Introduction to Christian Ethics by First Fruits Press

Michael Knight and Lizette Knight

INTRODUCTION TO CHRISTIAN ETHICS

Introduction to Christian Ethics

Michael Knight and Lizette Knight

First Fruits Press Wilmore, KY c2024

ISBN: 9781648172397

Digital version at http://place.asburyseminary.edu/firstfruitacademicboks/5/ First Fruits Press is a digital imprint of the Asbury Theological Seminary, B.L. Fisher Library. Asbury Theological Seminary is the legal owner of the material previously published by the Pentecostal Publishing Co. and reserves the right to release new editions of this material as well as new material produced by Asbury Theological Seminary. Its publications are available for noncommercial and educational uses, such as research, teaching and private study. First Fruits Press has licensed the digital version of this work under the Creative Commons Attribution Noncommercial 3.0 United States License. To view a copy of this license, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/3.0/us/.

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Knight, Michael Scott, 1971Introduction to Christian ethics [electronic resource]/ Michael Knight. – Wilmore, Kentucky : First Fruits Press, ©2024. 1 online resource 217 pages: port.) : digital. ISBN: 9781648172397 (electronic) ISBN: 9781648172403 (Mobi) OCLC: 1448596813 1. Christian ethics--Introductions. 2. Christians--Conduct of life. I. Title. II. Knight, Lizette.

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Table of Contents

Introdution---------------------------------------------------------- 5 What Is Christian Ethics?------------------------------------------ 17 Why Study Christian Ethics?-------------------------------------- 25 How to Decide Ethically------------------------------------------- 35 Living Ethically----------------------------------------------------- 53 Life: Abortion and Suicide----------------------------------------- 65 Leisure: Gambling and Alcohol----------------------------------- 77 Learning: Plagiarism and Piracy--------------------------------- 93 Legalities: Prostitution and Pornography------------------------ 107 Leadership: Corruption and Work------------------------------- 119 Lifestyles: Homosexuality and Polygamy------------------------ 133 Last Days: Global Warming and World Hunger---------------- 155 Conclusion and Challenges --------------------------------------173 Works Cited------------------------------------------------------------185

INTROUCTION Ethics involves principles of behavior that declare how one should act in a given situation. !e word ethics is derived from the Greek term ethos (ε#ο%), which has reference to custom, usage, manner of life, or pattern of conduct.1 Descriptive and normative ethics reside within the philosophical ethics. What people think is right is called descriptive ethics. Lawrence Kohlberg is one proponent of descriptive ethics. He questioned a group of boys about what would be a right or wrong action for a man facing a moral dilemma: should he steal a drug to save his wife, or refrain from the& even though that would lead to his wife’s death?2 Normative ethics is the study of moral decision making. It studies questions that occur when thinking how one ought to act, morally speaking.3 Descriptive ethics would be concerned with determining what proportion of people believe that killing is always wrong, while normative ethics is concerned with whether it is correct to hold such a belief. !us, normative ethics is sometimes called prescriptive, rather than descriptive.4 !e discipline of Christian ethics resides within the discipline of systematic theology. Wayne Grudem correctly distinguishes between the two, in that theology is concerned with how persons should think about God, while ethics is concerned with how persons should live. In general terms, ethical study is a journey into one’s moral nature for the goal of finding areas of personal responsibility and how to fulfill them.5 !is introductory chapter will survey the general contents of the book: Introduction to Christian Ethics (CET). !ere will be two major sections: 1) !e Basics of CET begins with Chapter 1: What is Christian Ethics?; Chapter 2 asks Why Christian Ethics?; Chapter 3 is concerned with How to Decide Ethically; and Chapter 4 explores Living Ethically. 2) !e Specifics of CET delve into the practical application of how to decide and live ethically in the following order: Chapter 5 — Life; Chapter 6 — Leisure; Chapter 7 — Learning; 5

Chapter 8 — Leadership; Chapter 9 — Legalities; Chapter 10 — Lifestyles; and Chapter 11 — Last Days. !e conclusion will summarize all the basics and practices of CET. Covered also in the last chapter are some more practical ways the minister and the church/organization can advocate ethical practices and adherence of preventions. What Is Christian Ethics? Ethics can be defined in a number of di(erent ways theologically. Christian ethics is defined as “human conduct that is determined by divine conduct”6 which )ows out of a particular community’s convictions, 7 following analysis of moral experience,8 based on human actions, institutions, and character.9 Christian ethics can shape communities and people. Ethics is about the way in which we perceive certain actions or attitudes in which we hope people will be encouraged to imitate these actions or attitudes and will continue to live ethically.10 However, breakdown can occur. !omas Maston states that a major factor contributing to moral breakdown “is the tendency to separate faith from daily living, theology from ethics.” He continues by mentioning, “a failure on the part of many ministers and Christians to understand the significant place of the ethics in the Biblical revelation.”11 !is chapter emphasizes Christ as the Center of Christian Ethics. People with a personal relationship with Christ can have an intimate relationship with God through Jesus Christ. A Christ-Centered Ethics is what we hope to see among Christians. !is is another sub-topic. Deontological and Teleological Ethics, which is understood as right and wrong employing of norms and values, will be elaborated also in this chapter. Why Study Christian Ethics? !e study of Christian ethics is important. Stanley Grenz said, “We are confronted by the greatest issues humankind has ever faced at a time when the moral fiber of our society appears to be at its weakest. Ethical questions are assaulting us at breakneck speed

Introduction | 7

at a time when people have lost their sense of mooring, their sense of stability, and their sense of possessing some platform on which to stand as they make moral decisions.”12 !is chapter gives the rationale why we should study Christian ethics. Theological basis of Christian ethics The nature of Christian ethics: An ethical system of traditional absolutes At its core, unlike other ethical systems, Christian ethics is a system of absolutes. Absolute truth is universal and objective. It remains the same for every person in every culture, in every generation. Christian ethics presupposes the existence of the One True God who has spoken to humankind via specific authoritative and eternal absolute truths. Christian ethics maintains The basis of Christian ethics: God’s moral revelation (The Bible) God’s standard of morality is revealed in his Word. !is is the origin of Christian ethics. “Who may ascend the hill of the Lord? Who may stand in his holy place? He who has clean hands and a pure heart, who does not li& up his soul to an idol or swear by what is false” (Psalm 24:3-4, NIV). Within this ethical system the criterion for moral decisions and conduct is the will of God written in the Bible. The source of Christian ethics: The nature of God Christian ethics finds its origin in the person and nature of God. Ethical ideas such as good, bad, right, and wrong are essentially connected to the Christian view of God. !e source of good choices and behavior is found in the one whose very nature is the essence of good. When the Scriptures seek to di(erentiate between good and bad, the reader is directed to the nature of God. The goal of Christian ethics: The glory of God !e ultimate objective of human existence is to bring glory to God. Scripture reveals that all persons are to fear God and keep His commandments, for this is the whole duty of man (Ecclesiastes 13

12:13, NIV). In addition, the Bible declares that “All the nations You have made will come and worship before you, O Lord; they will bring glory to your name” (Psalm 86:9, NIV). Jesus instructs His followers, “Let your light shine before men in such a way that they may see your good works, and glorify your Father who is in heaven” (Matthew 5:16, KJV). The motive of Christian ethics: Love for God and humankind !e motivation to apply a Christian ethics is found primarily in one’s love for God, but also in one’s love for fellow human beings. According to Roger Crooks, central to the Christian life is a relationship with God and other people. !e two are so intrinsically connected that they cannot legitimately be separated.14 How to Decide Ethically In today’s world, it is di*cult to keep a strong ethical and moral ground due to the many ethical dilemmas that we encounter every day.15 As these ethical issues in health care continue to challenge professionals, the processes and strategies for ethical resolution need to be studied and clarified in order to understand the resolution options used by professionals to address ethical issues.16 !e debate over ethical guidelines for the di(erent professions still continues to this day.17 !is chapter will expose the readers of the various models and theories related to decision making. Ethical Models Some models have addressed ethical decision-making problems at a general level. James Rest proposed a four-component model of moral behavior which encompasses the entire moral action process. Component I recognizes that a moral problem exists. Component II requires reasoning about the problem, and component III involves choosing a moral course of action in the face of competing values. Component IV entails carrying out the action.18 Relationship Ethical Model: Many ethical dilemmas occur because of the types of relationship that a person has.

Living Ethically

Introduction | 9

!is chapter is not prescriptive in terms of developing Christian ethics, but more of proposal based on various evangelical models of ethics. A summary from various models is a contextualized proposal from the writers. !is is a practical portion of the chapter in which Christian are encouraged to live ethically. Evangelical Models of Ethics !e following three Absolutist models of ethics are considered to be evangelical in nature: 1) Unqualified Absolutism or Noncon)icting Absolutism; 2) Con)icting Absolutism; and 3) Graded Absolutism or the Greater Good view. Unqualified Absolutism or Non-Conflicting Absolutism !e first model is Unqualified Absolutism or Non-Con)icting Absolutism. !e basic premise of Unqualified Absolutism is that all moral con)icts are only illusions; they are not real. Sin can always be avoided. Conflicting Absolutism !e second evangelical model is Con)icting Absolutism. !e main consideration of Con)icting Absolutism is that we live in a fallen world; thus, sin is unavoidable in ethical con)icts. !ese necessary times of sin are called “choosing the lesser evil.”19 Graded Absolutism or the Greater Good view !e third view is Graded Absolutism or the Greater Good view. !is view advocates the idea that when two or more universal ethical norms come into unavoidable con)ict, the Christian’s obligation is to follow the higher one. !is position maintains that one is personally guiltless if he or she does the greatest good and chooses the lesser evil in a hard-case situation. On top of the various evangelical models, readers will learn the various ethics that explain why people act the way they do. Exposure to these concepts ushers the reader to understand the issues presented in the next section of the book. With the above

foundational theories and practices, we can apply Christian ethics to the following situations: Life: Abortion and Suicide !is chapter covers the ethics of abortion and suicide. !is is somehow arranged in the lifespan of a person – from womb to tomb. Abortion and suicide are defined. !e causes and e(ects of the mentioned topics are elaborated. Ethical decision making is integrated in all the topics. As a background, care ethics will showcase the various ethical theories and practices of life chapter. Leisure: Gambling and Alcohol !is chapter covers the ethics of gambling and alcohol. Rather than focusing on whether it’s ethical to do or use substances, we deal more with their impact on the physical and psychological aspect of the person such as the addictive e(ects of gambling and alcohol on the brain. Both variables mentioned will be defined. !e causes and e(ects will be expanded. Ethical decision and helps will be integrated in all the topics. Hedonism and Egoism are the frameworks. Learning: Plagiarism and Piracy Technological Ethics is the backdrop of this chapter. Technoethics relate to the “ethical issues and outcomes associated with using digital technology.”20 Specific topics that will be given focus on this section are plagiarism and piracy. Plagiarism is the common-practice of copying, in ways that violate the copyright law. “In other words, plagiarism is an act of fraud. It involves both stealing someone else’s work and lying about it a&erward.”21 Piracy is the illegal reproduction (copy or counterfeiting) of work such as books, so&ware, recordings or motion pictures, television programs, patented inventions, trademarks, and many more. Legalities: Prostitution and Pornography Ethical issues can be legal and illegal. !ere are many ethical issues that have legalities. For this section, we will discuss two: prostitution and pornography. !e condemnation against pornography and prostitution is for multiple reasons will be

Introduction | 11

covered. !e cause and e(ects and the prevention of prostitution and pornography will be covered. !e backdrop view of this topic may be based on some people’s thinking and feelings that are rooted in egoism. Leadership: Corruption and Work Leaders with power and position are susceptible to some ethical issues. Should corruption in leadership be dealt with more severely? What kinds of ethical standards are appropriate for those in greater power, in church or ministry? !is chapter will start by zeroing in on leaders, corruption, and with a focus on work ethics not just for leaders but for everyone. Duty ethics will display the background of existing theory and practices in this area. Last Days: Global Warming and World Hunger In the last days di*cult times will come (2 Timothy 3:1a). Current issues of concern are global warming and world hunger. !e backdrop of this chapter is environmental ethics, which is the discipline in philosophy that studies the moral relationship of human beings to, and also the value and moral status of the environment and its nonhuman contents.22 Conclusion Christian ethics covers a vast array of being and doing. We pray that this book will be used by God as a catalyst for change in your life as a person and as a minister. Take time to read and study the materials. As you go through the process, we recommend that you formulate your code of conduct and life purposes as related to your ethical values early on. !is book has transformed our thought. We repented while re)ecting on some issues and renewed our commitment to be more like Christ. Likewise, we pray that you will be transformed to Christ-likeness daily. Let’s live ethically at all times.

Endnotes

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1 Verlyn D. Verbrugge, ed., NIV Theological Dictionary of New Testament Words, abridged. (Grand Rapids, Mich: Zondervan, 2000), 372. 2 Lawrence Kohlberg, “1. Stages of Moral Development as a Basis for Moral Education,” in Moral Education, ed. Clive M. Beck, Brian S. Crittenden, and Edmund Sullivan (University of Toronto Press, 1971), 23–92, accessed November 7, 2023, https://www. degruyter.com/document/doi/10.3138/9781442656758-004/ht 3 Wilfrid J. Waluchow, The Dimensions of Ethics: An Introduction to Ethical Theory (Broadview Press, 2003), 55. 4 Shelly Kagan, Normative Ethics (Boulder, Colo: Westview Press, 1997). 5 Wayne Grudem, Systematic Theology: An Introduction to Biblical Doctrine (Leicester: Zondervan Academic, 1994), 26. 6 Emil Brunner, The Divine Imperative: A Study in Christian Ethics (!e Westminster Press, 1948), 86. 7 Stanley Hauerwas, The Peaceable Kingdom: A Primer In Christian Ethics (Notre Dame, Ind: University of Notre Dame Press, 1991), 54. 8 Russell B. Connors, Jr. and Patrick T. McCormick, Character, Choices & Community: The Three Faces of Christian Ethics (New York: Paulist Press, 1998), 175. 9 Charles L. Kammer III, Ethics and Liberation: An Introduction, repr. (Wipf and Stock, 2002), 11–12. 10 Louise Kretzschmar, Questions about Life and Morality: Christian Ethics in South Africa Today (Pretoria : Johannesburg: Van Schaik, 1998), 10. 11 T. B. Maston, Biblical Ethics: A Guide to the Ethical Message of the Scriptures from Genesis through Revelation (Macon, GA: Mercer University Press, 1982).

12 Stanley J. Grenz, The Moral Quest: Foundations of Christian Ethics (Downers Grove, Il: InterVarsity Press 1997), 143. 13 Divines, “!e Westminster Shorter Catechism,” Ligonier Ministries, last modified December 21, 2009, accessed November 7, 2023, https://www.ligonier.org/learn/articles/westminster-shortercatechism. 14 Roger H. Crooks, Introduction to Christian Ethics, 6th edition. (Boston: Routledge, 2012), 97. 15 Bruce D. Hartsell, “A Model for Ethical DecisionMaking: !e Context of Ethics,” Journal of Social Work Values and Ethics 3, No. 1 (Spring 2006), accessed November 7, 2023, https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/A-Modelfor-Ethical-Decision-Making:-The-C ontext-of-Hartsell/ e7f7c7d7013eecc938a01324207efe6cabd79410. 16 Kathleen Boland, “Ethical Decision-Making among Hospital Social Workers,” Journal of Social Work Values and Ethics 3, no. 1 (Spring 2002), accessed November 7, 2023, https:// www.semanticscholar.org/paper/Ethical-decision-making-amonghospital-social-Boland/300f9befc0bd9887ba05b766205210837a912 9a0. 17 Cynthia Bisman, “Social Work Values: !e Moral Core of the Profession,” British Journal of Social Work 34, no. 1 (January 1, 2004): 75–89. 18 James R. Rest, “Research on Moral Development: Implications for Training Counseling Psychologists,” The Counseling Psychologist 12, no. 3 (September 1984): 19–29. 19 David W. Jones. “Rescuing Rahab: !e Evangelical Discussion on Con)icting Moral Absolutes” Southeastern Theological Review (Summer 2016): 23-42 found on page 29. 20 Darren Pullen, “Technoethics in Schools:,” in Handbook of Research on Technoethics, ed. Rocci Luppicini and Rebecca Adell (IGI Global, 2009), 680–699, accessed November

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7, 2023, http://services.igi-global.com/resolvedoi/resolve. aspx?doi=10.4018/978-1-60566-022-6.ch044. 21 “What Is Plagiarism? — Plagiarism.Org,” last modified May 18, 2017, accessed November 7, 2023, http://www.plagiarism. org/article/what-is-plagiarism. 22 Andrew Brennan and Norva Y. S. Lo, “Environmental Ethics,” in The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, ed. Edward N. Zalta, Summer 2022. (Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University, 2022), accessed November 7, 2023, https://plato.stanford. edu/archives/sum2022/entries/ethics-environmental/.

CHAPTER 1 WHAT IS CHRISTIAN ETHICS? Introduction Christian ethics is related to Biblical revelation: a correlation between faith and godly lifestyle. Essentially faith and ethics are related. T. B. Maston states that a major factor contributing to moral breakdown “is the tendency to separate faith from daily living, theology from ethics.”1 In this chapter Christian ethics is put together from di(erent perspectives but related in belief and lifestyle. Christian Ethics Defined Christian ethics are doctrines and deeds from God’s Word for the purpose of living morally in the power of the Holy Spirit and allowing God to change the person from sinfulness to Christ-likeness. !e working definition of Christian ethics from Daniel R. Heimbach, Professor of Christian ethics at Southwestern Baptist !eological Seminary: “Christian ethics is nothing either more or less than the study, understanding and practice of everything about right and wrong as ordered and revealed by God, in the Word of God, being understood from, through, and for the person, work, and purpose of Jesus Christ, combined with studying how it has been understood, practiced, challenged, and defended through the history of religious, philosophical, and cultural interaction with God’s work in the world being interpreted in faithfulness to Scripture and limited to what has been a*rmed by at least some portion of the institutional church.”2 From these definitions, the chapter covers Christian ethics and morality, Christ as the center of Christian ethics, and Deontological and teleological ethics. Christian Ethics and Morality Ethics is the science of morality. Connors and McCormick relate morality and ethics as “the study of moral experience; more specifically, it is the systematic and communal re)ection on and analysis of moral experience.”3 Further, Connors and McCormick 17

separate morality and ethics in the following definition: Morality is concerned with persons becoming good, doing the right thing and building just communities. Ethics, which is the systematic and communal re)ection on and analysis of moral experience, asks what “the good,” “the right” and “the just” are. Ethics tries to show – based on reasoned re)ection —why this character (and not that one) is good, why this action (and not that one) is right, and why this community (and not that one) is just.4 South African Protestant ethicist Louise Kretzschmar defines Christian ethics as “An understanding of what ought to be, a willingness on the part of individual believers to be saved and to become disciples of Jesus Christ, and a commitment on the part of both individual believers and communities to preach and practice their faith with reference to human, social and physical reality.”5 In other words, Christian ethics is responding to a moral vision, which is derived from the Scriptures and one’s cognitive and praxis of the will of God.6 Loving God and loving others. Christian ethics implies the double commandment in Matthew 22:37–39 of loving God and neighbor. It is an expression of the vertical relationship between humans and God and the horizontal relationship among people. Christian ethics recognizes “people need to be saved from sin, despair and oppression through the redeeming work of Christ in order that they may be empowered to be di(erent and act di(erently.”7 !e task of Christian ethics is to transform people, communities, and society as a whole. Christ the Center of Christian Ethics Christians have a personal, intimate relationship with God through Jesus Christ. Jesus is at the center of Christian ethics.8 As a person, Christ embodies the unique standards of Christian ethics. !e Bible reveals Jesus Himself practices kingdom ethics. Jesus is the exemplar of moral life. In Christian ethics, the Bible is regarded as the primary source, as the North American Protestant theologian Bruce Birch and ethicist Larry Rasmussen point out: “!e Bible is formative and normative for the Christian moral life. Christian ethics is not Christian ethics apart from Scripture.”9

What is Christian Ethics? | 19

Christian ethics should be biblical. Christians are expected to be faithful to the teachings of the Bible. !e Bible provides guidance and direction in ethical decision-making for believers in Christ. !us, Christian ethics can be defined as follows: “An understanding of what ought to be, willingness on the part of individual believers to be saved and to become disciples of Jesus Christ, and a commitment on the part of both individual believers and communities to preach and practice their faith with reference to human, social and physical reality.”10 Christian ethics is God- and Christ-centered. !e basis of any Christian ethics should be “the a*rmation that God has decisively called and formed a people to serve Him through Israel and the work of Christ.”11 David Jones, a Presbyterian theologian, defines Christian ethics as “the study of the way of life that conforms to the will of God — the way of life that is good, that pleases God and fulfills human nature.”12 British ethicist Colin Brown o(ers a helpful framework for Christian ethics: “First, it is about seeing the world through God’s eyes. Second, Christians ought to be committed to Jesus Christ as the Lord and exemplar of their moral life.”13 God and His basic loving character is the core of Christian ethics. Christian Ethics: Norms and Values Norms can be written laws, while values are expressions of norms. Management consultants Fons Trompenaars from the Netherlands and Charles Hampden-Turner from the United States define the di(erence between norms and values as follows: Norms are the mutual sense a group has of what is right and wrong. Norms can develop on a formal level as written laws, and on an informal level as social control. Values determine the definition of good and bad. Values provide guidance as we determine the right versus the wrong, the good versus the bad. A value is how the desire to behave in an appropriate manner. Values are our fundamental beliefs. Typical values include honesty, integrity, compassion, courage, honor, responsibility, patriotism, respect and fairness. Comparatively, norms are deontological and values are teleological, and usually norms are an expression of values. Norms express how

a person should behave. Moral norms are the principles we use to define that which is right, good and just. !ey are our standards. !is means an action is determined to be right or wrong without concern for the consequences.14 Connors and McCormick o(er a threefold description of moral norms: 1. Direct persons and communities toward virtue and/or right action 2. Teach the moral wisdom and experience of the community in short propositional statements prescribing or forbidding certain habits or actions 3. Seek to preserve and protect those basic human goods or values which help make life fully human. !ey also seek to preserve a sane hierarchy or order to these values.15 Norms and values relate to culture. In a group setting, norms can be attitudes and behaviors common to members about what they believe is “normal.” !e norms and values of any organization define its culture. Values are what are important to those members. Norms give a sense of shared values, but values can also create their own norms. In the Filipino culture, we have norms about how we speak and address older people. We use po or ho. Auntie, uncle, kuya and ate are words of respect that are normally used in most places. How you talk with your spouse is di(erent to how you speak to your boss, or your children. Your choice of words, your tone, and your body language are all norm-based.16 Deontological and Teleological Ethics Deontological ethics expresses questions of right and wrong employing norms and values.17 !is means an action is considered right or wrong in itself, no matter the results.18 Deontology appeals to principles, commands, maxims, exhortations, laws and rules.19 Deontological ethics tends to be dichotomous in nature. Teleological ethics, on the other hand, is “concerned about realizing some end or goal (embodying some value). As such, teleologists are deeply concerned about consequences, and they

What is Christian Ethics? | 21

measure morality by the ability of an action to accomplish a desired end.20 Teology determines goodness by the results. In Teleology, “No action is intrinsically right or wrong: it all depends on its consequences; in particular, the foreseeable consequences of the action.”21 !e focus is on what e(ect somebody’s action has on society. !e emphasis is not so much on inner morality but on goals, motive, consequences or results of an action.22 Two Views of Ethics23

Deontological Rule determines the result Rule is the basis of the act Rule is good regardless of result Result is always calculated within the rules

Teleological Result determines the rules Result is the basis of the act Rule is good because of result Result is sometimes used to break the rules

Christian ethics is deontological, teleological and stresses personal virtue. It is deontological because of its Biblical emphasis and its stress on norms and values such as love, justice, mercy, faithfulness and humility. It is teleological because it seeks to promote good consequences. Christian ethics addresses a person’s inner motives, character and behavior. Christian ethics gives opportunity to apply Biblical values in this contemporary society. Christian ethics is concerned with morals because Scripture emphasizes the importance of character and becoming Christlike.24 Conclusion Christian ethics needs to be Biblically based and theologically sound. !e goal of Christian ethics is to relate thinking and living, truth and life. Apart from Christ, one cannot have Christian ethics, only an ethical life. We need to allow the Holy Spirit to take control of our lives as Christians—not only during ethical decisions but a moment-by-moment spirit-controlled life. Christlikeness is the goal of Christian ethics. It is a process: a day-by-day transformation; until He comes or until He takes us home to heaven.

Endnotes

1 T. B. Maston, Biblical Ethics: A Guide to the Ethical Message of the Scriptures from Genesis through Revelation (Macon, GA: Mercer University Press, 1982). 2 Daniel Heimbach, Fundamental Christian Ethics (Nashville, TN: B&H Academic, 2022). 3 Russell B. Connors, Jr. and Patrick T. McCormick, Character, Choices & Community: The Three Faces of Christian Ethics (New York: Paulist Press, 1998), 175. 4 bid., 13; Cited in Ralph Ipyana Schubert, “A ChristianEthical Comparison of Leadership Styles in the West and in Tanzania and !eir Impact on Cross-Cultural Partnerships” (South Africa University, 2009), 8, accessed November 9, 2023, https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/A-CHRISTIANETHICAL-COMPARISON-OF-LEADERSHIP-STYLES-Schubert/ f9207f966c18851c94163544df0ef6ae20d03ec4. 5 Louise Kretzschmar, “Ethics in a !eological Context,” in Doing Ethics in Context: South African Perspectives, ed. Charles VillaVicencio and John W. De Gruchy (D. Philip, 1994), 3. 6 Kretzschmar Kretzschmar, “!e Resurgence of Christian Ethics and Spirituality,” in Towards an Agenda for Contextual Theology: Essays in Honour of Albert Nolan, by McGlory T. Speckman and Larry T. Kaufmann (Pietermaritzburg: Cluster Publications, 2001), 282. 7 Kretzschmar, “Ethics in a !eological Context,” 3. 8 Colin Brown, Crash Course on Christian Ethics, ill. ed. (Hodder & Stoughton, 1998), 107–111. 9 Bruce C. Birch and Larry L. Rasmussen, Bible and Ethics in the Christian Life, rev. and exp. ed. (Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 1988), 15. 10 Kretzschmar, “Ethics in a !eological Context,” 3.

What is Christian Ethics? | 23

11 Stanley Hauerwas, A Community of Character: Toward a Constructive Christian Social Ethic (Notre Dame, IN.: University of Notre Dame Press, 1991), 9. 12 David Clyde Jones, Biblical Christian Ethics (Grand Rapids, Mich: Baker Academic, 1994), 14–15. 13 Brown, Crash Course on Christian Ethics, 142. 14 Charles Hampden-Turner and Fons Trompenaars, Riding The Waves of Culture: Understanding Diversity in Global Business, 2nd ed. (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1997), 21–22. 15 Connors, Jr. and McCormick, Character, Choices & Community, 176. 16 “Norms and Values in Sociology: Definition & Examples,” February 26, 2023, accessed November 9, 2023, https:// simplysociology.com/norms-and-values.html. 17 Bernard T. Adeney-Riskotta, Strange Virtues: Ethics in a Multicultural World, print-on-demand ed. (IVP Academic, 2009), 146. 18 Kretzschmar, “Ethics in a !eological Context,” 4. 19 James Ian Hamilton McDonald, Christian Values: Theory and Practice in Christian Ethics Today, First. (Edinburg, Scotland: T&T Clark Ltd., 1995), 6. 20 Charles L. Kammer III, Ethics and Liberation: An Introduction, Reprint edition. (Wipf and Stock, 2002), 31. 21 McDonald, Christian Values: Theory and Practice in Christian Ethics Today, 14. 22 Adeney-Riskotta, Strange Virtues, 147. 23 Norman L. Geisler, Christian Ethics: Contemporary Issues and Options, 2nd ed. (Grand Rapids, Mich: Baker Academic, 2010), 18.

24 Schubert, “A Christian-Ethical Comparison of Leadership Styles in the West and in Tanzania and !eir Impact on CrossCultural Partnerships,” 14.

