2023 Fall/Winter Special Edition: The Endeavor

The ENDEAVOR Fall/Winter 2023

Literacy and Language In this issue: Welcome Back, Endeavor!

Why Literacy is Important in the World of Deaf Education

2023 Literacy Conference Plenaries

THE AMERICAN SOCIETY FOR DEAF CHILDREN Learn ASL

Learn ASL or take your signing skills to the next level with our monthly classes, workshops, and webinars.

ASL Stories Directory

Get instant access to hundreds of videos featureing ASL retellings of children’s books and ASL language development for all ages.

Resources for Latino Families

Language Accessibility Matters.

Language allows us to learn, build relationships, and succeed.

To create connections.

Our aim is to keep children tied to the lifelong learning path, no matter what, till they reach their educational objectives, and beyond.

Virtual ASL classes, workshops, and groups especially for Latino families with Deaf or Hardof-Hearing children. Find support in learning ASL, working with schools, empowering the family, addressing mental health wellness, and many other topics. All courses held in Spanish.

We believe Deaf/Hard-ofHearing children & youth are entitled to full communication access and that those communication opportunities for Deaf children should be based on facts and needs.

Family-Centered Events

It starts from day one.

Fully immersive, interpreter-supported events designed especially for families with and professionals who work with Deaf, Hard-ofHearing, and DeafBlind children.

Learn More About ASDC at

www.DeafChildren.org

It takes collaborative, informed, and committed teamwork to create successful learning experiences for our children that ensure that all plans and programs meet the needs of each one of them, individually and uniquely.

At ASDC, we are committed to leading the way to creating accessible language for all.

Join us.

Fall/Winter 2023

IN THIS

Issue 5

6

7

WELCOME BACK, ENDEAVOR!

LETTER FROM THE EDITOR

“DON’T LEAVE CRUMBS.”

It was a long break, but the Endeavor is back better than ever! ASDC’s Board President shares her thoughts about the return of The Endeavor.

Managing Editor, Wendy Kelly, gives an update on where The Endeavor has been, and what to expect in the future.

Inside the thoughts of ASDC’s Executive Director Cheri Dowling

9

12

18

THE PAST, THE PRESENT, AND THE FUTURE FOR AMERICAN SIGN LANGUAGE

FOUNDATIONS OF THE EXPOSITORY GENRE: CHARACTERISTICS, CHALLENGES, AND OPPORTUNITIEES

By James P. McCann Plenary Presentation

WHY LITERACY IS IMPORTANT IN THE WORLD OF DEAF EDUCATION

By Jody K Cripps Plenary Presentation

26

37

47

THE MISREPRESENTATION OF AMERICAN SIGN LANGUAGE IN MAINSTREAM FILM MEDIA: A CALL FOR INCLUSIVE REPRESENTATION

IS YOUR CHILD VERBAL? THE TRANSGRESSIVE ROLE OF PARENT-ADVOCATE IN EDUCATION PLANNING FOR A DEAF DISABLED STUDENT

THE BREAKOUT SESSIONS

By Katherine M. Hamilton and Lisalee D. Egbert, Ph.D. Plenary Presentation

By K. Emerson Beyer & Michael J. Bruno Plenary Presentation

get in touch www.DeafChildren.org 443.277.8899 (voice/text) info@deafchildren.org P.O. Box 23 | Woodbine, MD 21797

Literacy: Creating Connections with Language - Breakout Session Summaries

connect with us www.facebook.com/ASDCdeafchildren www.instagram.com/asdcdeafchildren www.tiktok.com/@deafchildren www.youtube.com/@americansocietyfordeafchil4512 www.linkedin.com/company/americansocietyfordeafchildren

QR codes & Links will access all websites and papers in both digital and print formats.

3

ONLINE ASL

CLASSES

Join us at ASDC's Online Classes, Workshops, Webinars and Events Take your fingerspelling, vocabulary, and ASL conversation skills to the next level with our 4-week Learn ASL series. ASL Courses are available in Beginning, Intermediate, Advanced, and Kids 8+.

Meet ASDC's ASL Instructors:

Ursa Rewolinski

Edna Johnston

Richard Rose

Beg.ASL & Kids 8+

Intermediate ASL

Advanced ASL

Visit our website for current class schedules. Scan below!

Monthly ASL Workshops: ASDC offers workshops that further support your ASL learning and skills.

Check our website for workshops and webinars such as (not an inclusive list; workshops change monthly):

FOR CLASS SCHEDULES, DESCRIPTIONS, AND TO REGISTER

Numbering Systems in ASL Phrasal Verbs Wordless Picture Books

Questions? Email us at cheri@deafchildren.org

www.DeafChildren.org

Welcome Back, Endeavor Elevating Standards in Language, Literacy and Accessibility Judie Lomax, Psy.D. Board President Welcome back, Endeavor!

As in years past, we have put together an energetic collection of articles and information.

This special edition includes the 2023 Literacy: Creating Connections with Language conference plenary presenters, along with access to the breakout session whitepapers to whet your appetite for learning. It's a rather sizeable special edition that you'll want to keep handy for reference for years to come. Earmark it, circle your favorites, and reach out to the authors; this edition is here for YOU to use in your journey to elevate deaf education.

struggle for language accessibility, and fostering a climate of encouragement and healthy exchange are foundational for becoming a compelling voice for our Deaf and Hard-of-Hearing students and children. We intend for you to find this special edition helpful in moving you forward toward your ideals and roles in deaf education and advocacy.

The Endeavor has long been a gathering place for the shining minds of our industry. A place where we assemble to share what we have learned, what's working, what's not working, and what needs to change. It's a continuous If it is your first time reading the Endeavor, thank cycle of love, mission-driven thinking, and the you for stepping into our world! If you are a desire to change the world of language returning reader, then thank you for coming accessibility. back! Whether you are perusing for the first or the fifteenth, we treasure your trust in what we As ASDC’s Board President and a mother of a offer. We promise to make it worth your while.

Deaf child, it is important to me that we lead Successful leadership, advocacy, and integration come in many forms, and through various techniques, certain key features define and underlie our responsibilities. For example, promoting diversity, acknowledging the

the way with knowledge, facts, compassion, and, most importantly, a clear vision of what it means to elevate deaf education so that it is accessible for all.

5

LETTER FROM THE EDITOR Thoughts from ASDC’s Managing Editor, Wendy Kelly

EDITOR-IN-CHIEF

Cheri Dowling MANAGING EDITOR

Wendy Kelly ART DIRECTION

The Endeavor is BACK! If you’re familiar with past publications of ASDC’s Endeavor, you already know it has long been a literary resource for parents, educators, professionals, and advocates. We’re proud to bring this newly designed publication back to life with this special edition issue and look forward to bringing you more.

Indigo Blue Consulting CONTRIBUTING WRITERS

•Plenary Authors and Session Presenters of the 2023 Literacy Conference

The theme for this publication is “Literacy and Language.”

You’ll find all of the plenaries with abstracts from the breakout session presentations from this year’s 2023 Literary: Creating Connections with Language Conference held in Charleston, SC. October is a beautiful time in South Carolina. The colors of fall, the crisp air, and the gathering of many like-minded people working hard to “turn over a new leaf” in deaf education. I was often stopped in the middle of the design of this edition to read and process the mindfulness and purpose of each of the whitepapers. I am confident you’ll find them all empowering, educational, and engaging. As a woman with profound hearing loss, I am hopeful and excited for the future of deaf education.

Looking ahead, the Endeavor will be accessible via the ASDC website at www.deafchildren.org. You will also receive a link to each new publication in ASDC’s quarterly newsletters. If you haven’t signed up for our email blasts, please do so today on our website!

The Endeavor is excited to be back! We are forever grateful to those who continue to support the vital work of the American Society for Deaf Children and our allied partners.

We want to hear from you! If you have an idea, article, story, or event you’d like to see in a future publication, please send it to info@deafchildren.org for consideration.

6

Enjoy the issue!

“DON’T LEAVE CRUMBS.” Thoughts from ASDC’s Executive Director, Cheri Dowling "Don't leave crumbs."

I first heard this quote from Matthew McConaughey during a podcast I was listening to.

Of course, it was about self-reflection and everything that goes with it. Still, it got me thinking about the work we do here at the American Society for Deaf Children and how we, along with so many others, make it our mission to make a difference in deaf education and the lives of Deaf, Hard-of-Hearing, and DeafBlind children everywhere.

Sometimes, we leave crumbs, and things feel left undone.

Don't leave crumbs. We must ensure that our work is meaningful, purposeful, and complete. That we always leave everything we do in order and finished, or at the very least, ready for the next step. That we never put a ceiling or limit on the work we do.

Sometimes, the challenges seem huge, but they can and will always be overcome as long as we remain committed.

Making a difference in the lives of EVERY child who is Deaf, Hard-ofHearing, or DeafBlind is essential.

Without effective intervention, many deaf and hard-of-hearing children lag behind their hearing peers in developing strong reading and writing skills, and many never catch up. They often graduate from high school with insufficient reading and writing skills to meet present job market demands.

Don't leave crumbs. This is my call to action to everyone to unite while transcending language diversity and communication barriers for our Deaf and Hard-of-Hearing kids: first within our families, second within our communities, and third within our shared learning experiences.

Early language development is crucial to a child's school and life success.

Humans learn to talk or communicate at slightly different times, and observing when a child starts to use language, whether ASL or English, can indicate how well they are developing. This applies to every child's development and learning experiences beginning at day one.

We have come so far in changing the face of deaf education, and we still have miles to go.

I hope you enjoy this special edition of The Endeavor and welcome this publication back with open arms. I am excited to share our outstanding and knowledgeable conference plenaries. You'll find a multitude of information, tools, perspectives, and ideas that will benefit you professionally and personally.

Let's not leave crumbs. We have important work to do. Our kids deserve complete and whole missiondriven efforts.

Executive Committee Judie Lomax Board President

Jennifer Luce Vice President

Lauri Rush Treasurer

Carlisa Thompson Secretary

Malibu Barron Past President

Members Angelica Lee Gagliardi Patrick Graham Michelle Jablonka Brenda Perrodin Maria Romero

"Language is the blood of the soul into which thoughts run and out of which they grow."

OLIVER WENDELL HOLMES

Together, we can create a diverse and language-rich world.

7

A global women's organization whose shared values truly inspire action and impact lives.

Delta Zeta is a proud partner of the American Society for Deaf Children.

Scan the QR code to learn more about us!

5

ad

The American Society for Deaf Children's ASL Stories Directory makes it easy to find hundreds of free videos of ASL retellings of your child's or student's favorite books. Research shows that reading and signing stories together helps promote essential language development and literacy skills for ALL children: deaf, hard of hearing, and hearing.

Use our ASL Stories Directory to quickly find stories by age or by the book's title.

Make the most of signing and reading with your child! Visit our directory today!

Why Deaf Education Matters.

Every child is born unique. Their abilities are different, and so are their learning requirements.

Every student deserves to learn in an environment that suits their needs. Equitable access to education opportunities is valuable for everyone.

ASDC believes deaf children are entitled to full communication and language access. We believe that consideration of communication opportunities for deaf children should be based on facts, not presumptions.

Deaf education -- having deaf students educated in an environment in which they are with other deaf students as well as deaf adults -- matters. This environment allows for Deaf Community Cultural Wealth (DCCW), the knowledge, skills, and tools that a community passes down from one generation to the next, to be acquired by the deaf students. For deaf students, this usually comes most effectively through deaf education. However, instead of educating deaf children through deaf education, educators and administrators measure deafness against other forms of disability, decide which is most severe, and use that decision to determine placement. The practice of selecting a primary disability and addressing it within neighborhood public schools contradicts what we know about how deaf children learn, and it often leaves them lacking crucial language and literacy development.* *Adapted from Why Deaf Education Matters: Including Deaf Students with Disabilities; Fleischer, Flavia; Narr, Rachel Friedman; Garrow, Will Odyssey: New Directions in Deaf Education, v21 p52-55 2020

10

National Association for the Deaf

Research shows 70% of Deaf, DeafBlind, DeafDisabled, and Hard of Hearing children don’t have access to language. And it’s actually worse for BIPOC deaf children. Language deprivation is a devastating reality for many deaf children, and the NAD strongly believes this is a serious and urgent health crisis. To address this, the NAD has developed several documents – we developed two open letters: one for families and for professionals who work with Deaf, DeafBlind, DeafDisabled, and Hard-of-Hearing children. We also developed a position statement that makes policy recommendations to end language deprivation. These three documents are based on a thoroughly researched paper with different research and studies related to language deprivation; it outlines which systematic policy can be improved so all Deaf, DeafBlind, DeafDisabled, and Hard of Hearing children have access to language, from birth to adulthood. To access a language from birth means every deaf child is able to meet expected language milestones, receive language and communication support, and interact with the world without barriers. These factors lead to successful language acquisition for most deaf children.

Every child has the right to access a full language from birth.

OFFICIAL STATEMENT FROM THE NATIONAL ASSOCIATION OF THE DEAF (NAD)

Position Statement [English / Download PDF] [Español]

Open Letter for Families [English / Download PDF] [Español]

Open Letter for Professionals Technial Paper [English / Download PDF] [English / Download PDF] [Español] [Español]

www.nad.org

2023 ANNUAL CONFERENCE

Literacy: Creating Connections with Language

OCTOBER 19-21 | CHARLESTON, SC

In the modern world, success depends upon literacy. This is especially true for Deaf/Hardof-Hearing/Deaf-Blind children. It is crucial that they are engaged and supported in developing their literacy and language skills through interactive and focused education, reading, parent involvement, and communication innovations. This conference was designed to support educators, professionals, parents, and advocates as they work to gain new tools, insights, and perspectives for empowering their Deaf, Hard-of-Hearing, or DeafBlind child(ren) and students.

The following pages contain the 2023 Literacy Conference Plenaries with access to the Breakout Sessions whitepapers. Whitepapers are listed in order of the conference itinerary.

We hope you find inspiration within these pages.

A child’s life should not be dictated by medical opinions or the fanciness of technology. A child’s life needs to be encompassed by the WHOLE. Denial of the ‘whole’ is denying the opportunity for growth, adaptation, experience that builds into the mind, soul, body and spirit of self. If this is not denied to most children who have their hearing, why 15 should it be denied to deaf children?

THE PAST, THE PRESENT, AND THE FUTURE FOR AMERICAN SIGN LANGUAGE

By Jody H. Cripps

Read the whitepaper here >>

Clemson University Editor-in-Chief - Society for American Sign Language Journal

Literacy 2023 Plenary Thurs, October 19, 2023 The long-awaited specialized reading methodology for deaf children is now available for dissemination and use.

Accountability and best practices in education have become a driving force in our current society, and deaf children are no longer ignored, especially in reading. What is known as American Sign Language (ASL) Gloss™ has emerged as an innovation that connects ASL to English literacy through tools and procedures (Supalla & Blackburn, 2003; Supalla & Cripps, 2011; Supalla, 2017; Supalla et al., 2017). This includes three premises as follow: 1) ASL is subject to be written and read; 2) Signed language reading allows deaf children to experience development of skills without restrictions; and

3) Deaf children are provided with a mechanism for transitioning to English literacy at the same time.

The inclusion of ASL Gloss™ in the education of deaf students will require a significant amount of the curriculum, instruction, and assessment alignment as part of following the signed language education framework as shown in Figure 1.

The signed language education design recognizes that ASL is not simply another language for consideration with deaf students in schools in addition to English. The relationship between ASL and English is marked by the modality differences meaning that the former is signed, whereas it is spoken for the latter (Singleton et al., 1998). The implications for the education of deaf children are profound as these children need ASL for communicating through the air (which is signing).

ASL thus functions as deaf students’ oral language as much as English is for students who can hear and speak. What is more, English is delineated to the status of a written language for deaf students to learn (see Johnson et al., 1989/2018 for the original proposal concerning ASL and English as two languages for the education of deaf children).

Thanks to ASL Gloss™, signed language education becomes a force all of its own that serves as an alternative to spoken language education that

deaf students have had trouble accessing.

According to the signed language education diagram, the arrows moving from the bottom to the top on the left and the right refer to ASL as the first language or L1 and English as the second language or L2.

