Cooperative Fire Management two key needs must be fulfilled:  

All participants are willing to work together on fire prevention and suppression activities in a cooperative and collaborative manner, and A task force or committee can meet and oversee activities and be a formal driving force behind the collaborative efforts.

One important aspect of fire prevention is proper land use planning. This involves the identification and inventory of all peatland areas. Peatland areas shall not be converted

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unless absolutely necessary after a thorough study of the consequences and implementation of mitigation measures. Once an area has been identified resources need to be allocated for maintenance and monitoring. Agencies responsible must be well equipped and motivated. Resources must also be allocated for capacity building and training.

Appropriate tools for every stage of the IFM must be available.

Preparedness 

Be prepared Fires can be planned for and managed; unlike some natural disasters, fires are a regular and routine occurrence and thus can be predicted as the seasons change.

This principle is focused on recognising fire as an annual cycle and occurrence that has a set of routines, processes and plans that we can follow on an annual basis.

This principle encourages planning for and implementing fire prevention, and secondly planning for and implementing a fire suppression system



Re-communicate early warning / early detection measures Tools such as the Fire Danger Rating System (FDRS) and hotspot systems have been in operation for nearly ten years. The tools create useful and valid information but are sometimes not communicated to a land or fire manager.

The principle focus here is to re-communicate the messages that tools like the FDRS and hotspot systems create, via a series of push messages to the right manager at the right time (as compared to pulling the message from the web).



Train the right people in the right course at the right time Cooperative Fire Management requires that people come together and work in a team environment and are able to understand each other’s’ needs, roles and responsibilities to be able to work effectively and efficiently as a team. This requires that the people involved be trained in specific activities so that they can cooperate when coming together as an incident management or fire-fighting team.

Deliver the message that fire in peatlands is exceptionally difficult to control as it can continue to smoulder undetected beneath the surface peat and can spreading through the root network to surface elsewhere, flare up and continue to burn and spread rapidly on the peat surface (Pahang Forestry Department, 2005; Sabah Forestry Department, 2005).

Close canals to help slow water from draining out, to prevent the peat from drying. Monitor fire management activities.

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Response ď&#x201A;ˇ

The smaller a fire the less the cost of suppression

The faster a response, the smaller the fire, and therefore, the cheaper the suppression costs. History shows us that fire suppression efforts predominantly build up slowly over time, allowing the fire to grow and grow, with exponentially higher costs of suppression.

Reversing this trend requires significant policy, regulation, budgetary and cultural changes to the emergency management system for peatland fire response.

This principle is aimed at reversing the trend for the slow build up for fire suppression and move toward a comprehensive early response, rapid suppression and quick demobilisation of equipment and people once suppressed. ď&#x201A;ˇ

Peatland fire controls require specialised equipment

Peat fires behave very differently from fires on mineral soils as they spread both above and under the ground. A trench must be dug around the outside of the peat fire down to a depth that reaches the water table to ensure the fire does not continue underground past surface containment lines. Peat soils have a low bulk density and are readily compressed which can cause the soil to sink and bog down equipment. ď&#x201A;ˇ

Rapid Response requires pre-planning

The key word is pre-plan; 90% of a fire suppression response can be pre-planned; the last 1 0% is following through on the actions established in the pre-planning when a fire starts.

Recovery Rehabilitate burnt tropical peat swamp by planting fast growing indigenous species that can outcompete the grasses on burnt areas to ensure the area regenerates as peat swamp forest.

The technologies to counteract fire incidences must be made readily available, affordable, acceptable and accessible. First and foremost, information on the current status of the peatland resource must be available in the form of GIS. Up-to-date maps of the local area showing the land boundaries, infrastructure, community settlements etc. are vital.

Technology must be available to monitor the occurrence of hotspots in real time. The information gathered through such a tool indicates the potential for a fire to occur near a hotspot. However, ground verification is still required to confirm the presence of a fire as not all hotspots are fires. Conversely, some fires occur and are not captured by hotspot satellite imagery. This prompts the need for ASEAN to develop better systems to review and refine their fire detection and verification capabilities.

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7.4

Effective policies and regulations â&#x20AC;&#x201C; various approaches

As land, farms, forests, water bodies and settlements are not isolated elements but part of the wider landscape, their management and that of all land uses need to be integrated in the landscape approach. â&#x20AC;&#x153;A landscapes approach entails viewing and managing multiple land uses in an integrated manner, considering both the natural environment and the human systems that depend on itâ&#x20AC;?. (About Global Landscapes Forum www.landscapes.org/about/, http://blog.cifor.org/23834/landscape-approach-defiessimple-definition-and-thats-good?fnl=en) The landscape approach emphasises adaptive management, stakeholder involvement, and multiple objectives. Various constraints are recognised, with institutional and governance concerns identified as the most severe obstacles to implementation. This approach is likely to address the many landscape challenges better. (http://www.cifor.org/library/41 36/tenprinciples-for-a-landscape-approach-to-reconciling-agriculture-conservation-and-othercompeting-land-uses/) There is also the Multi-door Approach which seeks to establish coherence between the inquiry, investigation and prosecution of forestry crimes. This approach encourages the consideration of environmental crimes as equivalent to crimes such as corruption, money laundering and tax evasion, and encourages the prosecution of those who commit them. It should prioritise crimes committed by corporations or corporate actors.

Locals, smallholder agriculturists and agro-industrial companies alike practise burning in many parts of the tropics as it is the cheapest and most convenient method to clear land (Anderson and Bowen, 2000). Forest and land fire crimes committed by corporations can be addressed at the individual investor level. It is unclear how this can be done as lands on mineral soil or peat are normally burnt in a systematic manner in groups. It is advisable that investigations collect data on landowners at the beginning of the planting season to ensure accountability. Under the current system these groups remain hidden to avoid responsibility.

A strong message should be sent that the government will not tolerate any forest or land clearing by fire, whether by corporations or by individual investors. It is imperative that licences and permits for activities in forest or peatland areas issued to concessionaires who cause fires be automatically revoked. Dedicated units and personnel then need to follow up to ensure that the land now under government control is well managed and there is no effort from other entities to convert the land into plantations or sell the cleared land to individual investors.

The use of satellite technology is a must in order to monitor land clearing activities in forest and peatland areas. Given the vast size of forest and peatland areas in Malaysia, it is impossible to rely solely on government personnel to conduct surveillance in the field or use

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satellite data every 1 5 to 20 days. Satellite technology is available that can provide almost real-time information. The use of such technology will allow a quicker response so that appropriate action can be taken at lower levels in the government when there is illegal activity on the ground to convert forest and peatland areas.

Public campaigns that represent a systematic effort to sensitise the public and targeted stakeholders, and to involve citizens and civil society organisations are likely to make a difference. So far, no effective government-led media campaign (radio, television, newspapers) involving respected public figures, religious leaders and social leaders has been mounted against land clearing by burning either at local or national levels. Current media coverage of fires contributes to informing the public but there is no campaign to highlight the negative impacts of forest and land burning on the environment, public health and the countryâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s economy, which suffers losses due to such activity. A well-designed and broad-based public campaign can enhance the effectiveness of government monitoring and is thus an essential step to eradicate forest and land burning practices.

7.5

Social and economic issues

The sustainable development and management of peatlands in areas where local communities live are important in enhancing the communitiesâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; socio-economic status.

Introducing sustainable income-generating activities would provide more options for local communities and could potentially contribute to solving some social problems related to peatland management.

7.6

Effective communication

Communication and information dissemination is needed at all levels. At the technical level, current knowledge, understanding and technology need to be circulated transparently through the peat knowledge chain. It is essential also that society in general be engaged and educated on the importance of continued protection and rehabilitation of damaged peatland forests. This will help ensure a continued sense of ownership and empowerment to protect the remaining landscape despite the changes. The public can be provided with information on the various environmental and social support assistance programmes available. Resources to facilitate rehabilitation efforts could also be distributed to volunteers.

It is important to keep the public apprised of the situation on the ground so that they can avoid fire-risk areas and determine what is best for their safety. Public health advisories can also be issued to caution the public about deteriorating air quality due to smoke. Public education on the dangers of setting fires during dry weather and the importance of staying vigilant can help to create social norms to reduce the incidence of fire. The public can also

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be urged to report fires and suspicious activities to the relevant authorities. Daily weather reports and media releases from national meteorological agencies should also incorporate FDRS information on dry weather conditions and outlook. Instructions to the public on ways to reduce fire ignitions can be shared in the media.

The importance of communicating scientific findings to support policy development was demonstrated during a review of research (Padfield et al., 201 4) when respondents gave the highest priority to the question: How can current scientific knowledge be synthesised and translated into policy-relevant information to aid policy and decision-making, management and to suggest further research? (38% of respondents rated this question as a priority).

Stakeholders reaffirmed this point and emphasised the need to improve current strategies to communicate the results of past and current peatland research and provide more general, publicly-available information related to the societal and ecological importance of peatland environments. Several individuals from academic, governmental and nongovernmental communities should take responsibility for considering and implementing effective public debate about tropical peatland. This could be realised by better coordination of research conducted by research institutions, better use of social media to promote and create public dialogue on critical issues, multi-stakeholder activities such as field visits and active public engagement with governmental agencies to positively influence the policy process.

Formulating a communication strategy would be a starting point to enhance the public profile of peatlands with a view to improving the awareness of all stakeholders (industry e.g. land developers, governmental, non-governmental, academia, consultants and the public).

According to recent research by Lakoff (201 0) reframing the specific issue or complex problems for public engagement is fundamental to break through communication barriers and generate new ways of thinking by stakeholders.

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Case Study: Effective scientific communication for sustainable peatland management Knowledge and understanding of tropical peatland are still limited as compared to temperate and boreal peatlands. Tropical Peat Research Laboratory (TPRL) under the Chief Ministerâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Department has been bestowed with the responsibility to conduct extensive research on tropical peatland in Sarawak to rapidly develop the knowledge and understanding on peat. These scientific knowledge are important to be translated into pragmatic and comprehensible management practices for the oil palm industry players to produce sustainably from peatlands. Therefore, TPRL led by Dr Lulie Melling in collaboration with Malaysian Peat Society (MPS) has successfully conducted various conferences and workshops since 2007 with the aim to communicate scientific knowledge effectively to the community.

Table B-1 5 Summary of conferences and workshops organised by TPRL Year

Duration

Theme

Participants

2007

3 days

Peat and Other Soil Factors in Crop Production

700

2008

3 days

Agronomic Principles of Oil Palm Cultivation

800

201 3

1 day

Good Plantation Practices for Oil Palm on Tropical Peatland (Workshop)

600

201 6

5 day

1 5th International Peat Congress 201 6

-

These events are able to attract more than 500 delegates from various sectors including government agencies, plantation companies, local and international universities, plantation related agencies or association and other industry players.

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Figure B-35 Communication to the society With these blend of people from various discipline, the main challenge is in relaying scientific information into laymanâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s terms as the participants are not only from scientific community but also from plantation sector especially farmers and small holders. The language or vocabulary chosen must be effective and impactful enough to enable participants to comprehend better. The effectiveness of communication will be reflected through implementation or incorporation of these informations into their practices for better plantation management and optimistically higher crop productivity. Therefore, after the event, TPRL also do the site visit and gave ground tutorial to individual plantation regarding their plantation management. It is vital as well-managed oil palm plantation on peatland is important to the stateâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s economy and environment. In terms of economy, the oil palm industry contributes to the stateâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s revenue as well as creates the oppurtunities for employment and business for the country.

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Table B-1 6 Economic importance of oil palm on peatland to Sarawak Information

Figures

Hectarage yield of FFB from matured OP in peat area

25 tonne/ha

Potential FFB production from 750,000 ha ( 750,000 ha x 25 tonne/ha)

1 8,750,000 MT

Current FFB price per tonne

RM500/tonne

FFB revenue per ha per year (25 ton/ha x RM 500)

RM1 2,500/ha/yr

For 750,000 ha - Potential revenues from FFB

RM9.3 billion

Estimated revenue to Sarawak govâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t (5% sales tax) (RM) @ RM 500 per tonne

RM400 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; RM500 mil/annually

One of the good examples of an effective dissemination of scientific knowledge is that proper peatland management via compaction and good water management is a preventive measure against peat fire outbreaks especially during the dry season. A prolonged dry season in Southeast Asia region during 201 5 has caused large peat fire incidents in various parts of Central Kalimantan, Indonesia. However, in Sarawak, the oil palm community managed to keep peatland from fires due to the scientific knowledge acquired during these workshops are effectively implemented on ground.

Source: Tropical Peat Research Laboratory, Sarawak Chief Ministerâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Department

7.7

Research and development

There is still a lot more to know about tropical peats. A better understanding of peat characteristics is foundational to any R&D in this area. The development of projects would require a better and clear understanding of the topo-hydrological characteristics of a tropical peatland and the biophysical and chemical properties of its peat soils, especially on how it changes with drainage and development. This will enable a better drainage system development and/or better management for conservation of adjacent peat land. A researcher may want to identify ways to improve crop performance on peat, optimising productivity and yield and at the same time minimising GHG emissions and subsidence.

Research findings are the drivers for informed policy developments and effective peatland management to prevent peat fires and other adverse environmental impacts. Fundamental research on, and technological development for peatland must be aligned with political,

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economic and social concerns and vice-versa, to ensure the needed support can be effectively integrated in a planned and inclusive development.

