Solution Manual for Organizational Communication Approaches and Processes 7th Edition By Katherine M

Instructor’s Manual for Miller‘s

Organizational Communication Approaches and Processes Seventh Edition

Katherine Miller Texas A & M University Zachary Hart Northern Kentucky University

© 2013 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May note be scanned, copied or duplicated or posted to publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.

CONTENTS Preface Course Materials: Sample Syllabus

1

Course Materials: Paper Assignments

3

Course Materials: Using the Case Studies

9

Course Materials: Additional Cases

12

Course Materials: Additional Spotlights on Scholarship

25

Course Materials: Additional Case in Points

38

Course Materials: Websites

46

Chapter 1: The Challenge of Organizational Communication

50

Chapter Outline

50

Suggestions for Activities

50

Test Items

51

Chapter 2: Classical Approaches

54

Chapter Outline

54

Suggestions for Activities

54

Case Study Solution

55

Test Items

56

Chapter 3: Human Relations and Human Resources Approaches

59

Chapter Outline

59

Suggestions for Activities

59

Case Study Solution

60

Test Items

61

Chapter 4: Systems and Cultural Approaches

65

Chapter Outline

65

Suggestions for Activities

65

Case Study Solution

66

Test Items

67

Chapter 5: Constitutive Approaches

71

Chapter Outline

71

Suggestions for Activities

71

Case Study Solution

72

Test Items

72

Chapter 6: Critical and Feminist Approaches

76

Chapter Outline

76

Suggestions for Activities

76

Case Study Solution

77

Test Items

78

Chapter 7: Socialization Processes

81

Chapter Outline

81

Suggestions for Activities

81

Case Study Solution

82

Test Items

83

Chapter 8: Decision-Making Processes

87

Chapter Outline

87

Suggestions for Activities

87

Case Study Solution

88

Test Items

89

Chapter 9: Conflict Management Processes

93

Chapter Outline

93

Suggestions for Activities

93

Case Study Solution

94

Test Items

95

Chapter 10: Organizational Change and Leadership Processes

98

Chapter Outline

98

Suggestions for Activities

98

Case Study Solution

98

Test Items

99

Chapter 11: Processes of Emotion in the Workplace

103

Chapter Outline

103

Suggestions for Activities

103

Case Study Solution

104

Test Items

105

Chapter 12: Organizational Diversity Processes

109

Chapter Outline

109

Suggestions for Activities

109

Case Study Solution

109

Test Items

110

Chapter 13: Technological Processes

114

Chapter Outline

114

Suggestions for Activities

114

Case Study Solution

114

Test Items

115

Chapter 14: The Changing Landscape of Organizations

119

Chapter Outline

119

Suggestions for Activities

119

Case Study Solution

119

Test Items

119

COURSE MATERIALS: SAMPLE SYLLABUS CMST 303: Organizational Communication Syllabus Instructor Name Office Number Phone Number E-mail Address Office Hours: Class Meeting Time: TEXT: Miller, K. (2015). Organizational communication: Approaches and processes (7th ed.). Stamford, CT: Cengage Learning.

COURSE DESCRIPTION: This course will help students understand organizational communication theories, models, and processes; apply these principles in organizational communication speaking exercises; and learn management and leadership skills.

STUDENT LEARNING OUTCOMES: By the end of this course, students should be able to: 1. accurately describe key elements of the following theories: classical management, human relations, human resources, and critical 2. accurately describe key elements of the following processes: assimilation, organizational decision making, conflict management, change and leadership, emotion, organizational diversity, and technological 3. identify communication problems in a specific organizational setting 4. create a solution to an organizational communication problem FORMAT: This course will be conducted using a variety of methods including lecture, discussion, and application activities with a heavy emphasis on discussion and application activities. Students are expected to attend each class session, complete reading assignments prior to attending class, and participate in all class activities and discussions.

GRADING: The course grade will be based on the following components: Exam #1 Exam #2 Exam #3 Exam #4 Application Paper #1 (2 pgs.)

Application Paper #2 (2 pgs.)

Case Study Presentation (group) Attendance

100 points 100 points 100 points 100 points 50 points 50 points 100 points 100 points

TOTAL

700 points

Separate handouts describing the requirements of each component will be posted on Blackboard and reviewed in class throughout the semester.

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GRADING SCALE: To be determined by instructor.

ATTENDANCE POLICY: To be determined by instructor.

ASSIGNMENTS MISSED DUE TO AN ABSENCE: To be determined by instructor.

Session 1

SAMPLE COURSE SCHEDULE Overview of Course; What Is Organizational Communication?

Reading Assignment: Chapter 1; Review Application Paper #1 Assignment

Session 2

Classical Approaches Reading Assignment: Chapter 2

Session 3

Human Relations and Human Resources Approaches Reading Assignment: Chapter 3; Application Paper #1 due

Session 4

Exam #1 (75 minutes); Systems and Cultural Approaches Reading Assignment: Chapter 4

Session 5

Constitutive and Approaches Reading Assignment: Chapter 5

Session 6

Critical and Feminist Approaches Reading Assignment: Chapter 6; Review Sheet for Exam #2 Available

Session 7

Exam #2 (75 minutes); Assimilation Processes Reading Assignment: Chapter 7; Review Application Paper #2 Assignment

Session 8

Assimilation Processes; Knowledge and Decision Processes Reading Assignment: Chapter 8

Session 9

Knowledge and Decision Processes; Conflict Management Processes Reading Assignment: Chapter 9; Review Sheet for Exam 3 Available Application Paper #2 due

Session 10

Exam #3 (75 minutes); Organizational Change and Leadership Reading Assignment: Chapter 10; Review Case Study Presentation Assignment

Session 11

Processes of Emotion in the Workplace Reading Assignment: Chapter 11

Session 12

Diversity Management Processes Reading Assignment: Chapter 12

Session 13

Technological Processes Reading Assignment: Chapter 13

Session 14

GROUP PRESENTATIONS (#1, #2, #3, #4, #5, #6) 2

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Review Sheet for Exam #4 Available FINAL EXAM

COURSE MATERIALS: PAPER ASSIGNMENTS There are a variety of paper assignments that could be used effectively in teaching an introductory organizational communication course. In this section we present a selection of possibilities. These paper assignments run the gamut from a large-scale research paper in which data are collected from an organizational site, to a paper requiring the creation of a practical program based on organizational communication concepts, to a case analysis. Of course, we would not advocate using all of these assignments in one course, but one or a combination of the assignments can enhance student understanding of the course material.

The first three assignments ask students to choose one of the organizational communication processes discussed in the textbook and to become an "expert" on some aspect of that process. The first paper is an integrative literature review that leads to research questions or hypotheses about the organizational communication process they have chosen. The second paper then builds on the first by asking students to design a "research plan" that would be appropriate for investigating the research question posed in the first paper. Then, in the third paper, students are asked to apply knowledge about their chosen organizational communication process by designing a program that could be used by practitioners in an organizational setting. These three papers (or two of the three papers) work well as a "package" for a semester-long course, as they build on each other while students become "experts" in a given content area.

The fourth, fifth, and sixth papers we provide are more targeted assignments to help students understand specific issues from the textbook. Specifically, the fourth option builds off the cases in asking students to provide an analysis of one of the textbook Case in Points. The fifth paper option asks students to expand on how specific approaches to organizational communication would regard specific processes of organizational communication. The sixth paper option asks students to hone their library skills by investigating the extension of knowledge in various areas of organizational communication scholarship.

Finally, the seventh paper assignment option we present is a semester-long research project that builds throughout the term. Students are asked to write a literature review and methods section, then actually collect and analyze data to reach conclusions about an organizational communication process. Obviously, this assignment is only appropriate for more advanced students who have had some quantitative or qualitative methodological training.

PAPER #1: LITERATURE REVIEW AND RESEARCH QUESTIONS For this paper, you are to write an integrative literature review that focuses on a specific organizational communication process and leads to research questions or hypotheses. You should choose a specific area within one of the general organizational communication processes considered in your textbook and conduct a literature search to identify all relevant theory and research within that area. After reading relevant literature, you should consider how this literature fits together (i.e., integrate it) and consider what issues still need to be considered in this area (i.e., develop research questions or hypotheses). Your final product will then be a paper that reviews the literature in an integrative fashion by making an argument about what has been done in a particular area and what needs to be done in the future. In terms of mechanics, your paper should: 1. Be 8-12 pages long (typed, double-spaced).

2. Follow APA format guidelines.

3. Include at least 12 references.

4. Include lots of subheadings to aid your reader in following your argument.

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PAPER #2: RESEARCH PLAN This paper takes your research questions or hypotheses from your first paper as a starting point. In this paper, you should consider those research questions or hypotheses and devise a plan for conducting an appropriate research investigation. In your research plan, you should include complete explanations of:

• • • •

The setting in which you would investigate your research questions or hypotheses.

The people you would study (e.g., the sample).

The specific procedures you would use in your investigation (e.g., experiment, survey, individual interviews, focus group interviews, participant observation, examination of archival data).

The specific instruments you would use to collect information (e.g., survey instrumentation, interview protocols, guides for observation).

All of your research choices on the above issues should be justified in terms of (1) relevance to the research questions or hypotheses, (2) internal and external validity, (3) measurement validity, and (4) practicality.

Your paper should be 6-8 pages, plus attachments such as a survey, interview protocol, or observation guidelines.

PAPER #3: ORGANIZATIONAL APPLICATION For this assignment, you are to design a program for applying an issue within your area of expertise to a specific organizational setting. This assignment is much more flexible than the literature review and research plan and allows you to exercise a fair amount of creativity in your application. Try to find a way to use your expertise in organizational communication in a way that would appeal to people in the real world and would really help them in their organizational lives. As you do this, though, you need to be sure that the way in which you "apply" your expertise remains true to the research and theory within organizational communication. Some possibilities for organizational applications might include: • • • • • •

Management training programs Organizational web pages Employee handbooks Information videos for organizations Interviewing guidelines Plans for organizational restructuring

There is no single format for this assignment. Speak with your instructor about your plans before you get too far into this paper to be sure you're on a good track. Again, the major guidelines for this assignment are: •

Provide a pragmatic application for knowledge in your expertise area that: • (1) Remains true to research and theory in the area and • (2) Would be appealing and useful to organizational practitioners

PAPER #4: CASE IN POINT ANALYSIS You will write a 4-5 page (double-spaced, 1 1/4" margins) analysis of a Case in Point from one of the chapters of our text. These are the requirements for the assignment: 1. You will read the Case in Point assigned to you.

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2. You will further research the organization described in the case to further your analysis. You will research at least five additional, credible sources (magazine and newspaper articles, organizational websites, credible blogs and other web-based sources, interviews).

3. You will identify the 2-3 most important themes of the case and explain why they are important lessons to learn.

You will make 2-3 recommendations of how the themes you discovered in the case and your additional research could be used to improve communication in other organizations. You will explain why your recommendations will work.

4. Your paper should include an introduction in which you will introduce briefly what the case is about, and provide a preview statement.

5. The body of your paper should provide a summary of the case and a description of the 2-3 most important themes of the case and an argument for why those themes are important. It should include your 2-3 recommendations for improving communication in other organization as well as your explanation for why your recommendations will work.

6. Your paper should include references to specific concepts or research findings you have learned from the text, lecture, discussion, other class materials, and your additional research.

7. Your paper also should include specific examples from the case that support the points you are trying to make.

8. Your paper should include a conclusion which summarizes the main points of your paper.

Your paper should follow APA formatting guidelines.

Your grade will be based on the following criteria: Quality of introduction Description and rationale of most important themes Description and rationale of recommendations Sufficient and accurate use of course concepts/research findings Quality of conclusion Format Grammar and spelling

5 points 30 points 30 points 15 points 5 points 5 points 10 points

TOTAL:

100 points

PAPER #5: APPROACHES AND PROCESSES For this paper, you are to choose one of the topics covered in Chapters 7 through 13 of your textbook (e.g., socialization processes, decision-making processes, processes of emotion in organizations, etc.), then you are to choose one of three approaches to the study of organizational communication: the systems approach, the cultural approach, or the critical approach. In your paper, you should use this approach to provide an analysis of your chosen organizational communication process.

Specifically, your paper should consist of the following sections: • • • •

A brief introduction that discusses the organizational communication process and the approach you will use to analyze that process.

A section describing the assumptions and research tenets of the approach (systems, cultural, or critical) you'll use in your analysis.

A review of literature that has investigated the process you've chosen with the approach you've chosen (e.g., what do we already know about socialization from a cultural perspective or what do we already know about cultural diversity from a critical perspective).

A detailed argument about future research that could be conducted to further our knowledge about the process you've chosen through the research approach you've taken.

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Your paper should be written in APA format and should include at least 10 references (other than the textbook).

Well-argued papers would be 8-12 pages long.

PAPER #6: LIBRARY RESEARCH EXERCISE The goal of this exercise is to have you take a specific topic related to organizational communication and learn more of what we know about this topic through targeted library research.

Your first task for this assignment is to choose a specific topic option for the research exercise. Listed below are topic options you can choose from. These topics have been specifically selected because they are at the right level of specificity for this research exercise. If you want to use a topic that is not on this list, please have it approved before you begin work on your project.

Topics Communication in Employment Interviews Information-Seeking in Socialization The Role Development Process Giving and Receiving Feedback Small Group Decision Making Participation in Decision Making Conflict Resolution Styles Bargaining and Negotiation 3rd Party Conflict Resolution Communication in Organizational Change Emotional Labor in Organizations Communication as a Cause of Burnout Communicative Coping with Burnout Differential Treatment in Culturally Diverse Organizations Communication and Customer Service in Organizations Organizational Image Management Communication Media Usage in Organizations The Effects of Communication Technologies Communication in Service Organizations Globalization and Organizational Communication Your assignment for this exercise is to find three articles from research journals that have extended our knowledge of your topic area. These articles should have been published during the last 5 years, should be directly relevant to the topic area, and should not be cited in the textbook. Feel free to use Internet search engines to help you find these articles. However, the articles themselves should be from academic journals. Please see your instructor if you have any questions about the suitability of articles you find.

For each article you choose, you should write a double-spaced discussion of the article that includes (1) a brief summary of what was concluded in the article, and (2) a discussion of the relevance of this article for your topic area that includes consideration of how our knowledge is extended by the research under consideration.

The ―deliverables‖ for this project are: • • •

A cover page that includes your name and discussion section and the topic area you‘re considering for the research exercise.

Photocopies of the three articles you have selected.

A 1-2 page discussion of each article as discussed above.

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PAPER #7: ORGANIZATIONAL COMMUNICATION RESEARCH STUDY Topic. You may choose your own topic subject to two conditions: (1) it must be a research project (i.e., involve data collection and analysis) and (2) it must be clearly relevant to organizational communication. As you think about topics that might be of interest to you for this paper, it might be useful for you to think in terms of research questions. Questions might be phrased in terms of how one organizational phenomenon influences another, what formative processes are involved in a given organizational phenomenon, or what the impacts of an organizational phenomenon are. You should limit the scope of your project at the outset, as research projects always take longer than expected.

Logistics. The final research paper is due at the end of the term/semester. It will be based on the sections that you hand in for evaluation and feedback as the semester progresses. The different sections will then be edited together to produce the final paper. You should type your paper on a computer to facilitate editing and revision.

Joint Authorship. Just as some research projects are jointly authored, you may elect to team up with one or more class members to do your project. Keep in mind that spreading responsibility among several people can produce a lower quality project unless all members are responsible and duties are carefully managed. There are three conditions for this option: (1) You will receive a JOINT GRADE on all aspects of project. You should be careful about who you get involved with and be sure responsibilities and commitments are clearly defined. (2) You cannot bail out of a group project once you have started it. (3) Your instructors will not serve as a mediator of group conflicts. If you have trouble getting along with your partner(s), you must work out your difficulties on your own.

Grading. All grades are based on the outcomes of your work, not on the effort you put into it. Effort and outcome are often related, but they are not necessarily related. Grading criteria for the individual sections are detailed on the attached sheets. More details on each of the paper parts will be discussed during class at an appropriate point in the semester. You will receive a maximum of 5 points for each section. Grades on the paper parts will be based on whether you have made a reasonable attempt to meet all of the listed criteria in your first draft.

The final draft should read like a coherent paper and should incorporate revisions of the individual sections. The final paper will receive 0-100 points based on the criteria listed on the assignment sheets. A major consideration in your final grade will be the extent to which you have incorporated earlier comments in your final draft. Both content and form are important in your paper, so be sure to carefully proofread your paper.

Research Paper: PART I -- Phenomenon. In this section, you should describe several organizational phenomena that interest you and select one for your focus. Write this material with me as your audience – what you write here will not appear directly in your final paper. Include all of the following in a brief paper (typed, double spaced).

• • •

Name three interesting organizational communication phenomena you have experienced, read about, or heard about. Describe each in enough detail so someone unfamiliar with them could understand their nature.

Explain how you think each is important to organizational communication.

Choose one of these phenomena as the most appropriate focus for your project in this course, and give your reasons for choosing it.

PART I is due at the beginning of class on ____________.

Research Paper: PART II -- Preliminary Conceptualization. The content of this paper will also not appear directly in your final draft. Your goal is to show that you have thought ahead about your project and have a general idea about how it will proceed. Include the following: • • •

Key issues from existing theory or research literature that are important to your project.

Tentative research questions or hypotheses.

Identify the kind of data you will need to do your research.

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• • •

Estimate the amount of time it will take and the resources you will need to get your data.

Explain the strategy you will use for analyzing the data.

Give three key citations that will help you start a literature search. These citations should be journal articles or academic books, NOT textbooks or web resources. Include the citations as an APA bibliography.

PART II is due at the beginning of class on ____________.

Research Paper: PART III -- Rationale, Methods, Human Subjects. PART III will serve as a major portion of your final paper (i.e., the rationale, literature review, and methods portions). Thus, you should write PART III in APA format and in a style appropriate for a research paper. PART III should include: • A short introduction explaining why your phenomenon is important to organizational communication.

• A review of existing research on the phenomenon. This review should be integrative in describing past research and drawing conclusions about what we still need to know about the phenomenon.

• An explicit and detailed research question or hypotheses that is reasonable given existing research.

• A description of the sample.

• A description of the methods used to collect data.

• A description of the methods by which you will analyze your data and a discussion of how these methods will answer your questions and/or test your hypotheses.

• A completed human subjects form.

• A bibliography in APA format.

PART III is due at the beginning of class on ____________.

Research Paper: PART IV -- Results. Again, this portion will be included as a part of your final paper, so please write it in APA format and a style appropriate for the reporting of research results. PART IV should include: • • •

Description of the outcome of your data gathering procedures as necessary (e.g., response rate, description of final sample, etc.).

Factual report of the results of your analyses. Do not interpret the results or draw implications from them.

Tables and figures wherever they clarify the results or convey important information not included in the text.

PART IV is due at the beginning of class on ____________.

Research Paper: PART V -- Discussion. Finally, in your discussion section you should: • • • • •

Evaluate the impact of your results on your research question/hypotheses. Did you answer/test them adequately? If not, why not?

Describe what we know now that we did not know before you did the project.

Describe the implications of your research for both theory and practice.

Describe the limitations of your project.

Describe future directions for research. If you were going to do more research on this project, what would you do and why would you do it?

PART V is due at the beginning of class on ____________.

Research Paper: Final Draft. In your final draft, you should incorporate all of your work on the project into one paper. Be sure to: • •

Add connectives (previews, internal summaries, transitions between sections) so the paper reads like an integrated piece. Write clearly and concisely. Eliminate grammatical problems and spelling errors, and follow APA format in detail.

Revise as necessary and use PART II for your rationale and review of literature. Be sure your 8

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• • • • •

question(s)/hypotheses are clear and explicit and follow from the rationale.

Revise as necessary and use PART III for your methods section. Be sure that a knowledgeable outsider could follow your methods description and answer your research question(s) or test your hypotheses (e.g., replicate the study).

Revise as necessary and use PART IV as your results section. Be sure all tables and figures are well labeled and clearly relevant to the points you're trying to communicate.

Revise as necessary and use PART V as your discussion section.

Include an overall bibliography.

Also hand in feedback sheets from Paper PARTS I – V.

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COURSE MATERIALS: USING THE CASE STUDIES In this section, we provide some suggestions for using the case studies included in the textbook. We first describe the design and goals of the textbook cases. Then, we consider some basic and more innovative ways these cases can be used in the classroom. The following section of the Instructor‘s Manual includes a few additional cases that were part of earlier editions of Organizational Communication: Approaches and Processes.

THE CASES The cases in Organizational Communication: Approaches and Processes, 7th ed., were written specifically for this textbook. Each case was uniquely designed to reflect chapter content and to help students integrate chapter concepts and apply them to ―real life‖ organizational communication situations. Though most of the cases involve contrived or fictional organizational situations, two are based on recent events (Chapter 4‘s ―The Cultural Tale of Two Shuttles‖ and Chapter 11‘s ―Inexplicable Events‖) and one asks students to examine their own lives—and the lives of those around them—as a case study (Chapter 14‘s ―Charting the Changing Nature of Work‖). All three of these cases and the fictional cases were written with several goals in mind. 

The cases reflect a wide range of organizational types, with some special attention given to nontraditional and service organizations. The emphasis on service organizations is intentional and based on three reasons. First, students are typically most familiar with this type of organization and are able to "relate" to them more effectively. Second, service industries constitute the fastest growing sector in the work world, and it is likely that our students will be employed in service companies when they graduate. Third, service industries are often under-represented in traditional case studies (and in traditional research).



The cases are relatively short, but long enough to provide pertinent information and background. Because the cases are all "targeted" at a specific topic, they tend to take a relatively thin slice of organizational life. We believe this makes the case more accessible to the students and more useful in illustrating chapter concepts.



The cases are written in a variety of presentational styles. For example, the case for Chapter 7 is presented through a variety of scenes providing the details of church‘s search for a new pastor. The case for Chapter 9 consists primarily of memos from two decision-making committees. The case for Chapter 6 involves a conversation about part-time work between a brother and sister home from college. This variety in case presentation makes the cases more "readable" for the students and illustrates that the challenges of organizational life can be reflected in a number of forms.



Each case is accompanied by discussion questions that relate case material back to chapter content in an explicit manner. Of course, it is not necessary that these discussion questions be used when you analyze the case in the classroom. However, they provide helpful guidelines for how particular facets of the case relate to specific theoretical concepts.

USING CASE ANALYSIS IN THE CLASSROOM We find that case analysis works most effectively in relatively small classes (less than 30), but the case method can be used in large lecture situations as well. Regardless of the setting, the most important part of the case method occurs before students even enter the classroom. Specifically, effective case learning requires that students read the cases ahead of time and come to class ready to share their ideas and apply the concepts from course material.

Shapiro (1984) argues that students must be committed to the "4 Ps" of case analysis. 1 These are: 1

Shapiro, B. P. (1984). Hints for case teaching. HBS Case Services. Boston: Harvard Business School.

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   

Preparation. The student must read and think about the case before coming to class. Given the length of the cases in this textbook, this is not a difficult task.

Presence. Obviously, if a student is not present, he or she cannot benefit from the insights of others. Some instructors give class participation points for case analysis days to motivate student attendance.

Promptness. It is important for students to be in on case analysis from the beginning. It is tough to "catch up" once analysis has begun, and late students disrupt the learning process for others.

Participation. Students should feel comfortable in sharing their knowledge and insights regarding case analysis -- this will facilitate learning for all involved. Thus, instructors should work especially hard on case analysis days to encourage participation by reticent students and discourage too much participation by "front-rowers" who always have something to say.

We suggest that instructors share these "4 Ps" with students before beginning case analysis to clarify expectations.

Case analysis will only work if both students and instructors do their homework before coming to class.

Beyond these general guidelines, there is a wide range of techniques that can be used in analyzing the cases in Organizational Communication: Approaches and Processes, 7th ed. We encourage instructors to use their imagination in adapting the cases to their own pedagogical needs. However, we also offer a few suggestions for how the cases can be used in the classroom. 

Probably the most straightforward way to use the cases is to have students answer the discussion questions provided at the end of each case. We find the most effective way to do this is to have students consider the questions individually before coming to class, then meet in groups to compare notes and formulate answers that integrate chapter concepts with case material. If using the cases in this basic manner, we'd like to add a couple of suggestions:  First, be sure to save plenty of time after group discussion to debrief the entire class. Although group learning is important, it is also critical that students are given a chance to consolidate their ideas with those of others and hear what you have to say on the topic.  Second, be sure to circulate among the groups as they work, providing needed clarification and letting the groups know that you're interested in what they're getting out of the case analysis.  Third, require that students back up their answers to discussion questions with evidence from the case and argument regarding relevant chapter concepts. Remind them that the goal of the case method is to apply theory to the real world, not to generate solutions based on their own personal experience.  Fourth, require answers to the questions (or at least an outline of answers) in writing. This will keep students focused on the task and give you a record of how they're doing in analyzing the cases and applying theoretical concepts.



In addition to using the discussion questions, you may want to provide students with a specific task based on the content of the case. For example, you might want students to serve as consultants to the organization and generate a specific plan for organizational change or an outline of a workshop or document that would be useful to the organization.



Consider innovative methods of analysis presentation that will highlight course concepts. For example, you might want to consider having groups or individuals write various kinds of tales (a la the discussion of Van Maanen's Tales from the Field) when analyzing the case on cultural approaches. Or, you might have students represent the organization in Chapter 2's case as an actual machine or the organizations in Chapter 4's case as systems. In short, don't assume that the only way to talk about organizations is through direct and narrative answers to specific questions.

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

Several of the cases in this textbook work extremely well for role plays. In particular, we've successfully used the conflict resolution case (Chapter 9) as a role play to illustrate the theoretical content of the chapter. In order to give a variety of students (not just aspiring Thespians!) a chance, we've used a "tag-team" role play technique. This requires the instructor to carefully watch the progress of the role play and to jump in when participants are getting bogged down and not getting the "problem" solved. The instructor then asks for others in the class to step into the roles and try an alternative technique for approaching the conflict, the feedback session, or whatever case problem is being enacted.



Use the cases as the basis for essay questions on exams. Especially for courses in which there is not enough class time for participative case analyses, the goals of integration and application can still be met by having students read the case before a test and targeting essay questions to the content of the case.



Finally, potential solutions for case studies are provided in the Instructor‘s Manual. These solutions present issues and concepts that could be incorporated in a discussion or written response about the case. They are written specifically in response to the discussion questions at the end of each case study. Use these solutions as a guideline for potential answers, but feel free to expand upon them and even to disagree with them.

These suggestions just scratch the surface of the ways in which cases can be used in the classroom. We believe the keys to effective case analysis are encouraging participation by everyone in the classroom and emphasizing the integration of theoretical concepts with events provided in the case. We hope you find these cases useful in meeting your own instructional goals.

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COURSE MATERIALS: ADDITIONAL CASES Over several editions of Organizational Communication: Approaches and Processes, several cases have been added and several have been deleted. For instructors who used earlier editions, several of these ―old‖ cases might be part of your pedagogical ―toolbox.‖ Instructors new to the seventh edition might find these of interest as well!

CASE STUDY THE CULTURE DETECTIVE Shannon Sterling was a new employee at a large state Department of Education. She had just received her degree in communication and taken a position as a ―community liaison.‖ Her job consisted mostly of attempting to enhance the relationship between the Department of Education and parent groups and businesses. Shannon, for the most part, loved her job. She got to meet a lot of people and was challenged because the requirements of the job were constantly shifting. However, she hadn‘t been on the job long when she realized that she was apparently an island of satisfaction within a sea of discontent. Few of the people she worked with seemed happy, and there was a high level of apathy throughout the department.

In college, Shannon had taken several courses in organizational communication and behavior, and she had learned a great deal about ―organizational culture.‖ Though Shannon didn‘t really believe that there was such a thing as a ―good‖ organizational culture, she also realized that she could gain a better understanding of the place she worked in if she could come to some kind of conclusion about the cultural values and assumptions that made it tick. As a new employee, she decided that she was in a perfect position to be a ―culture detective.‖ She figured that by carefully observing the daily activities around the Department of Education, she might shed some light on the place she had chosen to work.

So, for the next few weeks, Shannon spent her workdays with one eye on her job and the other on her surroundings.

She tried to observe as much about the Department of Education as she could, taking notes in a small notebook she kept with her at all times. She also tried to get her coworkers to tell her stories about the place she was coming to call home. In no time, her notebook was bulging with observations about the people, activities, and things that made up the department. Here is a small sampling of the observations from her notebook: 

I arrived at work early today (7:30) and the parking lot was empty. Even the reserved spots for the various directors and assistant directors were empty. I watched out my window as I drank a cup of coffee. It was incredible how many people flooded the lot between 7:50 and 8:10.



The ―open office‖ setup here is supposed to facilitate communication among employees, but it doesn‘t seem to work that way. It gets so loud that no one can hear themselves think. Of course, this doesn‘t bother the managers, who have offices with doors around the perimeter.



Fred told me that there were big hassles when the department moved into this building with open offices.

Everyone was told that it was to ―democratize‖ the office, but administrators were treated differently from the masses. He told me that they had a lottery for parking spaces, but when the administrators realized that they might actually have to walk through the snow from their cars, they exempted themselves from the system!



Everyone really tries to personalize their own cubbyhole with pictures from home, knickknacks, plants, etc.

And people take great pride in their coffee mugs as a form of communication.



One of the most popular gathering spots around here is the copy center. Part of the reason it‘s so popular is the amount of paperwork that must be done (and hence photocopied). It‘s also one of the few places people are allowed to congregate and can talk without bothering people in adjacent offices.

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

We just had a memo circulated in our mailboxes requesting that we all use electronic mail for routine business.

No one but me seemed to see the irony in this.



Friday is ―jeans day,‖ when everyone in the office can dress casually (except people like me who have to meet with business and community representatives). Most people really seem to get into this, though none of the administrators forgo their suits.



I went to schedule a meeting in one of the conference rooms and found that there wasn‘t a conference room available for any of the times that could have worked for me next week. Betty said the rooms were usually totally booked two weeks in advance for all the times after 9 A.M. and before 4 P.M.



Following our memo edict, I sent an e-mail message to an administrator in the special-education section about a public hearing I wanted him to attend. After several follow-ups with no response, I finally sent him a (paper) memo on it and heard from his secretary within the day.



Rumors are going around that the administrators are getting hot to try out ―total quality management.‖ No one seems to think much will come of it, though, or that it would make much of a difference if instituted. Gene told me that they had already had one go-round with quality circles, but that it didn‘t last.



We had a big party today for Carmen (in data processing), who‘s quitting the department to have a baby. I don‘t know her very well, but she seemed thrilled. Perhaps just the glow of pregnancy.



I rode up the elevator today with Dr. Lewis, the assistant superintendent I interviewed with. I said, ―Good morning, Dr. Lewis.‖ He said, ―Good morning, Sharon.‖ Oh well, close enough.

Discussion Questions 1.

Can you help Shannon make sense of her observations as a culture detective? Using Schein‘s model of organizational culture, what values do you think underlie the behaviors and artifacts Shannon observed? What assumptions might underlie these values?

2.

Is there any evidence of subcultures or countercultures at the Department of Education? Given what you know, how would you assess the level of cultural penetration (historical, sociological, and psychological)?

3.

If you were retained by the Department of Education as a consultant with the task of ―changing‖ the culture, what would you do? Is cultural change possible? If so, what kind of changes would you recommend, and how would you go about encouraging or instituting these cultural changes?

CASE STUDY KID-CARE Jackie Hollings is the director of Kid-Care, a day care center and preschool. Kid-Care employs 25 teachers who work in six different rooms: the infant care room, two different toddler rooms, the preschool room, and the ―after school adventure‖ room. Most of the teachers work 8-hour shifts, either from 6 A.M. to 2 P.M. or from 10 A.M. to 6 P.M., and each teacher is responsible for between five and eight kids, depending on the age group. Although Jackie believes that her staff is well trained and highly committed, she has noticed several disturbing trends among the teachers. First, the turnover rate at Kid-Care runs at close to 80% per year. Although Jackie knows that this rate is representative of the day care industry, she wants to lower it. Second, the teachers have been taking an unusually high number of sick days. Although some of the illnesses can be attributed to caring for sick kids, Jackie does not think this accounts for the entire problem. Third, she has noticed that many of the teachers are just not as excited about their jobs as they were when they first joined Kid-Care. The teachers are no longer taking the initiative to 14

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make decorations for the classroom or to plan special projects. It seems that all they can do is to show up and just get the job done.

Not surprisingly, Jackie has concluded that she is dealing with a serious burnout problem at Kid-Care. But what exactly is causing the burnout, and what can she do to deal with it? Jackie decides to hold confidential meetings with the teachers to get a better handle on the problem. She assures them that she is just trying to understand the problem and that she wants frank and honest responses. Here is what a few of the teachers say in the meetings.

Amanda, a 35-year-old teacher in the young toddler room who has been teaching at Kid-Care for five years: ―No, I don‘t like my job anymore, but what else can I do? Child care is all I‘ve been trained for, and I‘d just as soon work here as anywhere else. But it grinds on me. Some of those kids are just plain brats—they don‘t have any discipline at home and I get tired of providing it here. So I just let them run around and don‘t really do all that I could to get through to them. I used to care more about it, but I‘m not sure caring did any good.‖ Min, a 21-year-old teacher in the infant room who has been with Kid-Care for eight months: ―Oh, I adore taking care of the babies; sure, they get frustrating, but it‘s not their fault. Once you learn the routine, it‘s not too tough. You know what bugs me the most is the parents. Most of them are fine, but some of them are real jerks. They think we don‘t know anything and treat us like dirt. And we have to be nice to them and say ‗Yes, Mrs. Smith‘ and ‗Of course, Mr. Jones.‘ Sometimes I‘d just like to give them a piece of my mind and let them know what it‘s like to take care of their babies all day, but of course that‘s not allowed, so I just hold my tongue and keep being nice.‖ Sara, a 28-year-old teacher in the preschool room who has been with Kid-Care for 16 months: ―Jackie, it‘s not just this place that‘s stressing me out, it‘s everything. I‘ve got a kid of my own to deal with and my husband isn‘t much help. So, in the morning, I‘ve got to get my son up and dressed and ready for school, get him to school, then get the house cleaned up before I leave the house to get to work by 10:00. Then I don‘t get home till 6:30 and my evening‘s shot with getting dinner on the table, helping Jeremy with his homework, getting him to bed, doing the laundry, you name it. You know, handling a roomful of screaming 4-year-olds seems almost calming sometimes!‖ Elaine, the 30-year-old assistant director of Kid-Care who works with Jackie in the administrative office: ―I know there isn‘t much you can do about it, Jackie, but this place is really a zoo. I have enough trouble keeping track of the staff, let alone the parents, the kids, the programs, the regulations. What a headache!‖ Janeen, a 17-year-old teacher‘s aide who helps out in the infant room: ―You know, Miss Hollings, I like working here and I‘m learning a lot, but it‘s got me thinking. I thought I wanted to work in child care and maybe get a degree in child development. But I‘m not sure it‘s worth it. I don‘t expect to get paid much as an aide, but even teachers who have been here for years don‘t get paid much—and I‘m not sure they get much respect from anyone either.

People think it‘s just baby-sitting—they don‘t understand how difficult the job is. Taking care of one baby is tough enough, but dealing with 10 or 12 at a time takes a special kind of person. I find myself wondering if I‘m really cut out for this kind of work.‖ Jackie has come out of her meetings with the staff feeling both enlightened and frustrated. Burnout at Kid-Care certainly isn‘t a simple problem that can be addressed with simple solutions. But at least she now has some information she can work with.

Discussion Questions 1.

How would you characterize the causes of burnout for the various staff members Jackie interviewed? Are the causes of burnout consistent for the different staff members? What role has communication played in contributing to stress and burnout at Kid-Care?

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2.

What strategies would you suggest to Jackie to help her deal with burnout at Kid-Care? Are there solutions that could help the entire staff, or does each employee need to be dealt with individually? What sources and types of social support would be most effective for dealing with the problems expressed by the teachers at Kid-Care?

3.

As Jackie recruits new teachers for Kid-Care, how should she best prepare them for the stresses and strains they will encounter on the job? Are there any socialization practices that might help future teachers avoid the problems encountered by Amanda, Min, Sara, Elaine, and Janeen?

CASE STUDY SERVICE COORDINATION FOR THE HOMELESS During the 1980s, homelessness became an increasingly important social issue in U.S. society, and the problem abated little in the 1990s. Indeed, depending on the estimate used, between 250,000 and 3 million people are homeless in the United States today (Huth & Wright, 1997).

Brother Joe, however, does not have the time or the energy to be concerned with these millions of people. Instead, it is all he can do to handle the 40 to 60 homeless men who sleep in his shelter each night. Brother Joe has been running Pathways, a homeless shelter in a large southern U.S. city, for almost ten years. The shelter is the most crowded in the winter, when transients come into town from colder parts of the country and when the nights can get inhospitably cold. Even in other seasons, Brother Joe rarely goes a night without having to turn people away because his beds are full.