The key role of ASL Gloss™ is confirmed for ensuring that deaf students learn to read and become literate in a timely manner. A deaf child enrolling in Kindergarten will start learning ASL Gloss™ that

13

continues until the fourth grade. Critically, the child will have an opportunity to study nursery rhymes in ASL (that is extracted from ASL literature). The ASL nursery rhymes are accessible to the child (with help from signed language phonology) to learn to how to read (see Supalla et al., 2019 and Snoddon, 2020, for further details on this topic).

The ‘learning to read’ stage with ASL Gloss gives way to the ‘reading to learn’ stage at the time of fourth grade.

At this point in time, the child will be reading English as a second language. The reading fluency attained allows the child to read English literature up to the time of high school graduation.

As part of maintaining the balance of two languages, ASL and English, deaf students will be encouraged to study various genres of ASL literature as told via videos with master signers

14

from Kindergarten to the 12th grade (see Byrne, 2017 for a review of ASL literature). Studying ASL literature will help ensure that the students develop a high level of oral language skills in the signed language modality. Equally important is the consideration that “deaf performers have most actively participated in making contributions to ASL literature” (Supalla et al., 2019, p. 26) that their view of the world becomes integral to the signed literary works. “[T]he opportunity that deaf students have in studying ASL literature will facilitate their identity development and healthy self-image” (Supalla et al., 2019, p. 26).

With all components discussed thus far, signed language education stands as a model for implementation in American schools. Of course, as part of a successful education reform, teachers themselves will need to be fluent in ASL and knowledgeable and competent in the signed language education design as described.

Historical Notes on Language and Literacy Parents and teachers may wonder why ASL Gloss and the signed language education design have not been made available earlier than now. The reason is simple, there has not been sufficient knowledge about language and literacy for most of deaf education’s 200 year history. Deaf students suffered the consequences of experiencing reading difficulties. The curriculum in schools for deaf children have been too closely aligned for students who can hear, thus not catering to the needs of deaf learners. The fact that hearing students normally learn to read based on their spoken language knowledge establishes a barrier for deaf students.

Deaf children understandably find English literacy extremely difficult to learn with frustrations mounting for the teachers (see Hoffmeister &

“The ‘learning to read’ stage with ASL Gloss™ gives way to the ‘reading to learn’ stage at the time of fourth grade.

At this point in time, the child will be reading English as a second language. The reading fluency attained allows the child to read English literature up to the time of high school graduation. “ -Jody Cripps

Figure 2: Roch-Ambroise Auguste Bébian, An Early Nineteenth-Century Advocate of Signed Language Reading

Caldwell-Harris, 2014 for a background on reading difficulties concerning deaf students in schools).

Adding to the woes is the key idea of having ASL written and read being denied for the education of deaf students. ASL is how these students think and process, thus reading must start with the signed language. The fact that the linguistic principles were long thought to be exclusive to spoken language did not help with this situation.

However, towards the close of the twentieth century, ASL and other signed languages of the world received recognition for possessing linguistic properties in the form of phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics, and pragmatics (see Meier, 2002 for a historical review of signed language research). It was at the start of the twenty-first century that ASL Gloss emerged through extensive research and development work to where it is today.

Dr. Samuel J. Supalla, a deaf professor at the University of Arizona took the initiative to examine the question of literacy for deaf children. Dr. Supalla cofounded a charter school with a parent of a deaf child and a deaf community leader to help put together and test the innovation of ASL Gloss. As a perquisite to ASL Gloss, educators began discussing the gap between ASL and English literacy that needed to be closed methodologically as follows: Learning to read in a second language is a challenge in itself, but even more so when the learner has little access to the spoken form of that second language that is the basis of the writing system he must learn to tackle. We do not know how deaf readers make the connection between the languages they encounter... (Wauters & de Klerk, 2014, p. 243).

Unknown to many educators, the concept of signed language reading actually emerged in early nineteenth century France

where a writing system called Mimography was developed and tested in a school for deaf children (Supalla, 2017). RochAmbroise Bébian (see Figure 2) was behind this groundbreaking effort, and he was hearing and fluent in French Sign Language.

Unfortunately, Bébian’s innovative ideas faced resistance that led to the prohibition of signed language in schools for deaf children. Mimography thus disappeared and became part of the forgotten deaf education history.

With due respect, ASL Gloss is more elaborate than what has been described for Mimography, as it has an intermediary system set up between ASL and English literacy. It can be said that the second time around is better than the first, with more comprehensive bilingual considerations for literacy outcomes.

Mimography is best described as a full-fledged writing system that allows deaf students to

experience learning English literacy all while they learn to read in ASL. Written ASL for ASL Gloss is hybridized with English, thus not a fullfledged writing system, that is intended to cease in use when deaf students read English fluently (Supalla et al., 2001). What is important for ASL Gloss and Mimography is their support for deaf students to experience the process of learning to read based on what they know in the signed language.

Response to the Science of Reading Parents and teachers may wonder how ASL Gloss fits with what is known as the “Science of Reading”. To be frank, the deaf education establishment has not yet figured out how to respond to the movement on the scientific evidence for effective reading. The question for how a child who is profoundly deaf since birth best learns to read remains open for many educators. The good news is that ASL Gloss is a formal response to how

15

Science of Reading can be applied to the education of deaf children.

With that said, the definition of Science of Reading is described as “…a vast, interdisciplinary body of scientifically-based research about reading and issues related to reading and writing” (The Reading League [TRL], 2022, p. 6).

This research is the result of thousands of studies carried out in numerous languages over the course of the last five decades, all across the world. The science of reading has produced a majority of evidence that can be used to better understand how proficient reading and writing develop, why some people struggle, how to assess and teach students, and how to prevent and address reading difficulties in order to improve student outcomes (TRL, 2022).

From these reading studies, five areas for teaching a child to read are required to fulfill the reading skills, and they are: Phonemic Awareness, Phonics, Fluency, Vocabulary, and Comprehension (National Center on Improving Literacy, 2022).

In 2003, Supalla and Blackb urn described a similar process where deaf students develop different areas of reading skills when using ASL Gloss. Spoken language reading is what hinders deaf students from becoming literate, not for the reason of their disability or inability to hear.

However, signed language reading allows deaf students to develop skills related to phonemic awareness, phonics, fluency, vocabulary, and comprehension (see Supalla & Byrne, 2018 for the formal distinction between signed language readin g and spoken language reading). The impact on the education of deaf students can be seen in in that the scientificallybased reading framework can now extend to ASL as a signed language.

As part of partaking in the Science of Reading movement, an academic journal called the Society of American Sign Language Journal (SASLJ; see Figure 3) had a special issue on ASL Gloss come out in 2020 (https://tigerprints.clemson .edu/saslj/vol4/iss1/1/).

As the journal’s editor, I am pleased to state that different researchers and scholars (other than my own research team) had joined to investigate and discuss the theoretical perspectives and the applications of ASL Gloss methodology. This special issue helps open doors for understanding and appreciating what language and literacy mean to deaf children. ASL Gloss is becoming mainstreamed, which is important for the present state of education for deaf children.

Launch of the Gloss Institute Lastly, parents and teachers may wonder where they can learn more about ASL Gloss.

As the Vice President for the Gloss Institute (GI), a 501(c)(3) non-profit organization based in Tucson, Arizona, I am happy to promote the launch of GI as the licensee of the ASL Gloss technology through the University of Arizona.

The licensure to the Gloss Institute was granted in 2023. Dr. Supalla played an instrumental role in the technological transfer from

the University of Arizona to the community. As President and CEO of GI, he has worked tirelessly to promote the license for the benefit of deaf children in the United States and Canada.

I encourage parents and teachers to peruse the newly established website for GI at www.glossinstitute.com (see Figure 4) to learn all about ASL Gloss and its capacity for implementation in schools and programs serving deaf students. The naming of GI and ASL Gloss centers on how glossing of the text makes it clear for optimal learning outcomes with deaf students. Without the help of ASL Gloss, the English text is not accessible for decoding and is deviant from how deaf students sign their language, which is ASL (see Supalla, 2017 for the importance of accessible text for deaf students and a brief history of glossing regarding medieval scholars learning to read a language that was no longer spoken or ‘dead’).

In any case, there is more information on the website.

Figure 3: The Cover Page of the Special Issue of SASLJ

10 Figure 4: Gloss Institute’s website.

It is time to come to terms with so many deaf students struggling with reading. We are now able to understand how to remedy this dilemma. The notion of a specialized reading methodology seems practical, yet hard to fully realize and should be better understood in terms of its tremendous value to deaf students.

When I was a graduate student at the University of Arizona with Dr. Supalla as my mentor, I had the privilege of working at his charter school in the early 2000s. I saw ASL Gloss first hand with deaf students who were cognitively engaged as expected with students learning to read. I did not have this opportunity back during my elementary school days as a deaf student. I was inspired and determined to engage in research to quantify and qualify the impact of the specialized reading methodology.

Since that time, I have tried my best to document data and publish the results through the use of reading and vocabulary measures (see Supalla, 2017, Supalla et al., 2017, and Cripps et al., 2020). It is rewarding to know that my efforts over the years fall in line with Science of Reading, but I know that there is much more work to do in the near future. As we disseminate ASL Gloss through GI, we need to pursue a large scale research project with a large number of deaf students participating. The perusal of experimental and quasi-experimental research is essential for strengthening the validity of ASL Gloss. I hope that this article serves as a good starting point by providing a brief and understandable description for something that is new and exciting in the education of deaf children. What I do know is that the past, the present, and the future for ASL constitutes a great saga

that has shaped all of our lives as children, parents, teachers, researchers, and scholars in a profound way.

Acknowledgements In drafting this paper, the author would like to thank Sam and Robin Supalla for their feedback and corrections.

References Byrne, A. P. J. (2017). American Sign Language literature: Some considerations for legitimacy and quality issues. Society for American Sign Language Journal, 1(1), 56-77.

Cripps, J. H., Supalla, S. J., & Blackburn, L. A. (2020). A case study on accessible reading with deaf children. Society for American Sign Language Journal, 4(1), 36-72.

Hoffmeister, R. J., & Caldwell-Harris, C. L. (2014).

Acquiring English as a second language via print: The task for deaf children. Cognition, 132(2), 229-242.

Johnson, R. E., Liddell, S. K., & Erting, C. J. (1989/2018).

Unlocking the curriculum: Principles for achieving access in deaf education. Society for American Sign Language Journal, 2(2), 91-121.

Meier, R. P. (2002). Why different, why the same?

Explaining the effects and non-effects of modality upon linguistic structure in sign and speech.

In R. P. Meier, K. Cormier, & D. Quinto-Pozos (Eds.), Modality and structure in signed and spoken languages (pp. 1-26). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.

National Center on Improving Literacy (2022). The Science of reading: The basics. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education, Office of Elementary and Secondary Education, Office of Special Education Programs, National Center on Improving Literacy. http://improvingliteracy.org.

Singleton, J. L., Supalla, S. J., Litchfield, S., & Schley, S. (1998). From sign to word: Considering modality constraints in ASL/English bilingual education. Topics in Language Disorders, 18(4), 16-29.

Snoddon, K. (2020). ASL and early literacy: From ASL phonological awareness to print literacy.

Society for American Sign Language Journal, 4(1), 2435.

Supalla, S. J. (2017). A sketch on reading methodology for deaf children. Society for American Sign Language Journal, 1(1), 35-55.

Supalla, S. J., & Blackburn, L. (2003). Learning how to read and bypassing sound. Odyssey, 5(1), 50-55.

Supalla, S. J., & Byrne, A. P. J. (2018). Reading, special education, and deaf children. Society for American Sign Language Journal, 2(1), 36-53.

Supalla, S. J., Byrne, A. P. J., & Cripps, J. H. (2019).

Teaching literature to deaf students and the challenge of bilingualism. Society for American Sign Language Journal, 3(1), 23-44 Supalla, S. J., & Cripps, J. H. (2011). Toward universal design in reading instruction. Bilingual Basics, 12(2).

Supalla, S. J., Cripps, J. H., & Byrne, A. P. J. (2017). Why American Sign Language gloss must matter. American Annals of the Deaf, 161(5), 540-551.

Supalla, S. J., Wix, T. R., & McKee, C. (2001). Print as a primary source of English for deaf learners. In J. Nicol & T. Langendoen (Eds.), One mind, two languages: Studies in bilingual language processing (pp. 177-190).

Oxford, UK: Blackwell.

The Reading League. (2022). Science of reading: Defining guide. https://www.thereadingleague.org/what-is-thescience-of-reading/39 Wauters, L., & de Klerk, A. (2014). Improving reading instruction to deaf and hard-of-hearing students. In M. Marschark, G. Tang, & H. Knoors (Eds.), Bilingualism and bilingual deaf education (pp. 242271). New York, NY: Oxford University Press.

FOUNDATIONS OF THE EXPOSITORY GENRE: CHARACTERISTICS, CHALLENGES, AND OPPORTUNITIES

School of Human Services and Sciences, Gallaudet University

Read the whitepaper here >>

Literacy 2023 Plenary Fri, October 20, 2023 Discourse refers to language use beyond the level of the sentence.

Different types of discourse include conversational, narrative, expository, and persuasive (Nippold, 2020).

Conversation refers to discourse used in everyday interaction. The back-andforth nature of conversation allows for communication partners to support each other, expand, and clarify.

Narrative is the discourse used when telling stories and persuasion is discourse that attempts to influence another person’s actions or thoughts.

Expository discourse includes informational language that is often found in textbooks and classroom lectures but also includes procedural language that may be encountered socially when explaining the rules of a game to a peer, for example (Nippold, 2020).

While children acquire skills in all discourse genres for social and academic purposes, expository discourse receives less attention in the research in Deaf education.

Furthermore, standardsbased initiatives in

By James P. McCann

education (e.g. Common Core) have expanded expectations for students’ comprehension and use of expository discourse (Lundine & McCauley, 2016; Pyle et al., 2017). Exposition is also included as part of the ASL K-12 Content Standards (Laurent Clerc Center, 2018). Skills related to exposition are found in the viewing, publishing, discourse/presentation, and language standards.

Expository passages are included as early as preschool. The proportion of expository to narrative increases as children progress through school with a significant change when students enter the reading to learn stage.

Discourse may be encountered in signed/spoken or written forms (Lundine & McCauley, 2016). For this article, expository text refers to the written form and expository passage includes both the oral/signed and written forms. D/HH children have diverse ways they use language to communicate and learn so oral/signed language may include spoken language only, signed language only, or combined use of sign and speech. When there are specific language modifications due to modality, they will be described using spoken/written English or ASL.

Abstract The expository genre is important for academic and social purposes. Expository discourse includes informational language found in textbooks and classroom lectures but also includes procedural language that may be encountered socially. Students may encounter exposition in signed/oral or written modalities. Standards-based initiatives in education have expanded expectations for students’ comprehension and use of expository passages. Unique syntax and vocabulary characteristics in expository discourse can present a challenge to deaf, hard-of-hearing, and deafblind (D/HH) children who struggle with language or literacy acquisition. There is a limited research base specifically for interventions for D/HH children related to expository discourse. Promising strategies from other populations and discourse genres may be applied to support D/HH children’s comprehension and use of expository passages, however.

Keywords: expository, deaf and hard-of-hearing, reading comprehension, American Sign Language

19

Characteristics of Expository Passages Discourse type impacts the overall organization of the language and elements that are included. This organization is referred to as the macrostructure.

Discourse genre also influences syntax (how words are combined to make sentences), morphology (how words are constructed), and semantics (meaning of words and word combinations) (Scott & Balthazar, 2010). These aspects are referred to as the microstructure. The complexity of microstructure increases from conversational to narrative to expository genres. The higher complexity of expository passages (both written and spoken/signed) may create challenges for children with language difficulties.

Expository Macrostructure Macrostructure refers to the overall gist, organization, cohesion, and text structures of discourse.

“D/HH children come from a wide range of language backgrounds. They may have fewer exposures to incidental learning due to their language learning environment which may result in less world knowledge.”

-J. McCann

20

INarrative macrostructure typically follows a temporal sequence and includes predictable story grammar elements (characters, setting, initiating event, internal response, plan, attempt, consequence, and resolution of a story). In contrast, expository macrostructure is less predictable, but generally follows a hierarchical organization of general to specific or main idea and supporting details (Taylor, 1982). Expository macrostructure differs based on the purpose of the passage and the relationships presented (Westby et al., 2010). The major types of expository discourse include comparison, cause/effect, procedural, problem/solution, description, and enumeration (WardLonergan & Duthie, 2013).