Research is fundamental for a better understanding of the complex issues related to peat and fire prevention on peatlands needed to achieve this commitment. The achievement of zero haze in the transboundary area requires science that bridges institutions from the various fields: natural disaster (fire science), soil, ecosystem, hydrology, policy, politics and industry. The development of and deployment of innovative technologies are required to preserve peatlands to be conserved, build dams and canals on peatlands developed for plantations, and hybrid engineering systems to monitor and manage water tables in peatlands to prevent over-draining and hence peat fires from occurring.

Scientific research and technological development need to work together to achieve ideal practices for peatland management. Teams of researchers from multidisciplinary research areas need to communicate with each other to close the knowledge gaps on tropical peat, and more importantly to articulate on issues of both utilising and conserving peat. Every fundamental finding is a building block to informed technology development and use which leads to informed decisions by policy makers and industry as a whole. More often than not, immediate action to solve a problem is chosen rather than prevention for long-term benefit.

Agricultural use of tropical peatland is often viewed with great challenges due to peatâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s marginal agricultural capability due to woodiness, high water table, low bulk density, high soil pH and low fertility. New discoveries and innovations to improve current land management practice are therefore still greatly needed.

Alternatives to the main crops currently planted on tropical peatland (oil palm, pineapple and acacia) urgently need to be developed. Crops that require a higher water table, for example sago palm (Metroxylon sagu), need to be investigated and researched. Crop breeding aims to optimise yields and minimise the resources required. Breeding of crops grown on tropical peatlands mainly focuses on improving traits related to quality, physical characteristics and pest and disease tolerance. In the case of oil palm, the focus is on improving overall oil yield and the breeding of dwarf varieties that resist the effects of peat subsidence which causes shallow-rooting palms to lean progressively and eventually topple.

Beginning in the early 2000s new approaches to plant breeding (genetic engineering, DNA marker-assisted selection and genomics) were adopted. These apply biotechnology as the principle tools. Such approaches have created unprecedented opportunities to redesign the performance of crops. Uncertainties as to the effectiveness of restoration approaches require further investigation. Future research on management strategies could include: i.

Peat soil survey and mapping, among others, to identify the peat basin boundaries, its topographies and peat physical properties for the different peat types and the independent peat basins (IPB). It is also to identify

271

ii. iii. iv. v.

subsidence level in developed and developing areas and their susceptibility to increase flood waters Hydrological studies of the peat ecosystems inclusive of identification of the necessary boundary conditions of the relevant river basins.

Effective and innovative infrastructure design on peat including methodologies to maintain high water table, innovative canal blocking, dam, building and road construction Identification of plant species that are well-adapted for waterlogged conditions Development of high yielding crop varieties on peat

A better understanding of the condition an area to be rehabilitated is urgently needed before management strategies are adopted on the ground.

Table B-1 7

Solutions Short-Term Long-Term

Summary Table

Details Strategies to prevent reduce risk of and ameliorate results of fire through Integrated Fire Management (IFM) Effective Policies and Regulations Social and Economic Issues  Introducing sustainable income-generating activities to local communities Effective Communication  Current knowledge, understanding and technology need to be circulated transparently through the peat knowledge chain  Society need to be educated on the importance of continued protection and rehabilitation of damaged peatland forests Effective Peatland Management  Accurate and up-to-date information  Good land preparation  Best water management practices Prevention of fire on abandoned peat swamp forest.  Dam construction and canal blocking strategies Research and Development

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8

Conclusion

It must be reminded that only 40% of the haze originated from peat areas. And haze from peat areas is from burning of dried forest on peat soil and/or the burning of the dried peat areas/soil.

Moving towards long-term fire, and consequently haze prevention is in Malaysia’s national interest and will have significant economic and social benefits. From the fire management perspective, Figure B-33, 80% of the resources should be allocated to prevention.

For more sustainable management peat must be kept moist and/or under wet conditions so as not to catch fire easily. The best prevention is to retain the peat swamp in its natural state. The next best is to ensure good water management systems are in place. This indicates the need to identify the boundaries of each peat basin that “has been developed” or “are to be developed” and balance the water management from hydraulic perspectives, iterating the design for water management between the local/field needs, the peat basins boundary conditions and the river basins boundary conditions (all Independent Peat Basins IPB- are part of specific river basins).

Thus, all new developments on peat should be designed and developed based on the whole IPBs, prioritising or starting with development of smaller more manageable IPBs. For areas that have been developed, the water management designs need to be reviewed to ensure optimum conditions. To enable this recommendation to be followed through, a nationwide survey of peatlands becomes necessary so as to identify all IPBs. Concurrently, there may be problems in land management, as land are surveyed, divide, and managed based on surface area, without understanding the eco-sensitivity of peatland. In the Peninsular, the Departments of Lands and Mines (JKPTG) and Land Survey (JUPEM), Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment, need to be sensitised on this issue, if peat are to be managed based on IPBs. Under the Laws of the Land (http://www.kptg.gov.my/en/content/law-lands), the Land Conservation Act 1 960 (http://www.kptg.gov.my/sites/default/files/article/Act%20385-land%20conserve.pdf) provides controls for “Hill Land” and “Silt and Erosion”. It may probably be easier in Sarawak and Sabah, as their agencies are Land and Survey Departments (http://www.landsurvey.sarawak.gov.my/ and http://www.jtu.sabah.gov.my/homepage/).

273

With this sensitisation, policies and regulations can be more clearly developed pertaining to responsibility of fires within one IPB. Peat fires in drained peat area may travel beneath the surface. Concessionaires should be held responsible for any fires within the same IPB on which they are operating on, as these fires are likely caused by the actions of these concessionaires, even though the fires may or may not have started from their land nor physically ended on their developed land. There have been precedence for this Malaysia, as in the construction of the SMART Tunnel, where the Tunnel Concessionaire were held responsible on sink holes, deem as a due to the tunnel constructions, even though the sink holes are not in the direct line of construction.

From the climate change perspective, effective fire management will reduce emissions significantly. From a human rights perspective, tackling forest and peatland fires ensures each individual’s right to clean air and a healthy environment. Although this WG2 focuses on “Peat Area and Water Management”, the analysis has included advisories in minimising haze from the burning of non-peat areas, through various fire-fighting measures and incentives as Malaysia is committed to achieve zero haze emissions by 2020 at the ASEAN level.

Appropriate water management design will require among others, knowledge of various boundary conditions, such as that of the specific river basin and/or of independent peat basins (IPB), other physical properties, including those that changes with drainage and time and records of local rainfall. Thus, survey and mapping of the peat soil and peat basin boundaries are crucial. Technically it is possible to drain the peatlands and turn them into productive agricultural land or if need be to utilised the same technology to maintain wetland status of the area or pockets of the area. If there are better land choices, it may be best to maintain what is left of the peat ecosystem, intact and untouched, as natural living library for scientific research as well as option of “low hanging fruits” to stabilised river basins from impact of climate changes. These swamps are natural retention/detention area for flood waters.

If the peat basins must be reclaimed, peat basin screening as in Figure B-26 & Figure B-30 (UPEN Sarawak, 1 999) may be helpful.

Peat will subside upon drainage, from consolidation. The initial subsidence can be high.

Once drained and with the introduction of oxygen to the pore spaces, being organic, peat soil above the water-table will mineralise or oxidise, leading to further subsidence. This rate of subsidence can be as much as 50mm per annum in the hot tropics for a water- table

274

drawdown to 600mm below the surface. The rate will increase with deeper water table. As the ash content of peat soil can be as low as 1 %, peat fire can greatly destroy the dried soil mass, and will result in more subsidence, Subsidence will effectively reduce the soil depth. In long term agricultural development, the eventual subsidence at the anticipated economic period should be estimated to ensure there will be enough peat depth for the choice of crop.

Subsidence and the lowering of the ground level may render the area susceptible to more frequent flood occurrences. Initial costing should include cost for potential flood control or flood mitigation, anticipated within the economic period of the project development.

Characterisation of the peat profile, as proposed by Paramananthan's classification system, is crucial to have a better initial understanding on crop response and the best agromanagement practices to be adopted in our tropical peat areas. The thickness of sapric, hemic and fibric layers and depth to the sub-soil are fundamentals that should no longer be excluded or ignored in scientific discussion and decision making process. The presence of logs and woody materials within the peat profile is equally important. Unless these parameters are addressed systematically, we will not progress well; be it in water management strategy or GHG emissions and carbon stock deliberation.

There is scope for Malaysia and the international community to work together for effective fire prevention. Action must be taken now to avoid the recurrence of forest and peatland fires in the years to come.

275

276

Annex C:

Waste to Resources: Energy or Materials

LIST OF TABLES Table C-1 Type of biomass in secondary forest with definition and example Table C-2 Amount of forest biomass by type in Malaysia from the year 1 990 - 201 0 Table C-3 Composition of an old oil palm tree (Khalid et al., 1 999) Table C-4 Land use in Sumatera in year 201 5/201 6 Table C-5 Properties of biomass Table C-6 Types of product derived from biomass Table C-7 Summary of Biomass to Power Conversion Technologies (Wright, 2006) Table C-8 Summary of combustion system (Kumar Rayaprolu, 2009) Table C-9 Description of Stoker Combustion and Fluidised Bed Combustion (Bowman et al., 2009) Table C-10 Comparison between Back-Pressure and Extraction-Condensing Steam Turbines (University of Illinois, 2004) Table C-11 Descriptions and Temperature Ranges of Gasification Stages (E4tech, 2009) Table C-12 Pre-treatment processes of lignocellulosic materials (Taherzadeh & Karimi 2008) Table C-13 Advantages and drawbacks of potential organisms in lignocellulosic-based bioethanol fermentation Table C-14 Parameters for a case study of 2000t/d of biomass-to-power plant Table C-15 Parameters for a case study of 2000t/d of biomass-to-ethanol plant Table C-16 Ethanol production cost ($/l) reduction by improving the debt: equity ratio or interest rate Table C-18 Feed-in tariff for bio energy (SEDA, 201 6)

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LIST OF FIGURES Figure C-1 . Land use distribution in Sumatera, Indonesia Figure C-2. Spatial computation and analysis of biomass primary residues supply in Peninsular Malaysia Figure C-3. Conversion of biomass to product Figure C-4. Illustrated Diagram on the Composting Process (adapted from Ahmad et al., 2007) Figure C-5.Process of biomass pelletising Figure C-6. Direct-combustion of Biomass for Electricity Generation (Brian Williams, 201 5) Figure C-7. Steam cycle with Back Pressure Turbine and Extraction Condensing Turbine (Arkadiusz Mysiakowski, 201 6) Figure C-8. A generic cellulosic ethanol production process (Limayem & Ricke, 201 2).

Figure C-9. Schematic of pre-treatment effect on lignocellulosic biomass Figure C-1 0. Different pre-treatment methods Figure C-1 1 . Proposed mechanism for cellulose amorphogenesis/depolymerisation by celluloses (Arantes and Saddler, 201 0) Figure C-1 2. Commercialised ethanol production plant in Italy since 201 3 Figure C- 1 3. Graph of capital cost of plant versus capacity of plant Figure C- 1 4. Further calculation for cost estimation of biorefinery plant Figure C- 1 5. Optimal production costs from oil pal trunk residues and paddy residues Figure C-1 6. Breakeven of electricity selling price for biomass-to-power in Malaysian context.

Figure C-1 7. Breakeven of ethanol selling price for biomass-to-ethanol in Malaysian context.

Figure C-1 8.The price of ethanol with different capacity and capacity cost Figure C- 1 9. Spatial structure of biomass resources, Rodrigue (201 3) Figure C- 20. Accessibility to biomass from ideal locations and KLIA Figure C- 21 . Map examples Figure C- 22. Photo of the shredder

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LIST OF EQUATION Equation C- 1 . Composting of organic fraction of waste under aerobic condition Equation C- 2. Capital cost of a plant Equation C- 3. Economy of Scale

LIST OF BOX Box C- 1 . Landuse and Biomass in Indonesia Box C- 2. Supply Cost Structure of Biomass Primary Residues in Peninsular Malaysia Box C- 3. Capital Cost Estimation for Biorefinery Plant Box C- 4. Cost Estimation of Biorefinery Plant in Peninsular Malaysia 1 Box C- 5. Cost Estimation of Biorefinery Plant in Peninsular Malaysia 2 Box C- 6. Location factor for biofuel plant Box C- 7. Modelling the biomass transportation cost â&#x20AC;&#x201C; case of Malaysia Box C- 8. Shredder Initiative of Rotary Club of Lampang, Northern Thailand

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1 Introduction Regional haze episodes have now evolved into an annual affair, with the only uncertainty being its severity in any particular year. While the direct cause is crystal clear, its remedy is much less simpler. Finding long term solutions to alleviate the problem has turned out to be rather complex with multi-pronged strategies, ranging from a direct approach of causal elimination through the banning of open burning through legislation and enforcement to a more indirect socio-political approach of dealing with the root cause, which many believe to be associated to land grabbing. Other initiatives such as plans to build drainage/canal systems in peat land as a means of underground soil wetting have also been considered.

One possible solution which shall be discussed in this report is the utilisation of the biomass for higher value bio-product. The rationale is that the creation of value for the hitherto burnt biomass shall provide the impetus to consider the biomass as a source of wealth to be translated into a sustainable practice of economic harvesting. Various technologies exist to convert biomass resources into heat and power such as gasification and direct firing combustion. On the other hand, technologies for converting bioenergy is still new and only several are commercial today while others are being piloted or in R&D stage. This report discusses the technologies of converting biomass into heat and power as well as bioethanol as one of the promising strategies to mitigate the transboundary haze pollution encountered by the ASEAN countries in recent years. Case studies are also presented for possible extension into detailed studies later.

