Application of Jewellery Materials and Techniques in Product Development

Application of Jewellery Material and Techniques in Product Development Inter Departmental Workshop Anvi Mathur Product Design (Level 3) NPD153131 2015-19

oStudent Name: Anvi Mathur oCourse: BA (Hons.) Product Design oCohort: 2015-2019 oModule Name: Inter Departmental Workshop- Application of Jewellery Material and Techniques in Product Development

oModule Leader: Smriti Singh oModule Tutor: Smriti Singh oModule Duration: One Month oModule Credits: 20

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Contents Topic

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Topic

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Acknowledgement

5

Uses and Application of Metals

24

Introduction to Jewellery

6

Pros and Cons of Metals

25

Introduction to Jeweller’s Work Bench

7

Wide range of application of metals in everyday life

27

Safety Measures in Workshop

8

Digital Collage

28

Introduction to Metals

9

Metals used in the Workshop

29

History of Metals

10

General Tools and Equipments

30

Metal Groups

11

-Measuring Tools

31

Metals in Nature & their extraction

12

-Shaping Tools

32

Metals and their properties

13

-Cutting Tools

36

Classification of Metals

14

-Holding Tools

37

Commercial forms of Metals

23

-Soldering Tools

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Topic

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Topic

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General Techniques of Jewellery Making

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-Jump Rings

66

Sheet Metal Working Basics

41

-Chain maille

67

-Annealing

42

Surface Ornamentation Techniques

69

-Pickling

45

-Creating textures through Tools

70

-Fixing Blade in Saw

48

-Reticulation

71

-Sawing

49

Etching

73

-Piercing

53

Sand Casting

74

-Bending

54

Soldering

80

-Punching and Doming

56

Riveting

83

-Ring Making

57

Polishing

85

-Forging

60

Final Project Brief

86

Wire Working Basics

61

Inspiration Board

87

-Straightening

62

Form Exploration

88

-Bending

63

Ideation and Renderings

91

-Twisting

65

Final Piece

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Acknowledgement I, Anvi Mathur of UG -PD:2015 -19 would like to thank our course leader Pranay Mangrati and module tutor Smriti Singh for guiding and supporting us through this module.

I would like to give special credits to the Jewellery design workshop lab assistant, Mr, Dhananjay for mentoring and assisting us in all our assignments.

I, would also like to acknowledge my friends and family who helped me throughout the process of the project.

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Introduction to Jewellery oJewellery is often considered to be an expensive accessory. The word jewellery itself is derived from the word jewel, which was anglicised from the Old French "jouel", and beyond that, to the Latin word "jocale", meaning plaything. oJewellery consists of small decorative items worn for personal adornment, such as brooches, rings, necklaces, earrings, pendants, bracelets, and cufflinks. Jewellery may be attached to the body or the clothes. oHumans have used jewellery for a number of different reasons: • functional, generally to fix clothing or hair in place • as a marker of social status and personal status, as with wedding jewellery • as a signifier of some form of affiliation, whether ethnic, religious or social • to provide talismanic protection (in the form of amulets) • as a carrier or symbol of personal meaning – such as love, mourning, or even luck.

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Introduction to Jeweller’s Work Bench Work bench A solid jeweller’s workbench should feature a semi-circle cut out of the front of the bench, leaving the right amount of space to work in, especially when working on intricate projects. It should also feature a lip around the edge of the workspace – this prevents small tools or supplies from falling off. The most important consideration is the height of the workbench. A good jeweller’s bench should sit between 90 and 100 cm in height.

This means that the bench is slightly higher than standard table height so that one does not hunch over the work.

Bench pins and holes are designed to hold ring mandrels. A work bench has multiple drawers to hold tools for easy accessibility. The top surface is walled to keep items from rolling off.

Workbench seating A work chair for a jeweller’s work bench is usually either a tall stool or a chair that is adjustable. Since the benches are higher than standard tables, adjusting seating will ensure correct eye level with the bench’s surface.

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Safety Measures in Workshop oNo machine may be used or work undertaken unless the technician-in-charge is satisfied that the person is capable of doing so safely. oIn case you smell leaking gas, do not turn on the lights or operate equipment in that room. Notify a faculty member or person in charge immediately. oIn case of fire, pull a firm alarm or evacuate yourself and others from the area or the building. oStorage and handling of acids, chemicals and flammable solvents- Acids, chemicals and flammable solvents all require storage in separate locations in approved containers and cabinets the Acid Room. oHandle substances with care observing safety precautions wearing eye protections, full face shield, appropriate personal protective equipment, chemical resistant rubber gloves and apron. Any mixing of acids and/or chemicals must take place in the ventilated booth. All mixtures must be properly labelled and never unattended. oAlways use tweezers to pick up hot things or when handling with acids. oMaintain distance while working with big machines and stay alert. oDo not wear loose and flowy clothes. oDo not put your hands in the Pickling Tank.

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Introduction to Metals Metals occur naturally in the environment. There are countless materials surrounding us. Each material has a special feature that makes it unique from others. Some materials are hard, others are soft, some break easily whiles others do not. Some materials can carry electricity and heat better than others.

The reducing action of a cooking fire’s heat on copper-bearing rock is thought to have been the origin of the discovery. From this accident, man discovered that the rock or ore could be transformed into nuggets of tough, red metal and eventually that this substance could be melted and casted into shapes.

With the knowledge that metal could be obtained by reducing ore through heat, the birth of metallurgy occurred.

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History of Metals Throughout history and the advancement of civilization, the discovery, development and application of metals has driven the way that people live and societies have been organically shaped. Historians use the intrinsic link of industrial development and the metals discovered and prevalent at that time, to describe certain periods of significant social and technological advancements. Such as, the Stone Age, Bronze Age and Iron Age. There are currently 86 known metals but before the 19th century only 24 had been discovered and, of these 24 metals, 12 were discovered in the 18th century. oGold (ca) 6000BC - Stone Age man learned to fashion gold into jewellery. The popularity of gold is largely due to its scarcity, value and mankind’s fascination with the metal. oCopper, (ca) 4200BC - The use of copper in antiquity is of more significance than gold as the first tools, implements and weapons were made from copper. oSilver,(ca) 4000BC - Silver had been widely used throughout time as a basis for monetary systems and played central roles in the currencies of the Roman and Chinese Empires.

oLead, (ca) 3500BC - It is believed that lead smelting began at least 9,000 years ago, and the oldest known artefact of lead is a statuette found at the temple of Osiris on the site of Abydos dated circa 3800 BC. oTin, (ca) 1750BC - First smelted in combination with copper around 3500 BC to produce bronze. The oldest artefacts date from around 2000 BC. oIron, smelted, (ca) 1500BC - The discovery of smelting around 3000 BC led to the start of the Iron Age around 1200 BC and the prominent use of iron for tools and weapons. Iron was a game changer, it was such an important material, used for all sorts of applications and the phenomenal growth of its use led to the 'Iron Age’, a transition from the less developed Bronze Age. oMercury, (ca) 750BC - Known to ancient Chinese and Indians before 2000 BC, and found in Egyptian tombs dating from 1500 BC.

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Metal Groups The periodic table arranges all of the known elements in order of increasing atomic number. The different rows of elements are called periods. Elements that lie in the same column on the periodic table (called a "group") have identical valance electron configurations and consequently behave in a similar fashion chemically.

Element groups are either non-metals or various subsets of metals, but there is no distinct line between the two types of elements. Metal elements are usually good conductors of both electricity and heat. Subsets are based on similar characteristics and chemical properties.

Picture credits: Wordpresscom. 2010 11

How metals are found in nature and their extraction Metals are found naturally in the form of ores. Ores are naturally occurring rocks that contain metal or metal compounds in sufficient amounts to make it worthwhile extracting them. For example, iron ore is used to make iron and steel. Copper is easily extracted, but ores rich in copper are becoming more difficult to find.

Aluminium and titanium are metals with useful properties, but they are expensive to extract.

Methods of extracting metals The Earth's crust contains metals and metal compounds such as gold, iron oxide and aluminium oxide, but when found in the Earth these are often mixed with other substances. To be useful, the metals have to be extracted from whatever they are mixed with. A metal ore is a rock containing a metal, or a metal compound, in a high enough concentration to make it economic to extract the metal.

The method used to extract metals from the ore in which they are found depends on their reactivity.