Readers use their knowledge of the macrostructure to facilitate their understanding and recall of information from passages.

Expository Microstructure

Expository passages typically have greater complexity in vocabulary and syntax compared to conversational and narrative discourse (Lundine & McCauley, 2016; Scott & Balthazar, 2010).

Vocabulary in expository passages are often novel, low-frequency words that are unfamiliar or abstract.

Passages may include frequent technical vocabulary that is difficult to figure out from context causing the reader to rely more on prior knowledge for understanding. They also may be structurally complex using prefixes and suffixes to change a familiar meaning, grammatical function, or both. Exposition also includes greater diversity of vocabulary.

Several syntactic features make expository more complex including nominalization, pronominalization, pre- and post-modification of nouns, and increased use of subordination. Descriptions below are followed by examples from a 5th grade science textbook or a 6th

grade social studies textbook. Nominalization refers to using a noun or noun phrase that may be more familiar as a verb or adjective (e.g. “A change [emphasis added] in one population affects all other organisms in the food chain” (Daniel et al., 2006 p B22). In conversation, change is frequently used as an action, but in this example, it functions as a noun as the subject of the sentence. Pronominalization incorporates the use of a pronoun such as this/that, or these/those to summarize earlier content quickly (e.g. “Long ago a “sea of wild grasses” covered North America from central Texas in the South to North Dakota in the north. These [emphasis added] were America’s prairie lands…” (Daniel, et al., 2006, p. B8)). Both nominalization and pronominalization support cohesion, but the reader must identify and remember referents to comprehend their meaning. The use of pre- or post-modification of a noun or noun phrase is also characteristic of

References

expository passages. The use of elaboration may separate the noun from the verb by several words and the child must make Cohen-Koka, S., Nir, B., and Meir, I. (2023). Linguistic variation, discourse analysis, and Deaf Education: connections between the Case studies from ISL. Journal of Deaf Studies and subjects and actions within Deaf Education, 28(1), 84-98. the sentence even though Culatta, B., Hall-Kenyon, K. M., & black, S. (2010). they may not be close to Teaching expository comprehension skills in early each other (e.g. “Traders childhood classrooms. Topics in Language Disorders, used the road when boats 30, 323-338. loaded with goods Daniel, L. H., Hackett, J., Moyer, R. H., & Vasquez, J. [emphasis added] were (2006). Science. Macmillan McGraw-Hill. unable to navigate the Kamil, M. L., Borman, G. D., Dole, J., Kral, C. C., rough water on certain Salinger, T., & Torgesen, J. (2008). Improving sections of the river.” adolescent literacy: Effective classroom and intervention practices: A practice guide (NCEE (McDougal Littell, 2006, p. #2008-4027). Washington, DC: National Center for 191)). Compared to Education Evaluation and Regional Assistance, Institute of Education Sciences, U.S. Department of conversation and narrative, Education. Retrieved from expository passages have http://ies.ed.gov/ncee/wwc increased use of Hall, M. L., Hall, W. C., & Caselli, N. K. (2019). Deaf subordinate clauses that children need language, not (just) speech. First allow connections between Language 39(4), 397-367. ideas to have logical, Laurent Clerc Center. (2018). K-12 ASL content standards. https://aslstandards.org/ hierarchical relationships as opposed to the linear, Lundine, J. P., & McCauley, R. J. (2016). A tutorial on expository discourse: Structure, development, and chronological organization disorders in children and adolescents. American of ideas in narrative Journal of Speech-Language Pathology, 25(3), 306discourse (Lundine & 320.

McCauley, 2016). There is McDougal Littell. (2006). World history ancient considerably less research civilizations. McDougal Littell. on expository passages Nippold, Marilyn A. (2020). Language sampling with produced in signed children and adolescents: Implications for intervention. languages. Much of the San Diego: Plural Publishing. research on discourse Paul, R., Norbury, C., & Gosse, C. (2018). Language examines aspects important disorders from infancy through adolescence: Listening, Beal-Alvarez, J. S., & Easterbrooks, S. R. (2013).

Increasing children’s ASL classifier production: A multicomponent intervention. American Annals of the Deaf, 158(3), 311-333.

speaking, reading, writing, and communicating (5th ed). Elsevier.

Peterson, A. K., Fox, C. B., & Israelsen, M. (2020). A systematic review of academic discourse interventions for school-aged children with language-related learning disabilities. Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in the Schools, 51(3), 866-881.

Pyle, N., Vasquez, A. C., Lignugaris/Kraft, B., Gillam, S. L., Reutzel, D. R., Olszewski, A., ... & Pyle, D. (2017).

Effects of expository text structure interventions on comprehension: A meta‐analysis. Reading Research Quarterly, 52(4), 469-501.

Roehling, J. V., Hebert, M., Nelson, J. R., & Bohaty, J. J. (2017). Text structure strategies for improving reading comprehension. The Reading Teacher, 71(1), 1-12.

Scott, C. M., & Balthazar, C. H. (2010). The grammar of information: Challenges for older students with language impairments. Topics in Language Disorders, 30(4), 288-307.

Scott, J. A., & Dostal, H. M. (2019). Language development and deaf/hard of hearing children.

Education Sciences, 9(2), 135.

References continued on the next page

for narrative production (e.g. role shift or constructed action) or sign production changes related to register. A study examining two adult signers reported differences in the use of sign parameters (handshape, orientation, location, and movement) and space that distinguished their narrative and expository signed productions (CohenKoka, et al., 2023). The participants’ strategic use of location and space in their expository productions demonstrated awareness of the purpose- to present information in an organized, hierarchical, and visual way.

While there are fewer recordings of expository discourse in ASL compared to narrative, Atomic Hands (atomichands.com) has several science-based examples of exposition.

Review of several videos indicated that they include identifiable macrostructure and microstructure elements.

For example, in a video introducing mitosis and meiosis, visual-linguistic strategies such as the use of

space for comparing and contrasting are incorporated. These linguistic devices set up the text structure for the ASL passage. In another video on types of energy, pronominalization is incorporated when defining energy by providing a description and then referencing that description with an index pronoun (“this”).

Intervention Opportunities Research suggests that, as a group, D/HH children demonstrate language and literacy skills below their peers with full auditory access. These difficulties do not stem from the hearing loss itself but may result from a lack of accessible linguistic input especially during early years (Hall, et al., 2019). Taking a language-based approach to supporting D/HH children’s expository development, both in written and signed/oral modalities is warranted. While the evidence base for

supporting D/HH children’s language and literacy is still emerging, there are some practices that have been documented to support language and literacy acquisition for D/HH children in other contexts such as narrative that may be applied to exposition.

Furthermore, approaches that have research support for children with language learning difficulties due to other factors, e.g. developmental language disorder or learning disabilities, may be implemented with D/HH children with adaptations as needed to fit an ASLEnglish bilingual framework.

words. These are typically acquired without direct intervention unless there are significant language learning needs. Tier 2 words are academic vocabulary that are used across content areas but are less common Background Knowledge and in conversation. Examples of Vocabulary tier 2 words include analyze, valuable, and monitor.

D/HH children come from a Because they are high wide range of language frequency in academic backgrounds. They may have discourse but are abstract fewer exposures to incidental and/or have multiple learning due to their language meanings, they are also learning environment which good candidates for explicit may result in less world instruction in intervention knowledge. Background settings because they are knowledge may help needed to access expository compensate for reading skill passages but may not be deficiencies making it a directly defined or taught. critical consideration when Tier 3 words are domainBuilding an Early introducing informational specific and low frequency.

Language Base texts (Smith et al., 2021).

Examples include Wexler et al. (2015) suggest photosynthesis, ionic, and Expository passages are including explicit instruction sedimentary. These words introduced as early as on background knowledge as are typically the topics for preschool. A pilot study part of a routine to introduce instruction for all students in examining a theme-based content information needed a classroom. approach to teaching for text comprehension. In expository comprehension their strategy, the teacher Comprehension Strategies skills suggested that very directs this instruction to young children are able to maximize instructional time.

Comprehension strategies talk about expository Another strategy is having refer to practices and information and use simple students identify what they routines used when reading earning strategies when already know about a topic to help a child make sense activities are hands-on and and what they would like to of texts (Kamil et al., 2008). developmentally learn then connecting this to Children with language appropriate (Culatta et al., the text as they read, learning difficulties may get 2010). The authors noted frequently using a K-W-L information or details from that the children may not be (know, want to learn, learned) texts in an unrelated way able to distinguish between chart approach. rather than using a fact and fiction, but that framework to identify and early exposure to reality In addition to explicit retain key ideas (Peterson, et versus stories can reinforce instruction for background al., 2020). Pyle et al. (2017) content and lay foundations knowledge, explicit conducted a meta-analysis for expository themes such vocabulary instruction is an of studies examining as compare/contrast or evidence-based practice. interventions with children in problem/solution. A larger Uncommon words, multiplegrades K-12 with a range of proportion of time should meaning words, instructional reading abilities including be dedicated to narrative in and academic words, and higher performers, students the early school-age years sophisticated synonyms are at risk, and students with as the predictable nature of good candidates for explicit learning disabilities. They the macrostructure and instruction (Wexler et al., found expository text linear, chronological 2015). A three-tier approach structure interventions organization supports early is often used to categorize resulted in large positive literacy. However, early vocabulary. Tier 1 includes effects on expository nclusion of exposition may common, basic, everyday reading comprehension.

22

build a foundational understanding of basic expository structures and provide models of more complex syntactic structures that characterize those relationships.

References (cont.)

Shanahan, T., Callison, K., Carriere, C., Duke, N. K., Pearson, P. D., Schatschneider, C., & Togesen, J. (2010). Improving reading comprehension in kindergarten through 3rd grade: A practical guide (NCEE #2010-4038). Washington, DC: National Center for Education Evaluation and Regional Assistance, Institute of Education Sciences, U.S. Department of Education. Retrieved from Supalla, S. J., Cripps, J. H., & Byrne, A. P. J. (2017).

Why American Sign Language gloss must matter. American Annals of the Deaf, 161(5), 540551.

Supalla, S. J., Wix, T. R., & McKee, C. (2001). Print as a primary source of English for deaf learners. In J. Nicol & T. Langendoen (Eds.), One mind, two languages: Studies in bilingual language processing (pp. 177-190). Oxford, UK: Blackwell.

The Reading League. (2022). Science of reading: Defining guide. https://www.thereadingleague.org/what-is-thescience-of-reading/39 Wauters, L., & de Klerk, A. (2014). Improving reading instruction to deaf and hard-of-hearing students. In M. Marschark, G. Tang, & H. Knoors (Eds.), Bilingualism and bilingual deaf education (pp. 242-271). New York, NY: Oxford University Press.

Smith, R., Snow, P., Serry, T., & Hammond, L. (2021).

The role of background knowledge in reading comprehension: A critical review, Reading Psychology 42(3), 214-240.

Taylor, B. M. (1982). Text structure and children’s comprehension and memory for expository material.

Journal of educational psychology, 74(3), 323–340.

Ward-Lonergan, J. M., & Duthie, J. K. (2013).

Expository discourse intervention for adolescents with language disorders. Perspectives on Language Learning and Education, 20(2), 44-56.

Westby, C. E., Culatta, B., Lawrence, B., & HallKenyon, K. (2010). Summarizing expository texts.

Topics in Language Disorders, 30, 275-287.

Wexler, J., Reed, D. K., Mitchell, M., Doyle, B., & Clancy, E. (2015). Implementing an evidence-based instructional routine to enhance comprehension of expository text. Intervention in School and Clinic, 50(3), 142-149.

Peterson et al. (2020) reported that the use of explicit strategy instruction, beyond providing graphic organizers, shows promise for children with languagerelated learning disabilities although more research is needed to determine how to support generalization. The Institute of Education Sciences (IES) practice guides include teaching students to identify and use text organizational structure starting in Kindergarten (Shanahan et al., 2010) and continuing through adolescence (Kamil et al., 2008).

Teachers and SLPs can support students’ understanding of expository passages by teaching the different types/purposes of text structure using child friendly descriptions. They may use graphic organizers to visually represent elements of different types of expository discourse and how the ideas are related to each other. These tools can be connected to key words or phrases that signal the author’s purpose (WardLonergan & Duthrie, 2013).

Many children may benefit from introduction to text structures through signed/spoken examples before including print materials (Roehling et al, 2017). Roehling et al. provide examples for different types of text structures such as explaining how to tie your shoes to show sequence, or asking for reasons why you might be late for school and the related consequences for cause/effect. Graphic

organizers support comprehension by giving the child a framework to understand the relationships between the details in the passage. Teachers and SLPs may also support children to ask guiding questions while reading based on the text structure to facilitate finding details and relationships. Struggling readers may pull out and retain details from a passage but have difficulty making connections between them to identify the overarching idea.

Teaching summarizing is a strategy to support their comprehension and scaffold identification of the main idea.

Children with language difficulties may also have difficulty generating and expressing expository information. Their productions may include specific details but without an overarching main idea or connections. Teaching children to use graphic organizers and key/signaling words may support their ability to structure their ideas to express them in a way that meets the purpose of the task. Explicit instruction on the similarities between how ASL and English encode these relationships may help students learning in ASL-English bilingual contexts. For example, connections between the use of English signal words (e.g. “both,” “but”) and two different strategies in ASL (the lexical strategy in ASL (i.e. using a sign such as

BUT) or the spatial strategy where objects or concepts are established in space and relationships are expressed by referencing their locations with or without a specific sign) to represent compare/contrast structure could be introduced and discussed.

Microstructure While text structure and comprehension strategies may support D/HH children’s comprehension of expository discourse, they may also need support at the sentence level given the complexity of syntax included within expository passages. Targeting production of more complex syntax may also support their understanding of those structures. As mentioned above, D/HH represent a range of language and literacy skills. The child’s language and literacy profile will direct how these strategies are used and with which modalitiessigned/spoken, written or both. For example, a child who has age appropriate ASL skills, but struggles with English print may not need support with production or comprehension of ASL expository passages.

Teachers and SLPs may capitalize on the child’s stronger first language to support print literacy acquisition. In contrast, a child who struggles with both their signed/spoken language and print may need to engage in activities that build both. A challenge

that exists is that even though communication is the most studied area within deaf education, there are few studies on interventions directed at sign language outcomes (Scott & Dostal, 2019).

Many D/HH children may have language or literacy skills that are significantly below their age- or gradelevel expectations so some strategies may need to be adapted for earlier levels of language acquisition while addressing grade-level content. This may lead professionals to provide linguistic input that has limited complexity. While we may not expect children to begin producing constructions outside of their zone of proximal development, a guiding principle of language intervention is not to minimize complexity, but rather control for it (Paul et al., 2018). Advanced language structures should be included within the input along with basic structures.

This exposure provides contrast for the simpler forms and provides the child access to a wider range of syntactic possibilities.

Children do not need to master the simpler forms before having exposure to more complex constructions. Minimizing the linguistic input to a child may unintentionally limit their language growth.

Support for microstructure may tap into implicit learning or use explicit instruction. Focused

23

stimulation is an example of an implicit approach. In focused stimulation, the professional identifies a target and provides high density modeling while carefully considering the structures and vocabulary that surround the target so it is highlighted. They provide contexts that encourage the child to use the target form.

This type of approach is most frequently implemented in structured play but may also be implemented in structured learning opportunities. The goal is to provide a pragmatically appropriate context where the target structure is needed to accomplish a task. For example, in the early grades, a sink or float activity may have similar objects that differ by a feature. When selecting which object to put in the water, a child who only labels the object would be encouraged to provide additional information by providing an additional description. Then, the adult will combine the child’s propositions (label + descriptor) and present a full grammatically correct sentence with the expanded noun phrase. A similar task could be implemented in a later grade when sink and float becomes the science concept of density. At this level, the teacher may provide explicit instruction on how to connect ideas to create longer sentences.