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2 Biomass 2.1 Biomass definition & categorisation Biomass refers to any organic, decomposable matter derived from plants or animals available on a renewable basis. There are two different types of biomass residues: a) Biomass generated on the forest, fields or plantations, such as forest residues, oil palm tree trunks and fronds and rice straws, b) Biomass generated at the point of processing, such as oil palm empty fruit bunches and kernel shells, and rice husks.

The first type of biomass residues generated in the forests, fields, or plantations are the major contributor to forest fire which caused haze in Southeast ASEAN. These residues are abundant, and in dry seasons they become very dry with high potential of catching fires from very small flames or even burning ambers like cigarette butts that could lead to raging fires and massive haze. On the other hand, Sumatra and Kalimantan possess large areas of peat forest, which is highly combustible during dry season. Therefore, the problem is further compounded in peat forests where a lot of biomass exists underground and once fire starts, it becomes very difficult to control. In this study, we focuses on the utilisation of biomass generation in forest and plantation, which are i) secondary forest biomass, ii) oil palm plantation biomass, and iii) peatland biomass.

2.1.1 Secondary forest biomass A secondary forest is a forest or woodland area which has regenerates largely through natural processes after significant human and/or natural disturbance of the original forest vegetation over an extended period (Chokkalingam and Jong, 2001 ). Biomass in secondary forest can be categorised into three main types: the above-ground biomass, below-ground biomass, and dead wood (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, 201 0), as explained in Table C-1 . Biomass generation of secondary forests varies in relation to factors such as site conditions (soil and altitude), time of settlement and the crop-fallow cycles, the type and intensity of land use during the cropping stage, and the prevalence of disturbances such as accidental burning during the fallow stage (Dominic, 2002). Above-ground biomass has higher economic value as it contains higher amounts of cellulose, hemicellulose, lignin and a small amount of other extractives, which could be converted into energy-related resource.

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Table C-1 Type of biomass in secondary forest with definition and example (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, 201 0) Type of biomass in secondary forest

Definition

Example

Above-ground biomass

All living biomass above the soil

Stem, stump, branches, bark, seeds, foliage

Below-ground biomass

Dead wood

Fine roots of less than 2mm diameter are excluded because these often cannot be distinguished empirically from soil organic matter or litter All non-living woody biomass not contained either in the litter, standing, lying on the ground, or in the soil

roots

wood lying on the surface, dead roots, and stumps

Table C-2 Amount of forest biomass by type in Malaysia from the year 1 990 - 201 0 (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, 201 0) Type of biomass

Forest Biomass (Million tonnes, dry weight) 1990

2000

2005

2010

Above-ground biomass

4,842

6,1 05

5,767

5,51 1

Below-ground biomass

1 ,1 62

1 ,465

1 ,384

1 ,323

n.a

n.a

n.a

n.a

Dead wood

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2.1.2 Oil palm plantation biomass Oil palm is one of the world's most rapidly expanding equatorial crops. Approximately 85% of worldâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s crude oil palm is supplied by Malaysia and Indonesia (Sulaiman et al., 201 1 ). Malaysia has approximately 5 million ha of palm oil plantation in the year 201 1 , covered a 1 5% of total land area (MPOB, 201 4). The oil palm has a lifespan about 200 years with the economic life up to 25 years. Peak crop yields are achieved from the age of 9-1 8, and gradually decline thereafter. Conventionally, a felled oil palm tree, consisting of a large amount of trunk and frond, are often shredded and buried in the field to be turned into organic fertiliser.

Nevertheless, due to the cost constraints, some small and private estate holders practise open burning to clear the land, as it is the cheapest mean for land clearing. There are some utilisations of trunks and fronds as source material for plywood production but its uptake is not consistent due to uncertain economic values of the raw materials primarily due to logistic cost. At the time of reporting, it is estimated that 65% of Malaysiaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s total oil palm trees ranged between the age of 9-20 years, while another 26% is approaching the end of yielding age of 20-28 years old (MPOB, 201 4). Approximately 1 .3 million ha of Malaysiaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s oil palm plantation is at the felling age. A felled oil palm tree consists of 70% of trunk, 20.5% of frond, 6.53% of leaflets and 5.03% of others, as shown in Table C-3 (Khalid et al., 1 999). Based on the statistical data of old oil palm plantation area, it is estimated that 1 09 million t of biomass can be obtained from Malaysia old oil palm plantation, with 53.39 million t of trunk, 20.80 million t of frond, and others.

Table C-3 Composition of an old oil palm tree (Khalid et al., 1 999) Biomass composition

Average weight (kg)

Weight percentage (%)

Estimated dried weight (kg/tree)

Dried weight (t/ha)

Trunk Leaflets Frond Spears

1 507.50 1 45.00 452.50 42.75

70.00 6.53 20.50 1 .92

301 .50 58.00 1 1 7.70 9.40

41 .07 7.69 1 6.00 1 .28

Cabbage

44.50

2.00

4.50

0.60

Inflorescence Total weigh

1 34.50 221 7.50

1 .1 1 1 00.00

6.30 497.30

1 7.56 84.20

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2.1.3 Peatland Biomass Peatland is a wetland ecosystem with a relatively thick (more than 40 cm) soil layer of organic matter above a mineral substrate (Trettin et al., 2006). Peat soil in Malaysia consists of undecomposed and semi-decomposed woody materials which come from dead leaves and trees that are low in ash content and nutrients. The main composition in peatland is the peat, a heterogeneous mixture of more or less decomposed plant (humus) material that has accumulated in a water-saturated environment and in the absence of oxygen. Peat, especially of temperate peat or boreal peat, is used as a fuel in three main forms: a) Sod peat - slabs of peat, cut by hand or by machine, and dried in the air; mostly used as household fuel; b) Milled peat - granulated peat, produced in large scale by special machines; used either as a power station fuel or as the raw material for briquettes; c) Peat briquettes - small blocks of dried, highly compressed peat; used mainly as a household fuel.

The interest of this study however is focused on the biomass waste particularly from the surface vegetation of peatlands undergoing development or otherwise abandoned.

285

Box C- 1 Land use and Biomass in Indonesia Indonesia is rich with variety of vegetation and various of biomass resource, as shown in Figure C-1 .

The island of Sumatera, Indonesia, consist of 9,680,020 ha of dipterocarp forest, 7,447,358 ha of peat forest, 1 2,209,475 ha of oil palm plantation, as shown in Table 4.

Figure C-1 Land use distribution in Sumatera, Indonesia Table C-4 Land use in Sumatera in year 201 5/201 6 Type of Land use

Biomass (Mg/ha)

Area (Ha)

Biomass (Mg)

Dipt Forest

9,680,020

149

1,439,419,021

Peat Forest

7,447,358

225

1,675,655,508

Mangrove Forest

4,675,206

250

1,168,801,419

Oil Palm

12,209,475

89

1,080,538,533

Rubber

2,922,534

2

6,517,252

741,089

2

1,482,178

Other Agriculture

6,700,660

2

13,401,320

Non vegetated

3,000,000

-

-

Paddy

TOTAL

47,376,343

5,385,815,232

In year 201 5, it is estimate that approximately 5,385,81 5,232 Mg of biomass can be obtained, with 1 ,675,655,508 Mg of biomass from peat forest and 1 ,080,538,533 Mg of biomass from oil palm plantation.

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2.2. Biomass Characteristics The chemical composition of the forest biomass and oil palm plantation biomass are shown in Table C-5. As there are various types of forest biomass, the woody biomass is used as the representative of biomass. While for the oil palm plantation biomass, the oil palm trunk (OPT) and oil palm frond (OPF) are the main focus for the comparison of biomass characteristic.

The properties of empty fruit branch (EFB) are also presented in Table C-5 as the comparison with the other types of biomass. The properties of biomass are compared in the proximate analysis, ultimate analysis, and lignocellulosic content. In the proximate analysis, oil palm frond is found to have the highest moisture content (1 6.00%) as compared to the trunk and EFB. The highest amount of ash is found in the EFB (1 8.07%). Forest biomass, which contains various mixed of biomass, is difficult to obtain the data of proximate analysis, but it has very low ash contain. The ultimate analysis measured the elemental contents for carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen and sulphur (C, H, O, N, and S). It is valuable indicators to energy processes and gases emissions during combustion of the resource material. The forest biomass showed higher value of C (48.1 0%) as compared to that of the trunk (40.64%) and frond (44.50%). Comparisons were also made with the elemental composition of the EFB, where the highest amount of H and N are found in 6.44% and 2.1 8% respectively. In terms of the lignocellulosic content, EFB also has highest amount of cellulose (57.80%), while similar lignin and hemicellulose content of each biomass. The higher heating value (HHV) of the biomass also compared, where EFB has the highest value of HHV with 20.54MJ/kg, while both trunk and frond has slightly lower HHV then the EFB, with 1 7.27MJ/kg and 1 7.28MJ/kg respectively.

287

Table C-5 Properties of biomass Forest biomass a

Oil Palm Plantation Biomass Oil Palm Trunk Oil Palm Frond b, c

d, e

Cellulose Hemicellulose Lignin HHV (MJ/kg)

Proximate analysis (wt% dry basis) n.a 8.34 1 6.00 n.a 79.82 83.50 n.a 1 3.31 1 5.20 1 .70 6.87 1 .30 Ultimate analysis (wt% dry basis) 48.1 0 40.64 44.58 5.99 5.09 4.53 45.72 53.1 2 48.80 n.a 2.1 5 0.71 n.a n.a 0.07 Lignocellulosic content (wt% dry basis) 45.80 45.90 50.33 24.40 25.30 23.1 8 28.00 1 8.1 0 21 .7 1 5.00 1 7.27 1 7.28

a. Saidur et al., 201 1 d. Guangul et al., 201 2

b. Nimit et al., 201 2 e. Abnisa et. al., 201 1

Moisture content Volatile matter Fixed carbon Ash C H O N S

Empty Fruit Branch (EFB) c, f

4.68 76.85 5.1 9 1 8.07 46.36 6.44 38.91 2.1 8 0.92 57.80 21 .20 22.80 20.54

c. Oil palm biomass (www.bfdic.com) e. Abdullah and Sulaiman, 201 3

288

Box C- 2 Supply Cost Structure of Biomass Primary Residues in Peninsular Malaysia

Figure C- 2 Spatial computation and analysis of biomass primary residues supply in Peninsular Malaysia The figure above shows the result of spatial computation and analysis of biomass primary residues supply in Peninsular Malaysia. The result is taking into account the geographical locations of the biomass, annual residues production, distances (Euclidean) and transport cost. Each cost curve illustrates the biomass supply structure to its minimum cost location. The optimal location for forest residues is at Gua Musang, Kelantan. It has limited annual production of residues of 1 .83 million tonnes and has relatively very high supply cost. Rubberwood residues have very little availability of only 0.45 million tonnes per year, its least cost location is in Raub, Pahang. Rice stalk has the most optimal biomass supply if the mill is located in Yan, Kedah. It has the lowest supply cost and significant availability of 3.9 mil tonnes per year. This is due its highest production density among others. Oil palm trunk (OPT) has the highest availability of 1 7.8 mil tonnes per year with reasonable cost when location of the mill is in Jempol, Negeri Sembilan. Multi-crop is the combination of the four resources and its optimal location is in Temerloh, Pahang. Its cost structure is mainly led by OPT as it constitutes 74% and rice stalk 1 6%. With the geographical heterogeneity of these resources, it suggests that it is not efficient to have multi-biomass sourcing with single-plant strategy. The better alternative would be to have multi-plant strategy capitalising at its cost-efficient resources, namely rice stalk in Yan, Kedah and OPT in Jempol, Negeri Sembilan.

Source: Adapted from Chu Lee Ong, Juliette Babin, Jia Tian Chena & Jean-Marc Roda. (201 6) Designing model for biomass transport cost of biofuel refinery in Malaysia. Unpublished.

289

2.3 Conversion pathway of biomass to products Conversion of biomass generated on the forest, fields or plantations could overcome the issue of haze that caused by forest fire. In general, the approaches for transforming biomass resources to products and energy or biofuels involve thermochemical, biochemical, and physical conversion processes. Each of these processes shall be briefly explained as follows.

2.3.1 Thermochemical Conversion Thermochemical conversion of biomass involves the processing of biomass feedstock at elevated temperatures, and typically yields the following potential products: a) Thermal energy from flue gas, to be harnessed to generate steam and power generation; and b) Upgraded biofuels The thermochemical conversion technologies encompass direct combustion, pyrolysis and gasification. Whereby the first technology category would result in energy products, the remaining technology categories are associated with biofuel production.

2.3.2 Biochemical Conversion Biochemical conversion involves biological process that transforms the biomass substrate into value-added products under anaerobic conditions. These conversion routes comprise fermentation and anaerobic digestion (AD), which respectively produce biofuel, biogas and biochemical.

2.3.3 Physical Conversion The biomass resources could also be directly processed into value-added solid fuels through pre-treatment and physical modifications (i.e. drying, compression, compaction, densification, etc.). The physical processing of biomass is meant to reduce the moisture content, increase the bulk density, and enhance its combustibility or calorific value.