For example, reactive metals such as aluminium are extracted by electrolysis, while a less-reactive metal such as iron may be extracted by reduction with carbon or carbon monoxide.

Thus the method of extraction of a metal from its ore depends on the metal's position in the reactivity series:

Picture credits: Bbccouk. 2018

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Metals and their properties Physical properties of Metals:

Chemical properties of Metals:

oAll the metals are good conductors of heat and electricity. Cooking utensils and irons are made up of metals as they are good conductors of heat.

oReaction with water: Only highly reactive metals react with water and not all the metals. For example: Sodium reacts vigorously with water and oxygen and gives a large amount of heat in the process. This is why sodium is stored in kerosene so that it does not come in contact with moisture or oxygen.

oDuctility is the ability of the material to be stretched into wire. This ability allows metals to be drawn into wires and coupled with their durability, find applications as cable wires and for soldering purposes. Because Metals can be drawn into wires we can say that metals are ductile. oMalleability is the property of substances which allows them to be beaten into flat sheets. Aluminium sheets are used in the manufacturing of Aircrafts because of their light weight and strength. Other metals sheets are used in automobile industries, for making utensils, etc. Therefore, metals are malleable. oMetals are sonorous because it produces a deep or ringing sound when struck with another hard object. oUsually all the metals have shiny appearance but these metals can also be polished to have shiny appearance.

oReaction with acids: Hydrogen gas is produced when metals reacts with acids. For example, when zinc reacts with hydrochloric acid it produces zinc chloride and hydrogen gas. oReaction with bases: Not all the metals react with bases and when they do react, they produce metal salts and hydrogen gas. When zinc reacts with strong sodium hydroxide it gives sodium zincate and hydrogen gas. oReaction with oxygen: Metal oxides are produced when metals burns in the presence of oxygen. These metal oxides are basic in nature. For example: When magnesium strip is burned in the presence of oxygen it forms magnesium oxide and when magnesium oxide dissolves in water it forms magnesium hydroxide.

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Classification of metals Metals can be classified into ferrous and non-ferrous metals.

1.Contain Iron Ferrous

2.Magnetic 3.Rust

4. High melting point

Metals

1.Do not contain Iron Non- Ferrous

2. Not Magnetic 3. No rusting 4. Low melting point

5. Brittle in cold condition 6. Less resistant to corrosion 5. Brittle in hot condition 6. More resistant to corrosion

o Ferrous metals: Iron, Pig Iron, Cast Iron, Wrought Iron, Steel o Non- Ferrous metals: The mom-Ferrous group can be divided into three main subgroups: • Precious metals: Gold, Silver and Platinum • Base metals: Copper, Aluminium, lead, tin, nickel and zinc.

• Alloys: Some base metals and precious metals are used to make alloys such as brass, bronze, pewter, nickel, silver, solder, sterling silver, karat gold, Monel metal, and Nichrome. A binary alloy contains two metals and a ternary alloy contains three.

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Native/Global Metals o'Native Metals’ are those first metals which were found in an unreacted state. These metals could be mined and used without the need of more complicated extraction or separation from other metals or non-metallic atoms. Most metals naturally occur as minerals or compounds, where the metal atom has reacted with other metals or non-metallic atoms

oGold, Silver and Copper are all examples of Native metals that naturally occur in a relatively pure state.

Ancient man first found and began using Native Metals approximately 5000 years BC. Over the next 2000 years, leading up to the Bronze age, man mastered how to find, manipulate and use these native metals in better ways and in a range of applications. oNuggets of gold were often the easiest to find and use. Naturally found mixed with sediment in river beds across the globe, Gold was easy to collect and relatively easy to shape. Silver was the same and to this day, both Gold and Silver are still prized and used as decorative metals for jewellery etc. oThe use of Copper is often referred to by historians as a significant precursor to the Bronze Age, and possibly the beginning of Metallurgy as we know it today. Copper, much like Gold and Silver existed in a natural state, with 99.9% pure Ores found around the globe.

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Base Metals and Alloys oA base metal is any metal other than the noble metals or precious metals(gold, silver, platinum, etc.). Base metals typically tarnish or corrode readily. Such a metal will react with dilute hydrochloric acid to produce hydrogen gas. Although copper does not react as easily with hydrochloric acid, it is still considered a base metal. The base metals are "common" in that they are readily available and typically inexpensive.

oA base metal is the metal core underlying a coating. For example, the base metal of galvanized steel is steel, which is coated with zinc. Sometimes sterling silver is coated with gold, platinum, or rhodium. While silver is considered a precious metal, it is less "precious" than the other metal and also serves as the base for the plating process. oAlloys are homogeneous mixtures of two or more elements. The elements could be two metals, or a metal and a non-metal. An alloy is formed by melting the metal and then dissolving the other elements in it. For example, steel is an alloy of carbon and iron. oCommon examples of base metals are copper, lead, tin, aluminium, nickel, and zinc. oAlloys of these elemental metals are also base metals, such as brass and bronze. oUnited States Customs and Border Protection also includes metals such as iron, steel, aluminium, molybdenum, tungsten, and several other transition metals to be base metals.

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Gold oGold, a bright-yellow metal widely disseminated in nature, is probably one of the earliest metals to be known by man, perhaps second after copper. oIn one of its forms as placer gold, it is found in the alluvial soil in iverbeds where it has been deposited after the rock in which it was contained had weathered and worn away. Placer gold ranges in size from small flakes or grains to nuggets weighing several thousand ounces. It is also found in a combined form called reef gold, in which the metal is embedded in a solid matrix of quartz or other rock. The gold occurs in veins of the rock in the earth from which it is mined, and is usually combined with silver, copper, lead and sometimes zinc.

Of all the metals used in decorative work, gold is exceeded in heaviness only by lead and mercury. oGold is extracted from ores by one of several processes: amalgamation with mercury, cyanidation, a combination of amalgamation and gravity concentration, oil flotation, roasting and cyanidation, or smelting with lead and copper ores. oNo other metal surpasses gold in malleability and ductility. In its pure form as fine gold, it can be hammered into foil .000005 of an inch in thickness and drawn into wire several miles in length from one ounce of pure metal. It is highly resistant to ordinary solvents. It is resistant to corrosion and is chemically inactive. In a pure state, gold resists oxidation even after annealing. oGold is usually sold by pennyweight but can also be purchased by the square inch and square foot. It is furnished annealed unless otherwise requested. Gold is manufactured in sheet and wire form of various gauges. oIt is also, however, used extensively in jewellery, either in its pure form or as an alloy.

The metal is also used for coinage. Gold can be beaten into very thin sheets to be used in art, for decoration and as architectural ornament. Electroplating can be used in gears for watches, artificial limb joints, cheap jewellery and electrical connectors. It is ideal for protecting electrical copper components because it conducts electricity well and does not corrode. Thin gold wires are used inside computer chips to produce circuits.

Dentists sometimes use gold alloys in fillings, and a gold compound is used to treat some cases of arthritis.

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Silver oSilver is found in nature in both native and combined forms: in flakes, forms like wire, and in massed forms, one such find having weighed 1500 pounds. The native form is not frequent, but when it is discovered it is between 900-980 out of 1000 parts fine. Silver is a by-product in the refinement of gold, lead, copper, or zinc ores, with which it is most frequently associated in nature. It is recovered from these metals in the refining process.

oSilver is extracted from ores by direct smelting, amalgamation, cyanidation, and other hydrometallurgical processes. A primitive method of refining gold or silver, called cupellation, was to place the ore in a cupel or small, shallow, porous cup made of bone ash, and then expose the cup to a high temperature and air blast.

The base metals oxidised and sank into the porous cupel, and the precious metals could be poured off. oIn its purest state, silver is second in malleability and ductility only to gold. It is the whitest of metals and can be polished to a lustre of high reflectivity. Pure silver is about half as heavy as gold and platinum and four times heavy as aluminium. Fine silver is 999.0 parts per thousand fine, high fine silver, 999.5 fine or higher, is also available at a premium price. oSterling silver may be purchased in sheet, wire, foil, in special forms such as grain, hollow tubing that may be rectangular, round or square in section, and in circles of various diameters. It is sold by the troy ounce, as is gold, but may be ordered by giving all dimensions of length, width and thickness. Orders made by the ounce must also include width and gauge of the metal. oSterling silver contains 92.5% silver. The rest is copper or some other metal. It is used for jewellery and silver tableware, where appearance is important. Silver is used to make mirrors, as it is the best reflector of visible light known, although it does tarnish with time.

