Solution Manual For Organizational Behaviour, 11th Edition by David A Buchanan Andrzej A Huczynski

Instructor’s Manual Organizational Behaviour Eleventh edition

David A. Buchanan Andrzej A. Huczynski For further instructor material please visit:

www.pearson.com  Pearson Education Limited 2023 Lecturers adopting the main text are permitted to download and photocopy the manual as required.

PEARSON EDUCATION LIMITED KAO Two KAO Park Harlow CM17 9SR United Kingdom Tel: +44 (0)1279 623623 Web: www.pearson.com This edition published 2023 (electronic) © Pearson Education Limited 2023 The rights of David A. Buchanan and Andrzej A. Huczynski to be identified as author of this work have been asserted by them in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.

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Contents What’s new in this edition?

4

Overview

9

Features checklist

12

Chapter exercise checklist

13

Movies checklist

14

Part 1

The organizational context

Chapter 1

Explaining organizational behaviour

17

Chapter 2

Environment

26

Chapter 3

Technology

36

Chapter 4

Culture

46

Part 2

Individuals in the organization

Chapter 5

Learning

61

Chapter 6

Personality

69

Chapter 7

Communication

80

Chapter 8

Perception

91

Chapter 9

Motivation

101

Part 3

Groups and teams in the organization

Chapter 10

Group formation

116

Chapter 11

Group structure

128

Chapter 12

Individuals in groups

142

Chapter 13

Teamworking

152

Part 4

Management and organization

Chapter 14

Work design

162

Chapter 15

Elements of structure

173

Chapter 16

Organization design

183

Chapter 17

Organizational architecture

196

Part 5

Leadership processes

Chapter 18

Leadership

212

Chapter 19

Change

222

Chapter 20

Decision-making

232

Chapter 21

Conflict

243

Chapter 22

Power and politics

253

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What’s new in this edition?

Instructors who have used previous editions of this text will find the structure and core content of this new edition familiar. However, there have been significant developments in several areas, and all chapters have been updated to reflect new issues, trends, research, theory and practice. Here is a list of the new content by chapter: Chapter 1 Explaining OB Power inequalities – pay for top executives in the UK is almost 90 times higher than that of workers; chief executives have to work for four days to earn what an average worker earns in a year.

The Beirut Explosion 2020 – how did that happen, and was it a management problem?

Chapter 2 Environment Climate change and extreme weather – these are the main future business risks Strategic foresight – a new approach to scenario planning Where does your iPhone come from? – the nature of globalisation Offshoring, onshoring, reshoring, nearshoring, friend-shoring – the future of globalisation Covid-19 and hybrid working – working from home (WFH), working from anywhere (WFA) Managing a multigenerational workforce – and the value of older employees Going green – how investors and insurance companies will encourage companies to take green issue seriously Stakeholder capitalism –- the triple bottom line, a new approach to corporate social responsibility Socially responsible investment – value-based purchasing, and gender-lens investing Equality, diversity, inclusion – discrimination and prejudice are still widespread Code switching – why should anyone have to adjust their language, personality, behaviour and appearance to fit the expectations of others in the workplace?

Microaggressions – the subtle insults that can do as much damage as overt discrimination Chapter 3 Technology Surgical robots – graduate from Star Wars and enter real operating theatres Service robots – should they appear human, or look more like machines?

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Resistance to new technology? – not if users are consulted first Soft skills required – robots and AI increase demand for ‘soft’ skills including critical thinking, problem solving, interpersonal skills, ‘self-leadership’, as well as cybersecurity and data analysis skills Chapter 4 Culture Changing corporate values – which are most popular, and why?

Culture fit, diversity and adaptability – what can language use in electronic communications tell us about organizations and their employees?

Culture clash – what happens with joint working between first responders (fire, paramedics, police)?

COVID-19 – will the pandemic destroy organization culture?

National cultural differences – in how COVID-19 was managed, and the consequences Chapter 5 Learning Feedback – the feedback that women receive at work is less helpful than the feedback given to men Lifelong employability – just as important as lifelong learning Chapter 6 Personality The synchrony effect – early chronotypes are more creative in the morning, late chronotypes are more creative in the afternoon Leader preference – depends on your personality; extraverts prefer charismatic leaders Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) – valuable if you are commander of a nuclear submarine Do you want a job with Goldman Sachs? – prepare for asynchronous video interviews, and structured questioning based on job-related issues LinkedIn – useful for cybervetting job applicants Chapter 7 Communication The myth of open plan offices – they don’t encourage collaboration Killer gestures and trigger images – how to sell your ideas to top management Body language – how to use in video calls

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Cultural differences in the meaning of body language – eye contact, dress, taking notes in meetings, where you sit in a meeting How women use networking – to explore the culture and gender dynamics of potential employers Web conferencing systems – benefits and drawbacks Chapter 8 Perception Visible passion – how entrepreneurs use this to attract investors Facial features – how to appear trustworthy, or untrustworthy In a man’s world – should women use masculine language to disguise their femininity when applying for work in male-dominated roles?

Tattoos – what personality traits do they reveal, and can tattoos help or hinder your job prospects?

The beauty bonus – are attractive female executives seen as more or less trustworthy?

Natural hair bias – hairstyle affects how professional you appear, and can lead to discrimination Chapter 9 Motivation Don’t talk about the money – why asking a potential employer about salary and benefits could cost you the job Rank and yank performance management – discourages creativity and teamwork, and is demotivating Quiet quitting – turning up for work but doing the bare minimum Good work – what is it, and why is it important?

Chapter 10 Group formation Teamwork old and new – how groups in organizations have changed Multiple team membership - costs and benefits for employees Chapter 11: Group structure Narcissism – how does this affect your own work and team performance?

One woman on the team – how does performance compare with all-male teams in the U.S. Marine Corps?

Team flow – helped Rosenborg Ballklubb, a small Norwegian football team, to perform as well as wealthier and better known clubs The liking gap – can you estimate how much your colleagues like you?

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Chapter 12: Individuals in groups Workplace hazing – how common are the unofficial practices of initiating newcomers with degrading behaviour?

Workplace rituals – what are they, and what purpose do they serve?

Chapter 13: Teamworking Hack teams – how they get things done quickly, using unorthodox methods, bypassing the bureaucracy with work-arounds Michelin – how one company’s staff empowerment strategy uses McGregor’s Theory Y to redistribute authority to shop floor workers?

AI communication monitoring – with feedback from the boss on how well you deal with colleagues World Cup football – which teams are most effective, and why?

Team engagement – what factors contribute to a team engagement climate?

Chapter 14: Work design Bullshit jobs – are they becoming more common?

Digital lending and algorithmic decision-making – how do these management controls affect employees in the home credit sector?

Remote working – impact on collaboration networks and communication patterns Hybrid working – the fears of home-based workers and relationships with office-based colleagues Chapter 15: Elements of structure Span of control – does this affect gender pay inequality?

The meeting after the meeting (MATM) – how can these informal events create new organization structures and change previous decisions?

Non-academics in academia – how to explain why half of all British higher education employees are not academics Chapter 16: Organizational design Management burnout – is this a problem, what are the causes and how do managers compare with other employees?

Virtual working – how is this changing the nature of managerial work?

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Chapter 17: Organizational architecture Agile working – how does this affect team performance and engagement?

Teslafication – the pandemic made companies reconsider outsourcing supplies, and switch to vertically integrated production – like Tesla Reshoring – how does this affect how employees feel about work and colleagues, and the implications for organization citizenship behaviour?

COVID-19 Genomics UK Consortium (COG-UK) – how is this group structured to perform the complex task of identifying SARS-Cov-2 variants?

Chapter 18 Leadership Should leaders be chosen for their style?

Why are diverse top management teams more effective?

Why does a company’s market value fall when a woman is recruited to the top team?

What is holding women back – even when they have corporate support?

Are female leaders more in effective in a crisis? – lessons from the Covid-19 pandemic Appearing confident can get you the leadership job – but overconfidence leads to mistakes How team leaders use eye contact to increase team performance The token female – how does she affect the performance of a male-dominated team?

Holacracy – flatten your structure and empower staff, but how well does this work?

Chapter 19 Change We need to talk about organizational change – why do 75 per cent of programmes fail?

Too stressed to be effective? – or are you not stressed enough?

Pragmatic resistance – the benefits of undermining a poorly designed change initiative Best Buy, Etsy, Thai Union, Levi’s, Kodak – case studies of change Chapter 20: Decision-making Crisis management – participative and directive leadership compared Team performance assessment – using subjective evaluations to decide employee rewards

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Decision fatigue – leads to choices that are easier and safer, and involve little mental effort, but which are not necessarily better Gender bias – leads to decision-making mistakes that harm gender equality Chapter 21: Conflict Dyads or teams? – where do task and relationship conflicts originate most often Pragmatic resistance – helps employees get on with the ‘real work’ by opposing unnecessary bureaucracy Gaming – how university academics resist management control by ‘gaming’ appraisal systems for their own benefit Conflict management styles – how do the different styles of team members affect group functioning?

Pro-social unethical behaviours – negatively affect teams and organizations Work hacking – counter-productive or an employee survival strategy?

Chapter 22 Power and politics Political skill – improves performance, leadership effectiveness and career success, and reduces stress, burnout and interpersonal conflict Women describe their capabilities to potential employers less favourably than equally capable men

Overview This online Instructor’s Manual complements the textbook, Organizational Behaviour, Pearson Education 2023 (eleventh edition). These resources are designed to: •

give you an innovative, comprehensive and integrated teaching resource, to help you in the design and delivery of a programme that students will find informative, interesting and challenging.

•

reduce unproductive preparation time by providing the resources that you need, and which you can adapt as necessary to fit the requirements of your courses, including PowerPoint masters, chapter exercises and debriefings.

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Each textbook chapter includes: •

recap of content

•

revision questions that can also be used for tutorial discussion

•

research assignment, which can also be used as an assessed project

•

Springboard suggestions for deeper reading in the subject

•

OB Cinema

•

two chapter exercises, for use in tutorials.

Employability is a significant issue for individual students and their higher education institutions.

The concept of employability is introduced in the preface, with a competency framework that identifies four areas: personal qualities, leadership qualities, practical skills and other attributes.

Throughout the text, Employability check boxes invite readers to consider their own competencies in relation to that framework and the chapter content, to assess their development needs and if appropriate to develop an action plan. The Employability checks can provide valuable tutorial discussion topics.

Our text thus gives you and your students a range of materials that can be used in different ways, in different classroom settings. These materials can be adapted in various ways, and may also trigger the development of further innovative materials more closely tailored to the needs of your particular courses and student groups. We hope that this manual will encourage the more creative use and development of the extraordinarily wide range of teaching methods and materials that are now available. The exercise materials in the textbook are based on four principles:

1. Complementarity These teaching materials are designed to complement rather than to replace your own favourite cases and exercises. Chapter exercises not used in your teaching sessions can be used as homework, for revision or perhaps as the basis for mock exams.

2. Awareness These materials show how organizational behaviour can be observed and studied in a variety of settings. This is reinforced by the Home viewing, OB cinema and Employability suggestions. The aim is to raise student awareness of factors that influence behaviour in all kinds of organizations.

3. Stimulation These materials are designed to stimulate student interest, controversy and debate. In particular, they seek to encourage a questioning, challenging, critical perspective on organizational behaviour themes and theories rather than a subservience to authorities. We have brought together materials that we enjoy using, which we find that students enjoy and which we hope will stimulate further study.

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4. Ease of use The materials are easy to use. All have been selected for maximum impact and minimum preparation. Student preparatory work and the guidance to be assimilated by instructors have been kept short, while generating high levels of discussion, debate and learning. The materials are also designed to be flexible, to fit different teaching timeframes.

These resources follow the content structure of the textbook, with 22 chapters divided into five parts. To make it easier for you to find the material that you need, and to reduce the assimilation load, many items appearing in the textbook are not repeated here. The materials relating to each chapter that are included here are: What’s new in this chapter Learning outcomes and recap Rationale OB cinema debrief Exercise 1 debrief Exercise 2 debrief

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Features checklist The text includes several pedagogical features. These are designed to stimulate and challenge students, to encourage a critical perspective and to illustrate the theoretical and practical applications of organizational behaviour ideas. learning outcomes

chapters open with a clear statement of learning outcomes

key concepts

list of key terms, which are also in the glossary

key theories and applications

summary of theories covered in each chapter and their practical uses

critical thinking

invitations to question, challenge assumptions, consider other options

cutting edge

summarising recent key research findings

what did they find?

describing research projects, asking you to predict the results

home viewing

movies which illustrate topics in graphic and memorable ways

employability check

relating chapter content to employability competencies

find on YouTube

suggestions for YouTube content exploring key topics

recap

chapter summaries based on learning outcomes

revision questions

for personal study and/or tutorial discussion

research assignment

for revision and/or assessed project work

springboard

suggestions for deeper reading

OB cinema

recommended movie clips

chapter exercises

for tutorial use

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Chapter exercise checklist Chapter

Exercise 1

Exercise 2

1. Explaining OB

Best job – worst job

Management versus workers

2. Environment

Ethical conduct

Profits versus people

3. Technology

Into the matrix

Old McDonald’s farm

4. Culture

Surface manifestations

National culture etiquette

5. Learning

Reinforcement and behaviour

Branto Bakery

6. Personality

The Big Five

Measuring up

7. Communication

Impression management checklist Choose your question carefully

8. Perception

Person perception

Who’s the interviewer?

9. Motivation

Chris and Pat compare salaries

Job redesign

10. Group formation

Group experiences

You’re the manager: Central Utilities

11. Group structure

Oral communication

Team roles questionnaire

12. Individuals in groups

Discovering the norms

Capitals exercise

13. Teamworking

Team failure or success

Exceptional Chutney Company

14. Work design

Redesigning jobs

Taylor Road orderfillers

15. Elements of structure

Invisible organization structure

Span-of-control

16. Org design

Debra’s diary

Personal structure preference test

17. Org architecture

Fabulous Sports Enterprises

University of Grantchester Business School

18. Leadership

Management or leadership?

Leadership in practice

19. Change

Mis-managing change

Force-field analysis

20. Decision-making

Decision types

Which is better – brainstorming or NGT?

21. Conflict

Counter-productive work behaviour

Organizational citizenship behaviour

22. Power and politics

Power in a changing environment

Politics in decision-making

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Movies checklist Chapter

Home viewing

OB cinema

1. Explaining OB

Greenland (2020) Antz (1998) disorganization and mismanagement illustrates the components of the fieldmap of the OB terrain Cruella (2021) organization structure and leadership style

2. Environment

The Intern (2015) value of older employees Bombshell (2019) sexual harassment

3. Technology

Star Wars: The Empire Strikes Back Modern Times (1936) (1980) workers as cogs in machinery surgical robots in operating theatres

4. Culture

Margin Call (2011) impersonal, instrumental culture Steve Jobs (2015) how founders’ values and beliefs shape organizational culture Outsourced (2007) culture-specific working practices American Factory (2019) cross-cultural interactions

Dead Poets Society (1989) surface culture manifestations

5. Learning

Big Bang Theory (TV series) short clip: operant conditioning

A Clockwork Orange (1971/2000) Pavlovian conditioning

6. Personality

Glengarry Glen Ross (1992) extrovert stereotype

The Imitation Game (2014) working with staff who have Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD)

7. Communication

Catch me If You Can (2003) impression management

Burn After Reading (2008) conversation control

8. Perception

The Matrix (1999) the arbitrary nature of reality The Sixth Sense (1999) how easily we can be deceived

Legally Blonde (2001) stereotyping, attributions

Thank You for Smoking (2005) corporate social responsibility

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9. Motivation

Whiplash (2014) controversial motivational tactics to stimulate high performance

Enron: The Smartest Guys in the Room (2005) management style and motivation

10. Group formation

The Poseidon Adventure (1972) group formation, cohesion Mean Girls (2004) informal groups The Breakfast Club (1984) group development Remember the Titans (2000 stages of group formation

The Magnificent Seven (1960) individuals’ needs met through group membership

11. Group structure

Jumanji: Welcome to the Jungle (2017) process of group formation The Flight of the Phoenix (1965) group formation and types of power Twelve O’Clock High (1949) task and social/emotional leaders

Network (1976) Bales’s interaction analysis based on oral behaviours

12. Individuals in groups

Mean Girls (2004) norms, power and conformity

The Secret of My Success (1987) learning group and organizational norms

13. Teamworking

Lord of the Flies (1964) group formation, development, structure, leadership

The Dish (2000) analysing team effectiveness

14. Work design

Office Space (1998) work design, powerlessness, meaninglessness, alienation Kerblam (2018) work design, technology, employment, society

The Rebel (1961) benefits and disadvantages of routine, repetitive work design

15. Elements of structure

Joe Versus the Volcano (1990) elements of organization structure Experimenter (2015) Milgram’s experiments and the critical public response

Aliens (1986) elements of organization structure

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16. Org design

Brazil (1985) the worst aspects of bureaucracy Catch-22 (1970) non-sensical decision-making and dysfunctions of bureaucracy

Crimson Tide (1995) illustrates Weber’s principles of bureaucracy

17. Org architecture

The Hudsucker Proxy (1994) organizational design

The Godfather, and Godfather Part II (1972 and 1974) management lessons

18. Leadership

The Walking Dead (2010–2022) leadership styles changing with circumstances

The Devil Wears Prada (2006) leadership style, a great intimidator

19. Change

Moneyball (2011) managing resistance to change

Charlie’s Angels (2000) innovative organization culture

20. Decision-making

Moneyball (2011) decision-making to ‘sell’ ideas Thirteen Days (2001) strategic decision-making process The Age of Innocence (1993) escalation of commitment The Rescue (2021) Decision-making in crisis

Margin Call (2011) linguistic neutralization techniques

21. Conflict

12 Angry Men (1957) group conflict and influence tactics There Will Be Blood (2007) negotiation and conflict

Metallica: Some Kind of Monster (2004) intra-group conflict

22. Power and politics

Contact (1997) political skills, and lack of

Dirty Rotten Scoundrels (1988) impression management and influencing tactics

Note: Some movie clips may be available on YouTube. We cannot cite these for copyright reasons. YouTube uploads are not permanent, as copyright owners can ask for them to be removed.

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CHAPTER 1

Explaining organizational behaviour Chapter 1: What’s new in this chapter?

Chapter 1: Learning outcomes and recap Chapter 1: Rationale Chapter 1: OB cinema debrief – Antz Chapter 1: Exercise 1 debrief – Best job – worst job Chapter 1: Exercise 2 debrief – Management versus workers

Chapter 1: What’s new in this chapter?

As an introductory overview of the subject, this chapter does not have all of the features of other chapters. In particular, there are no Cutting edge or What did they find? features in Chapter 1.

Power inequalities – pay for top executives in the UK is almost 90 times higher than that of workers; chief executives have to work for four days to earn what an average worker earns in a year.

The Beirut Explosion 2020 – how did that happen, and was it a management problem?

Chapter 1: Learning outcomes and recap 1. Explain the importance of an understanding of organizational behaviour.

•

Organizations influence almost every aspect of our daily lives in a multitude of ways.

•

If we eventually destroy this planet, the cause will not lie with technology or weaponry, but with ineffective organizations and management practices.

2. Explain and illustrate the central dilemma of organizational design.

•

The organizational dilemma concerns how to reconcile the inconsistency between individual needs and aspirations, and the collective purpose of the organization.

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3. Understand the need for explanations of behaviour in organizations that take account of combinations of, and relationships between, factors at different levels of analysis.

•

The study of organizational behaviour is multi-disciplinary, drawing in particular from psychology, social psychology, sociology, economics and political science.

•

Organizational behaviour involves a multi-level study of the external environment, and internal structure, functioning and performance of organizations and the behaviour of groups and individuals.

•

Organizational effectiveness and quality of working life are explained by a combination of contextual, individual, group, structural, process and managerial factors.

•

In considering explanations of organizational behaviour, systemic thinking is required, avoiding explanations based on single causes and considering a range of interrelated factors at different levels of analysis.

4. Understand the difference between positivist and constructivist perspectives, and their respective implications for the study of organizational behaviour.

•

A positivist perspective uses the same research methods and modes of explanation found in the natural sciences to study and understand organizational behaviour.

•

It is difficult to apply conventional scientific research methods to people, because of the ‘reactive effects’ which come into play when people know they are being studied.

•

A constructivist perspective assumes that, as we are self-defining creatures who attach meanings to our behaviour, social science is different from natural science.

•

A constructivist perspective believes that reality is not objective and ‘out there’, but is socially constructed.

•

A constructivist approach abandons scientific neutrality and seeks to stimulate social and organizational change by providing critical feedback and encouraging self-awareness.

5. Understand the distinction between variance and process explanations of organizational behaviour.

•

Variance theory explains organizational behaviour by identifying relationships between independent and dependent variables which can be defined and measured. Variance theories are often quantitative, and are based on a positivist perspective.

•

Process theory explains organizational behaviour using narratives which show how many factors produce outcomes by combining and interacting over time in a given context.

Process theories can combine quantitative and qualitative dimensions, and can draw from positivist and constructivist traditions.

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6. Recognize the breadth of applications of organizational behaviour theory, and contributions to human resources management practice.

•

The Bath model of human resources management argues that discretionary behaviour going beyond minimum requirements relies on having a combination of HR policies.

•

High-performance work practices increase organizational profitability by decreasing employee turnover and improving productivity, but they are not widely adopted.

7. Assess how the human resources management function can use big data and human capital analytics to improve individual and team performance, and organizational effectiveness.

•

Extremely large and complex sets of data – ‘big data’ – can be captured easily, stored cheaply and analysed rapidly, due to developments in data storage and data processing capabilities.

•

Human capital analytics applies sophisticated analytical tools and techniques to big data sets in order to generate fresh HR insights that can improve organizational performance.

•

Human capital analytics can complement (or replace) experience, judgement and intuition as bases for HR decision-making, with quantified metrics that can help to establish causal relationships between HR policies and practices, and performance outcomes.

Chapter 1: Rationale Let’s put it this way: if you have a limited understanding of organizational behaviour, then you have a limited understanding of one of the main sets of forces that affect you personally, that influence the society and culture in which you live, and which shape the world around you. Through the products and services that they provide, organizations affect everything you do – sleeping, waking, dressing, eating, travelling, working, relaxing, studying – everything. We live in an organised world.

What is distinctive about our treatment of organizational behaviour? We have consistently adopted a multidisciplinary social science perspective. Some other texts adopt a managerialist stance which, this chapter argues, offers a narrow and biased view. We also feel that a managerialist perspective on this subject matter is particularly inappropriate at introductory level, where students need to be exposed to a range of contrasting views, and encouraged to adopt a critical perspective, as well as considering how concepts and theories can be applied in practice.

The book’s main organising device, the ‘field map of the organizational behaviour terrain’, is based on the question – what do we want to explain? Well, organizational effectiveness and quality of working life are two key factors. The model is initially set out in the conventional terms of independent and dependent variables. However, there are complications with this approach. First, the causal arrow can run the other way, as high organizational effectiveness can lead to higher pay and morale. Second, some independent variables (group cohesion, communications) can also be considered as aspects of the dependent variables (do people like working with their group, do production and sales communicate effectively with each other). This further complicates the 19 © 2023 Pearson Education Limited. All Rights Reserved.

Buchanan and Huczynski, Organizational Behaviour 11e, Instructor’s Manual

analysis of cause and effect. Third, how is ‘organizational effectiveness’ to be defined, given the range of internal and external stakeholders with differing needs and expectations?

In the light of those complications, the distinction between variance and process theories (based on the seminal work of Lawrence Mohr) is retained from previous editions. Students from science and engineering backgrounds in particular will have been schooled in variance theory and its associated research methods. It should be clear from our map of the OB territory, however, that variance theories will be of only limited use in explaining aspects of organizational behaviour. We need to consider how combinations of factors, interacting over time, in a given organizational context, contribute to or shape the pattern of outcomes of interest – which is how process theories work. The distinction between variance and process theory is a critical one, but is overlooked by most introductory texts in this field, perhaps as too advanced. On the contrary, the distinction is relatively easy to grasp, and process theory has overriding influence in some areas, such as change and innovation, for instance.

That field map, therefore, has no special status. It is simply a guide to the subject, highlighting the need to consider a range of factors when developing explanations of organizational behaviour – variance and/or process. However, the field map is a reference point for the whole subject area.

Because topics are introduced serially, it is appropriate to reinforce the linked, systemic nature of those topics, which can otherwise appear in a taught programme to be distinct and isolated.

The distinction between positivist and constructivist perspectives resonates throughout many other topics. Most American research and theorising is rooted in a positivist frame of reference, although this is beginning to change. The contradictory view from constructivist and interpretative perspectives can be a valuable first line of criticism when faced with work in that style. Much positivist research and theory can appear to be ‘rigorous’, ‘systematic’ and ‘logical’ and therefore unassailable. Viewed from a different epistemological perspective, however, those strengths quickly disappear.

Chapter 1: OB cinema debrief – Antz Antz (1998, directors Eric Darnell and Tim Johnson). This clip (7 minutes) begins immediately after the opening credits with Z (played by Woody Allen) saying ‘All my life I’ve lived and worked in the big city’. Clip ends with General Mandible (Gene Hackman) saying, ‘Our very next stop Cutter’. This is the story of a neurotic worker ant, Z 4195, who wants to escape from his insignificant job in an authoritarian organization – the ant colony.

1. Using the field map of the organizational behaviour terrain as a guide, identify as many examples as you can of how individual, group, structural and managerial process factors influence organizational effectiveness and quality of working life in an ant colony.

2. This is animated fiction with ants. What similar examples of factors affecting organizational effectiveness and quality of working life can you identify from organizations with which you are familiar?

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Debriefing This humorous clip offers numerous illustrations of the ways in which individual, group and structural factors, and management processes, affect organizational effectiveness and quality of working life in the ant colony. One of the central issues concerns the meaningless job from which Z 4195 wants to escape, while many of his colleagues are content. The final scene introduces concepts of influence, coalitions and organization politics and power struggles. Copy this matrix (without the observations) for students to complete while watching the clip.

Affecting Identify examples of

Organizational effectiveness

Quality of working life

Individual factors

Goal to build tunnel on time measured Job-person ‘fit’; Z is afraid of enclosed spaces, does not like by daily progress (Chapter 1 handling dirt, afraid of heights Explaining OB) (Chapter 1 Explaining OB; job‘I was not cut out to be a worker’; ‘I feel physically inadequate’; Z can only person fit) lift ten times his own weight (Chapter ‘Am I supposed to do everything for the colony? What about my 1 Explaining OB; HRM) needs?’ (Chapter 1 Explaining OB; Z’s personality does not fit the organization. ‘I was the middle child of Organizational dilemma) 5 million – mother had no time for me, Other worker ants don’t share Z’s father flew away when I was a larva’ concerns and feel that he thinks too much (Chapters 8 and 9 (Chapter 6 Personality) Perception and Motivation, Z has high-level (self-actualisation) respectively) needs (‘there’s gotta be something better out there’) which are not being met, and his job has low task significance (Chapter 9 Motivation)

Group factors

Performance depends on teamwork but Z is afraid of crowds (Chapter 10 Group formation)

Structural factors

Worker ants are given boring, low-skill The work system makes Z feel repetitive tasks (Chapter 14 inadequate (Chapter 14 Traditional Traditional work design) work design) Role assignment – new born ants are Ants have no choice of job or how sorted into workers and soldiers to perform work activities (Chapter (Chapters 15 and 16, Elements of 9 Motivation) structure and Early organizational Routine jobs offer no development design) opportunities (Chapter 5 Learning)

Z is not a team player; ‘be the ball!’

(Chapter 13 Teamworking)

Management process The general sees workers as ‘weak, lacking discipline and commitment’ factors (Chapter 8 Perception; McGregor’s Theory X)

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The ant colony management rule through fear with an autocratic leadership style (Chapter 18 Leadership) The military chiefs create conflict with the termites to achieve personal ambitions (Chapter 21 Conflict) By sending soldier ants who are loyal to the queen to their deaths, the chiefs can weaken her power base and achieve their objectives (Chapter 22 Power and politics)

Key learning points 1. Multiple factors: Organizational outcomes are influenced by a range of factors at different levels of analysis – individual, group, structural, managerial, political and contextual.

2. Combination, interaction: It is the combination of these factors interacting over time that shape outcomes for the organization and its members, and it is difficult to isolate the influence of any one single factor.

Chapter 1: Exercise 1 debrief – Best job – worst job Objectives 1. To help you to get to know each other.

2. To introduce you to the main sections of this organizational behaviour course.

Briefing 1. Pair up with another student. Interview each other to find out names, where you both come from, and what other courses you are currently taking.

2. In turn, introduce your partner to the other members of the class.

3. Two pairs now join up, and the group of four discuss: What was the worst job that you had? What made it so bad?

What was the best job that you ever had? What made it so good?

4. Appoint a scribe, to record the recurring themes revealed in group members’ stories about their best and worst jobs. Appoint also a group spokesperson.

5. The spokespersons then give presentations to the whole class, summarising the recurring features of what made a job good or bad. As you listen, use this score sheet to record the frequency of occurrence of the various factors.

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Factors affecting job experience Factors

Examples

Individual factors

Pay: reasonable or poor Job training: comprehensive or none Personality: clashes with other people Communication: frequent or little

Group factors

Co-workers: helping or not contributing Conflict with co-workers Staff not welded into a team Pressure to conform to group norms

Structural factors

Job tasks: boring or interesting Job responsibilities: clear or unclear Supervision: too close or little Rules: too many or insufficient guidance

Management factors

Boss: considerate or autocratic Changes: well or poorly implemented Decisions: imposed or asked for opinions Disagreements with managers: often or few

() if mentioned

Debriefing First check that all students have a copy of the exercise. Distribute copies to those who have not.

Invite students to carry out this exercise using the fieldmap of the organizational behaviour terrain as a guide. This provides an opportunity to identify the benefits of such a model, in structuring thinking and analysis, and in ensuring that a range of relevant factors have been considered.

However, this also provides a platform for discussing the oversimplified and linear nature of such a causal model, particularly with regard to the way in which independent and dependent variables overlap. This observation can be used to demonstrate how individual behavioural and emotional responses to work and organizations are generated by combinations of factors interacting and potentially reinforcing each other over time.

Key learning points 1. Unclear causality: Many factors contribute to job satisfaction: individual, group, structure, process, management. The causal links are difficult to establish clearly, unless one factor is so overriding in influence (incompetent autocratic management style, say) as to make the influence of other factors unimportant.

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organizations is conditioned by the interplay of a combination of many factors. In other words, beware of explanations based on single factors or on a limited selection of factors.

3. Systemic thinking: Systemic thinking is essential. When explaining organizational behaviour, systemic thinking is required. Listing influential factors is only a start; identifying how those factors interact, contradict and reinforce each other is key.

Chapter 1: Exercise 2 debrief – Management versus workers Objectives 1. To explore tensions between individual, social and managerial goals.

2. To expose differences in values and perspectives with regard to individual, organizational and social goals, which become sites of conflict.

Briefing Rate each of the following issues on this five-point scale, in terms of whether you think managers and workers have shared, partially shared or separate interests: 1

2

Share identical interests

3

4

5

Have completely separate interests

•

health and safety standards

•

basic pay

•

introducing new technology

•

levels of overtime working

•

designing interesting jobs

•

bonus payments

•

flexible working hours

•

equal opportunities

•

company share price

•

developing new products and/or services

•

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Explain why you rated each of these issues in the way that you did. (This exercise is based on Noon and Blyton, 2007, p.305.)

Debriefing First check that all students have a copy of the exercise. Distribute copies to those who have not.

Discussion of these issues should demonstrate that, depending on context and circumstances, managers and workers alike have similar stakes in these areas. Maintaining health and safety standards can be expensive, but following an accident, litigation and compensation can also be costly, and make investment in standards worthwhile. While it may seem that managers gain by keeping basic pay as low as possible, low pay has negative implications for an organization’s recruitment and retention, and high labour turnover consumes management time in finding replacements, and generates recruitment costs. The introduction of new technology can lead to job losses, but new jobs can be created by increases in demand for new and better products, and learning how to work with new technology increases the skills and employability of those concerned. The stance that one takes here is also determined by personal values, which are often exposed in the debate around these issues.

Key learning points 1. Overlapping interests: The interests of management and employees are not always as distinct as they appear, and on the issues listed here, can be seen to overlap to a significant degree.

2. Personal values: Views concerning whether interests are shared or conflicting are also influenced by personal values.

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CHAPTER 2

Environment Chapter 2: What’s new in this chapter?

Chapter 2: Learning outcomes and recap Chapter 2: Rationale Chapter 2: OB cinema debrief – Thank You For Smoking Chapter 2: Exercise 1 debrief – Ethical conduct Chapter 2: Exercise 2 debrief – Profits versus people

Chapter 2: What’s new in this chapter?

Climate change and extreme weather – these are the main future business risks Strategic foresight – a new approach to scenario planning Where does your iPhone come from? – the nature of globalisation Offshoring, onshoring, reshoring, nearshoring, friend-shoring – the future of globalisation Covid-19 and hybrid working – working from home (WFH), working from anywhere (WFA) Managing a multigenerational workforce – and the value of older employees Going green – how investors and insurance companies will encourage companies to take green issue seriously Stakeholder capitalism – the triple bottom line, a new approach to corporate social responsibility Socially responsible investment – value-based purchasing, and gender-lens investing Equality, diversity, inclusion – discrimination and prejudice are still widespread Code switching – why should anyone have to adjust their language, personality, behaviour and appearance to fit the expectations of others in the workplace?