When using explicit instruction with school-age students, the provider may

24

incorporate metalinguistic vocabulary. Metalinguistic abilities include thinking about, talking about, and manipulating aspects of language. Labels for parts of speech (e.g. noun, conjunction) and their functions are metalinguistic vocabulary. Metalinguistic knowledge tends to be difficult for children with language disorders, but skills may be improved through practice. Returning to the density example, a teacher could elicit several ideas from a student provided as short sentences: one ball is made of stone; one ball is made of wood; one ball floats; one ball sinks; the ball of wood is light; the ball of stone is heavy. The goal may be to combine the ideas into a longer, more complex sentences by using a relative clause (e.g. the ball that is made of stone vs the ball that is made of wood) or adding a conjunction to connect ideas (e.g. the ball that is made of wood floats even though it is heavier than the stone ball).

Scott and Balthazar (2010) identify four guiding principles for intervention to support sentence-level skills needed to engage with informational language: 1) Grammatical instruction should occur in the context of expository discourse, but also in decontextualized metalinguistic activities.

2) Provide opportunities for practice in all modalities.

For D/HH children this may

mean receptive and expressive signing in addition to reading, writing, speaking, and listening 3) Organized, intensive, and repeated exposure to target patterns with practice 4) Use materials for treatment across a range of content areas from the child’s curriculum.

Breaking down and building up or deconstructing and reconstructing is a strategy to support children’s acquisition of complex syntax. In this strategy a sentence with multiple propositions is broken down into those separate ideas.

Then, the professional models how they are combined to indicate the relationships within a longer or more complex sentence.

Teachers and SLPs may use visual supports to facilitate a child’s ability to break down sentences into meaningful chunks. They may tap into metalinguistic vocabulary to direct children to unfamiliar uses of language. As mentioned above nominalization takes a word more commonly found as a verb or adjective and changes it into a noun.

While some are marked by a prefix or suffix change (e.g. to discover/a discovery), others are unmarked (e.g. to change/a change). The same may occur in ASL where a sign’s typical grammatical function in a sentence is changed but may not have an associated change in any of the parameters. Children need

support to identify the different grammatical roles a word may play in a sentence and how they affect comprehension.

Research on repeated viewings of narratives in ASL with teacher mediation have shown improved productions of classifiers in D/HH signing children (Beal-Alvarez et al., 2013).

Their intervention used narrative passages, but the practice may also support structures seen in expository text. A challenge is availability of fluent signers presenting expository information. While there are libraries of narratives in ASL, multiple collections don’t exist for signed exposition.

Furthermore, narratives are less content specific making finding exemplars easier for the practitioner. While challenges exist, the practice may be valuable to supporting children, especially those who may need support in their ASL. Video recordings provide a chance to review and examine aspects of signed language that may not be available with “in the moment” signing. Some possible uses of videos include viewing use of macrostructure elements.

The mitosis/meiosis video from Atomic Hands referenced above has examples of the use of space and ASL signals to indicate compare/contrast relationships. The energy video from Atomic Hands provides an example of description/informational exposition. The video

The video incorporates novel and technical vocabulary. Reviewing the video and identifying strategies to identify meaning of the unfamiliar words may facilitate a child’s ability to extract meaning from expository passages. The video also has an example of pronominalization which may be a difficult construction for some children so explicit instruction can be facilitated in context. Other types of expansion such as subordination may also be available within these content videos.

Conclusion Expository discourse is encountered in academic and social contexts. The unique text structure and complex microstructure in expository passages can present a challenge for D/HH children. A knowledge of these characteristics can help teachers and SLPs identify areas of difficulty and plan instruction or interventions. While there is limited research on interventions, practitioners can borrow evidence-based strategies and adapt them to the needs of D/HH children. For those in ASL-English bilingual contexts familiarity with the similarities and differences across the signed and spoken modality is critical.

James McCann, Ed.D., is an associate professor at Gallaudet University in the SpeechLanguage Pathology program. His teaching and research interests are in language and literacy acquisition in D/HH children. His focus is on evidence-based assessment and intervention with children who have difficulty acquiring language skills.

Connect with the Deaf Community SignOn connects the hearing and Deaf communities through authentic virtual learning interactions. Through the Deaf Ambassador program for adults, parents can improve their ASL skills, connect with members of the Deaf community, and increase their awareness of Deaf culture. Deaf and hard-of-hearing kids can communicate and connect with each other through the Friends Like Me program!

ASDC members are eligible for five 30-minute sessions of SignOn – FREE! ($125 value) Sessions can be used for either program or split up between them).

Not a member yet? Join us!

Membership is just $35 a year for Family/Individual

The Misrepresentation of American Sign Language in Mainstream Film Media:

A Call for Inclusive Representation

By Katherine M. Hamilton University of Texas at Arlington, McNair Program

Lisalee D. Egbert, Ph.D. University of Texas at Arlington, Modern Languages

Read the whitepaper here>>

Literacy 2023 Plenary | Fri, October 20, 2023 Plenary Presented by Lisalee D. Egbert, Ph.D. Abstract Mass film media shapes culture, reflecting dominant norms and influencing public opinions. This popular form of media has the power to shape popular culture and influence public opinions and perceptions; thus, properly portraying Deaf characters, the correct linguistic model of American Sign Language (ASL), and Deaf Culture in this powerful medium is crucial. This research examines the misrepresentation of Deaf Culture and ASL in film and its impact on real-world interactions between Deaf and hearing c/Communtiies. By analyzing historical film trends, bringing modern trends to light, and creating educational tools, this study aims to create measurable change in media practice. The study uses online questionnaires and interviews with ASL-fluent participants from the Deaf Community who have film media experience to highlight the Deaf American’s perspective and understand what values are priority. Accurate Deaf life portrayal in storylines, abandoning archetypal Deaf characters, and intentional character composition emerge as key factors; findings demonstrate high value placed on accurate representation and vehement support for projects aligned with these values. The results of this study are intended to impact Deaf and hearing c/Communities by educating production companies on the realities of working with Deaf actors and crew, strategizing methods to do so, and educating consumers.

Keywords: Deaf Culture, American Sign Language, Media Literacy, Mass Film Media, Deaf Studies, Television and Movies

27

Deaf schools have always been the hub for the Deaf Community, Deaf Culture, and ASL.

Note: The capitalization of “Deaf,” “Community,” and “Culture” is important to indicate the pride the Deaf Community has in their Culture. Deaf and deaf are two separate terms which cannot be used interchangeably.

History and Modern Trends History Deaf Education In the 1800s, as American culture grew and flourished, Deaf Americans were left to their own devices to create and preserve their own separate culture and history within the hearing world.

Deaf Culture and American Sign Language (ASL) was misunderstood and vastly uncredited nationwide. In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, the Milan Conference of 1880 played a pivotal role in discrediting sign language, leading to a massive wave of anti-Deaf Culture in America (Moores par. 1). At this conference, educators declared that sign language hindered the development of spoken language and pushed for its eradication from educational settings. The

28

most powerful anti-Deaf Culture rhetoric spewed at the Milan Conference is notable in the English translated excerpt provided

by Donald F. Moores in the American Annals of the Deaf, (1) Given the incontestable superiority of speech over signs in restoring deaf-mutes to society, and in giving them a more perfect knowledge of language that the oral method ought to be preferred to signs; and (2) considering that the simultaneous use of speech and signs has the disadvantage of injuring speech, lipreading, and precision of ideas, that the pure oral method ought to be preferred. (par. 2) As noted by most scholars in Deaf Studies, no Deaf people were invited to attend this historical whiplashing of their language and Culture.

Consequently, many Deaf individuals were forced to abandon their natural mode of communication and learn to speak and lip-read, often at the expense of their linguistic and cultural identity. As sign language

As sign language continued to be discredited and the oral/aural method was promoted, the gap between the Deaf and hearing world grew deeper with each passing day.

Deaf schools have always been the hub for the Deaf Community, Deaf Culture, and ASL. Historically, Deaf students around the age of 13 and not successful in oral/aural programs were sent to Deaf Residential schools for the remainder of their education. While most Deaf schools reportedly adhered to the oral/aural education approach during the oralism reign, ASL was allowed in after-school events, in the dormitories, and in private moments.

With the advent of 504 in the 1970’s and the Americans with Disabilities Act in 1990, Deaf Education, as well as Special Education, started to see a surge not only in schools using ASL, but also educational ASL interpreters in the classroom. Deaf students and their educational needs

started to become more noticeable in the community. More parents were opting to use educational interpreters in their local schools, thus fewer children were being educated at Deaf schools.

Well documented is the impact of an interpreted education, the likelihood of inequitable access, and the benefit of direct communication that is preferred (Caselli, Hall, & Henner, 2020; Kurz, Schick, & Hauser, 2015; Schick, 2007; Wolbers, Dimling, Lawson, & Golos, 2012). In interpreted settings, language acquisition is not like direct instructions thus lacking direct, scaffolded, and incidental interaction with naïve or near naïve language models (Kurz, 2004; Monikowski, 2004; Schick, 2007; Winston, 2004; Wolbers, et al., 2012).

History ASL in Film Then came the era of silent films. John S. Schuchman, a former academic advisor at Gallaudet University, described this time as the

“Golden Era” for the Deaf Community (231). Between the years of 1893 and 1929, Deaf people nationwide felt they had equal access and opportunity in the film industry (231). In this short period, the hopes that the Deaf could be represented in mainstream media seemed plausible for the first time in American history. For efficient contrast, note the near past when the Deaf were sent away to boarding homes and the use of sign was punished; when oralism thrived in the hearts of the oppressive (232). However, this golden era of inclusivity was short lived, as all technological advances are sure to be followed by another bigger, better invention with shorter intervals between innovations. Soon after the silent film boom came the so-called “Talkies.” While the Deaf had previously thrived in the film industry with their natural talent for exuberant facial expressions and telling body language, the Deaf Community was now excluded completely from film as sound was introduced. Since the Deaf

were involved so heavily in the film industry prior to the use of sound, naturally directors continued to use sign language roles in talkies, yet they excluded those who were fluent in the language. Schuchman brings to light the example of the actress Jane Wyman, a hearing woman, who won an Oscar for her portrayal of a Deaf woman in 1948 (235). Schuchman explains the language was now depicted as “wooden” and lacking in emotion because the people presenting were not part of the Deaf community in any way (235). Following this event, the abhorrent misuse and misrepresentation of ASL and Deaf Culture in film and media can be clearly marked as beginning. A good example of the continuation of this issue is the 2016 film, Hush. A simple search of the cast will reveal although the main character was Deaf and the plot of the film revolved around her Identity, neither the main actress nor any of the cast or crew themselves were Deaf.

Modern Trends

The 2016 film, Hush is a clear example of the modern continuation of this issue. A simple search of the cast will reveal although the main character was Deaf and the plot of the film revolved around her Deaf Identity, neither the main actress nor any of the cast or crew themselves were Deaf. Despite this, the film went on to amass a 93% audience approval rating on popular film critique website, Rotten Tomatoes (www.rottentomatoes.com/ m/hush_2016). Clearly, the hearing world enjoys viewing content featuring ASL and Deaf Culture, yet most people are unaware of the negative trend they are participating in by absorbing this misrepresentative content.

Many mainstream pieces of mass film media enjoy highlighting ASL, but fail to do so without executing their ideas in an exploitative manner. While the hearing world functions under the belief that ASL is a visual substitute for English, the Deaf Community struggles to communicate how wrong this belief is. The syntax, parameters, and descriptive

“Clearly, the hearing world enjoys viewing content featuring ASL and Deaf Culture, yet most people are unaware of the negative trend they are participating in by absorbing this misrepresentative content.”

-Hamilton & Egbert

Dr. Lisalee D. Egbert, who is Deaf, is a professor and coordinator of Modern Languages at the University of Texas at Arlington, research early education and Deaf Education focusing on American Sign Language/English bilingual-bicultural education as it relates to literacy. Her work explores the inter-development of language, literacy, and cognition within the framework of social justice and equality. Addressing her Native American heritage and her first sign language, Plains Indian Sign Language, she contributed to an eBook focused on Native Americans.

29

are vastly different to the English lexicon. While signs can be linked back to English words and used to form a somewhat coherent sentence, lacking a full understanding of the complexity of the language can lead to a Cultural trainwreck. Pierre Schmitt, a social science researcher based in Paris, focuses on the ASL interpretation of the National Anthem at the 2014 Super Bowl. He goes in depth, speculating that while Amber Zion, a Deaf performer, gracefully showcased her rendition of the anthem, she was a “prisoner of the bubble” on screen (131). Hearing people thought she was merely interpreting the lyrics to our national anthem, when in reality, she was presenting it in her own language as a visual poem. Schmitt goes on to scold the decision to trap her in a small section of the screen as if she were nothing but a glorified captioning system, stating this action “promotes the perception of sign language as an accommodation for a minority who have a handicap as opposed to a full-fledged language of artistic expression” (132).

As examples like this indicate, what mainstream film media continually fails to understand is that the Deaf Community does not view ASL as a way to catch onto the coattails of the English language.

ASL as Its Own Language Contrary to spoken languages, the Community views signing as its own separate entity with its own rules and cultural significance. In a research

30

article on syntactic priming by use of psycholinguistic studies, Matthew Hall et al. is passionate about the topic: These analyses find many syntactic devices that are familiar from spoken language research (e.g. hierarchical phrase structure, constituent order, movement operations, anaphora, embedding, etc.), but there are other syntactic devices that make use of the unique affordances of the manual modality to accomplish grammatical functions (e.g. facial marking for topics and interrogatives, spatial marking for verb agreement, etc.) (2) By downplaying Zion’s rendition of the anthem and treating it as a mere way to “catch up” with the hearing world or as a simple substitute for English, Deaf culture itself was downplayed across all of America and further set back in the minds of hearing people due to the lack of understanding by mainstream hearing media.

In this era where technology is second nature, turning on sub-titles is no feat for any one. American sign language is a visual language, which means that facial expressions are translated as tonality.

Because those who are fluent in the language must articulate their meanings through their expressions, they gain a skill for executing flawless facial character, a skill that is easily transferable to acting work. When imagining a favorite film, people most likely envision a film with expressive actors. Casting

Producers may make the argument that the hearing audience will not be able to get the full effect of the emotion of the script without hearing the tone of voice. However, when looking at communication using ASL, arguably the emotion of the words is more perceivable than relying on the tonality of voice itself. Ronnie B. Wilbur, a linguistic researcher at Purdue University, states, A unique aspect of signed languages is the systematic grammatical use of facial expressions and head or body positions. The nonmanual markers (NMs) comprise a number of independent channels (our current count is 14): the head, the shoulders, the torso, the eyebrows, the eyeballs (gaze), the eyelids, the nose, the mouth (upper lip, lower lip, mid-lip, lip corners), the tongue, the cheeks, and the chin. Each of these is capable of independent articulation and, with layering, complex combinations can be produced. (247) American sign language should not be held from the screen for fear of lack of understanding; instead, it should be held in high esteem in an industry where expression is so highly regarded.

The Deaf Community in the Context of the Hearing World A good example of brilliant expressiveness is Nyle DiMarco, a Deaf activist become actor and model, who stated in an MTV interview that his modeling career is made simple

References

Asif, S. M. (2018). Deaf Gain Goes Prime Time: Identity, Spaces, and Marginalization in ABC Family’s Switched at Birth. Journal of Literary & Cultural Disability Studies, 12(1), 35-51. EBSCOhost.

Benedict, B. S., & Sass-Lehrer, M. (2007). Deaf and Hearing Partnerships: Ethical and Communication Considerations. American Annals of the Deaf, 152(3), 275–282. Jstor.

Caselli, N.K., Hall, W.C. & Henner, J. American Sign Language Interpreters in Public Schools: An Illusion of Inclusion that Perpetuates Language Deprivation.

Matern Child Health J 24, 1323–1329 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10995-020-02975-7 Greenstein, M. N. (2010). Qualified Interpreters Enhance Judicial Ethics. Judges’ Journal, 49(2), 40. EBSCOhost.

Hall, M. L., et al. (2015). Syntactic Priming in American Sign Language. PLoS ONE, 10(3), 1-19. EBSCOhost.

Hott, L. R. (2007). Creating the History through Deaf Eyes Documentary. Sign Language Studies, 7(2), 135140. EBSCOhost.

Kurz, K. B. (2004). A comparison of deaf children’s comprehension in direction communication and interpreted education. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Kansas.