It is also used in dental alloys, solder and brazing alloys, electrical contacts and batteries.

Silver paints are used for making printed circuits. Silver bromide and iodide were important in the history of photography, because of their sensitivity to light.

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Iron oIt is estimated that about 5% of the earth’s crust is iron. Iron is a hard, grey metal, both malleable and ductile, is strongly attracted by magnets, readily oxidized (rusted) in moist air, and attacked by many corrosive agents. As a basic ingredient in steel and in its other forms, cast iron, wrought iron, and ingot iron, it is the world’s most widely used metal.

oIron is rarely found native except in meteorites but is combined with other elements in rock in widely distributed areas in the world. As iron ore occurs most frequently near the surface of the earth, the greatest part is mined in open pit mining. oThe main ores from which iron is derived are hematite, magnetite, limonite and siderite. Most iron ores contain more than two minerals but are classified according to which one is dominant. Hematite, brownishred in colour, is the main iron ore, containing 70% iron when pure, but is usually mined 50-60% pure and contains little phosphorus or sulphur, both of which must be eliminated to produce iron ore of good quality. oCast iron is relatively inexpensive to produce, easily fusible, fluid when pouring, and used where strength is not a deciding factor. It contains between 2.75 to 3.75% carbon, is hard and brittle, and cannot be hammered, bent, or formed after casting without breaking. A type of cast iron called malleable iron, containing 2.50% carbon, is of little brittleness because of the extensive annealing process, which takes a few days. oMalleable iron is stronger, more elastic and tougher than ordinary iron castings, and can be worked to a limited extent. Some of the many items made from malleable cast iron are automobile parts, hardware and small tools, household appliances, machine tools (lathes, planers, grinders, drills), pipe fittings, toys, and manhole covers.

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Copper oThe discovery of copper, the first metal known to man, is thought to have occurred about 8000 B.C. in the Tigris-Euphrates River valleys, the sites of the oldest known civilizations. From there its use spread shortly to Egypt. oCopper is extracted from ores by heat through concentration, smelting and refining, the most widely used method, and wet-extraction through floatation and leaching, is used for low grade ores, which supply a smaller percentage of the world’s copper. oCopper is high in electrical and thermal conductivity, is easily fabricated, good in joining and soldering characteristics, high in ductility and good in tensile strength. It can be electroplated and has good polishing qualities. It is soluble in oxidising acids such as nitric and sulphuric. It is hardened by cold working, as in raising a shape in copper, but, as it has no critical temperature that would change its crystalline grain structure, it can be formed hot or cold. When hardened by working, it can be annealed to restore softness by heating to the proper annealing temperature, between 700 degree to 1200 degree Fahrenheit.

oCopper is manufactured by electrolytic and furnace-fire refining methods in many forms, each having inclusions of small amounts of various other metals which change its character and make it suitable for special applications of working. oCopper is used to make wires to carry electric current. Copper bottomed utensils are used in houses. Copper metal is used as electro codes and wires are used in heaters.

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Brass oPale yellow in colour, brass is a harder metal than copper. The brass alloys are the most important among the copper alloys, and consist essentially of alloys of copper and zinc. Brass containing up to 36% zinc, termed single-phase alloys, are called Alpha Brass and have excellent cold-working qualities. Beyond 37% zinc, a second-phase group comprises the Beta brass, excellent in hot-working conditions.

oIn the low zinc brass group are alloys especially suited for use in costume jewellery and tube manufacturing.

• Gilding metal(copper 95%, zinc 5%) is golden in colour and is used for jewellery, emblems and novelties that are to be gold plated. It is very malleable, resists corrosion and works well.

• Pinchbeck metal(88% copper, 12% zinc) was used by Victorian jewellers as a gold substitute, as it strongly resembles gold.

• Red brass(copper 85%, zinc 15%) is the closest contemporary alloy to pinchbeck and is also used for costume jewellery. oYellow brass(copper 65%, zinc 35%) is especially suited to wire drawings, beads, chains, rivets, architectural grillwork, stamping and spinning.

• Muntz brass(copper 60%, zinc 40%) is used for brazing rods and hot forging and in maritime and decorative architectural situations where high corrosion resistance is a factor.

• Leaded brass contain ½ to 3% lead which when added to the copper-zinc alloys, makes them desirable for machining, as the particles form small chips when pared off and thus prevent tools from fouling and dulling.

• Naval brass(copper 60%, zinc 39.25%, tin 0.75%) is used for welding rods, among other uses.

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Platinum oPlatinum was discovered in the 16th century in Columbia, South America, where it received the name “Platina del Pinto “ (little silver from Pinto, a river bed where it was found). oThere are two main Platinum groups of related metals, the light platinum group: rhodium, ruthenium and palladium, whose specific gravity is about 12 and the heavy platinum group: osmium, iridium and plase spefic gravities are over 21. oPlatinum can be found in nature as a native metal, alloyed with one or more of its allied metals, and in the form of very fine grains or nuggets in alluvial material. Considerable quantities of platinum are found in nickel ores, from which it is refined as a by-product. The largest source of Platinum today is in the copper-nickel ores of Canada. oPlatinum is the least rare and the best known of the group of platinum metals and has the widest range of uses. It is ductile, resists corrosion (dissolves slowly in aqua regia), has a high melting point, expands only slightly on heating and is malleable and attractive. It can be cast or forged, and soldered with special platinum alloys. Its hardness makes it widely used in the jewellery industry for articles containing expensive cut stones. Its high ductility and strength insure the holding of precious jewels. Its hard ductility allows it to be manufactured in the form of platinum leaf for decorative purposes. As platinum is resistant from corrosion and practically does not tarnish in the normal urban atmosphere with its sulphur content, which oxidises silver in this form, platinum is preferred in decorations required silver coloured leaf. The electronics industry uses platinum for computer hard disks and thermocouples. Platinum is also used to make optical fibres and LCDs, turbine blades, spark plugs, pacemakers and dental fillings. Platinum compounds are important chemotherapy drugs used to treat cancers.

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Commercial forms of the metals oThe different forms and shapes of metals have found to be suitable for different industrial uses and requirements.

Some of the most common forms of metals are oMetal Sheet oMetal Plate oMetal Rod oMetal Bar oMetal Shot oMetal Grain oMetal Powder oClad Metal oBonded Metal oSome metals are found in the pure state, however, majority of them are found in combination with other elements. These metals are in the form of carbonates, sulphides, oxides, and silicates, generally mixed with rock and earthy materials. Some of the common metals that are found in combination in ores are zinc, iron, lead, copper, chromium, mercury and nickel. oMany metals, when in pure state, have properties, which are undesirable. Due to this, most of the metals commonly used today are either compounds or alloys. Some examples of alloys are gold coins, table silver, and aluminium pans. Pure iron is too soft to be of much value, so it is used most often as steel, which is a compound.

There are a few metals that in tiny amounts, are essential to animal life. Among these are potassium, iron, magnesium, calcium, and sodium.

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Uses and Application of Metals oMetals and their alloys with other metals find extensive use in our daily lives. oIron or steel is used for the construction of bridges, houses, automobile parts, etc. Stainless steel, an alloy of iron is used for utensils, spoons, plates, etc. Iron mixed with concrete, is known as reinforced concrete. It is very strong and is used in the construction of bridges and houses. oAluminium is a light metal and a good conductor of electricity. Aluminium wires are used as overhead wires instead of copper. Aluminium alloys are light and strong and hence are used to construct aeroplane parts.

Aluminium foils are used to wrap food stuff, medicines and chocolates. oThe liquid mercury is used in making thermometers. oCopper and aluminium metals are used to make wires to carry electric current. Copper bottomed utensils are used in houses. Copper metal is used as electro codes and wires are used in heaters.

oSodium, titanium and zirconium metals are used in atomic energies and space science projects. oZinc is used for galvanising iron to protect it from rusting. oSilver and Gold are extensively used for making ornaments.

Iron nuts and bolts

SS railings

Copper Utensils

Aluminium Cables

Lead Ammunition

Gold jewellery 24

Advantages and Limitations of Metals Advantages and Disadvantages of metals commonly used in Manufacturing: oAluminium:

Advantages: The most abundant metal in the Earth’s crust, Aluminium is relatively soft, durable, lightweight, ductile and malleable metal. It acts as a good thermal and electrical conductor and is also fairly corrosion resistant. Plus, it is theoretically 100% recyclable without any loss of its natural qualities and remarkably nontoxic.