Microaggressions – the subtle insults that can do as much damage as overt discrimination

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Chapter 2: Learning outcomes and recap 1. Understand the need for ‘fit’ between the organization and its environment.

•

Organizations have to adapt their internal structures and processes to cope with external turbulence and uncertainty.

•

Stable organization strategies are more effective in unchanging environments, but creative, entrepreneurial strategies are more appropriate in turbulent, unpredictable environments.

•

Environmental pressures include globalisation, the Covid-19 pandemic, an ageing population, corporate social responsibility and demands for equality, diversity and inclusion.

2. Assess the strengths and limitations of environmental scanning tools such as PESTLE analysis, and scenario planning.

•

PESTLE analysis provides a comprehensive framework for identifying and planning responses to external factors that can affect an organization.

•

PESTLE analysis generates vast amounts of information, analysis is therefore timeconsuming, and making predictions can be difficult.

•

Scenario planning and strategic foresight methods imagine future possibilities; although these may not occur, the planning process can generate innovative thinking and stimulate resilience.

3. Explain organizational responses to environmental pressures including globalisation, the Covid-19 pandemic, an ageing population and climate change.

•

Globalisation has led to extended supply chains, as many products are made from components manufactured in many different countries.

•

Anti-globalisation sentiment has led to protectionism, and although trade in physical goods has slowed down, information flows and trade in services have increased.

•

Many organizations have to upskill employees as technology becomes more complex, and work becomes more knowledge-intensive.

•

The Covid-19 pandemic led to the development of hybrid working models based on working from home (WFH) and working from anywhere (WFA). Although WFH/A has benefits, there are also disadvantages for employees and organizations, and only a proportion of employees, in some sectors, are able to work from home.

•

Increased life expectancy and declining birthrates are global phenomena, and organizations face the challenges of managing an ageing, and age-diverse workforce.

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•

Contrary to the negative stereotype, older workers have valuable experience and abilities, in communication, problem solving and handling difficult situations, for example.

•

It is possible for a workforce to have up to five generations represented at the same time: Veterans, Baby Boomers, Generation X, Generation Y and Generation Z. Age-diverse teams can increase job satisfaction and performance.

•

There is disagreement about whether different generations have different expectations from work. Individual differences may be more significant, and expectations change with age and experience.

•

Today’s main business risks concern climate change and the environment. Organizations must become more environmentally friendly, particularly with regard to reducing greenhouse gas emissions, in order to mitigate these risks, and reduce economic and insured losses.

•

Investors and insurance companies are increasingly reluctant to deal with companies whose operations are environmentally damaging, thus putting pressure on those companies to act.

4. Apply utilitarianism, theory of rights and theory of justice to assess whether or not management actions are ethical, and recognise the limitations of those perspectives.

•

The utilitarian perspective argues that behaviour is ethical if it achieves the greatest good for the greatest number.

•

The theory of rights judges behaviour on the extent to which individual rights are respected, including right of free consent, right to privacy, right to freedom of conscience, right of free speech, right to due process in an impartial hearing.

•

The theory of justice judges behaviour on whether or not the benefits and burdens flowing from an action are fairly, equitably and impartially distributed.

•

These criteria produce different assessments of the same behaviour; and circumstances can involve other complicating factors, making these criteria unhelpful.

5. Understand the concept of corporate social responsibility (CSR), and the practical and ethical implications for organizational behaviour.

•

Businesses and their managers are expected to act in responsible and ethical ways, contributing to the triple bottom line – people, planet and profits.

•

Companies are encouraged to act responsibly by consumers adopting values-based purchasing, and by investors adopting socially responsible and ‘gender-lens’ investment practices.

•

Critics argue that it is government’s job to deal with social and environmental issues. The role of business is to maximise profits while operating within the law.

•

Stakeholder capitalism concerns serving the needs of customers, suppliers, employees and society as a whole, as well as a company’s shareholders.

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6. Explain why organizations must address equality, diversity and inclusion (EDI), and the steps to achieve those objectives.

•

There is a moral case for promoting EDI in terms of social justice. But prejudice and discrimination, against women and minorities, are still common.

•

There is a business case for EDI, as valued and respected employees are better able to attract and retain other staff and customers, and because diverse teams can be more creative and productive than heterogeneous teams.

•

As with CSR, investors regard an organization’s EDI strategy and reputation as indicators of future financial performance.

•

Women and ethnic minorities often find it necessary to use code switching to fit in at work, changing their language, name and behaviour.

•

Discrimination can occur through microaggressions – brief verbal, behavioural and environmental insults, which may be deliberate or unintentional.

Chapter 2: Rationale This chapter explores the relationships between internal organization structures and processes and external environmental factors and influences. This includes coverage of the ‘organizationenvironment fit’ argument, methods for analysing the external environment and pressure from the corporate social responsibility movement to influence organizational goals and behaviours.

The external environment of many organizations has changed radically since our last edition in 2019. The range of threats, opportunities and risks is daunting: geopolitical and economic instability, economic uncertainty, political divisions, social unrest, ethical investing, technological developments, terrorism, cybercrime, climate change, demographics. With a rising number of unpredictable events and trends, this has been described as an age of ‘normalised unprecedentedness’. The environment has become dramatically more Volatile, Uncertain, Complex and Ambiguous: VUCA. The chapter addresses six environmental pressures and their organizational implications: 1. Globalisation: Has globalisation gone into reverse? Interruptions to supply chains have made many organizations consider how to become more resilient. Or is globalisation changing its nature, as companies explore different patterns of offshoring, onshoring, reshoring, nearshoring and friend-shoring? Is global trade going to be based on regional trading blocs?

2. Covid-19: The pandemic has had a major impact on work and organizations. The main implication has been the development of hybrid working models, with more employees working from home (WFH), or working from anywhere (WFA), all or part of the time. With regard to whether WFH is more productive, evidence is mixed. Hybrid working has advantages and drawbacks for individuals and organizations.

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3. An ageing population: As life expectancy increases, populations are ageing. This means that organizations will have to rely increasingly on older workers, who have many valuable qualities, but who still face age discrimination. Managing an ageing workforce is one management challenge, especially for younger managers. Managing a multigenerational workforce is another challenge – although some evidence suggests that employees in agediverse teams have higher job satisfaction and performance.

4. Climate change: Extreme weather and climate action failure are major business risks.

Companies are under pressure to ‘go green’ and reduce carbon emissions and other environmental damage. Individual companies and sectors are taking steps to achieve this. But it is insurance (and reinsurance) companies that could make the biggest difference. Companies may have to choose between going green, or going without insurance.

5. Corporate social responsibility: This continues to be an important, and controversial, topic. We are now seeing the growth of stakeholder capitalism, values-based purchasing, socially responsible investment, gender-lens investing and ‘the triple bottom line’ – profits, people and the planet. These attempts encourage organizations to be more socially responsible.

6. Equality, diversity and inclusion: After a series of high-profile incidents, which have attracted international attention, EDI issues are central to corporate responsibility. There is a clear moral case behind this movement. And organizations with strong EDI cultures are better able to attract and retain staff and customers – so there is also a strong business case. But inequality and discrimination remain widespread. The chapter discusses the behavioural adjustments described as code switching, and the often hidden insults known as microaggressions.

The impact of new technologies – another set of environmental factors – is explored in Chapter 3.

Chapter 2: OB cinema debrief – Thank You For Smoking Thank You for Smoking (2005, director Jason Reitman) DVD track 18: 1:13:39 to 1:20:26 (7 minutes). This is the story of a tobacco company spokesman and lobbyist for cigarettes. In this clip, Nick Naylor (played by Aaron Eckhart) testifies before a Senate hearing where issues of free choice and ‘bad products’ are discussed. As you watch this, identify: 1. who are the cigarette companies’ stakeholders?

2. what corporate social responsibility issues are raised here?

3. where do you stand on the issue of freedom of choice for consumers?

Debriefing In this clip, the senatorial hearing is discussing the possibility of including a warning logo on cigarette packets. Through the questions and answers, four issues emerge.

First, does the provision of financial support by companies affect the priorities, views and actions of those who receive it? Is the American cigarette companies’ support for the Academy of Tobacco 30 © 2023 Pearson Education Limited. All Rights Reserved.

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Studies likely to affect the outcomes of its research as much as a company’s political donations to a senator affect his or her priorities, views or actions?

Second, a logo on a cigarette packet warns its users of danger. Why should not similar logos be placed on aircraft (which crash), on motor cars (which also kill people) and particularly on dairy products such as Vermont cheese, whose cholesterol content contributes to high death rates from heart attacks? Where do you draw the line?

Third, whose responsibility is it to warn children about the dangers of smoking – tobacco companies, parents or teachers?

Fourth, and more generally, are people going to be allowed in the future to choose to engage in activities that may be dangerous to or unhealthy for them?

Key learning points 1. Multiple stakeholders: Organizations typically have a number of stakeholders, individuals and groups, who each have an interest in the behaviour and performance of the organization.

2. Non-alignment: Stakeholder interests are not necessarily aligned with each other, and are often likely to conflict, generating awkward management problems particularly when different stakeholder communities have differing levels of power and influence.

3. Competing goals: Addressing the interests of powerful stakeholders may or may not be consistent with achieving corporate social responsibility.

Chapter 2: Exercise 1 debrief – Ethical conduct Objectives 1. To explore the nature of ethical and unethical work behaviours.

2. To identify what makes some behaviour ethical, and some behaviour unethical.

3. To explore individual differences in reaching ethical judgements.

Briefing Here are examples of behaviour at work. Are these actions ethical? Tick your response in the column that best describes your opinion; is that behaviour ethical and thus acceptable in your view, or is it acceptable only in some contexts, or is it unethical in any circumstances?

Share your answers with colleagues. Note the differences in your responses. Explore and explain why you hold different views on these issues. What makes some behaviour ethical and some behaviour unethical? Are differences between individuals linked to age, sex, experience, culture, religion or to other factors? What are the implications of these differences for you personally and for your relationships with others? What are the implications for managing a diverse multi-cultural workforce?

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Behaviour

Always ethical

Ethical in some contexts

Always unethical

1

Claim credit for the work of others







2

Withhold information to slow others down







3

Call in sick so that you can have the day off







4

Make a false time report







5

Pad your expenses claims







6

Accept gifts for favours







7

Use friends as sources of confidential information







8

Deliberately make your boss look bad







9

Use company materials for your own purposes







10 Report colleagues who violate company rules







11 Make friends with the power brokers







12 Give others gifts or bribes in return for favours







13 Deliberately make a colleague look bad







14 Conduct personal business on company time







15 Divulge confidential information to others







16 Deliberately take your time to complete a task







17 Drink alcohol during working hours







18 Buy company products, not those of competitors







19 Vote for issues because they support this company







20 Work for more than one employer at a time







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Debriefing First check that all students have a copy of the exercise. Distribute copies to those who have not.

Vermeir and Van Kenhove (2008) compared views of corporate actions and those of consumers.

Using short stories or ‘scenarios’, they found that the ‘unethical’ actions of consumers are more acceptable than corporate unethical acts; women are more likely than men to rate a situation as unethical; and women are less likely to apply double standards.

Responses to this questionnaire lead to an interesting discussion of the nature and formation of different ethical views. Why does one person believe that working for more than one employer is normal while another sees this as unethical? Do unethical behaviours have properties in common, or is this a matter for individual and group judgement? Factors influencing ethical judgements may include culture, religion, experience, age and sex. As just noted, research suggests that organizations are expected to have higher standards of ethical behaviour than the consumers of their products and services, and women are more likely than men to rate situations as unethical. Are these findings reflected in the views of your students? If time allows, extend the discussion into the practical implications of managing a diverse workforce, whose members are likely to hold different views of acceptable and unethical work behaviours. The implications include: •

clarifying organizational expectations and policies in this regard

•

understanding cultural differences with regard to views of ethical behaviour

•

being sensitive to the genuinely held beliefs and standards of others

•

being prepared when it becomes appropriate to openly discuss behaviour that the organization does not condone or does not accept because it is regarded as unethical.

Key learning points 1. Individual differences: There are individual differences concerning the definition or categorisation of behaviours as ethical or unethical.

2. Context-specific definitions: Definitions of ‘ethical-acceptable’ and ‘unethical-unacceptable’ can be highly context-dependent.

3. Sensitive to diversity: Effective management of diverse multi-cultural groups requires sensitivity to the perceptions and beliefs of others, and also openness and clarity with regard to local norms.

Sources on which this exercise is based: De Jong, P., Lancaster, J., Pelaez, P. and Munoz, J.S. (2008). ‘Examination of correlates of ethical propensity and ethical intentions in the United States, Australia, and the Philippines: a managerial perspective’, International Journal of Management, 25 (2): 270–78.

Vermeir, I. and Van Kenhove, P. (2008). ‘Gender differences in double standards’, Journal of Business Ethics, 81 (2): 281–95.

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Chapter 2: Exercise 2 debrief – Profits versus people Objective 1. To explore the nature and implications of management views of ethical issues.

Briefing In the late ‘noughties’ (2005–2010), a lot of companies and managers found themselves accused of making a lot of money through ‘suspect’ business practices. Observers and commentators always say that, if they had been in charge, this would not have happened. What are your views?

Individual ranking (1): Consider the following business values, and rank them in order of importance according to your own beliefs and principles: Business values

My ranking

Management ranking

career development of employees concern for employees as people concern for the environment customer orientation efficiency high quality of products and services integrity managerial and organizational effectiveness profit-making social responsibility

Individual ranking (2): Now rank these items again, this time according to the values that you believe are actually given to them by practising managers.

Groupwork In groups of 3: 1. Develop a consensus ranking (from top priority to bottom priority) of these business values based on the personal sentiments and values of your group’s members.

2. Calculate the practising managers’ rankings using the average of your group members’ rankings (give 10 points to the top ranked item, 9 to the second and so on).

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Debriefing First check that all students have a copy of the exercise. Distribute copies to those who have not.

Students are first invited to consider their own values. Suggest that they view these various business values as representing competing principles on which management decisions can be based. This discussion becomes one in which students have to decide which values they are prepared to violate in order to protect other values which they feel are more important. In this part of the discussion, students who rank ‘profits’ most highly are typically in the minority.

Students are then asked to rank these values in terms of how they believe these are actually prioritised by practising managers. In this discussion, most students give profits the top ranking, in contrast with the previous discussion. When this occurs, students appear to be saying, ‘Practising managers put profits first, but things would be different if we were in charge’. Many students, of course, may also be employees.

Students are finally asked to base their ranking of these values on the sentiments and beliefs of their group members, rather than on their perception of how business ‘really operates’. These group rankings can then be compared with perceptions of how practising managers rank these values. It is interesting and important to observe that group rankings often tend to be closer to the perceived norms of the business world than they are to individual rankings. Why should there be such differences between individual orientation, perceptions of how managers actually behave and individual behaviour as group members?

Key learning points 1. Individual differences: There are individual differences in the way in which we rate or prioritise different business values.

2. We would do better: As individuals, we tend to believe that our own approach to business management would be more socially and environmentally responsible, and that practising managers are actually more interested in profit than we would be, if we were in their role.

3. Impact of group norms: The values that we espouse are influenced by group norms; collectively, we are more likely to endorse values closer to what we perceive practising managers endorse.

Source on which this exercise is based: Marcic, D. (1995). Organizational Behaviour: Experiences and Cases. St Paul, MN: West Publishing, (fourth edn).

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CHAPTER 3

Technology Chapter 3: What’s new in this chapter?

Chapter 3: Learning outcomes and recap Chapter 3: Rationale Chapter 3: OB cinema debrief – Modern Times Chapter 3: Exercise 1 debrief – Into the matrix Chapter 3: Exercise 2 debrief – Old McDonald’s Farm

Chapter 3: What’s new in this chapter?

Surgical robots – graduate from Star Wars and enter real operating theatres Service robots – should they appear human, or look more like machines?

Resistance to new technology? – not if users are consulted first Soft skills required – robots and AI increase demand for ‘soft’ skills including critical thinking, problem solving, interpersonal skills, ‘self-leadership’, as well as cybersecurity and data analysis skills

Chapter 3: Learning outcomes and recap 1. Understand the nature and organizational implications of ‘the second machine age’.

•

The second machine age is based on a combination of growth in computing power, the availability of big data and data analytics, and innovations which can build on each other.

•

We now have the ability to automate many more tasks.

•

Computerization could create a ‘two-tier’ society and greater income inequality, with a highly skilled and well-paid elite, and others who will have poorly paid jobs, if they are employed.

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2. Explain criticisms of technological determinism from a socio-technical systems point of view.

•

Technology does not determine the nature of jobs and organization structures. Work can be organised in different ways. The degrees of variety, responsibility and interaction in work are design choices.

•

Socio-technical system design attempts to meet the needs of both the social and technological aspects of work; focusing on the demands of one aspect alone creates problems.

•

Technology should be seen as having enabling properties, opening up fresh possibilities.

3. Understand the capabilities of advanced robotics and the implications for the nature of work and employment.

•

There are several different types of robot, many of which are now mobile, and some have humanoid features, unlike traditional static caged robots.

•

Robots have successfully automated manual work. Cobots are being developed to work safely alongside employees, to augment rather than replace human skills.

•

Routine tasks have traditionally been easier to automate than non-routine tasks. That is changing. Non-routine manual tasks that can now be computerised include elderly care, equipment maintenance and hospital surgery. Non-routine cognitive tasks that can now be computerised include driving cars in city traffic, financial trading and medical diagnosis.

•

To adapt to new technology, employee training and development will have to focus on abilities that machines cannot handle, such as social skills, creativity, leadership and motivation.

4. Understand the capabilities of artificial intelligence and the implications for the automation of knowledge work.

•

Artificially intelligent systems, based on machine learning, can now perform many tasks that were once thought to be uniquely human, and beyond the ability of machines.

•

Tasks that require cognitive skills, adaptability and judgement have been difficult to automate. However, artificial intelligence and machine learning can computerise professional knowledge work. AI can also be used for intelligence augmentation, to support human capabilities.

•

Computers struggle with tasks that require complex perception and manipulation, creativity and social intelligence. Also, machines are not good at leadership, motivation, complex problem solving, creativity, negotiating and managing people.

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5. Understand the capabilities of augmented reality and how these systems will affect the nature of work.

•

Augmented reality (AR) systems superimpose digital information and images on the physical world through a screen, such as a smartphone, iPad or television.

•

AR can be combined with virtual reality for entertainment and training purposes, and to enable collaboration and teamwork in dispersed employee groups.

•

AR works through mobile devices, head-mounted displays and smart glasses. An AR device can superimpose production, assembly and servicing instructions onto manufacturing environments, replacing traditional paper manuals and training methods.

•

AR enhances human capabilities, allowing people to perform sophisticated tasks without lengthy and expensive instruction.

•

AR is a developing technology with applications that will support those working in dangerous environments, in remote locations and with extremely complex equipment.

6. Assess the impact of new technologies on employment – mass redundancies, or job creation?

•

New technology in the past has not led to unemployment, as the development of new products and services has created new demand, and thus new jobs. However, the pace of change in the second machine age is such that many of those who are displaced may not be able to catch up.

•

The impact on jobs may not be as dramatic as predicted because there are many things that machines still cannot do, such as work involving social intelligence, complex manipulation and creativity.

•

Tasks may not be automated even where this is possible. Automation may be more expensive than human labour in some regions. Regulatory requirements may require human presence and judgement. It may not be socially acceptable to have some tasks performed by machines.

•

Management will have to pay more attention to: managing resistance to new technology; leadership capabilities for managing skilled knowledge workers; frequent retraining and redeployment to enable workers to function alongside intelligent machines; finding ways of using new technology to assist older workers.

7. Understand the nature of ‘the social matrix’, the potential organizational uses of social media technologies and the risks involved.

•

We live and work in a social matrix. Any online activity can now be social, involving others in sharing information and solving problems, and creating new types of organization.

•

Social media is an easy-to-use ‘low-friction’ tool. For organizations, it can improve external and internal communications, strengthen employee voice, support learning and development and streamline recruitment.

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•

Employees should be allowed to exchange personal information through social media, as this helps to form relationships and develop metaknowledge – knowing who to ask for help.

•

The corporate development of social media for internal purposes has been poor, perhaps due to a lack of understanding of the technology, weak links to corporate goals, work that is not designed to make use of these tools and concerns about cyberslacking and cybersecurity.

•

One approach to overcoming those concerns is to develop enterprise-specific social networks, which are ‘gated’ and limit communications to employees, at all levels.

•

Organizations resisting these developments may be encouraged, or forced into social media adoption by employees who will use these technologies anyway.

•

Social media involves risks; employee voices can be critical of management, and social media can be used as a tool for sexual harassment and stalking.

Chapter 3: Rationale Technology is a core OB topic, given the nature and pace of technology developments, and the radical implications for the world of work. A leading current concern is ‘automation anxiety’: will robots and artificially intelligent systems steal our jobs? Are we really looking at a workless future?

Or will new technologies create more jobs than they destroy? Are professional roles just as likely to be taken over by computing as repetitive manual work? It is important to remember that automation applies to tasks, and not to jobs – the latter usually involving a combination of tasks. If machines can do the heavy, dangerous, repetitive tasks, that leaves us humans with more time for the more interesting and challenging, creative, problem-solving, social interaction work that machines still find difficult. The weight of evidence and commentary is currently positive, emphasising the job creation and job redesign opportunities which arise with new technologies. However, this is an area in which it would be inappropriate to make confident predictions.

One key issue has been carried over from previous editions. This concerns the simplistic notion of technological determinism which is challenged by the socio-technical systems perspective: all new technologies have enabling properties which do not uniquely determine the consequences for work, jobs, organizations or employment.

The content of this chapter revolves around the related concepts of ‘the second machine age’ and ‘the social matrix’. Rapid growth in computing power has led to the development of several technologies which now underpin those two concepts: artificial and machine intelligence, augmented reality, big data, data analytics, social media, robotics, cobots, mobile internet, social media, the internet of things, cloud technology. As indicated above, some commentators predict mass unemployment, as jobs are replaced by technology at a pace that outstrips the compensatory mechanisms that have maintained employment levels in the past. More disturbingly, others predict the creation of a ‘two-tier society’, with a small wealthy elite, whose capabilities cannot be automated, and everybody else – either unemployed or doing simple low-paid manual tasks. The most controversial predictions relate to the automation of professional knowledge work; many nonroutine cognitive tasks, once considered immune from automation, can now be programmed successfully. Will the jobs of lawyers and doctors be taken over by intelligent algorithms, a process 39 © 2023 Pearson Education Limited. All Rights Reserved.

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which has already begun? Will managers be replaced by machine intelligence that exploits big data analytics to make better decisions more rapidly? Social media has the potential to influence how organizations communicate internally, with employees. However, the uptake of these approaches has been slow, with most organizations focusing on external customer communications.

Although some of this chapter may be dated before the book is published, new technologies and their implications continue to attract widespread media attention, and finding up to date materials will not be problematic. These issues suggest lively tutorial debates. One topic of concern to students entering the workforce concerns how we as individuals can ‘future-proof’ ourselves against the march of intelligent machines and automation. The answer lies with developing capabilities that are (currently) beyond the reach of computing technology: creativity, innovation, problem solving and social, interpersonal and leadership skills such as motivating and negotiating. Watch out for media reports indicating that even these currently ‘immune’ tasks can or soon will be computerised or automated – and assess the validity of those claims.

Chapter 3: OB cinema debrief – Modern Times Modern Times (1936, director Charles Chaplin). DVD track 2, 0:01:10 to 0:06.00 (5 minutes). Clip opens with flock of sheep. Clip ends when the scene cuts from the assembly line to the manager’s office. Despite the date, this sequence is still one of the most powerful movie illustrations of the human being treated as a machine, of the worker caught in the cogwheels of capitalist production.

(This movie is also recommended as an alternative for chapter 14.)

1. Are employees still subjected to such treatment in organizations today? Give examples.

2. Can you identify instances where new technology has liberated workers from this kind of treatment?

3. Chaplin’s movie was set in a factory; do office workers escape from the effects of technology?

DVD track 3: 00:06:07 to 00:12: 57 (6 minutes): clip begins in the manager’s office as the salesmen bring in a piece of equipment; ends with the manager saying ‘It’s no good – it isn’t practical’ (caption). This is a disastrous demonstration of the Billows Feeding machine which is designed to feed employees while they work, thus improving productivity.

4. What does this scene reveal about management objectives in the use of technology?

5. What does this scene tell us about management values in relation to employees?

Debriefing 1. Sadly, many ‘frontline’ jobs today, in manufacturing and services, retain many of the same repetitive, constrained and regimented features. Examples in discussion will depend on student work experience; common contemporary examples include supermarket checkout operators and fast-food outlet service.

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2. The use of robots to perform repetitive manufacturing assembly tasks and self-checkout systems in supermarkets are two common examples of ‘liberation’ from the tedium of repetitive work.

Neither of these examples has necessarily created either redundancy or deskilling.

Manufacturing robots require staff with high-level maintenance skills to keep them operating effectively. Self-checkout systems are typically ‘staffed’ with store personnel who are there to support customers not used to the new technology.

3. It depends on the office, but it is still possible to find highly fragmented and repetitive clerical and administrative work in, for example, financial services sector organizations.

4. The management aims here are clearly focused on time, efficiency and cost. There appears to be no attempt whatsoever here to use technology to improve quality of working life, or even to improve product quality.

5. Employees are only valuable when they are engaged in work activity. Stopping work for lunch is categorised as a management problem because it costs money (to pay the employees for that time) while production is halted. Have management values changed in this respect? Do we have more ‘enlightened’ management today?

Key learning points 1. Fragmentation damage: Fragmented, repetitive, closely supervised work can have a dehumanising effect on employees, leading to dysfunctional behaviour.

2. Old movie, current practice: While this film has historical interest, there are still jobs today which are designed following the same principles, in all sectors.

3. Understand management goals: Technology has few independent implications for the nature of work, and it is important also to examine management goals and values in relation to how technology is to be used in a particular work organization context.

Chapter 3: Exercise 1 debrief – Into the matrix Objectives 1. To encourage breadth of thinking about a topic, in this case the social matrix.

2. To develop skills in producing a wide-ranging and balanced assessment.

3. To consider the extent to which technology determines or facilitates the outcomes or impacts that it produces.

Briefing The issue for debate is: What are the individual, organizational and social benefits and dangers of living and working in a social matrix?

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Divide into groups of 3. Your group’s task is to think of as many relevant points as you can concerning the issue for debate. List these points on a flipchart for presentation. Time allowed: 10 to 15 minutes.

Present your points in plenary. Your points will be awarded ‘quality marks’ for relevance, importance, plausibility and creativity. If your argument for a point is particularly impressive or original, you can win more quality marks. The group with the highest quality marks will be declared the winner. Time allowed depends on number of groups: up to 45 minutes.

Consider two of the main benefits and two of the main dangers that you have identified. To what extent are these inevitable consequences of the social matrix? To what extent do these consequences depend on how individuals and organizations decide to use the technologies that are involved?

Debriefing First check that all students have a copy of the exercise. Distribute copies to those who have not.

Copy the following matrix (blank) for students to record their discussion as a basis for feedback to the group as a whole, and for scoring. Brief examples are provided here, but these are not comprehensive, and the list depends on the ingenuity of your students.

The social matrix Dangers Individual

Benefits

loss of privacy, information overload, access to more people and stress information

Organizational

‘hyper-informed’ customers, rapid loss of reputation

new organizational forms, better communications, faster responses

Social

unemployment, two-tier society, growing inequality

collaboration, information sharing, crowdsourcing

1.

2.

1.

2.

Two main

Key learning points 1. New technologies bring disadvantages as well as benefits.

2. There is likely to be a mix of gains and losses. For example, corporate benefits may be offset by individual and social drawbacks, and vice versa.

3. Technology itself may not be intrinsically advantageous or damaging; the outcomes depend on how the technology is used.

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Chapter 3: Exercise 2 debrief – Old McDonald’s Farm Objective To explore the integration of social and technical aspects of an organization.

Briefing Organizations are socio-technical systems. This means that technology – equipment, machines, processes, materials, layout – has to work alongside people – structures, roles, role relationships, job design. You can’t design an organization to suit the technology while ignoring the people, because that would be ineffective. Similarly, designing an organization just to suit the people, while ignoring the requirements of the technology, would be equally disastrous. The concept of socio-technical system design means that the social system and the technical system have to be designed so that they can work with each other.

Old McDonald’s Farm Let’s consider Old McDonald’s farm. On this farm, he had no pigs, cows or chickens. He had only corn, planted in long rows that grew all year round. McDonald had a perfect environment for growing corn. The soil was rich, and the climate was perfect, 12 months every year.

McDonald’s rows were so long that at one end of the row, the soil was being prepared for planting, while the next section on that row was being planted, the next section was growing and the next was being harvested. McDonald had four of these long rows.

McDonald is a progressive and scientific farmer. He is concerned about both productivity and quality. He had an industrial engineer study the amount of effort required to complete the work in each function on each row. He found that two employees were required per section, on each row, fully employed in that function all year round. Therefore, he employed eight workers on each row.

Initially, Mr McDonald had only four rows, A, B, C and D, and a total of 32 people. But he decided to expand, adding two more rows. This added 16 more workers. Now he had 48 employees. Until this time, he had only one supervisor responsible for directing the work of all 32 employees on the initial four rows. Now he decided that there was too much work for one supervisor. He added another.

Mr McDonald now had to decide whether to reorganise the work of his managers and employees.

He decided to talk to his two supervisors, Mr Jones and Mr Smith. He found that they had very different ideas.

Mr Jones insisted that the only intelligent way to organise was around the technical knowledge, the functional expertise. He argued that he should take responsibility for all employees working on the first two sections, soil preparation and planting, on all rows. Mr Smith, he acknowledged, had greater expertise in growing and harvesting, so he would take responsibility for all employees in the last two sections. They would each have an equal number of employees to supervise.

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Mr Smith had a different idea. He argued that, while some specialised knowledge was needed, it was more important for the employees to take responsibility for the entire growing cycle. This way, they could move down the row, seeing the progress of the corn. He argued for organising the employees into teams by row.

Soil prep

Planting

Growing

Harvesting

Row A Row B Row C Row D Row E Row F

Mr McDonald has hired you as a consultant to help him with his organization design. The questions that he wants you to answer are: 1. How will you organize employees on the farm, and how will you assign responsibility to Smith and Jones? You can recommend any assignment that you like, but the numbers of employees that are required will stay the same.

2. What socio-technical principles support your recommendations? Why is your approach better than the alternatives?

3. If you were one of Mr McDonald’s employees, which approach to organization design would you prefer, and why?

From Marcic (1995, pp.285–286)

Debriefing First check that all students have a copy of the exercise. Distribute copies to those who have not.

The two main socio-technical system design principles relevant to this case are organizational choice and autonomous teamwork, or ‘whole task groups’. Clearly the technology of fields, corn and farming does not impose a particular form of work organization. Mr McDonald and his supervisors have options in this matter. Related socio-technical concepts include concern for quality of working life as well as for production, and joint optimisation of the social and technical systems.

In this case, Mr Smith’s recommendations are closer to the socio-technical ideal, by giving teams of employees responsibility for the complete growing cycle – the whole task – and by putting decisions in the hands of frontline employees.

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A socio-technical approach (the Smith solution) has a number of advantages: •

gives employees work that is more meaningful and interesting

•

employees have opportunities to develop knowledge and skills across the whole crop cycle and not just one specialist phase

•

frontline decision-making should mean that problems are detected and solved more rapidly and effectively

However, a conventional form of work organization (the Jones solution) also has advantages: •

employees who specialise can develop skills in that narrow area, whereas those who develop knowledge of the whole production system might want higher pay

•

it makes sense to allocate work according to knowledge and expertise

•

employees who focus on specific tasks can be supervised and controlled more easily.

Before dismissing the Jones solution in favour of the Smith approach, it is useful to remember that, in car assembly at least, the Toyota Production System, that relies more on traditional scientific management principles of job design, appears to have been more successful than the socio-technical systems approach that inspired the Scandinavian system of autonomous work groups. There are other considerations here, which concern the values that management places on employee satisfaction and opportunities for development, skill and payment levels, and ease of supervision and control.

Key learning points 1. Organizational choice: The nature of the production system does not determine how work is organised; management and employees have organizational choice in this regard.

2. Efficiency and quality of working life: It is therefore possible to design work in ways that are operationally efficient while enhancing quality of working life.

3. People and profits: The choice of approach to work organization relies on more than considerations of efficiency and quality of working life, but extends to management concerns with staff development and ease of control. Work that is designed on socio-technical systems principles allows staff to develop their expertise, thus potentially demanding higher rewards, while being more difficult to supervise and control.

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CHAPTER 4

Culture Chapter 4: What’s new in this chapter?

Chapter 4: Learning outcomes and recap Chapter 4: Rationale Chapter 4: Home viewing – Margin Call, Steve Jobs, Outsourced, American Factory Chapter 4: OB cinema debrief – Dead Poets Society Chapter 4: Exercise 1 debrief – Surface manifestations Chapter 4: Exercise 2 debrief – National culture etiquette

Chapter 4: What’s new in this chapter?