CHAPTER 2 WHY STUDY CHRISTIAN ETHICS? Introduction Imagine a country without a code of conduct or a church without ethical education. It would be chaos! !is chapter will answer the question Why study Christian ethics? !e foundational frameworks of Christian ethics are the Presuppositions of Christian ethics, Theological basis of Christian Ethics, and the Goal of Christian Ethics. Knowledge of Christian ethics will hopefully lead to an understanding of the values that one can coherently catch. From there on, one will have opportunities to develop the skills in articulating the values of one’s view. Further, it is an opportunity for one to equip others to evaluate how they implement ethical actions, so when Christians are confronted with various ethical dilemmas every day of their lives, they can decide ethically. Some know what to do, and others do not have any idea how to make ethical decisions. !is chapter will explore reasons why it is important to study Christian ethics. Presuppositions of Christian Ethics !ere are five presuppositions of Christian ethics. !ese presuppositions will be the foundation of learning in the field of ethics. 1. Christian ethics has its foundation in the Old Testament. It has a Jewish background. !e ethics of the Old Testament were carried and even fulfilled in the New Testament. “!ink not that I am come to destroy the law, or the prophets: I am not come to destroy, but to fulfill.” [Mat. 5:17] 2. !ere is a major di(erence between Christian ethics and all other ethical systems. For example, philosophical ethics are the ethics of the world, and they are based on such things as duty, pleasure, law, science, etc., whereas Christian ethics is based on right and wrong 25

with its foundation being the Holy Bible. Philosophy and !eology have the same questions, but worldly philosophy answers these questions without the use of the inerrant Word of God. !eology uses the inerrant Word of God to answer these ethical dilemmas. Philosophical ethics do not use the wisdom of God to answer these ethical dilemmas but uses fallen man’s reasoning to answer these questions. !erefore, philosophical ethics is lacking in wisdom and understanding and thus not adequate to be used. !e believer’s ethical standards are based on God’s divine Word. Every man is brutish in his knowledge: every founder is confounded by the graven image: for his molten image is falsehood, and there is no breath in them. !ey are vanity, and the work of errors: in the time of their visitation, they shall perish. (Jer. 10:14–15) 3. Christian ethics are based on the Christian religion, and therefore demand moral and ethical behavior. Not every religion demands this type of behavior. For example, the religions of the ancient Philistines and Canaanites were very immoral with such practices as temple prostitution and child sacrifice. !is lack of moral and ethical behavior in religion is still prevalent in India and other Hindu and Buddhist countries today. Because of their belief in reincarnation and Karma, they have no pity or sympathy for the a+icted such as the blind, crippled, or the retarded. !ey believe that it is a part of life for bad things to happen because of what the person did in a previous life. 4. Christian ethics are not legalistic in nature but principles that teach us how we to behave based on God’s Holy Word. 5. Christian ethics are not based on principles alone but on the risen and living person of Jesus Christ our Lord. One is not called to just learn the moral laws but also to understand the principles behind them. Merely following a rule or policy will create a Pharisaic legalism. For believers of Christ, the more important matter should be the conviction of one’s heart related to one’s behavior. Believers

Why Study Christian Ethics? | 27

choose to follow God’s principles of behavior in order to show their love for Christ Jesus.1 Theological basis of Christian ethics Christian ethics is a system of absolutes. Absolute truth is universal and objective, for God’s Holy Word is the absolute truth. It remains the same for every person in every culture in every generation. Christian ethics presupposes the existence of the One True God, who has spoken to humankind by eternal absolute truths which permeate the heart of the believer and go far beyond any culture. Christian ethics maintains the following absolutes: (1) Jesus is the only way. !is is clarified in the statement of Jesus, “I am the way and the truth and the life. No one comes to the Father except through Me” (John 14:6 NIV). Jesus’ declaration sets forth Christianity as the sole path to salvation. (2) An authority higher than humankind is revealed in the person of Jesus. !e authority of God’s Word as proclaimed in the Holy Bible is important. (3) !e absolute ethical standard of the Creator God is a nonnegotiable standard, eternally established in the immutable nature of God. (4) God’s ethical standard is eternal, and is for the benefit of all humankind. By its very nature, Christian ethics requires the existence of absolutes. Anything less would invalidate the ethical principles promoted by this belief system. 2 The Biblical Basis of Christian Ethics God’s standard of morality is revealed in His Word. !is is the origin of Christian ethics. “Who may ascend the hill of the LORD? Who may stand in his holy place? He who has clean hands and a pure heart, who does not li& up his soul to an idol or swear by what is false” (Psalm 24:3-4, NIV). Within this ethical system, the basis for moral decisions and conduct is the will of God as revealed in the

God’s Holy Word. Inherent in God’s revealed will are the following basic ideas: (1) God’s ethical revelation is based on His nature. God is perfect and without limitation, and God is His own standard. No moral rule exists outside of Him. (2) God’s ethical principles continue throughout history. Since God’s moral revelation is rooted in His nature, then those ethical principles will transcend time. (3) God’s moral revelation has intrinsic value. God’s standards, like the laws of nature, have consequences if broken. We will have to deal with the consequences of violating God’s ethical standards unless we put our faith in Christ and start obeying the laws of God. (4) Obedience to God’s Law is not legalism. !e Bible speaks out against legalism since Biblical ethics is more than external obedience to a legal code. !e Christian’s obedience to God’s law is one way the believer show love to his Creator. No one can live up to God’s standards without the enabling power of the Holy Spirit. (5) God’s moral revelation was given to bless God’s people. Sometimes it may seem that Biblical ethical standards are restrictive. However, there is confidence that such restrictions are to bless and prosper God’s people. (6) Exceptions to God’s revelation must have Biblical legitimacy. !e people of God have the responsibility to obey and it is God’s responsibility to deal with the consequences.3 The Source of Christian Ethics: The Nature of God Christian ethics finds its origin in the person and nature of God. When the Scriptures seek to di(erentiate between good and bad, the reader is directed to the nature of God. Ferguson and Wright argue that discovering what is right in a given situation requires the discernment of God’s will. !e fundamental mandate of Scripture is

Why Study Christian Ethics? | 29

to imitate God. !is position is supported in the following Old and New Testament passages: (1) “I am the LORD your God; consecrate yourselves and be holy, because I am holy . . . I am the LORD who brought you up out of Egypt to be your God; therefore, be holy, because I am holy” (Leviticus 11:44–45 NIV). (2) “Do not conform to the evil desires you had when you lived in ignorance. But just as he who called you is holy, so be holy in all you do; for it is written: ‘Be holy, because I am holy’” (I Peter 1:14-16 NIV.4 To understand the source of Christian ethics is now possible to all humankind because God has revealed His divine nature in His Holy Word; in particular, His attribute of holiness. Although God is intrinsically holy, the subject of Christian ethics involves that which is not human. R. Crook asserts that an understanding of the nature of humankind can be summed up in the following four a*rmations: (1) Humankind is one part of the natural order of creation. (2) Humankind was made distinct in creation. (3) Human beings are social in nature. (4) Human beings are sinners, for the Bible says that humans “fall short of the glory of God” (Romans 3:23 NIV).5 The Goal of Christian Ethics: The Glory of God !e overall objective of humankind is to glorify God. In addition, the Bible declares, “All the nations You have made will come and worship before you, O Lord; they will bring glory to your name” (Psalm 86:9, NIV). Jesus instructs His followers, “Let your light shine before men in such a way that they may see your good works, and glorify your Father who is in heaven” (Matthew 5:16, NASB). Lifestyle choices and behavioral patterns derived from a Christian ethic produce good works, that is, visible displays of the power of the Holy Spirit in man. When observed by others, these good works

become a testimony to the enabling power of God. Ultimately, God is given glory. Paul further validates the goal of Christian ethics by asserting, “Whether you eat or drink or whatever you do, do it all for the glory of God” (I Corinthians 10:31 NIV). By following a Christian ethic as the basis for one’s life and actions, the primary objective is to bring glory to God. The Motive of Christian Ethics: Love for God and Humankind !e greatest sin is disobedience to the greatest commandment — To love God. Love for God and others is the motivation for Christian ethics. “If anyone says, ‘I love God,’ yet hates his brother, he is a liar. For anyone who does not love his brother, whom he has seen, cannot love God, whom he has not seen” (I John 4:20, NIV). In this verse the motivation for Christian ethics is clearly identified; that is, the vital relationship between love for God and love for others. !e Golden Rule stated by Jesus says: “In everything, therefore, treat people the same way you want them to treat you, for this is the Law and the Prophets.” (Matthew 7:12 NASB). !e three di(erent ethical theories of utilitarianism, Kantian ethics, and virtue ethics perceive the Golden Rule di(erently. John Mills, in relation to the Golden Rule, stated that “In the golden rule of Jesus of Nazareth, we read the complete spirit of the ethics of utility. To do as one would be done by, and to love one’s neighbor as oneself, constitute the ideal perfection of utilitarian morality.”6 In the view of utilitarians, the Golden Rule relates to consequences. In relation to the Golden Rule and Kant and his categorical imperative, the Golden Rule is a form of conduct. !is is because Kant’s categorical imperative relates to a person’s actions and those actions becoming a universal law. In relation to virtue ethics, the Golden Rule is perceived as related to one’s character. In Aristotle’s words, “We are what we repeatedly do. Excellence, then, is not an act, but a habit.”7 Practical Reasons for Christian Ethics8 Each of the following a*rmations is important for a better understanding of the need for a Christian ethic:

The Creation: Humankind

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1. As created beings there is a need for an ethical system that transcends the created. Humans need an ethical system that is higher than them. 2. Because we are created in the image of God (Genesis 1:27), human beings represent are the zenith of the creative process. As such, human beings have at least four qualities that distinguish them from animals: personality, the ability to reason, a moral nature, and a spiritual nature. 3. As created beings with social needs, human beings live in community. !is requires a standard of ethical behavior for the promotion of civil discipline within the community. 4. As sinners with a moral nature, human beings need an ethical system that is able to change our sinful nature into one that is holy and pleasing to God.9 5. As a whole, ethics are important because without ethics people would not have ideas of right and wrong. Christians 1. For Christians, moral and ethical decisions are a part of everyday life. Ethics are a guide to godly living and decision making. 2. As redeemed people, knowing ethics helps in the resolution of problems. Christians will be confronted with issues and dilemmas that need to be resolved. 3. Ethical people are more successful. Ethical Christians are perfectly suited not only for interpersonal relationships generally, but also more specifically for the kinds of interactions that make for thriving business. 4. When people live ethically, they experience inner peace. !ey tend to be calmer, more focused, and more productive than those that are living unethically. Also, ethics allows you to live

an authentic life. An authentic and meaningful life requires you to live with a sense of integrity. 5. As the Christian grows, equipped in ethics, having a standard to measure the growth of their spiritual development, they too, can teach and equip others.

Community 1. As a community lives together, they make decisions based on some type of ethic. In those days there was no king in Israel, but every man did that which was right in his own eyes. (Judges 17:6) 2. As society cannot o(er any absolute ethical framework for ethical decision making, only the Bible o(ers this absolute ethical standard. Ethics help to make society more peaceful. !e Bible helps people to choose right actions over wrong ones. 3. Ethics is an important part of civilized society. A society that lacks ethical standards will fail. 4. A progressive society requires a lot of ethical people working together in highly coordinated ways. Church 1. As a church, believers need to acknowledge the di*cult nature of ethical dilemmas. 2. Each body of believers must know and defend their stand on specific ethical dilemmas.10 3. As a church in the community, we are telling the world that we are redeemed and changed people. 4. As a redeemed people, we are telling the world about eternal life. We have the assurance of life a&er death. 5. As a church that believes in eternal life, we display God’s glory as people to see the di(erence in our lives and testimony as the gospel is.

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Conclusion

To make ethics part of life and to live life ethically, we must continue to confront ourselves with the question: “What is the correspondence between our ethical reasons and actions?” !is question will aid us to engage constantly in integrating knowledge and attitude, the head and the heart. O God, may we desire to always have clean hands and a pure heart.

Endnotes

1 Russell K. Tardo, “Studies in Christian Ethics,” http://www. faithfulword.com/Christian%20Ethics/Christian%20Ethics.pdf. 2 “Ethics and Morality,” SeekingTruth, last modified June 11, 2023, accessed November 7, 2023, https://seekingtruth.co.uk/ morality_ethics/. 3 Erwin Lutzer, Measuring Morality: A Comparison of Ethical Systems, ed. Louis Whitworth (Probe Ministres, 1995), accessed November 7, 2023, https://www.leaderu.com/orgs/probe/docs/ measmor.html. 4 David F. Wright, Sinclair B. Ferguson, and J. I. Packer, eds., New Dictionary of Theology (Downers Grove, Ill: IVP Academic, 1988), 232. 5 Roger H. Crooks, Introduction to Christian Ethics, 6th ed. (Boston: Routledge, 2012), 88. 6 John Stuart Mill, Utilitarianism, ed. George Sher, 2nd ed. (Indianapolis: Hackett Publishing Company, Inc., 2002), 23. 7 Will Durant, The Story of Philosophy: The Lives and Opinions of the Greater Philosophers (Wisehouse Classics, 2023), 76. 8 Adapted from “Why Are Ethics Important?,” Answers, accessed November 7, 2023, https://qa.answers.com/Q/Why_are_ ethics_important. Christopher Panza and Adam Potthast, Ethics for Dummies (Indianapolis, IN: Wileys, 2010). 9 Lutzer, Measuring Morality: A Comparison of Ethical Systems. Probe Ministries International, 1998. Winchester, VA, (page # ?) 10 James P. Eckman, Christian Ethics in a Postmodern World (Wheaton, IL: Evangelical Training Association, 1999), 6.

CHAPTER 3 HOW TO DECIDE ETHICALLY Introduction All dilemmas demand a decision. Even an act of indecision is also a decision not to make a decision. To decide what is ethically right requires information, understanding in processing that information, and skills in coming up with a decision. All of us, in one way or another, make decisions when ethical dilemmas come. We all express con)ict of what is right or moral. Rhodes says that professionals in their respective fields have “received little useful help in making ethical decisions.”1 Robison and Reeser acknowledge that a professional code of ethics created by humans is not a guarantee of su*cient guidance in di*cult decision making.2 Decision-making is a daily work. In today’s world, it is di*cult to maintain a strong ethical and moral stand because of the many ethical issues that we encounter on a daily basis.3 As these ethical issues continue to challenge people, the processes and strategies for ethical decision-making need to be studied and made clear in order to understand the models used to address ethical dilemmas. !e debate over ethical guidelines still continues to this day.4 !e ethical dilemmas of today must be faced, and ethical decision-making must be strengthened. It takes time and experiences to develop skills in resolving ethical issues. David Jones says, “like any art, ethical and moral understanding is best learned through the experience of human relationships and its many variations.”5 Norman Geisler says, there must be a use of our moral talents and ethical skills to “move beyond the constraints of method and technique and respond imaginatively and creatively to the impromptu, unrehearsed nature of the special human relationship.”6 !is can happen when Christian develops the audacity to stand firm in one’s ethical belief, decide ethically regardless of the cost, and be tenacious morally in all our dealings in life. 35

Ethical theories are guides to help resolve ethical dilemmas. When exploring an ethical theory, Juliet Rothman provides three important questions to consider: !e authoritative question: Where does the ethical theory turn in order to be validated of its basic foundation? Some possibilities include: the Bible, the government and its laws, a knowledgeable person, a philosophical construct, etc. 1. !e distributive question: Who gains the most from this theory? Possible options would be: all people, every living thing, all citizens, all members of the community, and so forth 2. !e substantive question: What goals or actions will make this theory desirable? One possible answer would be: “happiness,” defined by the person. If happiness is the desired result, the one must define the parameters of such happiness. !e parameters may include concepts such as personal freedom, health and safety, and human relatedness.7 Ethical Models Some models have addressed ethical decision-making problems at a general level. James Rest proposed a Four-Component Model of moral behavior which encompasses the entire moral action process. Component I recognizes that a moral problem exists. Component II requires reasoning about the problem, and Component III involves choosing a moral course of action in the face of competing values. Component IV entails carrying out the action.8 Rest’s Four-Component Model of Morality Component One !e actor must interpret Moral Sensitivity the situation to understand what actions are possible, who would be a(ected by each possible action, and how concerned participants would interpret these e(ects in terms of heir welfare.

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Component Two Moral Judgment

The actor must judge which action is right or wrong. In this process, actors can identify a moral (right) action as what should be done in a given situation.

Component Three Moral Motivation

The actor must prioritize ethical principles over his/her own personal values so that a decision results where the actor pursues an action that is morally right

Component Four Moral Character

The actor must have ample determination, strength of personality, and implementation abilities in order to carry out intentions to behave morally and overcome any obstacles along the way.

Content based on Rest (1986) and Rest and Narváez (1994)9 Woody’s Five-Dimensional Model of Ethical Decision-Making Woody proposed a five-dimensional model for defensible decisions. !e bases are: • • • • •

theories of ethics professional codes of ethics professional theoretical premises the socio-legal context personal and professional identity. 10

Haas and Malouf ’s Five Stage Decision-Making Model Haas & Malouf present a five-stage decision-making model as follows: • What is the relevant professional, legal, or social standard? • Is there a reason to deviate from the standard? • Can one identify the ethical dimensions of the dilemma and establish one as primary? • Generate a list of possible actions and assess whether the new course of action satisfies the needs of the a(ected parties. • One must assess whether the course of action is ethical and possible to implement. If so, the chosen course of action may be implemented.11 Relationship Ethical Model

Many ethical dilemmas occur because of the type of relationship that a person has. Kitchener addressed dual relationship problems specifically when she o(ered three guidelines for di(erentiating between relationships that have a high probability of leading to harm and those that do not. !e first guideline states that as the incompatibility of expectations increases between roles, so will the potential for harm. Second, as the obligations associated with di(erent roles diverge, the potential for loss of objectivity and divided loyalties increases. !ird, as the power di(erences between the professional’s and the consumer’s roles increase, so does the potential for exploitation. Kitchener assumed that as the risk of harm increased, so should the ethical prohibitions against engaging in the relationships.12 Kitchener Justification Model Reviewing these ethical principles which are at the foundation of the guidelines o&en helps to clarify the issues involved in a given situation. !e following is a discussion related to this model. Autonomy is the principle that addresses the concept of independence.

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1. !e essence of this principle is allowing an individual the freedom of choice and action. One important consideration in being autonomous is the understanding of how the decision and re)ected values may or may not be received within the context of the society in which they live, and how they may impinge on the rights of others. 2. 2. Nonmaleficence is the concept of not causing harm to others. O&en explained as “above all do no harm,” this principle is considered to be the most critical of all the principles, even though theoretically they are all of equal weight. 13 !is principle re)ects both the idea of not in)icting intentional harm, and not engaging in actions that risk harming others.14 3. 3. Beneficence re)ects the counselor’s responsibility to contribute to the welfare of the client. Simply stated, it means to do good, to be proactive and also to prevent harm when possible. 4. 4. Justice does not mean treating all individuals the same. Kitchener points out that the formal meaning of justice is “treating equals equally and unequals unequally but in proportion to their relevant di(erences.” 15 If an individual is to be treated di(erently, the counselor needs to be able to o(er a rationale that explains the necessity and appropriateness of treating this individual di(erently. 5. 5. Fidelity involves the notions of loyalty, faithfulness, and honoring commitments. Clients must be able to trust the counselor and have faith in the therapeutic relationship if growth is to occur. !erefore, the counselor must take care not to threaten the therapeutic relationship or to leave obligations unfulfilled.16 Theoretical Frameworks of Ethical Decision Making In order to consider the parameters of ethical decision making, it is helpful to consider theoretical frameworks and principles that can provide a useful guide to the worker. !ere will be frameworks

in each ethical issue from Chapter 6 to 11. Some that are not utilized in the mentioned chapters are listed below. Alan Gewirth’s Hierarchy of Principles Alan Gewirth bases his hierarchy of principles on the fundamental right of all humans to freedom and well-being He develops three core goods that enable or enhance these rights. Core goods include basic goods, which are necessary to well-being, such as food, shelter, life, health, and interestingly, mental equilibrium; nonsubtractive goods, the loss of which would seriously compromise fundamental rights, such as honesty and fidelity in individual relationships, reasonable labor, and comfortable living conditions; and additive goods, which increase or enhance well-being, such as education, self-esteem, and material wealth.17 In Reason and Morality, Gewirth recognizes that con)icts occur when decisions must be made that a(ect another person or persons. His guidelines provide a hierarchy that may be used to resolve them. !e guidelines are as follows: Principle 1: Rules against basic harms to the necessary preconditions of action (the core goods, food, health, shelter, etc.) take precedence over rules against harms such as lying, revealing confidential information (non-subtractive goods), or threats to additive goods such as education, recreation, and wealth. Principle 2: An individual’s right to basic well-being (core goods) takes precedence over another individual’s right to freedom Principle 3: An individual’s right to freedom takes precedence over his or her own right to basic well-being Principle 4: !e obligation to obey laws, rules, and regulations to which one has voluntarily and freely consented ordinarily overrides one’s right to engage voluntarily in a manner that con)icts with these laws, rules, and regulations. Principle 5: Individuals’ rights to well-being may override laws, rules regulations, and arrangements of voluntary associations in cases of con)ict.

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Principles 6: !e obligation to prevent basic harms such as starvation and to promote basic public goods such as housing, education, and public assistance overrides the right to retain one’s own property.18 Loewenberg, Dolgoff and Harrington’s Screen of Principles Loewenberg and Dolgo( developed an ethical principle screen to help people decide on complex ethical issues when an applicable code of ethics does not provide specific rules for decisionmaking. !e following is their ethical principle of: 1) Protection of life; 2) Equality and Inequality; 3) Autonomy and Freedom; 4) Least Harm; 6) Privacy and Confidentiality and 7) Truthfulness and Full Disclosure.19 Reamer’s Hierarchy of Values Frederic Reamer uses a framework for ethical decision-making drawn from the philosophy of Alan Gewirth. Reamer developed a value system in order to improve the decision-making process. !e following is his value hierarchy: • Rules against basic harm to an individual’s survival take precedence over rules against harms such as lying or revealing confidential information or threats to additive goods; • An individual’s right to basic well-being takes precedence over another individual’s right to self-determination; • An individual’s right to self-determination takes precedence over his or her right to basic well-being; • !e obligation to obey laws, rules and regulations to which one has voluntarily and freely consented ordinarily overrides one’s right to engage voluntarily and freely in a manner that con)icts with these; • Individuals’ rights to well-being may override laws, rules, regulations and arrangements of voluntary associations in cases of con)ict;

• !e obligation to prevent basic harms and to promote public goods such as housing, education and public assistance overrides the right to complete control over one’s property.

He continues to expand his theory by explaining how to resolve an ethical dilemma through the use of a step-by-step process. His process is as follows: • Identify ethical issues; Assess the e(ectiveness of each of these alternative strategies; • Identify individuals, groups and organizations that will be a(ected by the decision; • Identify di(erent courses of action, risks and benefits, and the individuals involved in each; • Examine the reasons for and against each course of action utilizing ethical theories/guidelines, codes, laws, practice principles and personal values; • Consult with colleagues and appropriate experts; • Make the decision and document the decision-making process; • Monitor evaluate and document the decision and outcome20 Health Care Ethics !e Realm-Individual Process-Situation (RIPS) Model of Ethical Decision-Makings another ethical model that helps in resolving ethical dilemmas. !e following steps are implemented in the RIPS model of ethical decision-making: Step 1 – Recognize and define the ethical issues Step 2 – Re)ect Step 3 – Decide the right thing to do Step 4 – Implement, evaluate, re-assess 21

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Within the RIPS ethical model, there have been identified four types of situations that will challenge an individual’s ethical belief system. A summary of these four are below: Situation Issue/Problem22 Dilemma23

Distress25

Temptation26

Silence

Important values are present or may be challenged Two alternative courses of action may be taken, both of which fulfill an important duty, and it is not possible to fulfill both obligations. Kidder24 describes this as a “right versus right” decision. You know the right course of action but are not authorized or empowered to perform it. Note that ethical distress may present as a later “complication” of any of the ethical situations. Ethical distress is o&en identified during the implementation phase of decision-making. Involves a choice between a “right” and a “wrong,” and in which you may stand to benefit from doing the wrong thing. Kidder describes this as a “right versus wrong” situation. Ethical values are challenged, but no one is speaking about this challenge to values. !is may actually be the course taken by an individual who is experiencing moral distress.

Decision-Making Models

Below are some examples of models in decision-making. Study them and look how you can use them or make up your own based on the various models. Congress ETHIC Decision-making Model Elaine P. Congress27 developed a decision-making model of ethics using ETHIC as an acronym in order to help professionals in any field make the correct choices when facing di*cult dilemmas: E– Examine personal, professional, client, agency, societal values T– !ink about the applicable ethical standards, laws and legal precedents that apply H– Hypothesize di(erent decisions, their outcomes and the impact on relevant system I– Identify who will benefit and who will be harmed by these pecific decisions keeping in mind the professional values and mission C– Consult Loewenberg and Dolgoff Decision-making Model Loewenberg and Dolgo( 28 developed an ethical decisionmaking model that would be helpful to anyone who faces ethical dilemmas on a daily basis: • Principle of protection of life • Principle of equality and inequality • Principle of autonomy and freedom • Principle of least harm • Principle of quality of life • Principle of privacy and confidentiality

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• Principle of truthfulness and full disclosure

Hoose and Paradise Decision-Making Model Hoose and Paradise developed a seven step ethical decision making model in order to aid professionals who are in the midst of an ethical crisis. A description and discussion of the steps is as follows: 1. Identify the Problem. Gather as much information as you can that will illuminate the situation. It is important to be as detailed and objective as possible. Writing ideas down may help gain clarity. Outline the facts, separating out facts that are not important, assumptions, or hypotheses. !ere are several questions you can ask yourself: Is it an ethical, legal, or professional problem? Is it a combination of one of these? If a legal question exists, seek legal advice. Other questions that it may be useful to ask yourself are: Is the issue related to me and what I am or am not doing? It is good to remember that dilemmas you face are o&en complex, so a useful guideline is to examine the problem from several perspectives and avoid searching for a simplistic solution. 2. Determine the nature and dimensions of the dilemma. !ere are several avenues to follow in order to ensure that you have examined the problem in all its aspects. First, one must consider the ethical standards of autonomy, non-maleficence, beneficence, justice, and fidelity. Decide which principles apply to the actual situation and determine which principle takes importance for you in this case. In theory, each principle is of equal value, which means that it is your challenge to determine the importance between them when two or more of them are in con)ict. Second, one must research the relevant literature to ensure that you are using the most updated information in reaching a decision. !ird, one must seek advice from an experienced professional. As they discuss with you the information you have gathered, they may see other issues that are important and provide a perspective you have not considered. !ey

may aso be able to identify aspects of the dilemma that you are not viewing objectively. 3. Generate potential courses of action. Brainstorm as many possible courses of action as possible. Be creative and consider all options. If possible, enlist the help of at least one co-worker to help you generate ideas. 4. Consider the potential consequences of all options and determine a course of action. Considering the information you have gathered and the goals you have set, evaluate each option and determine the possible consequences for all the parties involved. Discover the implications of each course of action for the client, for others, and for yourself. Eliminate the options that do not allow you to gain the desired results or cause problematic situations. Review the remaining options to determine which option or combination of options best fits the situation and addresses the priorities you have identified. 5. Evaluate the selected course of action. Review the selected course of action to see if it presents any new ethical considerations. Stadler suggests applying three simple tests to the selected course of action to ensure that it is appropriate. “In applying the test of justice, assess your own sense of fairness by determining whether you would treat others the same in this situation. For the test of publicity, ask yourself whether you would want your behavior reported in the press. !e test of universality asks you to assess whether you could recommend the same course of action to another counselor in the same situation.” 29 If the course of action you have selected seems to present new ethical issues, then you will need to go back to the beginning and reevaluate each step of the process. Perhaps you have chosen the wrong option or you might have identified the problem incorrectly. If you can answer in the a*rmative to each of the questions suggested by Stadler (thus passing the tests of justice, publicity, and universality) and you are satisfied that you have selected an plausible

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course of action, then you are ready to implement the agreed upon decision. 6. Implement the course of action. Acting correctly in an ethical dilemma is o&en not easy. However, the implementation will produce the intended courses of actions. 7. The final step involves strengthening your ego to allow you to carry out your plan. A&er implementing your course of action, it is good practice to follow up in order to determine whether your actions had the desired results.30 Conclusion As a summary, the writers propose the basic steps in Ethical Decision Making:

Evaluate the e(ectiveness alternative strategies a&er the identification of the ethical issue/s

Talk to one another, brainstorm possible solutions. Brainstorm is a

process that one’s opinion is respected. !is is a method that every can safely share their thought.

Have a written course of action. Record the possible risks. Be aware

of the benefits as well. Weigh the pros and cons of the decision.

Identify individuals, groups and organizations that will be a(ected

by the decision; utilizing ethical theories/guidelines, codes, laws, practice principles and personal values;

Consult with colleagues and listen to their feedbacks. When

appropriate and needed consult experts. When the dilemma is challenging, confer with a counsellor.

Activate the course of actions and document the decision-making

process. Implementation based on the recorded proposed plans can be productive. If there are time tables, follow them to the letter and monitor implemented plans.

List down the results and record the documents. Evaluate the results

based on the criteria (if there is one). Celebrate (if right) or correction (if wrong). Follow up the consequences of implemented actions with documentations for future use.

Endnotes

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1 Margaret L. Rhodes, Ethical Dilemmas in Social Work Practice (Boston: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1986), 19. 2 Wade L. Robison and Linda Cherrey Reeser, Ethical Decision Making in Social Work (Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 2000), 45. 3 Bruce D. Hartsell, “A Model for Ethical Decision-Making: !e Context of Ethics,” Journal of Social Work Values and Ethics3, no. 1 (Spring 2006), accessed November 7, 2023, https://www.semanticscholar. org/paper/A-Model-for-Ethical-Decision-Making:-!e-Context-ofHartsell/e7f7c7d7013eecc938a01324207efe6cabd79410. 4 Kathleen Boland, “Ethical Decision-Making among Hospital Social Workers,” Journal of Social Work Values and Ethics 3, no. 1 (Spring 2002), accessed November 7, 2023, https://www. semanticscholar.org/paper/Ethical-decision-making-amonghospital-social-Boland/300f9befc0bd9887ba05b766205210837a912 9a0. 5 Howard Goldstein, “Education for Ethical Dilemmas in Social Work Practice,” Families in Society: The Journal of Contemporary Social Services 79, no. 3 (June 1998): 249. 6 Murray Dabby et al., “Ethics as Activity: Buildng Collaborative, Expansive and Just Social Work,” Journal of Social Work Values and Ethics 5, no. 2 (December 6, 2008), accessed November 7, 2023, https://repository.globethics.net/handle/20.500.12424/170944. 7 Juliet Rothman, From the Front Lines: Student Cases in Social Work Ethics, 4th edition. (Boston: Pearson, 2012), 9. 8 James R. Rest, “Research on Moral Development: Implications for Training Counseling Psychologists,” The Counseling Psychologist 12, no. 3 (September 1984): 19–29. 9 Craig E. Johnson, “Ethical Decision Making and Action,” in Ethics in the Workplace: Tools and Tactics for Organizational Transformation (SAGE Publications, 2006), 59–86; James R. Rest, Moral Development: Advances in Research and Theory (Bloomsbury

Academic, 1986); Darcia Narvaez and James R. Rest, Moral Development in the Professions: Psychology and Applied Ethics (L. Erlbaum, 1994). 10 Jane Divita Woody, “Resolving Ethical Concerns In Clinical Practive: Toward A Pragmatic Model,” Journal of Marital and Family Therapy 16, no. 2 (April 1990): 145. 11 Leonard J. Haas and John L. Malouf, Keeping Up the Good Work: A Practitioner’s Guide to Mental Health Ethics, 2nd ed. (Sarasota, Fla: Professional Resource Press, 1995). 12 Karen Strohm Kitchener, “Dual Role Relationships: What Makes !em So Problematic?,” Journal of Counseling & Development 67, no. 4 (December 1988): 219. 13 H. A. Stadler, “Making Hard Choices: Clarifying Controversial Ethical Issues,” Counseling & Human Development 19 (1986): 4; Max Rosenbaum, ed., “Ethical Problems of Group Psychotherapy,” in Ethics and Values in Psychotherapy; A Guidebook (New York: Free Press, 1982), 246. 14 Holly Forester-Miller and !omas Davis, “Group Counseling: Ethics and Professional Issues,” in Introduction to Group Counseling: Strategies for the 1990’s, by David Capuzz and Douglas R. Gross (Denver, CO: Love Publishing Co., 1992). 15 Karen S. Kitchener, “Intuition, Critical Evaluation and Ethical Principles: !e Foundation for Ethical Decisions in Counseling Psychology,” The Counseling Psychologist 12, no. 3 (September 1984): 49. 16 Kitchener., 46. 17 Rothman, From the Front Lines, 11. 18 Alan Gewirth, Reason and Morality (Chicago, Ill.: University of Chicago Press, 1980). 19 Ralph Dolgo(, Donna Harrington, and Frank M. Loewenberg, Brooks/Cole Empowerment Series: Ethical Decisions

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for Social Work Practice, 9th ed. (Belmont, CA: Cengage Learning, 2011). 20 Frederic G. Reamer, Social Work Values and Ethics, 5th ed. (New York: Columbia University Press, 2018), 78. 21 Laura Lee-Swisher, Linda E. Arslanian, and Carol M. Davis, “Process-Situation (RIPS) Model of Ethical Decision-Making,” Health Policy & Administration 5, no. 3 (Otober 2005): 6. 22 Ruth B. Purtilo and Regina F. Doherty, Ethical Dimensions in the Health Professions, 5th edition. (St. Louis, Mo: Saunders, 2010); Laura Lee-Swisher, Linda E Arslanian, and Carol M. Davis, “!e Realm-Individual Process-Situation (RIPS) Model of Ethical Decision-Making,” 2005, 6, accessed November 8, 2023, https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/!eRealm-Individual-Process-Situation-(-RIPS-)-of-Lee-Swisher/ a83a548c3c59e7c7945ca3f0d4b42207dc46e1a4. 23 Lee-Swisher, Arslanian, and Davis, “RIPS Model of Ethical Decision-Making,” 6. 24 Rushworth M. Kidder, How Good People Make Tough Choice: Resolving the Dilemmas of Ethical Living, rev, ed. (Harper Perennial, 2009). 25 Lee-Swisher, Arslanian, and Davis, “RIPS Model of Ethical Decision-Making” 5. 26 Kidder, How Good People Make Tough Choices and LeeSwisher, Arslanian, and Davis, “RIPS Model of Ethical DecisionMaking” 5. 27 Elaine P. Congress, Social Work Values and Ethics: Identifying

and Resolving Professional Dilemmas (Chicago: Cengage Learning, 1999). Dolgo(, Harrington, and Loewenberg, Brooks/Cole Empowerment Series; see also Alex Gitterman and Carel Germain, The Life Model of Social Work Practice: Advances in Theory and Practice, 3rd ed. (New York: Columbia University Press, 2008), 76–77. 28

29 Stadler, “Making Hard Choices: Clarifying Controversial Ethical Issues.” 30 William H. Van Hoose and Louis V. Paradise, Ethics in Counseling and Psychotherapy: Perspectives in Issues and Decision Making : Includes the Ethical Judgment Scale and Manual (Carroll Press, 1979); Frank J. Sileo and Mary Kopala, “An ABCDE Worksheet for Promoting Beneficence When Considering Ethical Issues,” Counseling and Values 37, no. 2 (January 1993): 89–95.