The relationship between these potential biomass conversion processes, biomass inputs (as reviewed in previous section) and the resulting products (i.e. energy products and biofuels) is as depicted in Figure C-2.

290

3 Conversion Technology for Biomass to Products: based on product value The product derived from biomass can be categorised into three main types based on the economic value, namely the low value product, medium value product, and high value product, as shown in Table C-6. Low value products, such as compost, require very low investment cost and simple conversion technologies, but the product value is relatively low.

Heat and power product from biomass are considered as medium value product while the biofuel and biochemical product require high investment cost and the product value is highest among the three categories.

Table C-6 Types of product derived from biomass Type of product Low value product Medium value product High value product

Product Compost Heat and power Biofuel and bio-chemicals

3.1 Biomass to Compost (low value product) Aerobic composting is the most commonly used biological treatment for the conversion of organic portion of waste. It is defined as the biological decomposition and stabilisation of organic substrates under conditions that allow development of thermophilic temperature as a result of biologically produced heat and compost. Figure C-3 illustrates the process of composting. Application of aerobic composting included yard waste, organic portion of biomass, commingled biomass, and co-composting with wastewater sludge (Tchnobanoglous, et al., 1 993). The composting of organic fraction of waste under aerobic condition is presented by Equation 1 .

Organic matter + O2 + nutrients

new cells + resistant organic matter + CO2 + H2 O + NH3 + SO2 + heat

â&#x2020;&#x2019;

Equation C- 1 Composting of organic fraction of waste under aerobic condition

291

According to Equation 1 , the composting process of organic matter requires the presence of oxygen and nutrient for the microorganism to undergo the biodegradation of organic matter into smaller molecules. The resistant organic matter, which contains high portion of lignin, is recognised as compost. New cells, CO2, water, ammonia (NH3) and sulphate (SO2 2-) are the by-products of the process. There are several parameters that are critical to the result of the process and need to be controlled, for instance, moisture content, C/N (carbon to nitrogen) ratio and temperature of composting. Composting process is able to reduce the volume of the organic waste by up to 50%.

Figure C-3 Illustrated Diagram on the Composting Process (adapted from Ahmad et al., 2007) Biofertilizer microorganisms incorporated into the biomass compost to produce bioorganic fertilizer or biofertilizer. Examples of biofertilizer microorganisms are N2 fixing bacteria (Rhizobium spp., Azospirillum spp. Azotobacter spp.), phosphate solubilising microbes (Bacillus spp., Klebsiella spp., Penicillium spp) and plant growth promoting rhizobacteria, (Azotobacter spp., Enterobacter spp.).

Several large plantation companies in Malaysia, e.g. FELDA, FELCRA, and Sime Darby are embarking on their own biofertilizer production, especially for oil palm. Oil palm production has been dependent on chemical fertilizers. Their interest in biofertilizer is partly due to increasing cost of chemical fertilizers, particularly urea, and partly to awareness on green technology for crop production. It is estimated that 60% of cost of production in oil palm are on fertilizers. On top of that, Malaysia is facing infertile soil due to loss of top soil and years of planting on same soil in addition to increasing pest and diseases.

292

3.2

Biomass to Power generation (medium value product)

Conversions of biomass resources to power and heat require several steps including biomass fuel preparation (pre-treatment, pre-drying, size reduction) and selection of conversion technology.

3.2.1 Biomass Fuel Preparation Biomass is the main solid waste obtained from forest and waste palm oil. However, due to its characteristics i.e. high moisture content, non-uniform shape and size, and low bulk density (Kaliyan and Morey, 2009), it is difficult to handle, transport, store, and utilise as a fuel (Sokhansanj et al., 2005). In order to reduce industryâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s operational cost as well as to meet the requirement of raw material for power generation, the biomass requires prior preparation and processing in an efficient manner. Therefore, pre-treatment processes of pre-drying and size reduction is required to improve the efficiency and is usually followed by a pelletising or briquetting process to reduce the biomass bulk density. Biomass shredding and pelletisation processes are further discussed in Sections 3.2.1 .1 and 3.2.1 .2.

3.2.1.1 Process of Biomass Shredding Biomass shredding process would enhance the size reduction and convert the larger woody biomass into chips-like particulate for handling purposes, and subsequently create a suitable feed for the production of fuel from biomass. The size reduction process is able to remove the moisture and low-calorific volatiles and partially destruct the biomass constituents (hemicelluloses, cellulose), thus promoting variations in the elemental composition and heating values of the biomass (Dooley et al., 201 2). The biomass shredding process is normally conducted on-site where the biomass is collected or produced to ease transportation. Shredded biomass is not suitable for long transportation such as crosscountry shipping and for storage as it will decrease the heating performance of the biomass.

Biomass shredding is commonly practised for local domestic power plant, as steam boiler does not require high heat energy; shredded biomass is selected due to its low price.

However, for furnace boiler which requires higher heat, pelletised biomass is more suitable.

3.2.1.2 Process of Biomass Pelletising The production of pellet is similar to the briquette, except that the end process of pelletising requires the compressed biomass to pass through a hammer mill to produce a uniform dough-like mass. This mass is fed to a press, where it is squeezed through the holes of the size ranging from 6mm to 8mm of diameter. Due to the high pressure, the increase in the

293

temperature causes the lignin to plasticise slightly, producing a natural "glue" that holds the pellet together as it cools down.

Pelletising is the process of compacting loose organic materials into a higher density and uniform solid fuel. It helps to improve the physical, chemical and combustion properties for direct firing. Pelletised biomass is more favourable for packing and storage. Pelletising is defined as compression of biomass into cylinders with a diameter of 6 to 1 2 mm, aspect ratio of approximately four, and moisture content below 8% (PiR, 2006). Pelletised biomass has a higher energy density as compared to shredded biomass, resulting in the improvement of material handling (Moran et al., 2004) and providing a renewable fuel source more economical than oil or natural gas. Specifically, in several European Union (EU) countries, Canada, and the US, pelletisation has been a mature technology for biomass-based industrial heat and power generation. Increased application of wood pellets for electricity generation is also evaluated in many Asian countries including China, Korea and Japan (Pirraglia et al., 201 0a).

The process as shown in Figure C-4 improves the physical, chemical and combustion properties over those of the raw.

Biomass

Drying

Grinding

Pelletising

Figure C-4 Process of biomass pelletising

3.2.2 Biomass to Power Conversion Technology Biomass to power conversion systems fall into two categories, i.e. the direct-fired and gasification systems. The direct-fired category includes stoker boilers, fluidised bed boilers, and co-firing. The gasification category on the other hand includes fixed bed gasifiers and fluidised bed gasifiers. Table C-7 shows different types of biomass conversion technology and specifications.

294

Table C-7 Summary of Biomass to Power Conversion Technologies (Wright, 2006) Biomass Conversion Technology

Common Fuel Types

Cofiringâ&#x20AC;&#x201D;pulverised coal boilers

Sawdust, bark, chips, hog fuel, shavings, end cuts, sander dust Wood residue, peat, wide variety of fuels Sawdust, bark, shavings, sander dust

Cofiringâ&#x20AC;&#x201D;stoker, fluidised bed boilers

Sawdust, bark, shavings, hog fuel

Stoker grate, underfire stoker boilers Fluidised bed boiler

Fixed bed gasifier Fluidised bed gasifier

Chipped wood or hog fuel, shells, sewage sludge Most wood and agriculture residues

Feed Size (inches)

Moisture Content (%)

Capacity Range (MW)

0.25 - 2

1 0-50

4-300

<2

<60

300

<0.25

<25

1 000

1 0-50

300

0.25-4

<20

50

0.25-2

1 5-30

25

<2

3.2.2.1 Biomass Direct-Firing System Biomass combustion technologies convert renewable biomass fuels to heat and electricity. At present, the primary approach for generating electricity from biomass is direct firing combustion. This is a widely available commercial technology. The combustion system for electricity and heat production from biomass are similar to most fossil fuel fired power plants. The biomass fuel is burned in a boiler or furnace with excessive oxygen and under high pressure to produce high-pressure steam, composed primarily of nitrogen (N2), CO2, water (H2O, flue gas), oxygen (O2) and non-combustible residues (Tchnobanoglous et al., 1 993).

The steam is directed to the Rankine cycle in the steam turbine. The single steam cycle normally produces only electricity, while the cogeneration of steam and electricity requires an extracting steam cycle. Figure C-4 presents the process of direct firing of biomass.

295

Figure C-5 Direct-combustion of Biomass for Electricity Generation (Brian Williams, 201 5)

The following Table C-8 shows the summary of different combustion system, including pile combustion, stoker combustion and fluidised bed combustion.

296

Table C-8 Summary of combustion system (Kumar Rayaprolu, 2009) Parameter a) Grate b) Draft conditions c) Combustion

d) Combustion

e) Boiler efficiency f) Bed temperature g) Moisture

Pile Combustion

Stoker Combustion

Fixed / Stationary Grate Natural Draft / Forced Draft/ Balance Draft Uniform size of the fuel in the range of 60 to 75mm is desired & % fines should not be more than 20% Difficult to maintain good combustion due to :  Air fuel mixing is not proper  Bed height is in stationary condition resulting in clinker formation  Difficult to avoid air channelling  Due to intermittent ash removal system it is difficult to maintain good combustion 50 - 60 %

Fixed/ moving grate Forced Draft / Balance draft

Fluidised Bed Combustion No grate Balance draft

Uneven fuel size can be used

Uniform size fuel in the range of 1 to 1 0mm.

The combustion is better & an improved version of pile combustion. Since most of the fuel is burnt in suspension, the heavier size mass falls on the grate. If the system has a moving grate, the ash is removed on a continuous basis & therefore, the chances of clinker formation are less.

Best combustion takes place in comparison with the other types since the fuel particles are in fluidised state & there is adequate mixing of fuel & air.

65 - 75%

80 - 82%

1 250 - 1 350 ºC

1 000 - 1 200 ºC

800 - 850 ºC

High moisture leads to bed choking & difficult combustion conditions

Combustion condition not very much disturbed with 4 - 5% increase in moisture

It can handle fuels with high moisture condition up to 4550% but high

297

Parameter

h) Maintenance

Pile Combustion

Stoker Combustion

Not much maintenance problems

Not much maintenance problems

Fluidised Bed Combustion moisture in the fuels is not desirable, & adequate precautions are to be taken up in the design stage itself Erosion of boiler tubes embedded in the bed is quite often

Based on the above summary, stoker combustion and fluidised bed combustion are the two most promising options to be considered. The pros and cons for both systems are highlighted in the following Table C-9.

Table C-9 Description of Stoker Combustion and Fluidised Bed Combustion (Bowman et al., 2009)

A) Combustion Control Responsiveness Excess air control B) Fuel Issues Applicability to various fuels Fuel pre-treatment C) Environmental Factors Low sulphur oxide (SOx) combustion Low NOx combustion Appropriate facility size

Stoker Combustion

Fluidised Bed Combustion

Slow response Difficult

Quick response Possible

Fair Generally not necessary

High Lumps must be crushed

In-furnace desulphurization not possible Difficult

High rate of in-furnace desulphurization Inherently low NOx

Small

Medium to large

Cost Unit Capital Cost (RM/kg steam)

1 633

3379

Total Annual O&M, (RM/1,000 kg Steam)

25

29.5

298

When a step-grate boiler is used to combust biomass fuel, a steam turbine cycle will be used to generate power. In the steam turbine, the incoming high-pressure steam is expanded to lower pressure, thereby converting thermal energy of high-pressure steam into kinetic energy through nozzles, and then to mechanical power through rotating blades. The different types of steam turbines include backpressure steam turbine and extraction-condensing turbine (see Table C-1 0).

Figure C-6 Steam cycle with Back Pressure Turbine and Extraction Condensing Turbine (Arkadiusz Mysiakowski, 201 6)

299

Table C-10 Comparison between Back-Pressure and Extraction-Condensing Steam Turbines (University of Illinois, 2004) Cogeneration System Steam extraction

Back-Pressure Turbine 



 Application





Heat to power ratio (kWth/kWe) Power Output (% of fuel input) Overall efficiency

Extraction-Condensing Turbine

Hot steam produced in the boiler is expanded down to back pressure (exhaust steam at atmospheric pressures and above) which results from the desired temperature of the process heat.

All steam is condensed by exchanging heat with process stream The exhaust steam is at low pressure



Industry and power supply enterprises (electricity, district heating), (outputs of ~0,5-30 MWel and more) When a constant amount of heat is required (because of little possibilities of control)



4.0 - 1 4.3





 



A portion of steam can be taken from the extraction point which is at the middle part of the turbine for heat generation The remaining of steam will condensed at condenser The exhaust steam can be at either medium or low pressure

medium to higher output (~0,5-1 0 MWel and more) variable heat and power requirements For low heat requirements, it can be used like a conventional condensing turbine Various other operational modes are possible due to valve control 2.0 - 1 0.0

1 4 - 28

22 - 40

84 - 92

60 - 80

300

3.2.2.2 Gasification Gasification is a thermal conversion of solid-phase biomass into synthesis gas or syngas as the main product and residual char as by-product, in the presence of gasifying carrier (i.e. air, steam, carbon dioxide, hydrogen, etc.) with low levels of oxygen (Molino et al., 201 5). This thermochemical conversion process needs heat input for its initiation, and the necessary heat energy may be internally generated as in auto-thermal gasification process or externally supplied as in allo-thermal gasification process. For auto-thermal gasification process, four (4) main stages are involved, namely partial oxidation, drying, pyrolysis, and reduction (McKendry, 2002b).