Disadvantages: It’s not particularly strong and is expensive compared to steel of the same strength.

Applications: Aluminium is almost always alloyed to improve its properties. It is commonly used in the transportation, construction and packaging industries.

oBronze:

Advantages: Bronze is an alloy consisting mainly of copper but the addition of other metals (usually tin) produces an alloy much harder than plain copper. Bronze resists corrosion and metal fatigue better, and conducts heat and electricity, better than most steels.

Disadvantages: Bronzes are generally softer, weaker and more expensive than steel.

Applications: Bronze is widely used for springs, bearings, bushings, automobile transmission pilot bearings and is particularly common in the bearings of small electric motors.

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Advantages and Limitations of Metals oNickel:

Advantages: Nickel belongs to the transition metals. It is hard, ductile and considered corrosion-resistant because of its slow rate of oxidation at room temperature. It also boasts a high melting point and is magnetic at room temperature.

Disadvantages: Handling nickel can result in symptoms of dermatitis among sensitized individuals. oApplications: Nickel is valuable for the alloys it forms and roughly 60% of world production goes into nickelsteels. Specific uses include stainless steel, alnico magnets, coins, rechargeable batteries, electric guitar strings, microphone capsules, and special alloys. It is also used for plating and as a green tint in glass. oTitanium:

Advantages: Titanium is corrosion resistant and has the highest strength-to-density ratio of any metallic element. Unalloyed it’s as strong as some steels but less dense. Its relatively high melting point (more than 1,650 °C or 3,000 °F) makes it useful as a refractory metal. It is also paramagnetic and displays fairly low electrical and thermal conductivity.

Disadvantages: Costly and laborious processes are needed to extract titanium from its various ores.

Applications: Titanium can be alloyed with iron, aluminium, vanadium, and molybdenum (among others) to produce strong, lightweight alloys. These are used in the aerospace, military, industrial process, automotive, agri-food, medical, and sporting industries to name but a few.

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Why metals have such wide range of application in various fields Due to the characteristics, physical and chemical properties of metal, they have a wide variety of applications and can be used for various purposes in the day to day lives of living beings. Their uses are expanded with the use of alloys, by mixing different metals in different proportions so as to make them fit for purpose.

Regardless, metals have a big Influence in our regular day to day existence. We connect with them contrastingly as every one of them has it's own properties : some are utilized as supporting components for structures, cell phones, transportation. Some are utilized for beautification by specialists and stone carver or some are utilized to show riches, similar to gold for instance.

That being stated, we have a tendency to ignore the significance of metal since we face them directly or indirectly all over the place, thus seeing their essence as plainly evident. Furthermore, some of them are intangible to human eyes so this may add to our lack of understanding metal in our life.

For example, Copper is a type of cheap metal used by companies to conduct electricity. People prefer to use copper utensils due to its chemical and physical properties. Steel, which is often found very easily, is usually taken for granted. It is used for making buildings, machinery, cars, galleries and statues. Steel is a metal that can be recycled as well. Another metal important for our future is Aluminium. Due to its strength, low weight and good potential for recycling, Aluminium is as useful and flexible as it’s other metal substitutes. It’s properties also allow to build high buildings, transportation and also for packaging, the most common use that this metal is known for.

Apart from these, the interesting thing about metal is that it has a really wide range of function and can be used by any types of profession.

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Metals used in Workshop The metals most commonly used in jewellery making can be split into two main groups: non-ferrous metals, such as copper, brass, tin and aluminium, and precious metals, such as silver and gold.

Copper Pinkish red in colour, malleable and easy to work with, Copper is readily available in both sheet and wire form.

Brass

Sterling Silver

Pale yellow in colour, brass is a harder metal than copper.

Softer than copper or brass, sterling silver contains 925 parts in 1000 of fine silver. It is available from specialist refineries or bullion dealers, most of whom allow to purchase small quantities at a time.

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General Tools and Equipments oJewellery making tools include files, beading pliers, sizing gauges, hammers, torches, welders, soldering machines and any other tools that assist with jewellery making or jewellery repair. oA tool is any physical item that can be used to achieve a goal, especially if the item is not consumed in the process. Tools that are used in particular fields or activities may have different designations such as instrument, utensil, machine, device or apparatus. The set of tools needed to achieve a goal is equipment.

The knowledge of constructing, obtaining and using tools is technology.

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Measuring Tools A measuring instrument is a device for measuring a physical quantity. Measuring is not only checking the length, width or thickness of an objects but also checking of the shape – things like the flatness, straightness, roundness or squareness. Measuring tools are also used for inspecting a finished or partly finished product.

Rulers

Dividers

Vernier Calliper

A ruler, sometimes called a rule or line gauge, is a device with equally spaced markings along its length to measure distances or to rule straight lines.

In addition to making circles like a compass, the dividers can be used to hold a measurement for quick reference.

Another use is to lay out parallel lines by dragging one leg of the tool along the edge of a piece of metal.

A Vernier calliper is a measuring device used to precisely measure linear dimensions.

It is a very useful tool to measure the diameter of round objects like cylinders because the measuring jaws can be secured on either sides of the circumference.

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Shaping Tools A device or an implement to shape metals. Any physical tool, instrument or an equipment to achieve a tangible shape are defined as shaping tools.

Hammers

Mallet

Ball peen

A hammer is a tool or device that delivers a blow (a sudden impact) to an object. It is a tool with a heavy metal head mounted at right angles at the end of a handle used to forge metal.

Mallets are Soft-faced hammers feature heads made from a variety of materials like brass, nylon, lead, or even rolled rawhide.

Soft-face hammers are preferred for jobs that require precision or involve soft metals that should not be damaged.

A ball-peen (also spelled ballpein) hammer, also known as a machinist's hammer, is a type of peening hammer used in metalworking. The peening face is useful for rounding off edges of metal pins and fasteners, such as rivets.

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Shaping Tools

Pliers

Dapping Block

Punches

There are many different shapes of pliers, the most commonly used are flatnosed, half-round and roundnosed. They are used for shaping, curling, bending and flattening wire.

Dapping usually involves sinking flat metal into a depression in a wood or metal block to create a dish shape.

For jewellery-scale work, forming is usually done with a dapping block, a hammer, and punches.

A punch is a hard metal rod with a semi circle tip at one end and a blunt end at the other, which is usually struck by a hammer.

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Shaping Tools

Mandrel/ Ring rod

Hand Drill

Files

A mandrel is a round object against which material can be forged or shaped. A ring mandrel is the tool for measuring and adjusting the size of a ring.

A tool with a sharp point and cutting edges for making holes in hard materials by rotating rapidly or repeated blows.

Files are used to remove unwanted burrs or blemishes on the edges of metal surfaces, to enlarge holes or to bevel edges. The teeth on a file only cut on the forward stroke, this the file should be lifted on the backward stroke so that it is not on contact with the metal.

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Rolling Mill oThese larger machines, often seen in jewellers’ workshops, are ideal to reduce the thickness of sheet, or help decorate sheet. If used with Square and D shape sections rolling mills can be used to form or shape wire. The traditional jewellery rolling mill will have steel rollers; this means that when metal is passed between them it becomes compressed, changing the gauge or even shape of the piece. For example, changing a circle into an oval shape.

Flexible Shaft oA flexible shaft is a device for transmitting rotary motion between two objects which are not fixed relative to one another. It consists of a rotating wire rope or coil which is flexible but has some torsional stiffness. It may or may not have a covering, which also bends but does not rotate. It may transmit considerable power, or only motion, with negligible power.

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Cutting Tools A cutting tool in metal working can be defined as “any tool that is used to remove metal from the work piece by means of shear deformation�. In order to perform effective cutting operation, the cutting tool must be made of a material harder than the work material to be cut. Also, the tool must be able to withstand the heat generated during machining process.

Jeweller’s Piercing Saw and Blades

Nipper wire cutter

Shear/Bench Plate Cutter

A saw is a tool consisting of a tough blade, wire, or chain with a hard toothed edge.

This saw is used for cutting all types of metal sheets.

Different sizes of blades are available for cutting different thickness of metal.

Wire cutters are commonly used to cut copper, brass, iron, aluminium, and steel wire. A nipper or tile nipper (like a pair of scissors or pliers) is a tool used to "nip" or remove small amounts of a hard material.