CHAPTER 4 LIVING ETHICALLY Introduction !is chapter is not prescriptive in terms of developing Christian ethics but more of a proposal based on various evangelical approaches and models of ethics. Unqualified Absolutism, Con)icting Absolutism, and Graded Absolutism are the evangelical models of ethics that will be presented in this chapter. A summary of models is a contextualized proposal from the writers in coming up with suggestions on how to develop Christian ethics through an acronym, ETHICS. Evangelical Approaches to Ethics !ere are various evangelical approaches to ethics. !ese differences may not re)ect di(erent moral codes or moral values, but rather are generally due to the di(erent ways scholars understand the Bible. Some scholars find the foundation for ethical values in the Ten Commandments. Some ethical values for Christian behavior are to be revealed in the Kingdom of God as promised by Jesus and made known in the Sermon on the Mount. !ere are those who believe that moral choices are matters of the heart. Moral choices, like so many other types of choices, involve the mind, the a(ections, re)ection or deliberation, and a decision made by the will. Evangelicals believe that the Bible is the active and living Word of God (Heb. 4:12). !is belief is used to establish an account of morality. !e majority of evangelical Christians believe that the climax and fulfillment of the Scriptures is found in the life, death, and resurrection of Jesus Christ. Consequently, Christ is able to o(er forgiveness of sins and eternal life now and in the age to come. !e gospel is good news. Salvation is free. Forgiveness of sin is available. Even with the ups and downs of one’s morality, God’s forgiveness is available at all times.1 1 John 1:9 says that if we confess our sins, Jesus forgives us. Daniel Heimbach provides some features of an evangelical approach to Christian ethics: 53

1. Christian ethics is prescriptive and speculative. 2. Christian ethics is religiously prescriptive and is not secular. 3. Christian ethics involves theology, is religiously prescriptive, and not pantheistic. 4. Christian Ethics is moral theology, not moral philosophy. 5. Christian ethics is transcendent, God-centered, divinely revealed moral theology, not mundane, anthropocentric and humanly generated moral theology. 6. Christian ethics is moral theology specifically revealed by, in, and through the Bible as the Word of God, not merely transcendent, God-centered, divinely revealed moral theology that is not necessarily grounded upon or controlled by the Bible as the Word of God. 7. Christian ethics is Christ-centered, biblically revealed moral theology from God and is interpreted by the Holy Spirit to the believer. 8. Christian ethics is old, because the Bible has been around for a long time 9. !at Christian ethics is universal (for the world), not only for Christians or the Christian community. 10. Christian ethics cannot be changed.2 Evangelical Models of Ethics

!e following three models of ethics fall in the category of evangelical absolutism (absolute standards on which actions are right or wrong regardless of the context of the act). !ey are: 1) Unqualified Absolutism or Non-con)icting Absolutism; 2) Con)icting Absolutism; and 3) Graded Absolutism or the Greater Good view. In absolutism, there are absolute standards that are not only objective features of the world, but they are always binding on all moral agents and can never be overridden by other relevant moral

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or nonmoral concerns. !e fundamental source is the will of God written in the Bible.3 In developing a Christian ethic, Norman Geisler suggests the following distinguishing characteristics:4 1. Christian Ethics Is Based on God’s Will. Christian ethics is a form of commands given by God. An ethical duty is something we should do. It is prescribed by God. Christian ethics is based on God’s will. 2. Christian Ethics Is Absolute. Since God’s moral character does not change (Mal. 3:6; James 1:17), it follows that ethical duties )owing from God’s nature are absolute. !ey are always binding on all people at all times. 3. Christian Ethics Is Based on God’s Revelation. Christian ethics is based on the commands of God, the revelation of which is both general (Rom. 1:19–20; 2:12–15) and special (2:18; 3:2). God has revealed Himself both in nature (Ps. 19:1–6) and in Scripture (Ps. 19:7–14). 4. Christian Ethics Is Prescriptive. Since ethical rightness is prescribed by an ethical God, it is prescriptive. For there is no moral law without a moral Lawgiver. Christians find their ethical duties in the standard for Christians, the Holy Bible. 5. Christian Ethics Is Deontological. Ethical systems can be broadly divided into two categories, deontological (duty centered) and teleological (result-centered). !eological ethics is sometimes called consequentialism, since the value of an act is determined by its consequence. Unqualified Absolutism or Non-conflicting Absolutism !is first ethical model stems from the Anabaptist tradition.5 !e basic premise of Unqualified Absolutism is that all ethical dilemmas just seem real, even though they are not real. Sin is always avoidable. !ere are ethical absolutes that admit of no exceptions, and these absolutes never come into con)ict with one another. On

the classic question as to whether or not one should lie to save a life, the unqualified absolutist answers with an emphatic NO. People who favor this model are Immanuel Kant, John Murray, Walter Kaiser, and John Frame. Norman Geisler provides major premises of Unqualified Absolutism as following: 1. God’s character, which never changes, is the basis of ethical absolutes 2. God has expressed His unchanging ethical character in His law 3. God cannot contradict Himself 4. All moral con)icts are only apparent, not real. 6 !ere are several examples from Scripture that God delivers His faithful from dilemmas. !e pagan king commanded Daniel to violate the law of God by partaking of forbidden meat and wine. But Daniel proposed a third alternative of vegetables and water, which God blessed and which thus brought him into the king’s favor (Daniel 1). It is also said that Sarah followed God’s law and obeyed her husband’s command, trusting that God would intervene and save her from having to commit adultery. God did (Genesis 20). Conflicting Absolutism !is is the second evangelical model. !e main consideration of Con)icting Absolutism is that we live in a fallen world; thus sin is cannot be avoided in ethical con)icts. !ese necessary times of sin are called “choosing the lesser evil.” However, the remedy in these occasions where sin cannot be avoided is the forgiveness of God, who is quite aware of man’s sinful plight and provides a way out: confessing one’s sins (1 John 1:9). People associated with this model are Helmut !ielicke, John Warwick Montgomery, J. I. Packer, E. J. Carnell, and Martin Luther.7 !is ethical model stems from the Lutheran tradition.8 Con)icting Absolutism says that God’s ethical standards are absolute, that is there is never a time when His laws are broken without sin. Yet people do face real ethical dilemmas. !is is because we live in a fallen world. However, such con)icts obligate the

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Christian to choose the lesser evil. For instance, if a lie can save an innocent person from being murdered, then one should choose to lie. Lying is certainly a lesser evil than murder; it is better that a lie occurs than a murder, however sinful the lie is. Finally, forgiveness is not automatic, but available to those who confess and repent.9 !e basic tenets of Con)icting Absolutism are the following: 1. God’s law is absolute and unbreakable (Exod. 20:7; Ps. 19:7, 11; 119:4,160). 2. In a fallen world, con)icts between God’s commands are unavoidable. 3. When moral dilemma occurs, we should do the lesser evil (John 19:11; Matt. 12:32). 4. Forgiveness is available if we confess our sins (1 John 1:9). !e positive points of Con)icting Absolutism are several. First, it is in touch with the real world of moral con)icts; not every decision is perfect and easy. Second, it sees ethical dilemmas as rooted in man’s fallen condition. !ird, it preserves moral absolutes. Fourth, it is always wrong to break an absolute moral law of God; there are no exceptions, exemptions or divine immunity. Fi&h, sin is sin with no exceptions.10 Graded Absolutism or the Greater Good View !is third view advocates the idea that when two or more universal ethical norms come into con)ict, the Christian’s obligation is to follow the higher one. !is position maintains that one is personally guiltless if he or she does the greatest good and chooses the lesser evil in a di*cult scenario. In other words, God grants an exemption to the lower moral law in view of one’s duty to obey the higher one. Graded Absolutism has its origins in the writing of St. Augustine. It was later expressed in the writing of Charles Hodge.11 !is ethical model stems from the Reformed tradition.12 !ere are unavoidable moral con)icts. Some of them are as follows:

1. Abraham/Isaac in Genesis 22: Do not kill vs. kill your son. 2. Samson in Judges 16:30: Do not kill vs. take your life. 3. Jephthah’s sacrifice of his daughter in Judges 11: Keeping a vow to God vs. a command not to kill an innocent life. 4. Hebrew midwives in Exodus 11: Do not lie vs. be merciful. 5. Rahab in Joshua 2: Do not lie vs. be merciful. 6. !e cross: Innocent should not be punished vs. Christ was slain for our sins. 7. !e Jewish captives ignored Nebuchadnezzar’s command to worship the golden image of himself in Daniel 3: Obey government vs. obey God. 8. Daniel disregarded Darius’s command to pray only to him in Daniel 6: Obey government vs. obey God.13

No guilt is imputed for the unavoidable, for logic dictates that God would not hold a person liable for doing what is impossible— taking two opposite courses of action at the same time. Also, one is not morally culpable if he fails to keep an obligation that he could not possibly keep without breaking a higher obligation. !e Bible includes many examples of persons who were praised by God for following their highest duty in situations of con)ict. !e strengths of Graded Absolutism are the following: 1) It has quite a bit of scriptural support; 2) It sees God’s moral law in its entirety as absolute without con)ict. !e con)ict only happens between specific commands; and 3) It can answer many di*cult passages in the Bible with ease, such as David eating the “bread of the presence” (see Mark 2:26). !e weaknesses of Graded Absolutism are the following: 1) It wavers on the absolute nature of specific commands, and 2) It can appear to be a lesser version of situational ethics.14 !ere is scriptural support for Graded Absolutism. One of the favorite proof texts of the graded absolutist is that of Matthew 12:18. David was trapped in a situation in which he and his men would

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have died for lack of food, but he understood that “the Sabbath was made for man, not man for the Sabbath” (Mark 2:27). !is perfectly coincides with Graded Absolutism, which states that people are more important than things, and God is more important than people. !erefore, it is lawful to do good on the Sabbath” (Matthew 12:11– 12). In other words, to “do good on the Sabbath” at the expense of the Sabbath observations is itself a good and lawful thing.15 How to Develop Christian Ethics Having been exposed to some models of evangelical ethics, allow us to provide some guidelines in how to develop Christian ethics in our lives. We will use the acronym ETHICS: Execute Responsibly Making moral decisions requires a mix of types of ethics. No single method of moral reasoning covers the entire range of moral experience or fits every moral question but act responsively. !e ability to make good moral decisions is not genetically inbred at birth or miraculously infused at conversion or baptism. Christian discipleship is a lifelong process. !e believer identifies with Jesus Christ in a community of faith shaped by the biblical story. Character is formed, conduct is informed, and moral vision is developed—a life of ethical integrity unfolds.16 !e mature Christian will evaluate the obligations and duties that apply to the issue faced. Sometimes competing values will require a person to prioritize the moral goods, selecting an option that is the greater good or the lesser evil. A Christian should be able to state the norms, values, principles, and other resources that confirm that a right decision has been made. Take Guidelines Once we understand the issue, the persons involved, and the options available, we are then ready to consider the values that will guide our decision. First, we must heed the moral rules that guide us toward good decisions. Behind every rule there is a reason, a value which can be stated as a principle. Ethical principles act like a compass to direct us toward the good. For Christians, ethical norms

and principles primarily come from the revelation of God in the Bible. Chief among numerous ethical guidelines in the Scriptures are the Ten Commandments (Ex 20:1–17), the Sermon on the Mount (Mt 5–7), the principles of love for God and humanity (Mt 22:3640), and justice (Amos 5:24). Other resources that guide us toward the moral will of God include the Holy Spirit, Christian tradition, experience, reason, conscience, and prayer. Hone Character A beginning point in decision-making to develop character is basic to ethical decision making — being a(ects doing. Character is the inner moral orientation that fashions our lives into predictable patterns. Ethics based on Christian character also gives a certain completeness or wholeness to persons—a spiritual unity at the core of personality. As important as character, the ability to analyze ethical issues and make prudent choices is also vital. Both “being good” and “doing good” are essential in ethics. Like the bow and the violin, the two elements work together to produce the music of a life of moral integrity. Investigate Facts Moral discernment requires an accurate analysis of the pertinent facts. To analyze this moral issue, a person should first gather facts—the biblical, theological, and social data about crime and the Christian response to it. What ethical norms apply? What could be done to prevent crime and to protect victims? If a Christian was confronted by a criminal, what are the possible responses? Which one is best? Communicate Concerns Part of communicating moral concern is to respond critically. Keep the spirit of critical engagement rather than passively disagree through silence. Culturally, we tend to avoid confrontation or disagreement. But the need to say what we ought to express is essential for the concerns that may a(ect others, Elise Springer articulates, “If it is urgent to combat the experience of abject unresponsiveness,

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we do it most e(ectively not by raising our voices, but by finding a glimpses of significance of which we can respond.”17 Seek Results An important test of right choices is to consider what happens a&erward—the results. Anyone interested in doing the right thing must consider consequences, for bringing good to people’s lives is a major part of what morality is about. If what we choose to do brings good results, then we assume we have made a good choice. But how do we know which results are good? Before we depend on results to justify our actions, we need criteria for knowing what is good, better, or best, or maybe what is bad and what is worse. Although results matter and we cannot live by moral rules alone, we must also remember we cannot live by results alone either. !e “lesser evil” is an evil, not a good. !e decision maker should express repentance over the necessity of such a choice and work toward the day when such decisions are unnecessary. !e focus on results can also deceive us into believing “our loving lies” are gallant when they are meant to save us from trouble. Conclusion Christlike character is the goal of all Christian ethics. !is is the maximum point of spiritual growth. We are to “become mature, attaining to the whole measure of the fullness of Christ” (Ephesians 4:13 NIV). !e best starting point of how to be like Christ is appropriating the filling of the Holy Spirit. Galatians 5:22-23 says that “the fruit of the Spirit is love, joy, peace, patience, kindness, goodness, faithfulness, gentleness and self-control” (NIV). Overcome madness with love and sadness with joy. Replace hostility with peace and annoyance with patience. Convert brutality into kindness and wickedness with goodness. Exchange dishonesty for faithfulness, cruelty for gentleness, and pleasure -seeking to self-control. Oh, may our Lord help us all.

Endnotes

1 John Je(erson Davis, Evangelical Ethics: Issues Facing the Church Today, 3rd ed., rev. and expo. (Phillipsburg, N.J: P & R, 2004). 2 Daniel R. Heimbach, “Toward Defining Christian Ethics: An Evaluation of Contrasting Views,” Global Journal of Classical Theology 8, no. 3 (2011) 3 “Moral Absolutism,” The Basics of Philosophy, accessed November 9, 2023, https://www.philosophybasics.com/branch_ moral_absolutism.html. 4 Norman L. Geisler, Christian Ethics: Contemporary Issues and Options, 2nd ed. (Grand Rapids, Mich: Baker Academic, 2010), 16–18. 5 David W. Jones, An Introduction to Biblical Ethics, ed. Daniel Heimbach (B&H Academic, 2013), 97. 6 Geisler, Christian Ethics, 73. 7“Con)icting Absolutism,” http://wordtalkonline.org/ar ticles/C onf lic ting%20 Absolutism.htm. 8 Jones, An Introduction to Biblical Ethics, 89. 9 Ibid 10 Ibid 11 Charles Hodge, Systematic Theology, repr. (Peabody, Mass: Hendrickson Academic, 1999), 437. 12 Jones, An Introduction to Biblical Ethics, 94. 13 “When Biblical Moral Principles Unavoidably Con)ict with Each Other,” Frank Caw, http://www.frankcaw.com/MoralPrinciples-Con)ict.html. 14 Doug Eaton, “Moral Absolutism 4: Graded Absolutism,” Godward Thought, February 15, 2006, accessed November 9, 2023,

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http://godwardthoughts.blogspot.com/2006/02/moral-absolutism4-graded-absolutism.html. 15 Doug Eaton, “Understanding Moral Dilemmas 3: Graded Absolutism,” The Fight of Faith, April 28, 2016, accessed November 9, 2023, https://fighto(aithblog.com/2016/04/28/understandingmoral-dilemmas-3-graded-absolutism/. 16 Joe E. Trull, “Making Moral Decisions: An Artful Ability,” Christian Ethics Today, December 27, 2010, accessed November 9, 2023, https://christianethicstoday.com/wp/making-moraldecisions-an-artful-abilit/. 17 Elise Springer, Communicating Moral Concern: An Ethics of Critical Responsiveness (!e MIT Press, 2013), 264.

CHAPTER 5 LIFE: ABORTION AND SUICIDE Introduction !is chapter covers the ethics of abortion and suicide. !e two issues span the lifetime of a person – from womb to tomb. Abortion and suicide will be defined. !e causes and e(ects of each will be elaborated. Ethical decisions regarding abortion and suicide will be integrated throughout. As a background, Care Ethics and Bioethics will showcase various ethical theories in this chapter. Care Ethics !e ethics of care is a normative ethical theory: that is, a theory about what makes actions right or wrong. It is one of several normative ethical theories that were created by feminists in the second half of the twentieth century. While consequentialist and deontological ethical theories emphasize universal standards, ethics of care emphasize the importance of response. “!e shi& in moral perspective is manifest by a change in the moral question from “what is just?” to “how to respond?”1 Ethics of care criticizes the applications of universal standards as “morally problematic, since it breeds moral blindness or indi(erence.”2 Carol Gilligan, Annette Baier, Virginia Held, Eva Feder Kittay, Sara Ruddick, and Joan Tronto are some of the most in)uential among many subsequent contributors to care ethics. Joan Tronto states there are four ethical elements of care: 1. Attentiveness Attentiveness is important to the ethics of care because care requires a recognition of the other’s needs to care for them. !e question that arises is the distinction between ignorance and inattentiveness. 2. Responsibility 65

In order to care, we must take it upon ourselves to be responsible for others. !e problem associated with this second ethical element of responsibility is the question of obligation. Obligation is o&en tied to pre-established societal and cultural norms and roles. Tronto makes the e(ort to di(erentiate the terms “responsibility” and “obligation” with regard to the ethic of care. Responsibility can be confusing, whereas obligation refers to situations where one must act or react, such as the case of a legal contract. 3. Competence To provide care also means competency. One cannot simply acknowledge the need to care, accept the responsibility, and fail to follow through. 4. Responsiveness !is refers to the “responsiveness of the care receiver to the care.” Tronto states, “Responsiveness signals an important moral problem within care: by its nature, care is concerned with conditions of vulnerability and inequality.” 3 She further argues that responsiveness does not equal reciprocity. Rather, it is another method to understand vulnerability and inequality by understanding what has been expressed by those in the vulnerable position, as opposed to re-imagining oneself in a similar situation.4 !e basic beliefs of the theory are: All individuals are dependent upon one another for achieving their interests. 1. !ose particularly vulnerable to the choices of others and their outcomes deserve extra consideration. 2. It is necessary to deal with the contextual details of the circumstance in order to provide safety and promote the interests of others.5 Medical (Bioethics) Model Hierarchy of Principles

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Today, biological and medical ethical issues are plentiful. !e ethical dilemmas caused by advancement in medical technology have brought about a unique and special model in relation to ethics and morals. While scientific developments in medicine have o(ered expanded opportunities for treatment choices and the potential for longer life, they have also created ethical dilemmas involving issues related to quality of life, informed consent, end-of-life decisionmaking including the provision for or withdrawal of life support, access to health care, and resource allocation.6 !erefore, Beauchamp and Childress developed a medical model of ethics. !e following is their model: Respect for autonomy; 7 Nonmaleficence — do no harm;8 Beneficence — actively pursue the welfare of others;9 and Justice — allocation of resources, fairness, need 10 With the above frameworks, let’s scrutinize abortion. !is will be followed by an analysis of suicide and a particular form: euthanasia, o&en called mercy killing. Abortion Abortion is a controversial subject and is defined in various ways depending one’s views. “Abortion is the intentional termination of a pregnancy a&er conception. It allows women to put an end to their pregnancies, but involves killing the undeveloped embryo or fetus. . . Opponents of abortion rights argue that the embryo or fetus is a person, or at least that the government has a responsibility to ban abortion until it can prove that an embryo or fetus is not a person.”11 Below we will elaborate the issues of abortion, reasons why people do abortion and some theological rationale for why it is wrong. The Issues of Abortion • Academically, the issue of abortion involves the balance of rights and freedoms between the mother and the baby.

• !eologically, there are only two questions: At what point does life (i.e.: do not kill) begin between conception and birth? Is it a sin to abort a fetus? Reasons Why People Want Abortions: A. If these are valid before birth, why not after birth too? • baby conceived outside of wedlock • parents incapable of caring for baby • baby will have inferior quality of life • fetus not able to survive outside body of mother by itself B. Baby conceived as result of rape • extremely rare: 0 pregnancies out of 4500 rape cases • Should a child su(er for sin of another? C. Pregnancy seriously endangers life of mother • abortion permitted because it can be viewed as saving life of mother, otherwise both will die James Melton Provides Ten Bible Reasons Why It Is Wrong: 1. Abortion is an act of murder 2. Abortion involves the shedding of innocent blood. 3. Abortion is a violation of the Golden Rule. 4. Abortion attempts to destroy a work of God. 5. Abortion o&en brings shame, heartache, and deep regret. 6. Abortion annuls a plan of God. 7. Abortion devalues human life. 8. Abortion shows a lack of natural a(ection. 9. Abortion encourages sin.

10. Abortion shows a lack of faith.

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Suicide Each year worldwide approximately one million individuals die of suicide, 10–20 million attempt suicide, and 50–120 million are profoundly a(ected by the suicide or attempted suicide of a close relative or associate. Asia accounts for 60 percent of the world’s suicides, so at least 60 million people are a(ected by suicide or attempted suicide in Asia each year. 13 Despite this, suicide has received relatively less attention in Asia than it has in Europe and North America. Lack of resources and competing priorities in many Asian countries have contributed to this underemphasis. Cultural in)uences, religious sanctions, stigmatization of the mentally ill, political imperatives, and socioeconomic factors have also played a significant role. As a result, the magnitude of the problem is unknown in some Asian countries, and overall e(orts are uncoordinated, under-resourced, and generally unevaluated. 14 Suicide is a major contributor to premature mortality worldwide and is among the leading causes of death in the Western Pacific Region.15 Approximately 32% of the world’s suicides occur in the region, and its annual incidence of 19.3 per 100,000 is 30% higher than the global average.16 While acknowledged as an important and neglected health issue, it remains a low priority in most Western Pacific countries due to competing health problems, stigma and poor understanding of the condition.17 In Asia, it seems like more lethal methods are used like self-burning in India18 and ingestion of pesticides in China. 19 Suicide is a pressing social concern with huge personal costs. However, there appears to be reluctance in research to engage directly with people who may be suicidal, in part because of the formidable ethical problems that are raised.20

Suicide Definitions

It is important to understand the prevalent definitions of suicide. Mayo defined suicide with four elements: (1) a suicide has taken place if death occurs; (2) it must be of one’s own doing; (3) the agency of suicide can be active or passive; (4) it implies intentionally ending one’s own life.21 Silverman and Maris defined suicide as “by definition, not a disease, but a death that is caused by a self-in)icted intentional action or behavior.”22 WHO defined suicide as “!e act of killing oneself deliberately initiated and performed by the person concerned in the full knowledge or expectation of its fatal outcome.”23 Bottom line, suicide is a self-action of any means that can in)ict the cessation of one’s life. Warning Signs Maureen Underwood and John Kalafat describe five warning signs to when a person is considering committing suicide. !e use of the acronym F (Feelings) A (Actions) C (Changes) T (!reats) and S (Situations) will help in remembering what signs to look for when confronted with a person who has suicidal tendencies. Feelings–Untreated depression is considered the single most significant risk factor for completed suicide in adolescents. A teen may express depression in feelings of sadness, lethargy, hopelessness, loneliness, guilt, shame, anxiety or worry. O&en there is an expression of self-deprecation that will never change – “I’ll always be a loser.” Actions–!e behavior of teens is important to consider because depression in teens is o&en masked by use of drugs and alcohol, which become very dangerous. Depression is also masked by irritability, cutting school, problems and “acting out” behavior. !is can show as risk-taking behavior, promiscuity, and defiance of curfews or parental requests. Too o&en the teen’s provocative behavior results in cycles of fighting and animosity that create distance between parent and teen. – “Just leave me alone – Get off my back!” Changes—At times, no one knows their teen like the parent. Changes in personality and day-to-day patterns of sleeping, eating,

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involvement with friends, interest in activities, and sudden elation a&er being depressed are signs that warrant attention. Threats–Any verbalized or veiled threat like “Who cares if I’m dead or alive, anyway?” said directly, posted on Facebook, sent as emails or sudden interest in death and dying in the news, removal of prescription medication from its usual spot etc., cannot be ignored. Situations of Risk- there are certain situations that may jeopardize a teen’s coping capacity and increase the chances of feeling there is no solution–no way to stop the pain.24 A study has shown that had 314 university student participants (71 males and 243 females) revealed that life satisfaction and selfesteem were independent predictors of lower levels of hopelessness, while perception of social support seemed to be the major predictor of lower levels of suicidal ideation. !is means that hopelessness seems to be minimized by the level of life satisfaction and level of self-esteem exhibited by the individuals. !e main factor which led to suicidal ideation was the perception of social support.25 Prevention Method !e US Navy Reserves and US Marine Corps Reserve have come with the following mnemonics to help the counselor prevent suicide: CLUES and RACE. Connect. Make contact with the person. Actively show that you hear what is being said and understand that his or her pain is real. Listen. Listen very carefully. You don’t have to have all the answers just be there and let him or her know that you care. Understand. Don’t tell him or her how s/he should feel or what s/he should do. Just express your desire to support and help understand what s/he is feeling. Re)ect what is said back to the person. Express concerns. Let the person know that you are worried and want to help. Tell the person that you are available to help if needed. Seek help. !e person’s safety is the number one priority, and you might not be able to handle it on your own. Talk with the person

about seeking help, either through a doctor (preferred, if you discover they have a plan, the means, and the intention of carrying it out) or clergy. Suicidal thoughts cannot be kept a secret.26 RECOGNIZE: Observe and understand the signs of distress. Changes in personality, emotions, behavior, withdrawal from relationships, and changes in eating or sleeping patterns can all be signs of distress or possible suicide. ASK: Ask about the changes occurring. In an unobtrusive manner ask why the person seems distressed, and most importantly, ask directly if the person is thinking of killing or hurting themselves. CARE: Show the individual you care. Listen without prejudice, and use resources such as the chaplain or emergency services. ESCORT: Escort the person in distress to help. Make them feel safe and never leave the individual alone until they have professional help.27 Conclusion A&er reading this chapter covering the ethics of abortion and suicide, we are hoping that as a minister you value life and those you minister to. Life is short, and still, many fall short of God’s standard. Salvation is our best o(er to all people. Enjoy life, and be excited about your eternal life.

Endnotes

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1 Carol Gilligan, “Moral Orientation and Moral Development,” in Justice and Care: Essential Readings in Feminist Ethics, ed. Virginia Held, by Virginia Held (Routledge, 1995), 469, accessed November 9, 2023, https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/9780429968013. 2 Ibid., 471. 3 Joan Toronto, “An Ethic of Care,” in Feminist Theory: A Philosophical Anthology, ed. Ann Cudd and Robin Andreasen (Oxford, UK ; Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell, 2005), 255–256. 4 Ibid. 5 Gillian M. Proctor, Values and Ethics in Counselling and Psychotherapy (London, England ; !ousand Oaks, California: SAGE Publications Ltd, 2014), 49. 6 Susan S. Manning, “!e Social Worker as Moral Citizen: Ethics in Action,” Social Work 42, no. 3 (May 1, 1997): 226. 7 Tom Beauchamp and James Childress, “Principles of Biomedical Ethics : Marking Its Fortieth Anniversary,” The American Journal of Bioethics 19, no. 11 (November 2, 2019): 120. 8 Ibid., 190. 9 Ibid., 260. 10 Ibid., 327–333. 11 Linda Napikoski, “Abortion on Demand: A Second Wave Feminist Demand,” ThoughtCo, September 17, 2019, accessed November 9, 2023, https://www.thoughtco.com/abortion-ondemand-3528233. 12 James L. Melton, “ABORTION: Ten Bible Reasons Why It Is Wrong,” last modified 1996, accessed November 9, 2023, https:// www.biblebelievers.com/jmelton/abortion.html. 13A. L. Beautrais, “Suicide in Asia,” Crisis 27, no. 2 (March 2006): 56.