The major product of gasification process, known as syngas or producer gas, is constituted mainly from hydrogen and carbon monoxide, and partially by carbon dioxide, water, methane, hydrocarbon gases (Ciferno and Marano, 2002), and minor impurities (i.e. ammonia, hydrogen sulphide, and hydrogen chloride) (Molino et al., 201 5). Nitrogen may also be present in the synthesis gas (but would be more appropriately addressed as producer gas in this context) if air is supplied as gasifying agent (Wilson et al., 201 3). Its presence actually decreases the calorific value of syngas to the range of 4 - 6 MJ/m3, whereas the syngas resulted from gasification process driven by steam or oxygen gas would be more combustible with higher calorific value range of 1 0 - 20 MJ/m3 (Ciferno and Marano, 2002). The composition, energy content, and combustion characteristics of syngas depend on the operating conditions (Wu et al., 201 4), gasifier technology type (Liu and Ji, 201 3), and fuel feedstock type (Schmid et al., 201 2). Woody biomass resources containing cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin, such as wood wastes, wood logs and straws are usually compatible with gasification process (Ciferno and Marano, 2002).

The common gasification technologies include fixed-bed and fluidised bed gasifiers. The advantages and disadvantages of these gasification technologies are as summarised in Table C-1 1 .

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Table C-11 Descriptions and Temperature Ranges of Gasification Stages (E4tech, 2009) Gasification Stage

Description 

I.

II. III.

Partial Oxidation

Drying



Oxidation of carbon and hydrogen elements of biomass by limited oxygen to form carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, and water; Important to supply heat for the remaining stages

Temperature Range (°C)

1 ,000 - 1 ,500



Removal of moisture content via vapourisation induced by boiling process

< 200



Thermal breakdown of carbon-containing materials in biomass to produce pyrolysis gas, condensable tar, and char

200 - 600

Pyrolysis 

Reaction of gas mixture (resulted from partial oxidation and pyrolysis) with char (i.e. reducing agent) to form synthesis gas (i.e. syngas)

IV.

Reduction

3.3

Biomass to Biofuel/Biochemical Technology

600 - 1 ,000

Lignocellulosic biomass is an inexpensive and abundant renewable resource which offers great potential for conversion to ethanol. It stores energy from sunlight in its chemical bonds and includes the agricultural residue, forestry residue, yard waste, wood products, and animals. Typically, lignocellulosic biomass is constituted from cellulose (32-47%), hemicelluloses (1 9-27%) and lignin (5-24%) (Liu et al., 201 4). In the biochemical conversion lignocellulosic biomass to ethanol, four major processes, pre-treatment, hydrolysis, fermentation, and distillation are needed as depicted in Figure C-7 (Limayem & Ricke 201 2).

Maximum valorisation of biomass can be achieved through its conversion to biofuels and biochemical and the list of potential biochemical has been reported in various review papers (Isikgor and Becer, 201 5; Werpy and Peterson, 2004). The conversion of lignocellulosic biomass to biofuels and biochemical follows similar routes consisting of pre-treatment, hydrolysis, microbial conversion, and followed by purification. While the process of

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conversion to biofuels in the form of bioethanol has been commercially established, the processes for conversion to other biofuels such as butanol and biochemical are not commercially available at the present time.

Lignocellulosic materials

Bioethanol

Pre-treatment

Distillation

Hydrolysis

Fermentation

Figure C-7 A generic cellulosic ethanol production process (Limayem & Ricke 201 2).

3.3.1 Routes of bioethanol synthesis from biomass 3.3.1.1

Pre-treatment overview

Pre-treatment is required to disrupt the lignin outer layer and expose the carbohydrates for hydrolysis to produce monomeric sugars compatible for fermentation (Chang and Holtzapple, 2000). It may encompass physical (i.e. crushing, pulverisation, etc.) and thermo-chemical processes, optionally coupled with biological pre-treatment (Yang and Wyman, 2008). It shall be noted that biochemical pre-treatment is necessary for reducing biomass recalcitrance (Zhu et al., 201 0) and optimising surface area of contact between cellulose (substrate) and cellulase (Zhu et al., 2009). A schematic pre-treatment diagram is shown in Figure C-9 and effective strategies have been elucidated previously (Singh et al., 201 4). Classification of pretreatment are found in Figure C-9 and the methods are summarised in Table C-1 2.

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Figure C-8 Schematic of pre-treatment effect on lignocellulosic biomass

Figure C-9 Different pre-treatment methods

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Table C-12 Pre-treatment processes of lignocellulosic materials (Taherzadeh & Karimi 2008) Pretreatment method Physical pretreatments

Chemical and physicochemical pretreatments

Processes

Processes Milling:  Ball milling  Two-roll milling  Hammer milling  Colloid milling  Vibro energy milling Radiation:  Gamma ray  Electron-beam  Microwave Others:  Hydrothermal  High pressure steaming  Expansion  Extrusion  Pyrolysis Explosion:  Steam explosion  Ammonia fibre explosion (AFEX)  CO2 explosion  SO2 explosion Alkali:  Sodium hydroxide  Ammonia  Ammonium Sulphite Acid:  Sulfuric acid  Hydrochloric acid  Phosphoric acid Gas:  Chlorine dioxide  Nitrogen dioxide  Sulphur dioxide Oxidising agents:

Possible changes in biomass

Notable remarks Selected

 Increase in accessible surface area and pore size  Decrease in cellulose crystallinity  Decreased extent of polymerisation

 Most of the methods are highly energydemanding  Most of them cannot remove the lignin  It is preferable not to use these methods for industrial applications  No chemicals are generally required for these methods

 Increase in accessible surface area  Partial or nearly complete delignification  Decrease in cellulose crystallinity Decrease in extent of polymerisation  Partial or complete hydrolysis of hemicelluloses

 These methods are among the most effective and include the most promising processes for industrial applications  Usually rapid treatment rate  Typically need harsh conditions  There are chemical requirements

305

Pretreatment method

Biological pretreatments

Processes

 Hydrogen peroxide  Wet oxidation  Ozone Solvent extraction of lignin:  Ethanol-water extraction  Benzene-water extraction  Ethylene glycol extraction  Butanol-water extraction  Swelling agents  Fungi and actinomycetes

Possible changes in biomass

 Delignification  Reduction in degree of polymerisation of cellulose  Partial hydrolysis of hemicellulose

Notable remarks Selected

 Low energy requirement  No chemical requirement  Mild environmental conditions  Very low treatment rate  Did not consider for commercial application

3.3.1.2 Hydrolysis Hydrolysis refers to the processes that convert the polysaccharides into monomeric sugars and its completeness determines the success of a pre-treatment operation (Chadel et al., 2007; Gamage et.al, 201 0). There are two different types of hydrolysis processes (Limayem and Ricke, 201 2), namely acid hydrolysis (Xiang et al., 2003) and enzymatic hydrolysis (Yang et al., 201 1 ).

Acid hydrolysis is considered to be the most practical approach to produce high yields of simple sugar, but suffers from the disadvantage of extensive acid requirement, costly acid

306

recycling and undesirable degradation products which renders it commercially less appealing (Hamelinck et al., 2005; Sun and Cheng, 2002).

The success of enzymatic hydrolysis is fundamentally underscored by the efficient pretreatment which increases the porosity of the lignocellulosic substrate, making the cellulose more accessible to celluloses and improving the enzymatic digestibility of the substrate. The popular industrial-grade celluloses from the fungus Trichoderma reesei have a proven efficiency and productivity. Other common enzymatic products tailored for enzymatic hydrolysis process include β-glucosidase, endoglucanases and exoglucanases (Limayem & Ricke, 201 2). Advances in enzyme-based technology for ethanol production have been substantial over the years, and as a result, ethanol production costs have been reduced considerably (Wyman 1 994). Figure C-1 0 shows a proposed mechanism for cellulose amorphogenesis/depolymerisation by cellulases.

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Figure C-10 Proposed mechanism for cellulose amorphogenesis/depolymerisation by celluloses (Arantes and Saddler, 201 0)

The fermentable sugars obtained from hydrolysis is then fermented into ethanol by ethanol producing microorganisms, which can be either naturally occurred or genetically modified (Zheng, Pan & Zhang, 2009).

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3.3.1.3 Fermentation The monosaccharides formed by the hydrolysis process are fermented to produce ethanol.

Industrial yeasts such as S. cerevisiae have established proven track records with high yields in the brewery and wine industries, and its advantages and operating parameters have been extensively discussed (Hahn-Hagerdl et al, 2007; Limayem and Ricke, 2007). However, wild S.cerevisae is capable of fermenting only C6 hexoses which makes it incompatible for saccharification of a large proportion of hemicellulosic biomass mainly constituted by pentose sugars such as D-xylose (Martin et al., 2002). Moreover, an optimal fermentative microorganism should have tolerance for high ethanol concentration and the presence of chemical inhibitors derived from pre-treatment and hydrolysis processes. In response to such limitation, genetically engineered microorganisms have been extensively employed and capable of concurrently fermenting pentose and hexose sugars without producing significant amount of toxic end-products. Table C-1 3 compares potential microorganisms for fermentation of lignocellulosic biomass materials (inclusive of bacteria, yeasts and fungi), which have the potential to be developed for improving productivity and revenue in largescale alcohol industries (Limayem & Ricke, 201 2).

In addition, a simultaneous saccharification and fermentation (SSF) process has been developed to enable parallel hydrolysis and fermentation reactions in one single reactor, therefore minimising product inhibition and operational expenditure. However, SSF processes tend to compromise on yields due to different operating temperatures of the hydrolysis and fermentation processes.

Table C-13 Advantages and drawbacks of potential organisms in lignocellulosic-based bioethanol fermentation Species Saccharomyces cerevisiae

Characteristics Facultative anaerobic yeast

Candida shehatae Micro-aerophilic yeast

Advantages  Naturally adapted to ethanol fermentation  High alcohol yield (90%).  High tolerance to ethanol (up to 1 0% v/v) and chemical inhibitors  Amenability to genetic modifications  Ferment xylose

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Drawbacks  Not able to ferment xylose and arabinose sugars  Not able to survive high temperature of enzyme hydrolysis

 Low tolerance to ethanol  Low yield of ethanol.

Species

Characteristics

Zymomonas mobilis

Ethanologenic Gram-negative bacteria

Pichia stiplis

Facultative anaerobic yeast

Pachysolen tannophilus

Aerobic fungus

Esherichia coli

Mesophilic Gram-negative Bacteria.

Advantages

 Ethanol yield surpasses S. cervesiae (97% of the theoretical)  High ethanol tolerance (up to 1 4% v/v)  High ethanol productivity (five-fold more than S. cerevisiae volumetric productivity)  Amenability to genetic modification  Does not require additional oxygen  Best performance xylose fermentation  Ethanol yield (82%)  Able to ferment most of cellulosic-material sugars including glucose, galactose and cellobiose  Possess cellulase enzymes favourable to SSF process

 Ferment xylose

 Ability to use both pentose and hexose sugars  Amenability for genetic modifications

310

Drawbacks  Require microaerophilic conditions  Does not ferment xylose at low pH  Not able to ferment xylose sugars  Low tolerance to inhibitors  Neutral pH range

 Intolerant to a high concentration of ethanol above 40 g/L  Does not ferment xylose at low pH  Sensitive to chemical inhibitors  Requires microaerophilic conditions to reach peak performance  Re-assimilates formed ethanol  Low yield of ethanol.  Require microaerophilic conditions  Does not ferment xylose at low pH  Repression catabolism interfere to co-fermentation  Limited ethanol tolerance  Narrow pH and temperature growth range  Production of organic

Species

Characteristics

Kluveromyces marxianus

Thermophilc yeast

Thermophilic bacteria:

Extreme anaerobic bacteria

 Thermoanaerobact erium  Saccharolyticum  Thermoanaerobact er  Ethanolicus Clostridium  Thermocellum

3.4

Advantages

 Able to grow at a high temperature above 52 ˚C  Suitable for SSF process  Reduces cooling cost  Reduces contamination  Ferments a broad spectrum of sugars  Amenability to genetic modifications  Resistance to an extremely high  Temperature of 70˚C  Suitable for SSCombF Processing  Ferment a variety of sugars  Display cellulolytic activity  Amenability to genetic modification

Drawbacks acids  Genetic stability not proven yet  Low tolerance to inhibitors and ethanol  Excess of sugars affects its alcohol yield  Low ethanol tolerance  Fermentation of xylose is poor and  leads mainly to the formation of xylitol  Low tolerance to ethanol

Commercialisation of Biomass to Bioethanol technology

In contrast to first generation bioethanol, lignocellulosic raw materials are more abundant and generally considered to be more sustainable. However, the process is longer as the biomass need to be broken down (hydrolysed) into simple sugars prior to fermentation as described above. Due to research and investments made across the globe, second generation, cellulosic bioethanol is now being produced on commercial scale in Europe, US and Brazil. Figure C-1 1 shows the example of the commercialised ethanol production plant in Italy, beginning 201 3 (Melsen, 201 5).

311

Figure C-11 Commercialised ethanol production plant in Italy since the year 201 3

Almost, if not all of the plants use the enzymatic hydrolysis followed by fermentation process to convert cellulose to ethanol using enzymes produced by known enzyme suppliers such as Novozyme and Genencor. The consortium of enzymes used is able to convert the hemicellulose and cellulose to C5 and C6 sugars. Subsequently, engineered yeast which are able to convert C5 and C6 sugars into ethanol are used in the fermentation process to achieve higher yields and productivity (European Biofuels Technology Platform, n.d.).