A bench shear is a bench mounted shear with a compound mechanism to increase the mechanical advantage. It is usually used for cutting rough shapes out of medium-sized pieces of sheet metal, but cannot do delicate work.

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Holding Tools Holding tools are those tools which are used to pick up and handle with small objects for detailing. Holding tools are needed while dealing with acids and chemicals. These tools assist while gripping hot objects.

Hand Vice

Tweezers

Hinge style Foundry Crucible Tong

A hand Vice is similar in appearance to a pair of tongs, as it consists two connected handles, each with an integrated jaw at the end. They are used to clasp small metal pieces that are being cut, shaped and filed.

When working with gemstones and other small jewellery findings during a jewellery appraisal or repair, it is handy to have high quality jewellery tweezers on hand. Some tweezers also come magnetized to help find small metal parts at your workbench.

These sturdy carbon black tongs are ideal for handling crucibles when melting down precious metals. Tongs will firmly grip onto the lip of the crucible.

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Soldering Tools Soldering tools are those tools which are used in the process of soldering to join two or metal pieces.

Soldering Blow torch

Asbestos Block and cotton Swab

Flux

Blowtorch or blowlamp, is a fuel-burning tool used for applying flame and heat to various applications, usually metalworking.

Asbestos soldering block is a long lasting surface on which to solder. An essential for silversmiths, the soldering block for jewellery making helps you to solder small components of your jewellery pieces safely and effectively.

Flux is applied to surfaces that are to be joined by soldering. Flux cleans the s urfaces and results in a better bond.

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Silver Solder Strip There are dozens of grades of silver solders. Silver solders are technically better described as brazing alloys, although the basic principles of soldering and brazing are similar, except for the temperature. When the liquidus temperature of the solder or braze alloys exceeds 840 F. , it is a braze; below 840, it is a solder joint.

Silver brazing alloys typically contain anywhere from 10 to 93% Silver, and alloyed with many different metals, typically, copper, zinc, nickel, manganese, cadmium, tin, silicon, and several others.

Alloys are designed to: oMelt and flow at a specific temperature or temperature range below the melting point (solidus) of the base metal, oFill a specific joint gap design oJoin a variety of base metals, including many grades of steel and stainless steel oTo provide an engineered joint strength at specific operating temperature

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General Techniques of Jewellery Making oWhen using sheet metal to form articles such as jewellery and larger three-dimensional objects, the ultimate appearance depends mainly on the tools used. Each tool has certain potentialities and limitations, and a large part of the skill of the craftsmen consists in selecting the proper tool for the job. oBasic cutting techniques can be easily accomplished with a shears when the shapes are simple. When they are complex, a saw frame and blade may have to be used. To add the element of dimension in depth or relief, a technique known as repousse can be employed, using repousse tools. Texture and richness of surface are achieved by hammers, chasing tools and liners. oMany tools and techniques available to the craftsmen have been developed over the centuries.

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Sheet Metal Working Basics oAnnealing: Annealing is the process of using heat to relieve stresses within the metal. At a heat, usually near 2/3rd of the metal’s melting point, recrystallization occurs, creating a more flexible alignment among the crystals. oPickling: Pickling is a procedure used to remove the film of black oxidation which forms on the surface of metals after high temperature casting. This operation is normally done through the immersion of the objects in an acid solution. Pickling tank is used in the process of Annealing. It contains diluted sulphuric acid. The ratio of sulphuric acid to water is 1:5. oSawing: Sawing is the process of cutting metal or any hard material by a saw. oPiercing: Piercing is specifically the action of using a jeweller's saw to cut out shapes from the interior of a piece of metal. In order to do this, a hole should be drilled in the metal, through which the blade of the saw can be inserted.

oBending: Bending is a manufacturing process that produces a V-shape, U-shape, or channel shape along a straight axis in ductile materials, most commonly sheet metal. oDapping(Punching and Doming): In jewellery making, dapping simply means taking a flat piece of metal and curving it into a dome with special dies and punches, called a dapping set. The dapping block (or die if you prefer) has a series of concave impressions that correspond in size with the dapping punches. oReticulation: It is a process through which a metal sheet is induced to gather itself into ridges and valleys. oForging: Forging is the process of shaping metal by using localized compressive forces. The blows are delivered with a hammer or a die.

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Annealing oAnnealing is a process of heating and cooling metals to render them more workable, or to remove internal stresses which may occur during the working of the metal. After the metal is heated to a predetermined temperature for a particular length of time, there is usually a slow cooling period. For some metals, such as steel, the cooling process may be slow, for others such as copper or nickel, it may be rapid or slow, and for other metals, it must be rapid. oMetal is ready for annealing when it has become hard and stiff and does not move in reaction to hammer blows. An indication of this condition is the change in the sound of the hammering which is dull when the metal is in working condition, and high pitched when it needs annealing. oEvery metal has a proper annealing temperature, and annealing is a function of time and temperature. In any case, the temperature is considerably short of the melting point. After annealing, some metals can be allowed to air cool, and others must be immediately quenched to retain their softness.

Picture credits: Youtube

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Process of Annealing

Take the metal piece

Keep it on Asbestos Block

Heat with fire gun until colour changes

Metal piece is annealed!

Keep changing sides with a tweezer

Dry it with a cloth.

After heating, let it cool for 5 min

Put it in cold water for 2 minutes

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Reflections on Annealing oWhile heating the metal, the heating gun must be rotated while heating to ensure that equal heat is transferred on all parts of the metal. The metal plate should be revolved also. oAnnealing should be done before performing any technique on a metal sheet or while performing a technique as it softens the metal to undergo any process on the metal. oThe heating gun should be carefully handled while annealing. The flame has to be regular. oThe gun should be switched on and switched off very carefully.

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Pickling oPickling is a metal surface treatment used to remove impurities, such as stains, inorganic contaminants, rust or scale from ferrous metals, copper, precious metals and aluminium alloys. A solution called pickle liquor, which usually contains acid, is used to remove the surface impurities. It is commonly used to descale or clean steel in various steelmaking processes.

oMetal surfaces can contain impurities that may affect usage of the product or further processing like plating with metal or painting. Various chemical solutions are usually used to clean these impurities. Strong acids, such as hydrochloric acid and sulfuric acid are common, but different applications use also various other acids. Also alkaline solutions can be used for cleaning metal surfaces. Solutions usually also contain additives such as wetting agents and corrosion inhibitors. Pickling is sometimes called acid cleaning if descaling is not needed. oThe primary acid used in steelmaking is hydrochloric acid, although sulfuric acid was previously more common. Hydrochloric acid is more expensive than sulfuric acid, but it pickles much faster while minimizing base metal loss. oIn jewellery making, pickling is used to remove the copper oxide layer that results from heating copper and sterling silver during soldering and annealing. A diluted sulfuric acid pickling bath is traditionally used, but may be replaced with citric acid.

Picture credits: Youtube 45

Process of Pickling

Take the annealed metal piece

Put it in the Pickling Tank

Wait for 5 min and then take out with Tweezers

Put in cold water

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Reflection on Pickling oThe heated metal should be cooled for at least 5 min before pitting it in the Pickling tank. oIt is important to put the metal piece in the Pickling Tank to remove the impurities and unevenness from the metal piece. oThe metal piece should be put into water after the Pickling Tank so that the diluted Sulphuric Acid does not affect our skin. oIt is important to Pickle metal to remove impurities from the surface of the metal after performing different techniques on it. oNever put anything iron or steel in the pickle. Iron or steel cause a chemical reaction with pickle that can plate your metal with copper particles. Always use copper or plastic tongs when retrieving your piece from the pickle.

oAlways quench your metal in water to cool it before you put it into the pickle solution. This prevents you from walking around with hot metal and from splashing the acidic pickle on yourself. And since the metal is cool when it enters the pickle, less pickle can be absorbed into micro-fissures at the solder join, so the metal is less likely to discolour.

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How to fix the blade in the Saw

Choose the appropriate blade

Choose the blade direction

Place one end of the blade near the handles and screw it

The other edge of the blade should miss a few millimetres from the screw

Cut the metal piece.

Wax the blade

Push the saw against something, holding it from the hand, so the blade reaches the other end

Feel the blade.