14 Lakshmi Vijayakumar et al., “Suicide in Developing Countries (1): Frequency, Distribution, and Association with Socioeconomic Indicators,” Crisis 26, no. 3 (May 2005): 107. 15 Diego De Leo, Allison Milner, and Wang Xiangdong, “Suicidal Behavior in the Western Pacific Region: Characteristics and Trends,” Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior 39, no. 1 (February 2009): 72–81; Maria !eresa Redaniel, May Antonnette LebananDalida, and David Gunnell, “Suicide in the Philippines: Time Trend Analysis (1974-2005) and Literature Review,” BMC Public Health 11, no. 1 (December 2011): 536. 16 Herbert Hendin et al., eds., “Suicide and Suicide Prevention in Asia / Edited by Herbert Hendin ... [et Al],” World Health Organization (2008), accessed November 9, 2023, https://iris.who. int/handle/10665/43929. 17 World Health Organization, “Meeting on Suicide Prevention in the Western Pacific Region” (Geneva, World Health Organization, August 2005). 18 Virendra Kumar, “Burnt Wives—a Study of Suicides,” Burns 29, no. 1 (February 2003): 31–35. 19 Sing Lee and Arthur Kleinman, “Suicide as Resistance in Chinese Society,” in Chinese Society: Change, Conflict and Resistance, eds. Elizabeth J. Perry and Mark Selden (Routledge, 2010), 292, accessed November 9, 2023, https://www.taylorfrancis. com/books/9781135149291; Matthew K. Nock et al., “Suicide and Suicidal Behavior,” Epidemiologic Reviews 30, no. 1 (May 14, 2008): 145. 20 Richard Lakeman and Mary FitzGerald, “!e Ethics of Suicide Research: !e Views of Ethics Committee Members,” Crisis 30, no. 1 (January 2009): 13–19; SK Goldsmith et al., eds., Reducing Suicide: A National Imperative (Washington, D.C.: National Academies Press, 2002), accessed November 9, 2023, http://www. nap.edu/catalog/10398.

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21 David J. Mayo, “What Is Being Predicted?: !e Definition of ‘Suicide’” in Assessment and Prediction of Suicide, ed. Ronald W. Maris and American Association of Suicidology (New York: Guilford Pr, 1992), 98. 22 M. M. Silverman and R. W. Maris, “!e Prevention of Suicidal Behaviors: An Overview,” Suicide & Life-Threatening Behavior 25, no. 1 (1995): 10. 23 Diego De Leo et al., “Definitions of Suicidal Behavior: Lessons Learned from the WHO/EURO Multicentre Study,” Crisis 27, no. 1 (2006): 4–15. 24 Maureen Underwood and John Kalafat, Ph. D. Lifelines: A Suicide Prevention Program, Pap/Cdr/Dv edition. (Hazelden, 2009), 16; see also Maureen Underwood. “Suicide Prevention in Schools,” Issue Brief for Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration 1-10. Internet. Found at https://sss.usf.edu/resources/ presentations/2018/fadss2018/issuebrief.pdf. 25 Andrea P. Chioqueta and Tore C. Stiles, “!e Relationship between Psychological Bu(ers, Hopelessness, and Suicidal Ideation: Identification of Protective Factors,” Crisis 28, no. 2 (2007): 71. 26 Catherine Boswell, “How to Prevent a Suicide,” wikiHow, last modified November 5, 2023, accessed November 9, 2023, https:// www.wikihow.com/Prevent-a-Suicide. 27 PHOP, “Suicide Awareness and Prevention,” USNR/USMCR Psychological Health Outreach Program, September 2021.

CHAPTER 6 LEISURE: GAMBLING AND ALCOHOL Introduction Because the topics of gambling and alcohol touch the physical and psychological aspects of the person, this chapter will discuss addiction and the brain. Gambling and alcohol and gambling will be defined operationally. !e causes and e(ects of the mentioned variables will be expanded. Ethical decision-making and helps will be integrated. As a backdrop, Hedonistic Utilitarian theory and Egoism will explain why people act the way they do. Hedonistic Utilitarianism Hedonism is a school of thought that promotes pleasure as the only intrinsic good. In very simple terms, a hedonist strives to maximize pleasure (pleasure minus pain). Ethical hedonism is the idea that all people have the right to do everything in their power to achieve the greatest amount of pleasure possible to them.1 !e deontological ethics of Kant and the ethical theory of utilitarianism are very di(erent. Below is a chart comparing Kantianism and utilitarianism. 2 Details Kantianism Absent Explicit and direct appeal to consequences in determining right or wrong Motive for Action Sole Importance No Permit sacrifice of individuals or minorities to collective self interest Duty Ethics of: 77

Yes

Utilitarianism

Incidental Yes

Welfare

!eory: Formulations on:

Non Consequentialism (Deontological) Sense of Duty, Categorical imperative maxim

Common good must Yes have priority over everything else

Consequentialism Utility,Maximize happiness, Hedonism No

Egoism Egoism is the idea that ethics begins with the self-interest of a person or an organization.3 Egoists are those who determine the ethical value of a behavior based on the principle of personal gain.4 An egoist would say that an action is ethically correct if it helps in attaining one’s long-term goal and an action is ethically wrong if it does not help in attaining the goal.5 Personal egoists attend to their own self-interest but do not make the overall claim that all people should do the same. Impersonal egoists say that the pursuit of one’s self-interest should encourage other people’s behavior.6 Egoists do not necessarily care only about getting pleasure (hedonism) or behave dishonestly and maliciously toward others. Egoists can help other people if doing so helps them achieve pleasure.7 Psychological Egoism. Psychological egoism is a theory of egoism which is o&en justified on the ground that human beings are essentially selfish. Even acts of self-sacrifice are inherently selfregarding insofar as they are motivated by a conscious or unconscious concern with one’s own advantage.8 David Hume in his Enquiry Concerning the Principles of Morals, o(ers six rebuttals of what he calls the “selfish hypothesis.” First, Hume argues that self-interest goes against ethical ideas that may promote one to care for others and may encourage one’s actions towards others. !ese moral sentiments include love, friendship, compassion, and gratitude. Second, psychological egoism tries to

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reduce a person’s motivation to a single cause, which is a meaningless task. !ird, there is proof that animals act kindly towards one another, and if it is admitted that animals can act selfishly, then how can it be denied in people? Fourth, the ideas we use to describe kind behavior have meaning. Any attempt to create a false personal interest, as the psychological egoist will attempt, proves meaningless. Fi&h, Hume asserts that we have reasons to promote ourselves. Finally, Hume claims there are a su*cient number of reasons to create a wide possibility of ethical behavior, allowing one person to be called cruel and another kind; and he claims that the latter is to be preferred over the former. 9 Ethical Egoism. Ethical egoism, as a category of moral philosophies, was introduced by the philosopher Henry Sidgwick (May 31, 1838 – August 28, 1900) in his The Methods of Ethics, written in 1874. Sidgwick compared egoism to the philosophy of utilitarianism, writing that whereas utilitarianism sought to increase overall pleasure, egoism focused only on maximizing personal pleasure.10 Ethical egoism claims that for an action to be morally, it must maximize a person’s self-interest. In the words of James Rachels, “Ethical egoism…endorses selfishness, but it doesn’t endorse foolishness.” 11 Rational Egoism. Rational egoism claims that the agent of one’s own interests relates to one’s reason. !e greatest proponent of rational egoism is Ayn Rand, whose The Virtue of Selfishness outlines the logic that promotes this theory. Rand argues that: first, selfishness rejects the sacrificial morals of the West’s Judeo-Christian heritage on the basis that it is right for man to live his own life. Rand argues, secondly, that selfishness is a proper virtue to pursue.12 Conditional egoism. Adam Smith (1723–1790) was the main promoter of classical capitalism who said that society can prosper if businesses are le& to freely seek their self-interests. !is is called conditional egoism. Conditional egoism is ethically right if it leads to ethically acceptable results. For example, self-interested actions can be accepted if they lead to the improvement of society as a whole; the main test resides not on whether the action is selfish, but on whether

society is improved as a result. A famous example of this kind of thinking is from Adam Smith’s The Wealth of Nations, in which Smith outlines the positive attributes resulting from personal actions.13 An example of conditional egoism is Adam Smith’s “Invisible Hand” type of argument. Adam Smith is thought to promote the idea that when all people pursue their own goals, the result will be the maximization of the goals of society. !e invisible hand of the free market will transform the individual’s pursuit of gain into the general improvement of society. !is is the invisible hand argument. 14 Gambling can be an example of Hedonism and Egoism. Gambling Gambling is a risk. Various kinds of gambling are available in the Philippines, from small time cards to big-time casino. L. M. Starkey, Jr., has made the following respected remark: Life does have its normal risks which one must accept with faith and courage. !ese normal risks are in no sense equivalent to the risks in a game of chance. Gambling devises artificial risks in the hope of excessive gain far beyond what the investment of time, money, or skill would justify. In gambling the chance is unrelated to any creative e(ort called for by the farmer or the stockbroker in the responsible investment of his mental, monetary, and physical funds.15

Gambling is a destructive force in society; it is deadly to the best interests of ethical, social, economic and spiritual life, and destroys a moral government. As an act of faith, Christians should stop gambling and should try to help those hurt by the practice of gambling.16 Gambling has emerged as a significant public health issue for many groups in society.17 Gamblers can recognize that they have a problem when they devote most of their financial resources and time to gambling, resulting in problems for the gambler as well as for all those associated with them. 18 One indicator is the unexplained desire to gamble. Pathological gambling has symptoms that resemble some substance use disorders.19 Similar to the study reported by

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Cunningham-Williams and colleagues, Welte and colleagues also discovered that pathological gambling grew with increasing alcohol intake. !ose individuals with increased social status, alcohol dependence and pathological gambling were found to have a strong relationship.21 Partners of people with gambling problems can be especially vulnerable. !e negative impacts of gambling problems on spouses o&en include financial losses due to gambling debt, mental and social anxiety, and arguments in the home as well as in other relationships. It also makes it di*cult to handle stressed children, dealing with legal and financial problems, and fulfilling the responsibilities of one’s spouse.22 20

Gambling problems can also destroy relationships. !is is because the gambling partner has demonstrated trust-breaking behavior through acts of lying and betrayal.23 According to the National Gambling Impact Study Commission, “children of compulsive gamblers are o&en prone to su(er abuse, as well as neglect, as a result of parental problems or pathological gambling.” 24 Theology of Gambling Gambling is a deterrent from loving God completely.25 !e story of the casting of lots for Jesus’ clothing illuminates several truths. First, gambling ultimately destroys life as a gi& by believing falsely that it can be possessed. !is perverts the wonderful blessings of God that only comes by relationship. Life is more than something that can be possessed and traded in for happiness. Second, just as it was two thousand years ago, gambling excludes the poor.26 !ere is only one story in the Christian gospels that deals with gambling. It happens a&er the death of Jesus. His death appeared to be the death of a miraculous abundance that was generated not by acts of possession, but by acts of self-giving and sharing.27 !eologically, gambling is wrong for several reasons: • Not justified by the casting of lots. In Biblical times, lots functioned much like dice. !e roll of those dice indicated a certain meaning. When the people had to make an

important decision and could not fully determine God’s will, He sovereignly caused the lots to fall in such a way as to tell His people what He wanted them to do. No one ever put something of value up as collateral with the possibility of losing it. • Denies the reality of God’s sovereignty. Chance is the idea that things happen without purpose, which is a denial of God’s sovereignty. God is always in control; therefore, chance, which is the basis of gambling, distorts the true nature of God’s sovereignty. !e Lord has established His throne in the heavens, and His sovereignty rules over all (Ps. 103:19). • Builds on irresponsible stewardship. Using God’s resources and blessings in a wrongful way by placing it on the altar of luck or chance is called idolatry. !e Bible says that we are not to have other gods except for the one true God. Gambling makes idols for people that destroy one’s relationship with the one true God as well as makes a person become a bad steward for God. Nothing we have really belongs to us; it belongs to God, and we should use all of it to His glory (Matt. 6:19-20). • !e eroding of the Biblical work ethic. We are to earn an honest living through hard work (Gen. 3:19) and not from the roll of the dice. !e addictive gambling process negates the good that an earned income one has. • Driven by the sin of covetousness. Gambling goes against the tenth commandment (Ex. 20:17). It presupposes that God is not supplying our needs and that these unsupplied riches will improve the quality of our lives, even though they will not. • Builds on the exploitation of others. Gambling takes advantage of those who need money the most and breaks the eighth commandment, you shall not steal (Ex. 20:15).28 God is not a God of chance. God is a God of order and careful planning. God provides His children with their needs, and His children are to trust and have faith in God to do so.29

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Reasons and Recovery from Gambling

Gamblers do not change their behavior easily. Learning why people gamble is a beginning point for a behavioral change. Below is a table that provides the reasons why a person gambles and a purpose that could be implemented to change the gambler’s behavior. !is behavioral substitution is important for a gambler to stop being an addict.30 Gambling Purposes To provide excitement, get a rush of adrenaline To be more social, overcome shyness or isolation

To numb unpleasant feelings, not think about problems Boredom or loneliness

To relax a&er a stressful day

To solve money problems

Substitute Purposes for Behavioral Change Sport or a challenging hobby, such as mountain biking, rock climbing, or Go-Kart racing Counseling, enroll in a public speaking class, join a social group, connect with family and friends, volunteer, find new friends !erapy, consult Help guide’s Bring Your Life into Balance toolkit Find something you’re passionate about such as art, music, sports, or books, then find others with the same interests As little as 15 minutes of daily exercise can relieve stress. Or deep breathing, meditation, or massage !e odds are always stacked against you, so it’s far better to seek help with debts from a credit counselor

Tools for Families of Problem Gamblers

!ere are several things families, especially the partner of the gambler, can do to help the gambler see the problems that he is creating through his gambling problem. Start by helping yourself. You have a right to protect yourself emotionally and financially. Don’t blame yourself for the gambler’s problems. !e right support can help you make positive choices for yourself, and balance encouraging your loved one to get help without losing yourself in the process. Seek support. It can feel so overwhelming coping with a loved one’s problem gambling that it may seem easier to rationalize their requests and problems “this one last time.” Or you might feel ashamed, feeling like you are the only one who has problems like this. Reaching out for support will make you realize that many families have struggled with this problem. Set boundaries in managing money. If a loved one is serious about getting help for problem gambling, it may help if you take over the family finances to make sure the gambler stays accountable and to prevent relapse. However, this does not mean you are responsible for micromanaging the problem gambler’s impulses to gamble. Your first responsibilities are to ensure that your own finances and credit are not at risk. Study how you will handle requests for money. Problem gamblers o&en become very good at asking for money, either directly or indirectly. !ey may use pleading, manipulation or even threats and blaming to get it. It takes time and practice to learn how you will respond to these requests to ensure you are not enabling the problem gambler and keeping your own dignity intact.31 Dos and Don’ts for Partners of Problem Gamblers Do Pursue the support of others with similar problems

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Address the problem gambling to the children

Recognize your partner’s good qualities Tell your partner that you are seeking help because of the way gambling a(ects you and the children Safeguard family finances Do not Preach, lecture, or allow yourself to lose control of your anger Avoid threats or issue ultimatums unless you intend to carry them out Reject and exclude the gambler from family life and activities Try to bail out the gambler Spurn the existence of the problem to yourself, the family, or others32 How to Prevent Gambling As a person, the best prevention is never to start. It’s truly destructive; I (Michael) did intensive research of this topic during my doctoral program, and much research revealed the exacting e(ects of gambling to the person and to their significant others. I (Lizette) had to cry with a friend whose husband was an addict to gambling. As a minister/counselor, PREVENTION is the best action:

Pray for God’s power. Bathe everything in prayer. Ask God to give

wisdom to those making decisions about gambling. Ask Him to raise up the leadership to oppose gambling, and pray that you will be victorious.

Ready oneself as apologist. Be prepared to o(er Biblical, economic,

and social reasons to reject gambling. Improve your skills as an apologist on top of your cognitive knowledge.

Educate children early about the danger of gambling. Include the

mental, physical, emotional and spiritual causes and e(ects of gambling in one’s life. Prevention is still the best education.

Voice out with civic and community organizations that gambling

is wrong. Discourage sponsorship of gambling-type activities. Be prepared to o(er alternative suggestions for fundraising and community activities.

Educate church people about gambling. Provide information about

gambling to the members of your church. Ask your pastor or other church sta( member about giving out free anti-gambling literature.

Nurture positive leisure as an alternative to gambling. Provide

wholesome recreational activities in your church and community. Initiate physical programs for exercise.

Teach the danger of gambling as addictive. Expose your people to

the way the brain functions emotionally and mentally in the highs and lows of gambling addicts.

Involve yourself in the protest of gambling. Oppose any e(ort to

further legalize gambling. Personally “parade” with protesters and sponsor youth to get involved.

Observe anti-gambling Sunday in your church. Request the pastor

to preach a message about gambling. Encourage Sunday school teachers to teach a lesson against gambling.

Notify public o*cials in positions where they must publicly take a

stand on the issue of gambling.33

Alcohol Abuse Progressive increases in the frequency and quantity of alcohol consumption can begin to produce more serious medical symptoms of alcoholism. Alcohol abusers o&en maintain some capacity to recognize situations that lead to overconsumption, and to regulate their alcohol intake. Signs of alcohol ABUSE include: Abundant amount consumed, and loss of control or consciousness once they are drinking

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Behaviors that carry risk of legal, financial and/or health consequences for themselves and others Unexpected expressions of anger or other emotions, especially in inappropriate settings Several instances or even regular inattention to family and professional obligations Extended insomnia, which may be followed by oversleeping34 Signs of Alcohol Dependence (Alcoholism) Untreated alcohol abuse can lead to an addiction to alcohol composed of physical dependency and the inability to stop despite the negative results. Once the alcoholic begins drinking, alcoholics have little to no control over the amount they drink. Alcohol dependence reveals that the alcoholic has made obtaining and consuming alcohol a major focus of his life. Signs and symptoms of alcohol dependence indicate a serious medical illness: • Significant hangovers, and increase in time needed to recover from a&er-e(ects of alcohol use • Increased amount of alcohol consumed because of increased tolerance; or decrease in the e(ects of alcohol use without substantial increases in the amount consumed • Reduced attention to personal and professional responsibilities • Acknowledgement of side e(ects of medical complications from alcoholism • Repeated unsuccessful e(orts to reduce alcohol consumption • Withdrawal symptoms when unable to consume alcohol Withdrawal Symptoms of Alcoholism Long-term alcohol abuse and addiction put the user at risk for serious medical consequences if they attempt to stop alcohol consumption without proper medical advice and supervision. Alcoholism

withdrawal symptoms indicate advanced addictive disease, and should not be dismissed: • Tremors, convulsions, or uncontrolled shaking of the hands (or even the entire body) • • • • • •

Profuse sweating, even in cold conditions Extreme agitation or anxiety Persistent insomnia Nausea or vomiting Seizures Hallucinations

Alcohol detoxification poses greater health risks than with other drugs. A sudden discontinuation of alcohol consumption can o&en induce a condition known as delirium tremens. A person can die as a direct result of alcohol withdrawal. Generally, medical detoxification is needed to safely discontinue heavy drinking.35 Conclusion Addiction may happen to anyone. Because of this, abstinence is still the best advice to any addictive leisure. Relapse is reasonable to any recovery. !us, encouragement is expected in order to build the confidence of victims with weak emotional essence. Arrange wholesome leisure activities that are physically beneficial, like sports and exercise, which that produce endorphins. It is called endogenous morphine. !ey make you feel good. It is natural “drug” for wellness. Rest and recreation are essential to all. Spiritual re)ection can also help in developing faith and spirituality. Prevention is still the best way to battle unwholesome recreation that can be addictive such as gambling and alcohol.

Endnotes

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1 Torbjorn Tannsjo, Hedonistic Utilitarianism (Edinburgh University Press, 2019). 2 Dietmar von der Pfordten, “Five Elements of Normative Ethics — A General !eory of Normative Individualism,” Ethical Theory and Moral Practice 15, no. 4 (August 1, 2012): 449–471. 3 Laurence !omas, “Ethical Egoism and Psychological Dispositions,” American Philosophical Quarterly 17, no. 1 (1980): 75. 4 James Rachels, “Ethical Egoism,” in The Elements of Moral Philosophy (McGraw-Hill College, 1999), 69. 5 Terrance C. McConnell, “!e Argument from Psychological Egoism to Ethical Egoism,” Australasian Journal of Philosophy 56, no. 1 (May 1978): 45. 6 Joshua May, “Egoism, Empathy, and Self–Other Merging,” !e Southern Journal of Philosophy 49, no. s1 (September 2011): 35. 7 Noor Ahmad, Mahfooz Ansari, and Rehana Aafaqi, “Ethical Reasoning: !e Impact Of Ethical Dilemma, Egoism and Belief in Just World,” Asian Academy of Management Journal 10 (January 1, 2005): 92. 8 Joel Feinberg and Russ Shafer-Landau, “Psychological Egoism,” in Reason and Responsibility: Readings in Some Basic Problems of Philosophy, 15th ed. (Australia: Wadsworth Publishing, 2013), 526. 9 Alexander Moseley, “Egoism,” Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy A Peer-Reviewed Academic Resource, n.d., https://iep. utm.edu/egoism/. 10 Richard Kraut, “Egoism and Altruism,” in Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy (London: Routledge, 2016), accessed November 9, 2023, https://www.rep.routledge.com/articles/ thematic/egoism-and-altruism/v-1.

11 James Rachels and Stuart Rachels, The Truth about the World: Basic Readings in Philosophy, 3rd ed. (McGraw Hill, 2011), 534. 12 Moseley, “Egoism.” 13 Jack Russell Weinstein, “Smith, Adam | Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy,” Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy A Peer-Reviewed Academic Resource, n.d., accessed November 9, 2023, https://iep.utm.edu/smith/. 14 John D. Bishop, “Adam Smith’s Invisible Hand Argument,” Journal of Business Ethics 14, no. 3 (1995): 173. 15 Lycurgus M. Starkey, “Money, Mania, and Morals : !e Churches and Gambling,” application/pdf (1964): 11038193 bytes. 16 Rex M. Rogers, Gambling: Don’t Bet on It, Rev ed. edition. (Grand Rapids, MI: Kregel Publications, 2005), 64. 17 David A. Korn and Howard J. Sha(er, “Gambling and the Health of the Public: Adopting a Public Health Perspective,” Journal of Gambling Studies 15, no. 4 (December 1, 1999): 312. 18 Penelope N. Neal, P. Delfabbro, and M. O’Neil, “Problem Gambling and Harm: Towards a National Definition,” 2005, accessed November 9, 2023, https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/ Problem-gambling-and-harm%3A-Towards-a-national-Neal-Delfa bbro/24dfce5370a6efe131b70dc97b7dd589114e7b6e. 19 Nancy M. Petry, “How Treatments for Pathological Gambling Can Be Informed by Treatments for Substance Use Disorders.,” Experimental and Clinical Psychopharmacology 10, no. 3 (August 2002): 188; Vance V. MacLaren, Kevin A. Harrigan, and Michael Dixon, “Gambling Motives and Symptoms of Problem Gambling in Frequent Slots Players,” Journal of Gambling Issues, no. 27 (October 1, 2012): 1–13, accessed November 9, 2023, https:// cdspress.ca/?p=8264.

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20 R. M. Cunningham-Williams et al., “Problem Gambling and Comorbid Psychiatric and Substance Use Disorders among Drug Users Recruited from Drug Treatment and Community Settings,” Journal of Gambling Studies 16, no. 4 (2000): 1093–1096. 21 John Welte et al., “Alcohol and Gambling Pathology among U. S. Adults: Prevalence, Demographic Patterns and Comorbidity,” Journal of Studies on Alcohol 62, no. 5 (2001): 709. 22 Ruth Grant Kalischuk et al., “Problem Gambling and Its Impact on Families: A Literature Review,” International Gambling Studies 6, no. 1 (2006): 64. 23 Carolyn Downs and Ryan Woolrych, “Gambling and Debt: !e Hidden Impacts on Family and Work Life,” Community, Work & Family 13, no. 3 (2010): 317; Louise Holdsworth et al., “Impacts of Gambling Problems on Partners: Partners’ Interpretations,” Asian Journal of Gambling Issues and Public Health 3, no. 1 (June 20, 2013): 1–14. 24 Douglas Fisher, Chris Carlisle, and Steven Abdow, “A !eology of Casino Gambling: Turning Bad News for the Poor to Good News for the Poor,” Episcopal News Service, July 26, 2013, accessed November 9, 2023, https://www.episcopalnewsservice.org/ pressreleases/a-theology-of-casino-gambling/. 25 Bob Terry, “If Only the Bible Said . . .,” Center for Christian Ethics at Baylor University (2011): 78. 26 Fisher, Carlisle, and Abdow, “A !eology of Casino Gambling: Turning Bad News for the Poor to Good News for the Poor.” 27 Ibid. 28 John McArthur, “Five Reasons Gambling Is Wrong,” Grace to You, accessed November 9, 2023, https://www.gty.org/library/ articles/A157/. 29 John MacArthur, Whose Money Is It Anyway? (Nashville: W Pub Group, 2000), 161–168.

30 “Gambling Addiction and Problem Gambling,” Https:// www.Helpguide.Org, last modified June 21, 2023, accessed November 9, 2023, https://www.helpguide.org/articles/addictions/gamblingaddiction-and-problem-gambling.htm. 31 Ibid. 32 Adapted from “What Is Gambling Disorder?,” accessed November 9, 2023, https://www.psychiatry.org:443/patientsfamilies/gambling-disorder/what-is-gambling-disorder. 33 Adapted from Paul Gri*n Jones II, ed., Tables of Fortune: Lost Hope-- Lost Lives, Gambling in America, 2nd ed. (Jackson, MS: !istle : Christian Action Commission, 1999), 50–51. 34 “Alcohol Addiction Signs & Symptoms,” Timberline Knolls Residential Treatment Center, accessed November 9, 2023, https://www.timberlineknolls.com/drug-addiction/alcohol-usetreatment/. 35 Ibid.

CHAPTER 7 LEARNING: PLAGIARISM AND PIRACY Introduction Learning is admirable. Lifelong learning is a great goal. However, there are possible ethical issues involved. !is is especially true with writings, teaching or preaching where works used are not properly cited. Citation is giving credit where it is due. !e advent of technology makes acquisition of information just a “click away.” An article asked, “Why learn anything when information is just an Internet search away?”1 Yes, the temptations that make learning easy but ethically questionable are what we will tackle in the next few pages. Technological Ethics is the backdrop of this chapter. Technological Ethics Technological ethics or techno ethics is a field that has diverse ethical issues related to technology and practices related to technology within the society.2 !e field examines all social and ethical issues related to technological advancement, research and development, and administration of science and technology in society.3 Cybernetics is a classic issue resulting from technology that allows people to have fast and easy access through the internet. Norbert Wiener created his theory of automated information synthesis which he termed Cybernetics.4 Now, that theory is a reality. !e continual cut and paste to disseminate knowledge is happening. Bynum said that it is still possible to be a part of the direction that technology is taking to provide the ethical standards that are needed.5 Technology and the Internet, in particular, bring more wonderful access to the world’s knowledge and events at a faster pace. Technology brings about new issues related to speech, advertising, and other issues. “With new technologies come new exposures,” says Vivian Weil, a professor of ethics at the Illinois Institute of Technology. “!ere are new opportunities for companies to intrude 93

one way or another on what people think is right, and these pitfalls are unfamiliar.”6 Historically, the ethical aspects of computing start with the entrance of the digital age and were expressed by Norbert Wiener.7 !e research in information system (IS) began in the 1980s and still continues on to this day. Techno ethics involves issues related to copyright for articles and books online in order to avoid cybercrimes as well as unprofessional journalism and privacy rights. Topics of computer ethics are: privacy, security, cybercrime, copyright issues, freedom of speech, and the ability to access this information. 8 Two specific issues covered in this chapter are plagiarism and piracy. Plagiarism !e age of technology brings with it the ability to plagiarize where the copying and pasting of information is so easy. !us, lying and cheating in regards to plagiarism is at an all- time high. Professors and teachers these days assume that some of their students are committing academic the&. Plagiarism is academic the& because it involves using someone else’s ideas without giving proper citation. Plagiarism is not only found in the academic world. It has been discovered that politicians and professionals plagiarize. Plagiarism has increased through the computer option of copy and paste. !is option makes plagiarism simpler and faster. Plagiarism is increasingly becoming a problem, mainly due to the Internet.9 In fairness to some who do not understand what plagiarism includes, a typology of plagiarists is as follows: 1. !e Unconscious Plagiarist with their thought process: “I didn’t remember that I read it somewhere.” Or “Isn’t this all just common knowledge?” 2. !e Ignorant Plagiarist with their thought process: “I put the citation in the reference list at the end.” Or “I didn’t know.” 3. !e Con Artist as Plagiarist with thought process: “I can change the paper enough that no one will figure out the

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source.” !is manifestation and subsequent detection of the “Con Artist” generally produces no angst in faculty. 4. !e !oughtful !ief with thought process: “I knew they wouldn’t mind if I used their paper.” Usually the original author was not asked for permission. 5. !e Big Spender with thought process: “I bought it; it is my property.” !is student has no apparent guilty conscience over the plagiarism. Or “I can’t believe you don’t believe I wrote this.” 6. !e Opportunistic Plagiarist with thought process: “I am just using the papers to get some ideas.” Or “A&er all this is a free paper site on the Web why not?” 7. Other Plagiarist Enablers with thought process. “Go ahead, use my work, no one will ever know.” Other common errors made by students may include: • Only citing sources used at the end of the paper • Not citing on PowerPoint slides • Changing a few words and not attributing the source as an “almost” quote • Giving the source as a Web site rather than the specific part of the Web site used • Giving a primary source obtained from a secondary source without crediting the primary source (as: as cited in) • Not citing pictures and graphics • Not citing conversations, classes, and so forth that contribute heavily to the ideas developed by the student • Not citing from previous work done by the student • Turning in a paper written for another class without instructor permission

• Copying and pasting and dropping the source as the material is transferred into the new document • Not So Unintentional (i.e., buying a paper from a Web source) • !ese sources vary: papers written to order, purchasing a prewritten paper on a topic • Copying a friend’s paper, with or without the friend’s permission • Copying a paper in an organization’s files (fraternities and sororities are notorious for paper files) • Getting substantial help from a friend or another instructor on the paper • Copying a published paper • Our favorite: getting parents to write the paper but not removing telltale comments, such as, “Hope this helps you get a better grade. Be sure to bring your laundry home this weekend.” • Submitting work done as a team/group for another class as one’s own work and without permission of the team/group10 Plagiarism Prevention Aside from knowing what plagiarism is and what types of plagiarism exist, below are some preventive measures to consider: 11 1. !e first step is to teach what plagiarism is and how to avoid it. For example, in a class syllabus, a teacher might share with students the definition of plagiarism and provide examples. Being clear about classroom policies against plagiarism can prevent many acts of plagiarism. !is first action step teaches what plagiarism is and how plagiarism is academic the&. 2. Teach research skills enriched with note-taking and writing practices. !is step is important since, with the use of computers and the desire of students to copy and paste, many college or university students skip note taking and go straight to copy and paste without citing the original source. Many students will claim that they did not