Kurz, K. B., Schick, B., & Hauser, P. C. (2015). Deaf Children’s Science Content Learning in Direct Instruction Versus Interpreted Instruction. Journal of Science Education for Students with Disabilities, 18(1), 23–37. https://eric.ed.gov/?id=EJ1169424 Katie Leclerc — ABC Family Star on Ménière’s Disease. (n.d.). ABILITY Magazine. Retrieved July 24, 2023, from http://abilitymagazine.com/katie-leclerc-abc-familystar-on-menieres-disease Monikowski, C. (2004). Language myths in interpreted education: First language, second language, what language? In E. A. Winston (Ed.), Educational Interpreting: How it can succeed (pp. 48-60).

Washington, D.C.: Gallaudet University Press.

Morris, A. (2022, March 30). Representation or Stereotype? Deaf Viewers Are Torn Over "CODA." The New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/2022/03/30/movies/deafviewers-coda.html Napier, J. (2004). Sign Language Interpreter Training, Testing and Accreditation: An International Comparison.

American Annals of the Deaf, 149(4), 351-360.

EBSCOhost.

Nick Sestanovich. (2019, February 7). Deaf model, advocate to share story. Vallejo Times-Herald (California). ADVANCElexis.

Partners in Progress: The 21st International Congress on Education of the Deaf and the Repudiation of the 1880 Congress of Milan. (2010). American Annals of the Deaf, 155(3), 309-310.

Schick, B. D. (2007, August 1). EIPA Guidelines of Professional Conduct for Educational Interpreters.

Retrieved September 15, 2008, from: http://www.classroominterpreting.org/Interpreters/pro guidelines/ EIPA_guidelines.pdf Schmitt, P. (2017). Representations of Sign Language, Deaf People, and Interpreters in the Arts and the Media.

Sign Language Studies, 18(1), 130-147. EBSCOhost.

Schuchman, J. S. (2004). The Silent Film Era: Silent Films, NAD Films, and the Deaf Community’s Response.

Sign Language Studies, 4(3), 231-238. EBSCOhost.

Winston, E. A. (2004). Introduction. In E. A. Winston (Ed.), Educational interpreting: How it can succeed (pp.

1-6). Washington, D.C.: Gallaudet University Press.

Wolbers, K. A., Dimling, L. M., Lawson, H. R., & Golos, D. B. (2012). Parallel and divergent interpreting in an elementary classroom. American Annals of the Deaf, 157(1), 48-65.

Wilbur, R. B. (2009). Effects of Varying Rate of Signing on ASL Manual Signs and Nonmanual Markers.

Language & Speech, 52(⅔), 245-285. EBSCOhost.

Hush (2016). (n.d.). Rotten Tomatoes. https://www.rottentomatoes.com/m/hush_2016

because he is used to communicating without words (par. 6). Yet, Dimarco is also a prime example of perceptions of the Deaf Community in the context of the hearing world.

DiMarco graduated from Gallaudet University, an esteemed Deaf college, with a degree in mathematics (The Harold, par. 3). Despite his amazing work on In the Can, a movie entirely in ASL with no audio, he was only noted as being an “actor” by the hearing world after picking up a role in popular, mainstream television show, Switched at Birth. DiMarco used his new popularity in the hearing world to further his activism. He was discovered by America’s Next Top Model, and won as the first and only Deaf contestant, as well as winning Dancing with the Stars. After winning these two primarily hearing contests, he started the Nyle DiMarco Foundation Parent’s Corner which spreads Deaf awareness as well as provides grants to Deaf students to further their education. Alongside this prestigious foundation, he is the lead spokesperson for LEAD K (Language Equality and Acquisition for Deaf Kids). Both of these are significant pillars in the Deaf Community. However, despite his outspoken fight for equality, when searching his name all that is found is “HOTTEST MEN ON INSTAGRAM” or “WOW! DEAF MAN CAN DANCE?” While researching this topic, a common trend emerged.

His interviews in mainstream media are centered around his looks, a disbelief that a Deaf person can be a model or an actor, and other repetitive, insignificant topics. Publicity such as this clearly transcribes how even when Deaf actors break through the barrier to entry, they are impeded by stereotypes and held in a lower esteem than other actors who have achieved significantly less.

DiMarco is only one such person dealing with this discriminative trend as a Deaf man who broke into mainstream film media, but the same trends are found with most, if not all, Deaf Community members in his situation. While most hearing audience members are not inundated with malicious intent, their lack of education in the topic at hand simply stems from the media they consume.

Viewing popular films in the hearing world showcasing Deaf Culture and/or ASL improperly leads to this very real impact on the Deaf Community’s real-world perceptions; thus leading to negative interactions and the furthered separation of the Deaf and hearing worlds.

The Divide Between Deaf and Hearing Media The hold of oralism on Deaf Education monologized the Deaf Community both in and out of the classroom for decades. Out of the classroom, film and TV perpetuated the stereotype that the Deaf Community

lacked intelligence if they could not speak and/or lipread. Often, in both TV and film, the Deaf Community as well as other c/Communities, for instance Crip Camp (2020), were protagonists, villains, folks to be pitied, and/or folks to be taken advantage of.

As Hollywood and media outlets deflect criticism by the Deaf Community, the Community has not been stagnant. Many movies for Deaf people by Deaf people exist, but the divide between Deaf and hearing media is vast. Many attempts at bridging this divide fall into a hearingcentric narrative, whether intentionally or unintentionally. To show the difference between a hearing-centric project and a more carefully constructed, intentionally representative narrative, look at the films Through Deaf Eyes (2007) and Audism Unveiled (2008).

Both films are documentaries, published around the same time, and attempt to capture the real-world experiences of the Deaf Community.

Through Deaf Eyes goes through the entirety of Deaf Americans’ struggles to form their own Culture and expands on the Community that has now settled into the roots of our nation.

Lawrence R. Hott, a hearing producer who aided in the production of the film, asks viewers to bear these thoughts in mind before watching: How does a Deaf

person relate to hearing professors, employers, lovers, or their own hearing children? What is it like to read lips—or try to? How is it to raise a Deaf child, if you are hearing, or how does it change your world to have an electronic device surgically implanted in your ear and hear language instead of seeing it?

Hollywood has had a hard time understanding any of this, especially the reality of reading lips. (140) The film was a huge success in sign language classes as basic curriculum to introduce hearing students with no experience with Deaf Culture to the Community. This film focuses on the faux lip reading superpower perpetuated by Hollywood; in too many depictions of Deaf folks in movies and television shows, the roles are played by hearing people who feign an ability to read lips. While reading lips is a possible skill, it should not be the default skill characters in media assume, though most Deaf characters in mainstream media seem to possess this skill. These stereotypes portrayed on screen permeate our society and lead to misunderstandings between the Deaf and hearing world. Even experts in the field, such as Hott, feel a need to make a change in the media industry; yet this documentary faces criticism for appealing to a hearing audience by selective narratives to present that

31

align mostly with the idea of Deaf folks hearing people already have. An example of this is the socalled “trauma-porn” aspect of these narratives, allowing the hearing audience to infantilize the cast for the dramatic feeling of success and pride at the ending. Audism Unveiled (2008) is a project made by students at Gallaudet University in an attempt to “unveil” the realities behind audism, a term coined by Tom Humphries to describe “how Deaf people are often the victims of discrimination and bias shown by their hearing families, teachers, and communities” (Benedict, Sass-Lehrer 6).

This documentary goes in depth about the emotional damage and isolation Deaf folks feel when they are isolated from the Deaf Community and forced to live in a hearing-centric world. Audism Unveiled specifically wants its hearing audience to feel uncomfortable watching this film, creating an environment conducive for empathy and growth.

However, this documentary, though coming out at the same time and covering the same topic from a more empathy-driven level, saw much less success than Through Deaf Eyes, as Audism Unveiled was not marketed with the intention of allowing its hearing audience to come away with feel-good emotions.

Hearing people consume media for hearing people

32

and do not seek out Deaf films intentionally unless they have had experiences, in some way, with the Deaf Community. Yet, most Deaf films suffer from inaccessibility; popular streaming platforms such as Netflix or Hulu fail to appreciate many Deaf films and make them accessible to the general hearing audience. For example, the movie “SuperDeafy” (2013) is hugely popular in the Deaf Community, yet the movie is incredibly hard to find. Streaming platforms Amazon Video and VuDu have the title listed, if specifically searched for, but neither place actually provides access to the film; instead, the notice “This Title is Not Currently Available” appears. The same issue occurs for many other staples in Deaf film. In lieu of access to films illustrating proper representation, the general hearing audience consumes popular media. While some popular shows and movies attempt inclusivity, such as Switched at Birth which Columbia University professor Saljooq M. Asif claims to “upend expectations, confront differences, and challenge the meaning of normality,” even that endearing drama series did not cast their main Deaf character with a Deaf actress (37). Katie LeClerc, the actress playing the character the show centers around (along with her hearing counterpart, Bay) has publicly stated she does not identify as Deaf, but has “fluctuating hearing

loss” and puts on a “deaf accent” for the show (abilitymagazine.com/katie -leclerc-abc-family-staron-menieres-disease). While this show is often paraded around as the token show for inclusivity due to the casting of many real Deaf actors, the fact the main actress puts on, in her own words, a “Deaf accent” provides evidence of the harmful stereotyping and perpetuating misrepresentation of Deaf Culture in popular media.

The film “CODA” (2021) took the first step attempting to bridge the divide between Deaf and hearing film worlds, yet even that film had flaws. In an attempt to make this film marketable to hearing audiences, the plot seemed to devolve into a “hearingcentric” narrative. An article in the New York Times titled “Representation or Stereotype? Deaf Viewers Are Torn Over ‘CODA’” mentions the term “hearing gaze,” referring to “scenes that may resonate with hearing viewers but fall flat with Deaf viewers or even upset them” (par 2). The actress playing the Child of a Deaf Adult (CODA) was not a CODA herself, so much of her interpretations of scenes (her facial expressions, her body language, her general attitude) has been criticized for coming across as wrong and condescending. The technical aspect of the film also showed a strong favor for its hearing audience as the camera angles cut off signs, forcing viewers to rely

on closed captions despite the signer being in full view of the camera. While much of the Deaf Community is hesitant to heavily criticize this movie because of its strides towards progress, this film should not be seen as the gold-star standard for films demonstrating Deaf Culture in an inclusive manner. “CODA” also sits behind the paywall of AppleTV, an exclusive stream platform, not readily accessible. While, yes, television shows and movies exist with the right representation, only characters and storylines presented in widelyaccessible mainstream media will have an impact on the hearing world. This problem must be presented to the mainstream Hollywood industry itself, an industry and community that lacks education or understanding about the Deaf Community and how the film media directly impacts it. Accessible, popular mass film media must do the work to represent the real Community they wish to portray.

The Deaf American Community’s Perspective Methodology Through QuestionPro, a numerical study was employed to gain insight into the values of the Deaf Community. The survey questions on ASL and Deaf Culture representation in mainstream media were carefully crafted in written

English to ensure clarity and inclusivity; additionally, to ensure accessibility and inclusivity for the Deaf Community, an ASL interpretation video was provided alongside each written question. These videos featured a Deaf, certified ASL interpreter presenting each question in American Sign Language, ensuring that Deaf participants could fully understand and engage with the survey in their preferred language. The language used in the questions aimed to be neutral and unbiased, encouraging participants to share their honest perceptions and experiences. The survey on the perception of ASL and Deaf Culture representation in mainstream media garnered responses from a diverse range of participants across the Deaf Community nationwide. Through various recruitment channels, including social media platforms, Deaf Community organizations, and specialized online forums, 30 individuals contributed their valuable insights.

Participants were asked to rate their opinions on a numerical scale of 1 to 10 for different aspects of ASL and Deaf Culture epresentation in popular/mainstream television shows and movies. They were specifically prompted to assess the accuracy of ASL portrayal, the level of representation of Deaf characters, the extent to

which Deaf Culture was adequately represented, and the inclusivity of linguistic and cultural diversity within the Deaf community in mainstream media. Upon completion of the survey, a comprehensive data analysis was conducted, utilizing the ratio scale through data analysis tool HubSpot to determine average scores and overall trends in perception. The qualitative data obtained from the optional detailed responses provided by some participants were meticulously analyzed to identify recurring themes in the participants' viewpoints.

After completing the numerical study, participants were invited to take part in one-on-one interviews to provide more in-depth insights and personal experiences regarding Deaf Culture and ASL representation in popular television shows and movies. The interviews aimed to delve deeper into their feelings, perceptions, and the impact of media portrayals on their daily lives and real-world interactions.

Participants were asked to describe their first encounter with Deaf Culture and ASL in a popular television show or movie and to share their initial emotional response to it. They were then asked to recall the worst representation of Deaf Culture or ASL they had seen in mainstream media and how it made them feel emotionally.

Conversely, participants were encouraged to recall the best representation of ASL or Deaf Culture they had encountered in a popular television show or movie and the positive emotions this portrayal evoked. To understand the impact of media representation on their daily lives, participants were asked if they had ever felt that the portrayal of ASL or Deaf Culture in popular television shows or movies had affected them either positively or negatively, and to provide specific examples. Participants were prompted to express their thoughts on whether they believed popular television shows or movies perpetuate negative stereotypes towards ASL and/or Deaf Culture, and to explain their views. The interviewees were invited to offer their suggestions on how popular film media could improve the positive representation of ASL and Deaf Culture, fostering a more accurate and inclusive depiction.

Lastly, participants were given the opportunity to address casting companies and directors directly, sharing their thoughts and messages regarding the portrayal of Deaf characters in popular television shows and movies. Through these oneon-one interviews, this stud aimed to capture the nuanced perspectives and personal experiences of the participants, further contributing to the broader discussion on the representation of Deaf

Culture and ASL in mainstream media. The interview responses provided valuable qualitative data that complemented the quantitative findings of the initial survey, allowing for a comprehensive and multifaceted understanding of the Community's perspectives and aspirations for better representation.

Results Survey Results: For the accuracy of ASL portrayal, responses were varied, with some participants giving low ratings of 1 to 3, while others found it relatively accurate, giving ratings of 6 to 8, resulting in a mean rating of 4.733. Similarly, views on the representation of Deaf characters spanned the scale, with a mean rating of 4.767, indicating diverse opinions but with a strong lean towards >5.

Regarding the showcasing of linguistic and cultural diversity, participants were in agreement with the low standards in Hollywood, presenting a mean rating of 4.067. Participants' assessments of the representation of Deaf Culture itself leaned towards low scores but still varied, with ratings ranging from 53.33% being less than 5, 26.67% being greater than 5, and 20% being 5, resulting in a mean rating of 4.233. The variation likely stems from the range of media consumption, with some viewers selecting only films with higher accuracy

33

in representation and others being less selective in their viewing choices. However, a prominent trend emerged in the importance of including more accurate Deaf characters and storylines, as the majority gave high ratings of 8 to10, leading to a substantial mean rating of 8.933. The representation of lived experiences and challenges elicited a strong response as well, with a mean rating of 3.833. As this is one of the lowest scores, clearly participants value the reflection of lived experiences of Deaf life greatly. On the positive side, participants acknowledged some improvement in the representation of ASL and Deaf Culture in mainstream media over the years, with a mean rating of 6.533.

Finally, there was a resounding trend in supporting movies with authentic representation, as the majority rated it a high 9 to 10, leading to an impressive mean rating of 9.433. These trends underscore the importance of accurate and inclusive portrayal of ASL and Deaf Culture in television shows and movies, while also pointing towards opportunities for further enhancement and representation in the entertainment industry.

Interview Results: All interviews were conducted in ASL and transcribed by a interpreter. The stories presented by the Deaf Community participants provided valuable

34

qualitative data. Despite these interviews being oneon-one with Community members across the country and having never met each other, many participants gave the same answers. In response to the question: “What was the best representation of ASL or Deaf Culture you've seen in a popular television show or movie?” all participants remarked on the movie “Children of a Lesser God,” a 1986 film directed by Randa Heins and starring Deaf actress Marlee Matlin.