It should be tight

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Process of Sawing

Clean the metal slab after annealing and Pickling with Reetha water

Mark the squares according to dimensions

Mark the lines with a divider

Cut the squares using the Shear/Bench Plate Cutter

Clean the piece with Reetha water

Start cutting the pattern using the saw.

Fix the saw in the hole at the correct angle.

The blade should be tight.

Drill on inner points for sawing

Anneal and Pickel the square pieces

Stick the design/pattern on the square piece

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Assignment for Sawing oExercise: Make lines by sawing in a brass sheet of 1 mm thickness and 5cm length * 5cm width as shown in the figures:

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Exploration in Sawing After doing the sawing exercises, we had to create our own designs and saw it.

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Reflection for Sawing oThe blade of the saw should be tight otherwise it would break easily. In the beginning, a lot of blades break until it is known how to tighten the blade. oIf the blade’s edges become blunt, then wax should be applied to sharpen the blade. oOne’s body posture is very essential while sawing. Due to excessive pressure or wrong body angle, the blade could break. oWhile changing the angle of the saw, it is important to change the angle of the body to correct the hand movement for precise cutting ofc pattern. oWhile sawing, force is not important, the technique is important.

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Process of Piercing

Drill the hole near the edge of the shape so that you don’t have to do any excessive sawing to reach your design’s edge.

Release one end of the saw blade from the saw frame. Thread the blade through the hole in the metal, making sure your design is facing up.

Support the metal piece so that it doesn’t push the end of the blade out of alignment, and tighten the blade in the frame . Test the blade for tension.

Saw out the inside section of the metal, staying on the inside of the line. Keep your original line so that you can file up to it later to clean up the edge. The sawn piece will fall from the sheet once you’ve completed your cut.

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Process of Bending

Mark 4 squares of 2 cm*2cm

Anneal and Pickel the metal piece

Cut the scoring lines till a little depth

Score the lines using the triangular file till half the depth of the sheet

File the edges to form the cube

Fold the square pieces on the scoring lines on right angles using the square plier

Anneal and Pickel the metal piece

Saw the design

Anneal and Pickel the metal piece

Draw the design/pattern on the individual square piece

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Reflections on Bending oThe scoring has to be done with the triangular file very carefully, it should be filed up till have the width of the metal sheet. The filing should be done in straight lines. This has to be done so that the metal pieces can be bent at right angles and formed into a cube. oThe metal piece should be annealed frequently to soften the metal to perform any techniques on the piece. oThe edges of the metal piece should be filed properly so that the edges join properly. oThe square plier should be used to bend the square pieces at right angles.

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Process for Punching and Doming

Anneal a 5cm*5cm metal square

Draw mid lines of the square to make 4 squares

Cut 4 squares using the Shear/Bench Plate Cutter

Make diagonals and get mid point of 1 square

Using different sizes of Punches, hammer the circle to make the dome

Place the circle in the dapping block

Anneal the circle again

Cut the circle and file the edges

Hammer a nail on the mid point to get a groove

Put the divider in the groove and mark a full circle inscribed in the square 56

Reflections on Punching and Doming oThe circle should be cut and filed accurately so that the dome is symmetric. oKeep annealing and heating the dome on regular intervals so that the shape is properly derived. oPlace the disk over the dapping block depression it most closely matches in size. Choose a punch that is slightly smaller than the depression. Set the punch on the disk, and strike the punch with the hammer until the metal sinks into the depression. oWhen the metal conforms completely to the contour of the depression, move it to the next smaller depression in the block and switch to a smaller punch. oThe pressure with which you hit the hammer should be constant. oThe hammering has to be done on the edges and not in the centre to get the proper dome.

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Process for Ring-Making (Flat and Tapered)

Draw 2 metal strips of metal of length 6.5 cm and height 12 mm

File it again

Cut and File the edges

Anneal the piece

Keep the piece on the dapping block along with ring rod

Place the ring again in the ring rod and hammer with mallet to regain shape

File the edges of the ring to get fine edges

Solder the edges

Hammer on the ring rod

Keep shifting the metal piece while hammering until it gets round 58

Reflections on Ring-Making oWhile hammering the ring keeping it in the dapping block and ring rod, it is necessary to keep rotating the ring and hammering it in the right angle to make the ring round in the right direction. oThe edges of the metal piece need to be filed properly so that the ends can meet properly. oBefore hammering the metal piece, it should be annealed to attain the correct shape.

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Forging oForging is a manufacturing process involving the shaping of a metal through hammering, pressing, or rolling.

These compressive forces are delivered with a hammer or die. Forging is often categorized according to the temperature at which it is performed—cold, warm, or hot forging. oMetal forging is a metal forming process that involves applying compressive forces to a work piece to deform it, and create a desired geometric change to the material. oThe forging process can produce parts with superb mechanical properties with minimum waste. The basic concept is that the original metal is plastically deformed to the desired geometric shape—giving it higher fatigue resistance and strength. The process is economically sound with the ability to mass produce parts, and achieve specific mechanical properties in the finished product. oForging has been practiced by smiths since the Industrial Revolution.

Traditional products include kitchenware, hardware, hand tools, and edged weapons. Since then, forging has evolved along with advances in equipment, robotics, electronic controls, and automation. Forging is now a worldwide industry with modern forging facilities producing high-quality metal parts in a vast array of sizes, shapes, materials, and finishes. oThere are several forging methods with different capabilities and benefits. The more commonly used forging methods include the drop forging methods, as well as roll forging.

Picture credits: RelianceFoundry

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Wire-Working Basics oStraightening: Among the first steps in jewellery making is straightening the jewellery wire. This step is mandatory because jewellery wire is sold in coils or on spools and develops a natural curl as a result of the way it is packaged. oForging: To forge’ means to create and shape by hammering. Wire can be forged to create different shapes. oBending: Wire can be bent into different shapes and forms by scoring the edges to create the angle to bend. oTwisting: Twisted wire can add style, dimension, and elegance, flash or fun to a wire jewellery design.

Sometimes twisted wire is a major player, placed where it is to be seen and sometimes it is added in obscure places to add interest to a design such as within the sides of a framed cabochon. oJump Rings: A circle of wire with ends meeting and not welded used as a connecting link in jewellery. Jump rings are (usually metal) rings used to make chains, jewellery and chainmail. They are made by wrapping wire round a mandrel to make a coil and then cutting the coil with wire cutters to make individual rings. The rings can be assembled one by one into chains, earrings, objects such as bowls or ornaments, and chain mail clothing. oChain mailles: Chain maille is the art of linking metal rings to one another in flexible chains or sheets for decoration, jewellery and armour.

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Process of Straightening

Start with a loop in your jewellery wire

Grip the jewellery wire with a square plier

Pull the wire through the plier several times

Check to see if jewellery wire is straight.

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Process of Bending (Making square)

Anneal the wire

Pickel the wire

Cut 8 cm of the wire

Straighten the wire by hammering it

Make a groove on every 2 cm by filing straight with a triangular file

The square is ready

Bend all Sides and hammer to straighten

Using the square plier, bend the wire at right angles at the grooves

File till half the depth of the wire

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Assignment of wires oOn learning the different bending techniques, we had to make squares, triangles, semi-circles and spirals from brass or copper wire.

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Process of Twisting

Choose thick gauge wire and Anneal it

Pickel the wire

Fold the wire

Secure the Wire in the Drill Chuck

Secure the Wire So You Can Begin Twisting

The twisted wire is done!

Release the chuck and remove the two small pieces of wire that are left in the chuck.

Twist the wire

Start the drill while continuing to hold the screwdriver end taut

Insert the screw driver between the two wire and move it down to the looped end 65

Jump Rings

Choose a 1 mm thick wire and anneal it

Pickel the wire

Make a loop at the end

Take an dowel rod of the desired size and clamp it in the hand vice

Straighten the rings and join the ends.

Cut off the straight ends

Remove the coil from the rod and vice

Continue until there are two or three more than the number of jump rings needed

Bring the wire through the vice across the rod

Make a coil by wrapping around the rod

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Chain mailles

Collect the jump rings

Plan your design

Open the jump rings by the flat nosed plier and put another jump ring into it to connect them

Chains can be created by repeating the process of linking jump rings together.

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Reflections on Jump rings and chain maille oIt is very important to wrap the wire tightly around the rod without making any gaps while making the coil. oAfter the coil is ready, the edges should be cut straight at one angle all along the coil. oAfter the jump rings are cut, they should be straightened for the ends to join properly. o While opening the jump ring to put other rings, the jump ring should be closed again properly thereafter.