When Pathways opened, Brother Joe was excited about the prospect of helping people who were down on their luck and offering them a place to rest as they tried to get back on their feet. He looked forward to talking with people on the street and helping them through their troubled times. Over the years, he has remained committed to his mission and has felt he was doing some good. But he is now much more realistic about the prospects of the homeless and what he can do to help them. He is somewhat depressed because he can spend very little time talking to the men who stay in the shelter and must spend a great deal of time on paperwork, attending meetings, and glad-handing politicians. A typical day for him is shown by his calendar and notes: 

7:30 A.M. Breakfast meeting with CCHA (County Coalition for Homeless Action). Made plans for upcoming presentation to Board of Supervisors regarding zoning and funding needs. We seem to accomplish more when we stick together, but getting this group to agree on anything is a major miracle.



8:30 A.M. Arrived at shelter. Had inspection team from County Health checking over facilities. No problems but need to finish up some paperwork for them. Then made phone calls to food banks to check on deliveries for lunch and dinner. Talked with Heather about volunteer schedule for today. She said it looked like we were set for lunch, but might be short on servers for dinner. Asked her to check with the Methodist Church on the corner, as they said they‘d help out anytime there was a pinch.



10:00 A.M. Had family (mom, dad, three young kids) walk in off the street. Explained that we could only take single men and referred them to FESS (Family Emergency Shelter Service). Called Ruth over at FESS to see if they had room. Luckily they do.



10:30 A.M. Talked with several guys who had been here for several weeks about possibilities for moving to transitional housing. I explained to them that there are limits about how long they can stay in emergency shelter, and they‘ll have to try to get into a transitional system. I‘d already talked with Louise at Second Chance, and she thinks they might qualify for her program.

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

11:00 A.M. Paperwork. Signed medical authorizations for clients, worked on proposal for block grant we‘re applying for, updated files for Department of Agriculture food program.



12:30 P.M. Lunch with Jack Grice. It‘s nice to have an old friend who‘s in the legislature. Talked to him about the rumored state budget cuts. He‘s not on the appropriations committee, but said he‘d do what he can. At least he‘ll keep me updated.



2:00 P.M. Went over new set of HUD requirements with the staff. These things seem to change every month.



2:30 P.M. Talked to Heather about how things look for tonight. She says there are still a few beds available at this point, but we may have some referrals from FESS, so it‘s likely that we‘ll be full by 4:00 or so.



3:00 P.M. Meeting with church council administration to update them on shelter activities. Once again, I had to argue for the value of urban outreach as a continuing mission.



4:00 P.M. Had an unexpected visit from Lou at the car dealership down the road. Seems they‘ve gotten complaints from customers about ―vagrants‖ loitering near the dealership. Naturally, Lou thought of us. I did my best ―concerned look‖ for the sake of PR, but I‘m really getting burned by the attitudes of some people in this neighborhood.



4:30 P.M. Finally had a chance to sit down and talk to a few of the guys as everyone was getting ready for dinner. Harry was depressed because he had to spend the whole day down at the clinic trying to get treated for a foot problem he‘s developed. Jim is hopeful about a temporary job at a small construction site on the other side of town.



5:30 P.M. Heather was right. We were short on servers for dinner. I pitched in on the line and folks from the Methodist Church helped out as well. Finally left the shelter at 7:00. Hal seems to have things well in hand for the evening.

Discussion Questions 1.

How would you describe the organizational environment for Pathways? What are the components of the environment? How would you characterize the environment along the dimensions discussed in this chapter?

2.

What kinds of inter-organizational relationships have been formed at Pathways to deal with environmental uncertainty? What kinds of inter-organizational linkages have been forged?

3.

What specific functions does Brother Joe serve as a boundary spanner? What problems might he encounter in his role as a boundary spanner? How would you recommend he try to cope with these problems?

CASE STUDY LETTERS TO DELTA CHI Jason Hollander is a recent graduate of Central State University, where he was very active in intramural sports and fraternity life. After graduating, he took a job as a sales representative with Systems-Ware, a large computer software firm. The job required him to move from the Midwest to the Pacific Northwest, and, not surprisingly, he tried hard to stay in touch with his Sigma Chi fraternity brothers back at Central State. Here are a few of the letters he sent to his best friend, Jerry.

January 5 17

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Dear Jerry, Well, I finally got moved into my new apartment and am starting to get settled in a bit. The trip across country was really grueling--I'm sure glad we had the time to take that trip down to Cancun before I had to move! I haven't really met anyone here yet, but there seem to be a lot of people my age in the apartment complex, so I'm sure there'll be someone to work out with and party with.

Today was my first day on the job. Pretty boring, all in all. There are about 20 of us being trained, and we all spent today in orientation, just learning about the company, filling out forms for benefits and payroll and stuff like that. It's incredible how much junk they've given us to read already. I've gotta learn about all the forms to use, procedures for paperwork, all about every program, you name it. We haven't talked a bit about customers or selling, though!

Oh well, better get some sleep. I've gotta get up at 6:00 tomorrow morning so I can be in by 7:30. Those days taking only afternoon classes and sleeping in are long gone! Say hi to all the guys for me, Jason January 20 Dear Jerry, I've been through two weeks at Systems-Ware now, and I'm worrying that I might have made a bad choice (not that companies were knocking down my door with job offers!). I still don't have a real good feel for what this job is going to be like. The 20 of us new salespeople have been in training sessions all day, everyday. It's good in a way-I'm really getting to know the products incredibly well, plus the systems that are used here, the software we need on the job, plus the history and goals of the company. Not surprisingly, I'm also really getting to know the other people I'm training with! There's one guy, Jack, who's gonna be a good buddy, and a woman named Lisa, who's really cool.

Lisa knows a lot of people who already work here, so she's always got the scoop on what's going on, who the powerful people are, how things really get done. We're all getting antsy to actually get on the job, though. How do I learn about selling when I'm sitting in a classroom? Luckily, we're out of the class part of the training program after this week, and next week I get to ride along with a sales rep. It'll be great to see what this job is really going to be like!

Talk to you soon, Jason P.S. This week I also had several meetings with my regional sales manager Howard. So far, he seems like a real jerk. He's told me that I‘ll have very limited authority until I "prove myself."

What does this guy think I went to college for-to be babysat once I get out on the job?

February 10 Dear Jerry, I can't believe how much has happened since the last time I wrote to you. For the last few weeks, I've been teamed up with Janet, a sales rep in the eastern part of the state. She's been great to learn from. She's worked for SystemsWare for about five years and has a large, established client list. I'm really getting a feel for what's involved in servicing existing accounts, and she also works a lot at developing new ones. If only I'd known her before I had the two weeks of formal training--she could have told me what to pay attention to and what to ignore!

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So, it looks like I may really like this job. Two things are still bothering me, though. First, I've now really started to realize what a lonely and disconnected job this can be. Just when I was getting to know Lisa and Jack, we all went out on the road and only see each other occasionally back at the office. Second, I can tell already that Howard (my boss) and I are not going to get along. I feel like I'm doing my job okay, but apparently he expects even more of me (I don't have a clue of what), and I'm not living up to those expectations. Maybe it's just a personality clash, but we've clearly gotten off to a bad start. I just hope this doesn't haunt me later on this job. I know I can do a good job (and Janet seems to think I'm doing great), but I don't know if I'm going to be able to make Howard think so. He seems pretty closed-minded about me already. Oh well, nothing I can do about it, so I may as well hit the hay.

Later, Jason Discussion Questions 1.

What stages of socialization are represented by Jason's letters? What socialization tactics?

What kinds of information has he had to learn about Systems-Ware? Have the different socialization tactics used at Systems-Ware worked well for Jason?

2.

How have different people on the job (Lisa, Janet, Howard) helped Jason learn about Systems-Ware? Has Jason sought information effectively about his job? What informationseeking strategies would you advise that he use?

3.

According to the role development model discussed in this chapter, what is going on with Jason and his boss? Is there anything Jason can do to salvage this relationship?

CASE STUDY THE PERFORMANCE APPRAISAL MEETING (This case study refers to concepts about performance appraisals and individual change that were removed from the fourth edition, but were in the earlier editions of Organizational Communication: Approaches and Processes.)

Gerilynn McDowell is a charge nurse at Central Medical Center (CMC), a large city hospital. She works the afternoon shift on a general medical and surgical floor supervising registered nurses, licensed practical nurses, and nursing aides. Gerilynn is about to attend her annual performance review with Ruth Knowlton, the nursing supervisor at CMC. Let us look at how Ruth and Gerilynn are thinking about the performance appraisal that is about to occur.

Gerilynn’s Perspective Gerilynn has been working at CMC for more than eight years. She was first employed as a registered nurse working in a variety of services, such as intensive care, oncology, and maternity. Last year, Gerilynn became a charge nurse for a general surgical unit in the hospital. As a charge nurse, Gerilynn supervises all nursing activities on her floor during her shift.

It took a few months for Gerilynn to become comfortable in her supervisory position. She had been friends with many of the nurses in the unit for years and she had trouble establishing a style that combined the proper level of authority with a suitable amount of friendliness. At first, Gerilynn thought she erred by being too chummy and familiar with her nurses, and she felt they often took advantage of her. So, in the last few months, Gerilynn has been working to establish a more businesslike demeanor in the unit. She has been watching nursing activities carefully (especially charting and other recordkeeping activities) and believes this increased supervision has resulted in a 19

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smoother functioning unit. Of course, she has irritated some of the nurses along the way, and a few have requested transfers to other floors or have moved to other local hospitals, but she thinks both morale and efficiency have improved recently and feels much more comfortable in her role as supervisor.

In fact, Gerilynn is almost excited about her upcoming performance review. She feels she has learned a great deal in the last year about effective ways to supervise nurses, and she is eager to share her insights with Ruth. In fact, Gerilynn is thinking of proposing a training program for new charge nurses so that others will not have to go through the "hit or miss" learning process she was confronted with on the job. She believes that instituting such a training program would be a positive change for the hospital; in fact, she's interested in taking a leading role in making such a program a key part of the hospital's training system.

Ruth's Perspective Ruth is definitely not looking forward to her meeting with Gerilynn. In fact, Ruth hates the performance appraisal part of her job, and she never looks forward to feedback meetings. But she has put off this meeting with Gerilynn longer than she should have, and certain issues need to be addressed.

Ruth has received some disturbing reports about Gerilynn‘s performance in her new supervisory position. At first, she was not concerned--Ruth knows that it is often difficult to make the switch from floor nurse to charge nurse.

From what Ruth heard, Gerilynn was making a smooth transition and maintaining the high-quality relationships she had developed over the years. She seemed to be following Ruth's general rule of management: "Treat your employees with kindness and respect, and they'll return the favor with hard work." Then, reports began to indicate that there was a shift in Gerilynn's behavior. She had become very authoritarian, checking out the minute details of nurses' charts and riding them about uncompleted paperwork. The pleasant and collegial atmosphere of the floor had been replaced by what one disgruntled nurse called "an armed camp." Many nurses were requesting transfers to other hospital units and some had even left CMC. With the nationwide nursing shortage, this was definitely a problem that needed to be handled.

Ruth knows that she should have dealt with this issue earlier, but things had been very busy, so she just put it off until the annual performance review meeting. She has a general "performance checklist" to review with Gerilynn, but she is still mulling over how to handle the mote specific problem of Gerilynn's managerial style. She would hate to have to let Gerilynn go but is afraid it might come to that if things don't change pretty quickly. Just as Ruth is contemplating this unhappy thought, her secretary lets her know that Gerilynn McDowell has arrived for the annual performance review.

Discussion Questions 1.

What strategies can Ruth use for providing feedback to Gerilynn? Is it possible for Ruth to deliver feedback that will improve Gerilynn's performance and not cause anger and dissatisfaction?

2.

What strategies would you recommend to Gerilynn as she enters the performance review meeting? What stance should she take during the meeting? How can she best communicate her ideas about a training program for new charge nurses?

3.

What kind of performance appraisal system would you recommend that Ruth institute in the future? How could she improve on her current feedback style?

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4.

What changes should the nursing department at the hospital make to enhance the role development process for nurses? What strategy would you use for instituting a new training program? Would you let Gerilynn play a key role in this program? Why or why not?

CASE STUDY THE RISE AND FALL OF ENRON In July of 1985, Houston Natural Gas merged with InterNorth, a natural gas company based in Omaha, Nebraska.

This merger formed Enron, a natural gas pipeline company with over 35,000 miles of pipe. In 1989, Enron expanded beyond the pipeline business and began trading natural gas commodities. In 1994, Enron began trading electricity.

Soon, Enron was the largest trader of natural gas in North America and the United Kingdom and the largest marketer of electricity in the United States. Enron went on to trade coal, pulp, paper, plastics, metals—even bandwidth. As Enron expanded, its value as a publicly traded company was enhanced. By December 2000, Enron shares on the New York Stock Exchange hit a 52-week high of $84.87. Less than a year later, Enron filed for bankruptcy and its stock was trading for less than $1, marking the most spectacular corporate collapse ever.

What happened? How did a company riding as high as Enron (a sign greeting visitors at corporate headquarters in Houston hailed it as ―the world‘s leading company‖) fall apart so quickly and so completely? Many explanations for the collapse have been offered, including quick expansion, risky business ventures, slavish attention to stock prices, questionable or illegal accounting practices, and dishonest communication with shareholders. Interested parties in government, business, the media, and academia will spend many years sorting out the extent to which these issues were factors in the failure. However, very soon after Enron‘s fall, many analysts were suggesting that a key contributor to the collapse of Enron was its organizational culture (Hassell, 2001; ―Houston, we have a problem,‖ 2001; Sloan, 2002).

When organizations are in times of dynamic growth, there is little doubt that the culture will be one of confidence and aggressiveness. If the organization is to successfully branch out and deal with competition in the marketplace, managers and workers often develop a strong culture that exemplifies Peters and Waterman‘s (1982) call for autonomy and entrepreneurship. However, analysts of Enron believe that the culture of ―confidence and aggressiveness‖ turned into one of ―cockiness and arrogance‖ and that this culture—together with issues of finance, accounting, and business development—led to the most dramatic crash in U.S. corporate history. As Sloan (2002, p.

21) notes, ―What made Enron successful—innovation and daring—got the company into trouble.‖ Hassell (2001) discusses a number of ―cultural indicators‖ and ―cultural values‖ that, in retrospect, may have spelled doom for Enron (see also Sloan, 2002). Consider just a few: •

Employees up and down the hierarchy adopted a ―cocky‖ attitude after their fast and meteoric growth. As Hassell (2001, p. 29a) explains, ―[t]he arrogance at Enron became a palpable force.‖ This attitude gave Enron executives and workers the belief that they could tackle anything— even projects that seemed questionable to the outside observer.

•

The reward system at Enron, initially based on group and team performance, increasingly relied on individual performance. When Jeffrey Skilling was CEO, one performance review process became known as ―rank and yank‖ (Hassell, 2001). In this system, employees ranked each others‘ performances, these rankings were combined, and the lowest 15 percent were laid off each year. Hassell (2001, p. 29a) quotes a former Enron employee on this system: ―Because of that, you never helped one another. Everyone was in it for themselves.

People stabbed you in the back.‖

•

Enron‘s reward system also highlighted the importance of individual accomplishment with big bonuses and promotions for those who landed important deals each quarter. Another former Enron employee explains: ―It took everyone‘s eye off the big picture and made them focus on pushing deals through the system, even if the deal was a bad deal‖ (Hassell, 2001, p. 29a).

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•

One eye at Enron was always on the price of its stock. As Hassell (2001, p. 30a) states, managers and workers alike were ―eager to keep the company growing and the stock price soaring.‖ This attention to stock may have led to risky decisions about deals and ventures and to questionable ways of accounting for those deals. Hassell (2001, p. 30a) quotes an industry analyst: ―They booked all the deals‘ profits upfront, even though the payoff would not be for 5 years, 10 years, or 15 years. When you do that, there is an urgency to book new deals, because all the old profit is already booked. When you push the outer limits like that, it puts tremendous pressure on everyone in the company.‖

•

The concentration on stock price was enhanced because most employees were heavily invested in Enron stock through retirement investment programs—e.g., 401(k) s. This, of course, increased the pressure to perform at all levels as employees‘ individual fiscal stability was tied to the performance of the company. Sadly, many Enron employees lost hundreds of thousands of dollars in retirement savings when the company collapsed. While it thrived, though, attention to stock prices drove many employees. As a former senior executive described, ―Everyone was just too excited about the stock price and how rich we were getting. The company sold its soul for a higher stock price‖ (Hassell, 2001, p. 30a).

Hassell (2001, p. 1a) begins his Houston Chronicle article about Enron by stating, ―If the incredible collapse of Houston‘s most powerful company were written like a whodunit, there would be no shortage of clues to sift through in search of the culprit behind it all.‖ This puts the analysis of organizational culture in a nutshell—it is sifting through messages, stories, behaviors, and values to find clues to the workings of an organization.

Discussion Questions 1.

Consider Schein‘s ―onion model‖ of organizational culture. What were the values and underlying assumptions at Enron? How do you think those values and assumptions were illustrated in overt artifacts and behaviors?

2.

How were various aspects of Enron‘s culture interconnected? Did the culture form a coherent whole? Do you believe there may have been subcultures at Enron that could be differentiated? How might these subcultures have been defined?

3.

Do you think there is anything that could have been done—in terms of organizational culture—to ―save‖ Enron? If you had been a communication consultant at the corporation, what might you have suggested in 1995? In 1998? In 2001?

CASE STUDY AFTER SEPTEMBER 11th: EMOTION IN THE WORKPLACE Though they are now several years in the past, it is clear that the terrorist attacks on the World Trade Center in New York City, the Pentagon in Washington, D.C., and the thwarted attack that ended in a rural Pennsylvania field are events that will live forever in our individual, national, and global psyches. Few days have taken such an emotional toll on us, and the reverberations of September 11th will doubtless continue for many years to come. In this case, we will take a brief look at the impact of these events on emotion in the workplace.

The effect of September 11th on the emotional lives of workers can be seen in both ―ordinary‖ and ―extraordinary‖ ways. Clearly, those who worked in the World Trade Center or the Pentagon were affected in the most direct and profound ways. Consider, for example, employees of Cantor Fitzgerald, the bond trading company that occupied floors 101–105 of One World Trade Center. More than 700 employees of Cantor Fitzgerald were killed in the terrorist attack, leaving more than 1,500 children to cope with the loss of a parent. The emotional toll for survivors at this company—and for the families of those killed—was tremendous. Emotions of grief, anger, and fear predominated. As the mother of a 23-year-old Cantor Fitzgerald employee said shortly after the attack, ―Everybody

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says we‘re supposedly at war, or we‘re starting a war. I didn‘t send my son to war. I sent him to work‖ (―Grieving for their son,‖ 2001).

Emotions were less potent—but still very real—for workers far removed from the tragedy. In the weeks and months following the attacks, workers were advised that there was a ―new normal.‖ In the new normal, Americans were supposed to remain on ―high alert‖ yet return to regular day-to-day activities. This proved difficult for many workers. As one report advised its readers, ―If you have found yourself staring out of the window wondering what you are doing with your life or wishing you were at home with your family and ducking off early or even contemplating career change, then be reassured that you are not alone‖ (―Harnessing the wave of emotion,‖ 2001).

The ―new normal‖ was impossible to achieve in light of the emotions that flowed freely in workplaces the world over.

Thus, the events of September 11th provided fertile ground for both ordinary and extraordinary emotion in the workplace. These emotions were the result of direct coping with disaster and grief and with the ―ripple effects‖ felt throughout the nation and the world. Let‘s look at the emotions that might have been experienced by these hypothetical workers in the weeks and months following the terrorist attacks: •

Consider Dan, a New York City firefighter. He ―signed up‖ for a job of high risk and high stress, but no one anticipated the possibility of losing so many brave colleagues in one fateful morning. Dan had many close friends killed in the WTC attacks. Months after the attack, Dan was still involved in recovery work at ground zero. And years after the attack, Dan still suffered from depression and recurring nightmares.

•

Consider Julia, an agent who works at the gate for a major U.S. airline. The airlines, of course, were shut down for days after the attack and lost an incredible amount of business because of trepidation over air travel. Thus, although Julia still has her job, many others at her airline were laid off during this time period and have yet to be rehired. Julia also encounters emotion in the day-to-day activities of her job. Passenger emotions run the gamut from fear of flying to irritation with delays to resentment of passenger screening.

•

Consider Amal, a systems analyst working in a government office near the Pentagon. Amal was born in the United States, raised in the suburbs, and educated in American schools. But Amal is of Arab descent and is a Muslim. Amal—like most Americans—feels great grief and anger about the terrorist attacks. But Amal must also deal with the furtive glances of coworkers, with the suspicion of others on the street, and with the possibility of very real discrimination inside and outside of the workplace. These concerns have only increased during the Iraqi war.

•

Consider Esmeralda, who works in a small, family-owned greeting card store in the Midwest. For many reasons—electronic mail, the slowing economy—Americans are sending fewer greeting cards. Thus, the store Esmeralda is working for is being shut down and Esmeralda will lose her job, her health benefits, and contact with close colleagues and friends. Although Esmeralda knows that there are many who are ―worse off‖ than she is, this thought gives her little comfort.

•

Consider Glenn, who works in an insurance office in suburban New Jersey. Glenn‘s mother died of cancer on September 13, 2001. Glenn was confronted by a complex mix of emotions at the time: grief over his mother‘s death; sadness over the terrorist attack; resentment that his personal suffering is overshadowed by national sorrow; guilt for feeling that resentment. And Glenn is largely suffering in silence and without support as individuals deal with their personal places in the national tragedy.

These cases, although hypothetical, are based on very real situations and very real emotions. And although the events of September 11th serve as both an impetus and backdrop for the consideration of Glenn, Amal, Dan, Esmeralda, and Julia, their stories illustrate the widespread prevalence of emotion in the workplace. Understanding and coping with that emotion is the next important step.

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Discussion Questions 1. Think about your own experiences in the days, weeks, months, and years following September 11, 2001. What emotions did you and your friends and family experience? How were these emotions handled in the workplace?

Do these emotions continue to affect you? Do you think they continue to affect organizational life?

2. How do the specific individuals discussed in this case exemplify types of emotions discussed in this chapter?

Do any of these cases illustrate ―emotional labor‖ in the classic sense of the term? Do these cases illustrate the emotion that emerges from workplace relationships? Do these cases provide new ways of thinking about emotion in the workplace that have been downplayed by research and theory on workplace emotion?

3.

Is burnout a likely outcome for any of these workers? If so, how would you analyze the causes of that burnout?

Are there strategies that would be effective in coping with burnout? How would these strategies differ for different individuals?

CASE STUDY SENSEMAKING AFTER THE ACQUISITION Helen Adams hung up the phone slowly and sat at the desk in her home office. She was surrounded by piles of documents relevant to various projects she was organizing for Sales Infomatics, the marketing firm she worked for.

As an independent contractor, Helen had the freedom to work at home and set her own hours. However, she had traded this flexibility at a cost of limited job security and benefits.

And now she was especially concerned about her precarious position. Sales Infomatics, a small family business, had just been acquired by Marketron Inc., a publicly held firm with more than 500 employees in satellite offices around the country. Helen had just been informed about the sale by Les Kelsey, the longtime owner and manager of Sales Infomatics. Les assured her that her job was safe and that the Marketron people would be contacting her soon with employment information.

Though Helen felt a little better with these reassurances, after the phone conversation she had a multitude of questions swirling through her head.

Later that night at dinner, Helen enumerated her concerns to her husband, Glen. ―I don‘t even know if I‘ll be an employee or an independent contractor. And what will working for Marketron be like? It‘s not like working for SI when I could just pick up the phone and talk to Les. And will we have to move to one of their office locations?

Which office is the best for my work? Which is the best for us? Or for your career? Or should I even work for them?

Maybe I could go off on my own, or maybe someone else at SI would go with me?‖ ―Whoa, slow down!‖ laughed Glen. ―I know you‘re really concerned about this change. I am, too. But there‘s no point getting into a tizzy about it now. I‘m sure someone from this Marketron place will call you tomorrow and you can start figuring out all the details of the acquisition and how it will affect you. In the meantime, just keep doing your work. It will keep you busy and show Marketron what a valuable employee you are.‖ But no one from Marketron called the next day. Or the next day. Or the next. Not that Helen didn‘t talk with anyone about the acquisition. Quite to the contrary, Helen seemed to talk about nothing but the acquisition. The other SI employees fed Helen all sorts of rumors about what was going on at Marketron. From Sara, an SI data analyst, Helen heard that all of the Marketron offices worked under different project models and that getting in with the ―right‖ office was a key to success. From Lance, an SI project manager, she heard that the incentive system was going to change radically, but the exact form of the future system was still up in the air. From Gretel, the receptionist at the SI office, she heard that the movers had come and gone and that all SI employees were being reassigned to various Marketron offices. But Helen heard nothing from Marketron.

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After two weeks, Helen decided to take matters into her own hands. She called Akiba Jaffe, the vice president for employee relations at Marketron. ―Mr. Jaffe,‖ Helen began, ―you don‘t know me, but my name is Helen Adams, and I‘m an independent contractor with Sales Infomatics.‖ ―Of course, I know who you are, Helen,‖ Akiba replied. ―I‘ve talked with Les Kelsey about you on many occasions.

I hear you do incredible work and I anticipate that you‘ll be a valued member of the Marketron team.‖ Helen was surprised. ―Great, Mr. Jaffe! Perhaps, then, we could take a few minutes to talk about my employment relationship with Marketron. I have a lot of questions for you, and I‘d like to start getting some things settled in my mind. We could meet in person, if you‘d like, or I have a list of questions prepared that we could consider now. For example . . .‖ ―Well, you know, Helen,‖ Akiba interrupted, ―I‘d love to talk right now, but I have a lot on my plate to deal with first. Our plan is to get to the arrangements with independent contractors in the next week or so, after we settle the transition plans with permanent employees. Be patient, and we‘ll get back to you then.‖ Helen was patient for the next week. And the next. And the next. She continued to do her work and complete the projects she‘d been working on for Sales Infomatics. She continued to get dribs and drabs of information from former SI employees. She learned that they had all received employment contracts, though many were unsatisfied with the nature of the contracts. She learned that many of the SI ―ways of doing things‖ were changing. But she still heard nothing about her own future at Marketron and she began to update her résumé just in case she had to hit the streets and look for a job.

Finally, six weeks after the acquisition, Helen talked again with Les Kelsey. ―Les,‖ Helen began, ―I hate to be pesky about this, but I‘m still trying to figure out where I stand with Marketron.‖ Les quickly broke in. ―But I heard from Akiba Jaffe that he talked with you and assured you that you would be an important part of the Marketron team. He‘s really the person you need to talk with now about all the details.‖ Helen hung up the phone, frustrated once again. If Les didn‘t have the answers, who could she turn to?

Discussion Questions 1.

How would you use Weick‘s model of sensemaking to describe Helen‘s experiences since Sales Infomatics was acquired by Marketron? What kind of information environment confronts Helen? And what options does she have to successfully cope with that information environment?

2.

Do Helen‘s experiences reflect any of the systems factors identified by theorists using ―new science‖ principles?

Or could these principles help Helen change or adapt to the situation she has found herself in?

3.

How does Helen‘s role in the communication networks at Sales Infomatics and Marketron influence her ability to cope with life after the acquisition? How would you describe the networks and her roles within them?

4.

Think about Helen‘s situation as a cybernetic model in which the goal is enhanced information about life as an employee of Marketron. What kind of feedback is Helen now receiving? And what kinds of mechanisms could she use to enhance her knowledge about the new company?

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COURSE MATERIALS: ADDITIONAL SPOTLIGHTS ON SCHOLARSHIP A Spotlight on Scholarship in each chapter was a feature that was instituted in the second edition of Organizational Communication: Approaches and Processes. These spotlights provide a brief summary of contemporary research projects relevant to the topics covered in the text. The featured articles include a wide range of methodologies and specific foci, but all are highly relevant to organizational communication, almost all are written by active scholars in the communication discipline, and most are of quite recent vintage. These spotlights are designed to add to the students‘ knowledge of the topic area, to provide a glimpse into the research process and how it contributes to scholarship, and to, perhaps, serve as a springboard for getting to know more about specific scholars and research programs in the discipline of organizational communication.

These spotlights have been continued in the seventh edition of Organizational Communication: Approaches and Processes. However, in order to keep current and provide access to research that is particularly relevant to the issues in the seventh edition, a number of new spotlights were developed. However, as instructors may be attached to old spotlights, or may find the old spotlights useful for considering specific topic areas or specific scholars, spotlights from earlier editions are included in this section.

From 2nd edition culture chapter: Smith, R. C., & Eisenberg, E. M. (1987). Conflict at Disneyland: A root-metaphor analysis. Communication Monographs, 54, 367–380.

The manifestations of organizational culture are numerous and complex. As noted in this chapter, the culture of an organization is fluid—emerging as organizational members interact and react to internal and external events. Thus, 26

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the culture of an organization is revealed through everyday practices, through material artifacts, through rituals, through stories, and through the values espoused by organizational members. Smith and Eisenberg (1987) chose to study organizational culture through the metaphors that members use to organize their understandings of the organization. Noting that metaphors ―influence how we view and make sense of the world‖ (p. 369), and that rootmetaphors, in particular, ―capture a fundamental, underlying world view, but are often unobtrusive‖ (p. 369), Smith and Eisenberg argue that an understanding of root-metaphors could lead to insights into the complicated culture of an organization in conflict.

The particular organization Smith and Eisenberg chose to investigate is one that holds a special place in the hearts of many Americans—Disneyland. Smith and Eisenberg‘s analysis notes the early development of Disneyland‘s culture—a culture rooted in the values of show business and drama. Indeed, Disneyland‘s consistent emphasis on a drama metaphor (e.g., the use of terminology such as show, script, and costume) is an important aspect of its designation as an ―excellent‖ culture by Peters and Waterman in 1982. Smith and Eisenberg (1987) found that in the early 1980s, management was still largely in agreement with the entailments of the drama metaphor. However, for employees at Disneyland, the experience of work had shifted from the drama metaphor to the metaphor of family.

The employees had immortalized founder Walt Disney as the ―paternalistic, spiritual leader‖ of a ―friendly, wholesome‖ and ―tight-knit family‖ organization (p. 373). These contrasting root-metaphors of drama and family coexisted in relative comfort until economic factors and other external conditions led management to an increased emphasis on the bottom line. Employees resented this, and when management proposed wage freezes and the elimination of some benefits in 1984, employee dissatisfaction culminated in a 22-day strike.

Clearly, issues such as hiring and compensation were key factors in the strike at Disneyland. But Smith and Eisenberg argue convincingly that these factors were magnified and exacerbated by the incompatible worldviews held by management and employees. In essence, workers looked at the contract proposals set out by management and were appalled because ―this is no way to treat members of your family.‖ In turn, management was shocked when workers went on strike because within a drama ―the show must go on.‖ These distinct root-metaphors of drama and family illuminate both the development of conflict at Disneyland and the difficulty of dealing with the conflict once it became manifest. Indeed, Smith and Eisenberg argue that the future of Disneyland may rest on the extent to which it can develop ―an altogether new root-metaphor . . . one that sees employees neither as ‗actors‘ nor ‗children‘ but as full participants in shaping the present and future of life at Disneyland‖ (p. 378).

From 2nd edition socialization chapter: Bullis, C., & Bach, B. W. (1989). Socialization turning points: An examination of change in organizational identification. Western Journal of Speech Communication, 53, 273–293.

Studies of socialization often make the assimilation process appear regimented and standardized. Such studies envision individuals moving from the ―outsider‖ to the ―insider‖ role in highly predictable and routinized ways, in military lockstep with other new recruits. These views of socialization were challenged by Connie Bullis and Betsy Wackernagel Bach in their 1989 study of ―turning points‖ in the socialization process. Bullis and Bach believed that socialization could be better conceptualized as a process in which a person‘s identification with the organization undulated in response to various events and organizational experiences. They hypothesized that a more finely grained account of the socialization process could be obtained by eliciting newcomers‘ own accounts of important events in their first few months within an organization.

The researchers drew their accounts from graduate students beginning masters or doctoral work in three communication departments. At four and eight months after beginning the program, newcomers were asked to graph their changing levels of identification with their academic departments and describe events or experiences associated with the plotted changes. Bullis and Bach then analyzed these accounts and identified 15 ―turning points‖ associated with changes in organizational identification. These turning points were associated with positive and negative changes in identification and ran the gamut from moving into an office to representing the organization to others in the university community to approaching formal hurdles in the graduate program to realizing that the organization was less ―perfect‖ than originally believed.

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Bullis and Bach reached a number of important conclusions from their turning point analysis. First, though their analysis did not supplant the broad strokes of socialization stage models, it did suggest that a more finely grained understanding of assimilation is possible. Each participant‘s pattern of socialization was unique. And the patterns reported by newcomers illustrated ―an ongoing tension between movement toward identification, congregation, and the communion of similar beings on the one pole . . . and movement toward division, mystery, and the segregation of estranged beings on the other‖ (Bullis & Bach, 1989, p. 289). Furthermore, turning points that were especially influential at early points of the socialization process (e.g., informal recognition and alienation) were different from those associated with identification at later points in time (e.g., socializing and disappointment). In short, Bullis and Bach found that the socialization process consisted of many events in which individuals must manage the tensions inherent in moving toward and away from identification with a particular organization.

From 2nd edition performance control chapter: Fairhurst, G. T. (1993). The leader-member exchange patterns of women leaders in industry: A discourse analysis. Communication Monographs, 60, 321–351.

The relationships between leaders and subordinates are pivotal to the day-to-day operations of an organization. As is clear from our discussions of influence, goal setting, and feedback in this chapter, it is through these dyadic linkages that work is planned, accomplished, and monitored. It is also through these dyadic relationships that the culture of an organization is formed. Indeed, in Chapter 7 we talked about role development as an important aspect of organizational socialization—the process through which individuals become part of organizational life. The model we used to highlight the dyadic role-development process was Graen‘s Leader-Member Exchange (LMX) model (Graen & Scandura, 1987).

Fairhurst also used this model as a basis of her investigation of the ―talk‖ that occurs in leader-member dyads. She believed that the discourse of high-quality leader-member relationships would be marked by different patterns than the interaction in medium- or low-quality relationships. She argues that though LMX scholars theorize that highquality relationships are characterized by ―mutual trust, internalization of common goals, extra-contractual behavior and rewards, and mutual influence and support‖ (Fairhurst, 1993b, p. 321), the research on LMX relationships has largely relied on self-reports rather than observed behavior and communication of leaders and members. Thus, Fairhurst wanted to explore the ways leaders and members actually communicated to see if their interaction was congruent with their self-reports about the relationship and to see what high-, medium-, and low-LMX relationships ―sounded like‖ in real organizational discourse.

Fairhurst studied 16 leader-member relationships that involved six female leaders. She collected both self-reports on the relationship and audiotape recordings of routine conversations between leaders and members. She then analyzed transcripts of the tapes to look for patterns that distinguished leader-member relationships of varying quality. A number of patterns were apparent in her analysis.

First, high-LMX relationships were distinguished by a convergence of values between the leader and the member, by nonroutine problem solving, by humor and teasing that marked an ―inside‖ relationship, by support, by polite disagreement, by role negotiation, by coaching, and by the collaborative ―framing‖ of choices for the member. In contrast, low-LMX (and often medium-LMX) relationships were characterized by the monitoring of routine performance, by face-threatening acts, by competitive conflict, and by ―power games‖ such as put-ons and one-ups-manship. In short, the study found that there is a ―rich set of patterns that help to create the ongoing structure of leader-member relationships‖ (Fairhurst, 1993b, p. 347).

From the 3rd edition human relations chapter: Eisenberg, E. M., & Witten, M. G. (1987). Re-considering openness in organizational communication.

Academy of Management Review, 12, 418- 426.

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The human relations approach marked a shift away from the task-oriented and mechanistic communication of classical management and toward social and informal communication on a variety of topics. Human relations theorists believe that open communication enhances organizational achievement through the reduction of conflict and the fulfillment of individual needs. This preference for open communication resonates with many of our deeply held beliefs about communication in a variety of relationships. But is open communication always good? Or should we question this basic tenet of the human relations approach? These were the questions that guided Eisenberg and Witten in their 1987 article, "Reconsidering Openness in Organizational Communication."