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know how to accurately make citations. Many students just do not know how to properly write a research paper. 3. Make clear the consequences of plagiarism. !is will increase the value of instruction, and the clear and well-known consequences will undergird the importance of this issue. Integrity in writing is part of the educational process. A lot of plagiarism is simply unintentional failure to give proper credit.12 4. Student’s Code of Ethics. Finally, including avoiding plagiarism in the student code of ethics is an important aspect of teaching about expectations of professional integrity. A sample code of ethics for seminary students is below: Student Code of Conduct We expect our seminarians to conduct themselves according to excellent ethical and spiritual standards. Conduct a(ects the e(ectiveness of a ministry, and thus the seminarian’s testimony and lifestyle should be Christlike. Following are examples of standards for student conduct, adapted from the Southern Baptist Convent: Integrity: We expect our students to be accurate and truthful when applying for admission, registering for individual classes, and requesting assistance or additional services. We further expect our students to maintain the integrity of documents, transcripts, or other student records received from Seminary Extension. Respect: We expect our students to conduct themselves with professionalism, courtesy and respect for others including institution sta(, faculty, and other students. Academic Discipline: We expect our students to complete all assignments according to the instructions given with them. In other words, students must not ask for, receive, or give unauthorized help on assignments, quizzes, or examinations. Confidentiality: We expect our students to protect their usernames, student identification numbers, and or passwords. !ese pieces of

information should be used only by the student, and never be shared with others. Exemplary: We expect our students to observe the institutional policies and rules when submitting work, taking examinations, participating in discussions, and conducting research. Honesty: We expect our students to turn in work that is their own, and to note or properly acknowledge information and ideas gained from the work of others. Dishonesty includes, but is not limited to: • Plagiarism is presenting or submitting another person’s work as one’s own: paraphrasing or summarizing of the works of another person without acknowledgment. • Cheating involves giving or receiving unauthorized help before, during, or a&er an examination. We expect our students to maintain the integrity of our courses by not sharing questions or answers to quizzes or examinations with students who have not already completed them. • Unauthorized collaboration means working with someone or getting assistance from someone (a classmate, friend, family member) without specific permission from the instructor on any assignment (e.g., exam, paper, homework, project) that is turned in for a grade. • Multiple Submissions is violation of academic honesty to submit substantial portions of the same work for credit more than once without the explicit consent of the faculty member(s) to whom the material is submitted for additional credit. • Christ-like Character: Godliness and dignity expected in every venue of seminary life, marked by mutual respect and cheerful courtesy. Appearance and attire, whether seasonal or semiformal, must be modesty everywhere on campus/center. • Honor: We expect our students to report any violations of this Code of Conduct to Seminary Extension sta( along with any evidence of plagiarism, cheating, unauthorized collaboration, and multiple submissions.13

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5. Tracing students’ work. One way to help students avoid plagiarism is to make the student turn in a paper so that the teacher can compare writing styles. Writing styles usually do not change drastically. !is writing style would include grammar level as well as level of vocabulary and use of words such as the repetition of slang. A pupil who has di*culty organizing their ideas usually will have di*culty producing a well-organized paper. Remember, if the paper seems too perfect, then it probably is. At this point, it would be best to follow up quickly with either a low-tech check of references or “high-tech” anti-plagiarism so&ware. 6. Assigning di(erent kinds of written assignments. Usually, written assignments that do not just deal with reporting facts but take higher-order thinking skills are more di*cult to plagiarize. Creating a unique writing assignment which involves more of a step-by-step process of building an argument can also help to decrease plagiarism. !is may include requiring a creative writing assignment, which employs applying the facts to a real-life situation. 7. Clear consequences can also act as a deterrent to plagiarism. Intentional plagiarism should be considered to be a violation of the Code of Ethics. Consequences could include redoing the assignment, failing the assignment, failing the class, referral to the university disciplinary committee, dismissal from the program, or dismissal from the university. Consequences should be consistent across all majors and across all faculty members. !e consequences of plagiarism should appear in student handbooks and other program documents !e consequences of plagiarism should not be a surprise to any student. 8. Arm yourself with plagiarism programs such as Turnitin that can detect plagiarism. !is program and others like it provides a more thorough way catching plagiarism. It is reliable and right.14 Piracy As earlier mentioned, piracy is the illegal reproduction (copy or counterfeiting) of work such as books, so&ware, recordings or

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motion pictures, television program, patented invention, and trademarked materials. With the advancements in technology, piracy has become more prevalent. People like to buy pirated versions of movies or television programs because pirated copies are cheaper than the original versions. Copyrighted music such as songs can be downloaded from the Internet for free. Pirated versions of computer so&ware can be bought because of overseas workers copying the design behind the original so&ware. Although most know about so&ware piracy, many people don’t fully comprehend its impact on business, according to David Sarokin.15 Causes of Piracy !e piracy phenomenon stems from social, economic and legal backgrounds. Darrell Panetheire suggests the following causes:16 • Low level of public awareness: Piracy lacks the negative social stigma that would make the public realize that it is a criminal activity. !e public sector does not understand that by buying pirated products they are contributing to dishonest business practices. • High consumer demand for cultural products: !e societal demand for music, films, books and other so&ware is on the rise, which may create an illegal market to meet the needs of these consumers. • Misconceptions about piracy: Society o&en views piracy as a means of having access to cheaper goods while ignoring the e(ects that piracy has on the business sector that promotes originality. • Weak enforcement of copyright laws: Poorly dra&ed or incomplete laws and the lack of enforcement of these laws help to contribute to the ongoing action of piracy. • High cost of cultural goods:

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Cultural goods are expensive to produce and distribute. !e manufacturing costs that are attached to the product are passed on to the consumer, which becomes the final price. Piracy is identified as a major factor contributing to the worldwide poverty. As the prices for original products increase, there is a constant market for pirated products. • Di*culty of access to legitimate works: Original products are o&en not available in stores and libraries, especially in developing countries. Copyright protection means that certain products may not be available to the public. !erefore, pirated materials make it more di*cult for the public to get access to original made goods. • Considerable business profits for pirates: Pirated goods are easier and cheaper to make. !erefore, these goods do not incur the same production costs as the original goods. !is is a reason why piracy is profitable: it is cheaper to make pirated goods and therefore it is possible to sell more at a lower cost, bringing a greater profit. The Effects of Piracy Estimates attempting to measure the loss caused by piracy are problematic because of their methodology. A variety of problems arise: 1. Decrease in Sales of Legal Copies Pirated copies mean that there will be less sales of original copies. Pirated copies provide cheap and sometimes high-quality products which results in less demand for the original products.17 2. De-sensitized morality: According to Wayne Scholes, “About 15 years ago, consumer demand for digital content started to reach mass e(ect. But while the industry struggled to reach a consensus on file types, security, and revenue models, free online file sharing services

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stepped in to fill the void. As a result, today 70 percent of online users do not see illegal downloading as a form of the&.”18 3. Discouraged Creative People

Music the& is a real challenge in today’s world. Both the volume of music downloaded without payment results in losses to the digital sales of these companies. Music sales, while on the rise, cannot compensate for the loss of money coming from piracy and free downloading. Piracy undermines the entire music industry.19 !ese events discourage composers, writers, programmers to create and produce for society. Piracy Prevention Piracy is a way of life in the Philippines. According to [insert author’s name], “In the first quarter of 2014 alone, the PNP conducted six major operations and seized over P40 million worth of confiscated materials. Although it has decreased from last year’s figures, the problem is still ongoing because people are not aware that they are violating the law. Illegal downloading and using un-sponsored downloading sites are forms of violations too.” 20 Today, streets are )ooded with pirated copies of movies, television programs, and music. However, the following are a few suggestions toward stopping piracy: 1. Public and Private Campaign Both public and private campaigns are usually thought to be the first defense against piracy.21 Educate people that piracy is illegal and immoral. 2. Policies for Purchasing Establish o*ce policies in companies for buying so&ware and respecting copyrighted products. 22 !is would include photocopying published books. 3. Publicized the law !e Cyber Crime Prevention Act of 2012 (Cybercrime Law).

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Filipinos can now be punished for buying pirated copies or downloading videos, music and other copyrighted files without paying for them.23 4. Personalized ethical standards Many people believe that piracy cannot be stopped. Some may believe that there is no workable solution to the problem of piracy.24 However, a personal choice not to buy and use pirated copies (whatever kind) will help in the reduction of piracy. One person can make a change. 5. Persecution Legal action may seem like an obvious way to prevent piracy. However, because it is a worldwide problem, it is too time consuming and expensive to bring legal action against all the people involved in piracy.25 Conclusion Many times, we will feel overwhelmed by the many ethical issues that we are facing, especially the above topics that are almost a way of life in our society. We heard jokes about breaking copyright laws through photocopying published books: “It’s alright in the Philippines as long as you copy it right.” !e reality is that by our actions we are providing negative examples to the next generation.

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Endnotes

1 John Sullins, “Information Technology and Moral Values,” in The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, ed. Edward N. Zalta and Uri Nodelman, Fall 2023. (Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University, 2023), accessed November 9, 2023, https://plato.stanford. edu/archives/fall2023/entries/it-moral-values/. 2 Luppicini Rocci and Adell Rebecca, Handbook of Research on Technoethics (IGI Global, 2008), 86. 3 Luppicini Rocci, Technoethics and the Evolving Knowledge Society: Ethical Issues in Technological Design, Research, Development, and Innovation: Ethical Issues in Technological Design, Research, Development, and Innovation (IGI Global, 2010), 24. 4 Norbert Wiener, Cybernetics or Control and Communication in the Animal and the Machine (!e MIT Press, 2019), accessed November 9, 2023, https://direct.mit.edu/books/book/4581/ Cybernetics-or-Control-and-Communication-in-the. 5 Terell Ward Bynum, “Norbert Wiener and the Rise of Information Ethics,” in Information Technology and Moral Philosophy, ed. Jeroen Van Den Hoven and John Weckert (Cambridge University Press, 2008), accessed November 9, 2023, https://www.cambridge. org/core/product/identifier/9780511498725/type/book. 6 David Freedman, “!e Technoethics Trap: Figuring out What Is Ethical — A Challenge Under Any Circumstances - Is Trickier !an Ever in the Internet Age,” Inc.Com, last modified March 1, 2006, accessed November 9, 2023, https://www.inc.com/ magazine/20060301/column-freedman.html. 7 Norbert Wiener, The Human Use of Human Beings: Cybernetics and society, new edition. (New York: Da Capo Press, 1988). 8 Bernd Carsten Stahl et al., “From Computer Ethics to Responsible Research and Innovation in ICT: !e Transition of Reference Discourses Informing Ethics-Related Research in

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Information Systems,” Information & Management 51, no. 6 (2014): 810–818. 9 Peggy Pittman-Munke and Michael Berghoef, “Tackling Plagiarism: Linking Hi-Tech, Lo-Tech and No Tech Methods for Detection,” Journal of Social Work Values and Ethics 5, no. 1 (2008): 1-20. 10 Ibid. 11 All entries came from Jetta Culpepper unless otherwise footnoted. Jetta Culpepper, “Interdisciplinary Approach to Preventing Plagiarism,” Journal of Social Work Values and Ethics 5, no. 1 (2008): 36–43. accessed November 9, 2023, https://repository. globethics.net/handle/20.500.12424/170939. 12 Ibid. 13 Adapted from Southern Baptist Convention, Seminary Extension Catalog: Fall 2023 to Spring 2023 (Nashville, Tenn: Seminary Extension, 2023), http://www.seminaryextension.org/ Catalog.pdf. 14 Rui Sousa-Silva, “Investigating Academic Plagiarism: A Forensic Linguistics Approach to Plagiarism Detection,” International Journal for Educational Integrity 10, no. 1. (May 31, 2014), accessed November 9, 2023, https://ojs.unisa.edu.au/index.php/IJEI/article/ view/932. 15 David Sarokin, “What Is the E(ect of Piracy on a Business?,” Small Business Chron, last modified April 24, 2019, accessed November 9, 2023, https://smallbusiness.chron.com/e(ect-piracybusiness-24541.html. 16 Darrell Panetheire, The Persistence of Piracy: The Consequences for Creativity, for Culture, and for Sustainable Development (!e Global Alliance for Cultural Diversity, UNESCO, 2005), accessed November 9, 2023, https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ ark:/48223/pf0000145517.

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17 “!e E(ects of Piracy,” accessed November 9, 2023, https:// cs.stanford.edu/people/eroberts/cs181/projects/dvd-css/piracy. htm. 18 Wayne Scholes, “Piracy’s Ripple E(ect on the Global Economy,” Diplomatic Courier, last modified January 14, 2014, accessed November 9, 2023, https://www.diplomaticourier.com/ posts/piracy-s-ripple-e(ect-on-the-global-economy. 19 “!e True Cost of Sound Recording Piracy to the U.S. Economy | IPI,” RIAA, accessed November 9, 2023, https://www. riaa.com/reports/the-true-cost-of-sound-recording-piracy-to-theu-s-economy/. 20 Sheila Mañalac, “!e Fight against Piracy in Philippines Continues,” The Manila Times, last modified May 11, 2014, accessed November 9, 2023, https://www.manilatimes.net/2014/05/11/ lifestyle-entertainment/show-times/the-fight-against-piracy-inphilippines-continues/95609. 21 Dana Hinders, “What Are the Di(erent Ways to Stop Piracy? (With Pictures),” EasyTechJunkie, last modified September 18, 2023, accessed November 9, 2023, https://www.easytechjunkie. com/what-are-the-di(erent-ways-to-stop-piracy.htm. 22 Mathieu Harel, “6 Ways to Stop Digital Piracy,” last modified December 2022, accessed November 9, 2023, https://www.viaccessorca.com/blog/six-ways-to-stop-digital-piracy. 23 “Phoebe Magdirila, “With New Cybercrime Law in Place, Filipinos Could Face Jail Time for Piracy,” Tech in Asia, last modified March 5, 2014, accessed November 9, 2023, https://www.techinasia. com/cybercrime-law-place-filipinos-face-jail-time-piracy. 24 Je( Drake, “15 Clever Anti-Piracy Techniques In Gaming,” The Gamer, last modified January 18, 2021, accessed November 9, 2023, https://www.thegamer.com/clever-anti-piracy-techniques-ingaming/. 25 Hinders, “What Are the Di(erent Ways to Stop Piracy? (With Pictures).”

CHAPTER 8 LEGALITIES: PROSTITUTION AND PORNOGRAPHY Introduction Ethical issues can be legal and non-legal. !ere are many ethical issues that have legalities. For this section, we will discuss two: prostitution and pornography. !e condemnation against pornography and prostitution is for multiple reasons, which will be covered in this chapter. Feminist ethics is the backdrop view of this chapter. Feminist Ethics Feminist ethics is an approach to ethics that builds on the belief that traditional ethical standards have undervalued and/or underappreciated female ethical input, and it starts with an ethical viewpoint from the perspective of a woman.1 Traditional ethics has a masculine-orientated perception, in which ethical standards are seen from a framework of rules, rights, and universality. !e feminine approaches to ethical standards emphasize relationships2 and responsibilities.3 !e goal of feminist ethics is “the transformation of societies and situations where women are harmed through violence, subordination, and exclusion. When such injustices are evident now and in the future, radical feminist activists will continue their work of protest and action following careful appraisal and re)ection.”4 Two issues closely related to feminist ethics, prostitution and pornography, will serve as a framework for this chapter. We will not discuss male prostitutes. Prostitution Prostitution is a problem in the Philippines. A prostitute is a person who provides sexual services for money.5 Prostitution in the Philippines is illegal but rampant. A&er the Anti-Tra*cking in Persons Act of 2003, the penalties for those involved in tra*cking for prostitution range up to life in prison. A&er ten years, in 2013 it was estimated that there were still up to 500,000 prostitutes in the Philippines. Senator Cayetano, in her “Anti-Prostitution Act” (Senate Bill 107

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No. 2341), claims the number of women being exploited in prostitution in the Philippines is now growing to 800,000.6 Laurie Shrage says that “female prostitution oppresses women, not because some women who participate in it ‘su(er in the eyes of society,’ but because its organized practice testifies to and perpetuates socially hegemonic beliefs which oppress all women in many domains of their lives.”7 Reasons for Prostitution !ere is no one single reason for the widespread prevalence of prostitution in the Philippines. Poverty is one reason, and cultural factors and the attitude of people toward money are also possible reasons. Below are a few reasons for the existence of prostitution. 1. Poverty - Philippines has a poverty incidence of 24.9%. While this figure has been decreasing over the past few years, girls and their families enter into prostitution to help the family to maintain a certain type of lifestyle. 2. Attitude towards money – Filipinos, by and large, tend to be oneday millionaires, wherein saving money is given low priority and spending it is given a high priority. Prostitution is seen a convenient way out; having money is given more importance than morality, thus augmenting this attitude. 3. Social acceptance - Filipino society in general tends to have high acceptance levels toward di(erent behavior. Marrying for money, even when obvious, is not always looked down upon. Popular jokes about the MMM for an ideal spouse - Matandang, Mayaman, at Madaling mamatay (old, rich and quicker death). 4. Single Unwed Mother - Some girls join the prostitution industry a&er they become single unwed mothers. !is is more common when the single mother is disowned by the family. !us, to support the baby and herself, unwed mothers choose prostitution as a solution. 5. Others - !e list below contains examples from various sources and cultures, generally Asian and more particularly from the Philippines. Additional causes of prostitution are:

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1) Family issues like ill treatment by parents and siblings who are prostitutes. 2) Bad company that influences each other; luxurious lifestyle beyond affordability. 3) Lack of sex education, and false teaching from the media. 4) Prior incest and rape, early marriage and desertion. 5) Lack of recreational facilities, ignorance, and acceptance of prostitution. 6) Psychological causes include desire for physical pleasure, greed, and dejection.8 Effects of prostitution !e incidence of STDs (including HIV/AIDS, chlamydia, gonorrhea, herpes, human papilloma virus, and syphilis) is alarmingly high among women in prostitution. Rates of unwanted pregnancy and miscarriage are even higher. Emotionally, e(ects include severe trauma, stress, depression, anxiety, self-medication through alcohol and drug abuse, and eating disorders. Most alarming of all is the high risk for self-mutilation, suicide, and homicide. 9 Possible ways to FIGHT prostitution As a society, there is a need to impose the illegality of prostitution. !is is easily said than done, when in fact the Philippines declared prostitution as illegal. Yet, statistics reveal that there are many who are in prostitution. !e following are suggested ways to FIGHT, suggested by the U.S National Institute of Justice: Fix formal education: should be made available to those victims who are still within the school-going age, while nonformal education should be made accessible to adults. Even some college girls get into high-end prostitution. !e earlier the education is established, the easier to evade. Institutionalize prostitutes: Rather than treating prostitutes like criminals, we can see them as abused drug addicts who need to be helped. Rather than throwing them in jail, rehabilitate them.

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Grant gender sensitivity: provide market-driven vocational training to all those rescued victims who are not interested in education. Provide alternative income-generating work. Have awareness of legal literacy: teach economic rights, particularly for women and adolescent girls. Help them know the laws of the land so they understand their educational and legal wrongs and rights. Tap adequate publicity - printing and electronic media that helps fight prostitute, including help lines about the problem of those who have been forced into prostitution. Fight and stop prostitution. Pimps who force woman into prostitution by beating them and threatening them should be sentenced for life, rather than the women who have been led on by such men. Madams who incite women to prostitution should receive the same penalty. If you’re caught pimping, and inciting, you’re going to jail for life.10 Pornography A 2008 study on 6 university campuses found that nearly 9 out of 10, which is 87 percent of young adult men (aged 18-26), and 31 percent of emerging adult women report using pornography. Results also revealed a relationship between pornography acceptance and use and emerging adults’ risky sexual attitudes and behaviors, substance use patterns, and marital cohabitation values.11 Mary Pellauer challenged the church to view pornography as an act that is “violently or actively degrading to women.”12 Mary Ellen Ross believes that pornography makes violence as well as other forms of abuse seem positive.13 Pope John Paul II said that pornography went against the character and belief of the family unit intended by God.14 Pornography is immoral based on the teaching of Jesus (Matthew 5:27-28) that lustful thoughts are to be avoided.15 Pornography a(ects all people, including Christians. James P. Draper, president of LifeWay Christian resources, commented that pornography “appears the sin of choice among Christians today.”16 Zimmerman and Bryant found that continued exposure to pornography a(ected a male viewer’s basic beliefs about sexuality in general and women

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in particular. !ey likewise noted that exposure to porn increased its viewers’ desires for deviant behaviors, such as sadomasochism, and also desensitized their attitudes toward rape.17 What Is Pornography? Pornography can be defined in di(erent ways, depending on whether one advocates or opposes it. Liberal advocate Andrew Altman defines pornography as “sexually explicit material, in words or images, which is intended by its creators to excite sexually those who are willing viewers of the material”18 One conservative definition of pornography is the “explicit representation of sexual activity in print or on film to stimulate erotic rather than aesthetic or emotional feelings.”19 Conservatives believe that pornography is harmful to an individual and therefore should be abolished and eliminated.20 Biblically, the three main categories of sin are the lust of the )esh, the lust of the eyes, and the pride of life (1 John 2:16). Pornography definitely causes us to lust a&er )esh, and it is undeniably the lust of the eyes. Pornography is addictive. As 2 Peter 2:19 (NIV) describes, “!ey promise them freedom, while they themselves are slaves of depravity—for “people are slaves to whatever has mastered them.” Pornography is destructive. Ephesians 4:19 (NIV) describes it well: “Having lost all sensitivity, they have given themselves over to sensuality so as to indulge in every kind of impurity, and they are full of greed. And pornography is o(ensive to God. Lusting a&er other people in our minds, which is the essence of pornography, is adultery: Jesus says that. . . “anyone who looks at a woman lustfully has already committed adultery with her in his heart.” (Mathew 5:28 NIV)21 !ere are other e(ects of pornography on to you and your love ones. Following are the top ten e(ects of pornography on our brain, our marriage, and our sex life, according to Stephanie McGhee: 1. Porn Means You Can’t Get Aroused by “Just” Your Spouse. When you spend a ton of time teaching your brain to associate arousal and release with pornography, your brain can’t associate

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arousal and release with a person anymore. You’ve rewired your brain, and now you’re salivating at the wrong thing. 2. Porn Wrecks Your Libido. It’s only natural, then, that many people who use porn in the past, or who use porn in the present, have virtually no libido when it comes to making love to their spouse. !e spouse is not what turns them on, and so the natural drive that we have for sex is transferred somewhere else. 3. Porn Makes You Sexually Lazy. In porn, everyone is turned on all the time. You don’t have to make any e(ort to arouse someone; it’s automatic. !ere is no foreplay in porn. And so if your spouse isn’t aroused, you start to think that it’s somehow their fault. 4. Porn Turns “Making Love” into a Foreign Concept. !ose arousal and pleasure centers in our brain are supposed to associate sex with physical pleasure and a real sense of intimacy. But the intimacy doesn’t happen with porn, and so the pleasure is all that registers. !us, sex becomes about the body, and not about intimacy. 5. Porn Makes Regular Intercourse Seem Boring. Because porn teaches us that sex is all about the body, and not about intimacy, then the only way to get a greater “high” or that same buzz is to watch weirder and weirder porn. 6. Porn Makes it Hard to Be Tender When You Have Sex. !ere’s no waiting to arouse someone. It’s just taking what you want. Being tender means to be loving. It’s to give and to express a(ection. Because these things aren’t paired with sex in the porn user’s brain, tenderness and sex no longer go together. 7. Porn Trains You to Have Immediate Gratification and Have a Di&cult Time Lasting Long. With porn, when you’re aroused you reach orgasm very quickly, because porn users tend to masturbate at the same time. !us, orgasm tends to be very fast. 8. Porn Gives You a Warped View of What Is Attractive. Sex is supposed to bond you physically, emotionally and spiritually with your spouse. But if porn has made the chemical pathways

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in your brain go haywire, then sex becomes only about the body. And porn implies that only certain body types are attractive. 9. Porn Makes Sex Seem Like Too Much Work. All of this combines to o&en make sex with your spouse too much work. You’re not aroused; you find your spouse not attractive; sex is blah; and sex requires you to make an e(ort for your spouse, while you’re used to immediate gratification. 10. Porn Causes Selfishness. All of this causes a spiral of selfishness, where the person ignores his spouse’s needs and is focused only on getting what he wants, and getting it instantly. O&en this manifests itself in other areas of the relationship as well.22 Following are some suggestions from Nicole Alicia-Marie Hult et al., on how to avoid pornography: 1. Keeping Porn Away - Clean up your computer from all pornography including what came in, both willingly or unwillingly. Start by deleting any pornography saved onto the computer itself. 2. Set up an internet censor. You can block all but a few sites. !ose marked for adults, totally just block them. 3. Cut back your media. Limit how much you use certain kinds of media. !e Internet is the hardest of all to regulate, so make use of a censor that is significantly strong. 4. Spend recreational time in a space with your family, rather than alone on your computer. Have an open-door policy that will help keep all family members control urges and bad habits. 5. Adjust where you spend your time in public. Certain public spaces may be more prone to displaying o(ensive material in readily visible places. 6. Create positive reinforcement. Are you keeping yourself away from pornography, or trying to help your family? !inking positively is more e(ective for creating positive behaviors.

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7. Replace the bad habit with a good one. For most people who look at a lot of porn, the impulse is simply a habit. One of the best ways to overcome a bad habit is to replace it with a good habit. 8. Look for spiritual guidance. If you’re really having trouble getting your habit under control, you should seek guidance from a spiritual counselor.23 Conclusion

Pornography and prostitution are just the two of the many ethical issues that can be legal in some countries but illegal in other places. Minister, be prepared to handle these issues, both personally and professionally. !is can be one of the slippery slopes that can let sin creep little by little into your senses. Falling into private sin of any kind can ruin one’s testimony. So help us, God.

Endnotes

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1 Kathryn Norlock, “Feminist Ethics,” in The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, ed. Edward N. Zalta, Summer 2019. (Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University, 2019), accessed November 10, 2023, https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/sum2019/ entries/feminism-ethics/. 2 Sheila Mullett, “Shi&ing Perspectives: A New Approach to Ethics,” in Feminist Perspectives: Philosophical Essays on Method and Morals, ed. Christine Overall, Sheila Mullett, and Lorraine Code (University of Toronto Press, 1988), 110. 3 Alison M. Jaggar, “FEMINIST ETHICS: SOME ISSUES FOR THE NINETIES,” in Encyclopedia of Ethics, by Lawrence C. Becker and Charlotte B. Becker, 2nd Edition., vol. 20 (Routledge, 2013), 363–364, accessed November 10, 2023, https://www.taylorfrancis. com/books/mono/10.4324/9780203952948/encyclopedia-ethicslawrence-becker-charlotte-becker. 4 Betty McLellan, Unspeakable: A Feminist Ethic of Speech (Townsville, Qld: OtherWise Publications, 2010), 240. 5 “Social Awareness: Stop Prostitution,” Social Awareness, n.d., accessed November 10, 2023, http://ken-foundation-awareness2. blogspot.com/p/stop-prostitution.html. 6 Leopoldo J. Dejillas, Globalization, Gender and Employment in the Informal Economy: The Case in the Philippines (Manila: International Labour Organization, 2000), https://www.ilo.org/ wcmsp5/groups/public/---asia/---ro-bangkok/---ilo-manila/ documents/publication/wcms_760684.pdf; Statista Research Department, “Philippines: Number of Human Tra*cking for Sexual Exploitation Victims,” Statista, accessed November 10, 2023, https:// www.statista.com/statistics/1170608/philippines-number-humantra*cking-for-sexual-exploitation/. 7 Laurie Shrage, “Should Feminists Oppose Prostitution,” in Philosophical Perspectives on Sex and Love, ed. Robert Michael

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Stewart, vol. 99 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1989), 74, accessed November 10, 2023, https://www.jstor.org/stable/2381438. 8 Adapted from Inside Story, “Who Is to Blame for Sex Tourism?,” Al Jazeera, last modified October 9, 2011, accessed November 10, 2023, https://www.aljazeera.com/program/inside-story/2011/10/9/ who-is-to-blame-for-sex-tourism; “Poverty Statistics | Philippine Statistics Authority | Republic of the Philippines,” last modified March 24, 2023, accessed November 10, 2023, https://www.psa.gov. ph/statistics/poverty. 9 Angela Miles, “Prostitution, Tra*cking and the Global Sex Industry: A Conversation with Janice Raymond,” Canadian Women Studies 22, no. 3 & 4 (June 1, 2003), https://janiceraymond.com/wpcontent/uploads/2021/12/admincws22n3-4_miles.pdf. 10 National Institute of Justice, “Initiatives to Reduce Demand for Prostitution and Sex Tra*cking in the U.S.,” National Institute of Justice, last modified August 21, 2016, accessed November 10, 2023, https://nij.ojp.gov/topics/articles/initiatives-reduce-demandprostitution-and-sex-tra*cking-us. 11 Jason S. Carroll et al., “Generation XXX: Pornography Acceptance and Use among Emerging Adults,” Journal of Adolescent Research 23, no. 1 (January 2008): 6. 12 Mary Pellauer, “Pornography: An Agenda for the Churches – Religion Online,” The Christian Century 104, no. 22 (August 29, 1987): 653. 13 Mary Ellen Ross, “Censorship or Education? Feminist Views on Pornography – Religion Online,” The Christian Century 107, no. 8 (March 7, 1990): 244–246, accessed November 10, 2023, https://www.religion-online.org/article/censorship-or-educationfeminist-views-on-pornography/. 14 Ibid 15 John Hugh Court, Pornography, a Christian Critique, Outreach and identity no. 5 (Downers Grove, IL. : Exeter,

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16 Joe Dallas, “Darkening Our Minds: !e Problem of Pornography among Christians,” Christian Research Institute 27, no. 3 (2004), accessed November 10, 2023, https://www.equip. org/articles/darkening-our-minds-the-problem-of-pornographyamong-christians/. 17 “!e Documented E(ects of Pornography,” The Forerunner, last modified November 2, 1991, accessed November 10, 2023, https:// www.forerunner.com/forerunner/X0388_Effects_of_Pornograp. Dallas, “Darkening Our Minds,” 1–3. 18 Andrew Altman, “!e Right to Get Turned On: Pornography, Autonomy, Equality,” in Contemporary Debates in Applied Ethics, ed. Andrew I. Cohen and Christopher H. Wellman (Wiley-Blackwell, 2014), 22–307. 19 Jenkins, “Pornography | Definition, History, Meaning, & Facts | Britannica,” Britannica, last modified November 7, 2023, accessed November 10, 2023, https://www.britannica.com/topic/ pornography. 20 Nicole Alicia-Marie Hult et al., “!e Ethics of Pornography and Its Impact on the Individual,” 2011, accessed November 10, 2023, https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/!e-Ethics-ofPornography-and-its-Impact-on-the-Hult-Schmedes/74049c268d1 62250691eac4527dd1b805e2a1455. 21 “What Does the Bible Say about Pornography?,” GotQuestions.Org, accessed November 10, 2023, https://www. gotquestions.org/pornography-Bible.html. 22 Stephanie McGhee, “How Pornography Can Hurt Your Sex Life,” Psych Central, last modified September 29, 2016, accessed November 10, 2023, https://psychcentral.com/blog/howpornography-can-hurt-your-sex-life. 23 Hult et al., “!e Ethics of Pornography and Its Impact on the Individual.”