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Surface Ornamentation Techniques Surface Ornamentation Techniques are those techniques that are used to create textures or embellishments on metal. o Through different tools: Different tools like hammers, chisels burrs and drill bits, flexible shafts can be used to create textures on metal. Textures can also be obtained by taking impressions through rolling mill. o Reticulation: Reticulation is a technique that produces an incredibly beautiful texture of peaks and valleys in your metal designs. o Etching: Etching is the process of using strong acid to cut into the unprotected parts of a metal surface to create a design in intaglio (image is created by cutting, carving or engraving into a flat surface) in the metal.

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Creating textures through Tools oExercise: To create textures using different tools like hammers, chisels burrs and drill bits, flexible shafts and by taking impressions through rolling mill.

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Reticulation oReticulation is a technique that produces an incredibly beautiful texture of peaks and valleys in your metal designs. oThe reticulation process begins by depleting the copper from the alloy's surface. The depletion process will leave a silver- or gold-rich (depending on the alloy used) surface layer and a core that has a higher percentage of copper. The result is a sheet of metal that has two different melting points, the core being the lower of the two. This unique composition is what makes reticulation possible oThe process of reticulation is the same no matter which alloy you use; however, the depletion process for sterling or 14k gold will have to be repeated many more times compared to that of a reticulation alloy, which contains a higher percentage of copper.

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Creating textures through Reticulation oThe Depletion process - sheet of metal on a soldering pad or pumice media in an annealing pan. Heat the sheet to an annealing temperature using a neutral flame. You do not need to use a flux or fire scale retardant because you want fire scale to form, this is how the copper that is in the surface layers become depleted. Using copper tongs, quench the metal in clean water and place it into a warmed pickle bath for 5 minutes. Using a freshly mixed solution of pickle is best; it will work quicker in removing the copper oxides.

Remove the metal from the pickle and rinse the piece in clean water while brushing the surface with a brass brush. You will see the copper that is rising to the surface in the form of a pink stain deep in the surface.

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Etching Etching is the process of using strong acid to cut into the unprotected parts of a metal surface to create a design in intaglio (image is created by cutting, carving or engraving into a flat surface) in the metal. As an intaglio method of printmaking it is, along with engraving, the most important technique for old master prints, and remains widely used today.

In pure etching, a metal (usually copper, zinc or steel) plate is covered with a waxy ground, which is resistant to acid. The artist then scratches off the ground with a pointed etching needle where he/she wants a line to appear in the finished piece, so exposing the bare metal.

The plate is then dipped in a bath of acid. The acid "bites" into the metal, where it is exposed, leaving behind lines sunk into the plate. The remaining ground is then cleaned off the plate. The plate is inked all over, and then the ink wiped off the surface, leaving only the ink in the etched lines. The plate is then put through a highpressure printing press together with a sheet of paper (often moistened to soften it). The paper picks up the ink from the etched lines, making a print. The process can be repeated many times; typically several hundred impressions could be printed before the plate shows much sign of wear. The work on the plate can also be added to by repeating the whole process; this creates an etching, which exists in more than one state. Etching has often been combined with other intaglio techniques such as engraving or aquatint.

Picture credits: Facet Jewellery Making

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Sand Casting Casting, one of the least expensive methods of forming metals, in ancient process and among the first to have been developed by many cultures. Casting seems to have started shortly after man realized that metal had the property of being able to be melted into a mass. The next step was to control the shape of the mass as it solidified, and from this interest the making of mould developed.

None of the complex casting methods practiced today would be possible if the material – metal- did not have the characteristic of “fluidity”. Metal can be heated till it becomes liquid, after which it can be made to flow freely and evenly into a mould and, before freezing, completely fill the cavity.

Sand casting is defined as pouring of molten metal into a sand mould (moulds are generally provided with a cavity of the shape to be made) and allowing it to solidify inside the mould.

It utilizes non-reusable sand moulds to form metal castings. It is a common production method for metal components of all sizes, from a few ounces to several tons. Sand casting isn’t only versatile in the size of its products – it can also create exceptionally complex or detailed castings, and can be used to cast nearly any metal alloy.

In sand casting, a cast iron flask or frame is used to contain the sand that forms the mould. The flask is made in two parts resembling open frames.

When horizontal, the upper frame is called the cope, and the lower part is called the drag. The flask parts are keyed so that they will fit together perfectly without movement. There is usually one or more openings at one end called the sprue opening, through which the molten metal is normally poured, through the opening can also occur in the side of the sand itself.

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Advantages and Disadvantages of Sand Casting Advantages of Sand Casting: oThe production process of sand casting is very simple comparatively, so easily handled. The materials are simple, and easily available. oSince the materials are simple and its prices are lower comparatively, the production costs of sand casting are lower. oThe sand casting process can achieve high production rate since the process is less time consuming and does not require high skills. oThrough sand casting, customized pieces can be made. oThe size and weight of parts can range from few millimetres and grams to many tons oVirtually all types of alloys can be casted Disadvantages of Sand Casting are: oPoor surface finish due to internal sand mould wall surface finish oLow material strength due to high porosity compared to machine part oLow accuracy due to poor surface quality and shrinkage oDefects such as shrinkage, porosity, pouring metal defects, surface defects are unavoidable oSecondary machining operation is often required if tighter tolerance is needed.

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Materials needed in Sand Casting oCasting Sand Special casting sand is available that is treated so that it does not need any further processing., does not dry out, and can be used repeatedly. Foundry sand, a special mixture of silica and clay, is refractory, has enough bond(clay) to hold it together, and is sometimes called “Brass sand”. It is used for its:

• Fineness: To produce an accurate, sharp detailed casting • Green strength: Strength enough while hot to allow it to stand up to the heat stresses of molten metal • Permeability: To allow the escape of gases and steam • Moisture content: To allow adhesion • Reusability - Ability of the sand to be reused for future sand molds.

These characteristics produce castings free of such defects as blows (holes formed in a casting where trapped gas or steam has failed to escape), scabs (blemishes on a casting caused by gas eruption) and veins (unevenness in the surface due to irregularities in the crystallization of the metal). oThe mould: The drag and cope mould can be made of iron, steel or wood as they do net get affected by high heat. oSupporting tools: The design master, Borax powder is added in the smelting process, Ladle to pour molten metal, wooden board to support the drag and cope, Block of solid metal to melt, Hammer or some other object to crack the sand mould after metal solidifies, graphite container to keep the metal in smelter, Hinge style Foundry Crucible Tong to hold the graphite container, clamps to hold the mould together, tool to make vents in sand.

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Process of Sand Casting

Take or make a design master of hard material which can withstand the pressure of sand

Put borax powder on the base

Fill the drag with sand tightly and hammer it

Place the master on sand and press tightly to get the impression

Apply borax powder on the master

Place the wooden boards on the bottom of the drag and above the cope

Remove the master and Then close and lock the drag and cope

Open the cope and cut out vents with the knife for gases to pass out

Place the cope above the drag and lock the both

Fill the cope with sand tightly and hammer it

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Process of Sand Casting

Tighten the wooden boards with a clamp

Place it in a container of black mud

Collect the required amount of metal in a graphite container

Put the graphite container in the smelter

Finish the piece

Wash the piece with Reetha water

Open the drag and cope and let the piece cool down

Pour the molten metal into the cavity of the mould

Set the temperature to 1050 degrees centigrade

When the temperature reaches to 950 degrees, put borax powder 78

Design Masters We had to make or collect design masters for Sand Casting. The items should be hard enough to withstand the pressure of Sand. A lot of pieces could not be sand casted as the parts were overlapping each other. This hampers as the sand can get stuck in the gaps.

The design masters can be reused again and again, if made properly.

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Reflections on Sand Casting oThe design master should be made of hard material so that it withstand the pressure of sand. oThe master should not have multiple layers as the sand can get stuck in between and come out as it is when the master is removed. oThe sand chosen should be the apt one for sand casting which has appropriate binders and chemicals. oThere should be enough vents made in the mould for gases to pass out. oThe burnt sand should not be mixed with the normal sand. oThe mould should be properly clamped before molten metal is poured into it. oBorax powder should be put into the smelter when the metal is melting.