Eisenberg and Witten begin their essay by reviewing the legacy of the human relations approach and its preference for open communication. They consider three different conceptualizations of openness: openness as personal disclosure, openness as nonpersonal information, and openness as clear and unambiguous communication. They question the value of openness with regard to all three of these conceptualizations. First, with regard to personal disclosure, they argue that overly disclosive communication "can cause serious discomfort, confusion, emotional demands, and . . . stress" (p. 420). Especially within a work setting, overly disclosive communication can be used for manipulative purposes and may often be distrusted by others. They also contend that disclosure of nonpersonal information can be counterproductive. They draw on examples from collective bargaining, crisis communication, and upward communication to argue that "the norms and political realities of organizations . . . reward people for closed, not open communication" (Conrad, 1985, p. 104). Finally, Eisenberg and Witten argue that there are also liabilities inherent in communication that is clear and unambiguous. Following the arguments of Eisenberg (1984), these authors posit that overly explicit communication can be risky and that the most successful organizational members are those who can use "strategic ambiguity" to cope with multiple goals in communication. For example, a manager might tell subordinates that they need to "substantially improve customer service." This message will motivate employees but still allow enough flexibility to adjust goals and save face if performance does not match expectations.

In arguing against complete openness, however, Eisenberg and Witten are not advocating a return to mechanistic views of organizational communication. Instead, they close their essay by considering a contingency perspective on organizational communication that considers individual, relational, organizational, and environmental influences on communicative behavior. They prefer a contingency approach because it "eschews indiscriminant calls for openness in favor of a more subtle characterization of organizational life" (p. 424).

From 3rd edition human resources chapter: Barker, J. R., Melville, C. W., & Pacanowsky, M.E. (1993). Self-directed teams at XEL: Changes in communication practices during a program of cultural transformation. Journal of Applied Communication Research, 21, 297-312.

Organizations attempting to empower employees and take full advantage of their skills and expertise have turned increasingly in recent years to self-directed teams. A shift to such an organizational form requires committed changes in attitude, in organizational structure, in communication patterns, and in norms and values. Barker, Melville, and Pacanowsky explored some of these changes by looking at XEL, a manufacturer of electronic circuit boards. In the 1980s, management at XEL began to worry about competitive threats and decided to "perform radical surgery" on their organization by reorganizing into self-directed teams. These teams were designed to "make all the decisions, do all the coordination, and perform all the work required to build the items under their responsibility‖ (Barker et al., p. 299). In examining XEL during and after the change from classical hierarchy to self-directed teams, Barker and his colleagues observed transformations both in the roles played by organizational members and in the nature of communication within the company.

In classical organizations, roles are clearly defined. Employees play the role of follower by accepting work-related directives. In turn, these followers have supervisors with direct control over the work, and the supervisors report to managers with ultimate authority. Barker and his colleagues found that these roles shifted dramatically in an 29

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organization of self-directed work teams. Managers became coaches who pointed out options and made suggestions rather than issuing orders. Supervisors became coordinators with the ambiguous and perhaps unenviable task of facilitating participation and absorbing accountability for the team. What the research team found that was particularly interesting, though, was that organizational members had a very difficult time switching from the old roles to the new roles. Even though organizational members were committed to self-directed teams, the old hierarchical roles were familiar and were used as a way of understanding and coping with the new roles. As Barker and colleagues note, ‗‗[i]n times of crisis, the team members drew on their knowledge of traditional management so that they could deal with the pressure of their new roles" (p. 306).

Patterns of communication changed in concert with these new organizational roles. Downward communication at XEL used to consist of directives; with self-directed teams it consisted of suggestions, constraints, and alternatives.

Upward communication at XEL used to involve the straightforward transfer of information; with self-directed teams it included directives and requests. Interestingly, though, the researchers' analysis suggests that this shift in communication patterns did not indicate a fundamental shift in control. "The organization still shapes employee behaviors so they will act in effective and functional manners. Instead of simply directing them as the old culture did, XEL's new culture shapes behavior by inculcating that guide . . . team action" (p. 309). For example, team members who share management's value of punctuality would enforce this value through attendance rules and other team standards.

Barker, Melville, and Pacanowsky's examination of XEL points out some of the tensions and complexities of moving to an organizational form truly guided by human resources principles such as participation and empowerment. Organizational members retain blueprints of the "way it used to be" and these blueprints influence current and future behavior. It is not surprising, then, that Barker and his colleagues conclude that moving to an organizational form such as self-directed work teams "is a difficult task that requires monitoring, evaluation, and revising if it is to produce a viable, vigorous, and constructive alternative to what existed before" (p. 311).

From 3rd edition systems chapter: McMillan, J. J., & Northern, N. A. (1995). Organizational codependency: The creation and maintenance of closed systems. Management Communication Quarterly, 9, 6-45.

A systems approach to organizational communication is built on the premise that communication within organizations can best be understood through open systems concepts such as permeability, interdependence, feedback, equifinality, and negative entropy. To a large extent, organizational scholars have used systems concepts to understand and model the actions of successful organizations, those that "effectively and proactively manage the entropic process though the wise use of energy and resources, consistent boundary spanning, effective information input, and responsiveness to feedback" (McMillan & Northern, 1995, p. 9). But systems concepts can be equally useful to understand ineffective and "dysfunctional" organizations. With this belief in mind, McMillan and Northern sought to explain "organizational codependency," which they define as "patterned social behavior which features habitual external dependency and functions to diminish the effectiveness and essential well-being of all participants" (p. 13).

McMillan and Northern explore the concept of organizational codependency through an interview and survey study at seven different organizations. They use literature on interpersonal codependence as a springboard and find that codependence in the organizational arena is characterized by asymmetric communication status, workaholism, an obsession with the bottom line, and the encouragement of communicative incompetencies, such as lack of ability to 30

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discuss emotion, indirectness, and reactive communication. McMillan and Northern‘s research highlights the importance of interaction in the creation and maintenance of a codependent organization: "Codependency depends for its survival upon continual verbal and nonverbal reenactment of the roles which each participant has implicitly 'agreed' to play" (p. 33).

In analyzing their findings, McMillan and Northern turned to systems concepts, arguing that "[o]pen systems function to maximize life-sustaining qualities; closed systems, aided and abetted by codependent patterns, restrict and impoverish" (p. 32). Specifically, McMillan and Northern conclude that organizational codependency inhibits the feedback function of communication, neglects the principle of equifinality by relying on limited alternatives, promotes entropy because of restricted information sharing and devotion to the bottom line, and distorts the central concept of system "interdependence" into destructive codependence (Ray, 1993). This final conclusion is particularly sad and ironic, because it demonstrates how encouraged behaviors of interdependence (e.g., cooperation, social support, reliance on one another) can be twisted in the context of a dysfunctional organization.

From the 4th edition classical approaches chapter: Courtright, J.A., Fairhurst, G.T., & Rogers, L.E. (1989). Interaction patterns in organic and mechanistic systems. Academy of Management Journal, 32, 773-802 The hallmark of classical approaches to organizing is that organizations can be modeled after machines. A machinelike organization is standardized, specialized, and predictable, and communication in such an organization should flow downward through the hierarchy in order to define and structure the behaviors of those in the lower part of the organizational hierarchy. But does this mechanistic metaphor really represent the nature of communication in some of today‘s organizations? What are the implications of such interaction patterns? And are different communication patterns typical in less mechanistic organizations?

These were the questions addressed by Courtright, Fairhurst, and Rogers in their study of interaction patterns within two plants of a manufacturing organization. Courtright and his colleagues wanted to know if communication between supervisors and subordinates would be markedly different in ―mechanistic‖ and ―organic‖ organizations.

Drawing from the work of Burns and Stalker (1961), they delineated the differences between these two types of organizations: ―Mechanistic forms of organization, characterized by hierarchical control, are more suited to stable environments . . . Organic organizational forms, characterized by dispersed control, are more suited to unstable conditions‖ (p. 773). Courtright and colleagues then predicted that interaction in mechanistic organizations would be characterized by ―command-style‖ communication, conflict, and challenges for control, and that interaction in ―organic,‖ team-based organizations would be characterized by invitations for participation, discussion, and elaborations upon the ideas of others.

In their study, Courtright and colleagues asked managers to tape-record routine work-related conversations with their subordinates. These recordings were then analyzed in terms of whether statements were ―one-up‖ (e.g., interrupting, giving directions), ―one-down‖ (e.g., expressing agreement, requesting approval), or ―one-across‖ (e.g., providing information, continuing discussion). By analyzing the sequencing of messages based on these codes, the researchers found that communication in the mechanistic organization was characterized by competition, interruptions, and statements of nonsupport. In contrast, interaction at the organic plant was marked by questions and answers and ―conversational elaboration.‖ Although this study investigated just one type of conversation in two plants from one organization, it does provide a window on actual interaction between supervisors and subordinates.

And through this window, we see some of the possible disadvantages of ―machinelike‖ communication. Although the times have changed drastically since Taylor, Fayol, and Weber saw classical methods as those best able to accomplish organizational goals, the research of Courtright and his colleagues provides support for Weick‘s assertion (1987, p. 114) that ―the main thing mechanistic systems do is argue.‖ From the 4th edition human resources approaches chapter: 31

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Ashcraft, K.L., & Kedrowicz, A. (2002). Self-direction or social support? Nonprofit empowerment and the tacit employment contract of organizational communication studies. Communication Monographs, 69, 88-110.

The human resources approach to organizational communication puts a great deal of stock in valuing the knowledge and skills of workers in the organization, and many scholars and practitioners believe that the best way to take advantage of these human resources is through the process of ―empowerment.‖ Workers are empowered when they have the skill and ability—as well as the opportunity and authority—to act effectively (Chiles & Zorm, 1995).

Empowerment is thus engendered by allowing self-direction and by developing democratic and nonhierarchical structures that encourage participation.

But will such a model of empowerment hold across all kinds of people working in an organization? Karen Lee Ashcraft and April Kedrowicz explored this question in their investigation of ―Haven,‖ a ―self-avowed feminist organization that serves the emergency needs of domestic violence survivors and seeks prevention through community education and counseling‖ (Ashcraft & Kedrowicz, 2002, p. 94). Haven employs 25 staff members and involves approximately 120 volunteers who work as shelter volunteers staffing the hotline and crisis location, volunteers working with kids at the shelter, and victim‘s advocates responding to and counseling victims of domestic violence. As a feminist organization, Haven is a strong advocate of the value of empowerment and expresses that advocacy through policies of decentralization and a system of ―ethical communication.‖ In their essay, Ashcraft and Kedrowicz questioned whether the model of empowerment espoused by Haven was seen as effective by the volunteers who did not occupy the traditional employee role envisioned by many organizational theorists.

Ashcraft and Kedrowicz found that volunteers at Haven saw themselves as very different from staff members—they acknowledged that their work at Haven constituted a different type of work and a different kind of life experience. It is not surprising, then, that these volunteers did not feel empowered by some of the factors that human resources theorists might recommend. Specifically, the volunteers did not embrace a model of empowerment based on selfdirection and decentralized participation. Instead, the volunteers welcomed hierarchy and centralized authority, especially when that hierarchy provided resources for a variety of kinds of social support. In this highly-charged setting, emotional support was particularly important for the volunteers. For these volunteers, empowerment came with the ability to determine their own level of comfortable participation and with a system of social support that would let them know the results of their efforts and know that others were experiencing thoughts and feelings similar to their own.

Thus, in this research, Ashcraft and Kedrowicz open up new avenues for understanding what ―counts‖ as empowerment in a variety of organizational settings. Empowerment does not always require decentralization and a flattening of the organizational hierarchy. Indeed, for the volunteers at Haven, empowerment meant ―the capacity to select one‘s own level of participation, which may include the ironic choice to submit to the direction of others. Staff members can foster such freedoms by providing volunteers with social support, which can occur amid—and, indeed, may require—hierarchy and centralization‖ (Ashcraft & Kedrowicz, 2002, p. 105). Thus, as organizational forms continue to shift and we move to many models that value volunteers as much as paid employees, we must remember that empowerment might look very different for people in different work situations.

From the 4th edition cultural approaches chapter: Scheibel, D. (1999). ―If your roommate dies, you get a 4.0‖: Reclaiming rumor with Burke and organizational culture. Western Journal of Communication, 63, 168-192.

When we think of organizations, we often consider corporations, or even small businesses and nonprofit ventures.

However, educational institutions (such as colleges and universities) are also clearly organizations, and students enrolled in such institutions are an integral part of those organizational cultures. Dean Scheibel investigated the student cultures of colleges and universities in a recent investigation of a very specific cultural manifestation.

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As discussed in this chapter, culture can be seen through a wide array of indicators. Cultural scholars might look at material artifacts, everyday practices, or rites and rituals. In Scheibel‘s investigation of student culture on college campuses, he chose to look at rumors as a cultural indicator. As he argues, ―rumor is a collective, communicatively constituted cultural phenomenon‖ (p. 169) that is particularly important during critical periods of an organization‘s existence such as times of crisis and change. Thus, Scheibel believes that rumors can serve as a window for understanding the values and culture of a particular social group.

In his study, Scheibel did not look at rumors in general, but chose to concentrate on a specific rumor. This rumor, which Scheibel documents as occurring on a wide range of campuses across the United States, considers the situation in which a student suffers a fatal accident, succumbs to disease, commits suicide, or is murdered. In such a case, according to this rumor, that student‘s roommate will be given the rest of the semester off and given As in all coursework. In other words: ―If your roommate dies, you get a 4.0.‖ So what does this rumor say about the organizational culture for students away at college? Scheibel analyzes the rumor using methods of Burkean rhetorical analysis (Burke, 1966) and Bantz‘s communication culture perspective (Bantz, 1993). Using these analytical tools, Scheibel draws a number of conclusions about the student subculture at American colleges and universities. Some of these are relatively obvious. For example, the rumor points out that two of the most critical aspects of the student culture are performance (as measured by grades) and social life (as indicated in roommate relationships). Second, the rumor points to the inevitable stress of the college student subculture. Particularly during times of high tension, such as final exams, rumors that involve the major stressors of campus life will surface. The rumor also points to the ―mystification‖ of university administration in the student subculture. As students search for the source of the rumor in college handbooks or discuss why such a policy would never be in the college handbook, it is clear that the administration is a source of ―hierarchy and mystery‖ (p. 181) to most students.

Beyond these points, though, Scheibel explores the nuances of student culture by considering more detailed questions about the rumor. For example, he looks at the implications of whether the roommate has been murdered (with perhaps the person getting the 4.0 as perpetrator?) or committed suicide (with the person getting the 4.0 as grief stricken friend). He considers the ways in which students speculate about the administrative motives for such a policy (Is the administration truly compassionate or are they just covering their ass?). It is in exploring these questions of ―why‖ and in considering the ways in which students actually talk about this rumor that Scheibel uncovers some of the most telling details of the student subculture on college campuses.

From the 5th edition critical chapter: Smith, F. L., & Keyton, J. (2001). Organizational storytelling: Metaphors for relational powers and identity struggles. Management Communication Quarterly, 15, 149–182.

This chapter has pointed to the centrality of the concept of ―power‖ for a critical understanding of organizational communication and to the various resources that organizational participants use to marshal power. Power comes from control of resources, from control of time and tasks, and from control of gender issues. But perhaps most important for communication scholars, power comes from the control of discourse—from the stories we tell as a part of organizational life. Often, these stories are told ―about‖ the organization or ―in‖ the organization. There are stories from around the proverbial watercooler, stories of behavior in meetings, and stories of individuals in their lives outside of the organization. But in some organizations, the story itself is the central product of the organization, and the narratives of these organizations can wield particular power within the organizational context. Faye Smith and Joann Keyton provide a fascinating case study of one such organization.

In the late 1980s, Designing Women was one of the most popular situation comedies on television. For its first several years, producer Linda Bloodworth-Thomason wrote almost all of the show‘s scripts with an eye toward an ―ensemble‖ show that highlighted the nature of relationships among contemporary women and current social issues.

According to Smith and Keyton (2001), however, tension developed between Bloodworth-Thomason and one of the actresses on the show, Delta Burke. This tension, apparently, revolved primarily around Burke‘s increasing 33

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popularity with fans and hence her desire to emerge as a ―star‖ within the ensemble, and it was also influenced by Burke‘s weight gain during this time period. In short, there was a power struggle emerging between BloodworthThomason and Burke, and that struggle came to a head at the end of the 1989–1990 season.

In this power struggle, both Burke and Bloodworth-Thomason had resources. Both had the ―resources‖ embedded within the contract that bound Burke to the show, and there was power derived from relational ties among the series‘ actresses and producers. But Burke was developing an additional source of power through her fan base and was ―demanding star treatment‖ through the renegotiation of her contract (Smith & Keyton, 2002). What power did Bloodworth-Thomason have that Burke did not? The power of storytelling, as Bloodworth-Thomason wrote all of the scripts for the show. And for the final episode of the 1989–1990 season, Bloodworth-Thomason wrote a script that highlighted Burke‘s weight gain and culminated in a verbal and physical fight among the characters in a resort spa mud bath. Bloodworth-Thomason embedded lines in the script that seemed to target her conflict with Burke, such as ―Just because this place is not exactly what you envisioned . . . you now want to spoil it for the rest of us!‖ Smith and Keyton (2002) analyze the script and production of this episode within the historical and relational context of Designing Women. Though the authors acknowledge that a variety of interpretations are possible with regard to these cultural events, their analysis is fascinating in highlighting the role of a highly public narrative (what could be more public than national television—not to mention years in syndication!) in playing out personal struggles of power and identity in the workplace. In noting the striking parallels between the lines in the script and the ongoing drama of the workplace, they conclude, ―organizational scholars should look for issues of power and identity in the least expected of places‖ (p. 176).

From the 5th edition emotion chapter: Tracy, S. J., Lutgen-Sandvik, P., & Alberts, J. K. (2006). Nightmares, demons, and slaves: Exploring the painful metaphors of workplace bullying. Management Communication Quarterly, 20, 148–185.

One of the most painful emotional experiences an individual can have in the workplace is to be bullied. It is easy to think that bullying is the province of boys on the playground or ―mean girls‖ in the middle school cafeteria. But bullying is also a serious problem in the U.S. workplace, as a majority of employees are bullied at some point in their work histories and 10% are being bullied at any given time. As Sarah Tracy, Pamela Lutgen-Sandvik, and Jess Alberts note, ―If 1 in 10 workers currently suffers at the hands of workplace bullies, then bullying is a pervasive problem and not just the rare experience of a few ‗thin-skinned‘ employees‖ (Tracy, Lutgen-Sandvik, & Alberts, 2006, p. 149). Workplace bullying is more than just a single hostile event or a disliked coworker. Instead, ―bullying at work involves situations in which employees are subjected to repeated, persistent negative acts that are intimidating, malicious, and stigmatizing‖ (Tracy et al., 2006, p. 152). The negative outcomes that can accrue from such bullying are also serious and pervasive and may include stress, depression, loss of productivity, and increases in health care costs.

In their article on ―Nightmares, Demons, and Slaves,‖ Sarah Tracy and her colleagues were interested in moving beyond issues of definitions and outcomes and considering the notion of what it really feels like to be bullied. How do individuals process the ongoing experience of behaviors that might include screaming and cursing, spreading rumors, lying, physical abuse, and social ostracism? To answer this question, these researchers conducted individual interviews and focus groups with individuals who had been (or were being) bullied. They asked these individuals to describe their experiences—and even to depict those experiences in artistic form—and they used these verbal and nonverbal responses to come to conclusions about the metaphors workers used to make sense of their bullying experiences. Tracy et al. (2006) distinguished among metaphorical themes regarding the bullying process, the bully, and the target.

Participants in the research conducted by Tracy et al. (2006) described bullying, first, as a game or a battle.

However, this game is not a fair fight, because the bullies play dirty and make up their own rules. They also described the bullying process as a nightmare that couldn‘t be understood or escaped, as the unending drip of water torture, or as a festering and noxious substance. These descriptions of the bullying experience were related to 34

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metaphors that described the bullies. These individuals were described as dictators or self-absorbed royalty, as twofaced actors who could impress organizational superiors while tormenting others, or as evil demons whose behavior was seen as ―surreal, shocking, bizarre, and inexplicable‖ (Tracy et al., 2006, p. 167).

Perhaps most telling, though, were the metaphors study participants used to describe themselves—the targets of workplace bullying. One metaphor highlighted the dehumanizing aspect of the bullying experience, invoking the idea of being an animal or a slave. For example, one target likened himself to a fly whose wings were being cruelly pulled off by the bully. Targets also described themselves as prisoners who were unable to escape the bully or as a child back on the schoolyard with a ―kick me‖ sign taped to the back. Finally, the targets of bullies saw themselves in the poignant role of a heartbroken lover as the bully separated them from their jobs and from others in the workplace. These people loved their jobs, they loved their coworkers, and the bullies had torn apart those relationships. In the words and pictures of respondents, hearts were broken by the bullies. As Tracy et al. (2006, p.

171) conclude, ―[t]his imagery illustrates how abused workers feel the weight, scarring, and betrayal of abuse, and the loss of a beloved job, to their very core.‖ From the 5th edition diversity chapter: Orbe, M. P. (1998). An outsider within perspective to organizational communication: Explicating the communicative practices of co-cultural group members. Management Communication Quarterly, 12, 230–279.

In spite of increasing diversity in the workplace, scholars studying organizational communication have ―typically used knowledge about one group (white males) as a reference point in their discussions of all organizational participants‖ (Orbe, 1998, p. 230). Orbe finds this ―monocultural assumption‖ extremely problematic, because it diminishes and marginalizes the experiences of others in the organization. Orbe uses the label ―co-cultural group‖ to categorize these others (e.g., women, people of color, people with disabilities, gays/lesbians/bisexuals) and explores the communicative experiences of co-cultural group members in his article on an ―outsider within‖ perspective.

Orbe draws on theory from several sources (e.g., standpoint theory, muted group theory, phenomenology) and considers data from interviews with a wide array of co-cultural group members. From this theory and data, Orbe develops a model that explores ―the everyday communicative experiences of a variety of co-cultural group members as they function in a variety of organizational contexts‖ (Orbe, 1998, p. 232).

Orbe‘s model of co-cultural communication is organized around two dimensions: the preferred outcome of interaction and the communication approach used in interaction. In terms of preferred outcome, Orbe discusses three possibilities: • Assimilation involves the attempt to fit into dominant society through the elimination of cultural differences.

Consider the comments of an African American man: ―I think that for some of us there is a specific tendency to turn our radios down, take up golf, and other things like that to say that ‗Oh, okay, I fit in.‘‖ (Orbe, 1998, p. 244).

• Accommodation involves the promotion of multiculturalist collaboration. Orbe notes that this preferred outcome strives to ―change the organizational culture so that many cultural experiences are reflected in it‖ (Orbe, 1998, p.

244).

• Separation involves the creation and maintenance of unique group identities outside or within dominant structures.

Orbe notes that many with separation goals see themselves as being not extremists, but realists about intergroup relations.

Following this discussion of goals, Orbe considers three communication approaches. These are: • Nonassertive communication that puts the needs of others before self. Orbe notes that this kind of communication can be strategically used to achieve goals in organizational settings.

• Aggressive communication might involve confronting, attacking, or sabotaging others. Aggressive styles might be used when more nonassertive stances are unsuccessful.

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• Assertive communication takes the middle road through collaboration, but is often perceived as more aggressive by dominant group members. Consider the comments of one woman: ―So I try to say my piece without stepping on any toes but sometimes it just comes across as ‗we are going to do it this way, no if‘s and and‘s about it‘‖ (Orbe, 1998, p. 247).

Orbe then takes these dimensions of communicative interaction and considers specific practices that are often instituted by co-cultural group members with varying goals and styles. These practices range from ―manipulating stereotypes‖ to ―educating others‖ to ―intragroup networking.‖ Through the consideration of these practices, Orbe opens a window onto the communicative experiences of ―outsiders within‖ in organizational settings.

From the 6th edition systems chapter: Murphy, A. G. (2001). The flight attendant dilemma: An analysis of communication and sensemaking during in-flight emergencies. Journal of Applied Communication Research, 29, 30–53.

As we have discovered in this chapter, Karl Weick‘s systems view of organizing sees organizational life as a social process in which individuals and groups are consistently confronted with opportunities for sensemaking. Of course, there are times when equivocality is low, and organizational actors can rely on established ways of doing things and thinking about events. However, there are other times when there is a ―shock‖ or ―rupture‖ in organizational life— when taken-for-granted ideas about how things should work are put into serious question. At these times, the need for sensemaking is particularly strong. When something surprising or shocking happens, should we just try to smooth it over as a part of organizational life? Or does the surprise require a radically different way of thinking about what we are doing?

Alexandra Murphy (2001) explored these questions with regard to a particularly important kind of ―organizational rupture.‖ Specifically, she looked at how flight attendants cope with ―breaches‖ in the ongoing and regular routine of air travel. How do flight attendants ―make sense‖ of the disruption of unruly passengers, mechanical failure, or dangerous weather? And how does the sensemaking of flight attendants influence their interaction with pilots, passengers, and other flight attendants?

The ―dilemma‖ of the flight attendant is a particularly interesting one, because the job of the flight attendant is—in large part—to perpetuate the story that air travel is as safe and secure as sitting in one‘s own living room. All of the ―dominant rituals of flight‖ are designed to decrease the perception of risk. As Murphy points out, the statement ―the cabin pressure is carefully controlled for your comfort‖ really means that enough oxygen is pumped into the cabin so passengers can breathe (p. 38). For flight attendants, perpetuating the story of risk-free flight often involves the performance of a feminized role of giving comfort and service rather than ensuring safety, though in the years since this research the economics of the airline industry have changed the service equation to some extent. As a participant in Murphy‘s research stated, ―We are on board the airplane 80% for safety and 20% for service. But, the passengers don‘t want to know that. They want to see it as 80% for service and 20% for safety‖ (Murphy, 2001, p. 39).

Thus, when there is a ―rupture‖ in this safe and comfortable world—perhaps an unruly passenger, bad weather, or mechanical failure—flight attendants must make sense of that rupture and make a choice: to uphold the dominant rituals of flight or to break the established routine and do something about the rupture. Murphy‘s analysis of many hours of observation, extensive interviews, and archival data points to the challenges of this sensemaking activity.

Further, she notes that there are barriers to sensemaking, especially rules that limit communication between flight crews and flight attendants and cost-control efforts by airlines that often lead to attendants serving with different flight crews for each leg of a flight. Without relational connections between pilots and flight attendants, it is difficult for crews to ―make sense‖ of emergencies in the best way possible. As Murphy (2001, p. 50) concludes, ―The importance of open communication in air travel cannot be stressed enough, as literally lives are on the line.‖ Interestingly, Murphy‘s article was published in February of 2001. In the years that have followed, beginning with the terrorist attacks perpetrated on airplanes in September of that very year, we have come to know even more clearly that there can be ―ruptures‖ in beliefs about the safety of air travel. Making sense through communication has never been more important.

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From the 6th edition socialization chapter: Gibson, M. K., & Papa, M. J. (2000). The mud, the blood, and the beer guys: Organizational osmosis in bluecollar work groups. Journal of Applied Communication Research, 28, 68–88.

The socialization models discussed by scholars often assume well-defined stages of socialization that are experienced by all newcomers. For example, in this chapter we consider a three-stage model of anticipatory socialization, encounter, and metamorphosis. Research on socialization often also considers employees who initially have little familiarity with the organization and employees who are being socialized into white-collar or pink-collar occupations. Recent work by Melissa Gibson and Michael Papa turns away from these scholarly templates and gives us new insight into communication during the organizational socialization process.

Gibson and Papa‘s study is a qualitative investigation of blue-collar workers at a company they call Industry International. Industry International is a medium-size manufacturing organization and a market leader in its sector.

Gibson and Papa interviewed more than 50 blue-collar workers and also considered observational data and archival documents. Through their analysis, they came to some interesting conclusions about how socialization may work for blue-collar workers in settings such as Industry International.

Gibson and Papa first argue that it is impossible to understand the socialization process without understanding the nature of the organization and the nature of the workers. They point out that Industry International embodies the norms of the ―old social contract‖ in which ―employees remain loyal to an organization for their lifetime‖ (pp. 75– 76) and are rewarded through high pay earned through a piecework pay system. The workers at Industry International are extremely loyal and marked by a strong work ethic. These workers believe they are ―uniquely geared to the rigors of life at Industry International‖ (p. 76) and label themselves ―the mud, the blood, and the beer guys‖ (p. 77). It is also notable that many workers grew up in the ideological shadow of Industry International; more than two-thirds of those in the study sample indicated that they had a family member who either was working or had worked for Industry International. Thus, at an early age, workers received anticipatory socialization into both jobrelated and cultural aspects of work at Industry International.

This strong anticipatory socialization meant that the encounter and metamorphosis stages of socialization were almost ―nonevents‖ and marked by little of the ―surprise and sensemaking‖ that often characterize organizational entry. Gibson and Papa thus coin the term organizational osmosis to refer to ―the relatively effortless absorption of organizational values, beliefs, and understandings on the basis of preexisting socialization experiences‖ (p. 84).

They also note that this osmosis process may well speed up and strengthen the formation of identification with the organization. Workers who had ―grown up‖ with Industry International strongly identified with its values and goals, and thus disciplined others who did not. This strongly suggests that initial and ongoing socialization experiences might be very different for newcomers with different ideological and experiential groundings. As one 31-year employee in Gibson and Papa‘s study compared newcomers, ―Don‘t get me wrong. Bob‘s kid works here and he‘s a damn good worker. I have no problems with him. It‘s the kids who don‘t know anything about this place or don‘t know how to work‖ (p. 81). This points out just one more complexity in the processes through which individuals are socialized into—or perhaps just absorb —the roles and culture of organizational life.

From the 6th edition emotion in the workplace chapter: Lutgen-Sandvik, P. (2008). Intensive remedial identity work: Responses to workplace bullying trauma and stigmatization. Organization, 15, 97-119.

Especially in today‘s world, our beliefs about ―who we are‖ can be intimately related to work. We spend increasing numbers of hours at work, we often bring our work home with us through either physical or technological means, and our jobs and occupations often define us in important ways. Thus, it is not surprising that when there is a disruption in the workplace, there may be repercussions for how we think about ourselves and how others see us.

And if the disruption is one involving trauma and stigma, the effect on personal identity can be severe.

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Pamela Lutgen-Sandvik (2008) explored these ideas in her research investigating ―intensive remedial identity work‖ as a response to workplace bullying. Lutgen-Sandvik argues that workplace bullying can be an extremely traumatic and stigmatizing experience. Indeed, there is evidence that ―the shock of being singled out for repeated abuse can be as traumatic as divorce or a loved one‘s death‖ (Lutgen-Sandvik, 2008) and that bullying often creates intensive fear and dread. Further, workplace bullying takes place in a venue full of coworker witnesses and cannot be easily avoided without causing great economic and personal disruption. Thus, it is not surprising that a worker who is being bullied at work will start to question very basic questions about self and identity. For example, LutgenSandvik quotes one worker as saying ―I heard [the bully‘s] footsteps to the upstairs door, and I ran to my computer with my heart thumping. I remember thinking, ‗I am a highly educated, respected professional woman, and I am running to my desk like a child. What is wrong here?‘‖ (p. 107).

Through intensive interviews with 20 American workers who had experienced bullying, Lutgen-Sandvik explored the ways in which individuals cope with threats to identity that result from these traumatizing experiences. She found that workers coped in distinct ways at different phases of the bullying process. For example, in the prebullying phase, workers found that ―abusive tactics were subtle, circuitous and immensely difficult to describe‖ (Lutgen-Sandvik, 2008, p. 104). Thus, during this phase, workers tried to ―stabilize‖ and ―make sense‖ of who they were in the workplace in order to feel more comfortable and confirmed by others in the organization. This kind of identity work became more difficult in the bullying phase, however, when the attacks were more direct and unmistakably abusive. In this phase, workers needed to reconcile beliefs about self with the experience of being bullied. For example, workers typically had perceptions of themselves as strong individuals and good workers.

When they were abused by a powerful other, ―the incongruence between the previously valued identity and current evidence of a devalued identity called for reconciliation‖ (Lutgen-Sandvik, 2008, p. 107). During the bullying phase, victims also needed to repair their identity with others in the workplace and to work through the shame and selfdoubt that often accompanied bullying. Finally, during the post-bullying stage, workers had to restructure their life narratives and often grieved their past selves, ―dealing with the perceived loss of professional reputation, organizational identity and self-confidence, and the long-term loss of core beliefs in justice or fairness‖ (LutgenSandvik, 2008, p. 110). Sadly, this process was not always successful – indeed, two of the individuals interviewed felt the stigma and shame of being bullied many months after leaving the bullying environment. As Lutgen-Sandvik states, ―the contradictory threads of … lived history simply could not be woven back together‖ illustrating ―the devastating potential of both unimpeded workplace bullying and failed identity work‖ (p. 112).

From the 6th edition changing landscapes of organizations chapter: Lair, D. J., Sullivan, K., & Cheney, G. (2005). Marketization and the recasting of the professional self: The rhetoric and ethics of personal branding. Management Communication Quarterly, 18, 307–343.

This chapter argues that developing a business identity has become a critical aspect of organizational communication. However, recent trends also advocate the importance of packaging identity at the individual level.

This is the ―personal branding‖ movement in which ―the concepts of product development and promotion are used to market persons for entry into or transition within the labor market‖ (Lair, Sullivan, & Cheney, 2005). Authors and consultants who are part of the personal branding movement ask individuals to sell themselves by determining (or creating) an identity that is notable and distinguishable, arguing that ―Everybody is a package . . . The trick is making sure you control your package and the message it sends‖ (Peters, 1999, p. 46). Daniel Lair, Katie Sullivan, and George Cheney have recently described and critiqued the rhetoric of the personal branding movement.

Lair and his colleagues first situate the branding movement within the organizational world of the late twentieth and early twenty-first centuries. They note several ways in which the personal branding phenomenon is a response to the complexities encountered by today‘s workers. For example, they show ways in which personal branding is seen as an ―inevitable‖ response to today‘s economic environment: ―The argument goes that, because the economic environment is out of the control of the individual, the individual must be ready to respond to that turbulence‖ (Lair et al., p. 321). Further, personal branding is sold as a return to the American myth of self-reliance in which everyone was responsible for creating opportunities and realizing the American dream. Further, personal branding is portrayed 38

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as a way to combat the cynicism that might be an easy response to a boring work world of mundane tasks in cubicles. Lair et al. contend that ―Taken together, each of these general appeals works to form an interlocking series of arguments insulating personal branding from criticism‖ (p. 324).

However, Lair and his colleagues do level several important critiques against the branding movement. First, they argue that the exhortation toward personal branding implies a model of work and life in which individuals are told to put their ―brands‖ above their relationships. They quote Peters (1999, p. 72), who tells his readers that ―We all know folks who are going to . . . start a business . . . write a book . . . learn to skydive . . . build a house . . . as soon as they ‗find the time.‘ BULLSHIT! When you CARE you MAKE the time . . . and if that means saying ‗NO!‘ to your friends, your spouse, your kids (hey, I never said there would be no sacrifices), well, there it is!‖ Lair et al. also argue that the personal branding movement provides few tenable options for women and almost no acknowledgement of people of color or working class individuals. This sends a dangerous message to many.

According to Lair et al. (2005, p. 333), ―By invoking the rags-to-riches Alger (1990) myth through its emphasis on the individual‘s ability to succeed if only they can find the right way to promote themselves, personal branding discourse leaves those who are economically marginalized as responsible for their own lot. Their economic failures become simply a result of their inability or unwillingness to package themselves correctly.‖ In other words, though the personal branding movement traces its genesis to the complexity of today‘s organizational world, the solutions this movement offers (primarily to white, professional men) ignore—or magnify—some of the most vexing aspects of that complex world.

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COURSE MATERIALS: ADDITIONAL CASE IN POINTS A new feature added in the fifth edition of Organizational Communication: Approaches and Processes is the Case in Point. Each chapter has two Case in Points that provide mini-cases highlighting the concepts issues addressed in the chapter. Sometimes they feature a real life organization and other times they feature an issue relevant to the chapter. Some of the Case in Points from the sixth edition have been replaced in the seventh edition. A few of the previous Case in Points are provided here to be referenced for additional discussion.

Challenges of Organizational Communication Chapter Case in Point: Toxic Toys In today‘s global marketplace, a great deal of manufacturing is outsourced to nations such as India, Singapore, and, especially, China. The giant toy manufacturer, Mattel, closed its last U.S. plant in 2002 and now makes two-thirds of its toys in China (Harrop, 2007). Mattel owns some plants in China, but also contracts with outside vendors— factories over which the multinational company has little control. There‘s little doubt about what is driving this trend—a desire for profit on the part of organizations and a desire for low-cost products on the part of consumers.