It is worth noting that in December 201 5, Abengoa ceased production at its Hugoton plant, due to financial difficulties where in November 201 5, Abengoa announced that it was trying to reorganise over USD9 billion in debts. This report, therefore, will look at debt: equity analysis in the case study in Section 4 to determine financial sustainability.

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Box C- 3 Capital Cost Estimation for Biorefinery Plant Capital cost estimation of a biorefinery plant is essential before injection of any investment. A design engineer is able to make preliminary cost estimation of a biorefinery plant based on early design states of the plant. There are several methods developed to perform and estimate total plant cost within ±50% accuracy for preliminary studies. In this context, cost curve method is used to give an approximate capital cost data for various licensed processes.

The capital cost of a plant can be related to capacity by the Equation C-2 below:

S  C2  C1   2   S1 

n

Equation C- 2 Capital cost of a plant Where C2 = Capital cost of the plant with plant capacity S2 C1 = Capital cost of the plant with plant capacity S1 For petrochemical processes, exponent n is set at 0.7, for specialty chemical and pharmaceuticals manufacture, exponent n is set at 0.4 to 0.5, for chemical industry, exponent n is usually set at 0.6. The equation is commonly known as the “six-tenths rule”. Exponent n is equal to 0.6 can be used to get rough estimation of the capital cost of plant when there is no sufficient data available.

Economy of Scale

C2 n 1  aS2 S2 Equation C- 3 Economy of Scale Exponent n is always less than one. There is a correlation between the equation and that larger plants tend to cost lower to construct per unit of product produced. As n-1 is less than zero, the capital cost per unit of fuel decreases as S2 increases. Essentially, smaller capital cost per unit of product produced allows the refinery plant owner to set their product with a higher profit margin yet still recover their capital investment. The advantage is known as an economy of scale.

313

4 Case Studies â&#x20AC;&#x201C; economic potential of biomass-to-resources Conversion of biomass on the field in forest or plantation into value-added product such as power and ethanol can potentially play a role in an effort to reduce the resulting haze conditions from slash and burn practices. There are competing uses for biomass resources because of their economic and environmental value for a variety of purposes. As mentioned in Sections 2 and 3, biomass material can potentially be used to generate power, heat, steam, and bioethanol, which potentially offer high economic returns to the farmers.

To explore the economic potential of biomass-to-resources, two case studies on biomass-topower and biomass-to-ethanol are incorporated in this section with the suggested feedstock capacity of 2000t of biomass daily. Net present value economic analysis, with equity and debt corporate financing method, is applied in the case studies to analyse the economic profitable levels of biomass-to-resources.

Economic conversions of biomass range from low investment and low returns biofertilizer to high investment and high returns biochemicals. Biofertilizers are economical only when the biomass residues are readily available for conversion without additional transportation costs such as EFB from palm oil mills. Biopellets can command a higher price, but only if exported to energy deficient countries. It is not economical for local consumption due to the abundance of biomass available locally and that extra costs are required for the pelletising process. Biochemicals on the other hand are not fully commercialised yet. Most of the produced biochemicals are still in piloting stage, hence the lack of data available for the purpose of this study. Thus, this report focuses into the economic potential of biomass-topower and biomass-to-ethanol conversions.

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Box C- 4 Cost Estimation of Biorefinery Plant in Peninsular Malaysia 1 The order of magnitude estimates of the capital cost for several refinery plants are calculated using cost curve method. Figure C-1 3 shows the graph of capital cost of plant versus capacity of plant from various refinery plants with different conversion processes.

Capital cost data of each plant is escalated from 2003 to 201 4. Location factor is added to capture the real scenario in Malaysia.

Figure C- 12 Graph of capital cost of plant versus capacity of plant The Figure C-1 4 below shows that even in Malaysia, similar economy of scale applies to various biorefinery processes. Further calculation can be done as shown below:

Capital cost of plant

Productio n cost

OPEX

Compare with market price

Figure C- 13 Further calculation for cost estimation of biorefinery plant At preliminary design state of plant, no design information other than the production rate is required. Cost curve method is the fastest way to get a rough estimation of capital cost of a plant.

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4.1

Biomass to power generation

Malaysia starts utilised biomass to power generation in the year 2003, where a 7.5 MW integrated biomass co-generation plant was established in Sahabat, Lahad Datu, Sabah by the Felda Global Ventures Holdings Bhd (FGV). The power plant used EFB as the feedstock, generate heat and power for demands within the company including the CPO refining , kernel crushing plant, hotel, office and residential. The project is the first Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) Project in Malaysia which is encouraged by the government to invest R&D efforts and to study the feasibility of applying the model throughout the country's industrial sector. With the investment cost of RM38 million, the biomass power plant is successful reduced 377,902 t of CO2 emission by end of 201 2 (CDM, 2006).

Most of the current applications of biomass to power are focused in utilisation of EFB due to its high HHV content and abundant of feedstock from palm oil mill. Up to date, there is no utilisation of forest biomass or oil palm plantation biomass for power generation in Malaysia.

Nevertheless, the forest and oil palm plantation biomass are proved to have similar HHV content as the EFB (20 MJ/kg compared to 1 7MJ/kg) and thus could be a potential source of feedstock for power generation.

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Box C- 5 Cost Estimation of Biorefinery Plant in Peninsular Malaysia 2 In this case study, cost curve method is used to estimate the capital cost of a biorefinery plant. Location of plant is assumed to be in Yan, Kedah with paddy and oil palm trunk (OPT) as its respective feedstock.

Capital cost of plant

OPEX

Productio n cost

*Assumption: Feedstock cost comprised of 80% of the total operating cost With the estimation of capital cost of plant, operational cost is obtained as well as the relative production cost of plant. Results were plotted as shown in Figure C-1 5 below:

Figure C- 14 Optimal production costs from oil pal trunk residues and paddy residues

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Initial finding suggested that paddy is highly available in Yan, Kedah as compared to OPT. Result above visualised the optimal production cost of biorefinery plant in single location with two different feedstocks. When paddy is used as the feedstock, with the capacity of plant in the range of optimal production cost from paddy, it gives a better promising production cost.

This is because production cost of plant is highly dependent on the location factor. Economy of scale will be achieved if the biorefinery plant located at an optimal location with high availability of specified feedstock. It is concluded that high variability of production cost in Peninsular Malaysia is corresponding to the location of the biorefinery plant due to geographical heterogeneity of biomass feedstocks.

Source: Chen, J.T., Ong, C.L, Roda, J.M., Centre of Excellence of Biomass Valorization for Aviation, CIRAD-UPM-AMIC (201 6)

This report presents the economic potential using 2,000t/d forest and oil palm plantation biomass (OPF and OPT) as the feedstock for power generation with main focus on electricity production. The proposed technology is a 27MW capacity direct combustion system with a 76% efficiency comprising of a pre-treatment drying system, fluidised bed boilers for conversion of biomass to heat and steam, and generation of electricity through extraction-condensing turbine. The biomass feedstock with an assumed calorific value of 1 5.82MJ/kg with 1 6% moisture content (dry basis) (Fiseha et al., 201 2). The direct combustion technology has a 30year plant life with investment cost of USD900/kW and USD1 050/kW for boiler and turbine respectively. The process, costing and financing information are presented in Table C-1 4. The costing information was obtained through personal interview with a local biomass-to-power industry stakeholder while the financing data are adopted from NREL report (Humbird et al., 201 2).

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Table C-14 Parameters for a case study of 2000t/d of biomass-to-power plant

Parameters

Unit Value

Total Value

Process Information Plant life Efficiency Feedstock Electricity Production Heat production

2,000 tonnes/d

30 years 76% 730,000 tonnes/y 236,520,000 kwh/y 3,524,1 29 tonnes/y

Costing Information Feedstock cost Transportation costs Harvesting and collection cost Pre-processing cost Investment cost of boiler Investment cost turbine Fixed capital Variable cost Operation cost Electricity price Heat price (by-product)

USD1 0/tonne

USD7,300,000

USD1 0/tonne USD5/tonne

USD7,300,000 USD3650000

USD900/kW USD1 050/kW USD3000/kW

USD24,300,000 USD28,350,000 USD81 ,000,000.00 USD1 ,1 1 1 ,644.00 USD4,050,000.00 USD1 6,556,400.00 USD44,575,375

USD1 50/kW USD0.07/kWh USD1 2.65/tonne

Financing information Discount rate Plant depreciation DB Plant recovery period Corporate tax rate Loan - terms loan APR Loan period Construction period First 1 2 months’ expenditures Next 1 2 months’ expenditures Last 1 2 months’ expenditures Working capital (% of fixed capital investment)

319

4.1 % 1 50% 20 y 25% 5.0% 10 y 3y 8% 60% 32% 5%

Start-up time Revenues during start-up Variable costs incurred during start-up Fixed costs incurred during start-up BNM Government Securities Yield

3 month 50% 75% 1 00% 4.0%

Using the net present value (NPV) economic analysis, the correlation between the minimum electricity production cost and the equity financing is presented in Figure C-1 2.

Minimum electricity product cost ranged from USD0.23/kWh to USD0.1 9/kWh with variations of equity financing share of 30% to 70%. The minimum product cost is consider high even with the equity financing adoption as compared to the current feed-it-tariff (FiT) incentive of USD0.1 0/kWh. The case study is repeated with different capacities (2000t/d, 1 000t/d, and 500t/d), and the results are plotted in Figure C-1 2. It can be seen that there is only a marginal reduction in the minimum electricity price (ranged from USD0.24/kWh to USD0.1 9/kWh) due to economy-of scale capacity increment. This is due to the high fixed investment cost (approximately USD3000/kW), while the current FiT scheme is relatively low. The low FiT scheme renders the biomass-to-power to be less competitive at the current power industry market.

Figure C-15 Breakeven of electricity selling price for biomass-to-power in Malaysian context

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4.2

Biomass to ethanol generation

Maximum valorisation of biomass can be achieved through its conversion to biofuels such as ethanol as presented in Section 3. The conversion of lignocellulosic biomass to biofuels and biochemical follows similar routes consisting of pre-treatment, hydrolysis, microbial conversion, followed by purification. While the process of conversion to biofuels in the form of bioethanol has been commercially established, the processes for conversion to other biofuels such as butanol and biochemical are not commercially available at the present time. There are a number of processes in the pilot or pre-commercialisation stage all over the world (Becker et al., 201 5) and it is predicted that commercialisation of a few biochemical processes will happen in the next 5 years. Within this scenario, this report will focus on describing the process involved in the production of bioethanol as well as its economic evaluation in the Malaysian context to serve as a first estimate for a more rigorous evaluation.

The case study for biomass to bioethanol presents the economic potential using 2000t/d biomass as the feedstock. The proposed technology is enzymatic hydrolysis followed by fermentation with the cellulosics content in biomass of 70% and conversion yield of the cellulosics to C5 and C6 sugar of 95%. The fermentation process is using high substrate tolerant recombinant yeast capable of converting 30% fermentable C5 and C6 sugars to 1 5% ethanol. The technology has a 30-year plant life with the total capacity cost of USD1 ,094,065,600.00. The major variable cost is assumed to be the enzyme cost of about USD0.6/gal of ethanol. Table C-1 5 presents the process information and costing of the biomass-to-bioethanol.

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Table C-15 Parameters for a case study of 2000t/d of biomass-to-ethanol plant

Parameters

Unit Value

Total Value

Process Information Plant life Conversion efficiency Celloluse C5 and C6 sugars Feedstock Ethanol Production

30 years

2000 tonnes/d

70% 95% 730000 tonnes/y 65,887,070.60 gal/y

Costing Information Land cost Feedstock cost Transportation costs Harvesting and collection cost Capacity cost Operation cost (Enzyme) Ethanol price

USD2.75/sf

USD1 ,497,636

USD1 0/tonne USD1 0/tonne

USD7,300,000 USD7,300,000 USD1 ,094,065,600.00 USD39,532,242.36

USD0.6/gal USD1 .47/gal

Financing information Discount rate Plant depreciation DB Plant recovery period Corporate tax rate Loan - terms loan APR Loan period Construction period First 1 2 months’ expenditures Next 1 2 months’ expenditures Last 1 2 months’ expenditures Working capital (% of fixed capital investment) Start-up time Revenues during start-up Variable costs incurred during start-up Fixed costs incurred during start-up BNM Government Securities Yield

4.1 % 1 50% 20 y 25% 5.0% 10 y 3y 8% 60% 32% 5% 3 month 50% 75% 1 00% 4.0%

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Figure C-16 Breakeven of ethanol selling price for biomass-to-ethanol in Malaysian context

Figure C-17 The price of ethanol with different capacity and capacity cost

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Table C-16 Ethanol production cost ($/l) reduction by improving the debt: equity ratio or interest rate Debt:Equity ratio

Interest Rate 5% 0.61

95:5

8% 0.77

3% 0.52

70:30

0.73

0.60

0.53

60:40

0.71 (0.57a)

0.60

0.53

50:50

0.69

0.60

0.54

40:60

0.67

0.59 (0.52ᵇ)

0.54

ᵃUS NREL (201 1 ) ᵇAdapted from US NREL analysis

Using the net present value (NPV) economic analysis, the correlation between the ethanol production cost and equity financing is presented in Figure C-1 3. For a production capacity of 2000t/d, the production cost ranged from USD0.64/l to USD0.62/l with the movement of equity financing share from 30% to 70% which is higher than the current market ethanol price of USD0.58/l.