Changing corporate values – which are most popular and why?

Culture fit, diversity and adaptability – what can when language-use in electronic communications tell us about organizations and their employees?

Culture clash – what happens when first responders (fire, paramedics, police) need to work jointly together?

COVID-19 – will post-pandemic working destroy organization culture?

National cultural differences – how was COVID-19 managed in different countries with what consequences?

Chapter 4: Learning outcomes and recap 1. Account for the popularity of organizational culture among managers and researchers.

•

Culture management offers managers a route to economic success.

•

For consultants, the concept provides an appealing; easy-to-grasp, quick-fix solution to sell to managers wishing to improve their organization’s performance.

•

For academics, it offers an alternative perspective with which to research and theorise about organizations and provides a new context within which to explore postmodernist ideas.

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2. List, describe and give examples of Schein’s three levels of organizational culture.

•

Schein distinguished surface manifestations of culture at level one (e.g. artefacts, rites, ceremonials); organizational values at level two (e.g. customer obsession); and basic assumptions at level three.

3. Distinguish the stages of organizational socialization.

•

The stages of organizational socialisation are anticipatory, accommodation and role management.

4. Contrast managerial and social science perspectives on organizational culture.

•

Organizational culture is something that a company either has or what a company is.

•

Organizational culture is a single, integrated unit or a differentiated entity consisting of multiple, different subcultures, fragmented with conflicting interests.

•

An organization’s culture can be managed by its leaders or it is beyond their direct control and instead has to be tolerated by them.

•

Culture management signals a new era of symbolic leadership which relies on internalised forms of employee direction, or it represents old-style management control in a new guise.

5. Distinguish between different types and traits of organizational culture.

•

Cameron and Quinn distinguished companies across two cultural dimensions – flexibility/staff direction and control/stability.

•

These dimensions produce four value sets: clan, adhoc, hierarchy and market.

•

Groysberg and colleagues distinguished companies across two cultural dimensions – ‘how people interact’ (from independence to interdependence) and ‘how people react to change’ (from stability to flexibility).

•

These dimensions produce eight culture styles: enjoyment, learning, purpose, caring, order, safety, authority and results.

•

Each organization is seen has as possessing a combination of value sets or culture styles.

6. Contrast different dimensions of national culture.

•

Hofstede suggested that national culture could be differentiated along five dimensions: social, power, uncertainty, goal and time.

•

The GLOBE framework for assessing national culture incorporates and extends Hofstede’s dimensions and includes the cultural dimensions of: assertiveness; in-group collectivism; institutional collectivism; future orientation; gender differentiation; humane orientation; performance orientation; power distance; and uncertainty avoidance.

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7. Compare different national negotiating styles.

•

Meyer used the two dimensions of emotion (from emotionally expressive to emotionally unexpressive) and confrontation (from confrontation to avoids confrontation) to distinguish national negotiating styles.

•

She placed countries into four quadrants depending on their degree of decision-making (top down or egalitarian) and authority (hierarchical or egalitarian).

Chapter 4: Rationale This chapter mostly focuses on organizational (or corporate) culture. However, the effects of national cultures on companies, the internationalisation of workforces and the growth of distinctive national business cultures have increased in importance and this is reflected in the new content in the revised chapter.

Organization culture continues to receive prominence in the media as it has been seen as the cause of employee misbehaviour and institutional failure in numerous organizations. Recent surveys encourage chief executives to take corporate culture more seriously following recent company failures which have been attributed to ‘unhealthy cultures’ (O’Dwyer, 2022) and they recommend that the UK’s corporate governance code should be amended to give directors greater responsibility for promoting, monitoring and assessing their corporate culture. The pandemic too has affected company culture with half of those surveyed replying that it has either improved or made their cultures worse (Cezanne HR, 2022). This raises the broader question as to whether post-COVID 19 hybrid working will destroy organization culture.

In contrast, studies into the impact of national culture on company functioning have become more numerous as the drive to globalisation and diversity has accelerated. At the organizational level, this chapter adds to the classic contribution of Hofstede and GLOBE, to examine Meyer’s (2017) research into differences in leadership cultures in different countries. National culture has impacted on other aspects of organizational behaviour. In the Conflict chapter, Brett et al.’s (2017) framework on cultural differences in negotiating strategies is considered. However, it is at the group/team level that national culture has had the greatest influence. The aforementioned Conflict chapter also contains Toegel and Barsoux’s (2016) work on revealing multi-national members’ world views so as to avoid team conflict.

This chapter provides the basis for a study of both organizational and national culture. However, it does so in a questioning way that raises doubts and concerns, and acknowledges the controversial nature of the concept. It addresses the questions: •

What has stimulated interest in the concept and what can account for its continuing impact over the last 20 years?

•

Why, despite its popularity and its continued use, does the concept of organization culture remain highly controversial, with some authors denying its existence, while others arguing that other concepts provide a better explanation of the same phenomena.

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•

Is organizational culture just a sophisticated form of management control?

•

How do national cultures affect what goes on in and between organizations?

The three decades, during which the interest in culture has grown, have also been a period of rapid change. These have raised the question of the relationship between organizational culture and national culture. The research on national culture has sought to identify national traits, similar to the personality traits of individuals. It has tried to determine their impact on employees who work within organizations which themselves possess their distinctive cultures. The relationships concerned are complex and it can be expected that, as the world ‘gets smaller’, and national and organizational culture exert greater mutual influence, the number of such studies will increase.

Chapter 4: Home viewing – American Factory For a detailed discussion on the objectives of the exercise, how to run and debrief it, see: Liu, J.T. (2021). ‘Teaching with American Factory: Illustrating management concepts in a multinational enterprise with a documentary film’, Management Teaching Review 6(3): 278–290.

Chapter 4: OB cinema debrief – Dead Poets Society Dead Poets Society (1989, director Peter Weir) DVD track 1: 0:00:53–0:04:44 (4 minutes) To establish context, many films begin with shots of an organization to communicate its culture.

This clip begins after the opening credits of the film, and ends after Mr Keating has been introduced, sits down and there is a shot of an outside scene. Students should use the checklist from the textbook chapter.

1. Which surface manifestations of Welton Academy’s culture are being communicated here?

2. What values can you infer about Welton Academy’s organizational culture from viewing this clip?

Debriefing This clip provides an example of many of the 15 surface manifestations of the school’s culture in a very short space of time.

1. Introduce students to each of the 15 surface manifestations of organization culture using definitions and examples.

2. Copy this matrix (without the observations) for students to complete while watching the clip.

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3. Ask students to watch the clip and note examples of any of the manifestations that they see. Tell them that there are at least 10 of them.

4. Once all the surface manifestations and implied values have been charted up and discussed, reshow the film clip.

5. If time permits, ask students for any examples of cultural surface manifestations in organizations that they know, and what company values these seem to convey.

Surface manifestation definition

Welton Academy example

Artefacts are material objects created to facilitate culturally expressive activities.

They include tools, furniture, appliances and clothing.

Boys’ school uniforms Teachers’ gowns Banners carried into chapel

Every boy is a member of the school.

Each is treated equally.

Ceremonials are formally planned, elaborate, dramatic sets of activities of cultural expression.

Procession into the chapel

Symbolises the boys’ journey, in space and time, through the school.

Courses and workshops are used to instruct, induct, orient and train new members, and to recognise the contributions of existing ones.

Underpinning value

None shown in clip

Heroes are characters, living or dead, who personify the values and beliefs; who are referred to in company stories.

Reference to school pupils who went on to the top (‘Ivy League’) universities

Demonstration of success in academic competition.

Jokes are humorous stories intended to cause amusement but whose underlying themes may carry a message for the behaviour or values.

None shown in clip

Language is the particular form or manner in which members use vocal sounds and written signs to convey meaning to each other.

School pupils referred to as ‘boys’ in the principal’s speech

Legends are handed-down narratives about wonderful events based on history, but embellished with fictional details.

None shown in clip

Mottoes are maxims adopted as rules of conduct which are rarely, if ever, changed.

Four pillars – tradition, honour, discipline, excellence

Timeless values held and communicated by the school.

Norms are expected modes of behaviour that are accepted as the company’s way of doing things.

Mr Keating being introduced to parents, who will talk to him later

Teachers are the servants of the parents who pay the fees.

Conveys idea of pupils as immature, needing to be guided by their teachers.

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Physical layout concerns things that surround people, providing them with sensory stimuli.

School chapel with pews, rostrum, alter and side seating

School head, teachers, parents and boys all have different statuses and roles in the school.

Rites are relatively elaborate, dramatic sets of activities that consolidate various forms of cultural expression into one event.

Candle lighting and passing on – ‘light of knowledge’

School’s job is to pass on knowledge to new generations of boys.

Sagas are historical narratives describing the unique accomplishments of a group and its leaders.

Principal’s account of the history of school’s establishment in 1959 and its graduation of 5 boys

Conveys school’s success demonstrated by its growth in size over the years.

Slogans are short, catchy phrases that are regularly changed.

None shown in clip

Stories are narratives describing how individuals acted and the decisions they made that affected the company’s future.

None shown in clip

Symbols refer to any act, event, object, quality or relation that serves as a vehicle for conveying meaning.

Boys stand up and chant aloud the four school values of tradition, honour, discipline, excellence

Verbal reinforcement of the pillars (values) upon which the school stands.

Key learning points 1. Unique cultures: To varying degrees, every large organization possesses its own unique culture which is conveyed through its surface manifestations.

2. Culture influences behaviour: Each organization’s culture influences the attitudes and behaviours of new employees who join and become inducted into it.

3. Sub-cultures: Large organization are likely to contain distinct sub-cultures which can be in conflict with each other, for example, Production versus Marketing; Economics Department versus Management Department.

Instructor advice For a detailed discussion on the various uses of the film Dead Poets Society see: Collins M. (1989). ‘Make-believe in Dead Poets Society’, English Journal, 78(8): 74–75.

Holbrook Jr, R. L. and Stoner, J. (2022). ‘Revisiting Dead Poets Society as a Tool for Studying Applications of Power’, Management Teaching Review, 7(2), 164–179.

Hayes T. A. (1990). ‘Dead Poets Society’, Teaching Sociology, 18(3); 444–445.

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Muro A. (2018). ‘What will your verse be?’ Identity and masculinity in ‘Dead Poets Society’, Journal of English Studies, 16, 207–220.

Serey T. (1992). Carpe diem: Lessons about life and management from Dead Poets Society, Journal of Management Education, 16(3), 374–381.

Chapter 4: Exercise 1 debrief – Surface manifestations Objectives 1. Understand how organization structure and processes affect organization culture.

2. How the organization culture might affect your ‘views and behaviours’ as an employee.

Briefing 1. Begin by checking that all students have a copy of the exercise. Distribute copies to those who have not.

2. Check that students: •

are familiar with the concept of surface manifestations of culture (ask them for examples of manifestations).

•

understand that a manifestation may give a clue to an organization’s culture (ask them what having to give a fingerprint identification when clocking or signing on and off at work would tell them about the company concerned).

3. Form the class into groups of 3–5 students.

4. Ask them to read each of the three cluster descriptions, and decide: (a) What ‘message’ each one sends to employees about the organization’s culture. (b) Speculate on the views and behaviours it might encourage or discourage among employees, including yourself.

5. Ask each group to begin with a different cluster of descriptions. Group 1 starts with cluster 1; group 2 with cluster 2 and so on.

6. The whole class reforms.

7. Each group spokesperson presents and justifies their conclusions for the cluster.

Instructor advice It is useful to have different groups begin with different descriptions, for example, Group A begins with description 1; Group B begins with description 2, etc. That way, if time runs out, there will be one group that can report back having fully considered at least situation cluster.

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Debriefing Instructor’s debriefing for description 1 1. Companies want their employees to have creative ideas: (a) Company A hires only the smartest people and then immediately after appointment, sends them on creativity workshops. (b) Company B has a rigorous selection procedure. Its expensive and elaborate 3-day assessment centre selection approach focuses on determining each applicant’s level of creativity. (c) Company C has a staff restaurant with only six-seater tables to allow different staff to meet; its rest areas have whiteboards on the walls; and there are suggestion boxes in every main corridor.

The issue here is about the nature of creativity and its possession by different people.

Company 1A Culture: •

Views intelligence (smartness) as a personality trait, and creativity as a skill.

•

Sees creativity skill to be performed by individuals acting alone.

•

Believes both are possessed and manifested people acting as individuals.

•

Assumes that smart individuals can be taught the techniques to make them act and think creatively with respect to their work tasks.

Views and behaviours encouraged •

Feeling that you are a member of a specially selected elite.

•

Early requirement to attend these workshops communicates the importance placed on working creatively.

•

Would attempt to come up with creative ideas and solutions in solving problems, giving presentations, etc.

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Company 1B Culture: •

Views creativity as a personality trait that is possessed by relatively few people – they either have it or they don’t!

•

Takes a nomothetic approach to personality, which is reflected in its heavy investment in the assessment centres intended to prevent ‘non-creatives’ from getting into the company.

•

The company culture will emphasise creativity and homogeneity of staff. Advertising and research companies might have this culture.

Views and behaviours encouraged •

Feeling that you are a member of a specially selected, super-creative elite – a member of the chosen few!

•

Your self-imagine as a particularly creative person becomes enhanced, as your selection reinforces your own belief in your creative powers.

•

You would try to come up with creative ideas and solutions in solving problems, giving presentations, to justify the company’s assessment of you.

Company 1C Culture: •

Sees creativity as a result of both face-to-face interactions between people (tables) or of individual thought (suggestion box).

•

Assumes that employees from all hierarchical levels and all backgrounds can be creative.

•

Believes that creativity comes in the form of fleeting ideas that need to be immediately captured (whiteboards and pens).

•

Management can facilitate creative thinking by bringing employees from different backgrounds physically together (restaurant); and providing a way of allowing them to share their innovative ideas (suggestion box).

Views and behaviours encouraged •

Intentionally or accidently you are likely to interact with fellow employees from different departments and backgrounds.

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•

The message is that it is good to talk about new ideas and identify common interests, problems and solutions in an informal way.

•

These even fleeting contacts are likely to increase your networks within the company, as well as your networking activities.

Instructor’s debriefing for description 2 2. Companies have different approaches to employees’ work spaces: (a) Company A encourages staff to personalise their workspaces by decorating them with photos, toys and other items brought from home. Staff are free to come to work dressed as they like. (b) Company B has open space work areas for all staff. They wear business dress and address each other by their first names. Managers do not have their own offices or secretaries. The conference suite is used for department meetings to which secretarial and support staff are invited. Recycling boxes are located throughout the building. (c) Company C believes messy desks demonstrates a lack of personal organization; it operates a paperless office system and requires managers to enforce a ‘clear surface’ policy. Nonbusiness-related items in workspaces are considered unprofessional and are banned. ‘Dressdown Fridays’ were introduced by senior management after much discussion, some time ago.

The issue here concerns what the physical workspace communicates about the organization’s culture.

Company 2A Culture: •

In one way, it reflects the old paternalistic culture, originated by Elton Mayo who stressed the importance of the workplace as a source of community and belonging for employees.

•

In another way, it reflects the new ‘your job is your life’ values in which employees are expected virtually to live on the premises.

•

The message is bring your home to your workplace as your workplace will be your home.

•

Stresses informality and individualism.

•

Communicates a readiness to accommodate employees’ preferences.

•

Prioritises work achievements and meeting goals over how the work is done.

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Views and behaviours encouraged •

Depending on your age, you might find this type of environment appealing.

•

The way the company has adjusted to you, leaves you feeling the need to reciprocate in terms of your contribution.

•

You are likely to interact primarily with a colleague or be a member of a team, and are thus likely to conform to their behaviour.

Company 2B Culture: •

Indicates a culture emphasising egalitarianism, democracy, empowerment, success based on merit and inclusivity.

•

Values of environmental and social concern are also hinted at.

•

Suggests that the majority of staff interaction is with clients and customers outside the organization.

Views and behaviours encouraged •

Likely to experience the company as one which judges you on what you achieve rather than who you are – status is less important than results.

•

Experience a contrast of informality within the company with the formality when interacting with non-members.

•

Dress appropriateness when out visiting a client.

Company 2C Culture: •

Suggests Handy’s ‘role’ culture.

•

Indicates an old-fashioned company, with probably bureaucratic traditions struggling painfully to adapt to modern trends.

•

Perhaps a tension between older, senior staff who make the rules and younger, junior staff who implement, or who are subject to them.

•

Questionable how unified the culture is with respect to the different groups of employees.

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Views and behaviours encouraged •

Likely to follow the rules concerning paper management, personalisation of your workspace and dress, but probably consider these unconvincing.

•

Employees not convinced about the company’s sincerity or commitment to modern fads like ‘dress-downs’.

Instructor’s debriefing for description 3 3. Companies have different approaches to employees’ errors: (a) In Company A, an employee’s mistake is discussed at a team meeting, recorded on the employee’s file and senior management is informed for possible disciplinary action. (b) In Company B, the manager identifies errors made by subordinates; talks to the individuals, shows them where they went wrong and what he should do in the future. (c) In Company C, employees discuss their mistakes with their managers. The manager assists the subordinate to analyse their error, helps them learn from it and agrees an action plan for future improvements.

The contrast here is between the blame-and-punish and learn-and-improve approaches to mistakes.

Company 3A Culture: •

Suggests a ‘name-and-shame’, ‘hire-and-fire’ culture.

•

Punishment-based.

•

Public humiliation as a warning to others.

•

Errors catalogued for use in subsequent disciplinary action.

Views and behaviours encouraged •

You would follow rules even if these did not contribute to the goals.

•

Seek authorisation from superiors before taking action.

•

Avoid situations and where there was a danger of making a mistake.

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Company 3B Culture: •

An authoritarian culture.

•

Suggests that every problem has correct company solution that should be implemented.

•

Assumes there to be a correct way of doing something that the employee has failed to do.

•

Expects the boss to take responsibility for highlighting the subordinate’s error, identifying its causes and informing them of the actions they should have taken.

•

Implies that subsequent errors by the same employee will be dealt with more punitively.

Views and behaviours encouraged •

Learn about the company ‘way of doing’ things.

•

Avoid innovative, unauthorised solutions of your own, even if these are quicker and more effective.

•

Better to make the wrong decision correctly than the right decision incorrectly.

•

As long as your boss does not complain, everything you are doing is fine.

Company 3C Culture: •

Has a no-blame culture.

•

Suggests that there will always be new situations which demand new, previously untested solutions.

•

Sees employees as responsible for spotting their own and others’ errors in the absence of a dedicated quality controller.

•

Believes it is better for an error to be reported by staff and quickly rectified, than have it cause a complaint from the customer.

•

Expects the manager to take the role of coach, helping the subordinate learn from their error (double loop learning).

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Views and behaviours encouraged •

Take calculated risks in the knowledge that a mistake will not end your career.

•

Develop your ability to evaluate situations, assessing the likelihood of undesirable outcomes occurring.

•

Take responsibility for your own actions.

•

Develop the ability to learn from your own mistakes and avoid similar ones in the future.

Key learning points 1. Clues: Organizational practices such as how creative ideas are encouraged, work spaces arranged and errors treated all give a clue to a company’s culture.

2. Changes: The culture of a company can change either by evolution or managerial intervention.

3. Structure and culture: Changes the practices and procedures of a structure can act to change a culture. That is why the twin concepts of organizational culture and organization structure are intimately intertwined.

Instructor advice •

Since, there are several acceptable interpretations of each description, the focus should be on students’ rationales for predicting the likely culture, and the views and behaviours it is likely to encourage among the staff.

•

Keep the culture prediction’s general. No need to force students to fit the companies into Handy’s culture typology presented in the chapter, or those suggested by Goffee and Jones or Deal and Kennedy in the literature. However, these two may be mentioned by the instructor if appropriate.

•

Encourage the students to imagine themselves in each of the companies described. Ask them to speculate on its culture, the views they would hold and the actions they would take and those that they would avoid.

Chapter 4: Exercise 2 debrief – National culture etiquette Objective 1. To recognise the similar ways in which national cultural values are shared.

2. To understand differences between national cultures.

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Briefing 1. Students form into small groups based on their country of origin (e.g. China, USA, Japan) or region (e.g. Scandinavia, Eastern Europe, South America, Middle East).

2. Individually, identify an experience that you had after coming to this country that you found surprising, unusual, upsetting, puzzling, irritating, pleasing or significant in some way.

3. Each group then prepares: (i) A list of ‘student experiences’ about this country. (ii) Do’s and Don’ts guide for a person visiting their country or region for the first time, so are to avoid embarrassment or causing offence when interacting with its nationals.

Your guide should cover: •

business situations (e.g. visiting company offices, attending business meetings) and social situations (e.g. being invited to the person’s home and meeting their family)

•

verbal behaviour (e.g. choice of words, mode of speech, conversation topics) and nonverbal behaviour (e.g. dress, greetings, gifts)

Nominate a speaker and present your group members’ experiences and their guide to the other class members.

Debriefing The internationalisation of higher education has meant that every course now contains students from all parts of the world. Arrange the group memberships so that there is some commonality of national or geographical background of students. The group presentations can contain examples from just one student’s culture or country or from several. Roughly half of the tutorial time should be devoted to group work preparation and the other half to group presentations.

Key learning points 1. Surprise: When you enter a country or company for the first time, you are surprised by aspects of its culture which differ from those of your own experience. Being aware of these and adapting to them helps you to integrate.

2. Difference: It is clear that companies, countries and the people in them go about the same things in different ways. TV reports show us every day that we are not ‘all the same under the skin’.

Knowing about the differences can help us survive and prosper.

3. Etiquette training: Etiquette training is a major business around the world. Teaching people how to behave correctly in different countries and cultures is vital to avoid offending people and achieving company goals.

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CHAPTER 5

Learning Chapter 5: What’s new in this chapter?

Chapter 5: Learning outcomes and recap Chapter 5: Rationale Chapter 5: OB cinema debrief – A Clockwork Orange Chapter 5: Exercise 1 debrief – Reinforcement and behaviour Chapter 5: Exercise 2 debrief – Branto Bakery

Chapter 5: What’s new in this chapter?

Cutting edge – gender inequality in feedback Feedback – the feedback that women receive at work is less helpful than the feedback given to men Lifelong employability – just as important as lifelong learning

Chapter 5: Learning outcomes and recap 1. Understand the increased importance of learning, for individuals and organizations.

•

New technologies will make some skills and knowledge redundant, and workers at all levels will need to learn new skills and acquire fresh knowledge in order to stay in employment.

•

The ability to learn – and to keep on learning – is a valuable skill in its own right, with a premium on lifelong learning.

•

Skills that will remain critical include critical thinking, complex problem solving, the ability to absorb information, interpersonal and communication skills and teamworking.

2. Explain the characteristics of the behaviourist and cognitive approaches to learning.

•

Behaviourism argues that we learn chains of muscle movements. As mental processes are not observable, they are not considered valid issues for study.

•

Cognitive psychology argues that we learn mental structures. Mental processes are important, and they are amenable to study although they cannot be observed.

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•

In behaviourist theory, feedback contributes to learning by providing reinforcement; in cognitive theory, feedback provides information and is motivational.

3. Explain the socialisation process, and assess the practical relevance of this concept.

•

Social learning theory argues that we learn values, beliefs and behaviour patterns through experience, through observation and through modelling.

•

Socialisation can be informal – this happens anyway – or it can be formally organised through induction and training programmes.

•

In addition to attending formal induction programmes, new recruits can use proactive socialisation tactics to learn how to fit into their new environment.

•

Socialisation can have a ‘dark side’, encouraging behaviours such as alcohol use (and abuse) at work.

4. Explain what neuroscience can tell us about making learning more effective.

•

Neuroscience research reveals that much of what we once knew about learning is oversimplified.

•

Research has shown that we have neuroplasticity (or brain plasticity) which is the ability to continue learning throughout one’s life.

•

Learning and speed of recall are better in teenagers and adults who are physically fit.

•

Financial rewards for completing a learning task reduce the motivation to learn.

•

Playing computer games late at night can lead to sleep disorders that interfere with learning.

•

The ‘brain-friendly’ SCARF model says that learner engagement is enhanced when the learning design takes into account Status, Certainty, Autonomy, Relatedness and Fairness.

5. Apply the ‘AGES’ model to your own learning process, to help make your learning ‘stick’.

•

Learning is more likely to be remembered if the process involves Attention (focusing on the task), Generation (learners work out the answers themselves), Emotion (interest is stimulated) and Spacing (learners return to and review the material).

•

Multitasking interferes with attention and is the enemy of learning; people who believe that multitasking does not affect them perform worse than whose who focus.

•

Learning that is distributed – spaced - across a number of shorter time periods is more effective, in terms of learning transfer and long-term memory, than a single ‘cramming marathon’.

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6. Assess the practice and ethics of methods of behaviour modification.

•

Respondent (or Pavlovian, classical) conditioning is a method by which an established response (good work performance) is associated with a new stimulus (supervisory encouragement).

•

Operant (or Skinnerian, instrumental) conditioning is a method by which a behaviour (good work performance) is associated with a new consequence (bonus payment).

•

Positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, punishment and extinction condition the target by manipulating the consequences of desirable and undesirable behaviours.

•

Behaviour modification works well when rewards are linked clearly to specific behaviours, but does not work well when these links are ambiguous and vague; this manipulative approach may not be acceptable in some cultures.

Chapter 5: Rationale The concepts of learning, learning to learn and lifelong learning have become prominent in the climate of rapid technological change, global uncertainty and the development of new business models in many sectors. Several commentators argue that learning to learn is an important skill in its own right. The notion of the ‘growth mindset’ as opposed to a ‘fixed mindset’ is discussed. The chapter introduction and wider content emphasise these trends.

Much of this chapter will be familiar to instructors who have used previous editions. The behaviourist and cognitive approaches to learning are introduced and contrasted. The terminology of these perspectives (particularly behaviourism) is explained and illustrated. The organizational and management implications of these different views are illustrated with contemporary examples.

The behaviourist and cognitive approaches give the instructor a useful platform for exploring the practical consequences of contrasting theoretical perspectives. The recommendations which flow from a behaviourist approach to how people learn are quite different from the practical advice which cognitive theorists offer – and these approaches have different implications for management practice with regard to learning in an organizational setting.

Two trends in this area continue to deserve attention.

The first concerns developments in the neuroscience of learning, and the concept of neuroplasticity.

We explore neuroscience-inspired approaches – the SCARF and AGES ‘brain-friendly’ learning models. Both have interesting practical implications for student learning, and in particular for students learning to sit and pass examinations (e.g. last minute cramming doesn’t work). The chapter also explores the concept of neurodiversity – the extraordinarily valuable, but underutilised skills of employees with autism spectrum disorders, dyspraxia and dyslexia. See the OB Cinema suggestion at the end of the chapter – The Imitation Game (2014), starring Benedict Cumberbatch.

The second concerns the growing role of technology in the learning process. This includes the growing application of virtual reality in corporate learning and training, and how wearable sensors can contribute to the induction and socialisation of new employees.

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Although developed some years ago, behaviour modification (OBMod) remains a feature of this chapter. Far from dated, this generic technique is widely used today by clinicians, teachers and managers to ‘target’ the behaviour groups and individuals. This is not new, but we have found this topic popular with students for two reasons. First, it ‘personalises’ the theory and practice of behaviourism, making this perspective more relevant and memorable. Second, the method appears to work for some people. To test out this theoretical perspective you don’t have to read about how some organization has used it. You can apply this to your own behaviour.

Chapter 5: OB cinema debrief – A Clockwork Orange A Clockwork Orange (1971 and 2000, director Stanley Kubrick) DVD track (scene) 19: 1:06:57 to 1:11.40 (6 minutes). Clip begins with doctor introducing herself: ‘Good morning. My name is Dr Branom’. Clip ends with Dr Branom (played by Madge Ryan) saying, ‘Dr Brodski is pleased with you. You’ve made a very positive response’.

This movie is based in a future totalitarian state in which the Droog (thug) Alex (played by Malcolm McDowell) is subjected to aversion therapy to cure him of his addiction to violence, rape, drugs and classical music. Fiction? Aversion therapy was used to ‘treat’ homosexuals in the 1960s.

An extremely violent film for its time, Kubrick removed it from circulation in 1974 when it was accused of triggering copycat crimes. The film was released on the anniversary of Kubrick’s death, in 2000. In this clip (which contains violence and nudity): 1. To what conditioning and reinforcement regime is Alex subjected?

2. How effective is this in changing his behaviour?

3. Does society have a moral right to interfere with individual behaviour in this way?

Debriefing Alex is subjected to an innovative form of Pavlovian or classical conditioning using negative reinforcement. Sounds and images that he previously enjoyed are linked to feelings of nausea. As Pavlov’s dogs learned to salivate at the sound of a bell (before they saw food), Alex is taught to feel sick when he sees and hears particular images and sounds, respectively, (before he commits some antisocial act).

This regime seems to be effective in the hospital or laboratory setting. However, unlike Pavlov’s dogs or Skinner’s rats (as far as we know), Alex understands that he is being ‘conditioned’. It is unclear whether this ‘treatment’ will survive for long in the outside world. Has he really changed his attitudes and behaviours, or is he just smart enough to tell the doctors what he knows they want him to say?

The third question opens a moral debate around society’s right to intervene in this manner. It can be argued that this kind of treatment (which has been used in practice) infringes the rights of the individual. While it can also be argued that society has a right to protect itself against people who behave like Alex, this kind of psychological intervention borders on torture, which is a topical subject for reasons beyond organizational behaviour and learning processes, and which goes well beyond conventional imprisonment that would be enough to stop Alex from hurting anyone else.

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Key learning points 1. Tool for changing behaviour: Classical conditioning is a potentially useful tool for changing individual behaviour.

2. Careful planning: Implementing a classical conditioning approach to change individual behaviour can require careful and complex planning and setup.

3. Temporary impact?: It is questionable whether this technique can have a permanent impact on someone who does not wish to change their behaviour.

4. Morally suspect: Applications of this technique can raise moral concerns about the infringement of individual rights.

Chapter 5: Exercise 1 debrief – Reinforcement and behaviour Objective 1. To examine the effects of positive and negative reinforcement on behaviour change.

This exercise takes about half an hour, and although it can be used with any size of group, it works particularly well with large classes.

Exercise overview Two or three volunteers will receive reinforcement from the rest of the class while performing a simple task. The volunteers leave the room while the class is being briefed.

The instructor identifies an object which the student volunteers must find when they return to the room. This object should be unobtrusive, but it should be clearly visible to the class: a piece of paper stuck to the wall, a briefcase or bag in the corner a mark on the wall.

The instructor specifies the reinforcement regime that will apply when each of the volunteers comes back into the room.

Negative reinforcement regime: The class will hiss, boo, make sarcastic comments and throw harmless items at the first volunteer when they are moving away from the chosen object, and sit silently when they are moving towards it.

Positive reinforcement regime: The class will smile, cheer, applaud and make encouraging comments with compliments when the second volunteer is moving towards the chosen object, and sit silently when they move away.

Combined reinforcement regime: The class will cheer when the third volunteer approaches the object, and boo when they move away from it.

Nominate one student to record the time that it takes each of the volunteers to find the object.

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Exercise sequence 1. The first volunteer is brought back into the room, and instructed: Your task is to find and touch a particular object in the room. The class will help you, but you cannot ask questions, and they cannot speak to you. The first volunteer continues to look for the object until it is found, with the class giving negative reinforcement.

2. The second volunteer is brought back into the room, and is given the same instruction, to look for the object, with the class giving positive reinforcement.

3. The third volunteer is brought back into the room, and is instructed to find the object with the class giving a combination of negative and positive reinforcement.

Class discussion Ask the volunteers how they each felt during this exercise.

•

What were their emotional responses to the different kinds of reinforcement they received?

•

What effects did the different reinforcement regimes have on the behaviour of the volunteers?

•

Which reinforcement regime do you think is most common in today’s organizations? What are the likely effects on motivation and productivity?

This exercise is based on Marcic (1995, pp.61–63 and 122–123)

Debriefing First check that all students have a copy of the exercise. Distribute copies to those who have not.

This is a ‘fun’ exercise designed to illustrate the effects of different reinforcement regimes, and also to help understand how it feels to the individual to be exposed to different regimes. While the three volunteers may all be successful in finding the object, they are likely to express quite different reactions to their experience. The volunteer who is given positive feedback is likely to report feeling positive about the experience. In contrast, the volunteer who receives negative feedback is more likely to report feeling demotivated and hostile, regardless of whether the search was successful or not. The third volunteer is thus likely to report mixed feelings about the process. From a practical point of view, it would appear that, while we can give feedback to help someone to succeed with a task, we can leave them feeling positive or negative about the experience depending on the nature of that feedback. If our relationship is likely to be a lengthy one, then it may be appropriate to consider feedback processes that motivate the person rather than create hostility.

Which regime is most common in contemporary organizations? We have no good empirical evidence with which to support an answer, which will therefore depend on participants’ experience.

It is probably the case that the most common regime is a mixed one, but with the emphasis more on negative than on positive reinforcement. This will depend in part on an organization’s culture, and also on the approach of individual supervisors and managers.