As Harrop (2007) summarizes: ―Consider the whole picture. Big-box stores fight every penny increase in manufacturers‘ prices. That immediately knocks the American worker out of the game. One retailer has actually told its U.S. suppliers to move their factories to China. This price mania has also cost jobs in Mexico, where workers are still paid better than in Asia.‖ So, in the quest for profit and low price, the job of making toys—and the responsibility for keeping those toys safe—has been taken over by Chinese factories. And the quest for profit and price doesn‘t stop there, as choices are then made to produce the toys with whatever subcontractors can do the job for the least money. Because of a lack of quality control, product safety suffers. Toys are exported with lead paint. Toothpaste is exported laced with antifreeze. Dogs and cats in the United States die because of poisoned pet food. And the safety record is even worse for Chinese goods that are not exported. Liu (2007) points out that while 1 percent of food exported to the West from China fails to meet quality standards, the flunking rate is much higher (20 percent) for food sold within China.

So what are the answers to these growing problems of product safety in the global marketplace? Within China, there is a clear need for increased government control over safety. For multinational corporations like Mattel there is a need to upgrade quality assurance systems. But as Harrop (2007) points out, there‘s enough blame to go around: ―Rather than zero[ing] in on one country or company, let‘s zero in on ourselves. American consumers must understand that low prices come with a price.‖ Challenges of Organizational Communication Chapter Case in Point: A Bungled Bombing in Times Square On a warm spring evening on May 1, 2010, Faisal Shahzad drove an SUV into New York‘s Times Square. The SUV was loaded with fertilizer, firecrackers, gasoline, and propane tanks, and had it exploded, the devastation could have been catastrophic. But the car bomb didn‘t explode, and a suspicious street vendor alerted police. Events leading up to this bungled bombing and the manhunt that followed illustrate the two challenges of terrorism discussed in this chapter – how to better understand the systemic roots of terrorism and how organizational communication is instrumental in the efforts of Homeland Security to keep us safe.

On the first of these fronts, the Times Square bombing attempt illustrates that terrorist organizations are – to a growing extent – targeting disenchanted citizens of the United States and other western nations. Faisal Shahzad was a naturalized U.S. citizen who apparently was radicalized in his native Pakistan after encountering money troubles in the United States. This phenomenon of the ―terrorist next door‖ (Sheehan, 2010) is becoming increasingly common as global communication systems allow for recruiting beyond national borders. For example, a leader of the Afghan Taliban told Newsweek that ―With all this new technology, it‘s not difficult to recruit people in the West‖ (Thomas & Hosenball, 2010).

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On the second front, the Times Square bombing points to the importance of communication systems that connect law enforcement at the local level and homeland security procedures at the national level. Faisal Shahzad was taken off an airplane at JFK Airport 53 hours after he drove the SUV into Times Square. His capture was aided by basic police work (tracking down a vehicle identification number, tracing numbers on a cell phone, surveillance operations) and homeland security procedures such as the no-fly list.

Thus, the Times Square bombing incident provides encouragement on several fronts. Shahzad was captured, in large part because of enhanced organizational and communication systems at several areas of law enforcement. Further, we understand a great deal about how Shahzad was radicalized and became the feared ―terrorist next door.‖ However, this story is also a cautionary tale. The fact that Shahzad was even able to board the plane points to ways to improve our Homeland Security system in the future. And knowing more the ways in which Shahzad was recruited and indoctrinated makes us only more aware of the complex networks of terrorist groups. As Michael Sheehan argues, ―While we hope we can find lone wolves before they attack, we also need to reduce the threat they pose by identifying, infiltrating and crushing any terrorist organization before it can mount a sophisticated operation‖ (Sheehan, 2010).

Classical Chapter Case in Point: Faster Food at the Cheesecake Factory In recent years, the Cheesecake Factory has been one of the most successful and fastest-growing food franchises in the United States. Everything about the Cheesecake Factory is big, from its number of employees (over 18,000) to its number of menu items (over 200) to its portion size. And the Cheesecake Factory is successful because it uses modern technology in service of classical values like division of labor and efficiency (McGinn, 2004). Consider just a few examples: • Lights flash behind the front counter when a table is expected to be open. That way, hosts and hostesses can ―stage‖ guests to be ready for seating and waste little time on empty tables.

• Computers route customer orders to seven different cooking stations, each station staffed by two chefs and surrounded by all the necessary culinary supplies. If supplies run low, a separate staff member knows how to restock.

• An ―expediter‖ keeps an eye on all the orders coming in to be sure that meals on the same order come out together and that nothing is delayed.

• Kitchen managers keep an eye on the quality of dishes that leave the kitchen and work to bail out any cooking station chefs who start to panic.

It‘s a crazy system, and some might not think it‘s worth it. Do we really need more than 200 menu items to choose from? But this culinary mix of high-technology equipment and assembly line values seems to be working. The chain is growing, employees are some of the most well-compensated in the industry, and waits at restaurants can be over two hours.

Human Relations and Human Resources Chapter Case in Point: Retiring Resources Many nuclear devices were developed by the military-industrial complex in the United States at the height of the cold war in the 1970s. Similarly, many nuclear reactors were built during the 1960s to cope with energy concerns.

Who knows how to disarm those nuclear weapons and how to repair those nuclear reactors? The scientists and engineers who developed them. And what is happening to those scientists and engineers? They—like many members of the baby boom generation—are beginning to retire. And are these individuals passing their knowledge about these life-and-death issues to younger members of their organizations? Perhaps not. This scary scenario is one explored by David W. DeLong in his book Lost Knowledge: Confronting the Threat of an Aging Workforce (2004).

The human resources approach to organizing is based on the premise that organizational effectiveness is built on the knowledge and skills of individual workers. But what happens to that knowledge when those workers retire?

DeLong argues that—given demographic trends—this is one of the most pressing problems facing organizations 41

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today. How can organizations transfer the important expertise and skills of workers before they walk out the door?

DeLong points out that this may not be as easy and straightforward as it seems, as many executives are paying little attention to the problem, many younger workers might not feel older workers have much to teach them, and many older workers are reticent to share all they know. These challenges will require creative solutions, but it is essential to face them given the changing nature of our knowledge-intensive organizations.

Systems Chapter Case in Point: Navigating a Complex System A systems approach to organizational communication emphasizes the complexity of organizations, the interdependence of system components, and the importance of relationships between the organizational system and the environment. Indeed, as society becomes more complex, organizational systems often mirror this complexity.

This might be necessary, but in some industries we clearly yearn for less complexity and simpler times.

The U.S. health care industry, based increasingly on principles of ―managed care‖ (see Miller & Ryan, 2001), is a clear illustration of such a complex system. Garr (2004) compares his experiences in the French medical system when his wife had a serious stroke with his subsequent experiences in the managed care system of the United States.

The hospital in Nice, France, provided a one-page invoice for a two-and-a-half-week hospital stay and was puzzled when asked for further itemization. In contrast, once back in the United States, a much longer set of invoice statements were required just to sort out the extra equipment ordered for a wheelchair. As Garr states, ―everything in American medical care is a la carte, and the invoices are so dense with codes and abbreviations, it‘s a wonder anyone can decipher them‖ (2004, p. 19). Dealing with the system requires contacts with physicians, nurses, office staff, hospital business staff, insurance representatives, and perhaps lawyers. And the person left to navigate this complex system is the health care consumer who is already, of course, dealing with myriad stresses in his or her personal life.

Many years of grappling with these issues indicate that answers are not easy. But the problems of managed care clearly point to the problems that can confront an individual dealing with an overly complex system.

Systems Chapter Case in Point: Nowhere to Hide Connectedness A network approach to understanding organizational systems emphasizes the interconnected communication patterns that join individuals within organizations and across organizational boundaries. This connectedness—and an ability to understand it—is enhanced through technologies such as computers, cell phones, and global positioning systems (GPS).

Consider, for example, the technology of ―Worktrack‖ developed by Aligo, a company in Mountain View, California. Levy (2004) describes the system like this: The system is sold to employers who want to automate and verify digital time-logs of their workers in the field . . . Workers have cell phones equipped with GPS that pinpoint their locations to computers in the back office. Their peregrinations can be checked against the ―Geo Fence‖ that employers draw up, circumscribing the area where their work is situated . . . ―If they‘re not in the right area, they‘re really not working,‖ says Aligo CEO Robert Smith. ―A notification will come to the back office that they‘re not where they should be.‖ (p. 76) In other words, the technology creates a system where the whereabouts and connections among workers can be constantly tracked. Though Aligo president Smith claims that ―workers like the technology because it insures they get credit for the time they spend on the job‖ (Levy, 2004, p. 76), one could also argue that the ―freedom‖ gained from mobile technology has been turned on its head. Those systems of interconnections may tie workers more and more closely to those in control.

Cultural Chapter Case in Point: Leadership and Deaf Culture 42

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There are times when cultural factors beyond the organization itself have a huge impact on organizational processes—and vice versa. Such is the case at Gallaudet University in Washington, D.C., the leading school for the deaf in the United States. In 1988, students at Gallaudet launched the concept of ―deaf culture‖ when they objected to the appointment of yet another hearing president. These objections were heard, and I. King Jordan was appointed as the first deaf president at Gallaudet. When Jordan announced his retirement in 2006, the university‘s board of trustees began to search for a new president, and soon announced the planned appointment of Jane Fernandes.

Shortly after this announcement, students were once again protesting the appointment, leading to widespread campus conflict (Childress, 2006).

In this case, though, the conflict was not over appointing a hearing president or about the nominee‘s experience with the school. Indeed, Fernandes was born deaf and had been serving as Gallaudet‘s provost. Instead, these protests point to the ways in which the values of both societal cultures and organizational cultures shift over time. For one of the major concerns of the protestors was whether Fernandes was sufficiently committed to promoting deaf culture (though concerns with leadership style were also raised). Fernandes didn‘t learn to sign until she was 23, and American Sign Language is seen as a crucial component of deaf culture. Childress (2006, p. 44) notes that ―some [protestors] worry that she will focus too much on technology to ‗fix‘ deafness rather than embrace it.‖ In the end, the protestors had their way, as Robert Davila was appointed as interim president. This situation, though, points to the changing nature of organizational culture and the interplay between values in society and values in specific organizations. In 1988, the important step was to have deaf leadership at Gallaudet University—by 2006, the cultural stakes had become much more complex.

Critical Chapter Case in Point: Wake Up Wal-Mart?

A critical approach to the study of organizations advocates a careful look at how powerful corporations might negatively influence a wide range of stakeholders. These stakeholders could include customers, employees, suppliers, communities, and the general public. No corporation has received more of this scrutiny in recent years than Wal-Mart. For example, recent documentaries such as Wal-Mart: The High Cost of Low Prices (Greenwald, 2005) and Frontline: Is Wal-Mart Good for America? (Young, 2004) critique the practices of Wal-Mart on many fronts. These critiques are also detailed in a popular website—WakeUpWalMart.com—that provides numerous channels for community and grassroots resistance to Wal-Mart‘s dominance. This website also provides ―facts and research‖ on issues including: • Community Impact • Cost to Taxpayers • Worker Injuries • Health Care • Child Labor • Gender Discrimination • Benefits • Anti-Union Policy • Undocumented Immigrants • Port Security These voices are loud and clear in denouncing the dominance of Wal-Mart, particularly with regard to labor and employment policies, practices in the global community, and the impact on smaller retailers when ―Wal-Mart comes to town.‖ However, this isn‘t the only side of the story. Samuelson (2006, p. 39) argues that ―on any list of the nation‘s major concerns, the giant retailer would not rank in the first 50,‖ noting that the evils of Wal-Mart can be countered with the argument that the store serves the needs of middle- and working-class Americans with prices that save consumers an average of 20 percent. Similarly, another recent documentary, entitled Why Wal*Mart Works and Why This Makes Some People C-R-A-Z-Y, defends Wal-Mart (Galloway, 2005). In other words, when considering

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issues of power, control, and dominance—especially with regard to the world‘s largest retailer—there are always multiple viewpoints fighting to be heard.

Assimilation Chapter Case in Point: The New Job Hunt It used to be so easy. You‘d look in the classified ads —or perhaps on the job board at your local college or university—and find a job you were qualified for. You‘d submit your application and résumé, interview with the hiring officer, and promptly find out whether you were hired. Well, maybe it was never quite that easy, but it‘s clear that hunting for a job now is more complicated than ever.

The complexity begins with the first step: submitting an application. Many companies now require applicants to submit their applications online. After you fill out all the proper forms, your credentials might well be sorted by a ―data extractor,‖ which is designed to pull out all of the essential information to match you with the job and company. However, as Ramer (2003) points out, the algorithm used by the extractor might not ―read‖ your qualifications correctly or might downplay experiences that you think are key to the job. Thus, technology might keep you from even getting a chance to talk to a human and make your case about your qualifications.

But the job search is also more difficult once you get a chance to interview. As McGinn (2003) points out, the interview process has become increasingly reliant on technical and problem-solving questions and on personality testing. For example, William Poundstone (2003) describes an interview in which an applicant for an engineering position is asked to describe November. ―After some blather about orange leaves and Thanksgiving, the interviewer lowered the boom: bad answer. Engineers should be precise, like ‗November consists of the 30-day period situated 20 days before the winter solstice.‘‖ The bottom line: In a tight job market and a technological world, people face challenges in many phases of their search for work.

Socialization Chapter Case in Point: Hustling Cookies If you grew up female in America, there‘s a reasonably good chance your first experience with work processes such as recruiting customers, making sales, and going after incentives came from selling Samoas, Do Si Does, Tagalongs, and the venerable Thin Mints. Hustling Girl Scout cookies has been a rite of passage for many girls, as they go doorto-door, set up tables outside of grocery stores, or send sales sheets with their parents to work. Stephen Woodburn (2007) describes the experience of accompanying his daughter on sales calls, noting that ―[t]he Girl Scouts emphasize how cookie sales build young girls‘ confidence through setting goals and working to achieve them‖ (p.

E4). The experience also builds skills in the nuances of the sales pitch. Woodburn recounts: ―My daughter knows it‘s a hustle, because the customer is already hooked. She asks not, ‗Would you like to buy?‘ but ‗Do you have a favorite kind?‘—knowing that most people do. And unless they‘re diabetic or got tapped by another Girl Scout, they‘re going to order something‖ (Woodburn, 2007, p. E4).

The experience has become much more complicated since (decades ago) I tried to hit up all my neighbors before my friends and sisters. There are now reward systems (other than bragging rights) that accompany sales goals. Safety concerns have led to increased sales through cookie booths rather than door-to-door encounters. And these days, cookies are usually just one step in a fund-raising sales career that may begin in preschool and continue through high school. These may not be changes for the better, but they are changes that reflect today‘s organizational experience better than the simpler sales process I experienced in the 1960s and 1970s. Thus, hustling cookies may still be one of the best ways around for young girls to learn about the world of work.

Change and Leadership Chapter Case in Point: Responsible Leadership at Enron Most business analysts would agree that the most spectacular corporate collapse in history was the fall of Enron. In December 2000, Enron shares on the New York Stock Exchange hit a fifty-two-week high of $84.87. Less than a year later, Enron filed for bankruptcy and its stock was trading for less than $1. A number of factors can be pointed

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to that account for this monumental meltdown, but it is not surprising that many commentators have pointed to Enron‘s leadership to explain why the company failed so dramatically.

Seeger and Ulmer (2003) have suggested that the Enron case can be evaluated in terms of the degree to which the firm‘s prominent leaders—especially Ken Lay (CEO and founder), Jeffrey Skilling (president), and Andrew Fastow (chief financial officer)—exemplified qualities of ―responsible leadership.‖ Seeger and Ulmer argue that responsible leadership encompasses three related qualities. First, a responsible leader communicates appropriate values and standards to create a positive moral climate. Second, a responsible leader monitors operations at the organization to remain informed. Third, a responsible leader remains open to ―bad news‖ about the organization, which might be communicated through ―whistleblowers‖ or others who express dissent within the organizational ranks.

It should come as no surprise that the leaders at Enron flunked these three tests of responsible leadership. Though Enron claimed to follow a set of principles known as ―RICE‖ (Respect, Integrity, Communication, and Excellence), the leaders rarely exemplified these core ideas. Instead, Seeger and Ulmer (2003, p. 72) report that Jeffrey Skilling ―modeled values of greed and excess and a view that standard notions of right and wrong and traditional business principles simply did not apply.‖ Similarly, a radically decentralized structure led to leaders having little direct knowledge of operations, and a ―no bad news‖ norm created an organization in which employees censored themselves and persuaded themselves and others that everything was great. In short, a great deal of the blame for Enron‘s collapse should go straight to the top—where those in charge failed to practice responsible leadership.

Change and Leadership Chapter Case in Point: Looking for Global Leaders With record unemployment, organizations looking for top talent should have a wide array of people to choose from as the world slowly emerges from the Great Recession. However, this doesn‘t seem to be the case, as many companies continue to struggle to find executives to fill open positions and move companies out of the economic downturn. ―After shedding workers in droves during the recession, many shrunken businesses find they are bereft of the qualified professionals needed to kick-start growth‖ (Margolis, 2010, p. 40).

This surprising state of affairs may have come about because the ―traits‖ and ―behaviors‖ required of organizational leaders are changing in the global work world of the 21 st century. No longer are leadership abilities such as selfconfidence, intelligence, or integrity enough. Further, even the technical skills such as engineering, information management, and biotech aren‘t going to be enough for leaders of today‘s organizations. In addition to these basics, contemporary leaders in the international economy need to have skills that ―were previously seen as gloss on the CV – adaptability, foreign-language skills, ease in other cultures‖ (Margolis, 2010, p. 41). These skills can be difficult to develop quickly, however. As companies have downsized during the recession, it has been difficult to hold on to and nurture talented employees. Further, these skills aren‘t ones that are easy to learn in a classroom. As Vijay Govindarajan of the Tuck Business School at Dartmouth stated, ―We are very good at filling our heads with facts and technical problems, but we lack theoretical skills, negotiation, political savvy, and the ability to work in teams‖ (Margolis, 2010, p. 41). Thus, individuals are not ―born‖ to be leaders in this global economy – and ―making‖ them is clearly a complicated process.

Diversity Chapter Case in Point: Working (and Fighting) in a Man’s World In recent decades, women have become commonplace in occupations that were traditionally seen as ―men‘s work.‖ For example, today no one thinks twice about a woman working as a doctor or a lawyer. However, there are still some workplaces in which the presence of women—particularly in the top echelons—remains unusual. Consider police work. For many years, women have ―worn the uniform‖ and ―walked the beat,‖ but it is only quite recently that women have been appointed chief of police in some of the nation‘s tough urban police departments (Tyre, 2004). Women now head departments in Detroit, Boston, and San Francisco. The ―bulletproof glass ceiling‖ has been shattered because these women are tough, competent officers who embody some of the skills increasingly valued for a chief of police—education, management and administration skills, and strong ties to the community.

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Violet Palmer also works in a man‘s workplace. As the only female referee in the National Basketball Association, Palmer initially encountered the doubts of players and coaches, and still endures the jeers of some fans (Juarez, 2004). However, Palmer has made her way like all workplace pioneers. She said, ―You know what, this is because it‘s different, because I‘m a woman, and they just don‘t know any better.‖ She countered with her philosophy that ―if I prove myself, credibility will follow‖ (Juarez, 2004, p. 38).

Perhaps the most important area in which women now work in a man‘s world, however, is that of the military.

Women have served in the military for decades, but there has always been a clear dividing line —women were not allowed to serve in combat roles and this limited the number of deaths of women in war. However, the nature of the wars in Iraq and Afghanistan have blurred this dividing line and added combat to the arenas in which women work.

As Ephron and Wingert (2006) note, ―Although in some circles the unprecedented role women are playing in combat zones is still contentious, the real surprise is how easily we‘ve come to accept women‘s fighting and dying in war—and, with an overstretched military, how indispensable they‘ve become‖ (Ephron & Wingert, 2006, p. 43).

Diversity Chapter Case in Point: Working (and Teaching) in a Woman’s World The previous Case in Point considered several ways in which women are now working in occupations that were previously seen as the bastion of men. However, there are also jobs that are seen as ―women‘s work.‖ These include a variety of human service jobs such as nursing and social work, but perhaps the most female profession around is that of elementary school teacher. Sadly, though many women are now working in typically male occupations, the same cannot be said of men working in typically female occupations, such as primary school. Indeed, 18 percent of elementary school teachers in 1981 were men, as of 2007 that percentage is down to 9 (Scelfo, 2007). And this problem is likely to be self-perpetuating, as boys who might think about teaching see few role models in the classroom.

Why are there so few men teaching our young children? Several factors can explain the situation. First, pay is very low for elementary school teachers, and though this is a problem that affects everyone, men are still more likely than women to earn the primary salary in a family. But there are other more subtle barriers. Cultural stereotypes portray men as less nurturing than women and less able to connect with small children. Sadly, this stereotype sometimes leads to accusations that an affectionate male teacher is a pedophile. Scelfo (2007) recounts the story of a male firstgrade teacher who, when his students ―need help undoing buckles or rebuttoning pants when using the toilet, insists they step into the public hallway before he will help them‖ (Scelfo, 2007, p. 44). Luckily, there are programs underway trying to recruit additional male elementary teachers and provide important support and mentoring for current teachers. Unfortunately, these programs may have limited success if we retain our beliefs about the ―natural‖ abilities and tendencies of men and women.

Technology Chapter Case in Point: BlackBerry Meetings Cell phones, pagers, iPods, PDAs. It‘s amazing what kind of technology you can fit in your backpack, briefcase, or pocket these days. Technological advances in communication systems have made it possible to always be ―in touch‖ with the office, home, and friends. One of the most popular communication technologies of the last decade is the BlackBerry, a device that combines electronic mail with the convenience of a pager. No longer do you need to find a computer to check your e-mail; you can pull your BlackBerry (or now, iPhone) out of your pocket and send and receive to your heart‘s content.

A friend of mine who works at a large corporation on the West Coast tells a story from a few years ago when BlackBerries were just becoming all the rage. He would attend meetings and everyone would pull out their BlackBerries, along with their legal pads and pens. During lulls in the meeting (and what meeting doesn‘t have its share of lulls) people could surreptitiously check their e-mail to be sure they weren‘t missing anything. Thus, attendees could be at the meeting and attending to other work at the same time. But the most interesting thing about these ―BlackBerry meetings‖ is the influence of the technology on the meeting itself: the BlackBerries were also used to e-mail others sitting around the conference table. An individual who wants to put something on the table but 46

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doesn‘t think he‘s in a good political position to make a suggestion could e-mail a colleague to raise the issue. If the meeting is getting bogged down, e-mails could be sent to the convener to get it to ―move along‖ without the embarrassment of an overt suggestion. In essence, the BlackBerry creates a distinct level of communication during the meeting available only to those who have the technology and choose to use it.

Technology Chapter Case in Point: Newspapers on the Way Out? Technology changes not just the structure and communication patterns of single organizations—technology can also shift entire industries. Robert Samuelson (2007) presents the case for how this is happening in the newspaper business. He notes that as the Internet steals both the audience that reads the news and the advertising that pays for the news, the business of print journalism is in big trouble. For example, he notes that editorial staffs at U.S. daily newspapers dropped 7 percent from 2000 to 2006, and the numbers continue to drop as more and more readers of newspapers turn to bloggers and other alternative news sources. Samuelson is frustrated by these changes (as traditional journalists probably are generally), as he sees journalism moving from a craft concerned with reporting and writing to a business run by multinational corporations that are largely concerned with multimedia presentations. Samuelson discusses several concerns with this trend. First, he worries that as traditional newspapers are taken over by large conglomerates (he uses Rupert Murdoch‘s 2007 purchase of the Wall Street Journal as an illustration), ―journalistic integrity‖ could surrender to ―the almighty buck‖ (p. 40). On an individual level, he raises the concern that ―journalists are expected to be multimedia utility players, feeding Web sites, posting videos and doing TV‖ (p. 40), and he worries that these responsibilities will detract from reporting.

In the end, though, Samuelson is less pessimistic. He argues that there is value in journalists finding new ways to inform and he notes the endurance of journalistic values such as respect for facts and an effort to be fair. So, though Samuelson acknowledges that, ―If the Internet permanently crashed tomorrow, I‘d be thrilled‖ (p. 40), he concludes that the news business is not really collapsing under the weight of technology. ―It‘s merely changing‖ (Samuelson, 2007, p. 40).

Changing Landscape Chapter Case in Point: Off-Shoring, On-Shoring, or Right-Shoring Economists say that the United States emerged from recession in late 2001. However, for many months that recovery was characterized as a ―jobless recovery‖ in which productivity increased but the jobless rate remained steady. What accounted for this pattern? In part, the jobless recovery was due to businesses becoming more productive with current workers because of technology (e.g., self-scanners at supermarkets) and other increases in efficiency (McGinn, 2004). However, globalization—and ―outsourcing‖ in particular—is another reason why corporations were thriving but not hiring additional U.S. workers.

In the early days of outsourcing, most jobs sent overseas by U.S. corporations were either production or semi-skilled service jobs. Indeed, it is now commonplace to call a help center about a U.S. product and talk with a company worker in India, Thailand, or Bangladesh. However, in recent years, more skilled high-tech jobs have been sent overseas. Stories abound of computer programmers required to train their foreign-born replacements before being laid off (McGinn, 2004). Yet, the tide may be turning on the outsourcing craze. Stone (2004) details a number of problems encountered by organizations outsourcing skilled labor, including rising wages and office rents, high turnover of overseas workers, and shaky quality control. Thus, U.S. organizations are now struggling with decisions about which jobs are profitable to send offshore and how to best manage offshore operations. As Stone (2004, p. 53) concludes, ―The latest term making its way through corporate America . . . [is] ‗right-shoring.‘‖ Changing Landscape Chapter Case in Point: What’s in a Name?

On April 20, 2010, BP‘s Deepwater Horizon oil rig exploded, killing 11 workers and beginning an unprecedented leakage of oil into the Gulf of Mexico. Over the next 3 plus months, oil continued to spill into the water as much of the world watched with increasing dismay and anger. Clearly, this was an environmental disaster of huge proportion.

For BP, it was also a disaster of organizational image.

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There are a number of ways this image disaster could be considered. For example, BP leadership was clearly a problem, and BP head Tony Hayward resigned as CEO in late July of 2010, after public relations gaffes such as saying that he wanted to ―get his life back.‖ One interesting take on BP‘s organizational image concerns, though, is seen in its name. BP used to be British Petroleum, but a series of mergers in the late 1990s led to the company dropping the national association. Since that change, BP‘s tagline has been Beyond Petroleum, and it has branded itself as the most ecologically conscious of major oil companies. ―BP‘s environmentally friendly image – its logo is a green and yellow sunburst – has outlasted past accidents, including a Texas refinery blast and Alaska pipeline spill‖ (―Rig Explosion Dirties,‖ 2010). Though the vast majority of BP‘s business was still in petroleum, a green image had been cultivated, helped along by the association of the name BP with Beyond Petroleum.

It is likely that this positive association has been forever sullied. In the midst of the Gulf oil disaster, it was possible to buy a T-shirt with the familiar BP green and yellow starburst dripping with oil and the tagline of Beach Pollution.

When it comes to organizational identity, this vision and name might be impossible to clean up .

COURSE MATERIALS: WEBSITES In today‘s technological world and with today‘s high-powered search engines, you and your students are wellequipped to find a wide range of websites beyond those that can be listed in an Instructor‘s Manual. However, a few suggestions are provided here on websites that might be particularly useful for students in an organizational communication course. Two types of sites are listed below. In the first section are sites that are relevant for information about the discipline of communication (in general), organizational communication as a subdiscipline, and social science research sites. In the second section are sites that are relevant to specific topics covered in the textbook. The relevant chapter from the textbook is indicated with each site.

Remember two things with regard to this list, however. First, this list doesn‘t even scratch the surface of Internet resources available on the topic of organizational communication. Second, your students should be reminded that the ―wide open‖ nature of the Internet also means that it is doubly important to critically assess the quality of information (and the credibility of the source) when looking at websites.

GENERAL SITES—COMMUNICATION AND ORGANIZATIONAL COMMUNICATION Site: Academy of Management Organizational Communication and Information Systems Division Address: http://ocis.aomonline.org Site: American Communication Association Address: http://www.americancomm.org Site: Association of Business Communication Address: http://businesscommunication.org Site: Communication Institute for Online Scholarship Address: http://www.cios.org Site: International Communication Association Address: http://www.icahdq.org Site: International Communication Association Organizational Communication Division Address: http://www.icahdq.org/divisions/orgcomm 48

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Site: National Communication Association Address: http://www.natcom.org Site: Organizational Communication Page Address: http://organizationalcommunication.org/

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SITES OF INTEREST FOR SPECIFIC CHAPTERS Site: Globalization 101.org: A project of The Levin Institute Address: http://www.globalization101.org Relevant for Chapter 1 of the text Site: The Terrorism Research Center Address: http://terrorism.com Relevant for Chapter 1 of the text Site: Climate Change/U.S. EPA Address: http://www.epa.gov/climatechange Relevant for Chapter 1 of the text Site: Frederick Taylor and Scientific Management Address: http://www.netmba.com/mgmt/scientific/ Relevant for Chapter 2 of the text Site: Classical Organization Theory Address: http://www.hrmguide.co.uk/history/classical_organization_theory.htm Relevant for Chapter 2 of the text Site: The 10 Commandments of Human Relations Address: http://www.wowzone.com/relation.htm Relevant for Chapter 3 of the text Site: Society for Human Resources Management Address: http://www.shrm.org Relevant for Chapter 3 of the text Site: Team Building Address: http://www.accel-team.com/ Relevant for Chapter 3 of the text Site: Kenny Associates Address: http://kenningassociates.com/systems-sense-making-and-organizational-change/ Relevant for Chapter 4 of the text.

Site: Tom Peters!

Address: http://www.tompeters.com Relevant for Chapter 4 of the text Site: Organizational Culture Address: http://www.managementhelp.org/organizations/culture.htm Relevant for Chapter 4 of the text Site: Organization as Communication Address: http://orgcomm.wordpress.com/tag/montreal-school/ Relevant for Chapter 5 of the text.

Site: Organizational Communication in the News Address: http://orgcominthenews.com 50

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Relevant for Chapter 5 of the text Site: Taylor and Van Every Website Address: http://www.taylorvanevery.com/ Relevant for Chapter 5 of the text Site: Marxism Internet Archive Address: http://www.marxists.org Relevant for Chapter 6 of the text Site: Feminism and Women‘s Studies Address: http://feminism.eserver.org Relevant for Chapter 6 of the text Site: National Organization for Women Address: http://www.now.org Relevant for Chapter 6 of the text Site: ASTD: The World‘s Largest Training and Development Association Address: http://astd.org/ Relevant for Chapter 7 of the text Site: Society for Judgment and Decision Making Address: http://www.sjdm.org Relevant for Chapter 8 of the text Site: Ethical Decision Making Address: http://www.ethicsweb.ca/resources/decision-making/index.html Relevant for Chapter 8 of the text Site: Center for International Development and Conflict Management Address: http://www.cidcm.umd.edu/ Relevant for Chapter 9 of the text Site: International Association for Conflict Management Address: http://www.iacm-conflict.org Relevant for Chapter 9 of the text Site: Organizational Change Online Guide Address: http://www.fastcompany.com/guides/change.html Relevant for Chapter 10 of the text Site: Organized Change Consultancy Address: http://www.organizedchange.com Relevant for Chapter 10 of the text Site: Managing Emotions in the Workplace Address: http://knowledge.wharton.upenn.edu/article.cfm?articleid=1708 Relevant for Chapter 11 of the text Site: Emotional Intelligence in Organizations Address: http://www.eiconsortium.org/ 51

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Relevant for Chapter 11 of the text

Site: The Diversity Training Group Address: http://www.diversitydtg.com Relevant for Chapter 12 of the text Site: Information and Communication Technology Survey Address: http://www.census.gov/econ/ict/ Relevant for Chapter 13 of the text Site: Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication Address: http://jcmc.indiana.edu Relevant for Chapter 13 of the text Site: International Forum on Globalization Address: http://www.ifg.org/ Relevant for Chapter 14 of the text Site: Who Are the Millennials?

Address: http://www.livescience.com/38061-millennials-generation-y.html Relevant for Chapter 14 of the text

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CHAPTER 1 THE CHALLENGE OF ORGANIZATIONAL COMMUNICATION CHAPTER OUTLINE After Reading This Chapter…

Our Complicated World Globalization Terrorism Case in Point: Can Tragedy Lead to Change?

Climate Change Changing Demographics Case in Point: 400 Million People Complicating Our Thinking about Organizations Complicating Our Thinking about Communication Looking Ahead Discussion Questions Key Concepts

SUGGESTIONS FOR ACTIVITIES Activity 1.1: Ask the students to interview their grandparent or an adult of a similar age. The students should ask this person about what the workplace was like when he/she began working. What kinds of jobs did people do?

What kind of work did they do in those jobs? How did people feel about their place of employment? What kind of management practices did organizations use? How has work and organizations changed over the course of their lifetime? A short report should be written providing the responses to these questions. The reports then can be used as the basis of a detailed class discussion about the complexity of the organizational world.

Activity 1.2: Have the class consider the issues of globalization, terrorism, climate change, and changing demographics. Working in small teams, the students should search through a university and corporation‘s website and look for evidence of how these issues are impacting the university and the corporation. Have each team talk about what they found. Then have a class discussion about how these issues are impacting them in their academic and work lives.

Activity 1.3: The chapter identifies four issues that confront the workplace that were hardly thought of 20 years ago.

Have the class brainstorm about what issues will confront the workplace in 2100. Identify the top four issues identified by the class. Then brainstorm about how the challenges presented by these issues can be met. The class should come to the understanding that the workplace has always had challenges and always will no matter what the issues facing society are. They should also conclude that the challenges can be met if we understand how communication in organizations works.

Activity 1.4: Have the students investigate historical trends in terms of demographic changes in the United States.

They should answer the following questions: (1) In what ways are the demographic changes occurring in the United States today similar or different than what has occurred in the past? (2) How did organizations change in response to rapid demographic changes in the past? (3) How can the lessons of prior demographic shifts in the U.S. population be applied to the changes we are experiencing today?

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TEST ITEMS (corresponding text page number is listed for each item)

True/False Items F T F T

1.

2.

3.

4.

F

5.

T F

6.

7.

F

8.

T T

9.

10.

The organizational world is less complicated than it was 100 years ago. (p. 2) Terrorism has been around for centuries. (p. 4) The cost of clothing has increased due to outsourcing. (p. 5) Coordinating the interaction between the federal government and local police to deal with a terrorist threat is an organizational communication issue. (p. 6) The exact consequences and extent of global warming is relatively simple to predict. (p. 7) The United States is anticipated to be a ―majority minority‖ nation by 2050. (p. 9) The percentage of households consisting of married couples with their own children is increasing. (p. 9) The U.S. population like its traditional competitors is experiencing stagnant population growth and is anticipated to begin declining in the next ten years. (p. 10) Organizations should be as complicated as the problem they seek to address. (p. 12) The rhetorical model of communication views communication as the practical art of discourse. (p. 14)

Multiple Choice Items 1.

Investigating communication in the workplace by finding optimal ways to set up a communication network system for employees who telecommute represents a(n) ____ approach to communication. a. psychological b. elliptical c. phenomenological d. cybernetic (*) p. 14

2.

Jasprit is the new manager of Burger Barn. During his first meeting with his employees, he emphasized his many years of experience as a manager of fast food restaurants to assure the employees he knows what he is doing in a time of change. His message could most easily be studied through a ______ approach to communication. a. rhetorical (*) (p. 14) b. phenomenological c. sociocultural d. cybernetic

3.

________ organizations can be characterized as service organizations for both profit and nonprofit organizations. a.

Fewer b.

Traditional c.

More and more (*) (p. 12) d.

Manufacturing

4.

A business practice associated with globalization involves businesses moving manufacturing and service centers to countries where labor is cheap. This practice is commonly known as a. relocation.

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b. c. d.

restructuring. economizing. outsourcing. (*) (p. 3)

5.

The collapse of the U.S. sub-prime mortgage market and the reversal of the housing boom which then had a ripple effect around the world shows how much the interconnectedness of a ____ economy matter. a. global (*) (p. 3) b. domestically focused c. stagnant d. national

6.

Although terrorism has existed for many centuries, its effectiveness is enhanced today because of a. the wider range of technological tools available today. b. contemporary urban environments that include a high concentration of residents. c. contemporary urban environments that include a high concentration of mass transportation. d. all of the above (*) (pp. 4-6)

7.

Josh is a nurse at a hospital in Ames, Iowa. He is working on a patient who appears to be suffering from flu-like symptoms from a bacterial infection. Yolanda is a scientist for the Center for Disease Control. She has been studying bacteria samples that were found in Ames which appear to be traces of a biological terrorist weapon that creates the flu-like symptoms Josh has been observing in his patient. The difficulty of getting Yolanda and Josh to exchange helpful information through the work of the Department of Homeland Security is really a problem of _______, according to the text. a. personality differences b. organizational communication (*) (p. 5) c. money d. inadequate research

8.