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Soldering oSoldering is the process of joining metals by the use of alloys that flow at a temperature lower than that of metals being joined. oSolder is the portion that melts at a lower temperature. oFlux is a substance that cleans the metal surfaces to create a stronger bond and help prevent oxidation. o"Soft" solder is a tin-based solder. Since it melts at a low temperature, it can be applied with an electric soldering iron or gun or a torch. Soft solder is used to create custom base-metal jewellery, fuse basemetal components, repair costume jewellery, and solder shut base-metal jump rings. Brass, copper, and bronze components can also be fused together using hard solders. o"Hard" solders are alloys that melt at slightly lower temperatures than the corresponding metal pieces to be fused. Silver and gold jewellery require hard soldering. Copper, brass, and bronze components can also be fused with hard solders. In addition to requiring flux, hard solders generally also require the use of pickling solutions to clean and remove surface oxidation from the finished piece.

Silver hard solders work for assembling silver jewellery and can also be used to fuse brass and/or copper (as long as you don't mind the joints being a different colour). Gold solders are generally used only for making gold jewellery while copper, brass, and bronze solders are typically used to make copper, brass, and bronze jewellery respectively. Metal workers typically use oxy/propane or oxy/acetylene torches with hard solder, but many soldering tasks can also be achieved with butane torches. Use a butane torch to solder jump rings, create ball-end head pins, make custom wire links and chain, create small bezels, fuse together small metal components, etc.

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Process of Soldering

Prepare piece to be soldered

Prepare solder by cutting strip in small pieces

Add Flux

Place the solder

File for finishing

Clean it with Reetha water

Take it out and put it in cold water

Put it in the Pickling Tank

Torch it

Cool it

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Reflections on Soldering oWork with the highest temperature solder possible. Lower temperature solders don’t blend as well into the surrounding silver. The higher a solder’s melting point, the less alloy it has in it, so the less likely it is to eventually tarnish and show up as a dark seam on your silver. oDon’t be stingy with the flux. Flux helps solder flow, but a thick, even coat of flux beyond the immediate area of your join also helps prevent fire scale; more flux isn’t a bad thing. o4. Select your solder shape based on the job. Both wire and sheet solder have their best uses; tailor your choice to the join you’re making. Sheet solder can cover larger areas and lays better on flat surfaces. Wire solder works especially well when you’re soldering bezels to backplates, because the capillary action of the flux pulls small lengths of wire solder so that they line up with the join.

5. Use a larger torch than you think you should. The tendency is to underheat the metal, which can result in a poorly flowed solder join. If you’re in doubt, select a larger torch nozzle.

6. Hold the torch with your nondominant hand. This gives you greater dexterity with your soldering pick, allowing you to manipulate the solder and metal more easily. oRemove your torch as soon as your solder flows. Watch for the shiny flash of melting solder; when it happens, remove your torch instantly. Overheating your metal can cause it to become brittle or melt.

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Riveting oA rivet might be described as a permanent bolt with head, body, and nut forming one piece. Riveting is one of the simplest and the oldest methods of joining sheet metals. It antedates the development of hollow casting. Riveting, besides serving a functional purpose, can be used decoratively on metals. o Rivets are used in several areas of metal work, and special types have been designed for particular functions. All rivets can make a permanent joint, provided the size and style, relation to the hole size, metal thickness, spacing and the form of the head are correct, and a permanent joint is desired. oRivets are available in various metals, among them copper, brass, alluminium and iron, and in solid, tubular, and bifurcated forms. Types of solid rivet are usually named after the shape of the head: mushroom head, countersunk, flat head, snap head, cone head and pan head. The most frequently used rivet head shapes are the snap head and countersunk. oThe most common methods of securing rivets to sheet metal are by impact (applying a succession of blows with a hammer), compression (squeezing the rivet with hand operated power tools) and a combination of both.

Picture credits: mechlinks.blogspot

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Polishing oPolishing and buffing are finishing processes for smoothing a workpiece's surface using an abrasive and a work wheel or a leather strop. Technically polishing refers to processes that use an abrasive that is glued to the work wheel, while buffing uses a loose abrasive applied to the work wheel. Polishing is a more aggressive process while buffing is less harsh, which leads to a smoother, brighter finish. A common misconception is that a polished surface has a mirror bright finish, however most mirror bright finishes are actually buffed.

oUltrasonic Cleaner: Ultrasonic cleaning is a process that uses ultrasound (usually from 20–400 kHz) and an appropriate cleaning solvent (sometimes ordinary tap water) to clean items. The ultrasound can be used with just water, but use of a solvent appropriate for the item to be cleaned and the type of soiling present enhances the effect. Cleaning normally lasts between three and six minutes, but can also exceed 20 minutes, depending on the object to be cleaned. oSteam Polisher: A condensate polisher is a device used to filter water condensed from steam as part of the steam cycle, for example in a conventional or nuclear power plant (powdered resin or deep bed system). It is frequently filled with polymer resins which are used to remove or exchange ions such that the purity of the condensate is maintained at or near that of distilled water. oMagnetic Polisher: Magnetic field-assisted finishing, sometimes called magnetic abrasive finishing, is a surface finishing technique in which a magnetic field is used to force abrasive particles against the target surface. oSand Blasting: Abrasive blasting, more commonly known as sandblasting, is the operation of forcibly propelling a stream of abrasive material against a surface under high pressure to smooth a rough surface, roughen a smooth surface, shape a surface or remove surface contaminants. A pressurised fluid, typically compressed air, or a centrifugal wheel is used to propel the blasting material (often called the media).

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Final Product oBrief: To take inspiration from nature and use it in creating an accessory for any product. oInspiration: Twigs A twig is a very small thin branch that grows out from a main branch of a tree or bush. It is a small thin terminal branch of a woody plant. The buds on the twig are an important diagnostic characteristic, as are the abscission scars where the leaves have fallen away. The colour, texture, and patterning of the twig bark are also important, in addition to the thickness and nature of any pith of the twig. There are two types of twig, vegetative twigs and fruiting spurs. Fruiting spurs are specialized twigs that generally branch off the sides of branches and leading twigs, and are stubby and slow-growing, with many annular ring markings from seasons past. The age and rate of growth of a twig can be determined by counting the winter terminal bud scale scars, or annular ring marking, down the length of the twig.

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Inspiration Board

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Form Exploration

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Form Exploration

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Form Exploration

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Ideation

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Renderings of Napkin Stand

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Final piece

Product: Napkin Stand

Concept Note: Understanding the continuity and that twigs grow out from a main branch of a tree or bush, I have incorporated that in making the hinge for the napkin stand. The profile of the branches have been used in the stand to show the irregularity of the twigs.

Dimensions: 7.5*7.5*2 inches

Material: Brass Techniques used: Sawing, Sand Casting, Soldering, Filing

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Actual Product

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How jewellery design workshop would be helpful in Product Design The primary things which are applicable for a product designer while undergoing a jewellery design module are as follows: Range of material, Attractiveness of the product or aesthetics due to details and the techniques used.

Jewellery design works in a wide range of materials to create wearable art in metal, fibber, glass, gemstones, and countless other materials. From simple designs that are produced mechanically, to exquisite pieces of art rendered in precious metals and the finest gemstones. A jewellery designer takes a piece from concept to final creation, and consider everything in between like colour, balance, and functionality. The concept of jewellery design guides a designer through the decisions of determining balance, movement, contrast, and harmony, and how to integrate those concepts into a final creation.

While good jewellery design begins with a concept, it is the strategy behind that concept that forms the building blocks; taking a design from concept to completion and includes a thorough knowledge of materials (i.e., gemstones, metals, or fabrics), composition, if one element is to be emphasized over another, and what aspects of the design work, or which aspects do not work at all. This step helps designers candidly critique their jewellery to determine if it is aesthetically pleasing and meets the desired expectations. It allows artists to expand their designs from standard traditional pieces to innovative art, while remaining functional, comfortable and of value to clients.

Good jewellery design is also all about technique. Technique provides designers with the knack to create designs on paper or with a CAD (Computer-Aided Design) program; it is the ability of a jewellery designer to know if a red garnet will stand-out against a gold pendant. Technique determines if a piece is wearable or durable. If it is too long, too short, or is too difficult to get on and off. Jewellery designers must know how to manipulate their designs, how to make alterations based on customer feedback. Technique allows the creation of beautiful pieces by using a saw, clay, a torch, hammer, nails, a kiln, and other tools that take ideas from conception to completion, and helps jewellery come to life.

All These considerations are very essential for a product designer while designing any product for their client.

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