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Key learning points 1. Different regime, same impact: Different reinforcement regimes can have similar effects on individual performance.

2. Positive reinforcement is motivating: Positive reinforcement can be a pleasant and motivating experience.

3. Negative reinforcement is demotivating: Negative reinforcement can generate feelings of hostility and demotivation.

4. Consider the mix with care: Managers should consider carefully the mix of reinforcement regimes that they apply. These have implications beyond behaviour, affecting motivation levels and future relationships between management and employees.

Chapter 5: Exercise 2 debrief – Branto Bakery Objective 1. To explore the design of behaviour modification programmes and socialisation plans, and their implications for employee behaviour and performance.

Branto Bakery is a large company producing a range of bakery products for the major supermarkets.

Analysis by the human resources department has revealed that the sales and administration departments have the highest rates of absenteeism and latecoming. Interestingly, each of these departments also has individuals with the best absence and timekeeping records. The managing director has asked the two department heads to address these absence and timekeeping problems.

Alan Anderson, head of sales, has decided to adopt a behaviour modification approach. Barbara Brown, head of administration, has chosen to develop a socialisation approach with current and new staff. You have been asked to advise one of them, as an external management consultant: 1. Design either a behaviour modification programme for Anderson, or a socialisation plan for Brown, that will reduce absenteeism and improve timekeeping in their departments.

2. Explain the elements of your plan, how it will address these problems and how it will be implemented.

3. Assess the strengths and weaknesses of your plan in the short term, and in the long term.

Debriefing First check that all students have a copy of the exercise. Distribute copies to those who have not.

Designing a behaviour modification programme involves following the five-step plan developed by Fred Luthans (1998) and outlined in the chapter. The behaviours to be encouraged need to be defined clearly. What ‘counts’ as absenteeism and latecoming? If someone is truly ill, is that absenteeism? If someone is less than 5 or 10 minutes late for work, is that ‘latecoming’? Once these 67 © 2023 Pearson Education Limited. All Rights Reserved.

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issues are resolved, how are the behaviours to be measured, and who is going to be responsible for keeping the records? That sounds like a simple question, but creates practical problems.

Establishing the triggers of absenteeism and latecoming can also be complex, as these behaviours have roots in factors outside the workplace. Establishing a strategy to strengthen desired behaviours and weaken dysfunctional behaviours through positive reinforcement (money, recognition), feedback and perhaps punishment should lead to interesting debate.

To design a socialization process, there are no such simple guidelines. You will have to be creative.

One starting point is to think about the information and support that you would like to get as an employee of this company. As both of the ‘problem’ departments at Branto Bakery have high performing individuals, it may be useful to consider using them as role models for poor performing staff.

Ask your students to assess the strengths and limitations of their plans using the following matrix: Plan weaknesses

Plan strengths

Short term Long term

Key learning points 1. BMod five-step model: The design of a behaviour modification approach involves following an existing five-step model.

2. Socialisation borrowing and tailoring: The design of a socialisation approach involves borrowing and tailoring ideas from other organizations.

3. Creative design: The design of both behaviour modification and socialisation approaches involves a degree of creativity, to tailor the approach to local needs and circumstances.

4. Strengths and weaknesses: Both approaches have strengths and weaknesses.

5. BMod – clarity versus sustainability: One key strength of behaviour modification is clarity.

However, changes in desired behaviour may stop once the regime is withdrawn, and it is difficult to maintain such a regime indefinitely.

6. Socialisation – durability versus lack of control: One key strength of a socialisation approach lies in its potentially durable influence, supported by social pressures. However, the focus on specific behaviours is absent, and employees can learn undesirable as well as desirable behaviours from colleagues through this approach (see the research box, ‘The dark side of socialization’).

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CHAPTER 6

Personality Chapter 6: What’s new in this chapter?

Chapter 6: Learning outcomes and recap Chapter 6: Rationale Chapter 6: OB cinema debrief – The Imitation Game Chapter 6: Exercise 1 debrief – The Big Five Chapter 6: Exercise 2 debrief – Measuring up

Chapter 6: What’s new in this chapter?

Cutting edge – can your personality damage your career?

The synchrony effect – early chronotypes are more creative in the morning, late chronotypes are more creative in the afternoon Leader preference – depends on your personality; extraverts prefer charismatic leaders Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) – valuable if you are commander of a nuclear submarine Do you want a job with Goldman Sachs? – prepare for asynchronous video interviews, and structured questioning based on job-related issues LinkedIn – useful for cybervetting job applicants

Chapter 6: Learning outcomes and recap 1. Distinguish between type, trait and self-theories of personality.

•

Type theories (Hippocrates, Sheldon, Jung) classify individuals using a limited number of personality categories.

•

Trait theories, based on a nomothetic perspective (Eysenck, Costa and McCrae), profile the individual’s personality across a number of different facets.

•

Self-theories, based on an idiographic perspective (Cooley, Mead), describe unique individual personalities.

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2. Know your chronotype, and the effects of this personality construct on performance at work.

•

Morning people tend to be agreeable, optimistic, stable, proactive, conscientious, satisfied with life.

•

Evening people can be creative, intelligent, humorous, extraverted, pessimistic, neurotic, depressed.

•

We are at our most creative when the work that we are doing is synchronised with our chronotype.

3. Explain the relationship between personality and stress, and identify individual and organizational stress management strategies.

•

Type A personalities (competitive, impatient) are more stress prone than Type B personalities (easygoing, relaxed).

•

Individuals can develop physical and psychological resilience and coping skills.

•

Management has to reduce or remove work-related stressors (job design, management style, adverse working conditions, excessive workload).

4. Compare the advantages and disadvantages of questionnaires and projective tests as measures of personality.

•

Objective questionnaires are easy to score and offer quantitative rigour. But they can only be interpreted using group norms; individual scores are meaningless.

•

Projective tests capture the richness and uniqueness of the individual. But they have complex scoring, are subjective and individual results cannot easily be compared.

5. Evaluate the benefits and problems of psychometric assessment as a management decisionmaking tool, particularly in selection.

•

Psychometrics offer objective, systematic, comprehensive and quantitative information.

They are also useful in career guidance, counselling and development.

•

Intelligence and aptitude tests are better predictors of performance than most personality assessments.

•

It is usually difficult to predict job performance from a personality profile.

•

Personality assessment can identify strengths and limitations in specific areas of competence.

•

Traditional selection interviews are poor predictors of job performance, which is why many organizations now use structured competency-based interviews.

•

Many organizations use cybervetting – gathering information from social media – to screen potential job candidates.

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6. Assess your own personality.

•

Current thinking profiles personality either on ‘The Big Five’ trait clusters of Openness, Conscientiousness, Extraversion, Agreeableness and Neuroticism (OCEAN), or on the HEXACO model, which adds the Honesty-Humility dimension to The Big Five. Selftheories argue that the self-concept is what is important, not your test scores.

Chapter 6: Rationale From this chapter, students will understand why organizations use personality assessment to assist selection and promotion decisions, and also understand the limitations of this approach. The use of formal and informal personality assessment in selection and promotion decisions remains popular, despite the known problems, and this topic deserves a key role in the organizational behaviour curriculum. The content of this chapter is again similar to previous editions. This includes coverage of nomothetic and idiographic approaches to the study of personality, the links between personality and stress and an assessment of the use of psychometric methods, along with competency-based or structured interviewing in employee selection. Jung’s contribution to the development of personality theory, laying the foundations for Eysenck’s work, is explored. Students will also develop their understanding of their own personalities, as well as others’, and of the nature of the links between personality characteristics, choice of career and job performance.

The idiographic approach to understanding personality with the notions of the ‘self-concept’, ‘the looking glass self’, the ‘two-sided self’ and the ‘generalised other’ is unfashionable today, perhaps because this does not make personality easy to measure. However, these concepts are related to debates concerning ‘authentic leadership’. Leaders who are ‘true to themselves’, it has been claimed, are more likely to be effective. Herminia Ibarra (2015) challenges this simplistic view, and advises managers and leaders to develop an adaptively authentic profile, which involves ‘playing’ with different approaches, rather than trying to stay with a rigid self-concept. The idiographic perspective, developed some years ago, remains current and useful.

The chapter also explains the currently most influential perspective on personality, concerning The Big Five personality trait clusters; Openness, Conscientiousness, Extraversion, Agreeableness and Neuroticism (OCEAN for short). Neuroticism is also labelled ‘negative emotionality’, to avoid offending those who score highly on this dimension. Chapter exercise 1 offers a short version of ‘The Big Five’ personality assessment. Another update in the previous edition was the introduction of the HEXACO personality model. This adds a sixth dimension – honesty, humility – to The Big Five, so we should now talk about The Big Six. Stress is covered in broadly the same manner as in previous editions, with a brief Type A–Type B self-assessment, and updated statistics on the costs of work-related stress. Given the personal, social and organizational costs of stress-related problems, this is no longer a ‘private’ or ‘individual’ matter but a strategic organizational concern. However, this discussion has to be seen in the context of the argument that we are ‘built to rush’.

Technology developments influence this topic, too. Computer-based personality assessment based on Facebook ‘likes’ may be just as accurate, and less expensive, than other measures. Cybervetting, or screening candidates through social media, is now commonplace, and candidates can similarly assess potential employers through social media and other online sources.

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Chapter 6: OB cinema debrief – The Imitation Game The Imitation Game (2014, director Morten Tyldum) is based on the true story of Alan Turing (played by Benedict Cumberbatch), one of the founders of computing science and artificial intelligence. During the Second World War, Turing worked as a cryptanalyst for the UK Government Code and Cypher School at Bletchley Park. The movie shows how Turing and his team broke the German communications code, Enigma. Turing was arrogant, antisocial, solitary, literal-minded and showed little empathy with others. These behaviours appear to be personalitybased, but they are more likely to be related to a neurological condition called Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD). Around 1 per cent of the population has some form of ASD and the condition mainly affects males. At one end of the spectrum, ASD can be socially devastating. On the other, those with ‘high-functioning’ autism (Asperger’s Syndrome) can be extremely intelligent, but still face social difficulties. People high on the spectrum are often persistent, with excellent memory and attention to detail, and are good at data analysis, mathematics and pattern recognition – useful skills for fraud detection, actuaries, software testers and proofreaders.

There are some short segments of this movie which demonstrate Turing’s awkward interpersonal style, and in particular the manner in which he addresses superiors and colleagues. However, discussion of these issues can potentially be more productive if students have watched the whole movie in their own time, considering the four questions listed in the main text. Possible responses to those questions are as follows.

Debriefing 1. Turing is interviewed for his job at Bletchley Park by Commander Denniston (Charles Dance).

What does this reveal about the problems that can arise in selection interviews with candidates who have ASD? How can these interviewing problems be overcome?

Typically, job candidates seek to impress interviewers with their knowledge, skills, experience and positive attitudes. Candidates with ASD may not behave in this way. They may ignore some questions if they think that they are irrelevant, may instead provide answers to questions that they themselves feel are more important and they can appear rude and arrogant – as Turing does in his interview with Denniston. Faced with such behaviour, interviewers can struggle to identify a candidate’s potentially unique capabilities. Candidates who fail to make ‘a favourable impression’ are thus likely to be rejected, even if they have the relevant knowledge and skills. To address these problems, interviewers need training in order to recognise autistic behaviours (which can vary from one individual to another). The clues often lie in speech patterns, posture, other aspects of body language, the nature (often lack) of social and interpersonal skills and the ways in which questions are answered. Interviewers must then be prepared to discount behaviours that would lead them normally to reject a candidate, and to focus instead on the job-related capabilities – persistence, memory, attention to detail, data analysis, pattern recognition – that the candidate may have. It may also be appropriate to ask more open questions (see chapter 7) to allow candidates to explain their qualities and experiences in their own terms.

2. Turing joins a team lead by Hugh Alexander (Matthew Goode). From the evidence in this movie, what problems can arise for leaders of teams with an ASD member? What capabilities and attributes do team leaders ideally need in these circumstances?

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ASD typically involves poor social and interpersonal skills; do not expect an ASD employee to be a good ‘team player’. Maintaining a cohesive team is therefore problematic. As with our selection interviewer, the team leader should be able to recognise ASD behaviours, and to respond accordingly. The team leader may have to act as a buffer, a ‘human shield’, between an ASD member and the rest of the team. For example, other team members may complain that they have been ignored or insulted by an ASD member, creating a grievance that requires sensitive handling, without creating a formal disciplinary situation, which would be inappropriate. The team leader may find it helpful to steer an ASD member towards individual tasks and projects that require limited interaction and collaboration with other team members. Those with ASD often like routine and predictability, and can become anxious when that routine is changed, so it is better to maintain where possible a high degree of consistency concerning other people, activities, times, layout and other aspects of working conditions.

3. What guidance and support would help an ASD member of staff?

Interpersonal skills training can help to improve or ‘normalise’ social behaviour at work, but not all of those with ASD respond. Line management understanding and support can be crucial, and it is also helpful if colleagues are aware of the condition and its implications for interpersonal behaviour – including how such behaviour affects them personally. As noted above, it can also be supportive if routines are maintained where possible.

4. What training and support would it be useful to give to the other team members?

Other team members clearly need to be aware of ASD symptoms, and of how an ASD colleague is likely to respond to them. They should also be aware of how their own behaviour is likely to be interpreted by their ASD colleague – and how their actions can trigger what in other circumstances could be seen as inappropriately rude or aggressive responses. Other team members can also provide support by maintaining routine as much as possible.

Further resource Instructors seeking further material in this area may find interesting the Scandinavian (‘Scandi noir’) television crime series The Bridge (written by Hans Rosenfeldt; Sveriges Television and Danmarks Radio, from 2011, three series). The Swedish police detective, Saga Norén (played by Sofia Helin), displays many of the symptoms of ASD, but this is never mentioned by any of the characters, who see her as ‘different’. She has poor social skills, lacks empathy, appears to be unemotional, has difficulty establishing relationships and is seen by others as cold and insensitive.

However, she is an excellent detective – intelligent, persistent, attention to detail, analytical capabilities. The episodes of this programme illustrate themes similar to those in The Imitation Game: the nature of ASD behaviours, the problems facing the individual and the impact on colleagues and on those in leadership roles.

Key learning points 1. Those who are high on the ASD spectrum often have capabilities that are extremely valuable in many job roles: persistence, memory, attention to detail, data analysis, pattern recognition.

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2. ASD is typically accompanied by poor social and interpersonal skills, which can often mask the capabilities of the individual, and make them appear ‘difficult to manage’.

3. Managers and colleagues of ASD staff must be trained to understand the symptoms and nature of the condition, and its work-related consequences, if they are to be able to work well together.

Chapter 6: Exercise 1 debrief – The Big Five Objectives 1. To assess your personality profile on ‘The Big Five’ personality trait clusters.

2. To assess the value of personality assessment in career counselling and selection.

Briefing Students will need copies of the following short questionnaire, scoring advice and interpretation.

This exercise gives students an opportunity to explore the concept of personality in general, to assess their own personalities and to consider the relationships between personality, career choice and job performance. To assess their personalities on The Big Five dimensions, students are asked to look at each of the following 15 pairs of adjectives, and to tick the point on the scale that most accurately describes them or their preferences.

1

quiet

1

2

3

4

5

talkative

2

tolerant

5

4

3

2

1

critical

3

disorganised

1

2

3

4

5

organised

4

tense

1

2

3

4

5

calm

5

imaginative

5

4

3

2

1

conventional

6

reserved

1

2

3

4

5

outgoing

7

uncooperative

1

2

3

4

5

cooperative

8

unreliable

1

2

3

4

5

dependable

9

insecure

1

2

3

4

5

secure

10

new

5

4

3

2

1

familiar

11

sociable

5

4

3

2

1

loner

12

suspicious

1

2

3

4

5

trusting

13

undirected

1

2

3

4

5

goal-oriented

14

enthusiastic

5

4

3

2

1

depressed

15

change

5

4

3

2

1

status quo

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The full Big Five personality assessment questionnaire is much longer than this short version which provides only an approximate measure of traits and individual differences.

The individual’s personality profile is calculated as follows: personality dimension

add these item scores

openness to experience

5 + 10 + 15 =

conscientiousness

3 + 8 + 13 =

extraversion

1 + 6 + 11 =

agreeableness

2 + 7 + 12 =

emotional stability

4 + 9 + 14 =

total (from 3 to 15)

Interpretation: a high score suggests that you

a low score suggests that you

openness to experience

are imaginative and intellectual with a range of interests

prefer tradition and stability, and dislike change

conscientiousness

are responsible, dependable and achievement-oriented

easily distracted, unreliable and disorganized

extraversion

are sociable, talkative, outgoing, assertive

prefer to be alone, and that you are quiet and reserved

agreeableness

are good-natured, trusting and cooperative, deferring to others

prefer to promote your own views, to have your own way

emotional stability

are calm, secure, enthusiastic

feel tense, insecure and depressed

Syndicate groups: Once students have calculated their individual scores, ask them to form syndicate groups with 3 or 4 members each, and to consider the following questions: 1. How accurate do you find your personality profile from this assessment? If it was inaccurate, why do think that was the case?

2. How helpful is this personality assessment to job interviewers who need to make predictions about a candidate’s future job performance? What aspects of the assessment make it valuable in this respect? What aspects make it unhelpful?

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Plenary: Ask syndicate groups to report back on the answers to those two questions, concerning the perceived accuracy of the assessment (which was based on only 15 adjective pairs), and on the value of this personality assessment in selection interviewing and career counselling settings. If time allows, this can lead to discussion of two wider issues: •

Why are we as individuals interested in understanding more about our personalities?

•

Why are organizations interested in the personalities of job applicants?

Debriefing First check that students have a copy of the exercise brief. Distribute copies to those who do not.

Most people feel that even this short version of The Big Five assessment is reasonably accurate.

Most respondents identify one to three dominant traits, and this can, therefore, be a general guide to suitable occupations. Of more interest is the question of whether this kind of assessment can be used to predict a potential employee’s future job performance. Predicting general suitability for a particular type of occupation (in terms of whether or not the person is likely to enjoy that kind of work) is quite different from predicting performance. Performance in most jobs is multifaceted, is influenced by a range of personal and organizational factors, and what constitutes ‘good’ performance changes with time and circumstances. Personality assessments can thus offer only limited guides to how individuals will perform in particular jobs.

Nomothetic personality assessments establish group norms on selected traits, locating individual scores in relation to a larger population. They are not designed to measure traits in order to predict individual behaviour. However, that is how such instruments are often used in employee assessment, selection and promotion contexts.

Key learning points 1. Personality can be measured: Individual differences on trait profiles can be subjected to reliable and valid measurement.

2. Personality assessment is useful in career guidance: Assessment can identify suitable and unsuitable types of occupation for individuals.

3. Personality cannot predict performance: Personality assessment is not a good predictor of performance, particularly for complex jobs that change over time.

Chapter 6: Exercise 2 debrief – Measuring up Objectives 1. To develop understanding of how personality characteristics and other attributes can be assessed.

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2. To explore the value of different assessment strategies.

3. To identify the limitations of selection interviewing and to explore how other approaches can improve the reliability and predictive validity of the organizational selection process.

The decision to select somebody for a job is always a prediction – that the chosen candidate will perform the job well, and better than others. On what information should this prediction be based?

Almost all organizations still rely on the selection interview, at least to make initial assessments of the suitability of candidates. Most organizations have refined the selection process, using a wider range of methods, including different kinds of interview, psychometrics and assessment centres.

The choice of approach is not straightforward. Assessment centres and psychometrics can be expensive and time consuming, and need specially trained staff. Interviews can be organised quickly and cheaply, and candidates can talk to those with whom they will be working.

To explore the strengths and weakness of different approaches to selection, this exercise asks students to design a strategy for selecting five graduate management trainees from a candidate pool of 20. The company’s briefing describes the attributes for which they are looking. What methods should the company use, to identify which five candidates best fit this specification?

Procedure 1. Review the section of this chapter that discusses different selection methods.

2. Working in groups with 3 to 5 members, you will design a selection strategy to meet the Measuring up briefing. You will then assess your approach, and nominate a spokesperson to explain the nature, strengths and limitations of your strategy to the whole class.

Measuring up briefing You are a member of the human resources department of ScotSouth Bank, a medium-sized national retail bank. Each year, the company recruits five graduate management trainees who will begin their career at the head office in Edinburgh, but who can be seconded to branches anywhere in the UK. Like other financial services sector institutions, the bank is going through a period of rapid change, requiring new management styles and processes. The bank’s research has identified a number of ‘high-performance competencies’ that managers will require in order to operate effectively in a dynamic, turbulent business climate. These competencies are: Competency

Definition

information search

uses a variety of sources and information before reaching decisions

concept formation

uses information to detect patterns, form concepts, build models, to identify trends, and cause-and-effect relationships

conceptual flexibility

seeks out and evaluates a range of options when planning and deciding

interpersonal search

effective in getting good information from others through appropriate questioning, and good at seeing others’ viewpoints

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managing interactions

builds effective, cooperative teams by involving and empowering others

developmental orientation

helps others to develop by increasing awareness of their own strengths and limitations, and providing coaching, training and other resources

impact

uses influencing techniques to get support for plans and ideas

self-confidence

willing to commit when required, expresses confidence in success

presentation

good at presenting ideas in an interesting and persuasive manner

social media-savvy

understands organizational benefits of social media technologies

achievement orientation

sets high personal standards, sets ambitious but realistic goals, wants to do things better, has targets against which progress is measured

The task 1. Design a selection strategy, using whatever combination of methods you consider appropriate, to identify the five candidates who measure up best against this list of competencies. Choosing the right candidates is important to the bank’s future, and you can design your strategy on the assumption that you have no time or resource constraints.

2. Prepare a realistic evaluation of the strengths and limitations of your selection strategy. Assess the reliability and predictive validity of your methods. Indicate the level of confidence – high, medium, low – that you have in your assessment of the candidates using those methods.

3. You have just heard a rumour about the company’s next quarterly financial results, due to be published shortly. The results are not good. Costs will need to be reduced. Assuming that your department will have to make cuts, design a contingency plan that would allow you to complete the selection process within a week, at a fraction of the cost of your original plan.

4. Prepare a realistic assessment of the strengths and limitations of your contingency plan, including the reliability and predictive validity of your methods and your confidence in the approach. Prepare to present and justify your plans in a plenary session.

Debriefing First check that students have a copy of the exercise brief, including the competency checklist and the task description. Distribute copies to those who have not.

There no ‘right and wrong’ answers in this exercise; different selection strategies, and especially those that involve a combination of approaches, can be equally appropriate and effective.

Considering the list of competencies relevant to this bank, the weaknesses of conventional selection interviewing should be apparent. Students may thus be creative in their approach to the first half of this exercise, for example in finding innovative ways to assess ‘concept formation’ and ‘developmental orientation’. However, some selection methods (assessment centres, psychometrics) can be expensive, particularly where 20 candidates are concerned. To what extent, therefore, do less expensive methods have to compromise on reliability and predictive ability? Or can ‘cost-effective’ methods inform selection decisions as well as the more expensive options?

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Key learning points 1. Tailoring a selection strategy to identify specific competencies is a complex task; different selection methods have different strengths and weaknesses, and a combination of approaches may be helpful, each method compensating for the weaknesses in others.

2. Faced with a competency list such as this, the limitations of traditional selection interviews are quickly apparent, and it is clear that other methods will be more appropriate.

3. The cost of the selection process needs to be assessed in the context of the cost of a selection error, which could put the wrong person into a key role. Selection decisions always involve a degree of risk for an employer, and although more expensive selection methods may appear to reduce that risk, that may not always be the case. Low-cost structured and situational interview methods can be designed to offer reasonably reliable assessments of many of the competencies identified here.

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CHAPTER 7

Communication Chapter 7: What’s new in this chapter?

Chapter 7: Learning outcomes and recap Chapter 7: Rationale Chapter 7: OB cinema debrief – Burn After Reading Chapter 7: Exercise 1 debrief – Impression management checklist Chapter 7: Exercise 2 debrief – Choose your question carefully

Chapter 7: What’s new in this chapter?

The myth of open plan offices – they don’t encourage collaboration Killer gestures and trigger images – how to sell your ideas to top management Body language – how to use in video calls Cultural differences in the meaning of body language – eye contact, dress, taking notes in meetings, where you sit in a meeting How women use networking – to explore the culture and gender dynamics of potential employers Web conferencing systems – benefits and drawbacks

Chapter 7: Learning outcomes and recap 1. Describe the dimensions of social intelligence, and explain the importance of these capabilities, especially for managers.

•

The capabilities that make up social intelligence involve a combination of awareness – what we sense about others – and facility – how we act on that awareness.

•

Managers spend lots of time interacting with others, and it becomes more important to understand the thoughts and feelings of others in a more culturally diverse population.

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2. Understand the main components of the interpersonal communication process.

•

Communication involves an exchange of meaning, achieved through the processes of coding, transmission, decoding and feedback.

•

Face-to-face communication allows instant feedback; coding and decoding problems arise with other forms of communication where feedback is delayed or absent.

3. Identify the main barriers to effective interpersonal communication.

•

The main barriers to effective communication include power and gender differences, physical surroundings, language variations and cultural diversity.

•

Barriers can be overcome through face-to-face communication, by checking decoding, by paying attention to context and by seeing things the way the other person does.

4. Understand the effective use of different questioning techniques, conversation controls and listening skills.

•

Getting appropriate information from someone else involves the effective use of different questioning methods: open, closed, probe, hypothetical and reflective.

•

Effective communication involves the use of a range of simple conversation controls: lubricators, inhibitors, bridges and pauses.

•

Active listening involves a range of verbal and non-verbal skills.

•

Communication methods differ between high-context and low-context cultures.

5. Recognise cultural differences in communication style.

•

Members of high-context cultures rely on a range of social and non-verbal clues when communicating with others and interpreting their messages.

•

Members of low-context cultures focus on the written and spoken word when communicating with others and interpreting their messages.

6. Explain the nature and significance of non-verbal communication.

•

Non-verbal communication includes facial expressions, eye behaviour, gesture and posture, distance between ourselves and others and paralanguage.

•

If the verbal and non-verbal messages which we are sending are inconsistent, the verbal will be discounted and the non-verbal accepted.

7. Understand the nature and mechanisms of impression management skills and techniques.

•

We influence the image that others have of us through verbal and non-verbal signals.

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•

We use impression management to create a favourable image through ingratiation, intimidation, self-promotion, exemplification, accounting and supplication.

•

Impression management can be seen as natural and unconscious, or as a deliberate attempt at deceit.

8. Be able to explain the concept of emotional intelligence and its practical significance.

•

Emotional intelligence concerns the ability to identify, integrate, understand and reflectively manage one’s own feelings, and the feelings of other people.

•

As with social intelligence, understanding your own emotions and the emotions of others is a key skill for all of us, particularly for managers, and its importance is heightened in culturally diverse organizational settings.

9. Explain the nature and significance of an organization’s communication climate.

•

The communication climate in an organization can be classed as open and supportive, or closed and defensive.

•

To encourage a shared sense of purpose, organization mission statements should use concrete imagery and not vague abstract language.

10. Assess how social media can improve organizational communication and strengthen employee voice.

•

One of the most valuable applications of social media concerns facilitating employee voice.

Enterprise social networks have become a popular tool, which can improve organizational communications in many ways.

Chapter 7: Rationale Communication is a core organizational behaviour topic, and a specialist sub-discipline its own right. This chapter covers social and emotional intelligence, verbal and non-verbal communication and organizational communication – which now includes the use of corporate social media. Social media give organizations new opportunities to strengthen internal communications and employee voice. These applications have in the past been slow to develop, due perhaps to lack of senior management understanding of the technology, or because of perceived risk. But the Covid-19 pandemic prompted widespread use of video conferencing as more people started working remotely, from home. This raises questions concerning the effectiveness of online communications compared with F2F. The theoretical underpinning of the chapter lies with the definition of communication as exchange of meaning, and thus with the processes of coding and decoding (Figure 7.1). The chapter also explores the nature and problems of cross-cultural communication (contrasting high- and lowcontext cultures), and explores the concept of an organization’s communication climate. This chapter also explores the concept and practical implications of impression management, including a 82 © 2023 Pearson Education Limited. All Rights Reserved.

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short discussion exercise on the ethics of impression management, a set of techniques which can be seen as a form of deceitful play-acting. The nature and significance of organizational communication are explored, and research exploring the impact of open plan offices on communication is reported. That study finds that the so-called ‘war on walls’ is misplaced; open plan can discourage communication.

The overall content of this chapter is similar to the previous edition. This chapter is theoretically ‘lighter’ than other chapters. This is deliberate, as we concentrate on the practice of interpersonal and organizational communications. This material should be fun to read, and to teach. This is one aspect of OB where students already have expertise, in social and interpersonal skills, and where the links between textbook, everyday personal conduct and employability should be clear and immediate.

Chapter 7: OB cinema debrief – Burn After Reading Burn After Reading (2008, directors Joel and Ethan Cohen): DVD track 6: 0:27:13 to 0:29:08 (2 minutes). Clip opens with Linda asking for ‘just a tea’. Clip ends with Linda saying, ‘Haven’t you heard of the power of positive thinking?’

Gym employee Linda Litzke (played by Frances McDormand) is talking to the gym manager, Ted Treffon (Richard Jenkins).

1. What does Linda want to achieve in this conversation?

2. What tactics does she use?

3. Why does she not achieve her goal?

4. What advice can you give to Linda about managing this conversation more effectively?

5. What does Ted want to achieve in this conversation?

6. What tactics does he use?

7. Why does he not achieve his goal?

8. What advice can you give to Ted about managing this conversation more effectively?

Copy this matrix for your students to complete as they watch this clip: Linda Conversation goal Tactics Reasons goal not achieved Advice

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Ted

Buchanan and Huczynski, Organizational Behaviour 11e, Instructor’s Manual

Debriefing Both parties to this conversation display a lack of social and emotional intelligence. They each attempt to pursue their own goals and pay little or no attention to the goals of the other person. It is doubtful whether either of them is aware of the other’s goals. They do not listen to each other, and they do not appear to pay attention to each other’s body language. These gaps in their attention to each other occur despite the fact that they are friends and colleagues who know each other well.

1. What does Linda want to achieve in this conversation?

Linda wants an advance payment on her salary to meet the cost of some expensive cosmetic surgery. She wants Ted to authorise this advance payment.

2. What tactics does she use?

She is open, honest and direct about her objective. She is persistent, repeating her request even after Ted has turned it down. She attempts to make him feel good about helping her by using his influence in the company; the surgery is essential to her personally, and to her job.

3. Why does she not achieve her goal?

Her persistence becomes confrontational. Ted does not have the power to authorise the payment that Linda wants (or, he believes that he does not have this power). Linda doesn’t listen to what Ted is telling her, either in what he is saying, or in his body language. She ignores, or is not aware of, Ted’s agenda. She annoys him by not listening to him.

4. What advice can you give to Linda about managing this conversation more effectively?

Do not open this conversation with a direct request for money. Ask questions first, to explore the possibilities. If Ted cannot authorise this payment, then who could do this? Seek Ted’s advice.

Listen to what he is saying, about this request, and about himself.

5. What does Ted want to achieve in this conversation?

Ted wants Linda to know that he likes her; he would like to be the man in her life.

6. What tactics does he use?

He tells her that she is attractive the way she is, and that she doesn’t need cosmetic surgery. He impresses her by showing her a photograph of himself in a previous career.

7. Why does he not achieve his goal?

Ted does not reveal his personal feelings. The positive comments that he makes about Linda are indirect, by implication, through innuendo. His photograph makes the wrong impression on Linda, but he does not understand this.

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8. What advice can you give to Ted about managing this conversation more effectively?

Be direct in what you say. Stick to your objective. Do not be deflected by Linda’s agenda. Manage your impression effectively, so that Linda can see you as the man in her life.

Key learning points 1. Social awareness and facility: A combination of social awareness and social facility is required in order to effectively manage our communications with others.

2. Attunement: Failure to achieve personal goals in social interaction can be explained by lack of empathy for others, and lack of what Goleman calls ‘attunement’; not paying attention to what the other person is saying through both speech and body language.

3. Conscious planning and adjustment: Conversations can be managed more successfully through conscious preplanning and impression management, careful attention to the other person and adjusting and responding appropriately in the light of the other person’s behaviour.

Chapter 7: Exercise 1 debrief – Impression management checklist Objective 1. To assess aspects of the way in which you deal with other people.

Briefing As you read each of the following 18 statements, ask yourself whether or not it applies to you, and answer (tick) ‘yes’ or ‘no’ accordingly. You will of course occasionally feel that you want to answer, ‘sometimes’. But try in each case to decide where your personal preferences, strengths and priorities really lie, and answer ‘yes’ or ‘no’ accordingly. You don’t always get to sit on the fence.

This is not a test with right or wrong answers. It is designed for personal reflection and group discussion (based on Snyder, 1987, p. 179).

Do these statements apply to you?

1

I find it hard to imitate the behaviour of other people.

2

At parties and gatherings, I do not attempt to do or say things that others will like.

3

I can only argue for ideas which I already believe.

4

I can make impromptu speeches even on topics about which I have almost no information.

5

I guess I put on a show to impress or entertain others.

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Yes

No

Buchanan and Huczynski, Organizational Behaviour 11e, Instructor’s Manual

6

I would probably make a good actor.