Media covering stories like the Bangladesh garment factory request tend to a. explain the complex issues resulting in such a catastrophe. b. highlight the moral responsibility of American consumers. c. rarely rush to clarity. d. focus on finding the single cause of such a catastrophe. (*) (p. 5)

9.

Organizational communication scholars can address issues related to global warming by a. finding ways for organizations to avoid changing their practices. b. getting organizations to focus on the social responsibility of going green rather than its potential for profitability. c. helping local, state, national, and international agencies coordinate their activities to cope with the human consequences of global warming. (*) (p. 8) d. limiting an incomprehensible debate about the many different ways nations can work together to influence climate change.

10.

The United States is an outlier from its traditional competitors in which demographic way? a.

Its population is shrinking. b.

It is struggling to create enough jobs for a growing immigrant population. (*) (p. 10) c.

The number of citizens between ages 15 and 64 is declining. d.

Its population is stagnant.

Fill-in-the-Blank Items

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1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

10.

A constitutive (model of communication) is seen as a ―process that produces and reproduces shared meaning.‖ (pp. 12-13) Organizations that have no physical (―brick and mortar‖) presence, but only exist because of communication and computer technology are known as (virtual organizations). (p. 12) A researcher who uses a (critical) approach to studying communication might confront the issue of sexual harassment in the workplace through programs designed to shift beliefs about gender and power. (p. 14) A researcher examining the way Apple has used the letter ―I‖ in its products (I-Pod, I-Phone) as a symbol to create identity among its workers and its customers is studying this practice from a (semiotic) approach. (p. 14) One effect of (globalization) is the slowing down of the Chinese economy due to the halting recovery and weakness of the U.S. and European systems. (p. 3) ―Green‖ companies represent a business opportunity for companies wanting to raise their level of environmental responsibility. (p. 8) The burning of fossil fuels has caused concentrations of (greenhouse gases) to increase significantly in our atmosphere. (p. 7) When populations are divided into (generational cohorts), scholars will study differences in experience that are associated with differences in birth year. (p. 9) Things like age, race, income, and educational attainment are characteristics of the population known as (demographics). (p. 9) A(n) (increasing) number of organizational executives are making decisions about their business with environmental considerations in mind. (p. 8)

Essay Questions 1.

Globalization is often viewed as a negative development. In what ways is it viewed negatively? How can it be viewed positively? How can organizational communication scholars contribute to the debate about globalization? (pp. 3-4)

2.

How can studying the nature of communication within terrorist networks and organizations help in the ―war on terror‖? What specific features of communication within these networks and organizations should be studied? What might we learn that could help lessen the threat posed by these organizations? (pp. 4-6)

3.

How are changes in U.S. demographics affecting the workplace relative to demographic changes in our traditional competitors? How can organizational communication scholars help us manage these changes more effectively? (p. 10)

4.

Describe how the concept of ―goals‖ are changing in how the changing world is complicating our thinking about organizations. (pp. 11-12)

5.

Describe Craig‘s model of communication theory. What are the different approaches to studying communication? How does this model increase our understanding of communication? (pp. 12-14)

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CHAPTER 2 CLASSICAL APPROACHES CHAPTER OUTLINE After Reading This Chapter…

The Machine Metaphor Henri Fayol‘s Theory of Classical Management Elements of Management Principles of Management Principles of Organizational Structure Principles of Organizational Power Principles of Organizational Reward Principles of Organizational Attitude Summary of Fayol‘s Theory Case in Point: Are There Limits to Rewards?

Max Weber‘s Theory of Bureaucracy Frederick Taylor‘s Theory of Scientific Management Impetus for the Theory of Scientific Management Components of Scientific Management Case in Point: Systematic Surgery Communication in Classical Approaches Spotlight on Scholarship: Scientific Management—The Internet Update Content of Communication Direction of Communication Flow Channel of Communication Style of Communication Classical Management in Organizations Today Classical Structure in Today‘s Organizations Classical Job Design and Rewards in Today‘s Organizations Summary Discussion Questions Key Concepts Case Study: The Creamy Creations Takeover SUGGESTIONS FOR ACTIVITIES Activity 2.1: To illustrate the concept of a metaphor and how it shapes our thinking, have students divide into groups and develop metaphorical thinking by completing the sentence, "An organization is like a __________ because ...‖ It is usually helpful to provide or assign some options for these metaphors. For example, you might ask them to consider the ways in which an organization is like a prison, a game, a symphony, a body, an ocean, a computer, or a host of other possibilities. After groups have generated their metaphors, have them present them to the class, then talk about the value of metaphors for highlighting aspects of a phenomenon that we might not otherwise think of.

Also illustrate that metaphors obscure aspects of a phenomenon by discussing ways in which organizations are not like the metaphor objects they considered.

Activity 2.2: A number of movies are helpful in illustrating the concepts of classical management. These include the first 12 minutes of the Charlie Chaplin film, Modern Times, the opening minutes of Brazil, and assorted clips from Joe versus the Volcano. These brief clips are helpful in illustrating the features of a classical organization. The clips can be discussed in terms of its illustration of basic machine metaphor concepts or in terms of the specific tenets of theorists such as Weber, Fayol, or Taylor.

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Activity 2.3: In groups, have students identify what specific machine an organization is most like (e.g., a car? a vacuum cleaner? a smart phone?). Have them defend their choice, either verbally (e.g., an explanation of why an organization is like that particular machine) or visually (e.g., draw a picture of how the machine represents the organization).

Activity 2.4: Have students observe an organization (outside of class) that exemplifies some of the principles of the classical approach. Two observation sites that work well are fast-food restaurants and various "people-processing" spots on campus (e.g., registration, financial aid office, parking permit office). After observing, have students take the perspective of a classical theorist (Fayol, Weber, or Taylor) and generate recommendations for improving the efficiency and effectiveness of the organizational process they observed. These recommendations can be generated by the class as a whole (if the same site was observed), in groups, or in individual papers. After considering ways to improve the organization (a la classical principles), students should also consider how these suggestions might prove detrimental to employees or to the organization as a whole.

Activity 2.5: Ask students to describe the organization of their university according to the principles of a particular classical theorist (e.g., Fayol, Weber, or Taylor). Have them first consider what type of machine metaphor best describes their university. Then, ask students to match components of the organization to the tenets of the selected theory.

CASE STUDY SOLUTION (THE CREAMY CREATIONS TAKEOVER) 1. Several potential pitfalls could be identified that may be cause for concern to the Burger Barn executives. The increased turnover rate is an indicator that workers are unhappy with their work despite Burger Barn‘s claim that having three workstations would keep the workers from becoming bored. While there is a large labor market in the community capable of doing this type of work, Creamy Creations may have difficulty attracting workers if the turnover rate remains so high. In addition, the amount of resources devoted to training so many new workers could become an issue. Finally, since most of the workers are new and unskilled, it is unlikely they are working at peak efficiency, which may be another potential reason for the bottleneck at the toppings station.

Another area of concern centers around customer attitudes about the product. While sales have increased somewhat since the Burger Barn executives implemented their changes, the standardization of the product could harm the concept of fancy, individualized ice cream confections that have drawn a loyal following. Creamy Creations appears to be losing that base of loyal customers who found it to be a friendly place. They are being replaced by ―to go‖ customers, which has changed the nature of the business. Creamy Creations is in danger of losing its uniqueness.

2. Fayol‘s principle of the scalar chain is evidenced in the Burger Barn executives making a top down decision about the workstation setup. The principle of a division of labor is reflected in assigning workers to a specific workstation.

Decision making also appears to be centralized with the Burger Barn executives. Weber‘s similar principles of division of labor and centralization are apparent in this case. Taylor‘s Theory of Scientific Management is clearly represented. The Burger Barn executives clearly conducted time and motion studies to determine the one best way to create an ice cream confection. They do not seem too concerned about the proper selection of workers since they view the jobs at Creamy Creations as unskilled positions. They do feel it is important that they train workers for all the workstations. Burger Barn‘s lack of regard for the workers and their opinions demonstrates a belief in an inherent difference between management and workers.

The advantages of the classical approach are evidenced through an increase in efficiency. Creamy Creations is able to serve more customers more quickly than before allowing its profit margin to increase. The ice cream parlor is more organized and some of the confusion in getting customers‘ orders filled appears to have been eliminated.

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The disadvantages of the classical approach are demonstrated through the increase in the employee turnover rate.

In addition, although no measure of customer satisfaction is reported, it is likely the customers are happier that they can get their ice cream faster, but they no longer appear to have a reason to stay and probably do not view Creamy Creations as a friendly place. That could have a negative consequence on profitability in the long run.

3. Information that should be gathered in an assessment about the likely future of Creamy Creations could include customer satisfaction with the product, customer satisfaction with the atmosphere in the ice cream parlor, customer satisfaction with the speed and efficiency of service, and employee job satisfaction. Predictions about findings from these data might include low satisfaction with the product and the atmosphere in the parlor, high satisfaction with the speech and efficiency of the service, and low employee job satisfaction.

The recommendations that might result from these findings may inform the Burger Barn executives that they need to pay more attention to the reasons why the turnover rate is increasing. Is it because using a multiple workstation setup is too difficult and complicated? Is it because the workers no longer feel like Creamy Creations is a friendly place to work?

In addition, the executives may want to pay some attention to how customers feel about Creamy Creations beyond looking at its profitability. In their effort to increase efficiency, have the Burger Barn executives destroyed what made Creamy Creations a unique place? What message have they communicated by implementing a scientific management model?

TEST ITEMS (corresponding text page number is listed for each item) True/False Items T T

1.

2.

F

3.

T

4.

F

5.

F F

6.

7.

F T F

8.

9.

10.

The number of people supervised by a manager is known as his/her span of control. (p. 20) Classical management principles are clearly used in today‘s organizations such as the military. (p.

32) According to Fayol, an effective organization is loosely structured where no one really knows their place. (p. 22) Taylor's Theory of Scientific Management proposes that time and motion studies can determine the most time-efficient way to do a job. (p. 27) Fayol's Principles of Management provide an accurate description of what managers actually do on the job. (p. 20) Weber believed that rules are most effective when they are retained flexibly in oral form. (p. 24) Systematic soldiering was Taylor's way of breaking up the social interaction in work groups that often led to slowed production. (p. 28) Communication in classical organizations tends to flow horizontally through the hierarchy. (p. 30) Communication in classical organizations is highly formal and standardized. (p. 30) Organizations today rarely follow Taylor‘s ideas about fitting the job to the individual. (p. 33)

Multiple Choice Items 1.

Fayol's Theory of Classical Management is a prescriptive theory because it a. describes the way an organization actually functions. b. lays out the features of an "ideal type" organization. c. prescribes the way an organization ought to run. (*) (p. 23) d. explains how components in an organization influence each other.

2.

Horace manages a fast food restaurant and never worries too much about treating his employees well, because he knows the local high school is full of students willing to work for minimum wage. What principle of the "machine metaphor" does Horace's attitude exemplify?

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a. b. c. d.

specialization predictability replaceability (*) (p. 18) abusiveness

3.

The Theory of Scientific Management sought to eliminate a. rate busting and social interaction. b. uneven work and systematic soldiering. (*) (p. 26) c. piecework pay and time and motion studies. d. centralization and financial rewards.

4.

At the turn of the 20th century, piecework pay was the typical organizational reward system. If an organization with a bunch of bricklayers typically laid bricks at the rate of 100 bricks an hour, but someone new begins work and lays bricks at the rate of 200 bricks and hour, the manager might conclude everyone should be laying bricks at this rate and ______, or lower the pay per brick laid. a. systematic soldier b. divide labor c. ―bust the rate‖ (*) (p. 26) d. prescribe work

5.

With this type of authority, power rests not in the individual but rather in the expertise that has created a system of rules and norms. a. traditional authority b. charismatic authority c. rational-legal authority (*) (p. 25) d. closed authority

6.

Although she couldn't tell a woofer from a tweeter, Jacqueline had a great deal of power at Hear It Here Stereo Shop because her family had owned the business for many years. What type of authority does Jacqueline hold? a. charismatic power b. legitimate power (*) (p. 24) c. legal power d. rational power

7.

Esmeralda started a new job putting peanuts into small bags to sell outside of the baseball park (at a nickel per bag). Esmeralda found that she has a knack for the job and started working fast so she could earn a lot of money. Her coworkers Glenn and Helen quickly tried to convince her to slow down, as they knew management might start paying them only a penny a bag if they realized how easy the job was. Esmeralda is an example of a(n) _______________, and Glenn and Helen's communication is an example of __________________. a. initiatives and incentives/rate-busting b. rate-buster/scientific management c. systematic soldier/scientific management d. rate-buster/systematic soldiering (*) (p. 28)

8.

The huge bonuses Wall Street executives receive, even in the face of the banking crisis of 2008, would be recommended by which of Fayol‘s principles? a. organizational power b. organizational reward (*) (p. 22) c. organizational attitude 60

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d.

organizational hierarchy

9.

Having a checklist for medical personnel to follow when preparing a patient for surgery illustrates which tenant of Taylor‘s theory? a. inherent difference between management and workers b. proper selection of workers c. one best way to do every job (*) (p. 27) d. systematic soldiering

10.

In Chapter 2‘s Spotlight on Scholarship by D‘Urso, almost ___ conduct surveillance on their employees. a.

50% b.

80% (*) (p. 29) c.

30% d. none of the above

Fill-in-the-Blank Items 1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

Frederick Taylor wanted to replace the initiatives and incentives system with his system of (scientific) management. (p. 25) Weber advocated the use of (rational-legal) power rather than legitimate power or charismatic power. (p.

25) The classical theories of organizational communication are based on a (machine) metaphor. (p. 18) Fayol proposes that within an organization, there should be an appointed place for each employee and task within the organization. This is the principle of (order). (p. 20) Fayol suggests that employees should be treated justly in (remuneration). (p. 22) Organizations are (predictable) because its rules and standards make it possible to know how they will get accomplished. (p. 19) Taylor advocated a strict (division of labor) in which workers perform physical labor that is planned and directed by management. (p. 27) The most prevalent mode of communication in classical organizations is (written) communication. (p. 30) Time and motion studies can also be useful in finding the proper fit between worker and job. The (proper selection of workers) and the importance of (training) are the tenets of Taylor‘s theory that relate best to this idea. (p. 27)

Essay Questions 1.

Explain how Frederick Taylor's Theory of Scientific Management applies to the Chapter 2 case study about Creamy Creations. Which tenets of the theory apply? How are those tenets utilized by the Creamy Creations? (pp. 25-28)

2.

What three types of authority did Weber identify? What are examples of each of these types of authority?

Which type of authority did Weber advocate for effective organizational functioning and why? (pp. 23-25)

3.

Emily's clothing store is in disarray. She has tried to run a democratic organization with no one in charge of anyone else, assuming that a loose structure would convince everyone to work together in harmony. To put it bluntly, it's not working. Choose four of Fayol's principles of management that you think would be most helpful to get Emily's store back on track. Describe these principles in the abstract and in terms of how they could be instituted at Emily's store? Why do you think these particular principles are helpful? (pp. 19-23)

4.

Compare and contrast Weber‘s Theory of Bureaucracy and Taylor‘s Theory of Scientific Management.

What of these theories best fits the machine metaphor of the classical approach? (pp. 23-28) 61

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5.

How does the electronic monitoring of employee communication in organizations fit clearly with classical aspects of workplace communication? Discuss issues of content, direction, channel, and style of communication. (pp. 28-32)

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CHAPTER 3 HUMAN RELATIONS AND HUMAN RESOURCES APPROACHES CHAPTER OUTLINE After Reading This Chapter…

The Human Relations Approach From Classical Theory to Human Relations: The Hawthorne Studies The Illumination Studies The Relay Assembly Test Room Studies The Interview Program The Bank Wiring Room Studies Explanations of Findings in the Hawthorne Studies Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs Theory Case in Point: Satisfying Higher-Order Needs by Satisfying Lower-Order Needs McGregor's Theory X and Theory Y Spotlight on Scholarship: Communicating Like a Theory Y Leader The Human Resources Approach Impetus for the Human Resources Approach Do Human Relations Principles Work?

Misuse of Human Relations Principles Case in Point: Slashing Emergency Room Waiting Times Blake and Mouton‘s Managerial Grid Likert‘s System IV Communication in Human Relations and Human Resources Organizations Content of Communication Direction of Communication Flow Channel of Communication Style of Communication Human Relations and Human Resources Organizations Today The What of Human Resources Programs The How of Human Resources Programs Case in Point: From the Golf Course to the Gym Summary Discussion Questions Key Concepts Case Study: Teamwork at the Marshall’s Processing Plant SUGGESTIONS FOR ACTIVITIES Activity 3.1: In groups, have students develop role plays of Theory X and Theory Y management (i.e., students should enact a work situation and demonstrate how either Theory X or Theory Y managers would behave in that situation). After several of these role plays have been presented to the class, debrief the activity by discussing the ways in which the underlying assumptions of Theory X and Theory Y are typically translated into communicative behavior. Also discuss how a manager with underlying Theory X assumptions might still behave in a way that resembles Theory Y. Activity 3.2: Divide students into equal-sized groups and ask them to "build something useful for a desk." To facilitate their task, provide each group with an assortment of "building supplies" (e.g., paper plates, popsicle sticks, glue, tape, highlighters, etc.). Give each group instructions about how the "management system" should work in their group. For one third of the groups, assign a leader who is to have complete control over work processes 63

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without consultation with other group members. In another third of the groups, assign a leader who will consult with others but maintain final say over decisions and work processes. In the final third of the groups, establish a management system that is totally participative. Allow one full class period for the construction process. The next class period, debrief the exercise by comparing the products created by the various groups and the accounts of how work was accomplished and how individual group members (both leaders and members) felt about the activity.

Discuss the management systems in terms of Likert's System I through System IV or in terms of Blake and Mouton's managerial grid.

Activity 3.3: Empower the class to develop innovative ideas for improving the course. Divide the class into teams and have them generate specific ideas for ways in which the class can be improved (you can either provide some parameters for these innovations or retain some measure of "veto power" over suggestions generated by the groups).

Have students present their ideas to the class as a whole and have the class vote on which innovations to institute as class policy.

Activity 3.4: Alone or in groups, have students develop a way to measure a person's leadership style a la Blake and Mouton's managerial grid. Their measurement instrument can be either a self-report instrument or a checklist with which managerial behaviors could be observed and categorized. As a class, discuss the quality of several measurement tools in terms of their match with the managerial grid (i.e., the face validity of the measures). Also discuss the ways in which these tools could be used in consulting and research activities.

Activity 3.5: Break the class into 8 teams. For every two teams, assign a board game to be played. The board games should represent a mix of different playing approaches—some where a team-based approach works better and some where an individual approach works better. Instruct the students that all the games must be played on a team basis, not individually. Once a round of games are completed, switch the board games to give each pair of teams a different opportunity. Once the games are completed, discuss with the students the effectiveness of using a teambased approach to playing the games. The conclusion that should be reached is that a team-based approach to management works well in some cases, but not all.

CASE STUDY SOLUTION (TEAMWORK AT MARSHALL’S PROCESSING PLANT) 1. Marshall‘s is attempting to embody the ideals of the human resources approach, but it is not there yet. It still is utilizing some elements of the human relations approach. In fact, the original goals were to improve productivity and improve morale, which indicates a human relations focus. In order to move to a human resources approach, Marshall‘s needs to realize that the input it receives from workers represents an important resource to improve organizational processes. Maslow would argue that the teams are helping to fulfill affiliation needs, giving the employees a chance to interact with each other. The teams also fulfill self-esteem needs as the work the teams are doing is important and may make the workers feel valued. Finally, the teams may fulfill a self-actualization need by giving the workers a chance to work on important issues and makes their work more valuable. McGregor would argue that Marshall‘s is utilizing a Theory Y approach to management because it is not assuming workers are lazy.

Rather, Marshall‘s believes the workers will want to participate in this system because the work is fulfilling and interesting, but management is confused about why some workers don‘t want to participate.

Likert would say that Marshall‘s is operating mostly under System III (consultative organization) because management views the Marshall Team as a consultative group and retains the right to make all final decisions.

Marshall‘s does seem to exemplify some aspects of System IV (participative organization) because management does value the teams‘ participation and wants to increase their involvement.

Blake and Mouton would argue that Marshall‘s is moving toward team management, but still has work to do.

Management instituted the team system to improve productivity so it is showing a high concern for production.

Management also wants all employees to participate in the team system, indicating a high level of concern for people. However, the comments from Harvey Nelson indicate that management may not be as concerned about the people as it needs to be if it wants a team management system to work. Harvey was someone who actively 64

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participated, but was upset that management ignored the advice offered by the team and did ―what it wants regardless of what we have to say.‖ 2. The first group of employees felt there were too many meetings which led to a lot of busy work. This concern may be resulting from a lack of proper training about how team management can work. The workers at Marshall‘s already have a lot to do, and the team management system requires them to do more. However, the benefits of increased productivity and the employees‘ sense of accomplishment can be great. A training program should point this out, but also set guidelines for when meetings should be held (only when significant business needs to be accomplished) and how they should be conducted in an efficient and productive manner. In addition, any work resulting from the meetings should be meaningful and any ―busy‖ work should be rotated so that no one worker feels they are overburdened with some of the more mundane tasks of committee work. Pfeffer‘s practice of extensive training seems to provide an appropriate solution in this case. From a human relations perspective, Maslow might argue that the large number of meetings as well as their unproductive nature is preventing the employees from meeting their self-actualization needs. He might suggest that fewer meetings be held and that their focus be narrowed so it is more likely that self-actualization needs be fulfilled.

The second group of employees did not like being responsible for so much of their own work situation. From a human relations perspective, Maslow might argue that the meetings are overwhelming the workers and is failing to meet their self-esteem needs. The advice offered in the text about knowing when to use team-based management might be helpful in this case. Not all the workers are going to be able to provide the knowledge needed to make the teams operate effectively. Part of the knowledge management process requires that employee experts be identified to serve on the teams. If there was more of distinction made between who should and should not participate based on their expertise or if workers are given the option of determining their level of participation, a better knowledge base might be created while allowing workers to obtain self-esteem from the work they feel comfortable doing.

The third group participated fully, but felt their advice was not listened to by Marshall‘s management. McGregor might argue management is utilizing a Theory X approach where it doesn‘t really believe the workers know anything and are just using this system to get people to work harder. Management needs to move towards Likert‘s System IV where control is exercised at all levels of the organization. The Marshall Team needs to feel they can make a decision that will be implemented. If management disagrees with the decision, it needs to come back to the team to explain why and then seek further discussion and if another decision needs to be made, then the team can make one. Communication at all levels in all directions needs to be facilitated in order to have a truly participative organization.

It is possible to satisfy these three concerns, but it may not be possible to satisfy all reasons for not participating at the same time.

3. Marshall‘s Processing Plant needs to utilize the Likert System IV approach where the work teams and the Marshall Team set their goals and work to achieve them. In addition, Pfeffer‘s Seven Practices of Successful Organizations would be helpful in achieving this approach. For example, a system needs to be set up to reward the teams for meeting their goals. Pfeffer argues that compensation should be tied to performance outcomes. That will certainly encourage participation. Second, extensive training needs to occur to show the workers how to operate in a team management system. Finally, a system of selective hiring needs to be established to match up the individuals with the best fit to the Marshall Team rather than the most popular or most willing ones. That way those with the skills and abilities to serve on the leadership team will be selected, thereby enhancing organizational performance.

TEST ITEMS (corresponding text page number is listed for each item) True/False Items T T

1.

2.

Theory X and Theory Y involve the assumptions that managers hold about workers. (p. 42) Blake and Mouton suggest that all managers should adopt a team management approach. (p. 50) 65

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F

3.

T

4.

T

5.

T

6.

T F

7.

8.

T

9.

T

10.

If an organization exists in a diverse and complex environment, a team-based management approach is not appropriate. (p. 56) The Hawthorne Studies were motivated by the classical approach to organizing and led to the human relations approach to organizing. (p. 40) The Hawthorne research team was initially interested in how changes in the work environment would impact the productivity of factory workers. (p. 38) It is impossible to fulfill one‘s higher order needs without taking care of other‘s lower order needs (p. 41) Control in a System IV organization is exercised at all levels of the organization. (p. 51) In the consultative organization, managers have the explicit goal of exploiting workers. (pp. 5051) Communication within a human relations organization tends to be less formal than in an organization run with a classical approach. (p. 53) Pfeffer argues that sharing information is important in successful organizations. (p. 55)

Multiple Choice Items 1.

Which of the following is not a prototype management style as discussed by Blake and Mouton? a. country club b. team c. benevolent-authoritative (*) (p. 49) d. impoverished

2.

According to McGregor, which of the following characterize the assumptions of a Theory X manager? a.

Workers are lazy. b.

Workers dislike responsibility. c.

Workers are not very bright. d.

All of the above (*) (p. 43) e. a and b

3.

Human relations principles argue that a. satisfaction of higher-order needs leads directly to productivity. b. productivity leads directly to satisfaction of higher-order needs. c. satisfaction of higher-order needs leads directly to job satisfaction. (*) (p. 46) d. work factors directly impact job satisfaction.

4.

Which of the Hawthorne Studies found that the social group‘s influence on worker behavior exceeded leverage exerted by the formal organizational power structure? a. relay assembly test room study b. interview program c. bank wiring room study (*) (p. 39) d. illumination study

5.

Which of the Hawthorne Studies found that employees were more interested in talking about their feelings and attitudes rather than the work itself? a. interview program (*) (p. 39) b. relay assembly test room study c. bank wiring room study d. illumination study

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6.

Dora is very appreciative that her employer provides gloves to protect her hands from the dangerous chemicals she uses in her work. According to Maslow, what need level is Dora concerned with? a. physiological needs b. safety needs (*) (p. 41) c. belonging needs d. esteem needs e. financial needs

7.

According to Maslow, what needs must be satisfied before an individual will become concerned about the satisfaction of social needs on the job? a. physiological needs b. safety needs c. belonging needs d. a and b (*) (p. 41) e. none of the above

8.

The direction of communication in a human resources organization is a. top-down. b. uni-directional. c. multidirectional. (*) (p. 52) d. bottom-up.

9.

Jamon is a manager in a human resources organization. He has a message for Bob who works on the assembly line. What channel is he likely to use to get the message to Bob? a. face-to-face b. telephone c. memo d. e-mail e. any of the above (*) (pp. 52-53)

10.

Which of the following is not one of Pfeffer‘s Seven Practices of Successful Organizations? a. employment security b. self-managed teams c. sharing information d. family-based organizing (*) (p. 55)

Fill-in-the-Blank Items 1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

(Knowledge management) involves the organization embodying a cycle of knowledge creation, development, and application. (p. 54) The notion that performance might improve as a simple function of being studied is known as the (Hawthorne effect). (p. 40) The highest order needs in Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs are (the need for self-actualization) needs. (p. 41) Blake and Mouton's Managerial Grid assumes that effective leaders need to demonstrate both concern for (people) and concern for (production). (p. 49) McGregor believed that managers who believe commitment is a function of the rewards associated with employees‘ achievement were following the assumptions of (Theory Y). (p. 43) The (country clubs manager) is primarily concerned with building relationships with subordinates. (p. 49) In human relations organizations, task-related communication will be accompanied by (maintenance or social) communication. (p. 52) The human resources approach to management includes (innovation) communication which was not represented in earlier management approaches. (p. 52) 67

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9.

10.

(Face-to-face) communication is more appropriate for addressing human needs emphasized in the human relations approach. (pp. 52-53) The (family) metaphor is associated with the human relations approach. (p. 45)

Essay Questions 1.

If the Hawthorne Studies were conducted today, how would the results be similar to those found in the 1920s and 1930s? How would they be different? What might these results tell us about the value of the human relations approach in today‘s world? (pp. 38-40)

2.

Compare and contrast the different management styles identified in Blake and Mouton‘s Managerial Grid in terms of: (a) Beliefs about human nature and worker motivation (b) Beliefs about the appropriate relationship between managers and employees (c) Beliefs about the structure and function of communication in organizational functioning (pp. 48-50)

3.

In what ways did Sager‘s study of Theory X and Theory Managers‘ communicator style variables support or counter the basic assumptions McGregor said these kinds of managers hold? (p. 44)

4.

Describe how Sager‘s (2008) study‘s use of six different communicator style variables relate to the Theory X and Theory Y managerial assumptions. (pp. 42-45)

5.

Think about an organization you are familiar with that uses both human relations and human resources principles in its management and communication practices. Describe these practices and discuss the impact of these practices on organizational outcomes such as productivity and worker satisfaction. Does one approach seem to work better than the other? How would you summarize the "up side" and the "down side" of human relations and human resources management? (pp. 37-57)

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CHAPTER 4 SYSTEMS AND CULTURAL APPROACHES CHAPTER OUTLINE After Reading This Chapter…

The Systems Metaphor and Systems Concepts System Components Hierarchical Ordering Interdependence Permeability System Processes System Properties Holism Equifinality Negative Entropy Requisite Variety Systems Approaches to Organizational Communication Communication Networks Properties of Networks Properties of Network Links Network Roles Explanatory Mechanisms Karl Weick‘s Theory of Organizing Case in Point: Making Sense of My Money The Cultural Metaphor Prescriptive Approaches to Culture Deal and Kennedy‘s ―Strong Cultures‖ Peters and Waterman‘s ―Excellent Cultures‖ Descriptive and Explanatory Approaches to Culture Organizational Cultures Are Complicated Organizational Cultures Are Emergent Organizational Cultures Are Not Unitary Organizational Cultures Are Often Ambiguous Case in Point: Searching the Internet for Cultural Values Spotlight on Scholarship: Building Systems and Cultures of Compassion

Summary Discussion Questions 69

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Key Concepts Case Study: The Cultural Tale of Two Shuttles

SUGGESTIONS FOR ACTIVITIES Activity 4.1: Provide students (in groups) with large sheets of paper and a variety of art supplies (e.g., construction paper, markers, scissors, glue, popsicle sticks, glitter, etc.). Then, ask them to construct a "picture" of the culture of the class (or the department, or an organization whose culture is familiar to class members). The representations of culture can then be discussed through a "show and tell" period. Discuss the works of art, emphasizing how depictions of culture can vary substantially depending on who is doing the viewing and the telling. Discussion should also consider the creativity that can be used in representing organizational culture.

Activity 4.2: Reproduce the vignettes from the beginning of Weick's first book, The Social Psychology of Organizing. Have students read these vignettes (or read them aloud to the class) and discuss the ways in which each vignette illustrates a different aspect of Weick's theory of organizing (see Weick's discussion for more information on which vignettes ideally illustrate different relevant principles).

Activity 4.3: Illustrate communication network concepts by having students draw and label the networks of various television programs. First, choose a number of television shows that can illustrate network concepts. Some possibilities include Glee, True Blood, House, Grey’s Anatomy or whatever other shows are currently popular. Have students self-select into groups based on shows with which they are particularly familiar. Then, have each group draw a "network" of the characters in the show, identify characters in terms of network roles, specify the strength and complexity of links between characters, etc. After the group activity, choose a show that most students are familiar with to use as a full class example of network concepts.

Activity 4.4: Ask students to provide an example of a communication network of which they are a part. Options include their Facebook social networks, LinkedIn professional network, organizational communication class, workplace setting, a living group/environment, and family. Then have students describe how they fit into this network (e.g., their role in the network, network properties, network links, etc.).

Activity 4.5: Most universities have copies of videotape based on companies from Peters and Waterman's In Search of Excellence. Though the full video is quite long and becoming somewhat dated, it is possible to show several vignettes in order to illustrate the cultural values that have been associated with organizational excellence (sections on Disneyland and McDonalds are particularly interesting). This video can be used both to illustrate the ways in which cultural assumptions and values influence organizational behaviors, as well as the ways in which early "prescriptive" views of culture emphasized the notion of having the "right" values in order to succeed.

CASE STUDY SOLUTION (THE CULTURAL TALE OF TWO SHUTTLES)

1.

The case identifies at least three aspects of NASA‘s culture that contributed to both disasters.

First, NASA relied on past success as a substitute for sound engineering practices. In Challenger’s case, the O-ring had not completely failed before so it was assumed it would not in the future. In Columbia’s case, the foam had not fatally damaged the shuttle wing before in over 100 missions, so it was assumed it would not do so in the future. Second, organizational barriers prevented effective communication of critical safety information and stifled professional differences of opinions. In both cases, there were experts who disagreed with the decisions of upper level administrators to proceed with the missions, but their message was not heard or was ignored. Third, in both cases the evolution of an informal chain of command that operated outside organizational rules emerged that created a flawed decision making process.

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NASA‘s culture also had a reliance on the rites and rituals of launching and landing that pushed them toward taking risks. The launch and the landing or completion of a mission is what the culture lives for. If that doesn‘t happen, NASA‘s purpose is questioned. Sometimes, this cultural characteristic caused safety to be compromised. NASA is also an organization that has many heroes and heroines in their astronaut corps. In the Challenger disaster, America was going to launch its first teacher in space. She was a heroine and the need for her to fulfill that role may have pushed NASA to compromise that role. This cultural characteristic was probably less a factor in the Columbia disaster.

In terms of Schein‘s model, NASA assumed that past performance predicted future performance. This assumption led to a belief that since the foam had not fatally damaged the shuttles‘ wings in the past, it would not do so in the future. This belief led to a behavior where the foam threat was not dealt with and even when it was recognized that it had struck Columbia’s wing after launch, a decision was made not to investigate the damage further. This led to a fatal reentry of the spacecraft.

2.

At least three things could have been done to make the cultural changes in NASA more lasting or more effective after the Challenger disaster and could help in the future of NASA. First, when research was done about NASA‘s culture, more work could have been done to look for the critical tale of NASA. Most of the observations were really on a surface level and did not dig deeply into the unseen power structures that drive NASA. It isn‘t all about flawed decision-making processes or communication barriers, but really what beliefs and values are at the core of NASA and how they contribute to doing work in a way that costs lives and damages the space program. Those beliefs and values need to be changed. Second, using Schein‘s model, NASA‘s decision-making processes could be looked at as an artifact to discover deeper beliefs, values, and assumptions that need to be changed. True change will not occur until those aspects of culture are changed. Third, solutions needed to be developed for the many subcultures of NASA. NASA is a large organization with many subcultures and the problems could have come from many places, not just the upper management culture as the reports indicated. Changing a culture is a difficult thing, but it needs to occur at a deep level, which requires a changing of beliefs, values, and assumptions.

3.

NASA has some unique features that make cultural change difficult. As mentioned in number one, launching a spacecraft is a ritual. If it doesn‘t occur due to careful attention to safety, NASA faces questions about its purpose and the dream of spaceflight becomes difficult to maintain. Rituals are important to fulfilling the purpose and dreams of organizations. NASA also is a large bureaucracy with many subcultures. The culture is complex and segmented so it is difficult to change it wholesale. It requires a change in the beliefs, values, assumptions, and behaviors of thousands of people. A bureaucracy makes it easier to focus on the system as the cause of problems rather than the beliefs and assumptions of specific people. This is particularly true of organizations engaged in high risk operations.

There tends to be a large scale acceptance of a high risk level that is formalized and standardized throughout the organization. No one person can be held accountable so no one is held accountable.

TEST ITEMS (corresponding text page number is listed for each item) True/False Items T T

1.

2.

F

3.

F

4.

Equivocality is likely to be high in highly competitive business environments. (p. 69) Deal and Kennedy argued that business success could be enhanced through the development of a "strong" culture. (p. 72) Hierarchical ordering is a systems principle that implies that the functioning of one component of the system relies on other components of the system. (pp. 61-62) Peters and Waterman, and Deal and Kennedy's conceptualizations of culture are prescriptive. (p.

72) 71

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T

5.

T

6.

T

7.

T F

8.

9.

T

10.

F F

11.

12.

According to Peters and Waterman, excellent organizations should avoid complex structures and divisions of labor. (pp. 72-74) Ethnographers create mini-theories about an organization‘s culture that are grounded in observations of a particular organization‘s culture. (pp. 72-76) A personnel director asking applicants to submit resumes in a particular format would be an example of an assembly rule that assists in sensemaking. (p. 69) In alternative approaches to culture, organizational cultures are not thought of as unitary. (p. 75) In Weick's view of organizing, responding to highly equivocal information requires the use of assembly rules. (pp. 68-71) According to the prescriptive approach to culture, successful companies can be identified in terms of their cultures. (p. 74) Cultural performances are distinct from organizational history. (p. 75) An isolate rarely, if ever, communicates or has relationships with other organizational members. (p. 67)

Multiple Choice Items 1.

_____________ are usually described as being interactional, contextual, episodic, and improvisational. a.

The sites of culture b.

The "core" assumptions of culture c.

Cultural performances (*) (p. 75) d.

Schein's three levels of culture

2.

Three people were fired at ABC Corporation. Eugene was fired because he was incompetent. Rita was fired because she was unethical. Kayla was fired because of economic conditions. This illustrates the systems property of a. equifinality. (*) (p. 64) b. negative entropy. c. feedback. d. requisite variety.