Marlee Matlin plays a multifaceted Deaf character in this romance movie, portraying herself as a strong and independent woman whose allure is irresistible to her hearing love interest. Many participants had personal stories about this movie being a revelation to them; to see a Deaf character signing fluently and accurately without the burden of archetypal narratives written into the script. Participant C noted that even though ASL has

been featured in many films and television shows since “Children of a Lesser God,” they have failed to be as impactful. Participant C also mentioned the movie “CODA” (2021) as a movie with good ASL representation, but felt the plot was “bland and forgettable,” wishing another movie would come along with good representation but also an interesting plot. Participant D recalled seeing with a romantic partner “Children of a Lesser God” before having much experience with ASL themselves.

Participant D looked into space for a moment, remembering the story: “My first partner had a hearing aid, and we were watching the movie. I was asking questions, I was picking up a little bit of baby signing, asking a lot of questions. I asked my boyfriend why dont you sign? Then I asked the babysitter, why don’t they sign?” This precipitated more conversations in in Participant D’s real life about Deaf Culture and

ASL. With all the examples given by participants, every person tied their experiences with film to real-world scenarios.

Whether film translated into their life as conversations, curiosity, or pride, each experience was sincerely impactful. Participant B, a parent of Deaf children and a certified interpreter, stated that her children were used to seeing representative media because of Participant B’s ideology and belief that inclusive media is important for shaping self esteem.

Because of this, most accurate representation does not phase their children as they see it as normal. However, an experience that happened only recently was mentioned: a cartoon character who was Deaf and signing appeared. The amount of joy this brought, Participant B remembers, was immense for their child.

This cartoon, “Craig of the Creek,” can be considered a part of mainstream media and shows how important a child’s access to visible representation is. While Participant B is vigilant about their children’s access to media, more than 90% of Deaf children are born to hearing parents with little to no experience in the Deaf Community.

Participant B recalled their first time as a child seeing ASL on television being “Sesame Street” and being in awe of the fact “these guys recognise ASL!” and the language extended

past their Community. More than half of the interview participants likened hearing actors portray Deaf life to a white actor portraying Black life and stressed the importance of Cultural understanding when creating a piece of media that could shape the minds and ideas of children and adults. Participant B highlighted a trend seen in most participants, the overwhelming consensus seems to agree: do not include a Deaf character simply to include a Deaf character. If a project chooses to include the Deaf Community, do so to add to the storyline, the plot. Do not add a Deaf character as a tool to show discrimination, or add some flippant “accessibility” narrative. Deaf people want to see Deaf characters in the way hearing people want to see hearing characters; see them fall in love, see them crack jokes and be funny, see them go through heartbreak and joy, and interact with other characters in a normal way.

Not as Participant B puts it, “an attempt to have more minor interactions.” The responses to the question “If you could send a message directly to casting companies and directors writing Deaf characters into popular television shows or movies, what would you say?” elicited several interesting viewpoints.

Participant D stated, “Stop creating movies that show Deaf people as less-than, looked down upon. how our experiences, yes, and yes when we’re oppressed. But show real experiences, not these exaggerated

experiences of audism.

Show how we live and experience life, authentically. So when I go to the store, and maybe there’s a hearing person that has no experience with Deaf people and oppresses me, yes that happens, but it’s not like I get pulled over and am immediately put into jail for being Deaf.”

Participant B looked at the logistics of ASL in hearingcentric media, “Some directors need to better frame their camera in regards to placement of arm movements to make sure the signs are actually recorded, not just the edges of the words. For Closed Captioning, it’s also a problem, the captioning overlaps signing.”

Participant A notes, “Involve the Deaf Community. We can help you learn different aspects that you could use here and overseas that translates to all Deaf people. Just because it's easier or having Deaf people on set makes it more complicated, no, they need to learn the appropriate way how to access communication, how to learn, and to be educated. Every time a person comes up, you know you have to explain it again and again. It's easy for Hollywood to spread that information.”

Discussion As in every classroom in America, TV and film are used to scaffold learning of a content area. Utilizing the Magic School Bus to teach science in primary schools and using film renditions Romeo and Juliet and Macbeth to impact the

learning of students in high school Shakespearean Literature classes. Video tools have long been employed in academic settings; mainstream TV and film is a tool for teaching in the classroom across all disciplines.

However, until recently, Deaf characters and their experiences as a linguistic minority and as a Culture were not depicted in media used in and out of the classroom.

Media portrayal has the power to shape real-world interactions, and inaccurate representations lead to negative perceptions and further the division between the Deaf and hearing worlds. The survey highlights the importance of accurate and inclusive portrayal of ASL, Deaf characters, and Deaf Culture in mainstream media. Participants stress the need for authentic representation that reflects their lived experiences, rather than reinforcing stereotypes. The interviews revealed that movies like "Children of a Lesser God" (1986) are exemplary in their accurate portrayal of ASL and Deaf Culture, leaving a lasting impact on the Deaf Community. However, access to such representative media remains limited, as popular streaming platforms often fail to make Deaf films readily available to the general hearing audience.

The Deaf Community calls on casting companies and directors to authentically represent Deaf characters, avoiding tokenism and exaggerated experiences of audism. Involving the Deaf Community during the

production process is crucial for accurate representation and education on ASL and Deaf Culture. Continuously seeing mainstream film media damage, the reputation of sign language on screen deteriorates the relationship between the Deaf and hearing c/Communities more so than it already has. Hearing people are uneducated in the language and Culture of the Deaf, and these misbeliefs are perpetuated by misrepresentation of the Community in film media. It not only affects the ability for the Deaf to function in the hearing world unimpeded by stereotypes and rude ideals, it prevents the hearing world from being able to understand a Culture that is rich in different perspectives and beneficial mannerisms.

As a first step, advocating for Deaf actors to be cast in Deaf roles is pertinent.

Not completely blind to the lack of inclusivity Hollywood gives the Deaf Community, the film industry has a list of excuses to present. Casting staff and production managers ask, “If we hire a Deaf actor, how will we communicate with them easily?”

Surprising to some, sign language interpreters are not a rare commodity.

Some producers may state that the integrity of their movie is at risk when allowing an interpreter, who is an outsider, on set.

Producers worry information about their work will be leaked, or the interpreter would be a distraction.

35

Yet, why should interpreters be treated less than any other professional on the crew? According to the American Annals of the Deaf, a professional journal dedicated to Deaf Studies and Education, “ASL interpreters were recognized as professionals in the late 1960s and early 1970s following the establishment of the Registry of Interpreters for the Deaf (RID) in 1964” (335). ASL interpreters have a strict code of ethics they abide by ethics which can even be found in Alaskan executive director of Judicial Conduct, Maria Greenstein’s paper in Judge’s Journal (par. 4).

They, like everyone else on the film crew, are present in a professional manner and will under no circumstance compromise the integrity of the production. With an interpreter, communication becomes easy and would certainly be no more difficult than communicating with the common stubborn, entitled actress that has no interest in using her ears anyway.

With an interpreter, communication becomes easy and would certainly be no more difficult than communicating with the common stubborn, entitled actress that has no interest in using her ears anyway.”

-Hamilton & Egbert

36

While laws mandating Deaf casting could increase Deaf actors’ hiring rate, more likely, the decrease of Deaf roles in films would be the end result. Instead, the change needed must be of the social aspect. The first step to any meaningful change is awareness. Not only the Deaf Community, but anyone also vaguely aware of the problem should be vocal about it.

Increasing traffic to Deaf journals and news platforms would result in a slight change that could snowball into nationwide awareness.

Social media platforms give the ability to share articles that would increase visibility of the problem to an audience likely unaware of it. If a hearing person watches a movie and recognizes a Deaf character or sign language on screen, the first instinct should be a quick internet search to look at the cast and crew to determine if the representation is accurate and appropriate.

A viewer need not be immersed in Deaf Culture or

even know sign language to hold production companies accountable by withholding their viewership to any production excluding the Deaf Community from production. As with any social reform, citizens must not be complacent and must stop generating revenue for companies who perpetuate the problem. Mainstream media must take responsibility for accurate representation and inclusive storytelling to bridge the gap and foster understanding between the two c/Communities.

Collaboration with the Deaf Community during production is vital for authentic portrayals that accurately reflect their lived experiences and cultural significance. By doing so, the media industry can contribute positively to the inclusion and appreciation of Deaf Culture in society.

Wiith the above-mentioned impact on TV and film, both Deaf and non-Deaf

classrooms will be able to capitalize not only on the content area being taught in class, but also allow for true representation of ASL and the Deaf Community thus perpetuating a more realistic understanding of Deaf American Culture and language. Furthermore, Deaf students will be able to see themselves portrayed positively and accurately in the media their friends and they themselves consume.

With this empowerment, Deaf students will be able to flourish more fully in their learning.

family groups, workshops and classes Each month, the American Society for Deaf Children hosts virtual workshops and groups for Latino parents and families with deaf children. Workshops are designed to help Latino parents navigate through learning ASL, how to work with schools, empowering their deaf child and their siblings, addressing mental health wellness, and many other topics.

Take a look at our roster of scheduled topics below.

Mark your calendars and save the dates for these important workshops.

Curso:

de 4 Partes

Workshops are FREE. We invite you to attend as many workshops that support you!

All classes and workshops are held in Spanish.

Questions? Please email Yiesell at yiesell@deafchildren.org

FOR A COMPLETE SCHEDULE OF CLASSES AND GROUPS OR TO REGISTER

Grupos

de Apoyo

www.DeafChildren.org

Is Your Child Verbal?

THE TRANSGRESSIVE ROLE OF PARENTADVOCATE IN EDUCATION PLANNING FOR A DEAF DISABLED STUDENT

By K. Emerson Beyer & Michael J. Bruno

Read the whitepaper here >>

Literacy 2023 Plenary Sat, October 21, 2023 Abstract: Cultivating literacy in a Deaf students with multiple disabilities requires a transdisciplinary approach, and parents can play a key role in advancing transdisciplinarity. Literacy in this population requires educational teams to work collaboratively to specially design student-centered education plans. These teams include disability experts with various disciplinary backgrounds who may be constrained by the limits of their training, professional standards, and institutional mandates, as well as the credibility they accord to experts in other disciplines and to non-professional stakeholders. As part of the planning team, parents may not be able to provide input in the form of professional expertise, but can provide relevant critique and draw “real world” information into the process. This study presents information from the case of a 14-year-old Deaf Autistic student and the advocacy toolkit developed by his parents. Empowered by their role as non-experts and their position outside traditional disciplinary boundaries, the parents refined and intensified their advocacy through the practice of critique in order to identify failures of joint problem-solving, catalyze transdisciplinary collaboration, and ultimately secure a student-centered plan and appropriate placement. By developing skills for critiquing expertise in the IEP process, parents can improve planning decisions for Deaf Disabled students, provided that professionals value and facilitate parental input, transgress disciplinary and institutional boundaries, and access relevant information.

38

Parents have both an explicit and implicit role in shaping an appropriate studentcentered plan for their child.

Introduction:

The literacy of d/Deaf students presents challenges that are, as Schön puts it, “messy and confusing and incapable of technical solutions” (2001).

Literacy rates plateau around the fourth grade level (Traxler, 2000), an issue that easily leads to any number of unproductive reactions: responsibility shifting, recusal, and retrenchment. For the Deaf Disabled student particularly, the “problem” of literacy looks to the

By Margarita Perez.

Photography by Francois educational Mercer planning team like a knot of constituent problems that, if untangled, could be addressed one by one, each by its assigned professional. But literacy is not the oxcart of Gordias waiting to be untied by Alexander the Great Speech Therapist; it is a process of making meaning through language, including the determination and description of one’s own identity. Faced with this unsimplifiable complexity, the case that follows observes an Individualized Educational Plan (IEP) team frenziedly avoiding transdisciplinary collaboration, shifting responsibility (teachers, school psychologists, administrators, therapists, interpreters, and parents all took their turns scapegoated by the rest) and at times refusing its responsibility entirely, as when the district’s Deaf and Hard of Hearing Services (DHH) lead said, “The window of language acquisition is all but closed,” surely echoing a time-worn defensive refrain.

What the expertprofessional team members sought was the “high ground” of professional rigor (Schön, 2001), resisting with almost frantic determination the risk of transgressing disciplinary boundaries and adopting evidence-based but indirect or situational approaches.

While literacy among d/Deaf students is low and has remained low for decades, it is even lower for the d/Deaf Disabled, as these individuals have additional learning differences and needs that impede literacy. Literacy is also at the crux of many assessment tools used to evaluate students. IEP teams use literacy as critical information to develop goals that are appropriately challenging, properly tailored, and person-centered. Students who are educated through IEPs rely on a variety of experts to help craft these goals as part of the IEP team. Parents may lack disciplinary expertise, but they are an important part of this team, and they can play a critical role in a transdisciplinary approach toward an appropriate education for the d/Deaf Disabled student. This paper examines the case of a 17 year old Deaf student with autism, and the experiences of the authors as his parent-advocates, to highlight the role of nonexperts in improving IEP decisions by transgressing the disciplinary boundaries of the professional and expert planning team members, to help parents develop a toolkit for practicing parental

advocacy in complex situations, and to provide professionals and experts involved in educational planning for d/Deaf Disabled students with ways to encourage and facilitate parent advocacy.

Background The Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act of 2004 (IDEA) explicitly requires parents to be placed on the IEP team as members on equal footing with the educational experts, as well as safeguards their participation in the planning process. The team develops goals, accommodations, and supplemental aids appropriate to the individual student. In the case of the d/Deaf population, those accommodations can look very different for a d/Deaf student with additional disabilities, and the team is subsequently tasked to decide which accommodations are appropriate. While the number of d/Deaf Disabled students who require accommodations is increasing, specific practice recommendations for this population are not readily found in the literature, and so the experts on the team, including the parents, must make these decisions in the absence of strong guidance (Leppo et al., 2014).

Ideally, the IEP team uses a student-centered approach to planning, but when there are barriers to parental participation, that planning largely falls to the educational professionals.

39

This results in plans that neglects that learning is a often overlook skills that will fundamentally social act help the student outside of (Vygotsky, 1934), by the education context, or isolating each individual skills that will improve on need with surgical precision the student’s quality of life. and attempting to ‘fix’ These barriers include the something that is wrong parents' lack of without taking into account understanding of the the intersection of the process, limited differing needs. opportunities for involvement, and a lack of In contrast, the understanding of transdisciplinary approach educational terminology involves experts transferring (Geenen et al., 2001). This or sharing their expertise is, of course, exacerbated with a primary educational when the student has individual or small team that multiple areas of need that can integrate the complex require multiple experts needs of the student in a

By Margarita Perez. with differing terminologies, way in order Photography by Francois collaborative Mercer practices, and emphases. to have the highest potential for effectiveness.

There are three traditional It plans for goals to be modes of approach to blended across forming an appropriate, environments and within the student-centered plan for natural learning students with multiple environment rather than at disabilities: multidisciplinary, prescribed times that meet interdisciplinary, and the needs of the service transdisciplinary (Orelove & providers’ schedules. It also Sobsey, 1996). In a allows for maximizing multidisciplinary approach, linguistic interactions, each expert works with the provided that d/Deaf child individually to address Disabled students are in an a specific need, often out environment that includes of context of the other Deaf peers (Ewing and needs and without Jones, 2004). collaboration with other team members. In an Parents have both an interdisciplinary approach, explicit and implicit role in the experts collaborate, but shaping an appropriate service providers continue student-centered plan for to deliver their services in their child. Explicitly, they isolation. are on the team to provide information about their These approaches both child to the educational work well from the team and help guide the standpoint of school team with insights into the districts who often use child’s preferences and itinerant service providers needs. But implicitly, the and have limited resources authors have found that the for meaningful parents also play an collaboration between important role as nonteam members outside experts in disability team planning meetings. It education. Because they also privileges the expertise are outside of the of the service provider and boundaries of traditional

40

educational disciplines, the are in a unique position to transgress those boundaries and push for a transdisciplinary approach that decenters the educator and truly centers the student. This paper uses a critical incident in the educational history of the authors’ child to examine the role that parents can play in educational planning by transgressing disciplinary and institutional boundaries. The case further provides insights into ways in which parents can understand and advance a transdisciplinary approach to the education of d/Deaf Disabled students; meanwhile, the case contains data for professionals themselves to shift their problem-finding and problem-solving around literacy in the education of d/Deaf Disabled students.

Critical Incident in the Case “Preston” is a 17-year-old male with congenital bilateral deafness and autism. He was adopted by the authors at age 8, after both diagnoses. He primarily communicates through American Sign Language (ASL), home-sign, and other visual communication, including a communication book.