7

In a group of people, I am rarely the centre of attention.

8

In different situations and with different people, I often act like very different persons.

9

I am not particularly good at making other people like me.

10

I’m not always the person I appear to be.

11

I would not change my opinions or the way I do things in order to please someone or win their favour.

12

I have considered being an entertainer.

13

I have never been good at games like charades, or acting.

14

I have trouble changing my behaviour to suit different people and different situations.

15

At a party I let others keep the jokes and stories going.

16

I feel a bit awkward in company and do not show up quite as well as I should.

17

I can look anyone in the eye and tell a lie with a straight face, if for an appropriate reason.

18

I may deceive people by being friendly when I really dislike them.

Scoring You get either one point or zero, depending on how you responded to each statement. Simply add up the number of points you got.

Score Statement

Yes

No

1

0

1

2

0

1

3

0

1

4

1

0

5

1

0

Your score

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6

1

0

7

0

1

8

1

0

9

0

1

10

1

0

11

0

1

12

1

0

13

0

1

14

0

1

15

0

1

16

0

1

17

1

0

18

1

0

Total:

Interpretation A score of 13 or more implies strong impression management skills: awareness

you are consciously aware of your own and other people’s feelings and behaviour, and of how you affect others

flexibility

you are able to adjust what you say and do to match other people’s expectations, and to achieve your goals

control

you are able consciously to control your behaviour, and thus to control other people; you probably enjoy this

A score of 7 or less implies weak impression management skills: awareness

you are not always aware of your own or other people’s feelings and behaviour, or of how you affect others

flexibility

you are unable to adjust what you say and do to match other people’s expectations, and to achieve your goals

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control

you are unable consciously to control your behaviour, and may feel uncomfortably manipulated at times

A score between 8 and 12 implies moderate impression management skills. Read over the interpretations above, and judge your strengths for yourself. Which way would you now like to go – up or down?

Analysis Whatever your own score, consider the following key issues: 1. To what extent are impression management skills learnable and to what extent are we born with them?

2. Is it immoral or unethical to adjust one’s behaviour in order to modify the feelings and behaviours of others?

3. Regardless of your own impression management score, would it benefit you to be more aware of how other people use these skills? Give specific examples.

4. In what ways would it benefit you personally to improve your own impression management skills, or to enhance your awareness of how you use them? Give specific examples.

Debriefing First check that all students have a copy of the exercise. Distribute copies to those who have not.

This self-assessment reveals individual differences in impression management skills. These differences can be used to drive a discussion of the four ‘analysis’ questions: 1. While some of us appear to have better impression management skills than others, the behaviours that are involved are relatively routine and impression management skills can be improved dramatically through self-awareness, training and practice. We are constantly sending signals to other people through our non-verbal behaviour, usually without being aware of what we are doing. However, it is possible to manage these signals by bringing them under conscious control. It is not possible to avoid sending signals. Even the blank expression, the neutral posture and the absence of limb movements send cues that others will seek to interpret.

2. Some people regard impression management as play-acting and as dishonest. The problem is, we are sending impression management signals all the time, and others are decoding those signals, whether we wish that to happen or not. We do not have a choice with regard to whether we use impression management or not. We can only choose to do this consciously or unconsciously. With regard to the everyday effectiveness of our social interactions in general, performance at work and management behaviour, we can be more effective in the pursuit of our own goals, and in helping others to achieve their goals, through conscious impression management.

3. Goleman’s twin concepts of social and emotional intelligence emphasise the significance of being aware of others, through listening and through observation. It is of value to all of us to be 88 © 2023 Pearson Education Limited. All Rights Reserved.

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aware of how others use impression management skills, particularly when they are using those skills to influence how we think and act.

4. Examples could include the use of impression management in social and domestic settings, with friends (including potential friends) and family. Organizational settings where impression management is particularly important include, for example, selection interviews, performance appraisals, promotion interviews and sales meetings with customers or clients. Impression management contributes to personal performance at work, and to career success.

Key learning points 1. Awareness, flexibility, control: Impression management skills involve a combination of awareness, flexibility and control with regard to how we look, act and interact with others.

2. Skills that can be developed: Impression management skills can be improved through selfawareness, training and practice.

3. Performance and career: Impression management skills are important in many social, domestic and organizational settings, and can contribute to work performance and career progression.

Chapter 7: Exercise 2 debrief – Choose your question carefully Objectives 1. To analyse the practical uses of questioning techniques and conversation controls.

2. To explore appropriate management options in dealing with employee’s problems.

Briefing 1. Individually, read each statement and decide which type of question would be the most appropriate response for you to make in each case: •

open question

•

closed question

•

probe

•

reflective question

•

hypothetical question

Note your reasons for choosing that response. Remember that your opening response can set the direction for the rest of the conversation.

2. In groups of 3 or 4, share your answers. Explore the objective or objectives that you want to achieve in each conversation. Decide which is the best response, and why.

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3. Plenary: Each group presents and explains its conclusions to the group as a whole. Your instructor will lead a discussion of the implications of the different responses in each case, and of the key learning points.

Here are statements from employees, directed at you, their line manager.

•

‘Why did Charlie get promoted? What do I have to do to get ahead round here?’

•

‘You haven’t given us the resources to service the volume of requests that we’re getting.’

•

‘I’m not breaking my back for the money you’re paying me.’

•

‘If you don’t stop micromanaging us, we’ll make a formal complaint to your boss.’

•

‘You’ll have to speak to Mina. I can’t take her insulting comments for much longer.’

Debriefing This exercise is designed to work in classic four-step tutorial mode – first, individual analysis; second, syndicate discussion; third, syndicate reports in plenary; finally, debriefing. Which is the best type of question to use in each case: open, closed, probe, reflective, hypothetical? Responses which ignore or downplay the other person’s problem sound patronising and condescending. These should typically be avoided. Self-disclosure (‘I have the same problem’) also sidelines the other person, and signals that the line manager would rather talk about themselves. Reassurance (‘It’s just a matter of time’) can also sound patronising or dismissive, and is unlikely to be decoded as reassuring.

As line manager in these kinds of situations, your first task is to get more information, to explore and to understand the problem more fully, before taking any action. To do this, open, probing and reflective questions are usually the most appropriate responses. These tell the listener that you are interested, and that you would like to know more. These responses can open up the conversation.

This is especially helpful if the other person is angry. They need time and opportunity to express their feelings to a sympathetic and interested listener. Closed questions can shut down the conversation, and limit the amount of information that is likely to be forthcoming. Responding with a hypothetical question in the kinds of settings described here may be decoded as dismissive, and simply heighten the other person’s anger.

Key learning points 1. Consciously control the options: We typically manage our conversations unconsciously, choosing communication options without thought or effort. However, when the situation is important, or sensitive, as in these examples, conscious awareness and control of behaviour options can be more effective.

2. Get the information: The manager’s problem-solving responsibility requires collecting adequate information before taking a decision, taking action or offering advice. Questioning techniques should be used appropriately to this end.

3. Reflection, not direction: The reflective question is a code for, ‘I’m listening carefully, please tell me more’, particularly when combined with positive non-verbal behaviour. This is a highly effective technique for getting others to disclose information.

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CHAPTER 8

Perception Chapter 8: What’s new in this chapter?

Chapter 8: Learning outcomes and recap Chapter 8: Rationale Chapter 8: OB cinema debrief – Legally Blonde Chapter 8: Exercise 1 debrief – Person perception Chapter 8: Exercise 2 debrief – Who’s the interviewer?

Chapter 8: What’s new in this chapter?

Visible passion – how entrepreneurs use this to attract investors Facial features – how to appear trustworthy, or untrustworthy In a man’s world – should women use masculine language to disguise their femininity when applying for work in male-dominated roles?

Tattoos – what personality traits do they reveal, and can tattoos help or hinder your job prospects?

The beauty bonus – are attractive female executives seen as more or less trustworthy?

Natural hair bias – hairstyle affects how professional you appear, and can lead to discrimination

Chapter 8: Learning outcomes and recap 1. Identify the main features of the process of perception.

•

People behave according to how they perceive the world, not in response to ‘reality’.

•

The perceptual process involves the interpretation of sensory input in the light of past experience, and our store of knowledge, beliefs, expectations and motives.

2. Distinguish between the bottom-up processing of sensory information and the top-down interpretation of that information.

•

Sensation, or bottom-up processing, determines the data to which we pay attention.

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•

Perception, or top-down processing, determines the way in which we organise and interpret perceived information in order to make behavioural choices.

3. Understand the nature and implications of selective attention and perceptual organization.

•

Selective attention is influenced by external factors relating to the stimulus and the context, and by internal factors such as learning, personality and motivation.

•

The way in which we organise and interpret sensory data in meaningful ways, even when it is incomplete or ambiguous, is known as perceptual organization.

4. Give examples of how behaviour is influenced by our perceptions.

•

We each have our own perceptual world, an internal mental image of our environment.

•

Different cultures lead to differences in perception and consequently in behaviour.

5. Explain and illustrate the main processes and problems in perception, including false attributions, halo effects and stereotyping.

•

An attribution is a belief about cause and effect. When speaking about ourselves, we tend to attribute success to personal factors and failure to external factors. When speaking about others, we tend to attribute success and failure to personality features.

•

Making a favourable judgement of someone on the basis of a single positive characteristic is known as the halo effect, and is called the horn effect if the judgement is negative.

•

Assuming that someone possesses a set of personality traits because they belong to a particular social group is known as stereotyping.

6. Explain some less widely appreciated sources of discrimination at work arising from characteristics of the person perception and attribution processes.

•

Aspects of behaviour are attributed to appearance, leading to discrimination. You are likely to be paid less at work if you are an overweight or underweight female, a short man and are perceived to be unattractive.

•

The fundamental attribution error leads us to emphasise individual personality and ignore social and organizational context when explaining behaviour.

7. Suggest ways to improve perceptual accuracy and avoid errors.

•

To avoid mistakes, avoid rapid judgements, take more time, collect more information, be aware of your own prejudices and biases and develop increased self-awareness.

•

To improve accuracy, expect errors to occur, use as much feedback as you can get and take small steps rather than radical ones to reduce risks.

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Chapter 8: Rationale This chapter includes a number of updates based on recent research, but the core content remains similar to the previous edition. We have maintained the focus on attribution, as this has implications for career progression and discriminatory practices. Research suggests that discrimination can arise not just with sex, race or age, but with a number of other personal attributes such as weight, height, facial appearance, hair, perceived attractiveness and characteristics of a spouse or partner.

Of interest to some students, perhaps, is research concerning the effects on how one is perceived (in job interviews, for example) if one has tattoos or body piercings. The evidence suggests that social attitudes in general and employers’ attitudes in particular towards body art are changing, and that in some settings body art can be an advantage when looking for a job. In Chapter 1, in the context of considering different ways of explaining organizational behaviour, the concept of the fundamental attribution error was introduced concerning the observation that we tend to explain behaviour by emphasising personality, while overlooking aspects of context. The importance of the fundamental attribution error in explaining behaviour is reinforced in this chapter.

The chapter also explores perceptual phenomena such as selective attention and organization, and the concepts of perceptual set and the individual’s perceptual world. Some extraordinary research on selective attention demonstrates the phenomenon of ‘change blindness’. An ingenious experiment demonstrated how some individuals focusing on a particular task do not ‘see’ obvious and relevant changes in their surroundings, such as the person to whom they were giving directions being substituted by someone else. The chapter also explains the critical nature of the links between perception and behaviour, along with practical examples of theory in action.

The section titled, ‘do we see to know or know to see?’ demonstrates the role of language in shaping our perceptions and understanding of reality. Language is seen here not as a neutral tool for explaining our observations and experience, but as an active tool for manipulating perceptions. The distinction here is between language having a ‘servant’ or ‘picturing’ role, on the one hand, or a creative ‘constituting’ role in shaping our perceptions and understanding of reality, on the other.

Students are invited to assess this argument critically.

Chapter 8: OB cinema debrief – Legally Blonde Legally Blonde (2001, director Robert Luketic), DVD track (scene) 8; 0:21:17 to 0:22:46 (3 minutes). Clip begins with the tutor saying, ‘OK, welcome to law school’. Clip ends with Elle saying, ‘Whoever said that orange was the new pink was seriously disturbed’.

Legally Blonde is the story of an attractive blonde sorority queen, Elle Woods (played by Reece Witherspoon), whose boyfriend leaves her to go to Harvard Law School. To get him back, she goes to Harvard, too. Every character in this movie plays a stereotyped role. In this clip, on the law school lawn, Elle and three of her classmates are asked by a tutor to introduce themselves. As you watch the clip, observe the five characters carefully and: 1. Decide on an appropriate stereotype label (e.g. ‘absent-minded professor’) for each character.

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2. Explain why you have chosen that label, based on the evidence that each character provides (what they say, how they say it, appearance, non-verbal behaviour).

3. For each character identify two adjectives that you think would describe how they would be likely to interact socially with others.

4. Thinking of each of those characters in an organizational context, assess what you feel would be their strengths and their weaknesses.

Briefing This short clip offers powerful insights into both sides of the phenomenon of stereotyping. On the one hand, we see characters creating their own stereotypes through their appearance and actions, including what they say about themselves and in what manner. On the other hand, viewers readily attach stereotype labels to these characters and also attribute significant characteristics, strengths and weaknesses to them. In other words, stereotypes based on very limited information lead to judgements that could influence whether or not we decide, for example, to develop a friendship, or to offer someone a job. It is therefore important to consider how we present ourselves to others, to reinforce or to avoid particular stereotypes, and also to consider how we perceive and assess others, looking beyond the obvious stereotype for other clues to someone’s character.

Copy the following matrix for students to complete as they watch this clip: Stereotype:

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

Evidence Adjectives Strengths Weaknesses

Debriefing 1. Decide on an appropriate stereotype label (e.g. ‘absent-minded professor’) for each character.

In order of appearance, the characters could be described as: 1. Bored tutor 2. Brainy nerd 3. Radical gay feminist 4. Snobby intellectual 5. Dumb blonde (Elle) 94 © 2023 Pearson Education Limited. All Rights Reserved.

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2. Explain why you have chosen that label, based on the evidence that each character provides (what they say, how they say it, appearance, non-verbal behaviour).

Each character provides evidence which quickly establishes and reinforces their stereotype: •

Bored tutor: tone of voice, unenthusiastic, bored facial expressions, pretend smiles, untidy hair, casual dress, no follow-up questions, not really interested

•

Brainy nerd: body language, closed posture, arms gripping legs, eye movements (darting suspiciously side-to-side), frowning, jacket and jumper on a warm day, slow deliberate speech, still wearing his rucksack

•

Radical gay feminist: denim jacket, frizzy hair, designer spectacles, earnest expression, serious tone, self-disclosure of ideology and sexuality, punches Brainy nerd’s arm after she explains her interest in women’s studies and history of combat

•

Snobby intellectual: no eye contact with anyone until spoken to directly, emotionless tone of voice, ‘genius’ on t-shirt, makes only self-congratulatory remarks – announces his extremely high IQ, and ‘Stephen Hawking stole my ideas’

•

Dumb blonde (Elle): pink clothes (dressed for California, not New England), pink blanket, small dog, high-pitched squeaky voice, bubbling with enthusiasm, inappropriate and frivolous self-disclosure for this academic context

3. For each character identify two adjectives that you think would describe how they would be likely to interact socially with others.

Bored tutor

superior, dismissive

Brainy nerd

awkward, shy

Radical gay feminist

direct, confrontational

Snobby intellectual

cold, arrogant

Dumb blonde (Elle)

warm, friendly

4. Thinking of each of those characters in an organizational context, assess what you feel would be their strengths and their weaknesses.

Strengths

Weaknesses

Bored tutor

getting on with the job

inspiring a team

Brainy nerd

working alone on IT/maths problems

explaining ideas to others

Radical gay feminist

public speaking

keeping everyone happy

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Snobby intellectual

telling others what to do

working in a team

Dumb blonde

working in a team

selling serious ideas

This discussion provides examples of the kinds of attributions that we make – often with a high degree of confidence – on the basis of stereotypes. It is not difficult to see how these attributions can influence job selection, task allocation and promotion decisions.

Key learning points 1. Stereotypes and limited information: We often stereotype others on the basis of limited information.

2. Stereotyping uses and errors: While our stereotyping can often be fairly accurate and useful, it can lead us to make mistakes if we are not careful. Elle, for example, is initially dismissed as a valued student, but this particular stereotype eventually turns out to be incorrect.

3. Avoid inaccurate personal stereotyping: We each need to consider carefully the image that we present to others if we are to avoid being inaccurately stereotyped.

4. Avoid inaccurately stereotyping others: We need to consider carefully the stereotype labels we attach to others, gathering further information to check whether or not our judgements are accurate.

5. Stereotyping in key management contexts: In an organizational context, it is particularly important to avoid inaccurate stereotyping in job selection, task allocation and promotion decisions.

Chapter 8: Exercise 1 debrief – Person perception Objective 1. To explore factors influencing our perception of other people. Research has shown, for example, that we assess others’ characters from their faces. These assessments include how friendly, aggressive, trustworthy and creditworthy another person is. The judgements that we reach based on such apparently limited information often turn out to be correct.

Briefing 1. Break into groups of 3.

2. Your instructor will give you five or six photographs of people, taken from recent newspapers and magazines. You have 5 minutes to work out as much as you can about each of these people, using only what you can see in the picture. Consider characteristics such as their: conscientiousness intelligence 96 © 2023 Pearson Education Limited. All Rights Reserved.

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aggressiveness approachability reliability other characteristics suggested by the photographs 3. Prepare a presentation based on your photographs and your assumptions. Explain clearly which items of evidence from the photographs led you to make those assessments.

Debriefing Head-and-shoulder portrait images can easily be collected from the internet, as well as from newspapers and magazines. These can be printed A4 for distribution to a small group, or embedded in a PowerPoint presentation for a large class. As these images are used for brief presentation purposes, copyright issues do not arise. It is interesting to mix images of strangers with those of well-known celebrities and politicians, and particularly those who are ‘in the news’ at the time of your class, giving this discussion an immediacy that other portraits would not bring. Even with only facial evidence to work on, it is striking that we are often willing to attribute characteristics such as trustworthiness, conscientiousness and intelligence to others, with confidence.

Key discussion questions •

on what evidence and preconceptions do we base our ideas about other people?

•

what does this tell us about how we stereotype others, and how others stereotype us?

•

what is the relevance of this phenomenon in the workplace, for management, for employees?

Key learning points 1. The power of face: Our perceptions of others are strongly influenced not just by their general appearance, but by their facial features in particular.

2. Appearance and attributions: Based on facial evidence, we make confident attributions concerning aspects of personality such as reliability and approachability.

Chapter 8: Exercise 2 debrief – Who’s the interviewer?

Objectives 1. To examine how perception is influenced by knowledge and past experience.

2. To demonstrate how our individual perceptual worlds are shaped by these factors.

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Briefing You are about to go for a job interview, but first you will be kept waiting in the interviewer’s office.

During that time, you can observe clues about your interviewer and perhaps about the organization.

What clues do you think are significant and revealing? What personal experiences in your own past affect how you observe and make judgements in this setting?

This exercise can be completed in class time, but is more effective if steps 1 to 3 are completed in advance. For a one-hour tutorial, time will be tight without preparation.

Step 1

Read The manager’s room description which follows, to get a feel for the setting in which you find yourself.

Step 2

Complete the analysis sheet.

In the data column, record those observations that you find significant and revealing about the kind of person who occupies this room.

In the inferences column, note the perceptions or conclusions that you reach from your data.

In the experiences column, record past incidents or events, recent or distant, that you think influence your inferences.

Data I observe in the room

The inferences that I make

Step 3

Using that analysis, construct a profile of your interviewer.

Step 4

Finally, record your answers to the following questions:

Based on past experience

1. What is the sex, marital status and ethnic background of the managing director? Identify the data in the room that lead you to your inferences.

2. How would you describe the managing director’s character? What are this person’s interests?

What would you expect this person’s management style to be like? Once again, identify the data on which you base these judgements.

3. Given your own personality, do you think that you be happy working for this person?

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4. Explain how your analysis illustrates the concepts of selective attention, perceptual organization, perceptual world, halo effect and stereotyping.

Step 5

Present your findings, according to your Instructor’s directions.

The manager’s room description You are now in the Acme Holdings company offices, top floor, for your job interview. It sounds like your ideal position. As personal assistant, you will be working for the managing director who has asked to interview you. You have arrived on time, but the managing director’s secretary apologises and tells you there will be a delay. The managing director has been called to an important meeting which will take up to 15 minutes. The secretary tells you that you are welcome to wait in the managing director’s private office, and shows you in.

You know that you will be alone here for 15 minutes. You look around the room, curious about the person with whom you may be working. The shallow pile carpet is a warm pink, with no pattern.

You choose one of six high-backed chairs, upholstered in a darker fabric that matches well with the carpet and curtains, and with polished wooden arms. In the centre of the ring of chairs is a low glass-topped coffee table. On the wall behind you is a large photograph of a vintage motor car, accompanied by its driver in leather helmet, goggles, scarf and long leather coat; you can’t make out the driver’s face. The window ledge holds four plants arranged equal distances apart; two look like small exotic ferns and the others are a begonia and a geranium in flower.

On the other side of the room sits a large wooden executive desk, with a black leather chair. A framed copy of the company’s mission statement hangs on the wall behind the desk, and below that sits a black leather briefcase with combination locks. The plain grey waste paper basket by the wall beside the desk is full of papers. On one side of the desk there is a ‘state of the art’ laptop computer and a desk lamp. In front of the lamp sits a metal photograph frame holding two pictures. One is of an attractive woman in her thirties with a young boy around eight years old. The other photograph is of a retriever dog in a field to the side of some farm buildings. In front of the framed photograph is a stack of file folders. Immediately in front of the chair, on the desk, is a small pile of papers, and a Mont Blanc pen with the Acme company logo on the barrel.

On the other side of the desk is a delicate china mug. In front of it lies what looks like a leathercovered address book (or perhaps a diary), a passport and a pad of yellow paper. Beside the pad there is a pile of unopened mail with envelopes of differing sizes. On top of the mail and behind are some half-folded newspapers: The Guardian, The Independent and The Financial Times. You note that there is no telephone on the desk. Behind the desk is a small glass-fronted display case. There are some books lined up on top of the case: Plugged In: The Generation Y Guide to Thriving at Work, The Oxford Concise Dictionary of Quotations, Managing Difficult Interactions and Lean In: Women, Work, and the Will to Lead. Also on top of the case sits a small bronze statue of a man sitting with his legs crossed in a Yoga position. There is a cheese plant on the far side of the display case. Inside the case, there are computing systems manuals and books and pamphlets on employment law, many of which deal with race and sex discrimination issues.

You decide to get up and look out the window. There is a three-seater settee under the window, covered in the same fabric as the armchairs with matching scatter cushions in the corners. From the window you can easily see people shopping and children playing in the nearby park. You turn to 99 © 2023 Pearson Education Limited. All Rights Reserved.

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another table beside the settee. Several magazines sit in front of a burgundy ceramic lamp with a beige shade. There are two recent copies of The Economist, and a copy each of Asia Today, Classic CD and Fortune. As you head back to your chair, you notice that the papers on the desk in front of the chair are your application papers and curriculum vitae. Your first name, obviously indicating your sex, has been boldly circled with the Mont Blanc pen. As the Managing Director may return at any moment, you go back and sit in your chair to wait.

Debriefing This exercise extends the analysis of the previous task, based on facial features, to other observable characteristics of an individual’s work space. What inferences can be made from observable information? What is the nature of the experiential basis for those inferences?

Students, at all levels, invariably enjoy this analysis and find it instructive. What is required here is an overt and shared statement of inferences and experiences. Students rarely, if ever, complain that this is a strange task to perform. Normally, when walking into a strange room, and when meeting someone for the first time, we carry out this kind of analysis individually, and often unconsciously.

When we meet new people, we use whatever information there is to hand to begin to construct an image of the individual and their personality.

There is no ‘correct answer’ to this analysis. Some students feel cheated and want the ‘real’ occupant of the room to be revealed, so that they can check the accuracy of their inferences. This is missing the point. Personality assessments based on room layout and design are likely to be just as valid as assessments based on someone’s face. The problem is that we make these inferences on this kind of information all the time, and sometimes we may make a correct guess. A related issue, of course, is that others are constantly assessing us – our personal appearance and our physical surroundings – in precisely the same manner.

Key learning points 1. Inferences you cannot avoid: It is difficult to avoid making the inferences that this analysis requires, even though we can agree afterwards that such guesses are as likely to be wrong as often as they are right. With only our individual past experience as a guide, we can often express high levels of confidence in our inferences.

2. Constructing the perceptual world: This is how our perceptual world is constructed, from experience, from the way in which we interpret and understand our experience, and in the inferences that we make based on experience. It is not surprising, therefore, that there are individual differences in the inferences made in this analysis.

3. Others make inferences about you too: Before dismissing this exercise as classroom theory (in which the instructor cheated because there is no right answer), it is useful to remember that other people make judgements about us, based on similar evidence. Are you prepared to have someone come into your home, apartment, flat or lodgings now? Or do you want to rush home first and do some tidying up and rearranging?

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CHAPTER 9

Motivation Chapter 9: What’s new in this chapter?

Chapter 9: Learning outcomes and recap Chapter 9: Rationale Chapter 9: OB cinema debrief – Enron: The Smartest Guys in the Room Chapter 9: Exercise 1 debrief – Chris and Pat compare salaries Chapter 9: Exercise 2 debrief – Job characteristics model and job redesign

Chapter 9: What’s new in this chapter?

Don’t talk about the money – why asking a potential employer about salary and benefits could cost you the job Quiet quitting – turning up for work as usual, but doing only the bare minimum to meet the job requirements Rank and yank performance management – discourages creativity and teamwork, and is demotivating Good work – what is it, and why is it important?

Chapter 9: Learning outcomes and recap 1. Understand different ways in which the term motivation is used.

•

Motivation can refer to the desired goals which individuals have or acquire.

•

Motivation can refer to the individual decision-making process through which goals are chosen and pursued.

•

Motivation can refer to a social influence process that aims to change the behaviour of others.

2. Explain the distinction between content and process theories of motivation.

•

Content theories of motivation explain behaviour in terms of innate drives and acquired motives. The content theories covered in this chapter are self-determination theory and hierarchy of needs theory.

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•

Process theories of motivation explain behaviour in terms of individual decision-making processes rather than innate needs. The process theories covered in this chapter are equity theory, goal-setting theory and expectancy theory.

3. Understand how motives and motivation processes influence behaviour.

•

Motives as desirable goals can be innate (drives) or acquired (socially learned).

•

Self-determination theory argues that we have innate needs for autonomy, competence and relatedness.

•

Hierarchy of needs theory argues that we have five main needs, for survival, security, affiliation, esteem and self-actualisation.

•

Equity theory explains motivation in terms of perceived injustice or unfairness.

•

Goal-setting theory explains behaviour in terms of goal difficulty and goal specificity.

•

Expectancy theory explains motivation in terms of valued outcomes and the subjective probability of achieving those outcomes.

4. Apply expectancy theory and job enrichment techniques to diagnose organizational problems and to recommend practical solutions.

•

A job will only be motivating if it leads to rewards which the individual values.

•

Rewards motivate high performance when the link between effort and reward is clear.

•

Hygiene factors can overcome dissatisfaction but do not lead to motivation.

•

Content factors lead to job satisfaction, motivation and high performance.

•

Jobs can be enriched by applying vertical job loading factors.

•

The motivating potential of a job can be increased by improving skill variety, task identity, task significance, autonomy and feedback.

•

Job enrichment will not improve the performance of individuals with low Growth Need Strength.

5. Explain the contemporary interest in work motivation, with respect to presenteeism, the gig economy, employee engagement, high-performance work systems and ‘good work’.

•

Presenteeism – being motivated to work more hours than required, even when unwell – has become a contemporary problem, costing organizations more than absenteeism.

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•

The main motive for presenteeism is job insecurity, but working long hours can lead to ill health. Paradoxically, continuing to work can benefit some health conditions.

•

The gig economy – based on freelancers selling their skills online – is a new form of employment. Some individuals are motivated by the freedom and flexibility of gigging, working freelance as and when they choose, on defined tasks for different clients.

•

The problems of gigging include difficulty finding assignments, insecure income, lack of development and career opportunities, and the lack of employment rights enjoyed by those in standard work.

•

In a rapidly changing competitive business environment, organizations need to motivate employees to be flexible, adaptable, committed and creative – to ‘go the extra mile’ – and not just turn up on time, follow instructions and do the bare minimum (‘quiet quitting’).

•

Employee engagement is linked to productivity, but levels of engagement in most countries, including the UK, are low, and this has attracted national government interest.

•

Employee engagement strategies and high-performance work systems use combinations of individual job enrichment, autonomous teamworking, facilitative, coaching supervisory style and other forms of delegation to empower and motivate lower-level employees.

•

The rise in numbers working in precarious, insecure jobs has prompted concern for ‘good work’, which provides interesting, meaningful jobs, and secure employment conditions.

Chapter 9: Rationale This edition adds discussion of job quality or ‘good work’, setting the need for employee engagement against the phenomenon of ‘quiet quitting’. Employee engagement has become a national imperative in the UK, and this topic has been updated accordingly.

Students often complain that they are reading ‘dated’ material in this area. However, although there has been significant new research and thinking, students still need to understand those ‘old’ theories. This content remains current, and it may be argued that, given contemporary economic trends and pressures, the theory and practice of employee motivation now has a more heightened significance than it had in the days of Maslow, McGregor and Herzberg. The Job Characteristics Model in particular continues to be popular and influential, enjoying consistent support from the evidence.

This edition retains the broad treatment of the topic from previous editions, exploring a range of influential theories. A new addition is self-determination theory, which as a content theory of motivation has similarities to Maslow’s approach. The idea that Maslow himself developed the concept of a ‘hierarchy’ of needs, drawn as a pyramid, is debunked. The Job Characteristics Model and the Job Diagnostic Survey are covered in the same way as in previous editions, and the chapter ends with a familiar treatment of employee empowerment in ‘the organization of your dreams’.

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Instructors with students who challenge the contemporary relevance of motivation theories which are over half a century old have at least four responses: 1. Influence: Despite their age, these theories remain influential, and continue to shape the thinking and practice of management today. The terminology and techniques of work motivation, developed since the 1940s, have become part of the everyday management language and toolkit: self-actualisation, hygiene factors, intrinsic and extrinsic rewards, stretch goals, job enrichment, equity, and high-performance work systems. It is unlikely that these terms and related methods will fall into disuse during the life of this text.

2. Practice: This is one area where organization practice has perhaps attracted more attention than theoretical development. Employee motivation is a perennial problem, and putting what we think we know about work motivation into practice is a primary concern. Recent research suggests that ‘empowerment’ (a term which can be defined in a number of ways) is a widely adopted organizational approach, but a number of prominent organizations also report using the ‘rank and yank’ performance management system which has demotivating effects.

3. Conceptual toolbox: We discussed in the preface the value of having a range of theories and perspectives that can help us to address different problems in different settings at different times. Marc Anderson (2007) argues that we benefit from having ‘too many theories’ because these help to fill what he calls our ‘conceptual toolbox’.

Chapter 9: OB cinema debrief – Enron: The Smartest Guys in the Room Enron: The Smartest Guys in the Room (2005, director Alex Gibney): DVD track 4, 0:17:00 to 0:23:00 (6 minutes). Clip begins at the start of this track. Clip ends when the trader says, ‘Well I’ll stomp on the guy’s throat’.

The collapse of Enron is one of the largest corporate scandals in twenty-first-century America. We are introduced in this clip to senior executive Jeff Skilling, hired by company president Kenneth Lay because he saw Skilling as a visionary, as ‘a man with a big idea’.

1. How would you describe Jeff Skilling’s management style?

2. What effect does he have on employee motivation?

3. Jeff’s view of human motivation is based on competition, greed and ‘survival of the fittest’. He introduces the Performance Review Committee system which applies a ‘rank and yank’ approach to staff appraisals. What are the advantages and disadvantages of this system, for managers, and for employees?

Debriefing For the third question, copy this table (without the sample observations) for students to complete during their class or table discussion:

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Rank and Yank Advantages

Disadvantages

For managers

encourages clarity and honesty with regard to supervisory performance assessments of employees

can be deeply demotivating and lead to the loss of good staff

For employees

clarity of goals which means healthy competition, high performance and higher pay

good performance doesn’t guarantee continued employment if colleagues perform even better

1. Jeff Skilling’s management style is autocratic and bullying. Paradoxically, however, his style can also be seen as visionary and inspirational.

2. By expecting high levels of performance, his style can be extremely motivational. However, this kind of managerial behaviour may not have a sustained positive effect on employee motivation and performance. Most students who watch this clip say that they would not want to work for Jeff Skilling, or for a manager using this style.

3. While the ‘rank and yank’ system can be seen to have some advantages, for both employees and managers, the balance of outcomes is judged by most observers to be negative. Any gains derived from clarity and competition is lost through demotivation and the loss of good staff who resign to escape this kind of regime.

Key learning points 1. Visionaries are not always great leaders: People with ideas and vision may be inspirational, but they do not necessarily make good leaders or managers in terms of their ability to motivate others.