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CHAPTER 9 LEADERSHIP: CORRUPTION AND WORK Introduction Leaders with power and position are susceptible to some ethical issues. Should corruption in leadership be dealt with more severely? What kinds of ethical standards are appropriate for those in greater power, in church or ministry? !is chapter will start and zero in on leaders’ corruption and end and focus in work ethics, not just for leaders but for everyone. Duty ethics will display the background of existing theory and practice in this area. Non-Consequential Ethics (Duty Ethics) Immanuel Kant (1724–1804) was a German philosopher who held a nonconsequentialist view of ethics. He believed that the ethical importance of an action is determined on the basis of its intrinsic features or character, not results or consequences. He also believed in good will. !is means that good actions proceed from right intentions, those inspired by a sense of duty.1 Kant had the idea of the categorical imperative which is that morality is a system of legalities that are similar to the laws of physics in terms of their universal applicability. !e morality of an action depends on whether the maxim (or subjective principle) behind it can be willed as a universal law without committing a logical contradiction. Kant said that one should “Act only according to that maxim whereby you can at the same time will that it should become a universal law without contradiction.”2 An example of the categorical imperative is the following: A building contractor promises to install a sprinkler system in a project. But he is willing to break that promise to suit his purposes. His maxim can be expressed as: “I’ll make promises that I’ll break whenever keeping them no longer suits my purposes.”3 By wanting the maxim to become a universal law, the person is undermining the promises.

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Christopher Meyers provides a list of prima facie (Latin for first sight) obligations that in this way of thinking can be overridden by a more important duty in specific circumstances. For example, if a person is in con)ict over the duty to keep his promise to a friend and the duty to help a person in need, we may have to override the promise and favor the more important duty to help the person. But in some other circumstances we ought to do the opposite. !ere are seven basic prima facie obligations, and they are as follows: 4 (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7)

Duties of fidelity Duties of reparation Duties of gratitude Duties of justice Duties of beneficence Duties of self-improvement Duties not to injure others

Non-consequentialists believe that we have a much stronger obligation to refrain from violating people’s rights than to promote their happiness or well-being. From this theory, let’s look at corruption. Corruption According to a World Bank study in 2008, corruption in the Philippines is considered to be the worst among East Asia’s leading economies, and the country has sunk even lower among those seen to be lagging in governance reforms. !e 2009 Corruption Perceptions Index, published by global watchdog Transparency International, showed that the situation in the country had improved slightly but still remained serious.5 !e Philippines was ranked 3rd among 180 countries included in the index, up from its previous 141st ranking in 2008 in terms of corruption. !e nation scored 2.4 in the TI index, compared to 2.3 in 2008, which ranked it equal to Pakistan, Bangladesh and the Baltic state of Belarus.6 Corruption exists in all levels of the government, especially among high-level civil servants, according to the US Department of State Investment Climate Statement 2013. Companies generally have little confidence in the Philippine judicial

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system, and this is due to the allegedly incompetent court personnel, corruption, and long delays of court cases.7 What Is corruption? Corruption may be defined as the abuse of entrusted power for private gain. It involves abusing power held in a private institution or a public organization. It can be in a form of the bribe-taker and the bribe-giver benefit. !is can be in terms of money or kinds. Corruption is either ‘grand’ or ‘petty.’ Grand corruption typically takes place at the top levels and the senior management levels, and it involves large sums of money. Small scale, administrative or petty corruption is the everyday corruption that takes place in the implementation of existing laws, rules, and regulations.8 Conditions That Compel Corruption Corruption can grow in a variety of environments where accountability processes are weak. One recent study suggests four pre-conditions that facilitate corruption: 1. An existing set of imperatives and incentives that encourage someone to engage in corrupt transactions. These may include, for example, low and irregular salaries for officials with large dependent families. Such officials may feel compelled to become corrupt. 2. The availability of multiple opportunities for personal enrichment increases the temptation of corruption. Some economic environments are much more conducive to corruption. The size and growth of public resources will help define the possibilities for corruption, and extensive discretion over the allocation of those resources provides opportunities for corrupt behavior. 3. The access to and control over the means of corruption. Incentive and opportunity create the possibility, but there have to be ways of actually engaging in corruption. These might include control

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over an administrative process such as tendering or having access to o(shore accounts and the techniques of money laundering.

4. A limited risk of exposure and punishment. Corruption will thrive where there are inadequate and ine(ective controls. A lack of policing, detection, and prosecution encourages corruption. Weak internal controls such as financial management, auditing, and personnel systems are also facilitating conditions. Where the media and civil society are controlled and censored, corrupt politicians and o*cials have less to fear.9 Combat Corruption To combat corruption involves prevention, education, correction and punishments. It includes transparent accountability system and strengthening the ethics of the o*cials by challenging the norms and culture that entices corruption. !is is applicable in a church or community setting. COMBAT by: Consolidate Preventive Measures through access to information that encourages participation in decision-making. Voices of civil society groups can have a meaningful role in policy formation and holding political actors to account. !ese, and many more preventive measures, are concerned with building transparent, accountable systems of governance and thus limiting risks and opportunities for corruption. !e quality of work and ethical standards can be improved by access to education and training programs to enable them to meet the requirements for the correct and honorable performance of their public functions. Oppose Corrupt O&cers. Mobilize the people to help out in the implementation and accountability process of the organization. When corrupt o*cers are caught, immediate and proper process should take place based on the policy and procedures. Fire the corrupt: !ere are two ways to get your work done at a government o*ce. One, stand in queues, wait for hours, make umpteen visits. Two, give some money and get your work done in an hour or two. People o&en prefer the second method because they know there’s no

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point fighting a system that is corrupt from top to bottom. !e only way out is to adopt the hire-and-fire policy as followed by private companies. Monitor the Method and the Money. Corruption is a cost-andbenefits issue. Create an environment where the rule of law prevails. Decrease opportunities for corruption through the follow-up of the implementations of the procedures and resources. Increase transparency and integrity through written financial reports. Integrity is essential for building strong institutions resistant to corruption. Protect your people through proper monitoring. Battle against Bribes If someone wants to get his work done on a priority basis, he should use the good o*ces of his elected representative and convince him of the genuineness of his case. !is is a better way than bribing o*cials and short-cutting procedures. !e common man should have the moral courage to expose those who demand bribes. Two corruption issues concern donor aid. First, donor aid delivery modalities are o&en vulnerable to corruption. Second, increasing the )ow of aid may contribute to increased levels of corruption in a recipient country. Alert Authorities. !e common man can combat corruption by refusing to pay bribes and by reporting about corrupt o*cials to the higher authorities. However, when the information is posted about where people can report corrupt o*cials then alerting authorities will be trouble-free. Telephone numbers of anti-corruption bureau o*cials should be well-publicized, so that people can contact them when needed. !e identity of the complainant should be guarded so that people are not scared to come forward. Tell the Truth and Do Right. People have to be honest and fair in all their dealings; only then can they combat corruption. An honest man will not need to pay bribes, as he has nothing to hide or manipulate. Avoid the easy way out, especially when bribery is easier than going through the proper but longer process. Capitalize on the use of media if needed, this includes law enforcers. !e media is one weapon to unmask the corrupt.10

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!ere are more ways to combat corruption. On the personal level, one way to combat corruption is to have a high work ethic. In the next few pages we move to discussion of work ethics. Work Ethics Work can be fulfilling, but it can also be the cause of great frustration. !e Bible helps put these complexities in perspective. Work is honorable. Scripture says, that work, no matter what kind of occupation you have, is honorable. Honest toil, done in a joyful spirit, is like a prayer to God. Draw strength from these Bible verses about work. A work ethic is a set of moral principles an employee uses in his job. A strong work ethic is vital to a company achieving its goals. Christian workers should be the best workers. Why? Because our salvation impacts every aspect of our lives; It’s our testimony. In the realm of our work — how we think and what we do, our work ethics and values, our motives and choices are part of our witness to the world. Biblical Principles of Work !e following ABCs of a Christian Work Ethic includes ideas adapted from Kimberly Leonard and Penny Loretto: Always Seek God’s Direction. “But seek first His kingdom and His righteousness; and all these things shall be added to you” (Matthew 6:33). Pray for discernment about what God’s want you to do and to be. As early as possible, even before entering college, seek His will and ask God for His will in your life. Be Employed and Work Smart. - “Let him who steals steal no longer; but rather let him labor, performing with his own hands what is good, in order that he may have [something] to share with him who has need” (Ephesians 4:28). Work hard and work smart. Working hard leads to positive results but working too hard may lead to diminishing return. 1 Timothy 4:10 tells, “!at is why we labor and strive, because we have put our hope in the living God,

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who is the Savior of all people, and especially of those who believe” (NIV). Craft Time to Rest. God put boundaries on your work, and He did it for your own good. Work has limits. Both work and rest are creation mandates, and both are necessary for living a successful life. (Genesis 2:2–3, Exodus 20:9–10, Mark 6:31). Good rest is essential a&er work. Remember to rest. Save a Sabbath. Avoid working during days o( and vacation time. !ere’s a time to work, and there’s a time to rest. Do all work to please God - Colossians 3:23 communicates, “Whatever you do, work at it with all your heart, as working for the Lord, not for human masters.” (NIV) Honorable work is a high calling from God. He designed you to be fulfilled when you are active, productive, and creative. At its core your work is a service to God to be performed to his glory. (Ephesians 6:7, Colossians 3:24–25) Encourage Evangelism - Work to spread the Word. Matthew 9:37: “!e harvest is plentiful, but the workers are few.” Be salt and light to others. !e workplace is your mission field. It is literally within commuting distance from your home, and you are there five days a week. You are a minister of the gospel of Jesus Christ at your place of employment. (Matthew 5:13–14, Luke 4:18–19). Foster Bible-based Principles. !ey apply to all occupations, everywhere, in all cultures. Ethical principles are valued in the work place like honesty and coming on-time. Incorporate work values like loyalty and team spirit into your work life as foundational principles to build on. Work changes, but God never does. Bringing God to work is the best career decision you will ever make. Glorify God in Your Workplace. Psalm 90:17 says, “May the favor of the Lord our God rest on us; establish the work of our hands for us—yes, establish the work of our hands” (NIV). Encourage employment that glorifies God. Matthew 5:16 says, “Let your light

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shine before others, that they may see your good deeds, and glorify your Father in heaven.” (NIV) “Give generously to them and do so without a grudging heart; then because of this the LORD your God will bless you in all your work and in everything you put your hand to.” Have an Appealing Attitude. Christian employees should not only possess a willingness to work hard but must have pleasing attitude. A positive attitude gets the work done and motivates others to do the same without dwelling on the challenges that inevitably come up in any job. One who can complete tasks e*ciently and find ways to save time while completing daily assignments is always appreciated. Above all, it is important to be able to complete all projects while maintaining a positive attitude. Incorporate Discipline and Dependability - It takes a certain level of commitment to finish your tasks every day. An employee with good discipline stays focused on goals and is determined to complete assignments. !ese employees show a high level of dedication to the company, always ensuring they do their part. You can count on employees who come to work on time, are there when they are supposed to be, and are dependable. Justify Professionalism - Employers value employees who always exhibit professional behavior. Professional behavior includes learning every aspect of a job and doing it to the best of one’s ability. Professionals look, speak, and dress to maintain an image of someone who takes pride in their behavior and appearance. !ey complete projects as soon as possible, and provide high-quality work and are detail oriented. !ey are role model for others. Kindle Enthusiasm – Workers who are enthusiastic about their work and optimistic about the organization and its future are valued by supervisors and co-workers. Enthusiasm also makes the job more pleasant and fun to go to each day, and provides a sense of joy in working and excitement in performance. It is the enthusiastic employee who creates an environment of goodwill and who provides a positive role model for others.

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Love Loyalty - Employers value employees they can trust and who exhibit their loyalty to the company. Companies o(ering employees opportunity for growth will ultimately gain a sense of loyalty from their employees. !ey will feel a sense of satisfaction in their jobs and will work well when they feel that the employer is fair and wants to see them succeed. Even if they plan to stay only five or ten years in a position, employees can o(er loyalty and make an important contribution during their time with the company. Maintain Flexibility and Adaptability - Employers seek employees who are adaptable and maintain )exibility in completing tasks in an ever-changing workplace. Being open to change and improvement provides an opportunity to complete work assignments in a more e*cient manner while o(ering additional benefits to the corporation, the customer, and even the employee. Nurture Motivation to Grow & Learn - In an ever-changing workplace, employers seek employees who are interested in keeping up with new developments and knowledge in the field. Learning new skills, techniques, methods, and/or theories through professional development helps keep the organization at the top of its field and makes the employee’s job more interesting and exciting. Keeping up with current changes in the field is vital for success and increased job security. Operate in Honesty and Integrity - Employers value employees who maintain a sense of honesty. Good relationships are built on trust. An employee with integrity fosters trusting relationships with clients, coworkers and supervisors. Coworkers value the employee’s ability to give honest feedback. Clients trust the employee’s advice. Supervisors rely on the employee’s high moral standards, trusting him not to steal from the company or create problems. Qualify Quality and Quantity. Employees with a strong work ethic care about the quality of their work. !ey do their best to produce great work, not merely churn out what is needed. Employees with

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a strong work ethic care about the quantity of their work. !e employee’s commitment to quality improves the company’s overall quality as it hopefully improves the quantity. Recognize as Responsible - A strong sense of responsibility a(ects how an employee works and the amount of work she does. When the employee feels personally responsible for her job performance, she shows up on time, puts in her best e(ort, and completes projects to the best of her ability. Being responsible as an employee shows your employer that you value your job and that you are responsible in keeping up with projects and keeping them informed of the things that they should know about. Sustain the Spirit-filled Life. Can the Holy Spirit help you with your everyday job? !e short answer is “yes.” It is not in God’s character to call you to a life of daily labor, and then turn his back when you show up at your place of work. !e Holy Spirit dwells within us and guides us throughout the day. 1 Corinthians 6:19 says, “Do you not know that your body is a temple of the Holy Spirit?” When you received Jesus Christ at your salvation, you received the Holy Spirit. Sustain your moment-by-moment Spirit-controlled life. Think Teamwork - Most employees have to work together to meet a company’s objectives. An employee with a high sense of teamwork helps a team meet its goals and deliver quality work. !ese employees respect their peers and help where they can, making collaborations work more smoothly. Uphold Self-Motivation - Employers look for employees who require little supervision and direction to get the work done in a timely and professional manner. Supervisors who hire selfmotivated employees do themselves an immense favor. For selfmotivated employees require very little direction from their supervisors. Once a self-motivated employee understands his/her responsibility on the job, they will do it without any prodding from others.11

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Conclusion !e above principles and practical ways are for all. !ey apply for leaders as well as the followers. Corruption happens when someone allow the one to act on it. Godly work ethics can lessen the corruption in the government as well as in one’s life and ministry. Glorify God in your work and the rest will follow like combating corruptions in a small or big scale. Remember “He who is faithful in little can be faithful in much” (Luke 16:10). First Corinthians 15:58 says, “Keep away from corruption, but keep working for your labor is not in vain” (NIV).

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Endnotes

1 Lara Denis, “Kant’s Ethics and Duties to Oneself,” Pacific Philosophical Quarterly 78, no. 4 (December 1997): 321–348. 2 Immanuel Kant, Grounding for the Metaphysics of Morals: With On a Supposed Right to Lie Because of Philanthropic Concerns, trans. James W. Ellington, !ird Edition, 3. (Indianapolis: Hackett Publishing Company, Inc., 1993), 30. 3 William H. Shaw, Business Ethics: A Textbook with Cases, 8th edition. (Boston,MA: Cengage Learning, 2013), 58. William Shaw, Business Ethics (Belmont, CA: !omson Higher Education, 2008): 58. 4 Christopher Meyers, “Reappreciating W. D. Ross: Naturalizing Prima Facie Duties and a Proposed Method,” Journal of Mass Media Ethics 26, no. 4 (October 19, 2011): 316–331. 5 David Dizon, “RP Corruption Ranking Improves Slightly: TI,” ABS-CBN News, last modified November 18, 2009, accessed November 13, 2023, https://news.abs-cbn.com/nation/11/18/09/rpcorruption-ranking-improves-slightly-ti. 6 “Investment Climate Statements,” United States Department of State, n.d., accessed November 13, 2023, https://www.state.gov/ investment-climate-statements/. 7 “Philippines Country Risk Report — GAN Integrity,” last modified September 2020, accessed November 13, 2023, https:// www.ganintegrity.com/country-profiles/philippines/. 8 “Anti-Corruption Basics,” U4 Anti-Corruption Resource Centre, last modified March 2023, accessed November 13, 2023, https://www.u4.no/topics/anti-corruption-basics. 9 Ibid. 10 Adapted from “Five Steps to Combat Corruption | Delhi News - Times of India,” last modified April 2003, accessed November 13, 2023, https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/delhi/Five-stepsto-combat-corruption/articleshow/43197417.cms.

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11 Adapted from Kimberly Leonard, “5 Factors !at Demonstrate a Strong Work Ethic,” Small Business Chron, last modified February 2019, accessed November 13, 2023, https:// smallbusiness.chron.com/5-factors-demonstrate-strong-workethic-15976.html; Penny Loretto, “Work Values Employers Are Looking For,” LiveAbout, last modified November 24, 2019, accessed November 13, 2023, https://www.liveabout.com/top-work-valuesemployers-look-for-1986763.

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CHAPTER 10 LIFESTYLES: HOMOSEXUALITY AND POLYGAMY Introduction Homosexuality is not a topic that neither Christians nor the churches want to talk about.1 One author made the argument that the government cannot prohibit distinct forms of sexual behavior based upon disapproval from the majority, but there is the possibility of the government prohibiting a sexual behavior based upon the intrinsic moral decline of its people.2 Polygamy is another topic that raises ethical questions. God’s divine ideal for marriage is one man and one woman. It has been stated that “Monogamy is the divine ideal. !e Creator constituted marriage as a union between one man and one woman. . . . He preserves the number of males practically equal to the number of females in a nation.”3 But polygamy has existed throughout history. Ethical Framework Virtue ethics answers the questions such as “How should I live?” and “What are proper family and social values?” Virtue ethics is based upon the work of Aristotle, who believed that character traits such as compassion or faithfulness have value in terms of ethical decision-making. !ese virtues include moral education and development. 4 A Christian’s main virtue in terms of lifestyle is faithfulness to God’s Word. !is means being obedient to God’s commands. !ere are two relationship lifestyles that do not follow God’s instruction for how one is to live his life: homosexuality and polygamy. !ese two lifestyles do not contain the virtue of faithfulness to God’s Word. Let’s discuss each of these within the context of a Biblical framework. Homosexuality Alex Montoya says that “!ere is no question that the church faces a major issue on how to respond to homosexuality in our society and in the church.” 5 Responses to homosexuality worldwide reveal 133

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that homosexuality is an issue that the church must address. In Nigeria, lawmakers were considering a bill that would ban any type of connection with a homosexual. !is would include having a meal with a homosexual.6 Westboro Baptist Church makes it a ministry to protest against homosexuals whenever they have the opportunity. 7 In Uganda, an Anti-Homosexuality Act was passed on February 24, 2014 by the approval of President Yoweri Museveni.8 Museveni’s wife made the statement that homosexual activity needs to be prohibited in Uganda because it is forbidden in the Bible.9 A recent Associated Press article stated that “with younger evangelicals and broader society showing greater acceptance of homosexuality, many evangelical churches can expect, at least, a deeper exploration of the issue.”10 Definition !e American Psychiatric Association defines homosexuality as a sexual orientation, referring to it as “an enduring pattern of or disposition to experience sexual, a(ectional, or romantic attractions primarily to persons of the same sex; it also refers to an individual’s sense of personal and social identity based on those attractions, behaviors expressing them, and membership in a community of others who share them.”11 Homosexuality has also been defined “as the orientation of sexual need, desire, or responsiveness towards other persons of the same gender.”12 Old Testament !e origin of homosexuality emerged in Greek history. Greek is the first known culture to accept and practice homosexuality, followed by Rome.13 When Judaism demanded that all sexual activity be channeled into marriage, it changed the world. Judaism cannot make peace with homosexuality because homosexuality denies many of Judaism’s most fundamental principles. It denies life, it denies God’s expressed desire that men and women cohabit, and it denies the root structure that Judaism wishes for all mankind, the family. Homosexuality also had a negative e(ect on women, which was yet another reason for Judaism to oppose the act of homosexual

relations

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Holiness Code of Leviticus !e Holiness Code found in Leviticus was meant to make sure that the Israelites maintained lives of purity in order to separate themselves from the Canaanites.15 !ere are three verses in Leviticus that shed light on this subject: • “And whoever may lie in bed with a man as with a woman, both of them committed an abomination, they shall be put to death, their blood is upon them” (Lev 20:3). • “You shall not lie with a male as with a woman, it is an abomination” (Lev 18:22) or, • “If a man lies with a male as with a woman, both of them have committed an abomination they shall be put to death, their blood is upon them” (Lev 20:13). Homosexual activity was and still is an abomination in the eyes of God. Homosexual activity destroys God’s intention as expressed in the creation story in Genesis, where God made a woman for Adam. Deuteronomy 23:17–18 discusses how the Canaanite cults included male prostitution in their temple as a part of their worship of false gods: “None of the daughters of Israel shall be a temple prostitute [qedeshah]; none of the sons of Israel shall be a temple prostitute [qadesh]. You shall not bring the fee of a prostitute into the house of the Lord your God in payment for any vow, for both of these are abhorrent to the Lord your God” (NRSV). Homosexual activity is related to worship of false idols. In 1 Kings 22:46, qadesh is translated by the Greek word endiellagmenos in the Septuagint, which means one who has changed his nature. !e term endiellagmenos may be either one who has changed his or her desire by becoming a homosexual, or one who has been changed by apostate ways from a worshipper of Yahweh into one who worships idols. !e stories of Sodom and Gomorrah (Genesis 19) and the outrage at Gibeah (Judges 19) confirm the interpretation that homosexual activity is an abomination against God. In fact, the Gibeah pas-

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sage confirms that the people did not want to just be friendly to the visitors but had an immoral sexual intent. !e textual evidence from the two stories indicates that “those cities were inhabited by men so sexually depraved that they were prepared sexually to violate not only males, which they evidently preferred, but whoever was made available to them.”16 By the end of the first century Jews identified the sin of Sodom and Gomorrah with homosexual practices.17 New Testament Two of the most important verses in the Bible that relate to the immorality of homosexuality in the New Testament are Romans 1:2627 (NIV), which says: • Because of this, God gave them over to shameful lusts. Even their women exchanged natural sexual relations for unnatural ones (27). In the same way the men also abandoned natural relations with women and were in)amed with lust for one another. Men committed shameful acts with other men, and received in themselves the due penalty for their error. (Romans 1:26–27) • Or do you not know that wrongdoers will not inherit the kingdom of God? Do not be deceived: Neither the sexually immoral nor idolaters nor adulterers nor men who have sex with men (10) nor thieves nor the greedy nor drunkards nor slanderers nor swindlers will inherit the kingdom of God. (11) And that is what some of you were. But you were washed, you were sanctified, you were justified in the name of the Lord Jesus Christ and by the Spirit of our God. (1 Corinthians 6:9–11 (NIV) Paul makes it clear in his writings that homosexual activity is immoral and contrary to God’s truth. He goes so far as to state emphatically that wrongdoers, including homosexuals, will not be able to inherit God’s kingdom. In Paul’s writings, Paul is agreeing with the Old Testament that homosexual activity is an abomination in the eyes of God.

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Church’s Response to Homosexuality

Within the discussion of the topic of homosexuality, the church’s voice needs to be heard. !e church, speaking God’s truth to the world, must speak so that the people will know the stance of God on any issue, and that includes the issue of homosexuality. !e church must respond in four ways to express the belief of God: The Church Must Condemn the Sin of Homosexuality !e church must expose the sin of homosexuality. !e Bible teaches that homosexuality is an action that God views as unrighteous and ungodly (Romans 1:18; 1 Corinthians 6:9; 2 Peter 2:9; and Jude 4). Homosexuality is in opposition to God in four ways. First, homosexuality is a sin that opposes God’s creative order. Consider these references: “!e Lord God fashioned into a woman the rib which He had taken from the man, and brought her to the man. !e man said, “!is is now bone of my bones, and )esh of my )esh; she shall be called Woman, because she was taken out of Man. For this cause a man shall leave his father and his mother, and be joined to his wife; and they shall become one )esh” (Gen 2:22-24). “And He answered and said, “Have you not read that He who created them from the beginning made them male and female, and said, ‘For this reason a man shall leave his father and mother and be joined to his wife, and the two shall become one )esh’? So they are no longer two, but one )esh. What therefore God has joined together, let no man separate” (Matthew 19:4-6). Joseph Coray says, in referring to God’s creative order, “Paul singles out homosexual intercourse for special attention because, he regards it as providing a particular graphic image of the way in which human fallenness distorts God’s created order. He continues to say that God the creator, made man and woman for each other, to cleave together, to be fruitful and multiply. When human beings engage in homosexual activity, they enact an outward and visible sign of an inward and spiritual reality; the rejection of the Creator’s design.

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!ey embody the spiritual condition of those who have exchanged the truth about God for a lie.”18 Second, homosexuality is a sin that opposes the law of God (1 Timothy 1:8-11). In Paul’s exhortation about the law of God, he asserts the following: “… !e law is not made for a righteous person, but for those who are lawless and rebellious, for the ungodly and sinners, for the unholy and profane, for those who kill their fathers and mothers, for murderers and immoral men and homosexuals and kidnappers and liars and perjurers, and whatever else is contrary to sound teaching, according to the glorious gospel of the blessed God, with which I have been entrusted” (1 Timothy 1:9-11). !ird, homosexuality is a sin that opposes the Kingdom of God (1 Corinthians 6:9-10). !e apostle Paul describes in clear language that the unrighteous, which includes homosexuals, will have no part in God’s kingdom unless they repent and change their wicked ways and come into right relationship with God through Christ Jesus. Note the verse: “Or do you not know that the unrighteous will not inherit the kingdom of God? Do not be deceived; neither fornicators, nor idolaters, nor adulterers, nor e(eminate, nor homosexuals, nor thieves, nor the covetous, nor drunkards, nor revilers, nor swindlers, will inherit the kingdom of God” (1 Corinthians 6:9–10). Fourth, homosexuality is a sin that opposes the holiness of God (1 !essalonians 4:3; 1 Peter 1:15–16). !e Bible is clear that God expects holiness from His children. Note the verse: “But like the Holy One who called you, be holy yourselves also in all your behavior; because it is written, “You shall be holy, for I am holy” (1 Peter 1:15-16). !e Bible also states: “For this is the will of God, your sanctification; that is, that you abstain from sexual immorality; that each of you know how to possess his own vessel in sanctification and honor, not in lustful passion, like the Gentiles who do not know God. . . . For God has not called us for the purpose of impurity, but in sanctification. So, he who rejects this is not rejecting man but the God who gives His Holy Spirit to you” (1 !essalonians 4:3–8). !e church needs to expose the eternal truth and consequences of homosexuality. !e church must proclaim the wrath waiting for

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those who continue in sin. Paul explains that there are homosexuals who “are fully aware of God’s death penalty for those who do these things, yet they go right ahead and do them anyway. And worse yet, they encourage others to do them, too.” (Romans 1:32). !e church needs to express clearly that “fornicators and adulterers God will judge” (Hebrews 13:4). As the watchman of Israel was warned not to be silent about the judgment coming upon the nation, so too, Christians dare not be silent about the dangers that homosexuals are facing (Ezekiel 3:17–19). The Church Must Convert the Homosexual !e church needs to extend God’s grace to the homosexual. Homosexuality is one of many sins that God does not tolerate, but it must be remembered that Christ died and rose again to free humanity from the slavery of all sins. God’s forgiveness awaits the homosexual who is ready to repent and change their ways. !e church must be willing to show the love of Christ in many ways to the homosexual. Firstly, the church must show the compassion of Christ to the homosexual. Tim Wilkins said, “Over time I’ve discovered that when it comes to homosexuality, Christians show great passion in one of two areas. Either they are passionate about extinguishing the pro-gay movement or about expanding God’s movement by introducing them to His Son.” 19 R. Albert Mohler writes, “Homosexuals are waiting to see if the Christian church has anything more to say, a&er we declare that homosexuality is a sin.”20 Secondly, the church must care enough about the lost to associate with homosexuals. Paul expresses this sentiment in Romans 10:14 (NIV), where he states, “How, then, can they call on the one they have not believed in? And how can they believe in the one of whom they have not heard? And how can they hear without someone preaching to them?” !irdly, the church must be convicted to convert the homosexual. !e power of Christ is more than powerful enough to convict the homosexual of sin. !e Holy Spirit is more than capable of showing the homosexual the need to receive Christ Jesus as Lord

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and Savior of his life. !e church must trust God that He is able to free people from all sins and restore them into a right relationship with Him through Christ Jesus. !e Christian needs to befriend and witness to the homosexual with such love, compassion, and wisdom that they will respond to the saving grace of God. Militant homosexuals should be handled with gentleness, praying that God may grant them forgiveness and deliverance from the snare of the devil (cf. 2 Tim 2:24–26). Mark Christopher encourages the church when he says, “Homosexuality is a not a greater sin than other sins and does not require a di(erent plan on God’s part to save and redeem. What the above passage teaches us is that there is more grace in God than there is sin in your past! As someone once said, ‘He is a better Savior than you are a sinner’! 21 !e message of amazing grace is exactly what the Church needs to promote and practice.” 22 The Church Must Confront Error !e church is the agent of God in the proclamation of the truth, but it also is an instrument in the preservation of God’s truth. !is means that the church must fight against heresy and error (cf. Matt 5:13; 1 Tim 3:15). !e reason why the church must be so diligent in fighting against error is because the Bible teaches that this error will try to enter the church (cf. Matt 13:37-43; Acts 20:2930). One goal of the church is to confront error and reveal human philosophies as wicked (cf. 2 Cor 10:3–5; Col 2:8–10). Jude states, “Contend earnestly for the faith which was once for all handed down to the saints” (Jude 3). The Church Must Keep Clean !e church needs to keep itself clean from worldly sin. !e church must fight against the sin of this world. !e church must uphold God’s truth and must not compromise the truth of God for anything. !e apostle Paul’s words are clear and need to be followed by the church: “Let no one deceive you with empty words, for because of these things the wrath of God comes upon the sons of disobedience. !erefore do not be partakers with them; for you were formerly

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darkness, but now you are children of light in the Lord; walk as children of light. . . . Do not participate in the unfruitful deeds of darkness, but instead even expose them; for it is disgraceful even to speak of the things which are done by them in secret” (Eph 5:6, 8, 11–12). Polygamy Historically, polygamy has been practiced for a long time. On February 14, 1650, the Nürnberg parliament declared, because so many men had died during the !irty Years’ War, that every man was permitted to marry no more than ten women.23 Joseph Smith, the founder of the Mormons, had up to forty wives.24 Mwai Kibaki, the Christian president of Kenya, whose victory was attributed to God’s providence by the Presbyterian Church of East Africa, practices polygamy.25 South Africa has made polygamy legal.26 In China, where there is a shortage of women because of the one-child policy and female infanticide, polygamy maybe found acceptable in order to increase the number of male o(spring.27 We must be reminded that polygamy is immoral based on God’s standards. First, let’s look at the meaning of polygamy. Definitions !e term polygamy comes from the Greek word polugamos, which has the meaning ‘o&en marrying.’ In popular speech, the term polygamy refers to a husband having many spouses or the practice of having more than one wife simultaneously.28 !e definition of polygamy also “consists in the maintaining of conjugal relations by more than two persons. When the result of such relations is to form a single matrimonial or family entity with the spouses, this is regarded as polygamous marriage.”29 Polygamy refers to a marriage, that includes multiple partners. Polygamy exists in two forms: polygyny and polyandry. Polygyny is when a man is married to more than one wife, whereas polyandry refers to a woman who is married to more than one husband. 30

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History

Polygamy was practiced by wealthy Jews in places where Islam was the major religion, but was rare among the Jews in places where Christianity was the major religion.31 It was also common among the Mediterranean Jews who lived in Yemen, where rabbis allowed Jews to wed as many as four wives.32 Today in Israel, if a woman cannot produce o(spring or is mentally ill, the rabbis will give a husband permission to wed a second wife without divorcing his first spouse.33 !e Christian belief that polygamy is wrong was held in question among theologians in the Western Church in the Middle Ages in Europe. Calvin condemned polygamy as a sin and viewed the Patriarchs as sinners.34 Augustine stated two reasons that polygamy was accepted in the Old Testament but it is not accepted today. First, polygamy was viewed as a method of populating the earth in accordance to God’s command. “Be fruitful and increase in number . . .” (Genesis 1:28). Today, the earth is well populated; therefore, there is no need for polygamy. Second, he believed that the marriage pattern was driven by culture. In the Old Testament, polygamy was culturally acceptable, but today it is a criminal act and therefore should no longer be practiced.35 !e Church in Rome placed a ban on the act of polygamy so as to assimilate into Greco-Roman culture that allowed only one legal wife, even though it tolerated concubines and prostitution.36 !e Roman emperor Valentinian I, in the fourth century, gave permission for Christians to have two wives. In the eighth century, Charlemagne, had six, or according to some authorities, nine wives.37 !e Roman Catholics in the Council of Trent took a firm stand against polygamy. In a statement of November 11, 1563, they insisted, “If anyone says that it is lawful for Christians to have several wives at the same time, and that it is not forbidden by any divine law (Matthew 19:4f): let him be anathema.”38 !is clearly states that the Council of Trent opposed polygamous relationships.