Throughout his schooling he was placed in a selfcontained classroom. Until the fifth grade, he was enrolled in the district’s center-based site for deaf and hard of hearing (DHH) students and pulled out of a self-contained (autism and developmental disabilites) classroom for a portion of the day for instruction by

the DHH teacher in the DHH classroom. After fifth grade,he was enrolled in a school with no other d/Deaf peers and his direct instruction was limited to an itinerant DHH teacher.

Throughout the rest of his school day he relied on an educational interpreter, the only person in Preston’s school with whom he could communicate directly.

In eighth grade, Preston was due for educational reassessment according to district policy. The parents did not waive the requirement because they believed that he was misplaced in a school with no Deaf peers, and they wanted an updated evaluation of his cognitive skills. An in-person evaluation was scheduled by a team of school psychologists. Five years earlier, an evaluation had been performed at a university clinic using the Leiter International Performance Scale-III (LIPSIII), which had reported a Nonverbal IQ of 61.

The school psychologists did not choose to repeat the LIPS-III, but instead chose to administer the The Differential Ability Scales Second Edition (DAS-II) which includes both nonverbal and verbal tasks.

Additionally they chose to administer the English version with an interpreter rather than the publisher's ASL version, and they selected a version where Preston’s age fell outside the publisher’s “Out-ofLevel” norms. Its use in this way, specifically for reporting Age Equivalence, was not indicated by the

publisher. The school psychologist nevertheless presented Age Equivalence to the IEP team, and described Preston’s cognitive age as under 3 and in some cases under the age of 1.

recommendations (Elliot etal., 2018). Thus, Preston’s cognitive skills were reported to be lower than they had been five years prior using a fully nonverbal assessment.

Additionally, the DAS-II (as administered) and the Lastly, the school ABAS-3 results pointed to a psychologists administered very low level of the Adaptive Behavior socialization. The IEP team Assessment System - 3rd declined to consider or Edition (ABAS-3), a recommend changing questionnaire given to the Preston’s educational parents. The ABAS-3 was setting in order to give him developed for children with access to natural spoken language (“Item 7: socialization with Answers the telephone by developmentally similar

By Margarita Perez. saying ‘Hello.’”) and the peers. Instead, the Photography by Francois Deaf Mercer version given to parents was school psychologists not adapted for a child who recommended an increase uses signed or visual in direct interventions and language. Although the an increase in intensive Vineland Adaptive Behavior services to improve his Scales (VABS) may have academic performance, been a better selection adaptive behaviors, and since it has been validated behavioral skills, effectively in DHH populations, both surrounding him with rely heavily on a listening experts to work one-onresponse to provide one, to the exclusion of information on receptive most other interactions. skills (McFayden et al, This is an example of 2023). Regardless, the expert-professional team administrator of the ABAS-3 members seeking the “high reported “extremely low” ground” of professional social skills, "skills needed to rigor (Schön, 2001), resisting interact socially and get obvious but “non-rigorous” along with others, including solutions: having friends, showing and recognizing emotions, 1. Place Preston among assisting others, and using developmentally similar manners” (Harrison and Deaf peers, relying on Oakland, 2015). credible research about incidental learning When the IEP team met, the (Hirsch, 2003); parents disputed the validity 2. Restructure academic, of DAS-II as administered, communication, and outside of age range and social-emotional goals not adapted for ASL, to integrate disciplinary Preston’s native language. expertise around a Additionally, the person-centered plan psychologists performed (O’Brien & Lovett, 1993). verbal subtests and reported on them, and did The parents viewed this as a not adapt them to DHH pivotal incident in the students per the publisher's entrenchment of a

multidisciplinary approach and an abandonment of the transdisciplinary approach.

The school psychologists, in particular, were obstructed by their disciplinary limitations from completely understanding the whole picture and were only able to offer solutions that aligned with their individual expertise. The team had developmental experts and DHH education experts, but they were unable to recommend anything comprehensive that existed at the intersection of Preston’s identities, needs and characteristics. The psychologists used the DASII Early Years because of their biases towards Preston’s perceived cognition and their lack of experience with other forms of the assessment, defaulting to tasks they guessed he might be able to perform rather than starting with his age range and then moving ahead with alternative assessments as indicated. A change of setting was not considered in part because it lacked a clear targeted goal that could be delivered in a packaged service by a particular professional with a particular skill set and an established method of data collection for progress reporting.

The parents ultimately sought an independent evaluation from a Deaf psychologist at a universityaffiliated private clinic, who administered the DAS-II (in part) and the LIPS-III, all in ASL, reporting a Nonverbal IQ of 77, representing a higher measurement from the previous five years. That

who sits at the intersection of psychological expertise and lived Deafness, recommended a change in educational setting. The parents, who remain outside any discipline, were the only IEP team members who, owing to their freedom to transgress disciplinary and institutional boundaries, did not dismiss the recommendation outright and pushed for consideration of a change in educational setting.

The ABAS-3 is just one of many questionnaires parents of children with multiple disabilities have to fill out. In these processes, parents are regularly asked, “Is the child verbal?” The question’s linguistic efficiency - it has only four words, and can only be answered “yes” or “no” suggests it is a simple question. Any question with enough embedded assumptions becomes a simple question. The composite of the assumptions embedded in this question is the image of the “verbal” child: speaking words to others and awaiting others’ words in response. The question uses an ambiguous word, verbal, which can either mean “concerned with words” or “spoken rather than written.” Parents are left to wonder if the practitioner wants to know about words, or sounds, or communication more holistically. The parent wonders what the practitioner really wants to know, what is the real question encoded in these four words that would seem to bypass all the questions that a practitioner really

41

wants to know, what is the real question encoded in these four words that would seem to bypass all the questions that a practitioner really needs to ask in order to provide helpful services.

In this case the school psychologists’ use of the ABAS-3 is illustrative of the way that disciplinary entrenchment averts joint problem solving and how parents’ reactions to this question point to parents’ distinctive ability to see the problem and disrupt its operation. Originally the school psychologist did not know Preston was Deaf and merely thought he was “non-verbal.” Preston did have a low vocabulary, but was he non-verbal? Does the known-but-unrealized potential to use vocabulary qualify a child as verbal?

What if the child has a vocabulary of hundreds of words but no ability to make syntactic combinations?

What if the child has sign language vocabulary and grammar, but no other users of the same language reside in his community? Is a child who is unable to speak for anatomical reasons but uses speech generating technology verbal or nonverbal? Does the child answer the telephone by saying “hello” and if not, does it matter? What about a child who is unable to speak due to language disorder, social anxiety, or intellectual disability? Does speech generating technology render that child verbal?

In the case of Preston’s individualized educational planning, beginning at the

42

time of his adoption by the authors of this paper, the parents repeatedly observed how questions about language and literacy were framed and deployed by professionals in various disciplines - speechlanguage pathology, occupational therapy, behavioral support, teaching - freighted with disciplinary assumptions that preserved and reinforced disciplinary boundaries rather than creating the opportunities for transdisciplinary joint problem solving demanded by the case.

Discussion 1) Education planning for the d/Deaf Disabled student requires joint problem solving.

The IEP team of a d/Deaf Disabled student will include professionals from several or many disciplines, attesting to the team’s understanding that the planning task will require contributions of many kinds of expertise. But the challenges of this task derive not primarily from the diversity of expertises that will be mobilized into a portfolio of services and accommodations; rather, the task is most complicated by diverse identities the student embodies and the intersection of institutions and categories that occurs in the student’s education.

Each d/Deaf Disabled student lives at a complex and contested site: claiming and claimed by multiple subcultures, describing and influencing the world in multiple languages, a

political actor and object, an economic participant and asset. (Furthermore, when the IEP team of a Deaf student is comprised entirely of hearing people, we may assume the IEP is an instrument of domination and assimilation.) The planning task does not arise from one discipline and then call for a gathering of various experts. The planning arises from the very beginning as a “shared problem” of the educational institution with many other constituents of society, requiring an “integration of perspectives in identification, formulation, and resolution,” or, to put it concisely, “joint problem solving” (Nowotny, 2001).

2) Transdisciplinarity creates the knowledge for joint problem solving.

It is likely that all students with disabilities require the advantages of transdisciplinarity in educational planning, but this is certainly nowhere more true than in the education of d/Deaf Disabled students, in whose lives psychological, cultural, political, and economical complications are rooted in an enigmatic dynamics of language in which self is constructed. Ewing and Jones (2003) ably describe and recommend a transdisciplinary model.

“The transdisciplinary model results in intervention that coordinates and integrates expertise so that intervention can be planned that has the most potential for effectiveness.” As contrasted with inter- or multi-disciplinary models, which amalgamate but do

References

Asif, S. M. (2018). Deaf Gain Goes Prime Time: Identity, Spaces, and Marginalization in ABC Family’s Switched at Birth. Journal of Literary & Cultural Disability Studies, 12(1), 35-51. EBSCOhost.

Benedict, B. S., & Sass-Lehrer, M. (2007). Deaf and Hearing Partnerships: Ethical and Communication Considerations. American Annals of the Deaf, 152(3), 275–282. Jstor.

Caselli, N.K., Hall, W.C. & Henner, J. American Sign Language Interpreters in Public Schools: An Illusion of Inclusion that Perpetuates Language Deprivation.

Matern Child Health J 24, 1323–1329 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10995-020-02975-7 Greenstein, M. N. (2010). Qualified Interpreters Enhance Judicial Ethics. Judges’ Journal, 49(2), 40. EBSCOhost.

Hall, M. L., et al. (2015). Syntactic Priming in American Sign Language. PLoS ONE, 10(3), 1-19. EBSCOhost.

Hott, L. R. (2007). Creating the History through Deaf Eyes Documentary. Sign Language Studies, 7(2), 135140. EBSCOhost.

Kurz, K. B. (2004). A comparison of deaf children’s comprehension in direction communication and interpreted education. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Kansas.

Kurz, K. B., Schick, B., & Hauser, P. C. (2015). Deaf Children’s Science Content Learning in Direct Instruction Versus Interpreted Instruction. Journal of Science Education for Students with Disabilities, 18(1), 23–37. https://eric.ed.gov/?id=EJ1169424 Katie Leclerc — ABC Family Star on Ménière’s Disease. (n.d.). ABILITY Magazine. Retrieved July 24, 2023, from http://abilitymagazine.com/katie-leclerc-abc-familystar-on-menieres-disease Monikowski, C. (2004). Language myths in interpreted education: First language, second language, what language? In E. A. Winston (Ed.), Educational Interpreting: How it can succeed (pp. 48-60).

Washington, D.C.: Gallaudet University Press.

Morris, A. (2022, March 30). Representation or Stereotype? Deaf Viewers Are Torn Over "CODA." The New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/2022/03/30/movies/deafviewers-coda.html Napier, J. (2004). Sign Language Interpreter Training, Testing and Accreditation: An International Comparison.

American Annals of the Deaf, 149(4), 351-360.

EBSCOhost.

Nick Sestanovich. (2019, February 7). Deaf model, advocate to share story. Vallejo Times-Herald (California). ADVANCElexis.

Partners in Progress: The 21st International Congress on Education of the Deaf and the Repudiation of the 1880 Congress of Milan. (2010). American Annals of the Deaf, 155(3), 309-310.

Schick, B. D. (2007, August 1). EIPA Guidelines of Professional Conduct for Educational Interpreters.

Retrieved September 15, 2008, from: http://www.classroominterpreting.org/Interpreters/pro guidelines/ EIPA_guidelines.pdf Schmitt, P. (2017). Representations of Sign Language, Deaf People, and Interpreters in the Arts and the Media.

Sign Language Studies, 18(1), 130-147. EBSCOhost.

Schuchman, J. S. (2004). The Silent Film Era: Silent Films, NAD Films, and the Deaf Community’s Response.

Sign Language Studies, 4(3), 231-238. EBSCOhost.

Winston, E. A. (2004). Introduction. In E. A. Winston (Ed.), Educational interpreting: How it can succeed (pp.

1-6). Washington, D.C.: Gallaudet University Press.

Wolbers, K. A., Dimling, L. M., Lawson, H. R., & Golos, D. B. (2012). Parallel and divergent interpreting in an elementary classroom. American Annals of the Deaf, 157(1), 48-65.

Wilbur, R. B. (2009). Effects of Varying Rate of Signing on ASL Manual Signs and Nonmanual Markers.

Language & Speech, 52(⅔), 245-285. EBSCOhost.

Hush (2016). (n.d.). Rotten Tomatoes. https://www.rottentomatoes.com/m/hush_2016

integrate diverse perspectives, the transdisciplinary integration of knowledge results in joint problem solving that is not “merely reliable” within disciplinary norms but draws on “socially robust knowledge,” a consensus of not only professionals but participants from outside the professions as well (Nowotny, 2001). An interor multi-disciplinary approach may accept diverse and reasonable standards, but it will not strive for consensus.

Planning that draws on transdisciplinary integration and consensus will serve not intradisciplinary “quality control,” but it can serve the student’s personhood in relation to society.

3) Transdisciplinarity requires transgression.

Experts may struggle to engage in transdisciplinary collaboration. The expert’s access to institutions derives from expertise, which is taught and promoted within a profession where there is consensus around reliable knowledge and standardized practice. To work in transdisciplinary collaboration, the professional will have to accept as “reliable” knowledge from other disciplines and even from non-experts.

Transdisciplinary collaboration is “about transgressing boundaries”; “knowledge seeps through institutions . . . to and from the outside world”; “institutional boundaries become fuzzy” and “you open science to a reverse flow of communications”

(Nowotny, 2001).

4) Enact and encourage transgression.

The parent is the principal non-expert member of the IEP team, and consequently has a unique, critical role in the accomplishment of transdisciplinary collaboration: to enact and encourage transgression.

The parent’s tool of this transgression is the mindful, non-expert critique. To paraphrase Kant, this critique will hold assumptions up to “just suspicion” and will also require self-reflection (“Why do I think I know what I’m talking about?”) (1781). We say critique because this act is distinct from the introduction of new knowledge to the collaboration. Its purpose is to “fuzzy” the boundaries (the non-expert will express skepticism in the expert), so that integration across disciplinary and institutional lines becomes possible.

Some specific objects, language, and tools of this critique are detailed below.

5) Beware the chronologic-sequential model (“If, then…”).

A moment of critique may be indicated when parents hear other team members suggest that certain manifestations of disability must be “dealt with” chronologically before the student may progress toward academic or functional goals. This is evidence of the disintegration of the child’s student self into a series of problems to be targeted by various professional experts

In Preston’s educational record, there are numerous notes of team members expressing similar ideas: His other challenges impede his ability to learn; Once we see the results of the behavior intervention plan, then we will be able to work on academic goals; When his time on task reaches a certain threshold, we will see appropriate progress; Once he learns enough ASL from his DHH teacher, then he may benefit from being among Deaf students and adults.

6) Beware the spatialconfigurational mental model (the “pull-out” model).

A slightly different model strives to encircle the student with professionals deploying their techniques in the hope of some synergy of expertises, as if putting various ingredients into a bowl and praying for a cake. The occurrence of this mental model will be evinced by a long list of the providers in the IEP, and a service delivery table of great complexity. In the IEP meeting, calculators will be used to ensure that the service components add up to 390 minutes.

Scant attention will be given to the integration of knowledge across disciplines, as the student constitutes each expert’s only point of contact with the others. Less attention still will be given to the social and cultural dimensions of learning (even where “socialemotional goals” are in the IEP), or to the significance of setting, as these factors

Works Cited Childre, A., & Chambers, C. R. (2005).

Family Perceptions of Student Centered Planning and IEP Meetings. Education and Training in Developmental Disabilities, 40(3), 217–233.

Elliott, C. D., Salerno, J. D., Dumont, R., & Willis, J. O. (2018). “The Differential Ability Scales - Second Edition” Ewing, K. M., & Jones, T. W. (2003). An Educational Rationale for Deaf Students With Multiple Disabilities. American Annals of the Deaf, 148(3), 267–271.

Greenen, S., Powers, L. E., & Lopez-Vasquez, A. (2001). Multicultural aspects of parent involvement in transition planning.

Exceptional Children, 67, 265-282.

Harrison, Patti L., and Thomas Oakland. 2015.