2. Short lived gains of autocratic leadership: While high expectations can lead to high performance, it is doubtful if such an autocratic approach to management will have a sustained positive effect on performance, beyond the short term.

3. The problem with rank and yank: The advantages of a ‘rank and yank’ performance appraisal system are outweighed by the disadvantages in terms of the probable loss of motivation and loss of good staff.

Chapter 9: Exercise 1 debrief – Chris and Pat compare salaries Objectives 1. To identify factors affecting pay decisions 2. To understand the complexity of pay determination

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3. To distinguish between legal and illegal bases for pay decisions 4. To distinguish between wise and unwise pay decisions

Briefing •

Form groups of 4 or 5.

•

Read the Chris and Pat compare salaries briefing below.

•

Individually, list all the reasons you can think of why Chris and Pat earn different salaries. You can include reasons that may be legal or illegal, wise or unwise.

•

As a group, combine your reasons, perhaps adding to them, until your group list contains 20 items.

Chris and Pat compare salaries Chris Clements and Pat Palmer are both software engineers. One day, they find out that Chris earns £41,750 a year while Pat earns £50,100. Chris is surprised and says, ‘I can’t think of any reasons why we should be paid so differently’. Pat replies, ‘I can think of at least 20 reasons’. (This exercise was inspired by and is based on Renard, 2008.)

Debriefing First check that all students have a copy of the exercise. Distribute copies to those who have not.

1. Students should first consider the reasons for these salary differences individually, without discussing this with colleagues. As the briefing indicates, emphasise if necessary that they can include legal and illegal, wise and unwise reasons. Any factors that they feel could contribute to the difference should be noted. If students ask whether Chris and Pat work for the same or different companies, or if they are the same or different sexes, reply that if they feel that any of these factors could explain the salary differences, then these should be noted on their list.

2. When the groups have finished, go round each group in turn, asking for reasons for differences in salaries, adding those that have not yet been mentioned. As this occurs, group members should tick off from their lists each reason as it is mentioned. Record the group responses on a whiteboard, flipchart, overhead or in a word processing document that can be projected.

Irrelevant or incorrect reasons can be eliminated by asking, ‘How would that make a difference to their salaries?’ When an illegal reason is offered, ask the group if they think that it is legal or illegal. Similarly, when an unwise reason is suggested, ask the group if they think that this is a wise or an unwise reason. Add any missing items yourself, for example, sector-specific factors, trade union activities. Ensure that everyone in the class has a complete numbered list of reasons.

3. Discuss the assumptions that led students to generate their lists of reasons; for example, were Chris and Pat working for the same organization, doing the same job, working just as hard and performing equally well? As students considered ever more influences on salary, initial 106 © 2023 Pearson Education Limited. All Rights Reserved.

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assumptions are frequently challenged; what happened when students thought that Chris and Pat might be in different organizations and different jobs?

4. Introduce in a short lecture The Objectives of a Compensation System, accompanied by the following text as a handout:

Objectives of a Compensation System A

Internal consistency (different jobs)

Objective: to achieve internal consistency between different jobs inside the organization

B

•

All jobs are valued in terms of their contribution to the organization, irrespective of who is performing each job

•

Jobs are valued relative to one another

•

An appropriate pay rate is assigned to each, with more valuable, complex jobs paid more, and less valuable, simpler jobs paid less

External competitiveness (different organizations)

Objective: to pay the market rate or better in order to attract employees •

Compare the value of jobs inside the organization with the value of the same or similar jobs in other organizations in the external marketplace

C Individual differences (job performance, backgrounds) Objective: to value and reward each employee’s contributions •

Employees are rewarded for behaviours which support organizational values and contribute to organizational goals

5. Ask groups to categorise their reasons by putting IC (internal consistency), EC (external consistency) or ID (individual differences) next to each one. Alternatively, hold a full class discussion in which the reasons that you have already recorded are categorised collectively.

Reason 1 2 3 4

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IC

EC

ID

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5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20

6. Conclude by distributing the master list of reasons for pay differences

Variations Using the master list, introduce the concept of internal consistency (IC) by asking what factors affect the value of a job to an organization, irrespective of who might be doing the job. Students are then asked to identify all IC examples on the master list. Then, repeat this process first with external competitiveness, and then with individual contributions.

Discuss why a particular reason appears in a certain category, and why some reasons appear in more than one category. For example, education can be both an internal consistency and an individual factor, depending on which aspect one chooses to focus. The basic educational requirement to get a job (school certificates) is an internal consistency factor which relates the value of the job to other jobs. The possession of extra education (a university degree) by the employee beyond the minimum required is an individual contribution factor.

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Discuss inappropriate reasons. Some reasons are illegal and could lead to the organization being accused of discrimination (e.g. decisions based on race or sex). Other reasons, while not illegal (e.g. nepotism, politicking) may be unwise, as they are potentially inconsistent with an organization’s strategy and values and may subvert compensation goals.

Master list of reasons for pay differences A Internal consistency reasons Example

Relevant concepts

1. Abilities (required for entry into the job)

They are in different jobs; Pat’s job Job descriptions detailing the types requires the ability to program in and levels of abilities required. more computer languages than does Chris’s job.

2. Duties

Pat’s job requires programming, beta Complete job descriptions, detailing testing and quality control; Chris’s the levels of compensable factors. only requires programming.

3. Education (required for entry into the job)

Pat’s job requires a Master’s degree for entry into the job; Chris’s only a Bachelor’s degree.

Possession of education as a requirement for job entry as a ‘business necessity’.

4. Experience (required for entry into the job)

Pat’s job requires 4 years of experience for entry, while Chris’s needs only 2 years.

Possession of experience as a requirement for job entry, as a ‘business necessity’.

5. Job complexity

Pat’s job requires more decisionmaking without supervision than does Chris’s job.

Intrinsic motivation or extrinsic motivation requiring compensation, Job Characteristics Model.

6. Job level

Chris is a Software Engineer I; Pat is Hierarchal or flat structures. a Software Engineer II.

7. Knowledge

Pat’s job requires knowledge of quality control; Chris’s job does not.

Job-based pay plans vs. knowledgebased plans.

8. Responsibilities

Pat is responsible for monetary decisions; Chris is responsible for equipment decisions.

Job evaluators’ biases; what is considered a more or less important factor for evaluation.

9. Skills

Pat’s job requires skill to repair the computer; Chris’s job does not.

Breadth and depth of skills.

10. Supervision

Pat’s job involves supervising others; Technical versus managerial skills.

Chris’s does not.

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B External consistency reasons Example

Relevant concepts

1. Company’s ability to pay

They are in different companies.

Pat’s company has more liquidity.

Forms of payout: cash, shares, bonuses.

2. Cost of living

They live in different cities. Prices have risen fast in Pat’s city.

Cost of living adjustment, consumer price index data.

3. Economic downturn or upswing

Pat’s company increased sales (and Business cycles, contingent workers, profit) because of an economic no benefits for part-timers. upturn; Chris’s industry was not affected.

4. Geographic area

Pat’s company is located in a highcost area.

5. Industry

Pat is in the computer industry; Chris Pay differences between industry is in the service sector. sectors.

6. Market relevant

Pat’s company services the whole of Pay differences around the country, Europe as its relevant market. choice of companies for comparison.

Chris’s focuses exclusively on the UK.

7. Pay policies

Pat’s company uses a ‘lead’ pay Company discretion in and results of policy, paying at the top end. Chris’s choosing lead, lag, match, variable organization uses a ‘lag’ policy and and company of choice. follows its competitors’ pay rates.

8. Profitability

Pat’s company is more profitable.

9. Size of company

Pat is in a large company; Chris is in Pros and cons of working at a large a small one. versus a small company.

10. Supply and demand

There were few applicants for Pat’s job, so extra pay was offered to induce people to apply. The market changed, and Chris’s job had many applicants.

Salary compression and inversion.

11. Geographic area

Pat is in a unionised firm; Chris is not.

Prevalence and power of unions, spill over effect.

International salary calculator.

Pay rates signal the value of the organization to outsiders.

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C Individual contribution reasons Example

Relevant concepts

1. Extra attributes – education, experience, abilities and skills.

Pat possessed more attributes than was required for an entry-level position, so was brought in at a higher salary. Chris met the minimum standards.

Pay rates and ranges, salary compression.

2. Disability

Chris is disabled, and can only perform essential functions. The company considers Chris to be less qualified, or as willing to accept lower pay.

Reasonable mutual accommodation, essential functions of the job; illegal discrimination.

3. Nepotism

Pat is a grandchild of the boss.

Nepotism policies, family-owned businesses – wise?

4. Gender

Chris is a woman whom the company sees as less qualified, or as willing to accept lower pay.

Wages gap, laws, illegal discrimination, different negotiation ability and/or results.

5. Race

Chris is a member of an ethnic minority; Pat is not.

Racial discrimination laws – illegal.

6. Seniority

Chris is entry level. Pat has been in the company for several years.

Seniority-related versus performance-based pay.

7. Merit

Pat has achieved excellent Pay for performance, merit bonus performance evaluations and a merit added to base salary. raise annually for the last five years.

8. Incentives

Pat received a bonus for meeting goals. Chris was given a plaque.

One-off financial payments.

9. Negotiation skills

Pat negotiated a higher starting salary or raise than Chris.

Cumulative effect of a small, initial difference over time.

10. Politicking skills

Pat is politically astute, flatters the boss, spreads rumours, influences the boss to obtain a higher salary.

Chris is politically naive.

Rational versus political processes – wise?

Key learning points 1. Many reasons for pay differentials: There can be many different reasons for pay differentials between individuals who appear to be performing similar work.

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2. Illegal and unwise reasons: Some reasons for pay differentials are of course potentially illegal (discrimination on the grounds of race and sex, for example), and some are unwise (giving higher pay to relatives and friends, for example).

3. Consistencies and individual contributions: Pay differentials are typically a result of the goals of organizational reward systems, concerning the perceived need to establish external and internal consistency, and to recognise the different contributions that individuals make.

4. Perceived inequity is demotivating: Perceived inequity in payment levels can cause serious grievances and is potentially demotivating, leading to reduced performance, and ultimately to the loss of those staff who feel disadvantaged.

Renard, M.K. (2008). ‘It’s all about the money: Chris and Pat compare salaries’, Journal of Management Education, 32 (2): 248–61.

Chapter 9: Exercise 2 debrief – Job redesign Objectives 1. To assess the motivating potential score (MPS) of a particular job or jobs.

2. To determine which core job characteristics would need to change to improve the MPS of that job or those jobs.

Briefing To measure the MPS for a given job, researchers developed the Job Diagnostic Survey (JDS). For this exercise, we will use a short version of the JDS, which allows job design problems to be diagnosed, and generates ideas for job redesign.

Complete this analysis for a job in which you are currently employed (full or part time); or for a job that you have performed recently. If you have never been employed, analyse the ‘job’ of a student.

The JDS is designed to be completed by the job holder, and not by an observer. For each of the 12 statements, decide whether this is an accurate or an inaccurate description of the chosen job, and rate it using this scale: 1 = very inaccurate 2 = mostly inaccurate 3 = somewhat inaccurate 4 = uncertain 5 = somewhat accurate 6 = mostly accurate 7 = very accurate 112 © 2023 Pearson Education Limited. All Rights Reserved.

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The job chosen for analysis is: Item

Rating

1

supervisors often let me know how well they think I am performing

2

the job requires me to use a number of complex high-level skills

3

the job is arranged so that I have the chance to do a complete piece of work from beginning to end

4

just doing the work required by the job provides many chances for me to work out how well I am doing

5

the job is not simple and repetitive

6

this job is one where a lot of other people can be affected by how well the work is done

7

the job does not deny me the chance to use my personal initiative or judgement in carrying out the work

8

the job gives me the chance to completely finish the pieces of work I begin

9

the job itself provides plenty of clues about whether or not I am performing well

10

the job gives me considerable opportunity for independence and freedom in how I do the work

11

the job itself is very significant and important in the broader scheme of things

12

the supervisors and co-workers on this job almost always give me feedback on how well I am doing in my work

Scoring Work out the average of the two items that measure each job characteristic: Job characteristic

Item numbers

Average score

skill variety

2+5

÷2 =

task identity

3+8

÷2 =

task significance

6 + 11

÷2 =

autonomy

7 + 10

÷2 =

feedback from the job itself

4+9

÷ 2 + = ___ ÷ 2 =

from others

1 + 12 ÷ 2

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To calculate the MPS for this job, first add your scores for the two feedback items, and divide the total by two, to give a single, average, feedback score. Then put all of the scores into the MPS formula: MPS =

(skill variety + task identity + task significance) × autonomy × feedback 3

Reminder: the core job dimensions in this model are: 1. Skill variety: does the job make use of different skills and abilities?

2. Task identity: does the job involve a ‘whole’ and meaningful piece of work?

3. Task significance: does the job affect the work of others?

4. Autonomy: does the job provide independence and discretion?

5. Feedback: is performance information related back to the individual?

If you have completed this analysis alone: •

assess the strengths and weaknesses of this job in terms of its motivating potential;

•

identify recommendations for redesigning this job to improve the MPS;

•

assess the difficulties in implementing these recommendations, given the nature of the work and the organizational context in which it is performed.

If you have completed this analysis with colleagues: •

share the results of your analysis with colleagues and pick the job with the lowest MPS;

•

identify redesign options for improving the job’s MPS (you will first need to ask the job holder for a detailed description of the job);

•

assess the difficulties in implementing these recommendations, given the nature of the work and the organizational context in which it is performed.

Debriefing First check that all students have a copy of the exercise. Distribute copies to those who have not.

Advice concerning how to increase the MPS will of course depend on the job, but should also reflect the scoring. This advice may be directed at the job holder as well as at more senior management. The actions recommended should be practical and cost effective, taking into account the physical, social and organizational realities of the chosen job and setting.

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Key learning points 1. Can motivating potential be measured realistically? The concept of a job’s Motivating Potential Score has intuitive appeal. Think of the different kinds of work that you have done and see if you can explain differences in your motivation (and job satisfaction) with reference to the presence or absence of the factors in this model. The numbers (5 high to 1 low) that are used to rate the factors in the model do not in themselves matter; this is just a convenient way in which to reach an overall judgement of the motivating potential of the role.

2. Can any job be redesigned? Is it always possible to increase skill and task variety, significance, autonomy and feedback, regardless of the nature of the job and the context in which it is performed? Identify jobs that would be ‘resistant’ to redesign in the ways that the model recommends (such as ‘frontline’ jobs in the transport, retail and fast-food sectors). To what extent do physical work setting and technological and financial constraints inhibit job redesign?

Consider the costs to the organization of redesigning jobs: is this an expensive exercise, or not?

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CHAPTER 10

Group formation Chapter 10: What’s new in this chapter?

Chapter 10: Learning outcomes and recap Chapter 10: Rationale Chapter 10: Home viewing - The Poseidon Adventure, Remember the Titans, The Breakfast Club, Mean Girls Chapter 10: OB Cinema debrief – The Magnificent Seven Chapter 10: Exercise 1 debrief – Group experiences Chapter 10: Exercise 2 debrief – You’re the manager: Central Utilities

Chapter 10: What’s new in this chapter?

Teamwork old and new – how groups in organizations have changed Multiple team membership – costs and benefits for employees New chapter exercise – You’re the manager: Central Utilities

Chapter 10: Learning outcomes and recap 1. List the key characteristics of a group.

•

These are: two or more people, in face-to-face interaction, each aware of his or her membership in the group; of the others who belong to the group; and of their positive interdependence as they strive to achieve mutual goals.

2. Distinguish between different types of group tasks.

•

Groups can be assigned many different tasks, many of which can be categorised under the headings of additive, conjunctive and disjunctive.

3. Name the three main experiments in the Hawthorne studies.

•

The main experiments were Illumination, Relay Assembly Test Room and Bank Wiring Observation Room.

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4. Distinguish between a formal and an informal group.

•

Formal groups are established by management to achieve organizational goals. Informal groups are created by members themselves to meet their own needs.

5. Outline Homans’s theory of group formation.

•

George Homans’s theory of group formation distinguishes between background factors, and required and emergent activities, interactions, sentiments, to explain how individuals come to form groups.

6. Enumerate the five stages of Tuckman and Jensen’s model of group development.

•

Tuckman and Jensen distinguished five stages through which groups typically proceed.

They named these forming, storming, norming, performing and adjourning.

7. Assess the value of multiple team memberships for organizations, teams and individuals.

•

Insufficient studies have been conducted so far to draw any conclusions. Both costs and benefits of MTM have been identified for organizations, teams and individuals.

Chapter 10: Rationale This chapter addresses the fundamental questions of what is a group, how if forms and how does it develop? For this edition of the textbook, this chapter has been updated to reflect the major change that has occurred in work arrangements is that individuals are simultaneously members of a number of different teams (multi-team working). They can be in different teams in the same organization or different organization (gig economy). This, coupled with the growth in virtual and hybrid teams (explored elsewhere in the textbook) has had a major impact on group formation and group dynamics. This is reflected in the chapter content.

Group working is one of the very few concepts in organizational behaviour literature which has remained consistently fashionable throughout the entire twentieth century and which continues to receive attention in the twenty-first century (leadership is another). Yet, many of what are claimed to be ‘new’ ideas in the field are in fact, re-cycled and re-labelled, old ideas. Without a historical content within which to place contemporary thinking, it is impossible to take a critical perspective on the subject. For this reason, here and elsewhere in the textbook, we have included ‘classic’ theories and research studies to allow students to assess the true novelty of what is being presented to them. This chapter: •

contrasts early twentieth-century empirical research on groups in organizations (Mayo’s Hawthorne studies) with studies conducted at the end of the century (Katzenbach and Santamaria’s study of U.S. marines).

•

discusses the importance of physical proximity of group members to one another in the workplace. The original work of Homans in 1951 is confirmed by Lee’s (2018) research in a Korean company.

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•

addresses the semantic and definitional differences between the key terms of group, aggregate, formal group and informal group.

•

considers how and why individuals come together to form a group, and how such spontaneous (informal) groups and managerially designed (formal) groups either achieve or fail to achieve a high level of task performance and meet the social needs of their members.

Every student is a member of at least one group, even if it is only their tutorial group. It is more likely that they will be members of several teams and groups, including work teams (fast-food restaurants) or managerial teams (cross-functional, project teams). Thus team formation, team development, group norms, the contrast between formal-informal groups are all concepts and ideas which nearly all students will have experienced at first hand. Thus, the textbook chapter: •

draws upon students’ past and current experiences of group membership as a source of examples of the concepts and theories being presented.

•

provides the basis for critical reflection on how any group or team, whether spontaneously created or managerially designed, constrains individuals’ freedom of behaviour.

•

raises their awareness of how the different tasks allotted to groups affect how their members interact with one another, and how, in turn, this affects goal-achievement and member satisfaction.

•

assists student readers to reflect on how much of a team player they currently are; what evidence of this they could provide to a potential employer; and offer suggestions as to how they might choose to modify their behaviour when working as a member of a group or team to make it more effective.

Chapter 10: Home viewing - The Poseidon Adventure For a detailed discussion on the objectives of the exercise, how to run and debrief it, see: Shields, D.C. and Kidd, V.V. (1973). ‘Teaching through popular film: A small group analysis of The Poseidon Adventure’, The Speech Teacher, 22(3): 201–207.

– Remember the Titans For a detailed discussion on the objectives of the exercise, how to run and debrief it, see: Reimers, J.M. and Parsons, G. (2003). ‘Case study: Remember the Titans (2000) to examine power, servant leadership, transformational leadership, followership and change’, Journal of Behavioural and Applied Management, 5(2): 152–165.

– The Breakfast Club

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For a detailed discussion on the objectives of the exercise, how to run and debrief it, see: Smith, G.W. (2009). ‘Using feature films as the primary instructional medium to teach organizational behaviour’, Journal of Management Education, 33(4): 462–489.

– Mean Girls For a discussion on the themes in this film, search Google using Mean Girls, Movie analysis

Chapter 10: OB cinema debrief – The Magnificent Seven The Magnificent Seven (1960, director John Sturges) DVD track 6: 0:18:35–track 12: 0:39:48 (6–11–21 minutes – sequenced) In this classic American western film, a group of Mexican farmers cross the border, initially with a view to buying guns in order to defend their village against bandits. Eventually, they end up hiring gunmen. The clip begins as the three villagers enter Chris’s (played by Yul Brynner) hotel room.

Watch the clip of the team selection process.

Instructor advice For a detailed discussion on the objectives of the exercise, how to run and debrief it, see: Huczynski, A. (1994). ‘Teaching motivation and influencing strategies using The Magnificent Seven’, Journal of Management Education, 18(2): 273–279.

Briefing 1. Introduce or remind students of Maslow’s theory of motivation discussed in Chapter 9. Remind them of the five main categories of needs, asking for or giving examples of each.

2. Ask how many students have seen the film. Place this classic 1960 western into context. It is set in 1850s America of the Wild West where there are no unemployment benefits, and where men engage in farming (farmers) or drive cattle across the plains (cowboys) to railroad stations, to be loaded onto trains which take them to slaughterhouses in the mid-west. Other men survive as outlaws (criminals) and still others as bounty hunters.

3. Explain that the students will be watching the process to select gunmen to join the group, and that you will stop the clip each time one of the men joins. At that point, they will be asked which needs that individuals seem to be meeting by agreeing to join, and what evidence they base their assessment on. Tell them to listen very carefully to the dialogue.

Debriefing The entire film clip itself lasts 21 minutes. It can be stopped after the fourth gunman joins (O’Reilly) or continued to the end, filling a 90-minute session.

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Character

Stop clip after

Description

Chris (Yul Brynner)

‘There are ways’ Chris is a drifter who has no job.

Biological

Farmers offer to feed him

Safety

Feed him every day, for some time

Affiliational

He would be part of a group

Esteem (self/others)

He would gain the villagers’ esteem

Selfactualisation

He will be able to do what the Mexican police (the Ruralos) failed to do

‘we believe you are the man we can trust’

Explain the next ‘candidate’ for the group that they will see (who is tested by Chris in his gun skills) is Chico. Chico will re-appear again and they will assess his needs. At this point they should observe him, as he enters and leaves. The next member to be assessed by students is Harry Luck.

Harry (Brad Dexter)

Harry ends his conversation abruptly with Chris, and leaves.

Harry Luck is an opportunist, ready to turn his hand to anything – legal or illegal. Ask the students ‘What does Harry want?’

The clip gives no other clue than money. Ask or tell the students how money can help Harry meet his needs, whatever they may be.

Biological

He can use it to buy food, drink, shelter and sex for himself

Safety

Having a lot of money can guarantee that he can obtain these things for a long time

Affiliational

Having money can buy you friends

Esteem (self/others)

Money can buy you a big house and car that might make you ‘feel good about yourself’ and impress others

Selfactualisation

Money can allow you to challenge yourself, to try something new, for example, start your own business

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Vin (Steven McQueen)

O’Reilly (Charles Bronson)

‘...How many you Vin is a cowboy. He comes into the saloon having just been paid off at the end of the cattle drive. He goes straight to the got?’ gambling table and loses all his money (including that in his hat!).

‘… right here’

Biological

He has just gambled away all his money. He can’t buy food or drink for himself

Safety

He needs to fulfil his biological needs for some time to come

Affiliational

He is invited to join a group project

‘It’s a job for six men’

Esteem (self/others)

His self-image (and others’ view of him) as a ‘man of action’ would be damaged if he was to accept a job in a grocery store

‘I’d make a crackerjack clerk’

Selfactualisation

Later in the bar, after the meeting with Britt, Vin adds

‘and the competition’

O’Reilly is a professional gunman who has worked for others in the past (Travers County War; Salinas). He is currently unemployed and working for his breakfast.

Biological

He needs to eat. He’s chopping wood in return for being given breakfast

Safety

He needs to fulfil his biological needs for some time to come

Affiliational Esteem (self/others)

He has high self-esteem needs

‘They paid me $400 for that one’. ‘Yes, I cost a lot’

Selfactualisation

He welcomes a challenge

‘I like your idea of fair odds, Mister’

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This time, ask students to tell you what needs Britt does not appear to have Britt (James Coburn)

‘I’ve changed my Britt (like Vin) is a cowboy from the same cattle drive. He and his mind’ fellow cowboys have been paid.

Biological

No – He has been paid so can fulfil his biological needs

Safety

No – Like the other cowboys, he has three months’ wages, so can meet his biological needs for some time to come

Affiliational

No – He is sitting, on his own, away from the other cowboys

Esteem (self/others)

No – He is taunted as a cheat and a coward. He does not have an esteem need

Selfactualisation

Yes – by elimination

You do not see Britt’s interaction with Chris and Vin. However, they rejoin the others in a bar and report that they found someone who would have been perfect. A villager asks if he declined because of insufficient money. At this point, Chris gives an excellent brief lecture on motivation and human needs. He explains that: ‘Brit does not care a hoot about money. men are not all the same, some care only for money (referring to Harry) while others seek danger’.

(Vin interjects adding ‘and the competition’). The villager asks, ‘If he is the best with a knife and a gun, then with whom does he compete?’ Chris replies ‘himself’ – which is an excellent definition for self-actualisation.

The remainder of this section sees the re-appearance of a drunken Chico who threatens the group and then passes out, and the appearance of Britt who, having initially declined to join the group, announces that he has changed his mind.

Explain that Lee is a professional bounty hunter. He makes his living by finding outlaws named ‘Wanted – dead or alive’ on posters and returning them (or their bodies) to local sheriffs, in return for cash rewards.

Lee (Robert Vaughn)

‘… and were not going to a church social’

Biological

He has spent all his money hiding in the back room and on one plate of beans

Safety

The friends of Johnson ‘How long will it brothers whom he has killed take?’ is his first are seeking revenge on him. question He is on the run. He needs the protection of others

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‘How much does the job pay?’ is his second question

Buchanan and Huczynski, Organizational Behaviour 11e, Instructor’s Manual

Affiliational Esteem (self/others)

Selfactualisation Two observations to make before moving on: 1. The order of questions can be an indicator of someone’s needs priority. Ask students if Lee is more interested in meeting his biological or safety needs. He asks him about time duration of job before the size of the payment. You can replay the question-asking sequence, if desired.

2. Although a professional gunman, later in the film, it becomes apparent that Lee has lost his nerve as a bounty hunter, and is therefore also joining the group to regain his courage. You can make the observation that not all needs are manifest and some can be hidden.

Chico (Horst Bucholz)

From his horse, Chico is a young man full of ambition, who wants to make Chris signals with something of himself. He looks up to the members of the group his hand for and wants to be like them.

Chico to join them.

Biological Safety Affiliational

He wants to be part of a group

Esteem (self/others)

He can raise his self-esteem by joining them, and expects to gain the esteem of others

Selfactualisation

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The final grid should look like this Needs Character (actor)

Chris (Yul Brynner)

Biological

Safety

Affiliational

Esteem (self & others)

Selfactualisati on

*

*

*

*

*

*

*

*

*

Harry (Brad Dexter)

££££££

Vin (Steven McQueen)

*

*

O’Reilly (Charles Bronson)

*

*

*

Britt (James Coburn)

*

Lee (Robert Vaughn)

*

Chico (Horst Bucholz)

* *

*

Key learning points 1. Different needs: Individuals’ human needs differ and they may voluntarily join groups for very different reasons, in order to meet their varying needs.

2. Multiple factors: It is the combination of these factors over time which shape outcomes for the organization and its members, and it is difficult to isolate the influence of any one factor.

3. Identification: In order to change individuals’ behaviour, it is necessary to identify what their particular needs are.

Chapter 10: Exercise 1 debrief – Group experiences Objectives 1. Demonstrate how groups affect your work and social life.

Briefing Whole class 1. Begin by checking that all students have a copy of the exercise. Distribute copies to those who do not have one.

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2. Begin by asking the whole class to give examples of work groups and non-work groups, and examples of formal and informal groups.

3. Still as a whole class, ask students to: •

Make a list of all the different groups to which they belong at the present time.

•

Distinguish work groups from non-work groups, and formal from informal groups.

•

Ask if social network groups should be included. Do they fit the definition of a group?

In groups 4. Form groups of 3–5. Ask each to nominate a spokesperson at the start, who will report to the whole class.

5. Within each group, members should: (a) Share the number of groups to which they currently belong. What does this tell them about themselves and the way the world is organised? (b) Identify the types of groups to which they belong. Why is this? (c) Explain how being in a group affects their behaviour using examples. Do they behave differently when in a group than when alone? In what ways – give examples. Do they behave differently in different groups?

6. Then groups should: a) Each person shares a positive experience that they have had while being a member of a group. b) Each person shares a negative experience that they have had while being a member of a group. c) Identify any common factors in your positive experiences; and in your negative experiences. d) What conclusions do you draw about the way that groups should be designed and managed?

Debriefing Ask the spokespersons from each group to summarise, in turn, their groups’ discussion in the question being considered.

Key learning points 1. Group life awareness: We need to be aware that much of life is ‘group life’ – both at work and outside it.

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2. Membership and experiences: We both join groups voluntarily and are appointed to them.

Groups provide us with both positive and negative experiences.

3. Skilled operators: We can be more effective in groups if we become more aware of their dynamics and how they operate.

Chapter 10: Exercise 2 debrief: You’re the manager: Central Utilities Your objective To ensure that the team achieves the goal that has been specified for it.

Your options 1. Dissolve the team, and reassign the task to those group members whom you know are more focused on, and committed to, the company’s goals.

2. Tell the members that things have to change from now on, and that those who have been putting their personal interests ahead of the company’s will no longer be part of the team.

3. To ignore the issue of members’ pursuit of individual interests, and instead, press for the introduction of working procedures that will ensure that from now on, the team’s stated mission and goals will be given priority.

4. To hold a team meeting at which you explain that although you realise that some selfish behaviour is bound to occur, members must place the company’s goals ahead of their own personal ones. Working together with team members, you decide how everyone can be motivated to put their own self-serving wants aside.

However you choose to organise the student discussion, you should end up with an options assessment matrix similar to this one: option

advantages

disadvantages

1. dissolve team

increases chances of success avoids direct confrontation

questions your own competence narrows organizational representation

2. threaten team

clarifies the situation, no ambiguity gives opportunity for change

parental approach engendering resistance narrows organizational representation

3. introduce procedures

control is non-personal applies to all members

requires introduction of sanctions appraisal system needed

4. confront team

confronts differences attempts to align differences

interests may be mutually exclusive negative perception of you

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This is a manifestation of the organizational dilemma, a concept encountered in Chapter 1, which relates to the question of how to reconcile the potential inconsistency between individual needs and aspirations on the one hand, and the collective purpose of the organization on the other. Top management has assigned you to this highly visible team leader role, for this important task. How you carry out this assignment will affect your future promotion within the company. Overall, the situation is positive at this time, members are volunteers, are motivated and there are no personality clashes. Organizational behaviour research suggests however, that the team is stuck in the storming stage of development, and unable to progress to the norming and performing stages.

Option 1, dissolving the team without raising the problem with them, and then reassigning the task only to some of its members, is the easy choice. It is always less demanding to work with people who are already motivated and share your goals, and it avoids having to deal with those who do not.

However, team dissolution sends a negative message about your own competence to your bosses.

Moreover, the planned team membership (organization-wide, cross-functional) implies a conscious desire by senior management to involve the widest possible company representation, so as to gain the most general consensus. You need to find a way of bringing the recalcitrant members on board.

Option 2, ‘shape out or ship out’, has similar deficiencies to the first option. On the one hand, it has the benefit of allowing you to bring the problem out into the open and to clarify the situation. Other members may not be aware that there is a problem, and this may give them an opportunity to change their behaviour. The disadvantage is that this is a very parental approach (‘do what I say’) and can engender resistance. Some members may call your bluff to ‘sack them’, again narrowing the range of representation desired by your management.

Option 3 avoids changing recalcitrant members’ motivations, attitudes or beliefs, and focuses instead on their behaviour (see chapter 4). By introducing procedures that specify concrete, measurable outputs that are directly related to the team’s task, and linking these to quality and time standards, these can be used to direct the behaviour of members. Such control is non-personal, and applied to everyone. The disadvantages are that positive and negative sanctions have first to be devised to reward and punish those members who fail to perform; and an appraisal-type system needs to be implemented.

Option 4 recognises that members will naturally have their personal interests, but also stresses the importance of achieving organizational goals. It therefore confronts the reality of the situation and states the problem. By working with members, it may be possible to come to an arrangement whereby they see that, by meeting organizational goals, they can simultaneously achieve their own.

The disadvantages are that the situation may actually be, or be perceived to be a ‘win-lose’ one.

Demonstrating a willingness to accommodate their private agendas may be viewed by the group members as weakness on your part.

Of the four options, the fourth is probably the best, but care has to be taken in how you present the point to the team members. Your aim is to make it a ‘win-win’ situation both for the company and for them. If your personality, leadership style or relationship with the members prevents you from taking this option, then the less personal one, option 3, may be a preferred.

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CHAPTER 11

Group structure Chapter 11: What’s new in this chapter?

Chapter 11: Learning outcomes and recap Chapter 11: Rationale Chapter 11: Home viewing – Jumanji, Twelve O’clock High, The Flight of the Phoenix, Chapter 11: OB Cinema debrief – Network Chapter 11: Exercise 1 debrief – Oral communication Chapter 11: Exercise 2 debrief – Team roles questionnaire

Chapter 11: What’s new in this chapter?