Figure C-1 3 also shows the variation of ethanol production cost at different capacities and with variation in enzyme costs. The plot demonstrates that economic viability from lower ethanol production cost can be achieved at favourable equity financing ratios, higher capacities (due to economy of scale) and lower enzyme costs.

Figure C-1 4 shows the price of ethanol for different capacities and capacity costs. The analysis compared the local scenario as presented above and the US scenario (NREL report).

In US scenario, the production cost is USD0.67/l while in the local scenarios it is USD0.58/l and USD0.63/l for capacities of 1 000t/d and 2000t/d, respectively. It shows that with the localised condition, the value of ethanol cost can be significantly reduced Table C-1 6 presents the potential of ethanol production cost reduction by improving the debt: equity (D:E) Ratio or interest rate (iR). It is shown that at the iR of 3%, the ethanol production cost could be reduced significantly and make it competitive to current market value.

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Box C- 6 Location factor for biofuel plant Biomass valorisation had been recognised as sources for renewable energy in recent decades. Aiming at utilising biomass residues can avoid food price competition and land uses change. Nevertheless, the major cost factor of biomass supplies lies in the transportation.

The geographical heterogeneity of biomass is illustrated in Figure C-1 9. Each type of biomass has different spatial structure varying on the level of centrality and dispersion. Depending of the point of mill location, the accessibility to a particular resource will differ greatly and will significantly impact the transportation cost. In each diagram, Location I can access more biomass areas with less distances compare to Location II. The more distances are required; the transportation cost would be incurred.

Figure C- 18 Spatial structure of biomass resources (Rodrigue, 201 3) With Euclidean distance computation and taking into account the road network in Peninsular Malaysia, the accessibility to forest, palm oil, paddy and rubber are shown in Figure 2. In each graph, the best biorefinery location is the lowest cost location to access the particular biomass. Contrary, the average location will require higher cost to get less biomass compare to the best location. The best biorefinery location can access more numbers of biomass area with less distances. In case of forest and palm oil, their spatial structures follow the patterns in Figure C-1 9 (a) and (b) respectively. The accessibility curves of both show that the number of biomass area are reached at accelerating rate from point of origin before its climax. For paddy, its structure follows Figure C-1 9 (c). Its accessibility takes a terrace-liked curve. The paddy area can be access at rapid rate for the first cluster and more distances are required prior to reach next clusters, as shown by the plateau before the subsequent slope. Lastly, the

325

spatial distribution of rubberwood residues is very scattered. Its accessibility graph always increases steeply, implying that every rubber area required a distinct amount of distances to reach.

Figure C- 19 Accessibility to biomass from ideal locations and KLIA The geographical variability of each biomass resources will affect its supply cost structure very differently. This suggests that the location factor has substantial impact on viability of biorefinery plant. It is vital to evaluate carefully the location to establish biofuel plant.

Source: Adapted from Chu Lee Ong, Juliette Babin, Jia Tian Chena & Jean-Marc Roda. (201 6) Designing model for biomass transport cost of biofuel refinery in Malaysia. Unpublished.

References: Rodrigue, J.P., Comtois, C. and Slack, B., 201 3. The geography of transport systems.

Routledge. pp.1 91 .

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4.3

Conclusion

The two case studies presented in Section 4.1 and Section 4.2 review the economic potential of localised biomass-to-power and ethanol in current market. For biomass-topower, the current FiT scheme is relatively lower than the electricity production cost, rendering the biomass-to-power option less attrative to investors. The rate of FiT scheme in Malaysia was established in year 201 1 , and is considered not up-to-date on current renewable resources market as various RE resources have been more economically competitative in recent years. In order to promote the utilisation of biomass to power, the current Fit should be reviewed and revised.

The case study of biomass to ethanol, on the other hand, demonstrated a favourable scenario to investors demonstrating that with a financial interest rate of 3%, ethanol production is economically competitive in the current market. Nevertheless, the current interest rate stands at the rate of 5% - 8%, and with high cost of enzyme in Malaysia, there needs to be some policy and technology intervention to enable sustainable bioethanol industry in Malaysia.

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5 Challenges of Biomass Conversion in Malaysia 5.1

Investment

The challenges that hinder full-scale investment of biomass conversion technologies in Malaysia could be attributed to several factors i.e. limited access to biomass feedstock, limited financing resource for biomass conversion technologies, and lack of support from domestic market.

In the Malaysian scenario, the common agricultural practice is the reuse of biomass wastes as mulching agent in the crop cultivation sites. Coupled to the fact that there is no commodity market for biomass trading in Malaysia, the farmers/biomass owners are reluctant to accept long-term biomass supply contract due to the unfavourable pricing of biomass leading to limited availability or uncertain supply of biomass feedstock.

Secondly, advanced biomass conversion technologies i.e. fermentation (bioethanol), biochemical production, biodiesel production, gasification, and pyrolysis require relatively high investment costs and therefore long payback periods.

Thirdly, the green biomass-derived products (i.e. biochemical and biofuels) are far too expensive than the conventional fuel and products, and therefore are not supported by the local consumers. These high-end sustainable products are only compatible for premium export market, and therefore low local demand does not trigger the need for investment on biomass conversion technologies.

5.2

Technology/Technical challenges

Composting: this technology is mature and anaerobic composting process is commonly applied. However, this technology would result in large carbon footprint, and would lead to odour problem if there were no proper containment of biomass waste being composted.

Biomass-based power generation: gasification and pyrolysis are less mature than direct combustion, and have higher vulnerability to technical breakdown/ accident/ explosion due to malfunctioning. Pyrolysis process, in particular, has low thermal stability, corrosion problem, and further upgrading of bio-oil (for creating market value for the product) (McKendry, 2002a).

Biochemical and biofuel production: Biorefinery process designed to synthesise biochemical i.e. acids, bio-sugar, polylactic acid, food additives, zeolite and catalyst, etc. is still in an infancy stage in Malaysia. This is manifested by the lack of pilot/ demonstration plants, deficit

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of market-focused R&D, and lack of local market support for these technologies due to their high risks in term of technical and financial. IPs for conversion technologies for biochemical production are now highly prized and globally are in the domain of large private companies such as DuPont, DSM.

5.3

Transportation and logistic

Costs associated with transportation vary for different biomass residues. Biomass which are generated post processing such as empty fruit bunches, palm kernel shell and mesocarp fibres are available at the mills so transport costs from these mills to any biomass processing centres is minimised. The same is true for biomass from other crops such as rice husks from rice mills, and sawdust and wood chips from timber mills. However, for nonprocessed biomass such as oil palm tree trunks and frond, rice straws, and non-processed forest products, the transportation costs are a function of its distance to the transportation network. Cost estimates from the NBS report range from RM0.20 to RM 1 0 per kilometre per tonne based on road transport (trucks) but may differ upon the availability of other modes of transport such as trains or barges but transport interfaces need to be factored in. For long distance haulage, compression and pelletisation of biomass resource into compact forms (i.e. pellets or briquettes) would be required (BioEnergy Consult, 201 6).

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Box C- 7 Modelling the biomass transportation cost – case of Malaysia The model uses raster (1 ) map format where the workspace consists of more than 1 1 7 million pixels of quasi-square; each square approximately 63 metre wide. First, it is started by assigning the friction cost (2) to land cover. It is estimated from regression analysis, each pixel of road requires 0.0696 km to traverse and off-road is 0.1 4km.

Next, 89 points of district in Peninsular Malaysia are treated as starting point to compute the Euclidean distances (3) in GRASS GIS. 89 distance maps are generated where each pixel(4) contains the cumulated distances to the starting point.

The distance maps are then multiplied with the transport cost equation to obtain transport cost (TC) map for each truck size and district. Prior to subsequent step, annual biomass residues production is computed and assigned as residues production density (ton/pixel/year) to the agriculture and forest area maps.

Then, multiplication of TC maps with the residues production density map (Forest - logging residues, Palm oil – Oil palm trunk, Paddy – rice stalk & Rubber – logging residues) will render the biomass transport cost (BTC) maps. The sum of values in each BTC map is the cost of transporting the particular biomass residues to a district. The comparison of BTC maps of each district will provide the lowest cost location for transporting the particular biomass residues.

Source: Adapted from Chu Lee Ong, Juliette Babin, Jia Tian Chena & Jean-Marc Roda. (201 6) Designing model for biomass transport cost of biofuel refinery in Malaysia. Unpublished.

Notes: (1 ) Raster: A spatial data model that apply grid cells with rows and column to spaces. Each cell contains an attribute value and location coordinates.

(2) Friction cost: Value that define difficulty to crossing the cell.

(3) Euclidean distance: The straight-line distance between two cells.

(4) A pixel represents a unit of area which is approximately 4022 metres square.

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Transport cost (RM/ton)

89 towns & cities in each district of Peninsular Malaysia

Kuala Lumpur

Kuala Lumpur

Figure C- 20 Map examples

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Fig C-22 illustrates a business model that could overcome the issue of biomass handling, transportation and storage. As shown in this figure, the slashed materials from land clearing such as forest residues, oil palm tree trunks and fronds are collected by the local communities with the cooperation from small and medium enterprises. The biomass will be converted into value added products such as pellets through different technologies. First, the raw material will be pre-treated through wood processing processes such as debarking, chipping and re-chipping to stringent bark retention tolerances of the raw material. It is then gasified through gasifier to be converted into electricity. Spanner RE2 gasifiers provide heat for commercial chip drying and power for use on the site. Alternatively, the biomass can be pelletised into compact pellets which can be used onsite as fuel for a cogeneration system to produce heat and electricity or for shipment locally or internationally. Pelletised biomass has a low moisture content, regular shape and high density, which could enhance burning efficiency and is easy to transport. Spanish company PRUDESA is one of the pioneer enterprises that provides advanced technology for biomass pelletising. During cogeneration of biomass, 30 to 35% of its energy content is transformed into electrical power and 55 to 60% into useable heat. The generated heat can be used for an urban heating network, industrial processes, drying biomass and any kind of wood residues. GEMCO Energy Machinery Co., Ltd developed a machine named MPL 300, a small moveable multifunctional complete pellet plant for pelletizing production. The integrated pelletised plant which includes crushing, pelletising and cooling could improve the system efficiency remarkably, reducing pellet production costs and most importantly, overcoming the challenges of storage, handling and transportation of biomass due to logistical issues.

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Co-Op

Local Communities

Boiler Maker

Spanish PRUDESA

Sales of Slashed Materials

Energy GEMCO MPL 300

Pelletization

Mitsubishi TURBOGEN Electricity

Gasifier Electricity

Heat Spanner RE2

Spanish PRUDESA

Drying WEBSITE : Energy GEMCO MPL 300 : http://www.biofuelmachines.com Spanish PRUDESA : Spanner RE2 : http://www.holz-kraft.de Mitsubishi : http://www.mitsubishicars.com EUMCCI-UTM Proposed Business Model for Biomass (Slashed Materials in Land-Clearing) Conversion to Solid Fuel or Power) [After : A. Bakar Jaafar & Roberto Benetello, 22 August 2016]

Figure C-22 Biomass to pellet business model to overcome logistical issues of biomass handling, storage and transportation

5.1

Social/ Cultural Awareness

Low awareness of achieving sustainability via maximum harnessing or reuse of biomass could be another challenge in Malaysia. Locally, the concept of carbon footprinting is adopted very slowly and sustainability is not a major concern in business decision-making.

Moreover, in Malaysia, the concept of environmental sustainability is not ingrained among the population. Among the three pillars of sustainability (i.e. economic, social, and environmental), practical engineering considerations only emphasise the first two aspects.

Without the enforcement of regulations, application of biomass resources for the sake of environmental protection is not imperative for existing businesses.

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Box C- 8 Shredder Initiative of Rotary Club of Lampang, Northern Thailand Rotary Club of Lampang (Northern Thailand) is trying to provide farmers with an alternative to burning their agricultural waste in order to prepare the land for the new harvesting season. This alternative is called â&#x20AC;&#x153;Shredder Initiativeâ&#x20AC;? and might also lift farmers out of the poverty trap that causes them to burn in the first place.

Farmers in Lampang explained to the Rotary Club that they had no affordable alternative means of agricultural waste disposal. One of the board members of the Rotary Club designed a shredder that shreds residues into fine pieces which, when mixed with microbes become organic compost and fertilizer that can be used to enrich soil. Thai Government provides free microbe to registered farmers and in addition surplus fertilizer can be sold.

Figure C- 23 Photo of the shredder (photo taken from www.bangkokpost.com) The shredder is durable and can be easily carried on the back of a pickup truck. It is designed to be shared to encourage farmers to co-operate with one another and work together to achieve economies of scale.

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Table C-17 Techno-economic and financial aspects of the shredder Techno-economic and financial aspects Capacity

Details

1 87 kg/h (tested for dried rice straw), powered by a 9HP diesel engine Price ex-factory (based on one by one USD3000 for diesel engine order) USD2700 for gasoline engine USD2200 without engine Maintenance cost USD3.2/tonne of dried rice straw Cost for blades USD1 6/blade (60 blades in total for 1 shredder) Fuel consumption Less than 3L/tonne of diesel oil Diesel price USD0.025/kg Noise level Below 80 dB Other details The blade is the most worn out part and its worn out rate will depend on the shredded material.