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Old Testament View of Polygamy

!e Edenic model of marriage is viewed as a universal law in Leviticus 18. Richard Davidson provides a list of Old Testament narrative passages that present the negative consequences of polygamy.39 God did not permit polygamy in the Bible. It says in Deuteronomy 17:17 (NIV): “He must not take many wives, or his heart will be led astray. He must not accumulate large amounts of silver and gold.” !e following is a summary of Davidson’s list of polygamous relationships found in the Old Testament and the adverse consequences that followed: • !e first polygamist, Lamech, calls for a family reunion so he can brag about his violence. (Genesis 4:19–24) • Esau married two women (Genesis 26:34) and then added a third wife (Genesis 28:9). • Jacob had two wives, Leah and Rachel, and two concubines, a situation which created broken hearts, the breakdown of the family, jealousy, and attempted murder (Gen 29–37). !en Jacob’s conversion in Genesis 32:24–30 occurred. He then put idolatry out of his household (Gen. 35:2–4). God appeared to him, changed his name to Israel (“Overcomer,” or “Prevailer with God”), and reconfirmed His promises. !en God took Rachel, his second wife (Gen. 35:19), leaving only his first and true wife Leah. • Gideon had many wives and many sons (Judges 8:30–31). !is resulted in civil war and slaughter in Israel (Judges 9). • David had many wives (2 Sam 5:13), and in the end steals another man’s wife and murders him (2 Sam 5:11–13). !e resulting big family was not a happy one. !ey ended up committing rape (2 Sam 5:13) and rebellion, which almost destroyed David’s kingdom (2 Sam 5:14(). David finally repented of his sins, which included polygamy (I Samuel 12:13). • Elkanah, Samuel’s father, had two wives (1 Samuel 1:2).

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• Solomon had 700 wives and 300 concubines. !ey led his heart away from the Lord, and led to the break-up of his kingdom (1 Kings 11:3–4). • King Rehoboam claimed 18 wives and 60 concubines (2 Chronicles 11:2 1). • Saul rejected monogamy for polygamy (2 Samuel 12:8; 21:8). Saul was replaced with David.

In the beginning God brought one man and one woman together in holy matrimony (Genesis 2:22–23). God through Moses then added, “For this reason a man will leave his father and mother and be united to his wife, and they will become one )esh.” (Genesis 2:24). Note the use of the singular man and wife. Isaac is a type of Christ, the Son of God. And Isaac’s wife, Rebekah, is the type of the church, which is to marry Christ. Now Christ will never have but the one wife, the church. And, Isaac, being a type of Christ, had only one wife. !e Old Testament continues to assert that a man should enjoy the wife, not wives, of his youth (Proverbs 5:18). New Testament View of Polygamy !e New Testament forbids polygamy by discussing marriage in terms of three conditions: (1) one )esh; (2) cleave to wife; and (3) husband of one wife. !e selected verses used in relation to one )esh and cleaving to one wife are the following: • Ephesians 5:31: For this reason a man will leave his father and mother and be united to his wife, and the two will become one )esh. • Matthew 19:3–6 (NIV) Some Pharisees came to him to test him. !ey asked, “Is it lawful for a man to divorce his wife for any and every reason?” “Haven’t you read,” he replied, “that at the beginning the Creator ‘made them male and female,’ and said, ‘For this reason a man will leave his father and mother and be united to his wife, and the two will become one )esh’? So they are no longer two, but one )esh. !erefore, what God has joined together, let no one separate.”

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It is impossible to become one )esh with many wives. !is is why the New Testament continues to view polygamy as a sin when it discusses a man being a husband of one wife. !e selected verses related to being the husband of one wife are the following: • 1 Timothy 3:2 (NKJV): A bishop then must be blameless, the husband of one wife, temperate, sober-minded, of good behavior, hospitable, able to teach; • 1 Timothy 3:12: A deacon must be the husband of but one wife and must manage his children and his household well. • Titus 1:6 (NKJV): If a man is blameless, the husband of one wife, having faithful children not accused of dissipation or insubordination • 1 Corinthians 7:2 (ESV): But because of the temptation to sexual immorality, each man should have his own wife and each woman her own husband. In Ephesians 5:31, Paul quotes not only Genesis 2:24 but also Jesus by stating that in marriage, “the two will become one )esh.” In Matthew 19:9, Jesus said, “I tell you that anyone who divorces his wife, except for marital unfaithfulness, and marries another woman commits adultery.” Jesus is here explaining that a husband is bound to his one wife. No provision is given for a second marriage without a writ of divorce. Likewise in Romans (7:2–3), Paul states that a woman who takes a second husband while the first is still alive is an adulteress. Negative Effects of Polygamy Rivalry When two or more women share a husband, continuous tension was the result of the man’s preference of one wife over another. !e Hebrew word for the second wife literally means “rival wife,” as in 1 Samuel 1:6, where the other wife is called Hannah’s adversary, the one who relentlessly provoked her and caused her distress. !is can be found in Leviticus 18:18 (NIV): “Do not take your wife’s sister as a rival wife and have sexual relations with her while your wife is

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living.” !e competition between the two wives for the a(ection of the one husband will create strife and friction within the marriage unit. Women’s Oppression Polygamy oppresses women. Polygamy increases the impoverishment of women by placing limitations on their financial resources throughout the marriage as well as in the situation of a divorce or death of the husband.40 If the husband rewards subservient behavior, the wife may feel unable to speak her feelings, fearing the consequence of losing the a(ection of her husband to the other wife. Emotional Problems Women in polygamous marriages are at an increased risk of low self-esteem, and depression as compared to women in nonpolygamous relationships. 41 !ese women have no say in whether a new wife is added by their husbands, which contributes to emotions of powerlessness and, too o&en, emotional abuse.42 Women in polygamous marriages have increased tendencies toward depression a&er pregnancy because their husbands all too o&en show more a(ection to the other wives.43 Relational Problems Women who are in polygamous relationships experience less marital satisfaction and more problems in their mother-child relationships as compared to non-polygamous relationships.44 Women in polygamous marriages usually become subservient to their husbands. In polygamous relationships, the wives’ main responsibility is childbearing. 45 Physical and Behavioral Problems Women in polygamous families have been discovered to have a higher incidence of sexual diseases, including AIDS.46 It was found that husbands who had three or more wives had an increase of instances of contracting a sexual disease and infecting their wives as compared to monogamous relationships.47 Children from polygamous marriages experience a higher incidence of marital discord, family abuse,

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and family disturbances as compared to children of monogamous marriages.48 Also, children from polygamous families have an increase in both behavioral and developmental problems.49 It has been discovered that polygamy “o&en coincides with crimes targeting women and children, including incest, sexual assault, statutory rape, and failure to pay child support.”50 Polygamy creates physical and behavior problems for those within the polygamous family. Scholastic Problems Women from polygamous marriages do not perform as well in school as compared to those women in monogamous marriages. Because of their low performance in school, women may lose their ability to seek jobs. !e result is that there are only few women from polygamous families who work outside the home.51 Conclusion Homosexuality and polygamy are forbidden by God. God has expressed this clearly in both the Old and the New Testaments. In the final analysis, exegesis of God’s Word will reveal that homosexuality and polygamy are against God’s moral standards. Both the Old and the New Testament display God’s view against homosexuality. !e church must uphold God’s truth on this issue. !e Old Testament reveals the negative consequences of polygamous relationships, while the New Testament discusses the importance of monogamy. Polygamy a(ects the family, both spouses and children, in negative ways, from emotional problems to behavioral malfunction. Both homosexuality and polygamy go against God’s Word. Both of these lifestyles go against the virtue of faithfulness and obedience to God.

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Endnotes

1 Mark G. Toulose, “Muddling !rough: !e Church and Sexuality/Homosexuality,” in Homosexuality, Science, and the “Plain Sense” of Scripture, by David L. Balch (Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing, 2000), 34. 2 Peter de Marne(e, “Sexual Freedom and Impersonal Value,” Criminal Law and Philosophy 7, no. 3 (October 1, 2013): 495– 512. 3 John D. Davis, Davis Dictionary of the Bible, 4th edition. (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Pub Group, 1955), 498. 4 Daniel C. Russell, “Introduction: Virtue Ethics in Modern Moral Philosophy,” in The Cambridge Companion to Virtue Ethics (New York,: Cambridge University Press, 2010), 1–6. 5 Alex D. Montoya, “!e Church’s Response to Homosexuality,” The Master’s Seminary Journal 19, no. 2 (Fall 2008): 234. 6 !e Associated Press, “World Briefing | Africa: Nigeria: Bill Would Make Meeting with Gays a Crime,” The New York Times, December 12, 2006, sec. World, accessed November 13, 2023, https://www.nytimes.com/2006/12/12/world/world-briefing-africanigeria-bill-would-make-meeting-with-gays-a.html. 7 M. Lane Bruner and Susan Balter-Reitz, “Snyder v. Phelps: !e U.S. Supreme Court’s Spectacular Erasure of the Tragic Spectacle,” Rhetoric & Public Affairs 16, no. 4 (2013): 651–683. 8 Faith Karimi !ompson Nick, “Uganda’s President Museveni Signs Controversial Anti-Gay Bill into Law,” CNN, last modified February 24, 2014, accessed November 13, 2023, https://www.cnn. com/2014/02/24/world/africa/uganda-anti-gay-bill/index.html. 9 Scott Roberts, “Wife of Uganda’s President Denies AntiHomosexuality Bill Is Designed for Persecuting Gays,” PinkNews | Latest Lesbian, Gay, Bi and Trans News | LGBTQ+ News, last modified April 1, 2013, accessed November 13, 2023, https://www.

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thepinknews.com/2013/04/01/wife-of-ugandas-president-deniesanti-homosexuality-bill-is-designed-for-persecuting-gays/. 10 Mark McGinniss, “!e Church’s Response to !e Homosexual,” Journal of Ministry and Theology 14, no. 2 (2010): 135–136. 11 Found at “Christian Ethics: Homosexuality,” n.d., https://www.fhchurchfiles.com/files/classes/Christian%20Ethics/ Lesson%203%20Homosexuality.pdf. 12 Mwanawina Ilyayambwa, “Homosexual Rights and the Law: A South African Constitutional Metamorphosis,” International Journal of Humanities and Social Science 2, no. 4 (February 2012): 50. 13 Louis Crompton, Homosexuality and Civilization (Cambridge, Mass.: Belknap Press: An Imprint of Harvard University Press, 2006), 1–25. 14 Dennis Prager. “Judaism’s Sexual Revolution: Why Judaism (and then Christianity) Rejected Homosexuality.” Crisis 11, no. 8 (September 1993): 29–33. 15 Je(rey S. Siker, “!e Bible,” in Homosexuality and Religion: An Encyclopedia (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 2007), 67. 16 Timothy J. Dailey, The Bible, the Church & Homosexuality Exposing the “Gay” Theology (Washington, D.C.: Family Research Council, 2004), 4–5. 17 J. Harold Ellens, Sex in the Bible: A New Consideration (Bloomsbury Publishing, 2006), 117. 18 Joseph A. Coray, Sexual Diversity and Catholicism: Toward the Development of Moral Theology, ed. Patricia Beattie Jung (Collegeville, Minn: Michael Glazier, 2001), 119. 19 Tim Wilkins, “Preaching on Homosexuality: Taking the Road Less Traveled,” Crosswalk.Com, 13, last modified May 12, 2023, accessed November 13, 2023, https://www.crosswalk.com/church/

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pastors-or-leadership/preaching-on-homosexuality-taking-theroad-less-traveled-11574736.html. 20 Albert R. Mohler, “No Truth Without Love, No Love Without Truth,” Eternal Perspectives (Summer 2013): 6–7, accessed November 13, 2023, https://albertmohler.com/2009/04/23/notruth-without-love-no-love-without-truth. 21 Bryan Wolfmueller, A Martyrs Faith in a Faithless World Internet. Found at https://www.goodreads.com/quotes/9981718jesus-is-a-better-savior-than-you-are-a-sinner Accessed December 5, 2023. 22 Mark Christopher, Same-Sex Marriage: Is It Really the Same? (Constantia, South Africa: !e Voice of Hope, 2007), 44. 23 Larry O. Jensen, A Genealogical Handbook of German Research (Larry O. Jensen Publications, 1980), 59. 24 Laurie Goodstein, “It’s O*cial: Mormon Founder Had Up to 40 Wives,” The New York Times, November 11, 2014, sec. U.S., accessed November 13, 2023, https://www.nytimes.com/2014/11/11/ us/its-o*cial-mormon-founder-had-up-to-40-wives.html. 25 Sam Gonza, “Churches Celebrate Kenya’s New President,” Christianity Today 47, no. 3 (March 2003): 30, accessed November 13, 2023, https://www.christianitytoday.com/ct/2003/march/18.30. html. 26 Aurelia Dyanti, “Two Wives Better than One for Some SA Men,” IOL, last modified July 16, 2003, accessed November 13, 2023, https://www.iol.co.za/news/south-africa/two-wives-better-thanone-for-some-sa-men-109823. 27 Cynthia T. Cook, “Polygamy: Did the Africans Get It Right?,” Journal of Black Studies 38, no. 2 (November 2007): 236. 28 Oxford University Press, Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary, 8th edition. (Oxford University Press, 2010), 1123. 29 Obonye Jonas, “!e Practice of Polygamy under the Scheme of the Protocol to the African Charter on Human and Peoples’

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Rights on the Rights of Women in Africa: A Critical Appraisal,” Journal of African Studies and Development 4, no. 5 (July 2012): 142, accessed November 13, 2023, http://www.academicjournals.org/ jasd/abstracts/abstracts/abstracts2012/July/Obonye.htm. 30 Miriam Koktvedgaard Zeitzen, Polygamy: A Cross-Cultural Analysis, 1st ed. (Routledge, 2020), 2, accessed November 13, 2023, https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/9781000183344. 31 Will Durant, The Age of Faith: A History of Medieval Civilization, Unabridged MP3CD edition. (Blackstone Audio, 2014), 380. 32 Christopher Smith, “Polygamy’s Practice Stirs Debate in Israel,” Salt Lake Tribune, last modified December 7, 2001, accessed November 13, 2023, http://come-and-hear.com/editor/polygamyisrael/index.html. 33 Peggy Fletcher Stack, Globally, Polygamy Is Commonplace (Salt Lake Tribune, 1998). 34 David B. Barrett, Schism and Renewal in Africa: An Analysis of Six Thousand Contemporary Religious Movements (Londo and Nairobi: Oxford University Press, 1968), 116–117. David B. Barrrett. Schism and Renewal in Africa (Nairobi: Oxford University Press, 1968): 116–117. 35 William B Kessel, “Polygamy and the Patriarchs” (Presented at the AZ District Pastoral Conference, Prescott, AZ: First Lutheran Church, 1998), 1–6, http://www.wlsessays.net/files/KesselPolygamy. pdf. 36 Eugene Hillman, Polygamy Reconsidered: African Plural Marriage and the Christian Churches (Orbis Books, 1975), 17. 37 Matilda Joslyn Gage, Woman, Church & StateThe Original Exposé of Male Collaboration Against the Female Sex (Indo-European Publshing, 2014), 244, accessed November 13, 2023, https://www. gutenberg.org/ebooks/45580.

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38 Council of Trent (1545–1563), The Canons and Decrees of the Sacred and Oecumenical Council of Trent, Celebrated under the Sovereign Pontiffs, Paul III, Julius III and Pius IV (London : Burns and Oates, N.Y., Catholic Publication Society, 1848), 202– 203, accessed November 13, 2023, http://archive.org/details/ cu31924029369760. 39 Richard M. Davidson, “Polygamy in the Old Testament.,” in Pathology of Polygamy, ed. Ron du Preez (Berrien Spring, MI: Omega Media, 2007). 40 Susan von Struensee, “!e Contribution of Polygamy to Women’s Oppression and Impoverishment: An Argument for Its Prohibition,” SSRN Scholarly Paper (Rochester, NY, July 23, 2004), accessed November 13, 2023, https://papers.ssrn.com/ abstract=563282. 41 Vered Slonim,Nevo and Alean Al,Krenawi, “Success and Failure among Polygamous Families: !e Experience of Wives, Husbands, and Children,” Family Process 45, no. 3 (September 2006): 310–330. 42 Dena Hassouneh-Phillips, “Polygamy and Wife Abuse: A Qualitative Study of Muslim Women in America,” Health Care for Women International 22, no. 8 (December 2001): 735–748. 43 Signe Dørheim Ho,Yen et al., “Factors Associated with Depressive Symptoms among Postnatal Women in Nepal,” Acta Obstetricia et Gynecologica Scandinavica 86, no. 3 (March 2007): 291–297. 44 Alean Al-Krenawi and Vered Slonim-Nevo, “!e Psychosocial Profile of Bedouin Arab Women Living in Polygamous and Monogamous Marriages,” Families in Society: The Journal of Contemporary Social Services 89, no. 1 (January 2008): 139–149. 45 Jaime M Gher, “Polygamy and Same-Sex Marriage - Allies or Adversaries within the Same-Sex Marriage Movement,” William & Mary Journal of Women and the Law 14, no. 3 (April 2008): 584.

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46 O. O. Familusi, “Human Sexuality in African !ought and the HIV/ AIDS Scourge,” 2011, accessed November 13, 2023, https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/HumanSexuality-in-African-Thought-and-the-HIV-AIDS-Familusi/ e98ba98c5f9294251f05e316fa3d2336ccf0dafd. 47 Tisha M. Mitsunaga et al., “Extramarital Sex Among Nigerian Men: Polygyny and Other Risk Factors,” JAIDS Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes 39, no. 4 (August 1, 2005): 478–488. 48 Salman Elbedour et al., “!e E(ect of Polygamous Marital Structure on Behavioral, Emotional, and Academic Adjustment in Children: A Comprehensive Review of the Literature,” Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review 5, no. 4 (December 2002): 255– 271. 49 Salman Elbedour, Anthony J. Onwuegbuzie, and Mohammad Alatamin, “Behavioral Problems and Scholastic Adjustment among Bedouin-Arab Children from Polygamous and Monogamous Marital Family Structures: Some Developmental Considerations,” Genetic, Social, and General Psychology Monographs 129, no. 3 (August 2003): 213–237. 50 Mark Strasser, “Marriage, Free Exercise, and the Constitution,” SSRN Scholarly Paper (Rochester, NY, February 10, 2008), 88–89, accessed November 13, 2023, https://papers.ssrn.com/ abstract=1091500 51 !om Brooks, “!e Problem with Polygamy,” SSRN Scholarly Paper (Rochester, NY, January 22, 2009), 112, accessed November 13, 2023, https://papers.ssrn.com/abstract=1331492.

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CHAPTER 11 LAST DAYS: GLOBAL WARMING AND WORLD HUNGER Introduction We are entering into the last chapter of the ethical issues. !e chapter examines global warming and world hunger. !is chapter explores ways to act right toward the Earth. Listen to this: “Acting rightly with respect to the Earth is a source of hope, for those who do so give expression to the Christian belief that it is God’s intention to redeem the earth and her oppressed creatures, from sinful subjection to the oppressive domination of prideful wealth and imperial power.”1 !e framework for discussing these topics is environmental ethics. Environmental Ethics Environmental ethics is a new branch of applied philosophy that it studies the conceptual frameworks of environmental values. It deals with the ethical problems surrounding environmental protection such as societal attitudes, actions, and policies to protect and sustain biodiversity and ecological systems. It aims to provide ethical justification and moral motivation for the cause of global environmental protection.2 Historically, the framework of this ethical theory was from Albert Schweitzer (1923), who wrote: !e essence of goodness is to maintain and cherish life, and the essence of evil is to destroy and damage life. All living beings have the will to live, and all living beings with the will to live are sacred, interrelated and of equal value. It is, therefore, an ethical imperative for us to respect and help all life forms.3

Tongjin Yang suggests several distinctive features of environmental ethics that deserve attention: 1. Environmental ethics is extended. Environmental issues go beyond a person’s community and country, which includes animals and all of nature for future generations. 155

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2. Environmental ethics is interdisciplinary. !ere are several issues related to the environment and its ethics. 3. Environmental ethics is plural. Environmental ethics has an e(ect on other disciplines, so it is up to everyone to help protect the environment. 4. Environmental ethics is global. Environmental crisis is a world problem. Environmental destruction does not respect country boundaries. No nation can handle this problem by itself. To deal with the world environmental crisis, people must agree and cooperate with each other at all levels. 5. Environmental ethics is revolutionary. At the intellectual level, environmental ethics encourages everyone to grow in their concern for the environment. At the practical level, everyone is called to live a life that is greener-friendly.4

Included in our discussion is the issue of global warming, which many consider the biggest problem of the world. World hunger is another of the by-products of environmental problems that will be investigated in this chapter. Global Warming Climate change is another term for global warming. !is refers to the increase in the average temperature of global surface air and oceans since about 1950. Greenhouse gases are collected in the environment due to the activities of human beings. !ese prevent solar radiation from escaping thus increasing the temperature of the atmosphere. Due to this increase in atmospheric temperature, the temperature of the earth is rising day by day, and this causes climate change. Greenhouse gases in the atmosphere act like a mirror and re)ect back to the Earth a part of the heat radiation, which would otherwise be lost to space. !e higher the concentration of greenhouse gases like carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, the more heat energy is being re)ected back to the Earth. !e emission of carbon dioxide into the environment

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mainly from burning of fossil fuels (oil, gas, petrol, kerosene, etc.) has been increased dramatically over the past 50 years.5

Main Causes of Global Warming Causes of Global Warming came from natural and man-made causes. The Earth Science Communications Team of NASA gives several natural causes of global warming: • Sunspots — increased solar activity changes the Earth’s solar radiation. • Arctic Tundra — warmer global temperatures are causing the arctic tundra to begin emitting carbon dioxide. • Permafrost is now emitting carbon, which could potentially accelerate the greenhouse e(ect and global warming. • Water Vapor is increasing in the atmosphere due, to carbon dioxide–induced warming. Manmade Causes Global Warming • Burning of Fossil Fuels — most carbon dioxide emissions result from the burning of fossil fuels that came from electricity production and automobiles. • Deforestation — All living plants are capable of storing carbon but the declines and the amount of carbon dioxide free to build up in the atmosphere increases. • Fluorocarbons: Hydro-chloro)uorocarbons and chloro)uorocarbons are used in refrigeration, they are substantially more potent. • Fertilizer Use: Each time humans add fertilizer to soil, nitrogen oxide escapes into the atmosphere. Nitrogen oxides trap 300 times more heat per volume than carbon dioxide, • Mining allows methane, a greenhouse gas, to escape from the earth. Any time the soil is disturbed, stored gases make their way into the environment.

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• Population increase: as the population on Earth increases, food and housing demands also increase.6 Effects of Global Warming

Creation is su(ering (Rom 8:19–22), and people su(er as the e(ect of global warming. Lack of water results in crop failure. Diseases dash due to emission of carbon dioxide. We can argue that we, the people of the world, cause all these e(ects toward environment degradation, but we can change our behavior to alleviate the su(ering of many.7 National Geographic suggests many warnings below: • Ice is melting worldwide, especially at the Earth’s poles. !is includes mountain glaciers, ice sheets covering West Antarctica and Greenland, and Arctic sea ice. • !e number of Adélie penguins on Antarctica have fallen from 32,000 breeding pairs to 11,000 in 30 years. • !e sea level has risen more quickly over the last century. • Some butter)ies, foxes, and alpine plants have moved farther north or to higher, cooler areas. • Precipitation (rain and snowfall) has increased across the globe, on average. • Spruce bark beetles have boomed in Alaska, and insects have chewed up 4 million acres of spruce trees. • Other e(ects could happen later this century, if warming continues. • Sea levels are expected to rise between 7 and 23 inches (18 and 59 centimeters) by the end of the century, and continued melting at the poles could add between 4 and 8 inches (10 to 20 centimeters). • Hurricanes and other storms are likely to become stronger.

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• Species that depend on one another may become out of sync. For example, plants could bloom earlier than their pollinating insects become active. • Floods and droughts will become more common. Rainfall in Ethiopia, where droughts are already common, could decline by 10 percent over the next 50 years. • Less fresh water will be available. If the Quelccaya ice cap in Peru continues to melt at its current rate, it will be gone by 2100, leaving thousands of people who rely on it for drinking water and electricity without a source of either. • Some diseases will spread, such as malaria carried by mosquitoes. • Ecosystems will change—some species will move farther north or become more successful; others won’t be able to move and could become extinct.8 Preventive Measures of Global Warming Some practical preventive measures can be done individually or collectively. It can start from our own backyard to our barangay and later to our birth land. Michael Mann suggests: 1. Discouraging deforestation and enforcing complete control on excessive cutting of forests 2. Encouraging plantation 3. Controlling and minimizing of fossil fuels with complete combustion 4. Completing ban of chloro)uorocarbons (aerosol) 5. Replacing the use of fertilizers by biotic manure 6. Using alternative sources of energy in general.9 World Hunger Environmental Ethics also covers world hunger. !e Food and Agriculture Organization estimates that a total of 925 million people were undernourished in 2010, compared with 1.023 billion

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in 2009. !at is higher than before the food and economic crises of 2008–2009 and higher than the level that existed when world leaders agreed to reduce the number of hungry by half at the World Food Summit in 1996. Most of the world’s hungry live in developing countries, where they account for 16 percent of the population.10 Of the 842 million people su(ering from chronic hunger, 98 percent live in the developing world.11 McCue eloquently expresses, “We are each diminished for allowing such hunger in the midst of plenty.”12 Definitions of Hunger Hunger is a term which has three meanings (Oxford English Dictionary 1971): 1) the uneasy or painful sensation caused by want of food; craving appetite. Also, the exhausted condition caused by want of food; 2) the desire for food that is in scarcity in a country, and 3) a strong desire for something.13 !ere are three types of hunger:14 Chronic Hunger: defined as the condition of constant undernourishment or recurring seasonal undernourishment. It is caused by a lack of both su*cient quantity and quality of food. Chronic hunger contributes to stunted growth in children and high mortality rates due to hunger related diseases. Acute Hunger: involves severe undernourishment over a distinct period and is re)ected in wasting and starvation. It is most o&en caused by emergency situations which require immediate food aid. !is is the most extreme and life-threatening form of hunger worldwide. Hidden Hunger: refers to vitamin and mineral deficiencies found in people who otherwise have access to adequate calories and protein. !is is the most di*cult form of hunger to detect, and it a(ects almost two billion people worldwide, including many in the ‘developed’ world with improper diets.