Narcissism – how does this affect your own work and team performance?

One woman on the team – how does performance compare with all-male teams in the U.S. Marine Corps?

Team flow – helped Rosenborg Ballklubb, a small Norwegian football team, to perform as well as wealthier and better known clubs The liking gap – can you estimate how much your colleagues like you?

Chapter 11: Learning outcomes and recap 1. Identify the key features of virtual and hybrid teams.

•

Spatial dispersion – different geographical locations; temporal dispersion – different time zones; organizational dispersion – working across organizational boundaries; cultural dispersion – members coming come from different countries or cultures; altering membership: members joining and leaving; and technological communication – communicating mainly electronically; employee distancing – no or little face-to-face contact.

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2. Understand the challenges of working in and managing virtual and hybrid teams.

•

These can be considered under the headings of trust and psychological safety; common goal; ground rules; team alignment; team structure; member connectedness; supportive context; shared mindset; shared leadership; and communication practices.

3. Identify the benefits and problems associated with virtual teams.

•

Virtual teams offer organizations many benefits but also create problems which need to be anticipated and managed.

•

Leading virtual teams is both similar to and different from leading face-to-face teams. It demands certain additional knowledge, skills and abilities from virtual team leaders

•

Beyond the virtual team is the growth of networked individualism. Its effect on organizations and management is not yet known.

4. List the six dimensions of group structure.

•

The six main dimensions along which the members of a group differ are – power, status, liking, communication, role and leadership. A person may be placed high on one dimension and simultaneously low on another.

•

The group’s structure acts to increase the predictability of behaviour between the group’s members.

5. Differentiate between Belbin’s team roles.

•

Meredith Belbin’s team role theory distinguishes the roles of Plant, Resource Investigator, Coordinator, Shaper, Monitor evaluator, Teamworker, Implementer, Completer and Specialist.

6. Give examples of the three original leadership styles identified by Lewin, White and Lippitt.

•

These researchers distinguished three leadership styles which they labelled authoritarian, democratic and laissez faire.

7. Distinguish between a task and socio-emotional group leader.

•

Bales and Slater suggested that a group often had both a task leader and a socio-emotional leader. The first drives the group towards task achievement, while the second focuses on relationships to keep the group working as a co-operative unit.

8. Identify the sources of power within a group.

•

There are six bases or types of power – reward, coercive, referent, legitimate, expert and informational.

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9. Distinguish between two common uses of the concept of status.

•

The status structure of a group is determined by how much status an individual member possesses. There is formal status and social status.

10. Understand how emotional relationships within a group can be represented symbolically.

•

The liking (emotional) structure of a group is revealed through the use of sociometry which is a technique developed by Jacob Moreno.

11. Distinguish between communication network analysis, communication pattern analysis and Interpersonal Process Analysis (IPA).

•

A communication network analysis maps the direction and quantity of oral communication of members in a co-located group. It is depicted on a communigram.

•

A communication pattern analysis maps the direction and quantity of oral communication of members of a dispersed group. It uses emails, documents, data and voice mail transmission to determine the source, direction and quantity of both oral and written communication between group members.

•

Interpersonal Process Analysis (IPA) classifies the content of oral communications between group members. It was developed by Robert Bales.

12. Explain the development of networked individualism.

•

Networked individualism was facilitated by the social network revolution, the internet revolution and the mobile revolution. It has been accelerated as a result of the COVID-19 pandemic.

Chapter 11: Rationale The chapter deals with group structure which is the basis for understanding the attempts made by organizations and their managers to introduce and gain the benefits of teamworking. This chapter builds on the six key structural aspects of every group – power, status, liking, communication, role and leadership. The earlier research into virtual teams has now been complemented by more recent research into hybrid teams. The research findings show a considerable agreement on what the main challenges are, and these are summarised in the chapter. Research studies and team-building activities typically focus on one or more of the following six questions: •

Who possesses which kind of power?

•

Who has the highest and lowest status?

•

How do feelings of liking, trust and fear affect group functioning?

•

How does the flow of information facilitate or inhibit task achievement?

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•

How does the performance or non-performance of roles help or hinder?

•

Which style of leadership is most effective?

The chapter provides the conceptual basis for the diverse topics that might be addressed by instructors who wish their students either to understand how groups work (or don’t work) or who want to improve a group’s performance. It provides a vocabulary with which to discuss what happens within a group. Alongside the concepts are the group measuring instruments. These are often used as part of an organization development intervention, and their nature and application can be demonstrated within the classroom.

Together, the concepts and their associated instruments provide a way of understanding and improving group or team functioning, and link to the vast array of commercially available, teamfocused training materials available for purchase by instructors.

Chapter 11: Home viewing – The Flight of the Phoenix For a detailed discussion on the objectives of the exercise, how to run and debrief it see: Huffman, B.J. and Kilian, C.M. (2012). ‘The Flight of the Phoenix: Interpersonal aspects of project management’, Journal of Management Education, 36(4): 568–600.

– Twelve O’Clock High For suggestions on how to debrief this film, search Google for Twelve O’Clock High, leadership.

– The Internship For suggestions on how to debrief this film, search Google for The Internship, movie analysis, leadership insights.

Chapter 11: OB Cinema debrief – Network Network (1976, director Sidney Lumet) DVD track 16: 1:48:00–1:53:00 (5 minutes) This film is set in the U.S. television industry. Because of his falling ratings, the Union Broadcasting System (UBS) fires its leading news anchorman Howard Beale (played by Peter Finch). Beale’s on-air behaviour then becomes increasingly bizarre, after he promises to kill himself on television. Initially, his ratings skyrocket as he becomes the ‘Mad Prophet of the Airways’, but they then decline, affecting UBS’s other programmes and its revenue. The clip begins as network executives assemble for a meeting, and ends with Diana saying ‘let’s kill the son-of-a-bitch’.

Hackett (played by Robert Duvall) sits at the desk and begins the meeting by describing the problem.

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Listen to the discussion between the six individuals in the room. Each time one of them speaks, decide into which of the six oral categories it fits, and indicate this by putting a tick or dot, under their name. Continue until the clip has finished.

Debriefing 1. Check that all students have a copy of the oral interaction score sheet which is printed in the textbook chapter. Put up a slide of it for those who lack it, for them to copy.

2. Go through the 10 oral categories shown in the slide, defining each one. For each category, either ask students to give you an example of that oral behaviour or give an example yourself.

For example: Proposing: Any behaviour that puts forward a new suggestion, idea or course of action. Example: ‘I think we should break for lunch now’.

3. Instruct students to watch the 5-minute film clip. Every time someone speaks, they should decide what type of oral utterance it is and categorise this by placing a tick or dot on the score sheet by that category, under the name of the group member who made it. NOTE: One speaker may make two difference types of utterance, one after the other.

4. At the end of the clip, ask students to add up their ticks or dots, and insert the totals on both the bottom row of the grid and in the far right column. Ask them to compare their totals with those that you show on the slide below.

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Oral interaction score sheet Meeting participants Oral category

Proposing

A Hackett

B Joe

C Man in chair

D Man in armchair

E Herb (standing)

*

F Diana

TOTAL

3

**

Building

0

Supporting

0

Disagreeing

0

Giving information

****

opinions

*

suggestions

*

*

information

*

*

opinions

*

*

suggestions

*

TOTAL

10

*

***

*

***

12

*

**

4

*

3

*

4

Seeking

*

2 2

* 1

6

3

1

9

30

5. Replay the clip, stopping each time a speaker finishes (the stopping word is indicated), and ask the students to classify that utterance.

Oral interaction score sheet Oral category

Meeting participants A Hackett

Proposing

B Joe

C Man in chair

D Man in armchair

E Herb (standing)

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F Diana

TOTAL

16, 30

3

Buchanan and Huczynski, Organizational Behaviour 11e, Instructor’s Manual

Building

0

Supporting

0

Disagreeing

0

Giving information

1, 5, 10, 27

8

21, (18), 19

opinions

12

suggestions

20

26

information

2

22

opinions

28

11

suggestions

15

TOTAL

10

24

3, 6, 23

12

25

17, 29

4

7

3

4

4

Seeking

Speaker

9

2 13

1

No

6

Utterance

3

2 1

Stop at word

30

Oral category

Voice

0

‘How did it go?’

A: Hackett

1

‘Mr Jensen was unhappy … ‘inflexible’ as inflexible’

Giving information

2

‘Where does put us Diana?’

‘Diana’

Seeking information (question)

3

‘That puts us in the … that puts us’

‘us’

Giving information

4

‘Do you want me to go through this?’

‘this’

Seeking information (question)

A: Hackett

5

‘Yes’

‘Yes’

Giving Information

F: Diana

6

‘The Beale Show’s Qscore’s down to 33 … differential in shares’

‘shares’

Giving information

F: Diana

‘go’

9

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Seeking information

Buchanan and Huczynski, Organizational Behaviour 11e, Instructor’s Manual

7

‘I think Joe should spell it out for us, Joe’

‘Joe’

Giving suggestion

B: Joe

8

‘A 28 share is … annual revenues’

‘revenues’

Giving information

E: Herb (standing)

9

‘You guys want to know … affiliates’

‘affiliates

Seeking information (question)

A: Hackett

10

‘We know all about it, Herb’

‘Herb’

Giving information

C: Man in chair

11

‘You would describe Mr Jensen’s position on Beale as inflexible?’

‘inflexible’

Seeking opinion (a question in the form of a statement)

A: Hackett

12

‘Intractable and adamantine’ ‘adamantine’

Giving opinion

D: Man in armchair

13

‘So what do we do about this Beale son-of-a-bitch?’

‘bitch’

Seeking suggestions (question)

A: Hackett

14

‘Suppose we’ll have to kill him’

‘him’

Proposing

15

‘I don’t suppose you have any ideas on that Diana?’

‘Diana’

Seeking suggestions (question)

16

‘Well, what would you fellas say to an assassination?’

‘assassination’

Proposing (a proposal in the form of a rhetorical question)

17

‘I think I can get … opening show’

‘show’

Giving opinion

18

‘Well, if Beale dies, what would be our continuing obligation to the Beale Corporation be?’

‘be’

A reflective question (thinking aloud) that man C asks himself – he is not seeking information from the group, but about to give it.

F: Diana

C: Man in chair

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19

‘I know that our contract … or incapacity’

A: Hackett

20

‘There must be a formula … ‘price’ purchase price’

Giving suggestion

C: Man in chair

21

‘Offhand, I think … of the contract’

‘contract’

Giving information

22

‘I don’t think the show has any substantial syndication value, would you say Diana?’

‘Diana’

Seeking information

F: Diana

23

‘Syndication profits are minimal’

‘minimal’

Giving information

D: Man in armchair

24

‘We’re talking about a capital crime here’

‘here’

Giving information

25

‘The network can’t be implicated’

‘implicated’

Giving opinion

C: Man in chair

26

‘I hope you don’t have any ‘Frank’ hidden tape machines in this office, Frank’

Giving suggestion

A: Hackett

27

‘Well, the issue is, do we kill ‘not’ Howard Beale or not?’

Giving information

28

‘I’d like to hear some opinions on that’

‘that’

Seeking opinions

29

‘I don’t see we have any options Frank’

‘Frank’

Giving opinion

30

‘Let’s kill the son-of-a-bitch’

‘bitch’

Proposing

F: Diana

‘incapacity’

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6. First, using the column totals, indicate the differences in oral contributions to the discussions by the different members of the group. Ask students what effect high or low oral contributions have on the speakers concerned and on the group (e.g. are high contributors more influential?

Are they accepted as group leader?).

7. Next, using the rows, indicate the different types of oral contributions of the group members collectively in this discussion. Ask students what effect predominance or absence of certain contributions (e.g. numerous proposals; little building; little disagreeing) is likely to have on the outcomes of a group discussion? How can certain types of contributions be encouraged or discouraged?

8. Once all answers have been charted up and discussed completely, you may want to re-show the film clip for the third and final time.

Key learning points 1. Oral process: The oral contributions of group members are part of the group’s process, and affect its dynamics and its outcome (e.g. decisions).

2.

Quantity and content: The quantity of contribution (how often someone makes an utterance) and the type of utterance (what they say) affect their status and role within the group. Equally, a member’s status and role within the group may affect the quantity and type of their oral contributions.

3.

Group development: Understanding how a group currently operates provides the basis for changing individual member oral behaviours to improve its functioning.

Chapter 10: Exercise 1 debrief – Oral communication Objectives 1. To understand the effects of group members’ communication patterns 2. To analyse group communication patterns 3. To raise self-awareness of group communication 4. To improve group communication skills

Briefing 1. Form into groups of 5 or 6.

2. Nominate to person to be observer/scorer and provide them with an oral interaction score sheet.

Your instructor will provide each group with a topic for discussion. Before speaking, a member has to pre-categorise their oral contribution before making it, for example, Giving information – ‘The 137 © 2023 Pearson Education Limited. All Rights Reserved.

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price of these items has doubled in recent years’; Proposing – ‘I think we should make substantial cuts’. After 15 minutes the instructor will say ‘time up’. The observer/scorer will total up.

Instructor advice Before beginning, introduce and give examples of the different oral interaction categories that students can use (e.g. Proposing, Building, etc.). Explain that they can invent their own oral categories as well.

Ensure that observers have a scoring sheet onto which they classify the contributions of the individual group members during the 15-minute discussion.

Give observers time to total up their scores, both horizontally and vertically, so as to indicate which oral categories were used most by the group as a whole (horizontal totals) and the nature of individual member contributions (vertical scores) indicating who spoke and how.

Ensure beforehand that these totals can be seen by the entire class during the debriefing discussion.

They need to be pinned up on an A4 paper chart or projected on a slide with an overhead projector or through a laptop.

Debriefing 1. The observer/scorer summarises the individual member scores and gives their overall impression of the group discussion.

2. The group members then discuss the following questions: •

Did you find the task difficult?

•

How did having to pre-categorise each of your contributions affect you?

•

What did you learn about how a group discussion precedes?

•

What have you learned about group communication? How might you change the way that you communicate in a group in the future? What specifically will you do or not do?

Some additional debriefing questions that can be used include: Factual question – What do you notice about the different number of the types of questions?

Emotion question – What are your feelings about your group’s communication? Did they change during the course of the exercise?

Meaning question – What do interaction pattern numbers tell you about your group’s communication? What do they say about individuals’ participation and roles within the group?

Application question – How can you apply what you have learned about group communication?

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Key learning points 1. Oral choices: Individuals in groups have a choice as to how they interact orally with their fellow members. Being aware of these oral options can assist in achieving the group task and maintaining the group as a smoothly functioning entity.

2. Group profile: The horizontal totals indicate how the group as a whole performed. Were the individual group members working together (high scores on giving information and building) or in conflict with one another (high scores on proposing and disagreeing)?

3. Group member roles: The vertical oral scores in the columns give an indication of how the individuals in the group contributed. High total contributions suggest the person could be the group leader; high proposing scores suggest the group’s ‘ideas person’.

Alternative There is a similar group exercise which uses a ball of string. Information about this is available from: Wagenheim, G. and McAdam, J. (2016). ‘Web-of-communication’, Management Teaching Review, 1(3):142–147

Chapter 11: Exercise 2 debrief – Team roles questionnaire Objectives 1. To introduce team role theory.

2. To identify your preferred team roles.

Briefing 1. Begin by checking that all students have a copy of the exercise. Distribute copies to those who have not.

2. This shortened version of the questionnaire can be completed as students arrive for the tutorial.

Have copies of the questionnaire which appears in the textbook chapter available for those who do not bring the textbook with them.

3. Remind them of Belbin’s nine team roles. Each column refers to one of the nine team roles.

4. Have the students score their individual questionnaires.

5. Explain that their highest score indicates their preferred, primary team role. The next highest score indicates their back-up team role towards which the individual should shift if, for some reason, there is less of a group need for their primary team role. The two lowest team role scores indicate rejected roles.

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6. In their groups, students are asked to nominate a spokesperson, and direct them to complete all or some of the following five tasks: (a) Compare your top two team role scores with those of the other members of your group.

Give an example of behaviours that demonstrate your performance of that role. (b) Identify which roles are preferred among students in this group (high scoring roles).

Identify which roles avoided, rejected or are missing (low scoring roles). (c) If this was a real management or project team, what could be done to cover the missing roles? (d) Decide whether certain roles are more important in certain phases of a team’s operation?

For example, which two team roles are likely to be crucial in the getting-started phase of a team’s work; the generating-ideas phase; the developing-the-ideas phase; and the implementing-the-decision phase? (e) Decide to what extent your preferred team roles are a reflection of your personality.

Debriefing Arrange for spokespersons from the various groups to report back on the questions to which you have directed them.

Variations Where the class members represent on-going syndicate or tutorial groups or a real organizational work group, they can be asked to take a flipchart and pen; write team members’ names; and ask them to call out their preferred team roles which are charted. The role balance in the team can then be reviewed by asking: •

Which roles is under-represented or missing altogether?

•

Which roles are over-represented?

•

How might this affect team performance?

The group can consider improving the situation by discussing whether: •

Some existing team members can take on some of the team roles which are missing or underrepresented.

•

Some member training might help to develop under-represented roles.

•

Someone known to be strong in a missing role can be co-opted into one of the team’s weak areas.

•

Someone can be released from the team if their team role is over-represented.

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Key learning points 1. All nine roles required? : Do effective teams always need to have all the nine roles covered?

How valid is this contention?

2. Individuals play multiple roles: This does not mean that every team must consist of nine members. Indeed, nine is considered too large. Teams of 3–4 are more effective. This means that each member has to ‘double-up’ and play two or three of these team roles.

3. Designed teams: Effective teams therefore have to be ‘designed’ by the team leader. This involves keeping the numbers small while including those with the expertise to do the task, and ensuring that all the required roles are represented.

Source: This amended inventory was originally developed by Nancy Foy, building on the work of Meredith Belbin. It appeared in Boddy, D. and Buchanan, D.A. (1987). Management of Technology.

The Technical Change Audit. Action for Results: 5: The Process Module, pp. 32–35, Manpower Services Commission, Moorfoot, Sheffield, Crown copyright

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CHAPTER 12

Individuals in groups Chapter 12: What’s new in this chapter?

Chapter 12: Learning outcomes and recap Chapter 12: Rationale Chapter 12: Home viewing – Mean Girls, Ratatouille Chapter 12: OB Cinema – The Secret of My Success Chapter 12: Exercise 1 debrief – Discovering the norms Chapter 12: Exercise 2 debrief – Capitals exercise

Chapter 12: What’s new in this chapter?

Workplace hazing – how common are the unofficial practices of initiating newcomers with degrading behaviour?

Workplace rituals – what are they, and what purpose do they serve?

New chapter exercise – discovering the norms

Chapter 12: Learning outcomes and recap 1. Explain the basic tenets of social identity theory and social representation theory.

•

Social identity theory holds that aspects of our identity derive from the membership of a group.

•

Groups construct social representations consisting of beliefs, ideas and values which they transmit to their new members.

•

Such representations, together with group socialisation, lead to all members sharing a common frame of reference.

2. State the ways in which the presence of a group affects its members’ behaviour.

•

Individual behaviour is variously modified by the presence of others or by being a part of a group.

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•

The concepts of social influence, social facilitation, synergy and social loafing distinguish the direction and nature of such modifications.

3. Understand how groups use norms to regulate the behaviour of their members.

•

Social norms guide the behaviour of individuals in a group. They can be pivotal or peripheral.

•

Social norms are established in four ways – explicit statements, critical events, initial behaviour and transfer behaviour.

•

Sanctions are administered by members to those individuals who transgress or uphold the group’s norms. Sanctions can therefore be negative (verbal abuse) or positive (praise).

Groups possess an escalating hierarchy of ever-stronger negative sanctions.

4. Understand the process of group socialization of individuals.

•

Groups teach new members about their norms and incorporate them into their shared frame of reference through the process of group socialisation.

5. Explain why individuals conform to the dictates of their group.

•

As individuals, we tend to conform to group norms because of benefits to us individually if others abide by the agreed rules; our desire for order and meaning in our lives; and a need to receive a satisfying response from others.

•

The cost to the person who is a member of a group is the deindividualisation that membership entails. Group membership brings with it anonymity and becoming ‘lost in the crowd’. This can reduce our sense of individual responsibility, lower our social constraints and lead us to engage in impulsive, antisocial acts.

6. Distinguish between conformity and obedience, and between compliance and conversion.

•

Conformity is when there is a change in an individual’s belief or behaviour in response to real or imagined group pressure, while obedience refers to a situation in which an individual changes their behaviour in response to direct command from another.

•

A majority’s influence over an individual is called compliance while a minority’s influence over a majority is called conversion.

7. Understand how an individual can influence a group.

•

Techniques include becoming viable, creating tension, seeking defectors and being consistent, persistent, unyielding and self-confident.

8. Name the factors that influence employees’ perceptions of work group inclusion •

The organizational context factors are overall justice, diversity climate and leader inclusiveness.

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9. Understand the purpose of workplace rituals.

•

Rituals create powerful emotional bonding among participants leading to greater empathy, affection and cooperativeness, and help to place the group’s interests above those of its individual members.

Chapter 12: Rationale This chapter deals with individual behaviour within the context of the group or team. Specifically, it explores, through research and theory, how an individual’s perceptions, attitudes, behaviour and performance are altered by their membership of a group. The chapter in this new edition considers two new topics.

First, hazing is the well-known unofficial socialisation practice of initiating newcomers into their groups and teams by engaging in degrading behaviours towards them. Maybe you have experienced them yourself. Recent research has investigated it from the perspective of work group inclusion, and considers the effects on hazing individuals, groups and their organizations.

Second, work group rituals are formal, sequenced, repeated utterances and actions transmitted traditionally, and performed regularly by and for the benefit of group members. These contribute to emotional bonding among group members leading to greater empathy, affection and cooperativeness. Rituals help create a shared sense of identity and trust, and their repetition can calm participants’ anxieties. They are an important vehicle for integrating individuals into a group.

Chapter 12: OB cinema – The Secret of My Success The Secret of My Success (1987, director Herbert Ross) DVD track 4: 0:17:00–0:20:00 (3 minutes) In this film, Brantley Foster (played by Michael J. Fox) leaves his home in Kansas to make his career as an executive in New York City. However, the only job he can get is in the mailroom of the Penrose Corporation. The clip begins with the mailroom manager saying ‘You can’t come in here bozo, take your crap to the mail slot’, and ends with Melrose saying, ‘you put these things away’.

On his first day, Brantley learns a great deal about the organization.

1. What are the sources of his information?

2. What does he learn from each?

3. In your current or last job, what did you learn? How?

Debriefing 1. Ask students to identify the three sources of Brantley’s information (Answer: his new boss, his co-worker and from a company memo).

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2. Ask students to identify what information he gains from each. (Note that of the 15 pieces of information that he gains, 10 relate to the norms of the mailroom group).

3. Once all the sources and contents of his learning have been charted up, re-show the film clip.

4. Conclude by asking students their own examples of learning in their current or last job – what did they learn? How did they learn it?

Source of information From his new boss 1. Name of one of his co-workers 2. Stamp machine 3. Clothing From Melrose 4. Job requirements 5. Name of his boss 6. Speed of work

Information gained

Melrose Don’t use it for personal letters Change clothes, wear mailroom grey jacket

Deliver and collect letters twice a day Mr Rattigan Delivery is done in 30 minutes, but the boss believes it takes 2 hours

13. Letter protocol

No, not even paroled!

‘Never consort with a “suit” unless they consort with you first’ Corporation divided into mailroom and ‘suits’. ʻTwo dozen “suits” got the axe’ The mailroom gets information before the executives (Before emails) ʻYellow [memo/letter] is Purchasing [Department], white is “suits” talking to themselves’ ‘You’re supposed to deliver them, not read them’

From the memo 14. Chain of command 15. Job titles and objectives 16. Problems

No discernible chain of command Mismatch between the two ‘Two people doing same job wrongly’

7. Can you get promoted out of the mailroom?

8. Interaction protocol 9. Status 10. History 11. Information priority 12. Letter / memo colours

Key learning points 1. New organizational learning: Whenever we join a new organization we embark upon a learning process.

2. Formal and informal: Our learning consists of formal instruction (e.g. company induction and training courses); informal instructions (e.g. from work colleagues such as Melrose); and through our own observation (e.g. looking around, reading memos).

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3. Ongoing: That learning continues during our period in the organization as we attend new courses and have new work experiences.

Chapter 12: Exercise 1 debrief: Discovering the norms Objectives 1. To raise your understanding of the effect of group norms on behaviour in an organizational environment.

2. To demonstrate the link between behaviour in groups; the creation of group norms; and group norm enforcement strategies.

Background Often group norms are implicit rather than explicit, and are difficult to identify. Nevertheless, individuals’ behaviour may be influenced by norms which they may be not fully conscious of. The more people become aware of the norms that affect them, the more they are able to understand their own behaviour. This activity seeks to make group norms explicit.

Briefing Step 1: Divide into groups of 4 or 5.

Step 2: Individually, think of a group norm, past or present, from your school, sports club, hobby university group, which affected what you did.

Step 3: Make a note of: •

How that group norm was communicated to you?

•

What happened to you if you violated the norm?

•

How did the group ‘police’ this norm? That is, what happened if someone broke this group norm?

•

How did the norm affect your behaviour in the group?

•

What purpose did this norm serve in the group in which it operated?

Step 3: In your group: Compare and discuss your individual answers. What similarities can you identify in different students’ accounts?

Advice Ensure that each student has written down the three most salient norms that operate in their university class or tutorial group, and that they have responded to the questions: 146 © 2023 Pearson Education Limited. All Rights Reserved.

Buchanan and Huczynski, Organizational Behaviour 11e, Instructor’s Manual

•

How was this group norm communicated to newcomers to the group, including yourself?

•

What happens to people who violate this norm? How does the group ‘police’ itself? How does an individual feel who goes against this group norm?

•

Does the norm affect group performance positively or negatively? Explain how.

After they have compared and discussed their answers with the person next to them, the instructor can ask for examples from volunteers from the audience. Examples of behaviour in the university around which there are norms include: absence from class, arguing with the instructor, expressing disillusionment with the subject of the course and joking frequently. Examples of a norm for each student behaviour might include apologizing for absence at next meeting, never arguing with the instructor in the class, keeping your criticism objective and not emotional and only occasionally joking in the class sessions.

Focusing on these norms, ask those students who offered examples of existing norms how these were communicated to new comers, including themselves. Ask other students why norms should have developed around these particular aspects of the groups’ activities and not others. Turning to a consideration of norm enforcement, ask the earlier students to identify the sanctions used to police the norms shown on the board. Chart up the sanctions adjacent to the norms. Focusing on these sanctions, ask students to rate them from ‘strong’ to ‘weak’; ask them how they would feel if they broke one of the norms shown; and get them to suggest what kind of sanctions the groups devised for norm-breakers. Ask if anyone can give an example of a new norm being developed in a group and an associated sanction being created.

Key learning points 1. Ubiquity of group norms: Norms and sanctions exist in all groups and affect the behaviour of their members. The sanctions may be negative (punishing the transgressors) and thereby dissuading them from future undesirable behaviour. Or they may be positive sanctions (e.g. raising the esteem in which they are held by the group), thereby encouraging the continued desirable behaviour.

2. Norms about key issues: Norms and sanctions develop around those issues which are important to the day-to-day functioning of the group and its members. Thus some groups will have norms about appropriate dress and appearance while others will not.

3. Dynamic norms: Norms and sanctions are dynamic. New norms develop and old ones are discarded as the group’s situation and membership changes. Within a group, the norms vary in importance. Some are central and will be rigorously enforced by sanctions. Others are more peripheral and will be less stringently enforced or not enforced at all.

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Chapter 12: Exercise 2 debrief: Capitals exercise Objectives 1. To compare individual with group decision-making.

2. To contrast the advantages and disadvantages of group decision-making.

3. To assess the effects of conformity pressure on group activity.

Instructor advice For a detailed discussion on the objectives of the exercise, how to run and debrief it see: Fender, C.M and Stickney, L.T. (2017). ‘When two heads aren’t better than one: conformity in a group activity’, Management Teaching Review, 2(1): 35–46 If the quiz items are too easy to achieve the exercise objectives, change some of the country/capitals to make it more challenging.

Briefing 1. Everybody turns off and puts away all their internet-accessible electronic devices.

2. Individually, each student writes in the name of the country’s capital city in the grid, next to its name, inserting it in the ‘Your answer’ column.

3. Groups of 4–5 are formed. Group agree on answers, inserting them in the ‘Group answer’ column.

4. The instructor reveals the names of the capitals, and students score their responses by totalling up the number of correct individual and group answers.

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Questions

50 Countries Capital Country

Your answer

Group answer

Capital Correct answer

Country

Albania

Lichtenstein

Andorra

Lithuania

Armenia

Luxembourg

Austria

Macedonia

Azerbaijan

Malta

Belarus

Moldova

Belgium

Monaco

Bosnia and Herzegovina

Montenegro

Bulgaria

Netherlands

Croatia

Norway

Cyprus

Poland

Czech Republic

Portugal

Denmark

Romania

Eire

Russia

Estonia

San Marino

Finland

Serbia

France

Slovakia

Georgia

Slovenia

Germany

Spain

Greece

Sweden

Hungary

Switzerland

Iceland

Turkey

Italy

Ukraine

Kazakhstan

United Kingdom

Latvia

Vatican City

Your answer

Total

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Group answer

Correct answer

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Answers

50 Capitals Country

Capital

Country

Capital

Albania

Tirana

Lichtenstein

Vaduz

Andorra

Andorra la Vella

Lithuania

Vilnius

Armenia

Yerevan

Luxembourg

Luxembourg City

Austria

Vienna

Macedonia

Skopje

Azerbaijan

Baku

Malta

Valetta

Belarus

Minsk

Moldova

Chisinau

Belgium

Brussels

Monaco

Monaco-Ville

Bosnia Herzegovina

Sarajevo

Montenegro

Podgorica

Bulgaria

Sofia

Netherlands

Amsterdam*2

Croatia

Zagreb

Norway

Oslo

Cyprus

Nicosia

Poland

Warsaw

Czech Republic

Prague

Portugal

Lisbon

Denmark

Copenhagen

Romania

Bucharest

Eire

Dublin

Russia

Moscow

Estonia

Tallinn

San Marino

San Marino

Finland

Helsinki

Serbia

Belgrade

France

Paris

Slovakia

Bratislava

Georgia

Tbilisi

Slovenia

Ljubljana

Germany

Berlin

Spain

Madrid

Greece

Athens

Sweden

Stockholm

Hungary

Budapest

Switzerland

Bern

Iceland

Reykjavik

Turkey

Ankara

Italy

Rome

Ukraine

Kiev

Kazakhstan

Nur-Sultan*1

United Kingdom

London

Latvia

Riga

Vatican City

Vatican City

Total Source: adapted from Fender and Stickney (2017)

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Debriefing The exercise authors recommend beginning the class debriefing by asking students what the objective of this exercise is, and normally receiving back the answer that groups make better decisions than individuals. A quick survey of checklists can identify whether any group member scored higher than their group. This can lead to a discussion of different tasks that groups perform – additive, conjunctive or disjunctive (see chapter 10), and when it is best to create a group to solve a problem or delegate it to several individuals to work on it separately.

However, the real objective of this exercise is an examination of individuals’ conformity to their group. The instructor asks if anyone had a correct answer that was not agreed to by the group. In such circumstances, two things will have occurred. First, the individual will have offered it to their group who ignored or rejected it. The instructor probes for reasons why this might have happened and these can be charted up since these are ones that create conformity to group pressures.

The second thing to occur may be that the individual never mentions their answer to their group.

This reticence may be due not only to doubt about the correctness of their answer, but also by their introversion, cultural differences and low status, particularly when the group is dominated by outspoken, high-status members. Group members may fear others disagreeing with them or that speaking out may result in social sanction. The recommended question to ask here is ‘Why might a person be uncomfortable even suggesting an answer here?’

The discussion that follows can link to Asch’s famous ‘3 lines’ experiment described in the chapter and short video versions are available from YouTube (Asch Conformity Experiment). The class then considers the reasons why an individual might conform. These reasons include: personality; cultural differences; status differences; and conflict management styles.

The final stage in the discussion is identifying ways of mitigating conformity and reducing groupthink.

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CHAPTER 13

Teamworking Chapter 13: What’s new in this chapter?

Chapter 13: Learning outcomes and recap Chapter 13: Rationale Chapter 13: Home viewing: Lord of the Flies, Rumours – Classic Albums DVD, Chapter 13: OB Cinema – The Dish Chapter 13: Exercise 1 debrief – Team failure or success Chapter 13: Exercise 2 debrief – Exceptional Chutney Company

Chapter 13: What’s new in this chapter?

Hack teams – how they get things done quickly, using unorthodox methods, bypassing the bureaucracy with work-arounds Michelin – how one company’s staff empowerment strategy uses McGregor’s Theory Y to redistribute authority to shop floor workers AI communication monitoring – with feedback from the boss on how well you deal with colleagues World Cup football – which teams are most effective, and why?

Team engagement – what factors contribute to a team engagement climate?