3.

Open systems are characterized by ____, or the ability to sustain themselves and grow. a. participation b. requisite variety c. negative entropy(*) (p. 64) d. cultural diversity

4.

Approaching organizational culture with the idea that there may be multiple manifestations of culture that are difficult to interpret represents which perspective of culture? a. fragmentation (*) (pp. 76-78) b. interactional c. episodic d. unitary

5.

Weick proposes a ______ process in which rules and cycles are saved for future organizational use. a. transformation b. exchange c. control d. enactment e. retention (*) (p. 69)

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6.

Michael is a sales representative who spends a great deal of time out on the road and infrequently communicates with the rest of his sales team. He is a. a bridge. b. a liaison. c. an isolate. (*) (p. 67) d. all of the above e. a and b

7.

Systems theory originated with the study of a. organizations. b. sociology. c. biology. (*) (p. 61) d. communication. e. machine.

8.

According to Weick, the primary goal of organizations is to a. establish network roles. b. gain feedback. c. reduce uncertainty. (*) (p. 69) d. ensure requisite variety.

9.

The four key components of Deal and Kennedy's "strong cultures" are a. rites/rituals, heroes, the gangplank, and assumptions. b. values, heroes, rites/rituals, and the cultural network. (*) (p. 72) c. episodes, autonomy, stories, and rites/rituals. d. artifacts, decision-making style, values, and network configuration

10.

The themes identified by Peters and Waterman characterize excellent organizations as a. spending significant time planning and analyzing. b. incorporating complex structures to deal with divisions of labor. c. having a unity of purpose and avoiding the complexities of innovation. d. staying focused on what they do best and avoiding radical diversification. (*) (pp.72-74 )

Fill-in-the-Blank Items 1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

The three concepts that characterize systems components include interdependence, (hierarchical ordering), and permeability. (pp. 61-63) Deal and Kennedy‘s ―strong culture‖ exemplifies a (prescriptive) approach to cultural analysis. (p. 72) The idea that "a system can reach the same final state from differing initial conditions and a variety of paths" refers to the property of (equifinality). (p. 64) In Weick's theory of organizing, (equivocality) refers to the uncertainty that is inevitable in the environment. (p. 69) Weick's notion of the (information) environment expands the traditional idea of a system environment beyond the physical environment. (p. 69) (Values) are the beliefs and visions that members hold for an organization. (p. 72) Stockholders who manage their funds by looking at a wide variety of media sources for information are reducing their (equivocality), according to Weick. (p. 69) Network participants who connect disparate groups within the network without membership in either group fulfill the role of (liaison). (p. 67) (Autonomy and entrepreneurship) means excellent organizations encourage employees to take risks in the development of new ideas. (p. 73) 73

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10.

A (liaison) links radically different connections within a communication network. (p. 67)

Essay Questions 1.

Describe how the university you attend exhibits the following systems components: hierarchical ordering, interdependence, and permeability. (pp. 61-63)

2.

Consider Deal and Kennedy's Corporate Cultures: The Rites and Rituals of Corporate Life and Peters and Waterman's In Search of Excellence. Why were these books so popular in the business world? Why were these books not embraced whole-heartedly by the academic community? (pp. 72-74)

3.

Provide an example of how Weick‘s Model of Organizing could be used to explain how an individual makes sense of a change in their workplace. (pp. 68-71)

4.

Your supervisor has just found out that you are taking an organizational communication class and she has asked you to conduct a network analysis of the organization. She has requested that your final report include a graphic illustration of the network, a consideration of the properties of network links and roles along with a discussion of network properties. Provide an outline of what your final report might look like. (pp. 66-68)

5.

Describe what Lilius, Worline, Dutton, Kanov, and Maitlus (2011) found about how the collective capacity for compassion was developed and maintained at Midwest Billing. (p. 77)

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CHAPTER 5 CONSTITUTIVE APPROACHES CHAPTER OUTLINE After Reading This Chapter…

Communicative Constitution of Organizations The Montreal School Text and Conversation Constitution as ―Scaling Up‖ Current Directions Case in Point: The Textual Power of Emoticons Spotlight on Scholarship: Constituting Collaboration The Four Flows Membership Negotiation Self-Structuring Activity Coordination Case in Point: The Four Flows—Vatican Style Institutional Positioning Summary and Challenges for Constitutive Approaches Discussion Questions Key Concepts Case Study: A Drop in the Bucket

SUGGESTIONS FOR ACTIVITIES Activity 5.1: Break students into small groups and have them identify an organization that is completely virtual with its only physical aspects being the technology that allows it to accomplish its work. Have the students research its website and social media presence and then explain in a short 5 minute presentation what the organization is and what it does and explain how communicative interactions define the essence of the organization with no physical structure like a building or furniture. Have the students answer the question, ―What makes up this organization?‖ Activity 5.2: Have the class play a version of the ―telephone game,‖ but this time with the university‘s mission statement (or perhaps the college‘s or department‘s if students are very familiar with the mission statement). Have one student whisper the mission statement to a second student. No notes can be taken. The second student should then repeat the mission (whispering) to a third student and continue through the entire class. When the last student has heard the mission statement, have them say it our loud. Compare what the last student says to what the mission statement actually is and discuss how the concept of ―scaling up‖ and degrees of separation impact the communication of the message and what implications this has for the organization and its success in achieving its mission.

Activity 5.3: Ask all students to attend the same public meeting in which there are publically recorded minutes available. Many public university meetings (e.g., Student Government Association meetings) are open to the public and minutes should be available through an open records request if minutes aren‘t made publically available.

Students should record the meeting by taking notes on what they observe. Have them compare what they observe with what the minutes indicate occurred. A list of similarities, differences, and omissions should be made. After each student reports back on their lists, the class should discuss how minutes and their notes represent texts of a conversation.

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Activity 5.4: After reading Case in Point: The Four Flows—Vatican Style, ask your students to go online and read 2 feature or news articles about Pope Francis‘ communication approach with the public. Have them report back as part of a group discussion how his communication style differs from Pope Benedict‘s and how it may change the nature of what constitutes the Roman Catholic Church, even if it has not yet changed policy. Ask then to explain how Pope Francis‘ membership negotiation (specifically how he is performing the role of pope) could impact the other three flows (self-structuring, activity coordination, institutional positioning).

CASE STUDY SOLUTION (A DROP IN THE BUCKET) 1.

The Membership Negotiation Flow occurs through the comments from faculty members who argue that many faculty and staff chose to work at the Prep in part because they were ―investing in their children‘s future‖ and they had been promised the dependent tuition waiver when they were hired. They provided examples of job offers they had turned down because they were counting on the tuition waiver at the Prep.

It was a key part of the negotiation conversation that established the employees as members of the organization. The Self Structuring Flow occurs through the comments by the CFO and members of the Board of Trustees who point out that the waiver was not formal policy and difficult decisions needed to be made in the name of fiscal responsibility. Those messages were focused on providing guidance about resource allocation and policies. The Activity Coordination Flow occurred through the meetings of the benefits review committee as well as the ―informative town hall,‖ which represent the ongoing interaction that were needed to come to a decision. The Institutional Positioning Flow is not as readily apparent in the communication described in the case study. The Membership Negotiation Flow and the Self-Structuring Flow were most strongly influencing the change. These flows could influence the Institutional Positioning Flow because the conflict and the decision about tuition waiver benefits could affect how the Prep interacts and is perceived by other similar schools as well as the community. If faculty and staff are disturbed by the conversation and the decision, they may leave, which will affect the organization‘s interactions with its students and outside community. The school may also be perceived as managing its budget well by eliminating the benefit, which may lead to other resources being obtained from the outside.

2.

The Montreal School perspective is particularly relevant in the use of prior conversations to illustrate commitments to the tuition waiver. The text that was created through the recounting of conversations held when the employees were hired indicated they were promised the dependent tuition waiver. On the other hand, a trustee pointed out that the waiver was never a formal policy, which indicated previous conversations had resulted in text that said use of the policy was negotiable and could be eliminated. In addition, the CFO used text of comparisons to other schools and financial data to make the case that a change was needed. As a result, the two sides relied on different texts to make their arguments, which made it difficult to come to agreement. They also did not accept the authority of the texts that each side relied on. However, when the CFO was asked how much money would actually be saved, he responded that it would be a ―drop in the bucket.‖ Both sides accepted the authority of that text, but it further underminded the credibility of the CFO and led to more shock, indignation, and heated discussion rather than agreement.

3.

The bucket drawing that resulted from the CFO‘s comment is a text that was being repeated over and over again in multiple places at the Prep. The CFO did not mean for that comment to undermine his argument for eliminating the waiver, but his own comment was being repeated (ventriloquism) by many others in the school to make a very different case from his intent. The degrees of separation model describes this process well also as the drawing became a standardized model that was widely disseminated to a broader public. The bucket drawing was not representing the CFO‘s viewpoint, it was representing the faculty/staff argument. Ultimately, a compromise was reached where the benefit was cut for future hires, but maintained for current faculty and staff.

TEST ITEMS (corresponding text page number is listed for each item)

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True/False Items F

1.

F T

2.

3.

T

4.

F

5.

T

6.

T

7.

F F

8.

9.

T

10.

Very few organizational communication scholars have objected to the container metaphor, which explains how communication occurs within organizations. (p. 83) Social constructionists argue that reality is an objective thing. (p. 83) Structuration theory argues that the social world is generated through the agency of active participants. (p. 84) The concept of ―compassion‖ as part of a hospital system represents an example of Big D Discourse. (p. 84) Minutes from a meeting is the conversation end of the conversation-text self-organizing loop. (p.

85) If Heather tells others about ideas Patrick shared with her in an initial conversation, she is scaling up to the 2nd degree of separation. (p. 87) A press secretary‘s job to communicate an organization‘s message is a clear example of ventriloquism. (p. 88) Membership negotiation is only relevant when a newcomer joins an organization. (p. 90) Performance evaluations most likely are an example of the activity coordination flow of communication within an organization. (p. 91) Organizing is influenced by the physical site in which it occurs. (p. 95)

Multiple Choice Items 1.

The flow of communication most concerned with organizational identity is a. member negotiation flow. b. institutional positioning flow . (*) (p. 94) c. self-structuring flow. d. activity coordination flow.

2.

Ford Motor Company‘s interactions with a wide range of customers is an example of which of the following flows of communication? a. activity coordination b. member negotiation c. institutional positioning (*) (p. 93) d. self-structuring

3.

An anesthesiologist asking about a patient‘s medical condition before determining the sedation strategy is an example of which of the following flows of communication? a. activity coordination (*) (p. 92) b. member negotiation c. institutional positioning d. self-structuring

4.

Learning about the inside language of an organization best represents crossing which boundary of membership negotiation? a. legitimacy b. hiring c. knowledge (*) (p. 90) d. connection

5.

Emoticons are _____ used in business communication. a. often (*) (p. 88) b. rarely 77

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c. d.

always appropriately easily understood and

6.

Transcribing text into a more permanent form represents which degree of separation in the scaling up process? a.

1st b.

2nd c.

3rd (*) (p. 87) d.

4th

7.

Disseminating a standardized form to a broader public represents which degree of separation in the scaling up process? a.

1st b.

6th (*) (p. 87) c.

2nd d.

3rd

8.

According to the Montreal School of CCO, substance and meaning represents which part of the ―coorientation‖ process? a. conversation b. separation c. d.

formalization text (*) (p. 85)

9.

When active participants engage in agency, they will ____ follow the rules guiding interactions? a. always b. never c. sometimes (*) (p. 84) d. enthusiastically

10.

The container metaphor points out that a. organizational communication occurs within the container of an organization. (*) (p. 82) b. organizational communication flows out of the container of an organization. c. organizational communication pours into the container of an organization. d. organizational communication cannot be contained.

.

Fill-in-the-Blank Items 1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

(Communicative Constitution of Organization or CCO) scholars try to understand the complicated processes through which our interactions create, recreate, and change organizations. (pp. 83-84) The idea that we are producing and reproducing the structures that enable and constrain our behaviors is called (duality of structure). (p. 84) (Conversations) refers to the ongoing interaction among individuals facilitated by language. (p. 85) The original intent of a speaker is embedded in conversation and then distanced from that conversation through its transformation into (text). (p. 86) One agent speaking for other agents in an organization is the process of (ventriloquism). (p. 88) The (membership negotiation) flow makes clear the point that organizations are communicatively constituted through people who bring the organization into existence and enter and exit over time. (p. 90) 78

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7.

8.

9.

10.

The (activity coordination) flow refers to the ongoing interaction that is necessary to get work done in an organization. (p. 92) Establishing relationships with other entities in the environment is part of the (institutional positioning) flow. (p. 93) Issues of (materiality) include concerns with objects such as buildings and furniture. (p. 95) (The Montreal School) of scholars have drawn together a still-growing framework about the ways in which communication constitutes organizations. (p. 85)

Essay Questions 1.

Explain how social constructionism and structuration theory have contributed to the development of the CCO (Communicative Constitution of Organizing) position. (pp. 83-84)

2.

Describe the co-orientations processes that make up the core of the Montreal Group‘s approach to CCO. (pp. 85-87)

3.

Explain how a message from a speaker in an organization would evolve through the degrees of separation in the scaling up process. (pp. 86-88)

4.

Describe how the scaling up process worked in creating an organizational identity in Koschmann‘s (2013) study. (p. 89)

5.

Provide an example of a message that would represent each of the four flows constituting organization. (pp.

90-94)

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CHAPTER 6 CRITICAL AND FEMINIST APPROACHES CHAPTER OUTLINE After Reading This Chapter…

Critical Approaches The Pervasiveness of Power Control of Modes and Means of Production Control of Organizational Discourse Ideology and Hegemony Case in Point: Power of the Pretty Emancipation Resistance A Theory of Concertive Control Identification Discipline Spotlight on Scholarship: Patriarchy in Public and Private Life Feminist Approaches Case in Point: Using the F Word Sexual Harassment Discourse at Women-Led Businesses Disciplined Bodies Summary Discussion Questions Key Concepts Case Study: Talking Turkey

SUGGESTIONS FOR ACTIVITIES Activity 6.1: As a class or in groups, identify jobs or occupations that students believe have the capacity to oppress workers. Discuss the structural and interactional sources of power in these jobs, and consider the ways workers may contribute to the dominant power relationships. Then, have students observe or informally "interview" workers in these jobs about their work to see if the perceptions of people who do the work match perceptions from the outside.

Contrasts between "inside" and "outside" views can then be considered through a discussion of the emancipation process for these jobs or occupations. NOTE: Be careful about protecting the rights and privacy of individuals being observed or interviewed if you take on this activity. Check with your campus Institutional Review Board to be sure the rights of human subjects are being considered and protected.

Activity 6.2: Similar to the Spotlight on Scholarship study, ask each student to interview a working adult male with children and a working adult female with children about their concerns related to work-home balance. Have them report back to the class whether what they learned from their interviews reflected what Tracy and Rivera (2010) reported. This activity should lead to a discussion about their own perspectives about work-home balance and concerns about future tensions related to this topic.

Activity 6.3: Have students discuss the following scenario: Imagine you have just passed your board exams to sell real estate. You go to interviews with various brokers; you take a job with Rallitando, Bunbudy & Associates. The first day on the job Bunbudy hands you are a policy booklet, and says ―Here are the rules, we will not pay your taxes, but you are going to be able to operate your own independent operation.‖ How would a critical theorist analyze this scenario? What could you possibly tell from the discourse? What are the benefits and costs for each of 80

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the parties involved? What forms of control exist? Name or generate other professions today with similar workplace or contractual agreements? Is there a move toward this kind of work?

CASE STUDY SOLUTION (TALKING TURKEY) 1.

Brandon and Gabriella are both exploited, but in different ways. Brandon works for a company that does quite well financially, but knows there is a pool of college students who need to work and will accept minimum wage even though Baxter Company could certainly pay them more. Gabriella is taken advantage of by a company that knows money can motivate some people to do things that compromise their dignity.

Both companies are not doing what is necessarily the ―right‖ thing and take advantage of students who need to have a job.

2.

The concept of power is illustrated in both situations. Baxter Company utilizes a traditional approach to power through formal authority, which Brandon accepts, that allows the company to set Brandon‘s hours and tell him when he can take a break (organizational structure and rules) and even who he can talk to at work (control of boundaries). Personal Greetings uses a radical-critical approach to power where it exerts control in a less obvious way. It takes advantage of an ideology that making money is good no matter what one is asked to do. Gabriella accepts this ideology, which allows Personal Greetings to have power over her body. Baxter Company also takes advantage of an ideology that Brandon accepts. This ideology states that doing honest work is important even if it is boring and pays little. He also accepts an ideology that says it is ok to pay people low wages if they have little work experience. Hegemony also is represented in both cases. In Brandon‘s case, upper level management in the Baxter Company represents the dominant group and they set all the rules for how work will be accomplished in the organization. In Gabriella‘s case, management is also a dominant group who has the ability to pay the strippers high wages. The customers‘ demand for the service also puts them in the position of being a dominant group.

3.

Baxter Company sets the work hours, tells Brandon when he can take breaks, and even limits his communication with coworkers. Gabriella is told how much clothing she should remove and exactly what she needs to do to provide entertainment for her customers. Neither of them is free to do their jobs the way they see fit. In terms of concertive control, Baxter Company uses simple control and to some extent bureaucratic control through its rules. Discipline is most relevant to Gabriella‘s situation. Personal Greetings uses rewards of paying high wages for the entertainment provided by its strippers as a way to maintain its power over its workers.

4.

Feminist theory offers some suggestions for what Gabriella should do to eliminate and equalize the power imbalance. Radical feminists would argue that Gabriella should not participate in such an organization because it is exploiting her dignity. They would tell Gabriella to quit and to encourage the other strippers to quit. They would also tell Gabriella that she should do whatever she can to force Personal Greetings‘ closure, which might include actions like demonstrating in front of the building. Liberal feminists might say Gabriella does have some power in the organization because Personal Greetings needs her and is willing to pay her high wages. They would tell her to take further action to eliminate the power imbalance.

They would encourage her to negotiate the nature of her work and even the nature of the organization. She can always refuse to strip if they don‘t meet her demands. A liberal feminist would encourage to work within the organization to change things.

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5.

A critical theorist would help Brandon and Gabriella change the nature of Baxter Company and Personal Greetings‘ control over them. They would make them aware of the power structures present in both companies and the ideologies that both of them accept which give these organizations control over them.

They would encourage Brandon and Gabriella to speak up and do what they can to change things within both organizations and to leave if the power imbalances continue. Brandon and Gabriella seem committed to their ideologies so it is unlikely they would want to be emancipated, however.

TEST ITEMS (corresponding text page number is listed for each item) True/False Items F T

1.

2.

F

3.

T F T F

4.

5.

6.

7.

T F

8.

9.

T

10.

Critical theorists do not consider organizations to be sites of domination. (p. 100) Critical approaches to organizational communication have their philosophical roots in the work of Karl Marx. (p. 101) Scholars taking a traditional approach to power believe that there are inherent contradictions between the "surface structure" of power and the "deep structure" of power. (pp. 101-102) Ability to cope with uncertainty is a source of power in organizations. (p. 102) The modes of production refer to actual work processes. (p. 103) Simple control involves direct and authoritarian exertion of control in the workplace. (p. 108) In a hegemonic relationship, the controlled group accepts, but does not actively participate in, the control process. (pp. 105-106) The ultimate goal of the critical model is emancipation. (p. 106) Standpoint feminists believe that remedies for female subordination should come from within the system. (p. 113) According to Clair, frames are often used to reinforce dominant ideology. (p. 114)

Multiple Choice Items 1.

Demetrius is a graduate student in organizational communication. After much study, he's concluded that though there is a great deal of conflict in most organizations, the conflict is usually productive and leads to enhanced understanding and better decisions. Which frame of reference to organizational study is Demetrius adopting? a. unitary frame of reference b. pluralist frame of reference (*) (p. 100) c. radical frame of reference d. confliction frame of reference

2.

In their study of the ideology of work and home life, Tracy and Rivera find male executives a. abstractly say work life should take precedence over home life. b. do not support the idea of gender equity in the workplace. c. were not hesitant at all to speak about the complex relationship between work and home. d. focused more on describing their daughters‘ family lives rather than their work lives. (*) (p. 110)

3.

Gail has been working as a seamstress for 20 years, but her job is soon going to be changed drastically as the plant she works in becomes automated. According to Marxist theory, Gail may become alienated when this happens because a. management has control over the modes of production. b. management has control over the means of production. (*) (pp. 103-104) c. management has control over production rewards. d. management has control over production quotas.

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4.

Feminists who work to enhance the opportunity for a variety of marginalized voices to be heard within societal dialogue are called a. standpoint feminists. (*) (p. 113) b. radical feminists. c. liberal feminists. d. postmodern feminists.

5.

The role of the critical theorist in the emancipation process is similar to the role of a a. mediator. b. freedom fighter. c. detective. d. psychoanalyst. (*) (p. 107)

6.

Susan works as a firefighter in a male-dominated organization. She is often sexually harassed on the job by her male coworkers. When asked about the appropriateness of this behavior, Susan sighs, ―Boys will be boys. What can I do about it, anyway?‖ According to the critical approach, Susan is a. focusing on the ―good of the organization‖ by placing organizational needs before her own. b. hegemonically contributing to the control of the patriarchal organizational power structure. (*) (p.

105) c. admitting the power of the modes and mean of production. d. emancipating others within the work environment.

7.

If a researcher is interested in learning how power impacts outcomes like job satisfaction and performance, he or she is using a ________ approach. a. radical-critical b. hegemonic c. traditional (*) (p. 101) d. symbological

8.

Of the three strategies used for exerting control in organizations, the one characterized by directly exerting authoritarian control is a. technological control. b. bureaucratic control. c. simple control. (*) (p. 108) d. overarching control.

9.

Robin Clair's research on sexual harassment and women's narratives indicates that a. women frame sexual harassment as a function of the matriarchal nature of organizations. b. women frame sexual harassment in a way that keeps harassment out of the mainstream of organizational life. (*) (p. 114) c. women frame sexual harassment as a political struggle that must be dealt with on a societal level. d. women frame sexual harassment as both physical and mental oppression.

10.

Paige Edley‘s study of discourse at a woman-owned business found that a. everyone in the business talked about having a cooperative and friendly workplace. b. the owner of the business derided those who took off too much time for family concerns. c. the emotional nature of communication within the organization was often labeled as simply the way women talk. d. all of the above (*) (p. 115)

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Fill-in-the-Blank Items 1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

10.

The (symbological) approach to power views power as a product of communicative interactions and relationships. (p. 102) According to Marxist theory, the (means) of production refers to actual work processes. (p. 103) According to Mumby, stories people tell to make sense of the organization often (supports) the dominant organizational coalition. (p. 104) (Ideology) refers to the taken-for-granted assumptions about reality that influence our perceptions about organizational life. (p. 105) The process by which a dominant group leads another group to actively participate in the control process is known as (hegemony). (p. 105) The concept of (resistance) considers how workers can exert counterpressure on the exercise of power and control. (p. 107) The framing device that allows sexual harassment to be accepted or justified as ―the way things are‖ is called (reification). (p. 114) If a person does not define a sexually harassing encounter with the term ―sexual harassment,‖ a (denotative hesitancy) framing device has been used. (p. 114) A(n) (radical) frame of reference views the organization as a battleground where rival forces seek largely incompatible goals. (p. 101) Using (disciplinary) techniques such as silence and social pressure gives groups power over its members. (p. 109)

Essay Questions 1.

In what ways do critical approaches to organizational communication differ from the other approaches we've considered so far (classical, human relations, human resources, systems, and culture)? In your answer, be sure to consider both the frame of reference of the theorist and the goals of the theorist. (p. 100)

2.

Identify, define, and explain how three sources of power give individuals within organizations power over others. (p. 102)

3.

Describe how Tretheway‘s research examined how organizational context, society, and culture discipline women in terms of bodily display. (pp. 115-116)

4.

You are interested in organizational change and have adopted a feminist perspective. However, you are trying to decide between the various streams of feminist thought. Discuss two forms of feminism, then adopt one and tell us what you are going to do to change our organizations based on the assumptions of these feminist perspectives. (pp. 112-113)

5.

What role does organizational discourse play in creating and recreating power structures within the workplace? Give an example of how an organizational story can be used to wield power within an organization. (pp. 104-105)

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CHAPTER 7 SOCIALIZATION PROCESSES CHAPTER OUTLINE After Reading This Chapter…

Models of Organizational Socialization Phases of Socialization Anticipatory Socialization Encounter Spotlight on Scholarship: Organizational Entry as a Laughing Matter Metamorphosis Content of Socialization Summary of Socialization Models Communication Processes During Socialization Recruiting and Interviewing Case in Point: The 140 Character Resume The Interview as a Recruiting and Screening Tool The Interview as an Information-Gathering Tool The Interview as a Tool for Socialization Newcomer Information-Seeking Tactics Role-Development Processes Role-Taking Phase Role-Making Phase Role-Routinization Phase Beyond the Leadership Dyad Organizational Exit Case in Point: The Economics of Exit and Entry Summary Discussion Questions Key Concepts Case Study: The Church Search

SUGGESTIONS FOR ACTIVITIES Activity 7.1: Ask students to gather information on a specific organization they might want to work for. Information can be gathered from the library, the campus career center, directly from the organization, via the Internet, or from current or past employees. Discuss the information gathered as a form of anticipatory socialization, noting the quality of information gathered from various sources, the kinds of information that can be gathered in this fashion, and the gaps that still remain in knowledge about the organization (e.g., information about culture, day-to-day activities, etc.).

Activity 7.2: Have students conduct mock employment interviews. Have students divide into triads and have individuals assigned the roles of "interviewer," "job-seeker," and "observer." Then, develop brief job descriptions that are relevant to the types of jobs students in your class might be seeking (e.g., public relations, sales, human resource specialist). Have the interviewer and job-seeker conduct the interview, with the observer watching for how verbal and nonverbal communication influence the process. Debrief the class as a whole by considering the research findings regarding interviewing and how students might use this information to enhance their own interview experiences.

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Activity 7.3: Have students, in groups, develop a "Realistic Job Preview" for (1) the course that could be provided to students thinking about enrolling in organizational communication or (2) becoming a college student and enrolling at their respective university. Have them consider both the content of the preview (e.g., what should prospective students know in order to reduce the "surprise" associated with the course/school?) and the way the preview could be communicated to prospective students.

Activity 7.4: Have students identify the most memorable messages communicated to them during their most recent workplace socialization experience (based on Stohl‘s (1986) approach). Using Myers and Oetzel‘s (2003) content model, have the students categorize their messages into one of the six processes Myers and Oetzel identified. This activity then should lead to a class discussion about the content of messages communicated during socialization, the sources of those messages, and the effect those messages had on them as a newcomer.

Activity 7.5: Have students interview friends or relatives who have recently experienced the phenomenon of ―organizational exit‖ or been ―survivors‖ in an organizational downsizing. Use the interviews as a springboard to discuss the various reasons for organizational exit, communication involved in the exit process, and the impact of exit on those who left, survivors, management, and family and friends.

Activity 7.6: In teams, have students create an ideal socialization program for an employee. They should identify specific ways newcomers can be oriented, formally and informally mentored, and have specific content communicated to them. Part of this program should involve encouraging the newcomer to utilize information seeking strategies. The goal of the program should be to enhance performance, increase job satisfaction and commitment, and reduce turnover. Each team should describe their program and the class should discuss the advantages and disadvantages of each program.

CASE STUDY SOLUTION (THE CHURCH SEARCH) 1.

Marsha has experienced anticipatory socialization in a number of ways. First, her experience as a youth minister has given her knowledge of what it is like to work in the church. She has also observed what a senior pastor does so she has some idea of what the role is like. Second, the profile provided by the church in Michigan has informed her of their values and mission. It outlines what the church expects and hopes for in a new pastor. Finally, when Marsha comes for the interview, Nancy tells her what to expect during the interview over the next couple of days. All of these experiences will make it easier for Marsha to adapt to the new church if she is called. The church also is experiencing anticipatory socialization in a couple of ways. First, its experience with prior pastors has given the congregation some idea of what to expect and hope for in a new pastor. Second, the material Marsha provided informed the search committee of her values and what she is looking for. Finally, the conversations between Nancy and Marsha have provided further information to prepare the congregation for what it would be like if Marsha becomes its new pastor.

These experiences will help the church to adapt to Marsha‘s leadership of the church if she is called.

2.

Marsha should expect questions about her experiences as a youth pastor, her ability to move from the role of a youth pastor to the role of senior pastor, the extent to which she matches the church, and where she hopes to take the church in the future. She will probably be asked questions about her interactions with congregational members and church committees. In addition, she will likely be asked about her ability to represent the church in the community. She should ask the committee what their expectations of a new pastor are, where they see the church going in the years ahead, what the nature of their previous experiences with pastors has been, and what living in their community is like. The interview will serve as a recruiting tool as the church works to persuade Marsha to come. Typically, in pastoral searches, when the candidate comes for the interview, they are a finalist, if not the finalist, so the screening process has been completed. They have already received a great deal of information about Marsha and have had a number of conversations. The interview will also serve as an additional information gathering tool to help the congregation make a final decision. It is likely the congregation has strong opinions about her at this stage and the interview will serve to confirm or disconfirm those opinions. Finally, the interview serves as a 86

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socialization tool while the interactions with the committee and the congregation seek to help both the church and Marsha adapt to each other.

3.

Marsha should expect to experience the role taking phase initially. The congregation will likely assign her responsibilities to learn about her skills and motivation. Certainly, she will be expected to handle the Sunday preaching, but the congregation will likely assign her other duties. She should also expect this time period to be stressful and that she will need to let go of her old role of youth minister. Some reality shock will likely occur. She can engage in information seeking prior to moving to Michigan to lessen the impact of the shock from the transition. It may be difficult for her to observe the church in action from a distance, but she can certainly ask questions and make plans for what she will do as the new pastor, even testing limits to see how the congregation reacts to her ideas. The church can be clear in what they hope she will do by being very specific in assigning her tasks even before she arrives. They should keep her updated on what is going on in the congregation and explain anything that does not make sense to Marsha.

4.

The leader-member exchange model is somewhat difficult to apply in this case because the pastor is one person and the congregation includes many people. However, the stages of role development certainly would apply. At some point, a pastor should get to the role making phase where he or she negotiates with the congregation on the nature of their role and the direction of the church. Certainly, in some congregations, the pastor is kept on tight leash by the congregation and never really gets to this phase. This kind of pastor may ultimately end up in the out-group (even as a group of 1) where the congregation does not trust him/her and provides little support. A pastor who is a member of the out-group will be on the path of leaving the congregation. Conversely, a pastor who is trusted by the congregation and has a relationship characterized by high support and mutual influence will be a member of the in-group and will likely stay.

TEST ITEMS (corresponding text page number is listed for each item) True/False Items T

1.

F

2.

F T

3.

4.

T

5.

F

6.

T

7.

F F

8.

9.

T

10.

Anticipatory socialization primarily involves the process of learning about certain occupations before entering the organization. (p. 121) Janelle just received word that she has progressed through the probationary period of her new job and she will now be compensated and considered a "regular" employee. Janelle is entering the encounter phase of socialization. (p. 122) Heiss and Carmack (2012) find that humor does not affect anxiety levels. (p. 123) Role-related information encompasses the information, skills, procedures, and rules that an individual must grasp to perform on the job. (p. 124) The role making phase of development is a time when the supervisor evaluates a newcomer‘s skills, talents, and motivations based on observations of the newcomer‘s response to requests. (p.

130) Even though Lily realizes she is a new employee, she decides that she deserves an extra coffee break and will go ahead and take one and see if anything negative happens. This is an example of the information seeking tactic of surveillance. (p. 129) If a newcomer watches someone performing a task very similar to what they will be doing, they are engaging in an observing information seeking tactic. (p. 129) Social media is rarely used as an information gathering tool by employers. (p. 126) Recent research has not found any link between personality type and match to an organization. (p.

128) Klatzke (2008) found that leave-takers craft different messages for different audiences upon their exit to facilitate certain impressions. (p. 134)

Multiple Choice Items 87

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1.

Tempest, a new employee at Litter and Kibbles Pet Supplies, arrived at work this morning at 9 a.m. only to find that all the other employees had been working since 6 a.m. She was not aware that the workday at this company began at such an early hour. Tempest has just experienced which phase of socialization? a. encounter (*) (p. 122) b. role routinization c. anticipatory socialization d. unrealistic job preview e. metamorphosis

2.

Jacob has been hinting that he loves to bowl and would like to join the company bowling team in order to get to know his new coworkers. He is probably using which one of the following information seeking tactics? a. in-group b. observing c. testing limits d. indirect questions (*) (p. 129) e. direct questions

3.

When an organization tries to influence the adaptation of individuals, the process of _____ is occurring. a. socialization (*) (p. 119) b. individualization c. encounter d. metamorphosis

4.

The state reached at the ―completion‖ of the socialization process is called a. anticipatory socialization. b. metamorphosis. (*) (p. 121) c. encounter. d. individualization.

5.

In order to fulfill the requirements of her new job, Jade must attend a seminar on desk-top publishing.

Through this seminar, she will learn __________ information. a. role-related (*) (p. 124) b. overt c. cultural d. anticipatory

6.

According to Smith and Dougherty (2012), found that American workers held a _______ of retirement as the ultimate marker of freedom from routine and the financial need to work. a. realistic view b. ―master narrative‖ (*) (p. 134) c. secure plan d. none of the above

7.

According to more recent research on newcomer socialization, ________ are just as important in the role development process as the supervisor and subordinate. a. peers (*) (pp. 131-132) b. family members c. vendors d. professors

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8.

The in-group, out-group continuum refers to the _________ of leader-member relationships. a. quantity b. quality (*) (p. 132) c. content d. informalness e. a and b

9.

Which of the following is not a tactic used by newcomers to seek information? a. in-group relationships (*) (p. 129) b. disguising conversations c. surveillance d. third party questions

10.

If a newcomer tries to see how far he or she can deviate from an organizational rule and observe the subsequent reaction, the _________information seeking tactic is being used. a. overt questions b. indirect questions c. surveillance d. testing limits (*) (p. 129)

Fill-in-the-Blank Items 1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

10.

There are two components of the organizational assimilation process: socialization and (individualization). (pp. 119-120) The information your family and friends tell you about what it's like to be a high school teacher before you decide to get your teaching certification is a form of (anticipatory) socialization. (pp. 121-122) (Role-related) information and organizational culture are the two classes of information that make up the content of socialization. (p. 124) A (―master narrative‖) is held by American workers in viewing retirement as freedom from routine and the financial need to work. (p. 134) According to Heiss and Carmack (2012), (humor) can be used to communicate (organizational affiliation), where it is clear the newcomer is part of the group. (p. 123) (Disguising conversations) is a newcomer information seeking strategy in which the new employee covertly uses everyday discourse to gain information. (p. 129) The phase in which a supervisor and subordinate exchange resources in the further development of role definitions is referred to as (role making). (p. 132) Joey is being asked by his supervisor to do a variety of tasks which seem to him like tests of his motivation and abilities. He is probably experiencing the (role-taking) phase of the role development process. (p. 132) Employers increasingly look at (social media like Facebook) to provide information about a potential employee‘s education and experience, but they also can discover embarrassing information. (p. 126) (Metamorphosis) is the final stage of the socialization process when the new employee has made the transition from outsider to insider. (pp. 123-124)

Essay Questions 1.

Today is Dudley's first day of employment as manager of Hill of Beans, a popular coffee house. Describe the phases of socialization he has to look forward to. Be sure to define each phase and highlight communication by offering examples of some typical interactions he may have at each stage in the process. (pp. 120-124)

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2.

Describe how the organizational exit process is similar to the organizational socialization process.

Describe how the organizational exit process is different from the organizational socialization process.

How can the organizational socialization process help or hinder the exit process? (pp. 120-134)

3.

Describe the role that humor can play during the organizational entry process. What is helpful about it and what might create difficulties, according to Heiss and Carmack (2012)? (p. 123)

4.

Marisa is a member of the in-group and Zen is considered an out-group member within your department.

Compare and contrast their likely experiences in the organization, concentrating on communication interactions with the supervisor and coworkers. (pp. 130-132)

5.

The employment interview is an important tool in the business world today. Describe the three basic functions that the employment interview serves and how each function is important in the assimilation process. (pp. 127-128)

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CHAPTER 8 DECISION-MAKING PROCESSES CHAPTER OUTLINE After Reading This Chapter…

Models of the Decision-Making Process Rational Models of Decision Making Alternatives to Rational Models Case in Point: Personal Finance Decisions Case in Point: Big Data Small-Group Decision Making Descriptive Models of Small-Group Decision Making Effective Small-Group Decision Making Beyond Rational Group Processes Participation and Collaboration Participation in Decision Making The Affective Model The Cognitive Model Workplace Democracy Collaboration Processes Communication and Organizational Knowledge Spotlight on Scholarship: Who Are the Experts?