The blades will need replacement after 350tonnes of shredded rice straw.

One shredder can shred rice or corn residues produced on about 78 rai (30.8 acres) of farmland in a month (estimation).

The Rotary Club has built two shredders from their own funds. One is being shared by a group of 20 farmers over 1 80 rai (71 .2 acres) of land. The other is being placed in a farming village comprising 25 farmers over 200 rai (79 acres) of land. The Rotary Club precondition for the utilisation of this shredder is that farmers must not use chemical fertilizers or pesticides.

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6 Science and policies interface 6.1

Existing Policies

Excessive open burning of biomass has resulted in severe haze in South East Asia. Increasing the utilisation potential and market value of biomass resource is among the haze mitigation strategies that are technically and economically sound. Biomass can be converted to other products and utility that could benefit development. While biomass in Malaysia has been deemed as an important resource for sustainable development that the government is heavily promoting, the development of biomass in the country is rather slow. Among the reason is the difficulty to obtain biomass resources, expensive bio-conversion technology (conversion of biomass to other products and utility), and lack of an established market to market biomass-related products.

Apart from research centric approaches to increase the efficiency and reduce the cost of biotechnology, policies play an important role in ensuring bio-technology development and marketability of bio-products in the present.

Up to date, there are several policies established to support biomass utilisation to produce energy. Among these policies are the Fifth Fuel Policy (2000), National Bio-fuel Policy (2006), National Green Technology Policy (2009), National Renewable Energy Policy (201 0), and Renewable Energy Act 201 1 (Hashim & Ho, 201 1 ). These policies are developed based on three principals, which focus on supply, utilisation and environmental. a) Supply To ensure the provision of adequate, secure and cost-effective energy supplies through developing indigenous energy resources both non-renewable and RE resources using the latest cost options and diversification of supply sources both from within and outside the country. b) Utilisation To promote the efficient utilisation of energy and discourage wasteful and non-productive patterns of energy consumption. c) Environmental To minimise the negative impacts of energy production, transportation, conversion, utilisation, and consumption on the environment.

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i)

Fifth fuel policy (2000): to promote renewable energy (RE) as the fifth fuel along with fossil fuels and hydropower. These fuels are biomass, biogas, solar, and mini-hydro.

ii)

National Bio-fuel Policy (2006): to put the biofuel (particularly 5% blended palm oil) as one of the five energy sources for Malaysia.

iii)

National Green Technology Policy (2009): to emphasis Green Technology (GT) as one of the key drivers of national economic growth and sustainable development (Matrade, 201 1 ).

iv)

National Renewable Energy Policy (201 0): to enhance the utilisation of indigenous renewable energy resources to contribute towards national electricity supply security and sustainable socio-economic development.

v)

Renewable Energy Act 201 1 : the establishment and implementation of a special tariff system to catalyse the generation of renewable energy.

Based on the list of policies above, Malaysia has put effort into promoting bio-based energy since more than 1 5 years ago; however, only until recently where Feed-in Tariff (FiT) was introduced that some investment on biomass to power is recorded. FiT is a financial scheme that was introduced to support renewable energy development, where investor of RE will be paid a certain rate per kWh of energy generation. The tariff rate for bio-energy is given in Table C-1 7 below (SEDA, 201 6).

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Table C-178 Feed-in tariff for bio energy (SEDA, 201 6) Bio-energy Biomass Bonus for gasification Bonus for steam generation Bonus for local manufacturer Bonus for MSW Biogas Bonus for gas engine Bonus for local manufacturer Bonus for landfill or sewage gas Mini-hydro

Size

FiT Rates (RM per kWh)

<1 0 MW >1 0 MW < 20 MW >20 MW < 30 MW

0.31 0.29 0.27 +0.02 +0.01 00 +0.0500 +0.0982 0.31 84 0.2985 0.2786 +0.01 99 +0.0500 +0.0786 0.2400 0.2400

> 20% efficiency

<4 MW >4 MW < 1 0 MW >1 0 MW < 30 MW > 40% efficiency

<1 0 MW >1 0 MW < 30 MW

Even with financial aid such as the FiT, the progress of biomass implementation is rather slow. In April 201 6, up to 61 .4MW capacity of biomass power plant is recorded (SEDA, 201 6).

One of the main reasons for the slow progress in implementation is due to the difficulty in obtaining sustainable biomass resources, fluctuating price of biomass resource, and high capital cost of bio-technologies. These are often excluded when designing the policies to support biomass utilisation.

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7 Way forward Through the years, the government of Malaysia has formulated policies and programmes to ensure the long-term reliability and security of energy supply for sustainable socio-economic development of the country with varying degrees of success. The use of biomass for fertilizers and as fuel in direct combustion is now in the commercial domain, there are still challenges in moving up the value chain of biomass conversion to biochemical (which include the biofuels ethanol or butanol). The issues related to the mandates on biodiesel B5 and bioethanol E1 0 which hinders any hope of full uptakes on any bioethanol investment. Without a firm biofuel policy mandate the case for bioethanol is hard to defend due to its high investment cost. The problem is further compounded when the investments is undertaken through the acquisition of bank loans thus increasing the operational cost from interest payment. It is proposed that there is a significant funding involvement from the government converted to equity to minimise the interest charges from massive loans. The equity-loan ratio needs to be optimised to maximise margins on sale of ethanol from a financial evaluation. The economic case for biopower or bioethanol is not helped by the imperfect development of the local biomass market into a full-fledged commodity market.

The biomass market in Malaysia is quite fragmented and unorganised. In order to ensure proper management and trading of biomass, a centre for sustainable mobilisation of biomass resources is proposed to be established which include biomass logistic and trade centres.

The centres are regional centres with optimised logistics and trading organisation, where different biomass fuels such as firewood, chips, pellets, and energy crops are marketed at guaranteed quality and prices.

7.1

Policies Recommendation

In order to further boost the potential of biomass utilisation, the current policies have to be improved and enhanced. In general, other than biomass power, other sort of biomass product should be given governmental support such as biomaterial, biofuel, etc. The policies should be developed for i) securing biomass resources, ii) supporting biotechnologies, and iii) platform for biomass product marketing. i)

Securing biomass resources

Malaysia has abundant of biomass resource from the agricultural sector and is mostly controlled by the corresponding agriculture company. This leads to an unstable pricing environment of biomass resources and rendering high risks to the biomass utilisation investment. Additionally, biomass is found all over the country at different places and at a

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different quantities causing difficulty in estimating the biomass acquiring cost such as transportation of biomass, its quantity and even quality.

It is proposed that a stable source for biomass data should be made available. The Malaysia Government should initiate a programme to conduct studies on total biomass supply chain within the country; identifying the type, location and amount of available biomass that can be used for production of value-added products.

It is further recommended that the Malaysian government develop and regulate a stable pricing mechanism of biomass like any other commodities to ensure a stable and sustainable market for biomass.

In Thailand, The Department of Alternative Energy Development and Efficiency (DEDE) under Ministry of Energy is responsible to study the potential of biomass database development in order to determine the amount of biomass available in different areas as well as overseeing the use of biomass for energy production. The database system is developed using GIS technology. Biomass database is necessary for the policy / strategy and action plan to promote the use of biomass, to set an appropriate action plan and to know the size and capacity of biomass fuel in areas that are suitable to invest (DEDE, 201 6).

In United Kingdom, wood pellets for heating is governed by the UK Pellet Council (UKPC). The UKPC is a trade body, hosted by the Renewable Energy Association (REA). Through the UKPC, the ENplus quality certification is introduced. The ENplus quality certification replaces numerous national standards and certification for wood pellets into one uniform system. The system encompasses standards throughout the entire supply chain, from production, storage, transportation to the end consumer (UK Pellet Council, 201 6). ii)

Supporting technology development

Conversion technologies of biomass to resources are often expensive with high maintenance cost and a long investment rate of return. High yielding conversion technologies need to be developed to improve returns and encourage investment. Furthermore the technologies need to be developed locally with local IP ownership to minimise the technology acquisition costs.

This requires an increase in research funding in biomass technology. Other moves from the government to provide more fiscal incentives for biomass based research and development activities would also be welcomed.

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iii)

Platform for biomass product marketing

Many products can be produced from biomass resources, however, they often have to compete with existing products which are generally cheaper. Apart from subsidies, the government can also establish a platform where these bio-products can be marketed much like the EU-Malaysia Biomass Sustainable Production Initiative (Biomass-SP) which was developed in Malaysia to undertake more intensive promotion on biomass.

Biomass-SP was developed with an aim to be a one-stop centre to promote biomass utilisation focusing on sustainable biomass consumption and production in Malaysia.

Biomass-SP has organised several activities, listed below, since 201 2 to bring together stakeholders and experts to share their experience in biomass advancement (Biomass-SP, 201 6). a) EU-Asia Biomass Best Practices & Business Partnering Conference 201 2 and 201 3 b) Briefing Session for Financial Institutions (FIs) and Development Financial Institutions (DFIs) c) EU-Malaysia Biomass Entrepreneurs Nurturing Programme (EUM-BENP)

7.2

Further area of Biomass research and development

In spite of various current policy and initiative on the biomass utilisation industry, the current research and development on the potential biomass utilisation is still in the infancy stage.

Several recommendation on the biomass research and development is discussed for i) biomass database and support, ii) biomass research funding. i.

Biomass Database and Support

Firstly, a database to identify the standards requirements, quality, quantity and location of biomass should be established. In order to govern the mobility and utilisation of these resources, a governmental agency should be designated to regulate and manage the supply chain of palm oil and forest biomass residues within the country from production, storage, transportation, to utilisation.

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ii.

Biomass Research and Development

To improve the efficiency of conversion and reduction of technology cost, the Malaysian Government should allocate specific funding for supporting the research and development on biomass conversion technologies. Among the areas of research recommended are: 











Biomass to material and energy supply chain The study of biomass conversion to products supply chain should include transportation network, location of the (potential) biomass production sites, storage facilities and conversion facilities Spatial optimisation study Integrated GIS with optimisation model enable efficient planning of conversion biomass to products. These spatial models were based on publicly available data, regional biomass potentials and regional heat and electricity demands. Spatial models provide geographically specific input data for the optimisation to determine the cost effective technology, capacity and optimal location of biomass conversion plant.

Biomass to energy Techno-economic analysis should not be limit to conversion of biomass to electricity and heat only but can be extent to other potential products such as biomass pellet, biochar etc.

Development of pre-treatment technologies for various types of biomass residues.

There are numerous biomass residues in the region, each with their own specific characteristics, that one single technology will not be able to fit all biomass residues.

The pre-treatment technologies to be applied are very important as it determines the important parameters (size, substrate inhibition) for successful and efficient enzymatic hydrolysis in biochemical conversions. Some residues contain oils and wax such as EFB, while others contain high composition of silica such as rice husks and rice straws. Others contain leafy residues such as palm oil fronds and forest undergrowth residues. There are also some residues which contain other valuable materials which need to be extracted out prior to any pre-treatment processes.

Enzyme research study Enzyme producing research needs to be developed and strengthened to enable an economically viable technology to emerge locally to benefit the biomass industry.

Development of microorganism

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Development of microorganism, natural or genetically modified, for conversion of biomass to higher value biochemical, such as succinic acid, furan dicarboxylic acid, glycerol or butanediol. These biochemicals command a higher unit price than bioethanol although the market demand is also smaller. Most of them are still in pilot or demonstration plant phase giving Malaysia time to develop the required technologies.

For power generation, investor can apply FiT; however, to ease the application and support haze mitigation strategies, a separate allocation of biomass FiT quota should be in place for usage of palm oil frond and/or forest residue.

Other than power generation, the Malaysian Government should also promote other useful bio-products especially biodiesel and bioethanol. The Malaysian Government can establish a policy for a specific blending of gasoline that utilisation bioethanol. An example of such policy is implemented in the US. In US, the government had developed The Clean Air Act Amendments of 1 990, which requires the use of oxygenated or reformulated gasoline (RFG). The Energy Policy Act of 2005 established a renewable fuels standard (RFS), which mandates the use of ethanol and other renewable fuels in gasoline. Approximately 99% of fuel ethanol consumed in the US is E1 0 (blends of gasoline with up to 1 0% ethanol) and about 1 % is consumed as E85 (85% ethanol and 1 5% gasoline). Therefore, ethanol is primarily used in gasoline to meet a minimum oxygenate requirement for RFG thus made significant changes to the development of the US ethanol industry market (Wesley P. Leland, 2009).

7.3

Conclusion

One of the root causes of the haze is the 'traditional' annual slash and burn practice in our neighbouring country to clear the undergrowth and vegetation to plant crops. The motivation to burn is because it is the most economical method and cheapest form of land clearance.

Although economic return is one of the main causal factors for the regional haze occurrences, it is probably a great motivator for moving away from traditional methods of land clearing which does not yield any economic benefits. As haze episodes may evolve into potentially complex emergencies, the development of an effective technology for biomass utilisation is critical. From the above detailed discussion, turning waste into vaue-added products such as compost, fuel, power, and biochemical will create an economic benefitsand utimately reduce the open burning practices and prevent the haze issue. The choice of

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technology or combination of technologies to be selected for possible demonstration or even commercialisation requires a more detailed study. This is to determine with greater accuracy on the investments needed and the possible economic returns to complement the social and environmental benefits of the solution.

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