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Causes of Hunger

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Poverty, not lack of food production, is the root cause. !e world currently has more than enough food, but some 1 billion people still go hungry because they cannot a(ord to pay for it. !e 2008 food crisis, which created hunger for about 100 million people, was not so much a result of a food shortage as of a market volatility that increased the cost of food in several countries.15 Chronic hunger among millions of people in the world is, in and of itself, a potentially deadly condition. You may be surprised to learn that it has little to do with food shortages. Global supplies of food far outstrip demand. Far more people die from causes related to chronic hunger than to famine. Chronically hungry people are exceptionally vulnerable when famine strikes. !ey have fewer resources to protect themselves and their families and are already living on the margin of survival.16 Several factors contribute to most of the world’s hunger: 1. Poverty: Poor people do not have the resources such as land, tools, or money needed to grow or buy food on a regular basis. Like hunger, poverty is o&en cyclical. In most cases, poverty and hunger go together. As a family enters into poverty, they are forced to stretch their money. As more money is spent on food, less money is available to spend on health care, savings, and education. Farmers may find themselves unable to purchase seeds, tools, or farming equipment. Poverty is a cause of hunger, but it is an e(ect as well.17 Poverty is the main contributor toward hunger. !e causes of poverty include the poor’s lack of resources. 2. War. Armed Conflict and Displacement: War disturbs the agricultural process, and governments spend more on wars than on social programs.18 Many of the world’s “con)ict areas are also regions where hunger exists. It is di*cult for a community stressed by violence, infrastructure problems, and refugees to support stable food systems. In many cases, a family whose life has been interrupted by war will see a decrease in income

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level and access to farmable land. War and con)ict drastically impact food supply and security.19 Across the globe, con)icts consistently disrupt farming and food production. Fighting also forces masses of people to )ee their homes, leading to a hunger crisis as the displaced find themselves without food.20

3. Weather and Climate Change – Natural disasters dramatically impact the production of farmland. Between droughts, )oods, and tropical storms, weather can be a destructive force, devastating everything in its path. Although natural disasters may come at any time, their long-term damage can be unfathomable. In many developing countries, farmers depend on one small plot of land. If this land is destroyed, their source of food and livelihood is also destroyed.21 Natural disasters such as )oods, tropical storms, and long periods of drought are on the rise, which causes many problems for the hungry poor in developing countries. Droughts are one of the most common causes of food shortages in the world. In many countries, climate change is destroying already problematic natural conditions. Increasingly, the world’s fertile farmland is under threat from erosion and desertification. Deforestation by people increases the process of erosion of the land, which could be used for the production of crops.22 4. Lack of investment in agriculture - Too many developing countries lack key agricultural infrastructure, such as enough roads, warehouses, and irrigation. !e results are high transport costs, lack of storage facilities, and unreliable water supplies. All of these problems limit agricultural production and food availability. Investments in improving land management, using water more e*ciently, and making more resistant seed types available can improve agricultural yields and help fend o( hunger. However, farmers have seen an increase in deforestation, desertification, soil erosion, and drought. Combined with overgrazing, over-cropping, and deforestation, the impact of poor agricultural practices can destroy farmable land. Research shows that investment in agriculture is five times more

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prosperous in reducing poverty and hunger than investment in any other sector.23 5. Population Growth – As the populations of countries rise, so too does the demand for food. Population growth in developing countries is on the rise. Compounded with rising food prices, it’s becoming increasingly more di*cult to match food production rates with population growth rates.24 6. Unstable markets- In recent years, the price of food has increased. !e high cost of food makes it di*cult for the poorest people to consistently obtain access to nutritious food. !e poor need access to adequate food all year round. Price increases may prevent the poor from getting the food that they need, which can have lasting consequences for the children. When prices increase, consumers o&en shi& to cheaper, less-nutritious foods, heightening the risks of micronutrient deficiencies and other forms of malnutrition.25 7. Food wastage - One third of all food produced (1.3 billion tons) is never consumed. !is food wastage represents a missed opportunity to improve global food security in a world where one in eight is hungry. Producing this food also uses up vital natural resources that are needed to feed people. Every year, food that is produced but not eaten wastes up to a volume of water, which is equivalent to the yearly )ow of Russia’s Volga River. Producing this food also adds 3.3 billion tons of greenhouse gases to the air, with consequences for the atmosphere and the production of food.26 8. Environmental Overload: Overconsumption by wealthy countries and increased population growth in poor nations strain natural resources and make it more di*cult for poor people to obtain food.27 9. Lack of Clout: Chronic hunger is caused by powerlessness. People who don’t have power to protect their own interests are the ones who become hungry. !e burden of this condition falls most acutely on children, women, and elderly people.28

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How to Solve World Hunger

Here is a look at just 10 ways we can solve world hunger, and even contribute toward solving many other problems. 1. Sustainable Food Heifer International is an organization that aids to transform agriculture. !ey and other organizations like them fund projects so people can provide food for themselves in a continuous manner. !is will help many impoverished areas not to become reliant on aid from foreign countries (which o&en causes debt) and will enable them to create their own supply of food.29 Other similar organizations also exist.30 2. Access to Credit Many organizations are helping people in poor countries to gain access to credit. Most of these credit loans are repaid, and they have created many industries, such as farms, that help create a sustainable provision for people and also helped nations economically. If these people do not have access to credit, they cannot start up industries that combat poverty.31 3. Food Donations Although ideally it would be better to get every person to a place of self-sustainability, this is not likely to happen soon. In the meantime, it is important to help others. !e impact of donations, both cash and food, has had an immense impact on world hunger. Organizations such as Food for All have people donating to this worthy cause.32 4. Transitioning Many families that are in poverty need help transitioning into a state of independence. Feeds Family is an organization that helps with this transition. !ey start by providing families with food resources, but then slowly discover ways to empower families to be independent. !is is important, because independence

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allows for a sustainable income, whereas relying on donations does not always guarantee food.33 5. Urban Farming Almost one-quarter of malnourished people live in an urban setting. Recently, there has been a motivation to increase urban farming. Urban farming helps families to gain control over their own food source.34 6. Access to Education Education is the best weapon against poverty and hunger. It is powerful when used in underdeveloped countries. Education ensures more opportunities and more access to income and food. Additionally, some countries have food-for-education programs where students are given free food for coming to school.35 7. Social Change !is is really di*cult and will take a long time to implement. Many social issues, such as war, pose a fundamental problem to halting world hunger. Some problems will only be solved when world powers choose to concentrate on solving these problems instead of continuing them. Social change will start when people in prosperous countries begin to care about these issues and pressure their governments to be productive in creating solutions.36 8. Government Intervention Aid to foreign nations needs to be motivated by more government intervention, like programs that provide food to mothers and their children in neglected areas.37 9. Empowering Women !ere is a direct correlation with hunger and gender inequalities. Empowering women to have more access to food, become better caretakers of their families, and lead their families has had a

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major impact on food availability and ability to change financial situations.38 10. Birth Control Education High birth rates are a factor to consider to end the world hunger. Many people are not educated on reproduction or do not have available access to contraceptives. Family planning and economic freedom are needed by families especially in poor countries.39 Conclusion

!e last days are at hand. Signs of the end times are visible. We pray that we can be an instrument of making the last days of people significant — by sharing what’s happening in our environment so we can be a part of the solution, one community at a time, one country, one continent and one world. But the best thing we can share to all humankind is the gospel. Salvation is for all, free and available especially in these last days. So as a result we reach the world and witness the conversion of humankind, acting rightly with respect to Earth and its environs.

Endnotes

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1 Michael S. Northcott, A Moral Climate: The Ethics of Global Warming (Maryknoll, N.Y: Orbis Books, 2007), 285. 2 Ben Minteer, Refounding Environmental Ethics: Pragmatism, Principle, and Practice (Philadelphia, Pa: Temple University Press, 2011). 3 Quoted by Albert Schweitzer, 1923 in Tongjin Yang, “Towards an Egalitarian Global Environmental Ethics,” in Environmental Ethics and International Policy, ed. Henk ten Have, Ethics series (Paris: UNESCO, 2006), 29. 4 Tongjin Yang, “Towards An Egalitarian Global Environmental Ethics” (November 14, 2023): 24. 5 Ibid. 6 Earth Science Communications Team, “!e Causes of Climate Change | Climate Change: Vital Signs of the Planet,” NASA Global Climate Change, last modified November 8, 2023, accessed November 14, 2023, https://climate.nasa.gov/causes. 7 L. Kristen Page, “Global Climate: Implications for Global Health,” in Christians, the Care of Creation, and Global Climate Change, by Lindy Scott (Wipf and Stock Publishers, 2008): 34. 8 National Geographic, “Global Warming E(ects,” National Geographic: Environment, last modified January 14, 2019, accessed November 14, 2023, https://www.nationalgeographic.com/ environment/article/global-warming-e(ects. 9 Michael E. Mann, “Global Warming | Definition, Causes, E(ects, Solutions, & Facts | Britannica,” last modified November 12, 2023, accessed November 14, 2023, https://www.britannica.com/ science/global-warming. 10 Economic and Social Development Department, “Global Hunger Declining But Still Unacceptably High : International Hunger Targets Di*cult to Reach,” Food and Agriculture Organization of the

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United Nations (September 2010), https://www.fao.org/3/al390e/ al390e00.pdf. 11 !e Hunger Project, “Hunger,” !e Hunger Project | !e Issues, n.d., accessed November 14, 2023, https://thp.org/what-wedo/issues/hunger/. 12 B. McCue, “Nation’s most pressing problem today: hunger.” (April 20, 2004) Found at Jane Yang, “Hunger,” UncommonThought, December 9, 2010, accessed November 14, 2023, https://www. uncommonthought.com/mtblog/archives/2010/12/09/hunger. php. 13 “Hunger Notes: Understanding Key Definitions for Hunger.” Internet. Found at “Hunger Notes: Understanding Key Definitions for Hunger.” Internet. Found at https://www.worldhunger.org/ hunger-quiz/understanding-key-definitions-for-hunger/. Accessed December 5, 2023. 14 Development Issues: Ending Hunger. Internet. Found at https://www.developmenteducation.ie/media/documents/ending_ hunger_resource.pdf. Accessed on December 5, 2023. 15 “How to Feed a Hungry World,” Nature 466, no. 7306 (July 2010): 531–532. 16 “World Hunger Facts & Statistics,” Action Against Hunger, accessed November 14, 2023, https://www.actionagainsthunger.org/ the-hunger-crisis/world-hunger-facts/. 17 “10 Causes of World Hunger,” accessed November 14, 2023, https://concernusa.org/news/causes-of-world-hunger/; “What Causes Hunger?,” Bread for the World, accessed November 14, 2023, https://www.bread.org/hunger-explained/what-causes-hunger/. 18 Kathleen Lamb Kozenski and Melissa Martin, “Teaching Concepts,” in Food and Famine in the 21st Century [2 Volumes], by William A. Dando (Bloomsbury Academic, 2012), 391.

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19 Regina de Anda, “Hunger and World Poverty,” Prezi.Com, last modified May 21, 2014, accessed November 14, 2023, https:// prezi.com/ranhphn461z4/hunger-and-world-poverty/. 20 “What Causes Hunger?” 21 “10 Causes of World Hunger.” 22 “What Causes Hunger?”; See also Martin Parry, “!e Implications of Climate Change for Crop Yields, Global Food Supply and Risk of Hunger,” 2007, accessed November 14, 2023, https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/!eImplications-of-Climate-Change-for-Crop-Yields%2C-Parry/ cb17ca25684aa5700b328537e44f09ce067c9f5d. 23 “What Causes Hunger?”; See also Erica Palumbo, “Student Organizes Club to Fight Malnutrition,” The Ithacan, September 15, 2010, accessed November 14, 2023, https://theithacan.org/16786/ news/student-organizes-club-to-fight-malnutrition/. 24 “10 Causes of World Hunger”; See also Tesfa G. Gebremedhin, ed., “Problems and Prospects of the World Food Situation,” Journal of Agribusiness 18, no. 2 (2000): 221–236. 25 “10 Causes of World Hunger”; See also Eric Vanhaute, “From Famine to Food Crisis: What History Can Teach Us about Local and Global Subsistence Crises,” The Journal of Peasant Studies 38, no. 1 (2011): 47–65. 26 “10 Causes of World Hunger”; Michael Chossudovsky, “!e Causes Of Global Hunger,” Peace Magazine 12, no. 3 (May 1, 1996): 531–532. 27 “World Hunger Facts & Statistics”; Chossudovsky, “!e Causes of Global Hunger.” 28 “Hunger around the World,” Team No Hunger, accessed November 14, 2023, http://hungersaajzdancewicz.weebly.com/ hunger-around-the-world.html. 29 Carl F. Jordan, “Genetic Engineering, the Farm Crisis, and World Hunger,” BioScience 52, no. 6 (June 1, 2002): 523–529; B.

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Halweil, “Farming in the Public Interest,” in State of the World 2002 (Special World Summit Edition, with a Foreword by United Nations Secretary-General Kofi Annan), ed. Christopher Flavin, Hilary French, and Gary Gardner, vol. 73 (New York, Norton: American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 2003), 51–74, accessed November 14, 2023, https:// onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1037/0002-9432.73.2.235b. 30 Frank Tenente, “Feeding the World One Seed at a Time: A Practical Alternative for Solving World Hunger,” Northwestern Journal of International Human RIghts 5, no. 2 (Spring 2007): 298– 321. 31 Olivier De Stutter and Gaëtan Vanloqueren, “!e New Green Revolution: How Twenty-First-Century Science Can Feed the World” 2, no. 4 (September 12, 2011): 33–44. 32 Zachary Patterson, “10 E(ective World Hunger Solutions,” !e Borgen Project, October 2, 2016, accessed November 14, 2023, https://borgenproject.org/10-ways-stop-world-hunger/. 33 Ibid 34 Ashley Walmsley, “Urban Farms Key to Hunger Solution: Cribb,” Good Fruit & Vegetables, last modified August 18, 2014, accessed November 14, 2023, https://www.goodfruitandvegetables. com.au/story/3553959/urban-farms-key-to-hunger-solutioncribb/. 35 Pasquale De Muro and Francesco Burchi, “Education for Rural People: A Neglected Key To Food Security,” Department of Economics - University Roma Tre, Departmental Working Papers of Economics - University “Roma Tre” (January 1, 2007). 36 Patterson, “10 E(ective World Hunger Solutions.” 37 Getachew Diriba, “Ability and Readiness of Nations to Reduce Hunger: Analyzing Economic and Governance Capacities for Hunger Reduction,” 2010, 3–28, accessed November 14, 2023, https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/Ability-and-Readiness-ofNations-to-Reduce-Hunger%3A-Diriba/3550bee5f0804e2da8d4de deae57293a8a609be5.

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38 I. Modebe et al., “Achieving the First Millienium Development Goal: Some Considerations in Eradicating Extreme Poverty And Hunger in a Resource Constrained Economy.,” in The Internet Journal of World Health and Societal Politics, vol. 7, 2012, accessed November 14, 2023, http://www.ispub.com/doi/10.5580/2bdb; “Gender Equality and the Millennium Development Goals” (Washington, D.C.: World Bank Group, 2003), accessed November 14, 2023, https://documents.worldbank.org/en/publication/documentsreports/documentdetail/307331468762867954/Gender-equalityand-the-Millennium-Development-Goals. 39 Patterson, “10 E(ective World Hunger Solutions”; !omas W. Merrick, “Population and Poverty: New Views on an Old Controversy,” International Perspectives on Sexual and Reproductive Health 28, no. 1 (March 1, 2002): 41.

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CONCLUSION AND CHALLENGES Introduction !e call for Christian ethics is a call for all God’s children. We are accountable to God for all our actions and reactions based on our ethical decisions. Ministers of the gospel and teachers of the Bible have a higher calling to godly living that calls for high moral standards and Christlike lifestyles. We reap what we sow. Sowing unethical decisions or ethical actions results in a harvest of whatever we planted. !ink about the harvest of generosity: more blessedness. But also think of the harvest of dishonesty: more deceitful dealing. Oh, brothers and sisters, may we sow more godliness and not wickedness. Remember, “do not be deceived: God cannot be mocked. A man reaps what he sows. Whoever sows to please their )esh, from the )esh will reap destruction; whoever sows to please the Spirit, from the Spirit will reap eternal life” (Galatians 6:7–8). Media is full of endless news about celebrities’ sexual scandals, politicians’ corruption, televangelists’ greed. and even students’ leakage of board exams. !at is why this concluding chapter emphasizes the challenge of Christian Ethics. Most of the principles come from our lives’ experiences, and some suggestions are research based. The Challenge of Ethics Accept Accountability —!e Bible is explicit about many ethical issues from lying to stealing. “You shall not steal; you shall not deal falsely; you shall not lie to one another” (Lev. 9:11). Ethical actions and reactions are processes, either righteous or wicked. Living ethically is a lifetime process. !us, Christians will accept accountability of all our doings and being in the name of our Lord Jesus. “And whatever you do, in word or deed, do everything in the name of the Lord Jesus, giving thanks to God the Father through him” (Col 3:17). 173

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Balance Work-Life — According to the Accounting Web website, a 2007 Ethics and Workplace survey by Deloitte and Touche states that 91 percent of employees surveyed said they are most likely to make good ethical decisions at work when they have a better sense of work-life balance. Pay attention to signs of burnout or discontent among sta( and yourself. Take steps to address these types of issues when they present themselves.1 Clarify Conduct and Character — Clarity of purpose leads to clarity of conduct. If you’re not clear about your non-negotiable values, you will be unclear when faced with ethical uncertainty. Know them by memory and understand them by heart. Establish your conduct to become a lifestyle. Embrace your purpose so that when ethical challenges come, you can depend on your ability to make right decisions.2 Ask yourself objectively, “What is God’s purpose for my life?” Once you know the answer, keep repeating it to yourself and live your values out. Differentiate your Distinctions — Self-di(erentiation is clarity about who you are as distinct from those to whom you are connected with. Are you known to be fair and kind? Failure to self-di(erentiate promotes group-thinking, the careless willingness to let the group do your thinking for you. Don’t ignore the group, but be aware enough to know where the group ends and begin.3 Be MAD – Make A Di(erence. Evaluate Excuses — It can be your own excuses or excuses you accept from others. “It’s not my/your fault.” “I didn’t have time.” “A&er all, everybody else is doing it.” Excuses are a human tendency. However, excuses can deprive us of the opportunity to learn from our mistakes. One minute of ruthless self-honesty can save months of shame and guilt. When excuses enter, evaluate. Objective evaluation may even lead to repentance. Apologize to yourself. Include others in your apology. Accepting one’s fault is an indicator of humility. Foster Education — Knowledge of your company’s/church’s code of ethics is vital. Do not expect your people to act ethically in accordance with your company’s code of ethics if they don’t know what that

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code is or why it’s important. Include in your educational time regular sessions on ethics and how to approach ethical dilemmas. !e more training and resources you provide, the greater emphasis you place on being ethical. !is will result in greater understanding of expectations.4 Part of education is correction. When there are unethical actions that occur, immediate education or corrections must be implemented. !is communicates the seriousness of the code of ethics. Go for the Golden Rule —!e Golden Rule stated by Jesus says: “In everything, therefore, treat people the same way you want them to treat you, for this is the Law and the Prophets.” (Matthew 7:12 NASB). In relation to virtue ethics, the Golden Rule is perceived as related to one’s character. In Aristotle’s words, “We are what we repeatedly do. Excellence, then, is not an act, but a habit.” Have a healthy habit about yourself as you may likewise think, trust and treat others. When making an ethical decision, always ask this: “When I am treated this way, will I be sad, mad, or glad? Go for the Golden Rule at all times. Hook-out Conflicts of Interest — “A con)ict of interest arises in the workplace when an employee has competing interests or loyalties that either are, or potentially can be, at odds with each other. A con)ict of interest causes an employee to experience a struggle between diverging interests, points of view, or allegiances.”5 In one way or another, we are prone to look for what we want to see, or get what we want to have. Con)icts of interest can be a powerful motivation that one can be blinded and can be unaware of them. Hook- out con)icts of interest that even awareness of them may not be enough to protest a company/church from such ethical lapses. Insist on Integrity— Everyone has an integrity gap—the distance between what we say we believe and how we actually behave. !e key is to continually be growing in integrity so that the gap lessens and our beliefs and behaviors come closer to alignment. !e successful person is intentional about closing the integrity gap. Search yourself and see the signs of a person that lacks integrity: Self-centeredness, self-esteem ups and downs based on others, failure to keep secrets,

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failure to keep promises, compromises many friends.6 A&er searching, seek to shape integrity: Be ruthlessly honest with yourself; Seek wise counsel about your blind faults; Decide to honor God, not please people all the time. Be appropriately transparent, and prioritize personal growth.7 Judge Justifications — Sometimes human being’s try to use logic to convince themselves not to do the right thing. It’s easy to trick ourselves into not doing what is good and right. Below are poor but sad to say all too common justifications we use to excuse our actions. • • • • • • • • • •

If you have to do it, it’s ethical to do. If it’s legal, then it’s moral. It’s just part of the job. It’s all for a good cause. I was just doing it for someone else’s sake. I’m just fighting fire with fire. It doesn’t hurt anyone. Everyone’s doing it. It’s OK if I don’t benefit personally. I deserve it. 8

Avoid these rationalizations. Replace such rationalizations with a substantial and rigorous ethical deliberation process.9 Remember, “You are those who justify yourselves before men, but God knows your hearts. For what is exalted among men is an abomination in the sight of God.” Luke 16:15 Know the Relevant Fact’s for Decision Making — Good practical decisions require knowledge of the important facts relevant to the decision. Make sure to take the time to gather the facts you need to come to a good decision. Don’t rush to a verdict before all the facts are in. All of the facts or types of facts that are necessary for a good judgment on the issue may not be clear at the beginning of the process.10 When in doubt, consult others. Take time to hear some vital information. Conduct research if crucial. Lead by Lifestyle/Example — Expect more of your leadership team. People are watching and will copy church/company leaders’ examples.

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Hold yourself and your leaders to a higher ethical standard so that they are credible when they communicate expectations to others to do the same.11 Modeling a moral life is the modest way to lead. Leaders who live lives worth copying communicate an example of an ethical person and even an excellent leader to imitate. Our company, church, community and country, and even the world is looking for godly heroes they can follow. Will you be one of them? Master Your Moods — When under pressure, our moods change and may master us. !e more pressure we are under, the more likely we are to violate our own sense of what’s right. First be aware of our moods, especially under pressure. !en harness them.12 If you are a feeling person, one way to master your mood is to shi& from feelings to thinking. For example, tell yourself that anger is a waste of energy, and stop being angry. Direct your energy to whatever is profitable. Another way is to know your temperament. Are you the kind person that the more you talk, the more you become angry? !en pause for a while and just stop talking, and proceed with processing for a while. If you are a thinking person, you may want to stop processing and sense your feeling. Add compassion to your decision. Nurture Holistic Ethical Care — Advocate holistic wellness for yourself and your significant others; this means taking care of all areas of your life as a person, and as a minister. Prayerfully determine your values regarding care of your mental, vocational, physical, emotional, social and most of all spiritual self. Be sure these values come from biblical principles. Write down these values; make them a part of your lifestyle. Guard your values from the demands of an unbalanced ministry lifestyle. Church Strengthening Ministry published a book called “Teacher Care: Proper Holistic Wellness.” !is book provides practical tips in how to take care of yourself. Overcome Obstacles of Consensus/Peer Pressure — We have a tendency to succumb to peer pressure, both because we want to “fit in” and succeed within an organization, but also because our actual thinking is changed.13

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• Bear in mind that you are ultimately responsible for your own actions, and that others will hold you responsible for these actions. • !e more mindful we are of this pressure, the less power it has over us. • Build your own group of like-minded individuals to create peer pressure that is more in line with your personal values.14 Procure New Policies and Procedures — !ere will be repeated patterns of unethical behavior in spite of the reinforcement of ethical policy. !is might indicate that some rules and procedures need to be changed in the organization.15 Also, improve the communication policies and procedures so that information will )ow more smoothly and frequently between members and leaders. Give them access to reliable people that they can report or ask for counsel about some unethical behaviors. In the Filipino context, it is important to confide in someone they can trust sa sumbong without letting it turn into gossip. Quell Unethical Habits — “!e safest road to Hell is the gradual one — the gentle slope, so& underfoot, without sudden turnings, without milestones, without signposts,” wrote C. S. Lewis. Habits are formed in small beginnings. Smoking starts with one cigarette. Drinking develops from diminutive drops. Gambling moves from recreation to addiction. !e best cure is prevention. In few words, don’t even think about starting one. Once and for all, do not start one even you think or feel that you can overcome it. Be careful lest you fall.” (1 Cor. 10:12) Reward Ethical Behavior — Corrections of ethical issues can easily be communicated. Reprimands are ever ready to be released. Sad but true, our culture from home to the o*ce that you got more reprimand than rewards. People hear the positive results from their ethical actions that are profitable to the church/community. Reward ethical behavior by a*rming positive results. Rewards are good motivation for more sound ethical actions and decisions later in life. When was the last time you were even given or received rewards for

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compliant conduct or proper performance? Establish more culture of commendations than corrections, and expect your people to enjoy the results of their ethical actions Secure the Slippery Slope — People are willing to do unethical things because they have already done smaller, less extreme acts that make the bigger choice appear less (or not at all) unethical.16 Ponder the positive power in this tendency! Break down your challenges into smaller, immediately actionable steps, and you can tackle larger problems. You can also zoom out even further to the bigger picture of your life and see how you would feel about your decision when the dust settles.17 Train Employees — You can’t expect your sta( to act ethically in accordance with your company’s code of ethics if they don’t know what that code is or why it’s important. Hold regular sessions on ethics and how to approach ethical dilemmas among sta(. !e more training and resources you provide, and the greater emphasis you place on being ethical and acting accordingly, the more your sta( understands exactly what you expect in the o*ce. 18 Understand Unethical Actions with Compassion — When we understand what is ethically right, the wrongs of others become intolerable. Sometimes we become dogmatic. In our context where “palosot” and “pwede na” are rampant, we need to undertake understanding. Maybe others still need to learn. We should be ready to coach them in a respectful manner. Be mindful that ethical living is a process and takes time to develop in our lives and in the lives of others. Carry out compassion rather than condemnation. Verify Violation — You can’t expect all employees to comply with the ethics policy without some kind of discipline. Enforce your consequences for violations of the ethics policy evenly, regardless of the o(ender’s high or low status. Be sure to maintain careful documentation of employee violations in case you get sued over disciplining or terminating an employee for an ethical violation.19 When correcting, do it as soon as possible. !is stops habitual bad behavior.

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Work on Your Blind Obedience to Authority — Albert Einstein said, “Blind belief in authority is the greatest enemy of truth.” !ere could come a time when we might compromise by obeying those in authority and performing actions we believe are unethical. !ere can be a lot of pressure, especially when we work for that person and our job is at stake. Two common things we may tend to do: We might obey, and pray that the leader will be accountable to God. Or we can hold responsibility for our actions and leave the results to God. !is takes courage. X-ray your Ethical Life Regularly — When making a decision, ask, Is this God-glorifying or self-gratification? Resist conforming to the world’s image: you must “be transformed by the renewing of your mind” (Rom. 12:2). Fill your mind with Scripture. It is through the Bible that we learn God’s perspective. Focus on positive, righteous, and holy things (Col. 3:3; Phil. 4:8). Practice the presence of the Lord. God is always with you. Pray that He makes you more sensitive to His presence. As you allow the Holy Spirit to live through you, He will help you make the right and ethical decisions.20 Yield Not to Rationalizing Immoral Action — !e tendency to think that an immoral action is trivial and not important will lead to more immoral actions. When rationalizing, be mindful of this tendency — ask yourself whether it is something you truly believe, or merely an excuse for self-serving action. We all expect others to act morally and criticize those who fail to do so as callous, selfish, or evil. Keep in mind that your actions also re)ect upon and determine your own character – especially when faced with decisions such as this one. Do you want to be the kind of person who chooses selfserving over morally right action? Do you want to be a hypocrite who criticizes the immoral actions of others, while excusing your own?21 Zip all Passage of Possible Unethical Issues. Prevention is better than cure. Do not start any unethical behavior, no matter how small. For example, do not tell a “white lie.” It’s still a lie, and surely it will grow and will make you a liar. Counteract possible wrongs with rights. For example, when getting greedy (prone to corruption),

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garner generosity. And the best way to close the gate to unethical acts is to repeat your ethical values like a memory verse. What do you most value in terms of behavior and ethics? Is it honesty, integrity, compassion, or other principles? What are your core values that you feel should guide your behavior? Give voice to them, and repeat them regularly. 22 Conclusion Living ethically is a process. Take one issue at a time that you need to resolve. Exercise ethical decisions at all times. Be conscious of what you say and do; be on guard. !e best way to guard our moments is a Spirit-filled life at all times. May we keep examining ourselves to be excellent ethically. Oh, may we hear God’s prompting and listen to Him. And most of all, may we live to glorify God and in)uence others to resume to do right. And get ready for God’s transformation in your life for His glory alone.

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Endnotes

1 Lynda Moultry Belcher, “Ways to Promote Ethical Conduct,” Small Business - Chron.Com, last modified February 1, 2019, accessed November 14, 2023, https://smallbusiness.chron.com/ ways-promote-ethical-conduct-24132.html. 2 Carol W. Lewis and Stuart C. Gilman, The Ethics Challenge in Public Service: A Problem-Solving Guide (John Wiley & Sons, 2012). 3 Ibid. 4 Belcher, “Ways to Promote Ethical Conduct.” 5 Jennifer Williams, “How to Avoid a Con)ict of Interest,” Small Business - Chron.Com, accessed November 14, 2023, https:// smallbusiness.chron.com/avoid-con)ict-interest-817.html. 6 Carey Nieuwhof, “5 Signs You Lack Integrity,” CareyNieuwhof. Com, last modified February 6, 2012, accessed November 14, 2023, https://careynieuwhof.com/5-signs-you-lack-integrity/. 7 Carey Nieuwhof, “5 Ways to Build Your Integrity,” CareyNieuwhof.Com, last modified February 8, 2012, accessed November 14, 2023, https://careynieuwhof.com/5-ways-to-buildyour-integrity/. 8 Michael S. Josephson, Making Ethical Decisions, 2002 edition. (Josephson Institute of Ethics, 2002). 9 Shlomo Sher, “Overcoming Obstacles to Ethical Behaviour,” The Australian Journal of Financial Planning, Ethics and Governance (January 2020): 2–5. 10 Ibid. 11 Belcher, “Ways to Promote Ethical Conduct.” 12 Lewis and Gilman, The Ethics Challenge in Public Service. 13 Laura Pincus Hartman, “Ethical Decision-Making:

Processes and Frameworks,” 2008.

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14 Sher, “Overcoming Obstacles to Ethical Behaviour.” 15 Audra Bianca, “Ways to Improve an Organization’s Ethical Climate,” Small Business — Chron.Com, last modified January 25, 2019, accessed November 14, 2023, https://smallbusiness.chron. com/ways-improve-organizations-ethical-climate-69591.html. 16 Hartman, “Ethical Decision-Making: Processes and Frameworks.” 17 !omas R. Fox, “Barriers to Ethical Behavior: Problems and Remedies,” FCPA Compliance and Ethics Blog, March 21, 2011, accessed November 14, 2023, https://tfoxlaw.wordpress. com/2011/03/21/949/. 18 Belcher, “Ways to Promote Ethical Conduct.” 19 Bianca, “Ways to Improve an Organization’s Ethical Climate.” 20 Charles Stanley, “A Call to Godly Living — Part 1,” last modified June 1, 2023, accessed November 14, 2023, https:// www.intouch.org/index.php/listen/radio/a-call-to-godly-livingpart-1. 21 Sher, “Overcoming Obstacles to Ethical Behaviour.” 22 !omas G. Plante, “Four Ways to Live More Ethically: Just Say No to the Devil! Four Ways to Avoid Becoming Faust,” Psychology Today, last modified September 6, 2010, accessed November 14, 2023, https://www.psychologytoday.com/intl/blog/do-the-rightthing/201009/four-ways-to-live-more-ethically.

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Drs. Michael and Lizette Firmantes Knight are a husband and wife team, both serving as professors at the International Graduate School of Leadership in Quezon City, Philippines. Michael and Lizette love traveling, teaching, writing, and walking. They met while walking for exercise which led to their marriage and ministry partnership, which continues to this day. Lizette and Michael are published authors locally and internationally.