Summary Discussion Questions Key Concepts Case Study: Too Many Majors

SUGGESTIONS FOR ACTIVITIES Activity 8.1: In groups, have students make a decision to illustrate the decision-making process. A variety of decision exercises that would work for this activity are probably familiar to teachers of organizational communication (e.g., what to take on a trip to the moon, etc.). The decision-making exercise presented here is adapted from Hall, D.T., Bowen, D.D., Lewicki, R.J., & Hall, F.S. (1975), Experiences in Management and Organizational Behavior, Chicago: St. Clair Press.

Ajax Electric Light is a nonunion manufacturing company that produces small light components including a type often used in automobiles. Two years ago the company was able to add a large automobile manufacturer to its list of customers, thus increasing production and personnel. At about the same time, the company was threatened with an equal employment opportunity suit that resulted in its instituting an affirmative action plan. Under this plan, the company has been recruiting additional women and minority members into its workforce.

Due to major economic shifts, the management at Ajax is anticipating a decrease in orders from the auto firm. In preparation for this, each department head has been asked to rank employees in the event that Ajax has to lay off personnel. Below you will find biographical data for seven people employed in one of the wiring department sections. Assuming that you were in charge, how would you rank the seven? Rank them according to the order in which they should be laid off—that is, the person ranked number one is to be laid off first, etc.

• Burt Greene. White male, age 45, married, 4 children, 5 years with company, reputed to be an alcoholic, bad work 91

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record.

• Nan Nushka. White female, age 26, married, no children, husband has steady job, 6 months with company, hired after affirmative action plan went into effect, average work record to date, saving to buy a house.

• Joe Jefferson. White male, age 24, married, no children but wife is pregnant, 3 years with the company, going to college at night, erratic performance record attributed to work/study conflicts.

• Johnny Jones. Black male, age 20, unmarried, 1 year with company, high performance ratings, reputed to be shy--a "loner," wants to start his own business someday.

• Livonia Long. Black female, age 49, widow, 3 grown children, 2 years with company, steady work record, but takes little initiative.

• Ward Watt. White male, age 30, recently divorced, 1 child, 3 years with company, good worker.

• Rosa Sanchez. Hispanic woman, age 45, 6 children, husband disabled 1 year ago, trying to help support family, 3 months with company, and no performance appraisal data available.

After students have decided on their rankings in groups, debrief the exercise with the class as a whole. Compare the rankings and have groups discuss the criteria they used to make their decisions. Discuss the difficulty of making a fully "rational" decision in the face of incomplete information, unclear criteria, and different value systems.

Compare various group decision-making styles and discuss the effect of these styles on the group decision and the satisfaction of group members.

Activity 8.2: In small groups, have students identify specific pieces of knowledge they have about the university.

Then have them classify the knowledge in the categories Tsoukas (2010) identified: synoptic knowledge, cultural knowledge, improvisational knowledge. Try to come up with examples of all three. Have the students identify how they learned this knowledge.

Activity 8.3: In groups or as individuals, have students design a blueprint for running their organizational communication class as a democratic system. Discuss their blueprints, pointing out the different ways ―participation‖ can be instantiated in organizations and highlighting the advantages and challenges that would be associated with such an organizational form. Use the ―paradoxes of participation‖ presented in the chapter to guide the discussion.

CASE STUDY SOLUTION (TOO MANY MAJORS) 1.

The Ad Hoc Committee used a rational model in which they conducted a systematic search for potential solutions to the enrollment problem and then made a careful evaluation of the possibilities. They then recommended three potential solutions. They also used an optimizing model because they appear to be looking for the single best solution from several possibilities. The Undergraduate Curriculum Committee used analogical process where the committee looked to the experienced manager (Dr. Tanake) who had great familiarity with the issue from his previous experiences. He argued that the department had faced this decision in the past and that enrollment would decline on its own in the future as it had in the past. This is an intuitive process. The Ad Hoc Committee‘s approach is probably going to be more effective as the increase in enrollment does seem quite large and is probably unusual compared to previous increases.

Although the Undergraduate Curriculum Committee‘s approach is more commonly used in organizational decision making, a rational model is likely to identify the best solution, particularly when a problem does not have a historical precedence.

2.

Chelsea should utilize her typical participative style as the research does indicate a better commitment to decisions made through participative methods. Enrollment management is an issue that directly affects each faculty member and the large increase in majors has to be affecting workloads. Each faculty member has a vested interest in the outcome of this decision so it is important they be committed to it. In addition, faculty members are likely to feel more valued if they make the decision. At the same time, Chelsea is 92

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facing a split in her faculty over what direction to go, and it is likely to be a difficult battle. That is a disadvantage of using a participative approach because some individuals may feel like they have ―lost.‖ It is important, though, for faculty from both sides to have the chance to convince each other. Even if one side does not get what they want in the decision, the research indicates they may be more likely to be committed to the final decision because they did have a voice in the process.

3.

Chelsea could take note of Hirokawa and Gouran‘s Functional Theory of Group Decision Making to guide her through this decision-making process. As the leader, she needs to make sure the department is clear about the issue that needs to be resolved (uncontrolled growth in enrollment), she needs to outline the characteristics the solution must possess in order to be acceptable (it slows enrollment growth, it maintains the academic integrity of the program, it serves students‘ needs), she needs to provide a list of relevant solutions based on the work of both committees, she needs to make sure the department discusses and examines each solution in terms of the previously agreed-upon characteristics of an acceptable choice (this will mean she will have to monitor the conversation and make sure it stays on track), and finally she needs to point out to the group that the final solution should represent the best fit to the characteristics of an acceptable solution identified earlier. To make sure the group is making the decision effectively, one should watch for any communication behaviors that do not follow the Functional Theory or illustrate symptoms of groupthink. For example, Chelsea should make sure the faculty does not put pressure on individuals who disagree with the thinking of other members.

4.

The Ad Hoc Committee relied on synoptic knowledge based on a systematic survey of all other campus departments. This information was likely encoded in course catalogs and other information systems retained by the university. Their approach represented information-based knowledge management. The Undergraduate Curriculum Committee relied more on cultural knowledge or an understanding of what had happened in the past, according to Dr. Tanaka. Their approach represented interaction-based knowledge management. Chelsea may have to rely on improvisational knowledge to deal with the unique aspects of the situation at hand. In terms of adapting to changes, if Chelsea can provide the data to make the case for change and also argue how the department has adapted to change in the past and it is part of their culture, she may be successful in getting the department to make future changes.

TEST ITEMS (corresponding text page number is listed for each item) True/False Items F T

1.

2.

F

3.

T

4.

F

5.

T

6.

F

7.

T

8.

F F

9.

10.

Improvisational knowledge is typically stored in Instruction Manuals. (p. 151) A solution-oriented path of small-group decision making does not involve any activity related to problem definition or analysis. (p. 144) In an optimizing model of decision making, the search is not for a single optimal solution but for a solution that will work well enough. (p. 140) Intuitive decision making depends on the decision maker accessing relevant chunks of information and putting it to use. (p. 142) Theory and research suggest that decision making is a perfectly rational process of information search and decision choice. (p. 140) In the formulation stage of decision making, the team might conduct focus group research. (p.

140) Groupthink refers to a mode of thinking where a group is more concerned with high quality decision making than cohesiveness. (p. 144) The cognitive model of participation in decision making is related to the human resources approach to management. (p. 148) Workplace democracy would easily solve all the problems in today‘s organizations. (p. 149) Cultural knowledge deals with unusual situations and must move beyond what is encoded in synoptic knowledge. (p. 151) 93

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Multiple Choice Items 1.

When people make personal financial decisions, they often rely on a. rational principles. b. a normative model of decision. c. bounded rationality d. ―heuristics.‖ (*) (p. 141)

2.

Taylor would like to sign up for an organizational communication class, and she wants to decide who is the single best instructor in the department from which to take the class. Taylor's decision-making process would best be characterized as a. a rational model. b. an optimizing model. (*) (p. 140) c. an emergent model. d. a multiple sequence model.

3.

Julian‘s coworkers often come to him for information about how their company handled disgruntled customers in the past since he has worked at the company for 25 years. He heard lots of information about the way things have been handled in the past, which helped him understand the organizational system. The information he provides is not written down, but it is invaluable in helping his coworkers in making decisions about how to deal with difficult customers. Julian‘s information is an example of ______ knowledge. a. explicit b. descriptive c. vigilant d. cultural(*) (p. 151)

4.

Phase models of small-group decision making assume that a. decisions are made through a rigid and unitary sequence of group activities. (*) (p.143) b. groups reach decisions through a variety of decision paths. c. a subgroup must engage in the devil's advocacy role for sound decisions to be made. d. effective decisions take the group through higher level needs where satisfaction is achieved.

5.

Simon (1987) points out that intuitive decision making is a. logical. b. illogical. c. neither logical or illogical. (*) (p. 142) d. none of the above

6.

Allie works for a large manufacturing firm and enjoys the feeling of being a ―cog‖ in the machine and being able to leave work behind when she leaves the plant. When she is forced to participate in a new workplace democracy program, she thinks, ―If this is democracy, how come they can make me go to these meetings.‖ What paradox of participation does Allie illustrate? a. the paradox of agency b. the paradox of identity c. the paradox of power (*) (p. 150) d. the paradox of structure

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7.

Rodrick, a management consultant, believes that organizations should engage in participative decision making because the increased information flow which results from employee participation leads to better decision making. Rodrick believes in the _______________ model of participative processes. a. exigency b. affective c. d.

cognitive (*) (p. 148) contingency

8.

The belief that many government officials had that the levees in New Orleans would protect it from the devastating flood waters of Hurricane Katrina represent which symptom of groupthink? a. illusion of morality b. self-censorship c. direct pressure on dissidents d. illusion of invulnerability (*) (p. 145)

9.

Treem (2012) found that experts a. transcend established behaviors by doing things such as ignoring instructions. b. create opportunities to specialize. c. handle large quantities of information. d. all of the above (*) (p. 152)

10.

―Be self-managing to reach organizational goals‖ would be a message that would represent which paradox of participation? a. structure b. power c. agency d. power (*) (p. 150)

Fill-in-the-Blank Items 1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

10.

The (affective model) of participation suggests that participation leads to attainment of employee higher order needs which in turn leads to job satisfaction. (p. 147) (Symbolic convergence theory) considers the role of communication such as stories and jokes in creating a feeling of group identity. (p. 146) The concept of (bounded rationality) says that our decision-making powers are often limited by cognitive capacity and organizational constraints. (p. 141) (Information-based knowledge management) is most concerned with tracking data and developing processess for cataloguing and retrieving those data. (p. 153) Decision making based upon past experiences in similar contexts is said to be (analogical) decision making. (p. 142) (Interorganizational collaboration) can lead to tensions regarding both how contact is structured and how relationships evolve and change. (p. 151) A (multiple sequence model) represents the variety of decision paths a group may take when making a decision. (p. 143) (Groupthink) characterizes a situation where there is more concern with maintaining group relations than there is with making high quality decisions. (p. 144) (Bona fide group perspective) examines factors such as shifting membership and permeable group boundaries in group research. (p. 146) The (agency paradox) concerns an individual‘s sense of responsibility, autonomy, and cooperation within the participative system. (p. 150)

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Essay Questions 1.

Explain the different kinds of knowledge one can have in an organization and how it affects organizations. (pp. 151-152)

2.

You are a member of a long-standing policy committee at work. The committee has been asked to come up with suggestions for a system of peer performance evaluation to be instituted during the coming year. You realize that this is an important decision, and you also realize that your committee has a tendency to care more about getting along than about making a good decision. What steps could you take in the decisionmaking process to be sure that your group does not fall prey to "groupthink" and makes a high quality decision? (pp. 144-146)

3.

Compare and contrast the affective and cognitive models of participative decision making. How do these models differ in their conceptualizations of the links between motivation, productivity, and satisfaction? (pp. 147-149)

4.

You and a coworker have been asked to investigate new procedures for taking inventory at the hardware store you work for. How would you go about this task if you were taking a rational approach to decision making? How would you approach this task if you were taking an analogical approach to decision making? (pp. 139-143)

5.

Why does participation in workplace decisions create paradoxes? Describe the paradoxes identified by Stohl and Cheney and give an example of a specific organizational decision-making case in which these paradoxes occur. (p. 150)

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CHAPTER 9 CONFLICT MANAGEMENT PROCESSES CHAPTER OUTLINE After Reading This Chapter…

Conceptualizing the Conflict Process Defining Conflict Levels of Organizational Conflict Phases of Organizational Conflict Managing Organizational Conflict Conflict Styles Description Critique of Conflict Styles Construct New Directions Bargaining and Negotiation Case in Point: Working with Jerks Third-Party Conflict Resolution Spotlight on Scholarship: Framing Intractable Conflict Factors Influencing the Conflict Management Process Personal Factors Relational Factors Cultural Factors A Feminist View of Conflict Case in Point: Cat Fight Summary Discussion Questions Key Concepts Case Study: The Problem with Teamwork SUGGESTIONS FOR ACTIVITIES Activity 9.1: Have students take a self-test to identify their conflict management style. A wide variety of conflict management style inventories are available. A number of these are included in a special issue on organizational conflict styles instruments published by Management Communication Quarterly in 1988 (Volume 1, Number 4). For example, the Ross and DeWine measure included in this issue is a self-report measure that is easy to administer and is useful in illustrating some of the concepts that undergird most style inventories (e.g., concern for others, concern for self, concern for issue). After taking and scoring the inventory, discuss the exercise in terms of (1) whether obtained scores match what students think they typically do in conflict situations, (2) the extent to which the person or situation would influence their use of conflict management styles, and (3) the critiques of style approaches discussed in the text.

Activity 9.2: Use the case study for this chapter (The Problems with Teamwork) as the basis for a role-play exercise. Choose two students (or classroom assistants) to play the roles of Jill and Mike. Then, ask a student to play the role of Adam and attempt a third-party resolution of the conflict Jill and Mike are experiencing. After giving the first Adam a chance to settle the conflict, have another student step in to see if another strategy might work better.

Continue this "tag-team" conflict resolution until the conflict is solved or a variety of strategies have been tried.

After the role play, debrief the exercise by discussing the different strategies used by the third-party mediators and the success of these various strategies. Also consider the role of personal characteristics in the creation and escalation of conflict.

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Activity 9.3: Select a work-based television show like The Office in which the episode centers around an organizational conflict. Have the students identify the three I‘s of the conflict, different conflict management styles that are used, and how a third party conflict resolution role could be used to resolve at least one of the conflicts in the show. Students can either write a short paper or can report back their conclusions through class discussion.

CASE STUDY SOLUTION (THE PROBLEM WITH TEAMWORK) 1.

Mike and Jill bring in predispositions that affect the handling of their conflict. When the idea of concurrent engineering was proposed, Mike thought it was a good idea, but didn‘t think it would work. He viewed his role in the conflict as providing the design engineers with ―a dose of reality‖ about how manufacturing works. He views the design engineers as ―uppity‖ individuals who have unrealistic ideas for what can be accomplished. He feels in the past, the design people pushed their ideas down manufacturing‘s throats and that the old way of keeping the two separate was fine. These predispositions are causing Mike to continue to view the design people in the same in their current conflict. He thinks Jill is trying to force her ideas about how to fix the booster seat and he doesn‘t want to work it out. Jill views herself as assertive and strong-minded. She believes she has to approach conflict in this way in order to survive in a maledominated workplace. She views the manufacturing people as unwilling to cooperate and participate in the new process. She feels manufacturing automatically rejects any ideas she proposes. These predispositions are limiting Jill‘s patience in dealing with the manufacturing and are preventing her from hearing their concerns.

2.

On their own, Mike and Jill probably are not going to be able to use a collaboration style that would make them both winners. Some sort of compromise will need to occur where Jill will need to come up with booster seat design that may not be the ideal from her perspective, but can be manufactured in a reasonable way. Mike will need to be receptive to some modifications in the design of the booster seat that will fix the problem, but can still meet some of manufacturing‘s needs. Mike and Jill‘s predispositions will make it difficult for them to work together. Neither one believes the other is willing to work together so it is more likely they will use an avoidance approach. That has been the style in the past.

3.

Adam needs to point out to both Mike and Jill that they both originally supported the idea of concurrent engineering. That is something the two have in common. There needs to be discussion of how the system would actually work in Auto Safety Products before Mike and Jill begin working on a specific project.

There also needs to be discussion of the predispositions that each of them holds about the other and some understanding needs to be reached about their issues with how the other is approaching this new system. In order for the system to work, it is important for Adam to maintain a mediator/advisor role. Concurrent engineering requires both manufacturing and design to interact with each other and to come to decisions on their own so it would not be appropriate for Adam to maintain control over the process or the outcome.

Instead, it is his job to facilitate the communication between the two with the goal of getting them to resolve this conflict on their own.

4.

A feminist perspective would point out that the system of concurrent engineering values feminine attributes. In order for it to work, community, sharing of experience and emotion, collaboration, and interaction are essential. Mike and Jill are both operating from a masculine perspective where they are focused on their individual interests and really are in a competitive situation. Concurrent engineering requires both Mike and Jill to shift their perspective and approach to their work. It is Adam‘s job to help them change those perspectives and to help Mike and Jill lay the ground rules for how they will work together.

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TEST ITEMS (corresponding text page number is listed for each item) True/False Items F

1.

T

2.

F F

3.

4.

F F

5.

6.

T

7.

T

8.

T

9.

F

10.

The main difference between the accommodating and the avoidance conflict management styles is the level of concern for self. (p. 162) Perceived conflict involves at least one of the parties in the conflict realizing his/her goals are incompatible with the other party‘s goals. (p. 161) Garner‘s (2013) work argues it is not necessary to package dissent with a solution. (pp. 164-165) In distributive bargaining, the parties are working with a "fixed pot" from which each wants to create a win-win situation. (p. 166) An arbitrator facilitates a dispute but holds no decision power. (p. 167) When a mediator uses procedural tactics, he or she will regulate the tone of the interaction. (p.

167) In viewing conflict from a cultural perspective, a negotiator would want to consider the conflict ―scripts‖ that exist within a particular culture. (p. 170) Dixon is experiencing perceived conflict if he is thinking about his incompatible working relationship with his supervisor but he has not mentioned this concern to anyone. (p. 161) According to a gendered view of conflict, the qualities of effective bargainers are linked to masculinity. (p. 171) If a mediator is attempting to secure information and clarify misunderstandings, he or she is using directive tactics. (p. 167)

Multiple Choice Items 1.

According to Putnam and Kolb (2000), a feminist view of conflict is based on a. mutual gain. b. settlement. c. co-construction through collaboration. (*) (p. 171) d. information exchange.

2.

What are the three key components of Putnam and Poole's definition of conflict? a. incompatible goals, escalation, and negotiation b. incompatible goals, interdependence, and interaction (*) (p. 159) c. interaction, congruent goals, and transaction d. latent, perceived, and manifest

3.

Communication is enacted at which phase in the conflict process? a. felt conflict b. latent conflict c. manifest conflict (*) (p. 161) d. perceived conflict

4.

Georgette has always thought she and Ted had the perfect marriage. Every time they disagree, she pushes for her side, and he wants her happy, so she always gets her way. Georgette uses a __________ style of conflict resolution and Ted uses a __________ style. a. competitive/avoidance 99

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b.

competitive/accommodative (*) (p. 162)

c. d.

collaborative/avoidance collaborative/accommodative

5.

John, as a third party conflict resolution participant, tells a joke at the beginning of a meeting with Jill and Anthony, who are in the process of a nasty fight over a work related issue. John is using which kind of tactic? a. procedural b. nondirective c. directive d. reflexive (*) (p. 167)

6.

Distributive bargaining is characterized by which of the following? a. maximizing joint gains b. compromises (*) (p. 166) c. open sharing of information d. variable-sum issues

7.

This way of framing conflict involves how disputants see the other parties in the conflict. a. identity framing b. characterization framing (*) (p. 168) c. management framing d. individual framing

8.

Susie and Rashida are secretaries to two different department chairs in the same office suite. Susie is very talkative and is a natural extravert. Rashida is very focused on completing reports and spreadsheets and needs complete silence when working. Both view their jobs very differently (Susie has a customer service focus while Rashida views herself as a support to her department chair), and their bosses are very supportive of their differing approaches to the job. Their different personalities results in an ongoing conflict that is impossible to resolve and is very messy. This is an example of a(n) a. solvable conflict. b. intractable conflict. (*) (p. 168) c. characterization conflict. d. reflexive conflict.

9.

Eleni works as a conflict arbitrator for the federal government. Her role differs from a management/union mediator because a.

Eleni is only able to facilitate disputes. b.

Eleni can make a binding decision about the conflict. (*) (p. 167) c.

Eleni has no decision power. d.

Eleni can only be hired by nonunion shops.

10.

In communicating dissent, one should a. present persuasive direct factual appeals. b. package dissent with a solution. c. express ideas to someone who can make a difference. d. all of the above (*) (pp. 164-165)

Fill-in-the-Blank Items

100

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1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

10.

(Nondirective) tactics are being used when a mediator attempts to secure information and clarify misunderstandings. (p. 167) The presence of incompatible goals creating the grounds for conflict occurs during the (latent) phase of conflict. (p. 161) (Gender) stereotypes are not viable explanations for understanding the impact of personal factors on choices about conflict resolution strategies. (p. 169) (Intractable) conflict lasts for a long time and is often very difficult to resolve. (p. 168) The (aftermath) conflict phase is marked by the impact the conflict has on the ongoing work relationship of the parties involved. (p. 161) (Identity frames) refers to how stakeholders describe their own roles in the conflict. (p. 168) A (mediator) attempts to help the parties facilitate the dispute but holds no decision power. (p. 167) Negotiation is gendered in that the qualities of bargainers such as analytic rationality and strategic thinking are linked to (masculinity). (p. 171) During the (manifest) stage, conflict strategies are enacted in communicative interaction. (p. 161) Our cultural language will sometimes negatively describe conflicts among women as (catfights). (p. 172)

Essay Questions 1.

You have been hired by the president of Wheels Keep Turning bike shop to mediate a conflict between the design department and the manufacturing department about the tradeoffs between appearance and quality.

The president has reminded you to keep in mind that profits are the number one concern but other than that she has given you free reign to resolve the conflict. Outline your approach to this situation, highlighting your role, the strategy you will use, and the impact you think your intervention will have. (p. 167)

2.

Compare and contrast three of the five conflict strategies included in the managerial conflict grid. Define each strategy, offer an example of its use, compare it to the other strategies you have chosen, and discuss one limitation of each strategy. (pp. 162-165)

3.

How might a feminist view of conflict differ from more traditional views of conflict? What does that model of conflict look like? How might this view play out in an actual workplace conflict? (pp. 171-172)

4.

How are conflicts between women in the workplace stereotyped? What effect do these stereotypes have on how women are viewed as well as how workplace conflict is dealt with? (p. 172)

5.

Think of a conflict that you were involved in at work recently. Describe the situation in detail and discuss how the conflict was resolved. How would you characterize the approach that was used to resolve the conflict according to what you have learned in this chapter of the text? Now talk about how the situation could have been handled better using any appropriate approach discussed in the book. Remember to focus on communication in your response. (pp. 158-174)

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CHAPTER 10 ORGANIZATIONAL CHANGE AND LEADERSHIP PROCESSES CHAPTER OUTLINE After Reading This Chapter…

Organizational Change Processes The Complexity of Organizational Change Reactions to Organizational Change Communication in the Change Process ―Unplanned‖ Change: Organizational Crisis Spotlight on Scholarship: Equivocal Responses to Crisis Organizational Leadership Models of Leadership Case in Point: Leaderless Music Case in Point: Horse Whispering for Leaders Communication and Leadership Summary Discussion Questions Key Concepts Case Study: Leading Nurses through Hospital Change SUGGESTIONS FOR ACTIVITIES Activity 10.1: Break the class into small groups. Consider a major change the university is considering for the next year (e.g., tuition increase, new major, change in the grading system). Assign each group one of the strategies for communicating change. Ask each group to identify what actions the university would take in communicating the change to students that would represent their perspective strategy. Each group should also make a conclusion about which strategy the university is actually using.

Activity 10.2: Ask the students to consider candidates running for an office (president, governor, and so on). Have them analyze each candidate‘s leadership ability based on a trait approach, a style approach, and a contingency approach. They should then decide which approach provides the best explanation of the effectiveness of the candidates‘ leadership abilities.

Activity 10.3: Select an organizational crisis that has received national publicity (e.g., botched Obamacare rollout) and have students identify what happened during each phase of the crisis (precrisis, crisis, and postcrisis). Ask the students to explain how the crisis could have been planned more effectively and whether it could have been averted.

CASE STUDY SOLUTION (LEADING NURSES THROUGH HOSPITAL CHANGE) 1.

The changes in the nursing department at University Hospital appear to be supported by management. It is part of a hospital-wide effort to improve financial and care performances. The care coordinator role is part of a larger effort to implement a program of ―differentiated nursing practice.‖ There is a little bit of ownership tension for implementing the change. Jen and Hannah direct the department. Jen seems comfortable being responsible for directing the change although she is not particularly interested in figuring out the details. She would like to leave that to the individual nurses who were selected to fulfill the new roles. Hannah is feeling a bit overwhelmed by the change and may not want to take ownership of it. The case study doesn‘t really discuss whether the nurses are resisting the change other than a comment from one care coordinator who complains about the stressful nature of the change. It is likely the nurses are 102

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experiencing a lot of uncertainty as the job descriptions of the care coordinators are very ambiguous. It is not clear how they should do these new jobs.

One aspect of this change that is different from traditional patterns of planned change is the ambiguousness of the new roles. The hospital is providing little training even though it realizes the care coordinators would need training. They also deliberately made the job descriptions unclear asking the care coordinators to design the job ―the best way possible.‖ In a planned change, organizations typically spend more time on eliminating the uncertainty associated with the change.

2.

Someone who is fulfilling this new position would need to know what the boundaries of their responsibilities are. That person would need to know what decisions about patient care fall under his/her responsibility. He or she would need to know how turf issues should be dealt with. For example, if there is a conflict over when a patient is to be admitted, how will the issue be resolved? That person would also need to know much more about the hospital‘s complex organizational structure. The uncertainty of the role will appeal to individuals who enjoy the challenge of developing a new role. For others, the uncertainty will lead to stress and worries about the conflict that inevitably arise as he or she develops the role. The advantage of this kind of ambiguity is that it gives the organization and the individual flexibility to deal with unique patient situations. Every case is not the same and the coordinator needs to be able to handle each patient on a case by case basis. The disadvantage of this ambiguity will come when others who are responsible for the patient‘s care disagree with actions the care coordinator is taking. It is unclear how those conflicts can be resolved if no guidelines are set for the parameters of the coordinator‘s responsibilities.

3.

Jen represents a transformational leader who may inspire the nurses in the department to develop the care coordinator role into an effective one. Her charisma can serve the department well in motivating the nurses to deal with complex situations that will occur in these roles. Hannah is more of a transactional leader who has been a steady hand guiding the department. Hannah‘s knowledge of the ins and outs of the hospital is absolutely vital in this change. Her knowledge may lessen some of the ambiguity these nurses are facing.

Her contacts within the hospital may smooth out conflict resulting from this change.

4.

Having both Jen and Hannah work together would be the ideal solution. Giving each of them responsibility for specific aspects of the change would be the best way to handle. Jen could show the nurses how to use imagination and ingenuity to develop new roles in this system. Hannah could work with the other hospital departments to develop a way for these new roles to work with their departments.

TEST ITEMS (corresponding text page number is listed for each item) True/False Items T

1.

F T

2.

3.

T

4.

F T

5.

6.

F F

7.

8.

Recent research indicates that most change agents favor a strategy in which participation is ―restricted‖ or just used in an ―advisory‖ capacity. (p. 180) A match between words and deeds is not an important part of exemplification. (p. 187) Organizations advocating a trait approach to leadership often use personality tests to select people for leadership roles. (pp. 185-186) Getting leaders out of their comfort zones and interacting with others in ways they‘ve never tried before can enhance leadership effectiveness. (p. 188) Withhold and uphold is the most effective strategy to communicate change. (p. 181) Discursive leadership is a way of looking at how leadership occurs through interactions among organizational actors. (p. 190) The concept of exchange is central to transformational leadership. (p. 187) During a crisis, unequivocal messages should always be communicated. (p. 184) 103

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F

9.

F

10.

During the postcrisis phase, communication deals with immediate issues of information dissemination. (p. 183) A leader should avoid using metaphors to frame communication when a word or phrase is in danger of overuse. (p. 190)

Multiple Choice Items 1.

The managerial strategy for communicating about change where the management focuses on fundamental issues related to change success and allows employees the creative freedom to explore various possibilities is a. identify and reply. b. tell and sell. c. underscore and explore. (*) (p. 181) d. spray and pray.

2.

Which one of the following is not a key theme in the research regarding reactions to the change process? a. management support b. resistance c. ownership tension d. community support (*) (pp. 178-180)

3.

All of the following are typical problems identified with the change process except: a. unrealistic expectations b. lack of meaningful participation c. purpose of the program was not clear d. management support (*) (pp. 178-180)

4.

Reactions to organizational change by lower level employees that interfere with change implementation processes are called a. the ownership tension. b. resistance. (*) (pp. 179-180) c. group feedback. d. valence responses.

5.

Joan has a conversation with her supervisor, Judy. She asks Judy about a rumor that the nursing home is about to be sold to a new company. Judy knows the rumor is true, but tells Joan that as upper management has said, there are no plans for the home to be sold at this time. Which strategy for communicating about change is Judy using? a. spray and play b. identify and reply c. underscore and explore d. withhold and uphold (*) (p. 181)

6.

Apologizing for mistakes the organization has made is likely to occur during which stage of a crisis? a. postcrisis stage (*) (p. 183) b. precrisis stage c. crisis stage d. initial crisis stage

7.

An unequivocal message during an organizational crisis is most appropriate a. when there is potential for litigation. b. when the organization has competing and conflicting goals.

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c. d.

when there is a limited amount of meaningful information. none of the above (*) (p. 184)

8.

The ―match‖ of the leadership style to the characteristics of the situation is addressed in which of the following theories? a. trait theories of leadership b. style theories of leadership c. contingency theory of leadership (*) (p. 187) d. none of the above

9.

This type of framing describes as subject in familiar terms. a. spin b. stories c. catchphrases (*) (p. 190) d. metaphors

10.

The idea that intelligence and self-confidence are good things for a leader to have represents which approach to leadership? a. contingency b. trait (*) (p. 185) c. comprehensive d. transformational

Fill-in-the-Blank Items 1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

10.

In the (spray and pray) approach, management showers employees with all kinds of information. (p. 181) If someone is selected as a leader because he or she possess intelligence and self-confidence, a (trait) approach to leadership is being utilized. (p. 185) (Ownership tension) is contingent on ownership of the problem and ownership of the change process by those in critical positions in the organization. (p. 179) (Schemata) , or collective beliefs about how organizations work and how change happens, can be confirmed or disrupted during an organizational change. (p. 178) (Negative) information is preferable to no information at all during an organizational change. (p. 181) The three reactions to organizational change outlined in the text are resistance, uncertainty, and (ownership tension). (p. 179) In the (precrisis stage) of an organizational crisis, organizational members can work to prevent or prepare for possible problems. (p. 183) Management focuses on fundamental issues related to change success and allows employees the freedom to explore various possibilities when it uses the (underscore and explore) approach. (p. 181) (Framing) is a way of managing meaning in which one or more aspects of the subject at hand are selected or highlighted over other aspects. (p. 189) (Symbolic participation) creates an impression of support and buy-in during the change process. (p. 181)

Essay Questions 1.

The text outlines three reactions to change in organizations. What are these three reactions? Do these reactions occur at all stages of the change process (e.g., during the processes of change development, planning specific programs, and change implementation)? Use an example or examples to illustrate your response. (pp. 178-180)

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2.

In the text, Clampitt et al. (2000) give five managerial strategies for communicating about change (spray and pray, tell and sell, underscore and explore, identify and reply, and withhold and uphold). Which of these strategies was found to be most effective and which were found to be less effective? In your answer, be sure to define and provide examples of the various communication strategies. (pp. 180-182)

3.

How does communication differ during the different phases of the evolution of an organizational crisis.

Identify examples that happened during a recent organizational crisis. (pp. 183-185)

4.

Explain why it might be best for an organization to use equivocal messages during the initial stages of an organizational crisis. (p. 184)

5.

What does it take to make a leader to be truly transformational? Identify a recent example from a well known organization and explain how that leader represents a transformational approach. (pp. 187-188)

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CHAPTER 11 PROCESSES OF EMOTION IN THE WORKPLACE CHAPTER OUTLINE After Reading This Chapter…

Emotion in the Workplace Emotion as Part of the Job Case in Point: “The Cruise from Hell” Emotion as Part of Workplace Relationships Spotlight on Scholarship: Lining Up for Emotion Emotion Rules and Emotional Intelligence Stress, Burnout, and Social Support in the Workplace Burnout Communication as a Cause of Burnout Emotional Labor as a Contributor to Burnout Empathy, Communication, and Burnout Coping with Burnout Individual and Organizational Coping Strategies Communicative Coping: Participation in Decision Making Communicative Coping: Social Support Case in Point: Stretched Thin in the Emergency Room Summary Discussion Questions Key Concepts Case Study: Inexplicable Events

SUGGESTIONS FOR ACTIVITIES Activity 11.1: By this point in the semester, students are often interested in assessing their own levels of stress and burnout. There are a number of scales that can be used for self-tests. First, the emotional exhaustion subscale of the Maslach Burnout Inventory [see scale items in Miller, K. I., Stiff, J. B., & Ellis, B. H. (1988), Communication and empathy as precursors to burnout among human service workers, Communication Monographs, 55, 250-265] provides a good general measure of the "strain" students might be experiencing. To check for general predispositions to stress, the Type A behavior pattern scale can be used [see Friedman, M., & Rosenman, R. (1974), Type A Behavior and Your Heart, New York, Knopf]. Or, students can look at general stresses in their life by taking the ―life events checklist‖ [see Holmes, T., & Rahe, R. (1967), The social readjustment rating scale, Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 11, 213-218]. When using any of these scales as self-tests, subsequent discussion can consider how these concepts fit into the general model of stress presented in the text, as well as how scores on these scales might change depending on current circumstances.

Activity 11.2: Have students divide into groups and assign each group an occupation that typically engages in ―emotional labor.‖ These occupations could include flight attendants, cocktail waitresses, funeral home directors, bill collectors, marriage counselors, and nursing home aides. Then, have the groups generate a list of the "emotion rules" and/or "communication rules" that govern the occupation. After these rules are generated, use several occupations as a springboard for class discussion. In particular, discussion could center on the extent to which the emotions required of the occupation will tend to be genuine or nongenuine, the level of deep and surface acting involved in emotional labor, and the extent to which the expression (or repression) of emotion is likely to lead to stress and burnout for individuals in these occupations.

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Activity 11.3: As a homework assignment, have students generate a list of individuals that make up their social support network. For each individual on the list, have students rank how much they can count on him/her for emotional support, for informational support (about school or job), and for instrumental support. In class, debrief this activity by considering the typical configurations of people's networks (e.g., friends or family? local or distant?), the areas in which there is a deficit of social support resources and areas in which there is a surplus of social support resources. Discuss ways that individuals can mobilize social support in times of stress.

Activity 11.4: As an in-class writing exercise, have students describe a particularly stressful situation or event that they have experienced in the last year. Options could include a job-related event, class project or assignment, or a family experience. Have them identify the particular stressors that made this situation or event difficult and describe social support issues that helped them deal with the experience (e.g., functions of social support, sources of social support). Then have students get into pairs or groups, compare their experiences, and discuss alternative options that may have been used to combat the stress and potential burnout that characterized their experiences.

CASE STUDY SOLUTION (INEXPLICABLE EVENTS) 1.

These ―special cases‖ of organizational life contrast processes of rationality and emotion that are at play in the workplace. In terms of rationality, workers like first responders had to make logical, rational decisions about how to deal with each tragedy. The survival and safety of others was dependent on their rational approach to their work. For example, the firefighters who went into the World Trade Center had to assess the situation and make decisions about what floors to go to rescue possible survivors. They attempted to use a logical method to do this rather than emotion to increase their chances they would not look over vital information that could save more people. They could not allow their own fear of danger to affect their decision-making processes. On the other hand, workers who were directly injured or saw coworkers die as a result of the planes crashing into the towers felt a sense of grief as well as fear for their own lives and those of their coworkers. In either case, there was a tension between bounded rationality and bounded emotionality present in all affected by the tragedies. Emotion was not necessarily more present, but the intensity of emotion was greater in each case as the stakes of what had occurred were literally life and death. In addition, each of these events affected large numbers of people and received extensive media coverage, causing the nature of the emotion experienced to be more intense. Emotional buzzing was occurring on a large scale as many people shared the news of the tragedy with each other through phone calls (as was the case in 9-11), text messaging (as was the case with Virginia Tech), and other forms of communication. Grief, which is not a typical everyday work emotion, was experienced in each case, causing the situation to be somewhat different than what is normally dealt with in work. Fear of the unknown also was more present. Some were concerned about terror attacks occurring elsewhere. Others worried how their businesses could come back after Hurricane Katrina. Many university students were concerned about possible shootings at their own schools. Grief and fear make it difficult to deal with situations rationally. Most workday issues don‘t typically have those two emotions present. The lack of intensity of the other emotions we experience at work may blind us to the processes of emotion in the workplace.