“Adaptive Behavior Assessment System, Third Edition.”

Hirsch, E. D. (2003). Reading comprehension requires knowledge of words and the world.

American educator, 27(1), 10-13.

Individuals With Disabilities Education Act, 20 U.S.C. § 1400 (2004) Leppo, R. H., Cawthon, S. W., & Bond, M. P. (2014). Including deaf and hard-of-hearing students with co-occurring disabilities in the accommodations discussion. Journal of deaf studies and deaf education, 19(2), 189–202.

McFayden, T. C., Culbertson, S., DeRamus, M., Kramer, C., Roush, J., & Mankowski, J. (2023). Assessing Autism in Deaf/Hard-ofHearing Youths: Interdisciplinary Teams, COVID Considerations, and Future Directions. Perspectives on psychological science : a journal of the Association for Psychological Science, 17456916231178711.

Advance online publication.

Nowotny, H. (2001). The potential of transdisciplinarity. http://www.helganowotny.eu/downloads/helga_nowotny_b5 9.pdf O'Brien, J., & Lovett, H. (1993). Finding a way toward everyday lives: The contribution of person centered planning. https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED356596. pdf Orelove, F.P. & Sobsey, D. (1996). Educating children with multiple disabilities: A transdisciplinary approach (Third Edition).

Baltimore: Paul H. Brookes.

Schön, D. (2001). Chapter 13: The Crisis of Professional Knowledge and the Pursuit of an Epistemology of Practice. Counterpoints, 166, 183–207. http://www.jstor.org/stable/42977793 Traxler, C. B. (2000). The Stanford Achievement Test: National Norming and Performance Standards for Deaf and Hardof- Hearing Students. Journal of Deaf Studies and Deaf Education, 5, 337-348.

Vygotsky, L.S., (1934). Thought and language. A. Kozulin (Ed.). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

43

lack technical “rigor,” and downplay the relative impact of each individual expert.

7) Beware misuse of the scientific method.

A sign of disciplinary entrenchment and privileging expertise over joint problem solving is seen when team members refuse to consult research or evidence-based practices.

In this situation, the term individualized in the educational plan is stretched to the point where the team affects to know nothing outside of the data in this student’s case.

Interventions can only be deployed when there is data from this student’s case that prove their effectiveness. Not only is this withholding itself a disservice to the student, but the team begins to treat the student as the subject of an experiment.

This approach is a dead end, demanding induction to the exclusion of all other ways of learning, generalizing, and drawing

and fatally flawed in the “experiment” itself, wanting to reach conclusions from a single subject. For example, Preston was allowed only 30 minutes each week to interact with a Deaf peer (via video chat), and the professionals made additional contact with peers contingent on the ‘success’ of those interactions; Preston was supposed to prove that interactions with peers would be appropriate and beneficial to him before he could have more such interactions.

8) the parent is an advocate, not an informant.

When members of the IEP team tell parents that they “know the student best”, they are inadvertently framing the parents as “experts,” albeit in a very specific discipline of your child. This shifts the role of the parent from an advocate into another expert who can provide information, centering the parents’ knowledge and

The student is being educated to prepare them for adulthood; the professional is there to ultimately provide support for that overarching goal, not simply to collect data.

The student is being educated to prepare them for adulthood; the professional is there to ultimately provide support for that overarching goal, not simply to collect data.

- Beyer and Bruno

44

decentering the student.

The parent does not know the student “best”, but perhaps “most” and the parent certainly does not know, nor should be expected to know, best practices of DHH education to achieve certain outcomes. The role of the parent is not an informant, but an advocate and the parents’ primary objective in decision making meetings is to continue to center the student.

9) Decenter the professional.

Centering the student requires that the parents (and the team) decenter the professional. The parents need to consider what incentives and responsibilities lead professionals to be entrenched in their disciplinary territories. The student is being educated to prepare them for adulthood; the professional is there to ultimately provide support for that overarching goal

not simply to collect data.

When the professional is the one that is being centered, success looks different than if the student is being centered. Privileging interactions with practitioners over unplanned, quotidian ones in the learning environment or community is a red flag indicating the centering of the professional.. Preston was making little literacy progress in part because the materials the Autism experts provided were written for the hearing, using phonics and rhyming, which did not align with his individual needs. The team also proposed contriving situations for ASL users (not Deaf) to simulate social interactions and thereby provide a model for Preston, as a targeted intervention for the absence of any natural or incidental use of ASL or interactions with Deaf people in his environment. By decentering the professional and centering the student, the parents were able to push for more functional literacy goals

that better aligned with skill sets the student would need outside the educational setting, and for a setting where he could learn from Deaf peers.

not a topic that should ever arise in an IEP meeting, implicitly or explicitly, and professional team members must join the parents in objecting to the use of institutional factors when 10) Decenter the they come into the planning institution. discussion. They In the In the same way that same way that centering centering the student the student decenters the decenters the professional, professional, it also it also decenters the decenters the institution. institution. Parents are often Parents are often sympathetic to limitations of sympathetic to limitations of the institution because they the institution because they identify or understand the identify or understand the daily struggles of the daily struggles of the professionals working with professionals working with

By Margarita Perez. high needs populations.

The needs populations. The Photography by Francois high Mercer procedural safeguards put procedural safeguards put in place by IDEA ostensibly in place by IDEA ostensibly to benefit the student but to benefit the student but are actually written into are actually written into policy by institutions to policy by institutions to safeguard those institutions safeguard those institutions from claims of nonfrom claims of noncompliance. However, compliance. However, compliance is not compliance is not equivalent to equivalent to appropriateness. The appropriateness. The transdisciplinary approach, transdisciplinary approach, while better for student while better for student outcomes, is difficult to outcomes, is difficult to itemize on a form. itemize on a form.

Paperwork comes to dictate Paperwork comes to dictate implementation rather than implementation rather than document it. When parents document it. When parents allow the institution to allow the institution to determine service delivery determine service delivery based on factors like based on factors like staffing and budget, they staffing and budget, they allow the institution to allow the institution to center itself in the child’s center itself in the child’s education and not the other education and not the other way around. Although way around. Although educational institutions are educational institutions are always challenged by always challenged by resource scarcity, the resource scarcity, the unique role of parents must unique role of parents must be to challenge any be to challenge any decisions that prioritize the decisions that prioritize the institution above the institution above the student. The district’s student. The district’s special education budget is special education budget is not the parent’s problem to not the parent’s problem to solve. In point of fact, it is solve. In point of fact,

it is not a topic that should ever arise in an IEP meeting, implicitly or explicitly, and professional team members must join the parents in objecting to the use of institutional factors when they come into the planning discussion. They have a professional and ethical obligation to provide information, insight, and solutions that align with the student’s best interest and not with the needs of their employers.

Conclusion Literacy is a complex and variable suite of skills that all students, including d/Deaf students, require for becoming autonomous and connected people.

Meaningful critique by parents during the education planning process can be instrumental in centering the students’ needs, deprivilege the expertise of the professionals, and reduce the dominance of institutions. Transgression of disciplinary boundaries by parents can encourage the professional to seek relevant best practices in complex cases, but to secure these benefits, professionals need to see parents as the catalysts of collaboration and liberation.

“Although educational institutions are always challenged by resource scarcity, the unique role of parents must be to challenge any decisions that prioritize the institution above the student. The district’s special education budget is not the parent’s problem to solve.”

-Beyer and Bruno

45

www.DeafChildren.org

JOIN ASDC! Scan Me!

.

The Breakout Sessions Summaries of the 2023 Breakout Session Presentations.

Full Session Whitepapers can be found at www.DeafChildren.org

47

LANGUAGE OVER SPEECH: HOW TO ENSURE DEAF CHILDREN ACQUIRE LANGUAGE

Kimberly Ofori-Sanzo, SLPD, CCC-SLP, BCS-CL If a hearing infant learns language without any effort or explicit teaching, why shouldn’t a deaf or hard of hearing (DHH) baby be afforded the same privilege? In hearing children, oral languages are typically acquired effortlessly. In DHH children, oral languages often need to be explicitly taught. However, if DHH children are given a signed language like American Sign Language (ASL), they can experience that same effortless acquisition. Indeed, the only languages that a DHH child can acquire naturally and effortlessly are signed languages (Glickman, 2007).

THE MAGIC OF LANGUAGE PLANNING Tawny Holmes Hilbok, Esq

A family language plan is a longitudinal plan that follows a child from birth (or later) through to the end of secondary school, to give the parents and child the best chance for success. The process of creating a family language plan helps parents consider their options, prioritize, and take the necessary steps to reach their goals. This includes goal-setting, mapping out where the input in each language will come from (in terms of people and time), how literacy will be approached in each language and how challenges will be dealt with.

CUE IT UP... FOR PHONOLOGICAL AWARENESS Jeanne M. Pease, Ed.D. This presentation discusses foundational skills critical for learning to read, as identified by the 2000 National Reading Panel, based on its review of more than 100,000 reading studies. These skills include phonemic awareness, phonics, fluency, vocabulary, and reading comprehension strategies.

Of these critical skills, phonemic awareness and phonics are auditory-based. This raises questions such as, “How can deaf/hard of hearing children learn to read?” and “Can they learn phonemic awareness and phonics skills if they have little or no access to auditory information?”

48

LITERACY STARTS WITH LANGUAGE: SUPPORTING HEALTHY LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT Sarah Honigfeld and Chris Payne-Tsoupros

The early intervention system has various access points that families and early intervention providers can capitalize on to prevent language deprivation for young deaf children. Best practices and recommendations for ideal language exposure and acquisition for young deaf children that support healthy literacy development will be discussed.

REFORMING DEAF EDUCATION AND LITERACY PRACTICES THROUGH A VYGOTSKIAN LENS Katie Potier, M.S. and Heidi Givens, Ed.D.

Deaf education, especially related to language and literacy instruction, has historically been polarized and debated.

Using Vygotsky’s sociocultural theoretical framework, which includes the principles of polyglossia, strengths-based practices, and zone of proximal development, participants will learn how to change the deaf education narrative from remedial-based to sociocultural, strengths-based practices.

IS PLAY A NECESSARY LANGUAGE? Guillermo Hernández-Santana*, Coral Italú Guerrero-Arenas** The present study delves into an in-depth examination of the encounters and viewpoints of elementary school teachers concerning the play behaviors showed by Deaf children within their classroom settings. Employing a narrative inquiry design, this research enables a comprehensive exploration of the teachers' observations about social interactions and communication development among Deaf children. *Facultad de Ciencias Administrativas y Sociales, UABC, México; **Departamento de Ingeniería en Sistemas Biomédicos, UNAM, México

49

LANGUAGE & LITERACY DEVELOPMENT USING BEDROCK LITERACY CURRICULUM AND MIND BLOOM EDUCATION: A CASE STUDY Heidi Givens, Ed.D. Teachers of the deaf often struggle with how to best support their deaf students’ literacy development, particularly when they are expected to follow the curriculum and instructional practices in public school settings. This article presents a case study following the literacy growth of a young deaf student in a rural public school.

The author introduces the Bedrock Literacy Curriculum and Mind Bloom Education reading passages and explains how they were used to teach reading and writing and how this student learned language through print.

A FEW OF OUR FAVORITE THINGS: POWERFUL PRACTICES IN DEAF READING EDUCATION Pamela Rush, M.A., C.A.G.S., and Bruce Marlowe, Ph.D. In this article, we will begin with a brief discussion of the socalled “pillars of literacy” (National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, National Institutes of Health, 2000), briefly discuss some of the extant literature in reading and deafness, and then, based on our professional work over the course of 40 years in the fields of deafness and effective pedagogy, we describe a few of our “favorite things” for helping students with hearing loss find meaning and joy in reading and engaging with English texts.

ARTS INTEGRATION TO ENHANCE LITERACY FOR DEAF CHILDREN Adrienne King, M.S. Language fluency and background knowledge should be considered as an important aspect of literacy development.

Deaf students, in particular, come to the learning environment “learning English as a new language based on knowledge of ASL … or English as a new language, despite previous partial awareness” (Easterbrooks & Baker, 2002, p.166). Arts integration practices create a strong language foundation through providing a natural way to learn, connect to curriculum content, and reduce anxiety in the learning environment (Magsamen & Ross, 2023).

50

REPRESENTATION MATTERS: PICTURE BOOKS FOR DEAF AND HARD OF HEARING CHILDREN Maddie Hinkle, M.A. Children’s literature can have a significant impact on the way that children understand themselves and the world around them. This is especially true for members of minority groups. While there has been research analyzing the impact of children’s literature on oppressed groups based on race, ethnicity, gender, and, to some extent, disability more broadly, there has been very little work concerned with representational literature for Deaf youth.

DESIGNING A LITERACY CLINIC FRAMEWORK FOR DEAF P-3 ELEMENTARY STUDENTS IN MARYLAND Michelle “Mickey” Morales, EdD In the last few decades, literacy achievement among deaf children who use sign language continued to be elusive. The purpose of this Professional Product Doctoral Capstone Project is to create a deliverable, the professional product, in addition to the report. The report offers background, process and application. The background presents evidence, historical background of the problem, and scholarly literature.

LITERACY: STARTING WITH THE ABCS Nicole Dobson There is a mass of evidence to inform how proficient reading and writing develop and how to teach the necessary skills most effectively. Beginning readers need to know letter names and sounds. Deaf and hard of hearing (d/Dhh) students need access. We can teach letter names and phonics skills to our students visually. Research and rationale support the use of Cued Speech/cued language to provide this instruction. The Cued Speech system provides visual access to the phonemes needed to develop these skills.

51

ADDRESSING LANGUAGE DEPRIVATION USING DEAF COMMUNITY MODELS Allen Sanderson, M.Ed., Kandice Hunt, M.Ed., and Rylina Dey, EIPA 3.7 The term "language deprivation" is used in different ways in different contexts when discussing educational approaches for DHH children. Given that this can lead to confusion for education providers, this paper purports to clarify language deprivation towards conversations to integrate Deaf community models for targeted language development.

SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT OF DEAF CHILDREN: “MINDREADING” AND LITERACY. BLENDING THEORY OF THE MIND (TOM) WITH READING AND WRITING Dr. Lisalee D. Egbert While the ability to mind ‘read’ sounds like a special superpower; it is actually a critical part of our everyday social interactions. For example, how do you feel when someone tells you about a sad or joyous situation? What do you think when you learn that a hearing family was just informed that their child is Deaf or Hard of Hearing? In these scenarios, we are able to mentally ‘read’ their minds—how they are feeling and what they are thinking, even though it is not our personal situation (although we may relate).

LANGUAGE DEPRIVATION & EDUCATIONAL APPROACHES Morgan Lee M.Ed., Doctoral Candidate Language deprivation is the lack of language exposure during a child’s age of acquisition which impacts language development, academic success, and cognitive capabilities.

Many Deaf children in the United States public school system are graduating without the readiness skills needed for post-secondary endeavors. In this article, the impact of language deprivation in the areas of academic achievement, vocational opportunity, and emotional regulation is reviewed.

52

RURAL ACCESS TO ASL RESOURCES Morgan Snook, B.A. and Mother of Deaf Child Rural Deaf children face unique challenges to access an appropriate education

THANK YOU. To our co-hosts, sponsors, presenters, esteemed colleagues, and guests for lending your expertise and presence to our 2023 Conference - Literacy: Creating Connections with Language.

Ways to Stay Connected with ASL Enhance your ASL Learning Experience with ASDC

We build a village where everyone thrives when adults and kids come together for meaningful, inclusive opportunities to learn and develop social and emotional skills.

SAVE THE DATE and join us July 10-12, 2024, in Nebraska City, NE as we share ways to navigate social-emotional learning with our Deaf and Hard-of-Hearing kids starting from day one.

Subscribe to the American Society of Deaf Children Never miss an issue!

Enjoy updated news and events First chance to register for Online Classes and Workshops Learn about trends in deaf education

get in touch www.DeafChildren.org 443.277.8899 (voice/text) info@deafchildren.org P.O. Box 23 | Woodbine, MD 21797

connect with us www.facebook.com/ASDCdeafchildren www.instagram.com/asdcdeafchildren www.tiktok.com/@deafchildren www.youtube.com/@americansocietyfordeafchil4512 www.linkedin.com/company/americansocietyfordeafchildren