2.

An example of emotional labor occurred on 9-11 when the first responders, despite seeing the carnage around them, had to hold their emotions at bay and project an image of calmness and professionalism as they dealt with the immediate crisis of rescuing and taking care of the injured. Their profession requires emotional labor. An example of emotional work occurred in the wake of the bonfire tragedy as professors felt genuine emotion in response to the deaths of 12 students. Those emotions appropriately spilled over into the classroom. Students needed to see that their professors were affected by the tragedy as well. An example of compassionate communication occurred following the Virginia Tech tragedy when counselors were made available by the university to help counsel students about their grief.

Counselors are expected to be empathetic and understanding as part of their professional conduct. An example of stress occurred when the workers at the Superdome were unprepared to deal with the large numbers of New Orleans residents who showed up for shelter during Hurricane Katrina. The workload 108

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required to care for and feed 10,000 residents was simply too much and the system broke down. Burnout also occurred in the aftermath of Hurricane Katrina as workers recovered the 1,800 individuals who died in that disaster. It is emotionally exhausting work and is likely to lead to depersonalization as the workers deal with individual tragedy after individual tragedy. At some point, some workers may feel like they will never recover all the bodies, which is true in this case. Stress and emotional buzzing are likely to be very present in the midst of the inexplicable as they were all difficult situations to deal with and everyone talked about them. Burnout is likely in the aftermath as dealing with each situation is overwhelming. Living in the new normal probably allows some return to typical, everyday work emotions. A new kind of emotional labor has been required since 9-11 where it is a professional requirement to be alert and always be on the lookout for potential terrorist threats even in occupations that did not normally deal with that kind of thing previously.

3.

Organizations could be better prepared for these situations by anticipating that they will occur and have a plan for dealing with the emotional effects of these events. To avoid burnout, organizations need to make sure the workload is managed well so that workers do not become overstressed. A plan for distributing the work should be in place. We have many examples from the past that give us some idea of the kind of work that needs to be done in the face of tragedies whether it is getting people to safety, cleaning up debris, counseling individuals, and so on. We already know the tasks that need to be done and we can prepare for them. A support system should be ready to go into action that will provide informational, emotional, and instrumental support. Organizations should expect that workers will experience grief when a large scale tragedy occurs and will feel fear based on uncertainty. Preparations should be made to provide empathetic listeners who allow workers to express their grief. In addition, information should be made available that will help calm the fears based on uncertainty. At the same time, organizations should understand that they will not be in normal operating mode during these times.

Workers are going to need time to process information and process their emotions. They are also going to need help getting their work done. These practices also could help in everyday work life. Uncertainty is often a key source of emotional responses so helping to provide information will be helpful. Burnout can be avoided in the more ―normal‖ times if workload is managed well and a support system is available to workers.

TEST ITEMS (corresponding text page number is listed for each item) True/False Items F T

1.

2.

F F F

3.

4.

5.

F

6.

T F T

7.

8.

9.

T

10.

Emotional labor rarely is seen as a way to increase success and profits of the organization. (p. 198) Because they are often unaware of the organizational context in which stress occurs, friends and family members are less able to provide effective informational support. (p. 211) Workplace bullying does not have much effect on its victims. (p. 201) Role ambiguity rarely contributes to workplace stress. (p. 205) Standing in line to get through security at an airport requires little need to control emotion. (p.

200) During the Carnival Triumph disaster in 2013, providing free alcohol was more than enough to appease the frustrated passengers. (p. 197) Participation in decision making can help reduce job-related burnout. (p. 209) Supervisors are likely to provide emotional support. (pp. 210-211) Emotional intelligence indicates that an individual knows how to handle emotion effectively in the workplace. (p. 202) Emotions can spread like a wildfire in the workplace. (p. 201)

Multiple Choice Items 1.

Because emotional contagion can lead to burnout, researchers suggest that caregivers learn and practice 109

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a. b. c.

muscle relaxation. parallel responses. empathic concern. (*) (pp. 206-208)

d. e.

emotion-centered coping. none of the above

2.

Mosha realizes that he is coming dangerously close to burning out on his job as a CPA for a large manufacturing company because of the conflicting demands of his job. Consequently, he has asked his supervisor to provide a specific job description and have a meeting to formulate specific job-related goals.

This behavior is an example of which of the following coping strategies? a. emotion-centered coping b. problem-centered coping (*) (p. 208) c. appraisal-centered coping d. instrumental support e. emotional support

3.

Social support from coworkers is likely to be in the forms of a. informational and emotional. (*) (p. 211) b. informational and instrumental. c. instrumental and emotional. d. informational, instrumental, and emotional.

4.

The need to control emotion while standing in line at an airport can be seen as an a. emotional tax. (*) (p. 200) b. emotional benefit. c. emotional contagion. d. emotional laziness.

5.

Miller, Stiff, and Ellis discovered that human service workers' level of empathic concern had a positive influence on their a. communicative responsiveness. (*) (pp. 206-208) b. burnout level. c. emotional contagion. d. turnover. e. none of the above

6.

Which of the following emotional rules argues emotional displays should be managed in order to create a positive work climate? a. express emotions to the right people b. express emotions to improve situations (*) (p. 202) c. express emotions to help people d. express emotions in a professional way

7.

Being friends with a supervisor outside the workplace best represents which aspect of workplace relationships that creates the potential for intense emotion in the workplace? a. conflicting allegiances b. relational networks and emotional ―buzzing‖ c. tension between private and public in work relationships (*) (p. 201) d. it is not an issue

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8.

If Seth offers to cook dinner for Magnolia because he realizes that she is stressed about an exam she hasn't had time to study for, he is providing a. informational support. b. empathic concern. c. friendly support. d. instrumental support. (*) (p. 210)

9.

Jasmine works in an adult care facility and she is beginning to feel ineffective and to think that she's really not cut out for the job. Jasmine is experiencing a. emotional exhaustion. b. depersonalization. c. reduced personal accomplishment. (*) (p. 204) d. role ambiguity. e. role conflict.

10.

_____________ involves dealing with the negative affective outcomes of burnout. a.

Emotion-centered coping (*) (p. 208) b.

Problem-centered coping c.

Appraisal-centered coping d.

Logic-centered coping

Fill-in-the Blank Items 1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

(Stressors) are aspects of the environment that create strain on an individual. (pp. 203-204) Feelings of fatalism, sleepiness, and frustration characterize the dimension of burnout known as (emotional exhaustion). (p. 204) The (burnout) syndrome is characterized by emotional exhaustion, reduced personal accomplishment, and depersonalization of clients. (p. 204) Bernadine works as clerk in a candy store. Her boss told her that she must smile at every customer whether she feels like it or not because smiling has been shown to increase candy sales. This smiling rule is an example of (emotional labor). (p. 197) According to Miller, Stiff, and Ellis' proposed model of empathy, communication, and burnout, (emotional contagion) has a negative impact on communicative responsiveness. (pp. 207-208) (Appraisal-focused) coping involves changing your cognitive assessment of a stressful predicament. (p.

208) Participation in decision making can reduce role conflict and (role ambiguity), two major workplace stressors. (p. 209) (Instrumental support) involves the provision of facts and advice. (p. 210) The Carnival Triumph crew members constant checking on passengers and maintaining a smile on their faces the whole time despite the horrendous conditions represents work that can be called (emotional labor). (p. 197)

Essay Questions 1.

You recently came to the conclusion that you are suffering from "burnout." Describe three symptoms that may have led to this diagnosis and prescribe two strategies you might use to cope with your situation.

Provide specific examples to support your answer. (pp. 203-211)

2.

Discuss three specific stressors that influence you in your role as a student. Choose one of these stressors, and describe how you could cope with this stressor using appraisal-focused coping, problem-focused coping, and emotion-focused coping. (pp. 203-204)

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3.

Explain why there are differences in the kinds of support supervisors, coworkers, friends, and family members can provide. Describe those types of support, give examples of each, and explain why differences exist in the kinds of support each of the people mentioned above can provide. (pp. 210-211)

4.

Explain how the post 9-11 shift of viewing the customer as always right to the customer as an ongoing target of suspicion and surveillance has affected the communication of emotions in airports. (p. 200)

5.

Explain why the National Guard reservists who are serving in the Afghanistan War might be more likely to experience burnout during their tour of duty than regular military personnel. What causes of burnout may be more likely to occur and why would those causes be more likely to occur? (pp. 203-208)

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CHAPTER 12 ORGANIZATIONAL DIVERSITY PROCESSES CHAPTER OUTLINE After Reading This Chapter…

Women and Minorities in Today's Organizations Case in Point: Judging Women Stereotyping and Discrimination Relational Barriers in Organizational Systems Beyond Women and Minorities Case in Point: Sensitivity Training The Multicultural Organization The Diverse Organization: Opportunities Spotlight on Scholarship: Questioning the Business Case The Diverse Organization: Challenges Avoiding Negative Impacts of Diversity Management Programs Balancing Work and Home Managing (and Celebrating) Cultural Diversity Summary Discussion Questions Key Concepts Case Study: The Complex Challenges of Encouraging Diversity

SUGGESTIONS FOR ACTIVITIES Activity 12.1: Check with your campus audiovisual resource center for the DVD The Tale of O by Rosabeth Moss Kanter. This DVD uses simple graphics and the notions of "Xs" and "Os" to illustrate the problems associated with tokenism in the organizational context. After viewing the DVD, a class discussion could consider the problems of informal network access, stereotyping, and prominence that stem from being a cultural or gender token in organizations.

Activity 12.2: Have students gather popular press accounts of the opportunities and challenges posed by a culturally diverse organization. These accounts might include stories about sexual harassment, home work balance, the effectiveness of culturally diverse workgroups, and the challenge of instituting cultural diversity programs into "traditional" organizations. This activity could be done in a group setting by assigning each group a different topic to gather information on, and then having groups give brief presentations summarizing their findings about the "real world" of cultural and gender diversity.

Activity 12.3: Conduct surveys (perhaps on the first day of class) in which students made predictions about you, the instructor. At this point in the term, pass back the surveys to the students, then go through survey questions, looking for trends in the types of predictions students made about you. Discuss these trends by considering the notion of stereotyping and exploring the process through which their first impression of you (e.g., your gender, your appearance, your occupation) and previous information about you (e.g., from "the grapevine") influenced predictions about your attitudes and behaviors. Discuss the importance and dangers of stereotyping in the organizational environment.

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CASE STUDY SOLUTION (THE COMPLEX CHALLENGES OF ENCOURAGING DIVERSITY) 1.

The program‘s goals seem very reasonable. With a 40 percent Hispanic population, it makes sense that the school district would seek to increase the diversity of its own teaching staff. Its goal of achieving 40 percent Hispanic faculty may be difficult to reach, however. There may simply not be enough potential applicants out there to achieve that goal so the district may need to rethink whether that is possible. The attractive offers may initially attract some minority applicants, but the support system offered is not sufficient for the new minority employees to adjust. Seminars and workshops can be helpful to a point, but as indicated in Maria‘s case, the lack of available mentors is making her adjustment difficult. In addition, Maria‘s role has not been explained adequately to the other teachers. It appears to them that Maria is just receiving special treatment rather than compensation for her additional responsibilities. Her uneven performance also does not seem to warrant the special treatment. Thus, Maria is feeling isolated, which will increase the likelihood of turnover. In some ways, she may feel like she is the token Hispanic hire.

One way to address this difficulty would be to assign Maria a mentor from the current teaching staff to help her integrate into the staff at San Lucas High School. In addition, the school should work to hire at least one other Hispanic faculty member who she can share the responsibility of serving as role model with. It seems unfair to give her all the responsibility of reaching out to Hispanic students, who make up 40 percent of the students.

2.

Maria‘s performance in the classroom does need to improve. She is having difficulty maintaining control and explaining concepts to her first-year students. She has done better with her advanced classes. She is also having some difficult with playing ―favorites.‖ She is doing a good job fulfilling the role of mentoring Hispanic girls. The board should renew her appointment because she is succeeding in doing the job she was hired to do. However, the committee should also recommend that Maria work to improve her teaching skills. She may need a senior faculty mentor to help her through her teaching issues. She was hired straight out of college and needed some time to develop her teaching skills, but was asked to also serve as a role model. The committee should also recommend that Maria‘s responsibilities as a role model be more clearly described so that Maria and her colleagues understand what her role is. The committee could also recommend that more effort needs to be spent on helping minority faculty adapt to the organizational culture. Special perks may attract the employees, but if they aren‘t acculturated, they will not stay.

3.

Maria is suffering the effects of tokenism. She was hired as the only Hispanic faculty member at the high school and was expected to become one of the ―success‖ stories. She has felt isolated as a result. She also is suffering from some of the negative effects of affirmative action programs where preferential treatment was given to get her hired, but her performance as a teacher has not been at the level of the other teachers.

She also is resented because she is not willing to serve on committees, but the other teachers seem unaware of Maria‘s other responsibilities. As mentioned in the other questions, assigning Maria a mentor and including her in the informal network would help in her adjustment. Holding her accountable for her teaching performance is necessary to ensure a perception of fairness. The other faculty members need to understand that Maria has additional responsibilities that prevent her from serving on other committees.

Giving Maria a computer probably was not necessary, but giving her the extra free period probably was in light of her responsibilities. The district could help the situation for Maria and other new minority hires by clearly explaining what the role of each new hire is up front as well as what the expectations are.

TEST ITEMS (corresponding text page number is listed for each item) True/False Items F

1.

F F

2.

3.

Prejudice refers to observable negative behavior toward an organization member based on his/her cultural group identity. (p. 219) Women on the mommy track have equal opportunities for advancement in the workplace. (p. 219) Mentoring relationships are of little value to minorities and women. (pp. 220-221) 114

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T

4.

F

5.

F

6.

T

7.

F

8.

T

9.

F

10.

Women and people of color in managerial positions are often tokens or highly visible representatives of their gender or ethnic minority. (p. 221) The Employee Non-Discrimination Act prohibits discrimination against people with disabilities. (p. 222) Discrimination refers to negative attitudes toward an organizational member based upon gender or perceived culture. (p. 219) An organization in second generation affirmative action has met the legal goals and has moved its emphasis toward supporting female and minority members. (p. 223) Intergroup conflict describes modes by which two groups adapt to each other and resolve cultural differences. (p. 224) Perriton (2009) argued that the business case for diversity can have the effect of limiting women‘s linguistic and action choices. (p. 227) Affirmative action programs rarely cause others to stigmatize as incompetent those individuals assumed to have benefitted from those programs. (p. 228)

Multiple Choice Items 1.

The level of prejudice and discrimination in an organization represents which dimension for describing a multicultural organization? a. acculturation b. informal integration c. cultural bias (*) (p. 224) d. intergroup conflict

2.

Molly did not hear about the opening for the Director of Public Relations position in her place of employment because she is not tapped into the informal communication network. Molly has experienced difficulty in access resulting from a. the mommy track. b. relational barriers. (*) (p. 220) c. discrimination. d. language barriers.

3.

The Chicago Transit Authority‘s training program about sensitivity to LGBT issues in the workplace makes a distinction between __________ harassment and sexual harassment. a. gender b. race c. ethnic d. sexual orientation (*)(p. 223)

4.

Jude is the owner of an up-scale continental restaurant. Jude did not hire Kim because he believed that his customers would prefer to be served by a man. Jude has just engaged in a. prejudice. b. tokenism. c. discrimination. (*) (p. 219) d. sloganism.

5.

Widgets Engineering is proud of its record in hiring women and minorities. However, in the past they've had trouble retaining these new hires, so they're now instituting mentoring programs and support groups to help women and minorities learn about the corporate culture and Widgets and get ahead in the organization.

Widgets Engineering would be characterized as a a. first generation affirmative action organization. b. second generation affirmative action organization. (*) (p. 223) 115

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c. d.

third generation affirmative action organization. multicultural organization.

6.

This approach argues that an emphasis would be placed on the processes through which the intersections of various value systems are negotiated through ongoing interaction. a. systems b. critical c. constitutive (*) (p. 231) d. feminist.

7.

Discursive rules like sell diversity as a product have stemmed from the emphasis on the business case for diversity. What does Perriton say the effect of these rules are? a. limit children‘s language b. limit minorities‘ linguistic choices c. limit women‘s linguistic choices (*) (p. 227) d. limit men‘s linguistic choices To deal with the negative consequences of affirmative action programs, it is recommended that organizations also incorporate which criteria for hiring and promotion? a. seniority b. economic c. merit (*) (p. 228) d. educational

8.

9.

Pete's Paper Warehouse recently decided to engage in an aggressive diversity hiring program so that they will be better positioned to recruit minority hires in the future. Pete's is hoping to realize what opportunity through diversifying their workforce? a. the problem-solving argument b. the systems flexibility argument c. the marketing argument d. the resource-acquisition argument (*) (p. 226)

10.

Anwar was recently hired at Acme Motors because the company had been criticized for treating Muslim customers poorly. He was selected to be the ―spokesperson‖ to the Muslim community. He has been feeling very isolated in this role. He is suffering the effects of a. mentoring. b. tokenism. (*) (p. 221) c. discrimination. d. assimilation.

Fill-in-the-Blank Items 1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

The (glass ceiling) is a barrier so subtle that it is transparent, yet so strong that it prevents women and minorities from moving into management. (p. 217) Limited access to informal communication networks and mentor-protégé relationships are examples of (relational) barriers. (p. 220) (Minority employee networks) allow members of a particular gender or ethnic background to meet to provide support to each other. (p. 220) (The Americans with Disabilities Act) prohibits discrimination based on disability and requires organizations to make reasonable accommodations. (p. 222) Flextime, onsite day care, and job sharing are examples of (family-friendly) programs. (p. 229) 116

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6.

7.

8.

9.

10.

The arguments of increased creativity and (enhanced problem-solving) through diversity rest on the contention that a diversity of employees will equal a diversity viewpoints. (p. 226) When organizational members act on their prejudice, they are engaged in (discrimination). (p. 219) A woman who forges a promotion for the chance to spend more time with her children through a flexible work schedule is said to be on the (mommy track). (p. 219) As a more experienced employee, a (mentor) facilitates a new employees‘ personal development through a one-on-one relationship. (pp. 220-221) (First generation affirmative action) is concerned with meeting legally mandated requirements for gender and ethnic diversity. (p. 223)

Essay Questions 1.

Explain how relational barriers lead to different experiences for women and minorities in the workplace. (pp. 220-221)

2.

Compare and contrast the backgrounds of the two most recent female Supreme Court justices, Elan Kaga and Sonia Sotomayor) to the first two female justices (Sandra Day O‘Connor and Ruth Bader Ginsburg).

How do their backgrounds represent changes in expectations of women and the struggles women continue to face in the workplace? (p. 218)

3.

Fast Copy has had several suits filed against them concerning discrimination in the workplace. The plaintiffs in these suits complain that the general set-up of the organization prohibits them from advancement. Explain what type of discrimination the plaintiffs have experienced. Then, describe how Fast Copy might progress toward becoming a multicultural organization. (pp. 223-225)

4.

Evaluate the positives and negatives of the business case for diversity. (pp. 225-227)

5.

How can an organization avoid the negative effects of diversity management programs. (pp. 228-230)

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CHAPTER 13 TECHNOLOGICAL PROCESSES CHAPTER OUTLINE After Reading This Chapter…

Types of Organizational Communication Technology Case in Point: Don’t Forget the Thank-You Note Undestanding Technology Adoption and Use The Importance of Technology Attributes The Importance of Social Factors Effects of Information and Communication Technology Spotlight on Scholarship: Doodling in the Age of Technology Social Media: From Public Relations to Politics and Justice Virtual Organizing and Telework Case in Point: Caring at a Distance Summary Discussion Questions Key Concepts Case Study: High-Tech Gardening

SUGGESTIONS FOR ACTIVITIES Activity 13.1: Break students into small groups and assign them a major presidential campaign (Obama vs. Romney) from 2012 to study. The focus of the study should be on each campaign‘s use of social media to interact with their followers and to communicate their message. Students should critique the effectiveness of each campaign‘s use of social media, its ability to gather data, and the effect these efforts had on their on the ground campaigns. What implications do the success/failures of these efforts have for nonpolitical organizations?

Activity 13.2: Have students interview individuals who have been in the workforce for over 30 years to learn more about how organizational communication technologies have changed over the last few decades. Have students ask interviewees questions about how they create, send, receive, and store messages and about their use of the technologies discussed in the text. Interviewees can also be asked about their comfort level with new technologies, the process of technological adoption, and their beliefs about the advantages and disadvantages of using new technologies. After completing the interviews (perhaps with an associated written assignment) discuss the findings with the class as a whole.

Activity 13.3: In small groups, have students critique the use of different ICTs that are used in the workplace today (e.g., laptops, tablets, smart phones). Students should report back on the advantages of each ICT as well as disadvantages in facilitating workplace communication and the completion of workplace tasks.

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Activity 13.4: Ask your students to go one entire day without using any ICT to communicate—in other words, have them get off the grid for a day. Have them take notes on their experience. Each student should report back to the class on the advantages and disadvantages of taking a break from ICTs for a day. What implications might taking a break from ICTs have on the workplace?

CASE STUDY SOLUTION (HIGH-TECH GARDENING) 1.

Hank needs to spend some time talking with both his employees and his customers about the new systems.

It does not appear that they have yet to see the advantages of either system. He not only needs to train his employees how to use the wireless data system, but he needs to engage in some persuasion so the employees can see why the wireless system would be a better communication tool to use than the phone, day-planners, and paper inventory forms. They do not seem convinced at this point about the relative advantage of this new system. More training seems called for, but he needs to find out the reason why the employees are not using the system and then address that reason. As for the customers, Hank may need to analyze whether the customer assistance center is a match for the kind of service his customers need.

Plants can be in such individually different conditions that customers may want to look at the actual plant itself rather than an image on a computer screen. The information provided through the assistance centers seems to replicate the information the customers can find by looking at the plants themselves or by speaking with a sales clerk. So, Hank needs to analyze its usefulness and consider whether further explanation of how to use the assistance centers is needed.

2.

Supporters of the media richness, social information processing model, and the dual-capacity model would all be concerned about matching the message to the technology. A media richness supporter would point out to Hank‘s employees that making appointments is a relatively simple message and that the PDA system is a lean medium appropriate for the communication of this information. Calling on the phone is a richer, more time consuming medium that doesn‘t make as much sense. A social information processing supporter would point out that other organizations are using PDA systems for their internal communication. That person would recommend Hank bring in people who have used the system to talk to his employees about how great it is. The dual-capacity supporter would point out to Hank‘s employees that the symbolic message of using this technology would show that the Greenery is efficient and up-to-date. It would also indicate the workers are knowledgeable.

In terms of the customer service center, the media richness model might tell Hank to get rid of the centers because the information about plants is too rich for that media. Talking to a knowledgeable customer service representative would be more helpful. A social information processing supporter might point out that customers do not tend to use these centers at other stores. They are fun to try, but when one really wants an answer, he or she will go to a customer service representative. The dual-capacity support would point out that the symbolic message of using this technology indicates that the Greenery is no longer interested in providing the personal touch from the staff which the customers have appreciated. All three perspectives may suggest that Hank should get rid of the assistance centers or at least not utilize them as the primary customer service tool.

3.

Hank was not realistic in his assessment of the advantages of these systems. Research indicates people are overloaded with data with all these new technologies. The employees view the wireless system as an additional information tool they must keep with and they have chosen not to do this. The customers look at the assistance center as yet another place to get information when it would be just as easy to look at the plants directly and ask for help from a customer service representative. Hank can probably train his workers to use the wireless system more effectively, but he is going to need to persuade them. The customer service assistance centers are more problematic and there may not be an easy solution if Hank wants to retain the reputation of the Greenery as a place with helpful and knowledgeable workers.

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TEST ITEMS (corresponding text page number is listed for each item) True/False Items F T

1.

2.

T T

3.

4.

F

5.

F T

6.

7.

T

8.

T

9.

F

10.

Technology does not increase the possibility of collaborating across time and space. (p. 238) New communication technologies will not be embraced until there is a critical mass of individuals who use the technology. (p. 239) The media richness model is a rational model of technology choice. (pp. 240-241) Proponents of the social information processing model argue that communication with coworkers and supervisors has an influence on media usage. (p. 242) Proponents of the social information processing model argue that task ambiguity and media richness have no influence on media usage. (p. 242) Technology always ―brings order to chaos.‖ (p. 244) The social information processing model and the dual-capacity model both build on the ideas found in the media richness model. (pp. 241-243) The strongest predictors of multitasking are the observation of others engaging in electronic multitasking and beliefs about what others in the workplace would think about someone who multitasks. (p. 245) The 2012 Obama campaign was able to use data gathering and social media to enhance its grassroots campaigning. (p. 246) Although a virtual organization has no brick-and-mortar structure, employees in such organizations still accomplish their work at the same time and the same place. (p. 247)

Multiple Choice Items 1.

By examining both the time and place at which work is accomplished, Grantham (1995) discovered the variations of a. distributed work. (*) (p. 247) b. virtual organizations. c. commuting. d. control.

2.

This approach views communication technology as an aspect of the socially constructed organization rather than as an entity that determines particular processes and outcomes. a. human resources b. critical c. feminist d. constitutive (*) (p. 250)

3.

According to media richness theorists, the choice of a communication medium is based on a. the ambiguity of the task. b. the richness of the medium. c. information received from the social environment. d. all of the above e. a and b (*) (pp. 240-242)

4.

Philip has never texted before and really does not understand the unique language and ways multiple cues can be expressed in a text. He does not understand its richness and that causes him to limit his use of texting. Which theory best explains his understanding of media richness? a. dual capacity theory b. channel expansion theory (*) (p. 241) c. media richness theory 120

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d.

social information processing theory

5.

In order to save money on real estate costs, Jacques‘ company asked him to begin teleworking. What is Jacques most likely to feel concerned about? a. his loss of productivity b. his inability to service his clients c. his isolation from the rest of the company (*) (p. 248) d. all of the above

6.

Two of Donovan's subordinates have been fighting over responsibilities for months. Donovan decides to settle the dispute "once and for all" and he sends a memo out to each subordinate providing a resolution to the problem. According to media richness theory, Donovan's actions are a. effective communication, because a rich medium was matched with an ambiguous task. b. effective communication, because a lean medium was matched with a routine task. c. d.

a communication failure, because excess cues would cause confusion and surplus meaning. a communication failure, because too few cues would be available to capture message complexity. (*) (pp. 240-242)

7.

An individual who thinks technology‘s role in the workplace is always good is sometimes called a(n) a. luddite. b. team player. c. utopian. (*) (p. 249) d. media lover.

8.

All of the following are effects of using ICTs in the workplace except: a. a growing importance of consultants who secretly teach CEOs the basics of computer technology b. greate equality of participation in group interactions c. enhancement of workplace friendships d. less interaction between employees (*) (p. 244)

9.

All of the following are aspects of the social information processing model except: a. perceived media characteristics b. perceived communication task requirements c. attitudes toward communication media d. only a consideration of the data-carrying capacity of the medium (*) (p. 241)

10.

Which theory/model examines the extent to which others in the social environment use a particular technology and communicate positively about its use? a. dual capacity model b. channel expansion theory c. media richness theory d. social information processing model (*) (pp. 242-243)

Fill-in-the-Blank Items 1.

2.

The (virtual office) allows for work to be accomplished at different times and different places through the use of multiple information and computer technologies. (p. 247) (Going viral) suggests that information placed on social media has the capacity to be shared very quickly by the members of that media. (p. 238)

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3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

10.

A flyer would be characterized as a (lean) communication medium because it has few channels for cues, is impersonal, and doesn't allow for feedback. (pp. 240-242) The (social information processing - SIP) model of media use emphasizes the importance of communication with coworkers and supervisors in influencing media use patterns. (pp. 242-243) (Media synchronicity theory) argues that the choice of communication media should depend on the extent to which a medium supports synchronicity. (pp. 241-242) Obscene language, name-calling, and sarcasm via electronic communication media are all examples of (flaming). (p. 238) The (greater individuality and more teamwork paradox) suggests a tension between teleworkers being isolated on an individual basis and also being required to coordinate work to a high degree. (p. 249) (A handwritten thank-you note) still has great value, if not more value than an e-mail due to its personal nature and the effort required to create it and mail it. (p. 237) Because e-mails are sent and received at different times, they represent an (asynchronous) form of communication. (p. 238) The richest communication medium is (face-to-face) interaction. (p. 240)

Essay Questions 1.

Analyze the argument for ICT free workplace meetings. How might this strategy improve the effectiveness of meetings? How might it hinder the effectiveness of meetings? (p. 245)

2.

Define the terms "media richness" and "task ambiguity" as used by media richness theorists. How do these two concepts influence media choice? Illustrate the influence of these two concepts on choice by using a specific example. (pp. 240-242)

3.

Why would a personal written thank-you note mean more than ever in the age of e-mails, tweets, and Facebook messages? How might their use differ today compared to 50 years ago? (p. 237)

4.

Would you call yourself a utopian or a luddite when it comes to thinking about the impact of workplace communication technologies? Defend your response. (p. 249)

5.

Define the following alternative work models: distributed work, telework, flextime, and the virtual organization. What are the advantages and disadvantages of each? What future models of work do you foresee developing in the next 20 years? (pp. 246-249).

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CHAPTER 14 THE CHANGING LANDSCAPE OF ORGANIZATIONS CHAPTER OUTLINE After Reading This Chapter…

Communication in the Global Workplace Effects of Globalization Communication in an Era of Shifting Identity Case in Point: Image Gone Viral Communication in a Service Economy Spotlight on Scholarship: What Can You Do With That Major?

Communication in the Age of the Disposable Worker Case in Point: Generation Y in the Workplace Summary Key Concepts Case Study: Charting the Changing Nature of Work

SUGGESTIONS FOR ACTIVITIES Activity 14.1: The case study for Chapter 14 (―Charting the Changing Nature of Work‖) provides a summative exercise for students that involves both looking back (at the experiences of family members) and looking forward (to their place in the future work world). This case can be instituted with varying degrees of formality—as a complex paper assignment or a homework assignment that will fuel class discussion the next day.

Activity 14.2: Have a ―show and tell‖ exercise in which students are asked to find media examples regarding the changing nature of work. YouTube can provide some nice, short video clips to demonstrate these examples.

Parameters for the examples can be set broadly or can be based on the categories of change discussed in this chapter (globalization, service economy, disposable worker, shifting identity). These media examples can be used as tools to stimulate discussion in small groups or in the class as a whole.

CASE STUDY SOLUTION (CHARTING THE CHANGING NATURE OF WORK) The response to this case study will vary widely depending on the individuals the students interview. Allow time for a wide ranging discussion of what work was like in the past, how it has changed, and what it will be like in the future. Connections between these trends and the trends discussed in the chapter (globalization, shifting identities, service economy, and disposable worker) should be made.

TEST ITEMS (corresponding text page number is listed for each item) True/False Items F

1.

T

2.

F

3.

The postmodern era is characterized by the logic and rationality of science and technology. (p.

255) In laissez-faire capitalism, the government takes a ―hands off‖ approach to business and allows market forces to balance trade. (p. 256) Multinational organizations identify with two or more countries with distinct cultural qualities. (p.

257)

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T

4.

T

5.

T

6.

T

7.

F

8.

F

9.

F

10.

A convergence approach to globalization considers how an organization might adapt its practices of a global system requiring flexibility, speech, knowledge production, and knowledge dissemination. (p. 258) SWAT Teams provide specialized skills and the transfer of technical processes and systems to global locations on an ―as-needed‖ basis. (p. 259) Forty percent of American households now include a mother who is the sole or primary earner in the family. (p. 262) Individual work identity is particularly problematic for working class employees as it is harder to achieve the American Dream. (p. 262) An example of a ―contingent worker‖ is an individual with a Ph.D. who has accepted a job as a fast-food employee. (p. 266) One positive aspect of the disposable workforce is that when individuals do find work, they are more committed and identify more with the organization. (pp. 266-267) A global organization identifies with one nationality while doing business across several or many nations. (p. 257)

Multiple Choice Items 1.

Which of the following has not directly contributed to the rise of globalization? a. technological advancements b. laissez-faire capitalism c. corporate downsizing (*) (p. 256) d. political changes

2.

Globalization has had several identifiable influences on organizational communication including a. disembeddedness. b. global consciousness and reflexivity. c. time and space compression. d. all of the above (*) (pp. 257-260) e. b and c

3.

An organization with distinct national interests from two or more countries represented within its management, clients, customers, and institutional environment is considered what kind of organization? a. global b. international (*) (p. 257) c. domestic d. multinational

4.

When Ambercrombie & Fitch indicated it did not stock XXL sizes in women‘s clothing, the quote went _____ or everywhere, damaging the company‘s image. a. silent b. viral (*) (p. 261) c. corporate d. none of the above

5.

Rose begins her morning by opening her iPad to check her e-mail, look up a coworker‘s status on Facebook, getting on the web to make travel arrangements, and reviewing her calendar for the day. She then wakes up her daughter to get her to school on time. From this description, it is clear that Latisha lives in a. the modern age. b. the postmodern age. (*) (p. 255) c. the industrial age.

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d.

a big city.

6.

The belief that global and multicultural organizations should do all they can to maintain the cultural distinctiveness of local areas is a __________ approach to globalization. a. industrial b. laissez-faire c. convergence d. divergence (*) (pp. 258-259)

7.

An organization‘s attention to issues of image and identity typically increases during periods of a. organizational crisis. (*) (p. 262) b. growth and development. c. stability. d. profitability and success.

8.

The idea that it is always the beginning of the workday somewhere around the globe refers to which aspect of globalization‘s impact on organizational communication? a. convergence b. divergence c. disembeddedness d. time and space compression (*) (p. 258)

9.

Chutney Channel is a small organization based in Canada that sells specialty condiments made from local ingredients to a wide array of customers around the global. Chutney Channel would be characterized as a(n) __________ organization. a. domestic b. multicultural c. multinational (*) (p. 257) d. international e. global

10.

According to Lair and Wieland ‗s (2012) findings, most students answer the question, ―What can you do with that major?‖ with a. a rejection of the questions premise. b. a response that they don‘t have a plan in mind. c. use it to enhance their knowledge of the world. d. provided a response that demonstrated a sensible plan that promised future success. (*) (p. 265)

Fill-in-the-Blank Items 1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

The (postmodern era) is characterized by a fast and fragmented society. (p. 255) (Global consciousness) requires awareness of the cultures of others and of our own attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors. (p. 258) (Convergence) is an approach that emphasizes the need for organizations to adapt their practices to a global marketplace. (p. 258) An approach to globalizing the workplace that emphasizes cultural distinctiveness is known as (divergence). (p. 259) A (global) organization identifies with the worldwide system rather than any particular nation. (p. 257) 125

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6.

7.

8.

9.

10.

(Generation Y) workers were born in the 1980s and 1990s and are resistant to the idea that one has to pay their dues for long time before moving ahead in an organization. (p. 268) Contingent workers are at higher risk for work-related (injury, illness, and death) than other workers. (p.

267) One of the major aspects that is changing the landscape for organizational communication is that our society has moved from a manufacturing economy to a (service) economy. (p. 262) The service economy is dominated by electronic transactions or (e-commerce). (p. 264) (Virtual solutions) allow employees in a wide variety of locations to work together on global solutions to problems. (p. 259)

Essay Questions 1.

Distinguish among the ―convergence‖ and ―divergence‖ approaches to globalization discussed in the text.

Discuss how a manufacturing firm with plants in a variety of global locations might illustrate each of these two approaches. (pp. 258-260)

2.

How has the shift to a service-based economy affected workers, employers, and the nature of communication within organizations? (pp. 262-264)

3.

How should students answer the question their parents often ask, ―What can you do with that major?‖ Use research and theory from the chapter to support your answer. (p. 265)

4.

What is e-commerce? Why might e-commerce transactions lead to particular difficulties in terms of service provision? What can e-commerce providers do to enhance the quality of service in online transactions? (p.

264)

5.

What are three explanations for why we are living in the ―age of the disposable worker‖? Which of these explanations would you support, and why? What are the implications of these explanations for the experiences of the disposable worker? (pp. 266-268)

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