Chapter 13: Learning outcomes and recap 1. Understand why ‘team’ is a contested concept in the organizational literature.

•

Teamworking is being increasingly adopted as a favoured form of work organization in different companies and industries around the world.

•

The different purposes and ways in which managers have introduced this innovation has meant that the term ‘team’ is used to describe a wide range of radically different working arrangements.

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2. List the nine dimensions of team autonomy.

•

Gulowsen’s nine dimensions of team autonomy are selection of the team leader; acceptance of a new member into the team; distribution of work; time flexibility; acceptance of additional work; representation outside the team; production methods (choice of); production goals (output determination); production goals (quality determination).

3. Differentiate between four major types of teams and give an example of each.

•

Teams in organizations can be classified as advice (e.g. quality circles); action (e.g. surgery team); project (e.g. cross-functional team); and production (e.g. autonomous work team).

4. Discuss the types of obstacles to effectiveness experienced by each type of team.

•

Advice teams frequently lack authority to implement their recommendations. Action teams can fail to integrate their members’ contributions sufficiently closely. Project team members can suffer ‘divided loyalties’ between their team and their home department.

Production teams may lack autonomy for job satisfaction.

5. Contrast Western with Japanese concepts of teamworking.

•

The Western concept is based upon principles of empowerment and on-line teamworking, while the Japanese concept is based upon management principles of individual working online, and teams advising off-line.

6. List the four main variables in ecological framework for analysing work team effectiveness.

•

Team development; work team boundaries; and organizational context affect team effectiveness.

7. Understand the continuing importance of teamworking.

•

Japanese forms of teamworking (Toyotaism) have influenced the production processes used in both manufacturing and service industries all around the world.

•

As a concept, teamworking has an appeal in a management philosophy that stresses egalitarianism, non-hierarchy and inclusiveness within organizations.

Chapter 13: Rationale •

This chapter treats the concept of teamworking as problematic and examines the different, and often contrasting, ways in which it has been used in the managerialist and the social science literatures. It highlights the four major changes in teamworking: Membership shifts – Members increasingly join and leave teams.

Changing goals and tasks – Tasks shift in response to new customer needs or unexpected events.

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Short duration – Temporary teams form quickly to coordinate tightly coupled work in one-off engagements and then disband.

Flexible interaction – Teams exist whose members interact only intermittently and idiosyncratically through various communications.

The chapter also provides three conceptual tools with which to consider teamworking: •

A team autonomy index that allows an assessment of exactly how much managerial power has been delegated to any given work team and over which issues. This provides an objective way of comparing different work teams.

•

A classification framework that distinguishes four of the main types of teams in organizations – advice, action, project and production. Each one can be assessed using the autonomy index.

•

An ecological framework for analysing work team effectiveness, which rejects the notion of a simple input–throughput–output model that was popular in the past. Instead, it seeks to explain team effectiveness in terms of the reciprocal interactions between team development; work team boundaries; and organizational context.

The main new, additional concept included in this chapter is the notion of multiple team membership, that is, that increasingly an employee may be a member of several teams, both physical and virtual, at the same time. In addition, the chapter provides a historical summary of changes that have occurred in the application of teamworking over the last 30 years or so, and highlights the fundamental differences between the Japanese and European forms of it.

Chapter 13: Home viewing – Rumours – Classic Albums DVD For a detailed discussion on the objectives of the exercise, how to run and debrief it, see: Comer, D.R. and Holbrook, R.L. (2012). ‘Setting behind the scenes of Fleetwood Mac’s Rumours: Using a documentary on making a music album to learn about task groups’, Journal of Management, 36(4): 544–567.

– Lord of the Flies Inserting Lord of the Flies analysis/movie analysis into any search engine reveals multiple examinations of the story. Because the 1963 black-and white film is so close to the plot of the novel, these analyses can be used to direct students’ home viewing.

Chapter 13: OB Cinema – The Dish The Dish (2000, director Rob Sitch) DVD track 8: 0:35:55–0:53:07 (18 minutes sequenced)

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It is July 1969, and Apollo 11 is heading towards the moon. On earth, the Parkes Radio Telescope in New South Wales, Australia, the largest in the southern hemisphere, has been designated by NASA as the primary receiving station for the moonwalk, which it will broadcast live to the world.

Then, due to a power cut, it ‘loses’ Apollo 11! Parkes’ director, Cliff Buxton (played by Sam Neill) and his team of scientists – Mitch (Kevin Harrington), Glenn (Tom Long) and Al (Patrick Warburton), all have to work hard (and quickly) to solve the problem. The clip begins with the lights going out during the dance, and ends with Al saying, ‘Just enough time to check the generator’.

Briefing 1. Direct students to the Sundstrom et al.’s ecological framework for analysing work team effectiveness shown in the textbook chapter. Ask them to familiarise themselves with each of the 14 categories that contribute to team effectiveness (performance and viability). Ask them to look out for these as they watch.

2. Introduce and show film clip.

3. Ask students to provide an example of any of the 14 elements in the framework that they observed.

4. Eighteen minutes is long time for keeping students’ attention. You might wish to show a third of the clip at a time (pausing at 6 minutes, 12 minutes before stopping at end), and ask for examples at each time.

Debriefing Examples of the Sundstrom elements are shown below.

Sundstrom framework element

Example

Organizational context 1. Organizational culture

Scientific and professional values but with a casual dress code.

2. Task design / technology

Operation of the telescope requires all team members to be present.

3. Mission clarity

To track Apollo 11 and relay pictures from the surface of the moon.

4. Autonomy

Buxton respects his team members’ expertise, gives them responsibility to different tasks and uses a participative style except in a crisis.

5. Performance feedback

Yes, Houston indicates when a break in transmission has occurred.

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6. Rewards and recognition

Relief and self-congratulation when contact with Apollo 11 becomes re-established.

7. Physical environment

All team members are physically close together in the control room when performing their task.

8. Training and consultation

Individual team members hold university and professional qualifications that allow them to do their jobs.

Work team boundaries 9. External work team differentiation

It is implied (but not explicitly stated) that the Parkes Observatory team is part of an Australian university-level system.

10. External work team integration

In this project, the Parkes’ team in Australia is integrated with NASA-Houston in the United States.

Team development 11. Interpersonal processes

The group is at Tuckman–Jensen’s norming stage of group development. The three Australian members are struggling to integrate their American member.

12. Norms

Informal dress code; members refer to each other by first names.

13. Cohesion

Al’s participation prevents dysfunctional cohesion occurring.

14. Roles

Each of the four team members possesses different but complementary skills which allow them to perform their roles.

Key learning points 1. Team performance variables: Numerous factors impact on how well or badly a team performs within an organization.

2. Identification and action: Once the key factors enhancing or detracting from team performance have been found, action steps can be taken to reinforce or modify these.

3. Team development: Companies hire management consultants to analyse and rectify team functioning problems so as to enhance team performance.

Chapter 13: Exercise 1 debrief – Team failure or success Objective 1. Identify which of Sundstrom’s 14 factors (or any others) contribute to team failure or success.

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Briefing 2. Individually, each group member reflects on their membership of a team (past or present) which has either been successful or unsuccessful. Using the list of Sundstrom factors below, speculate on the reasons for your team’s performance.

Sundstrom factor

Your own team

Organizational context 1. Organizational culture 2. Task design / technology 3. Mission clarity 4. Autonomy 5. Performance feedback 6. Rewards and recognition 7. Physical environment 8. Training and consultation Work team boundaries 9. External differentiation 10. External integration Team development 11. Interpersonal processes 12. Norms 13. Cohesion 14. Roles Other (missing) factor

3. Form groups and nominate a spokesperson. (a) Each group member in turn describes their own experiences of either team failure or success, and identifies what they consider might have been the contributing factors from the list above. (b) After all team members’ failures and successes have been shared, the group identifies any recurring factors in the different accounts. (c) Groups highlight any ‘missing’ (non-Sundstrom) factors which might have contributed. (d) Each group then discusses what could have been done to avoid the past failure or needs to be done to guarantee continued future success.

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4. The class reforms. The spokespersons for each group report back •

identifying the most common factors leading to team failure and suggesting how these could have been avoided

•

identifying the most common factors leading to team success and suggesting how these can be incorporated in the future

Debriefing The aim of the exercise is to encourage students to engage in a structured analysis of the success or failure of their team. Unless they do so, they will be unable to operate effectively in their future roles as team leaders.

A very basic outcome of the exercise should be that students should be able to provide their own team examples of some of the 14 Sundstrom factors and be able to explain their likely contribution to their team’s success or failure. Each of these factors has been defined and exemplified in the chapter. The ensuing group discussion should be centred around these with students providing examples and the tutor defining each factor and relating it, where appropriate, to the appropriate OB theory, model or research.

Key learning points 1. Variables: Team success or failure is influenced by a range of variables. In the Sundstrom model, these operate at the group and organizational levels.

2. Missing variables: Two major omissions in the model are the personalities of the team members and the team leader’s own personality and management style.

Chapter 13: Exercise 2 debrief – Exceptional Chutney Company Objectives 1. To assess the degree of autonomous teamworking within an organization.

2. To identify conditions favouring and impeding the introduction of empowerment.

Briefing 1. Bring sufficient photocopies to ensure that all students who do not have the textbook with them, have a copy of the Patchwork case and associated scoring sheet (Item A Handout) 2. Ask them individually to read the case study and, using the checklist below, to estimate the degree of team autonomy possessed by Patchwork’s self-directed team members. Score each of the nine areas/dimensions on a four-point scale – 1= none, 2 = some, 3 = joint, 4= autonomy.

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3. Divide the class into groups of 3–5.

4. Each group: (a) considers each of the nine dimensions, discusses their members’ estimates (represented by their individual scores) and agrees a group score. (b) discusses (a) what features of the company’s present situation are conducive to implementing the empowerment of employees? (b) What company changes in the future, either inside or outside the company, could make the current working arrangements difficult to sustain? (c) considers the views and reactions of Margaret Carter and her employees. What issues do they raise about the introduction and operation of empowerment within the workplace?

Discussion This case uses the Gulowsen’s nine dimensions of autonomy. This is because the former fits better with the case description. The case is short and thus is insufficiently detailed to provide a point-topoint, case fact to checklist item, match. There are many thing we do not know, so the scoring below is only a guess. The focus of this part of the discussion should not be upon the rankings themselves, but on the implications of each autonomy dimension for the group and its members, and for the company owner. For example, for item 5, how would you and your fellow group members feel if you had total autonomy (or no autonomy) to accept additional work given to your by your manager? Similarly, if you were the owner and had secured a major, new order, how would you feel if the group were able to say that they did not wish to fulfil it? The instructor should ask students to look at each of the other areas /dimensions from these two points of view. The suggested scores are shown below.

The company itself is small, has few staff, virtually no hierarchy and everybody knows the ownermanager. It is run quite informally. It is located in a region with perhaps little, alternative employment. As an organization’s turnover increases and staff numbers rise, there becomes an increased need to co-ordinate the activities of different individuals and groups. This often means increasing the number of managers and levels of hierarchy, and introducing a more formal way of working. As individuals and groups become interdependent, failure of one group to mesh in with other can cause serious problems for the organization as a whole. Moreover, newly appointed managers expect to have the power to make key decisions themselves, and not have to accept those made by the employees themselves. Similarly, newly appointed kitchen workers may expect to be told what you do, and may be reluctant to have to make decisions themselves.

Team (name / organization): Patchwork Traditional Food Company Level of team participation Team task area / dimensions

None

Some

Joint

1. Selecting their own team leader 2. Accepting a new member into the team

Autonomy 4

3

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3. Distributing work to members

4

4. Scheduling work assignments (timing)

3

5. Accepting additional work

3

6. Representing the team to outsiders

1

7. Choosing own production methods

2

8. Setting own production goals (quantity)

1

9. Setting own production goals (quality)

1

TOTAL TEAM SCORE

22

Key learning points 1. Strengths and weakness: Every team working innovation has strengths and weaknesses for the managements and employees involved. Recognising and managing the consequences of this differential impact is crucial to success. Introducing self-managing teams is neither straightforward nor problem-free.

2. Short and long term perspectives: The associated costs and benefits are not immediately apparent. Employees are likely to remain fearful that, in the longer term under this work system, management might reduce the workforce numbers; increase the performance requirements; and do so without necessarily increasing wages.

3. Reduction of management control: Every team working innovation that increases employee autonomy necessarily reduces management’s control. Nevertheless, managers continue to be held responsible for company success by their shareholders. This can cause tension and the threat of ‘regaining control’ at the first possibility of things going not as planned.

Exceptional Chutney Company The Exceptional Chutney Company is a small company consisting of 10 employees based in Somerset in South-west England. It produces a range of pies, chutneys, jams and pâtés and other foods made with fresh ingredients to traditional recipes targeted at a niche market. Its owner, Jenny Marks, saw a gap in the market for handmade, low-volume, high-quality foods, which could be sold at a premium price. By personally ensuring the highest standards, she hopes to retain and increase her company’s market share. As the business developed, Jenny needed to be out on the road a lot more, promoting her products to potential customers. She is responsible for taking the orders. These have varied considerably from month to month, but she has personally ensured that all products are delivered to customers in good time. This is one reason why she transformed her group of employees into a self-managing team. She explained that, ‘Everybody is empowered to make their own decisions, and be in control of their day, in their working environment’. Jenny Marks realised that it was unnecessary for her employees to seek permission from her office to do what needed to be done in the production area. As a team, she felt, they already knew that, better than anyone else.

However, after being given the power by her to make their own decisions, her employees’ first reaction was one of uncertainty and fear. The workers were anxious that now they had nobody to blame but themselves if something went wrong. Obviously, this was an issue, which had to be discussed and resolved between all concerned.

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After the team had overcome their initial doubts, they went about making the new arrangements work. While they each knew their individual jobs, they were less familiar with the day-to-day running of the factory. They felt that they needed someone who could take an overview of the whole situation. Their past experience had taught them that everybody in the factory tended to do the jobs that they liked, while leaving the less pleasant tasks to others. Also, receiving advice from one person rather than two would eliminate differing priorities and would avoid conflict. To meet this need, the self-managing team turned to Laura, one of their co-workers. Although Laura felt that her colleagues saw her as a supervisor, she sees herself as a team leader. She explains, ‘I’m here for anybody to come to me if they need advice or help with their job, and I’m here to train up new members who come to work with us. I’m there if they need me, like a mother’.

Since what is produced is determined by how it is produced, Jenny had very clear ideas as to how her pâtés, soups and other products should be made. Her views were based on her own experience of cooking. As production volumes have increased, team members have commented that the prescribed cooking methods are difficult to operate. Following a series of meetings, she and her staff have now agreed modifications to the original practices which, while addressing the need for higher production volumes, also maintain her quality standards. The team runs the factory without the involvement of any management. Staff are responsible for ordering stock; recruiting staff; and they decide their own working hours and holidays. Every morning, they get together to talk about what they’ve got to do that day.

What is the reaction of employees and the management to this empowering of a self-managing team? Company workers seem generally positive about the change: ‘It works very well because we all have a sense of what needs to be done, and when it needs doing’. ‘It’s more enjoyable because you get more job satisfaction out of being involved in everything yourself’. ‘Everybody knows what everybody else is doing, what you have got to do, and it’s much nicer’. However, they are aware of differences in response. One employee stated, ‘Some of us enjoy taking on responsibilities, but there are a few who have not got into that yet. These are early days, but we shall get there eventually. I think that some people are just slightly frightened. They are doing it gradually, and they are all picking it up a bit at a time, and I think taking on the new responsibilities will come to them quite easily after a length of time’.

Speaking as the owner-manager of the company, Jenny Marks noted that the change had given her time to find new markets for her products providing job security for the team; and has also enabled her to spend more time developing new recipes with one of the other team members, Sarah. She commented that, ‘I would not have implemented a self-directed team if I did not fully trust my people. In my view, this is the most important factor. The main upside of the new work arrangement is that it has become a really happy team. I believe that this team happiness goes right through to our suppliers, to our product and to our customers’. Her view about empowerment is that it needs to be total, ‘You have to genuinely and completely let go, not half -heartedly and not pretending that you are letting go, because it will not work!’

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CHAPTER 14

Work design Chapter 14: What’s new in this chapter?

Chapter 14: Learning outcomes and recap Chapter 14: Rationale Chapter 14: OB Cinema debrief – The Rebel Chapter 14: Exercise 1 debrief – Re-designing a job task Chapter 14: Exercise 2 debrief – Taylor Road orderfillers

Chapter 14: What’s new in this chapter?

Bullshit jobs – are they becoming more common?

Digital lending and algorithmic decision-making – how do these management controls affect employees in the home credit sector?

Remote working – impact on collaboration networks and communication patterns Hybrid working – the fears of home-based workers and relationships with office-based colleagues

Chapter 14: Learning outcomes and recap 1. Identify the factors that influence choices in work design.

•

Four groups of factors influence work design: external (international/global, national, institutional, occupational); organizational (strategy, HR practices, operational uncertainty, technology, bureaucracy); work group (composition, interdependence, autonomy, leadership); and individual (demographics, competencies, characteristics).

2. Describe the main objectives and principles of the scientific management approach.

•

The objectives are efficiency (by increasing the output per worker and reducing deliberate ‘underworking’); predictability of job performance (by standardising tasks and dividing them up into small and closely specified subtasks); and control (by establishing discipline through hierarchical authority and introducing a system whereby all management’s policy decisions can be implemented).

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•

The principles are: a clear division of tasks and responsibilities between management and workers; use of scientific methods to determine the best way of doing a job; scientific selection of employees; the training of the selected worker to perform the job in the way specified; and the monitoring of workers through the use of hierarchies of authority and close supervision.

3. Identify the contributions of the Gilbreths to scientific management.

•

Frank Gilbreth’s contributions were motion study; the ‘therbligs’ notation system; timeand-motion studies.

•

Lillian Gilbreth developed fatigue study and the beginnings of a more psychological approach to work design.

4. Understand how Fordism developed out of Taylorism.

•

Ford moved on from the mechanisation and rationalisation of work on the individual work piece or object pioneered by Taylor, to mechanising the flow of objects between workers.

•

He developed the systematised analysis of jobs; installed single purpose machine tools to produce standardised parts; and established the mechanically paced assembly line.

5. Explain the relationship between jobs, tasks, skills and technology changes.

•

All jobs consist of bundles of tasks. Designing a job involves combining these different tasks, redesigning it involves adding or removing tasks.

•

Each job task requires the unique application of a combination of human skills. One skills framework groups 18 human skills under five headings: sensory perception; cognitive capacities; social and emotional capacities; physical capacities; and natural language processing.

•

New technology changes the balance between tasks within a job by removing, adding or augmenting existing tasks.

•

Job tasks can be grouped into seven types and arranged in descending order of their ease of automation (technical feasibility). Tasks requiring human-centric skill are at the top while those involving data collection and processing come at the bottom.

•

Changes in job tasks at all skill levels will be the result of management choices influenced by a range of political, economic, social, legal and ecological factors and not just by technological considerations.

6. Identify the employability skills required to perform the jobs of the future.

•

Research has identified a range of employability skills which will be particularly needed by future employees. These include the people skills of social networking, people development, coaching and collaboration.

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7. Appreciate the problems associated with hybrid work designs.

•

Developments in technology have allowed greater work fragmentation, worker measurement, worker rewards and worker punishments.

Chapter 14: Rationale Few other management or organizational behaviour textbooks consider, in any depth, the early research, theories or authors in this field. In consequence, the topics presented in their chapters lack any historical context. Here, in contrast, as in other parts of this textbook, we counter this trend by looking at the work and organization design innovations, which developed throughout the twentieth century, and which continue to have an impact on organizations in the twenty-first century. In our view, the work and organizational design ideas in the form of Taylorism and Fordism, both of which originated nearly a 100 years ago, merit more than a historical footnote.

This is particularly the case at the present time since rapid technological developments in wearable technology and physiolytics have ushered in the ‘quantified workplace’. Monitoring of employees both at work and at home has experienced a step change.

After having been introduced to Taylor’s pig-iron handlers, Gilbreth’s cyclegraphic models and Ford’s mechanised assembly line, our invitation to students is to look for examples of these principles being applied today in government departments, the manufacture of aircraft and day-today employee surveillance. Going beyond these interesting historical details, students are encouraged to focus on the objectives, underlying principles and techniques that they all share.

The major new feature in this chapter is the consideration of the current and future work design changes triggered by the pandemic. Hybrid work designs involving the majority of employees are currently being introduced into many companies. Having some staff working in the office, some working from home or anywhere and still others moving between the two creates both new working arrangement and a company culture. A new section in this chapter considers the issues involved.

Traditional work design continues to exert a powerful influence on our modern work lives. A number of themes can be highlighted: •

Management as a technical-rationalist pursuit.

•

The central role of control and systems within an organization.

•

The future consequences of hybrid working.

Chapter 14: Home viewing debrief – Lucy and the Chocolate factory Find on YouTube: Lucy and the Chocolate Factory (2:58) What work design and people management issues are signalled in this black-and-white video clip?

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•

Work design – automated wrapping line results in employees performing a limited number of tasks that constitute their simplified job

•

Work instructions – employees are briefed as to what their job consists of and what they are to do

•

Work performance standard – if any unwrapped chocolates get past the line, the employees will be sacked

•

Line speed – management controls the speed of the line speeding it up as desired

•

Making out – unable to control their work environment, employees act to minimise the negative consequences to themselves, for example, they eat or secrete the product to avoid supervisor detection

Chapter 14: OB cinema debrief – The Rebel The Rebel (1961, director Robert Day) DVD track 2: 0:05:00–0:11:30 (7 minutes) In this film, the comedian Tony Hancock plays himself, as a London office worker who finds the routine of his job oppressive. As you watch this clip: 1. Identify the design principles underlying the office jobs that Tony and his (all male) colleagues are performing at United International.

2. Complete this matrix, indicating the advantages and disadvantages, to management and to employees, of designing jobs in this way: Advantages

Disadvantages

For management For employees

3. Is this movie out of date, because management practice and office technology have changed since the 1960s? Or can you identify jobs that you have personally had, or which you have recently observed, that are designed in the same way? What would be – or what has been – your reaction to work like this?

4. Diagnosing Tony’s problem, his manager suggests some solutions. How appropriate do you think his suggestions are?

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Debriefing Track 2, from 5 to 11.30 minutes. Opens with a shot of the office; closes with the manager saying to Tony, ‘Off you go’. We are in Tony’s office. The clerks’ desks are arranged in a straight row so that an individual has to turn around completely to see and to talk to a colleague. The desks are of course identical, and the employees carry out their short-cycle repetitive tasks in harmony. They are performing a bookkeeping task. Their bowler hats and umbrellas are hanging neatly on the wall.

Not quite: Tony’s umbrella is the wrong way around. When the manager (played by John Le Mesurier) arrives, he notices this, adjusts the umbrella, and gives Tony a long, hard stare. The manager’s office door is marked ‘private’.

When the manager appears to inspect his employees at work, he catches Tony drawing a caricature of one of his fellow workers. Tony is summoned into the manager’s office – ‘and bring your books – all of them’. When the manager inspects Tony’s books, he is horrified to find an elaborate drawing, along with numerous other caricatures, including one of himself. The drawing took Tony several hours, considerably more than the time and motion allowance for preparing that kind of document. The manager is not pleased. Explaining himself, Tony complains that ‘this job is choking me’. The manager suggests that Tony joins the company’s tennis club or the dramatic society. Some of the main job design principles seem to be: •

simple standardised tasks

•

standard dress code (even in the absence of customers or suppliers)

•

synchronous task performance with colleagues

•

no discretion over task performance or use of time

•

workplace layout discourages communication with colleagues

•

rigid adherence to office rules

•

total concentration on task (no ‘chatting’ with colleagues, no idling, no drawing)

The benefits matrix could look like this: Advantages

Disadvantages

For management

Control, predictability Standardised output Low training costs

Demotivated employees No creativity or innovation Poor performance

For employees

Predictability, security Easy job Low stress levels

Monotonous, boring No skills development Restricted career options

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Many jobs, across a range of sectors, still have these design features, with similar consequences for employees. Some companies make a point of advertising the facilities available to employees, such as gyms, for example.

Track 1 (4 minutes) is optional, showing Tony and his fellow office workers on the early morning train commuting to London. This provides insight into Tony’s character and frame of mind, and helps to put the following scene (and the rest of the movie) into context. The standardised dress and routine behaviour of the commuters mirrors the office layout and the nature of the jobs to which they are heading.

Key learning points 1. Job design impacts: The choices made about the design of jobs and the workplace in which they are performed have advantages and disadvantages for both management and employees.

2. Job design choices: Jobs and workplace can be altered to meet new challenges, although it involves much effort, time and resources on the part of management. It is usually easier to persuade employees to tolerate existing working conditions through incentives such as wages and company perks.

3. Job removal: There is a current trend to replace workers by automating their tasks.

Supermarkets and banks have replaced cashiers and tellers with machines that customers are expected to use themselves.

Alternative Modern Times, the film recommended in Chapter 3, offers a useful alternative for the material discussed in this chapter.

Chapter 14: Exercise 1 debrief – Re-designing a job task Objectives 1. To experience the process of designing a job task.

2. To became aware of the options available to a job designer.

3. To compare different approaches to designing the same job task.

4. To consider the advantages and disadvantages of different designs for workers and for the company.

Briefing Groups (a) The class is divided in groups of 4–5 students. (b) Each group is assigned an identifier – A, B, C, etc.

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(c) Each group receives a pack of 48 cards. Both jokers have been removed and the remaining chards shuffled. Four playing cards have then been removed at random. (d) Your group will then prepare instructions for another group to identify the four missing playing cards as quickly as possible. (e) You will hand the other group your written instructors for them to follow in order to complete the task. You will not be permitted to give them any additional verbal briefing. (f) Once directed by your instructor, you will hand your instruction sheet over to the group. (g) Group A hands their sheet to group B; group B to group C; and group C to group A. (h) Each group already has their own pack of 48 shuffled cards. (i) Each group reads the received instruction sheet, performs the task as detailed in the sheet and keeps a record of how long it took for them to finish the task.

Plenary The class reforms for a plenary discussion. Among the questions discussed: •

What were the different group task completion times?

•

What job designs were specified on the instruction sheets by the different groups?

•

Did the designs involve using all or just some of the of other group’s members?

•

How satisfying did the ‘workers’ completing the tasks find the job designs?

•

From a managerial perspective which was the best job design?

•

What improvements can be made to these job designs?

Debriefing Discussion question

Instructor

What were the different group task completion times?

Survey the different groups (A, B, C) and chart up their completion times.

What job designs were specified on the instruction sheets by the different groups?

Besides each group time, briefly describe the chosen job design ‘Pack split into two, each half assign to a different person’.

Did the designs involve using all or just some of the of other group’s members?

Chart up how many members of each work group were actively involved in task completion.

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How satisfying did the ‘workers’ completing the tasks find the job designs?

Instructor leads discussion on workers’ responses. Asks how they would like to do it eight hours a day.

From a managerial perspective which was the best job design?

Instructor leads discussion on job design from a managerial perspective. Issues of worker recruitment, training replacement, etc.

What improvements can be made to these job designs?

Instructor leads general discussion about the nature of job design in organizations anchored in students own experiences of designing and executing work tasks in the tutorial room.

Chapter 14: Exercise 2 debrief – Taylor Road orderfillers Objectives 1. To recognise contemporary examples of Taylorist work design.

2. To explain the reasons for the popularity of these practices.

3. To identify the problems associated with this form of work design.

Instructor advice Students can be encouraged to read the journal article on which this short case study is based.

Elliott, C.S. and Long, G. (2016). ‘Manufacturing rate busters: Computer control and social relations in the labour process’, Work, Employment and Society, 19(1):153–74 Case Taylor Road is a computer-controlled warehouse of a large, multinational company with over 10,000 employees around the world which distributes food products and customer orders. The nonunionized employees receive a wage that is higher than other local manufacturing facilities and twice that of comparable, low-skilled service jobs. With its strict staff selection (95 per cent were males, aged between 20 and 40), and high wages and benefits, the facility enjoys a good reputation in the area. Computer controls direct, monitor and evaluate workers’ manual tasks using algorithms.

In a Taylor Road warehouse, a central computer coordinates and individually tailors work for employees. At the start of a shift, each employee receives a wireless mini-computer (‘unit’), a headset and a vehicle for moving goods. They log onto their unit with their personalised settings and passwords. The central computer assigns orderfillers their discrete tasks which come packaged as ‘trips’. These are software-generated routes through the warehouse which they have to follow to collect the different parts of customers’ orders. Orderfillers are directed to their collection points (‘slots’) using computer voice-guided instructions. On arrival, the employee confirms the location by speaking a three-digit code printed above the slot. Once the unit ‘hears’ the code, it responds with the number of cases to be collected from that slot. The orderfillers then manually transfer the cases onto their vehicles, and then again speak the correct quantities into their units. If they do not follow this behaviour sequence exactly, the orderfillers are unable to complete a trip.

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If they are working at the minimum production rate, each employee would perform this behaviour sequence 1,500 to 2,000 times per shift. On average, each grocery case weighs 18 pounds, so an orderfiller would physically lift between 27,000 and 36,000 pounds of goods per shift. The company’s industrial engineers have developed a formula which calculates a standard time for each trip. This is based on time study, digitalised maps of the warehouse, size and weight of cases, number of required stops and fatigue allowances. Thus, every task a worker performs is electronically dispensed and tracked. The collected data is used to maintain the desired level of employee performance. Computer coordination is so good that, in order to function, the warehouse does not require the workers to interact with each other. They might cross paths on two or three occasions during a shift. Thus, the orderfillers task is designed to be repetitive, fatiguing and isolating.

Once he has delivered his load to the dispatch dock, the computer informs the orderfiller how quickly he has completed his last trip; updates him on his cumulative shift performance up to that point; lets him know the standard time for his next trip; and tells him the aisle and slot that he has to go to next. To keep their jobs, employees have to maintain a rolling four-week average performance of 95 per cent of standard time, as specified by the formula. Failure to achieve this standard results in disciplinary warnings, and 3–4 weeks of underperformance leads to dismissal. Employees who survive the first two months of employment generally continue to meet the standard. Each fortnight, workers who have achieved between 105 and 130 per cent performance receive bonuses.

Briefing 1. Form into groups and discuss the following questions: (a) Which of examples of Taylorism can you identify here? (b) How do these practices improve efficiency and productivity? (c) What problems does the way that work is organised in these warehouses create for its employees? (d) How might these problems be overcome?

Debriefing 1. Which of examples of Taylorism can you identify here?

Taylorist principle

Example in case study

Division of responsibilities

Managers manage the warehouse and orderfillers complete the tasks.

Motion study

‘The company’s industrial engineers have developed a formula which calculates a standard time for each trip. This is based on time study, digitalised maps of the warehouse, size and weight of cases, number of required stops and fatigue allowances’.

Task specialisation

‘Each employee would perform this behaviour sequence 1,500 to 2,000 times per shift’.

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Time study

‘Computer controls direct, monitor and evaluate workers’ manual tasks using algorithms’.

Once he has delivered his load to the dispatch dock, the computer informs the orderfiller how quickly he has completed his last trip; updates him on his cumulative shift performance up to that point’.

Tools

‘Each employee receives a wireless mini-computer (“unit”), a headset, and a vehicle for moving goods’.

Facility layout

‘Warehouse of a large, multinational company with over 10,000 employees’.

Employee selection

‘Strict staff selection (95 per cent were males, aged between 20 and 40’.

Economic incentives

‘Employees receive a wage that is higher than other local manufacturing facilities and twice that of comparable, lowskilled service jobs’.

‘Workers who have achieved between 105 and 130 per cent performance receive bonuses’.

Performance standard and discipline

‘To keep their jobs, employees have to maintain a rolling fourweek average performance of 95 per cent of standard time, as specified by the formula. Failure to achieve this standard results in disciplinary warnings, and 3–4 weeks of underperformance leads to dismissal’.

One best way

‘The central computer assigns orderfillers their discrete tasks which come packaged as “trips”. These are software-generated routes through the warehouse which they have to follow to collect the different parts of customers’ orders’.

Employee monitoring

‘The collected data is used to maintain the desired level of employee performance’.

2. How do these practices improve efficiency and productivity?

The design of the work of the orderfillers is intended to achieve Taylor’s three objectives of efficiency, predictability and control which collectively increase productivity and reduce costs.

Efficiency – Orderfillers are instructed in fastest ways to locate and retrieve their goods.

Predictability – Careful staff selection (males, aged between 20 and 40); checking of physical work limits (lifting) between 27,000 and 36,000 pounds of goods per shift; and monitoring of the numbers of journeys (1,500 to 2,000 times per shift) all allow an accurate assessment of employee performance making their behaviour predictable.

Control – Orderfillers are constantly monitored as they do their work; their performance is ongoingly assessed; they are given real-time feedback; and they are rewarded (with a bonus) if they achieve company targets and punished (with dismissal) if they failed to do so. Thus the management control exercised is structural (through job design); technological (through electronic monitoring); and financial (through bonuses or dismissal).

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3. What problems does the way that work is organized in these warehouses create for its employees?

The case describes an extreme form of job specialisation based on scientific management principles.

As such, it lacks the core job dimension listed in the Job Characteristics Model (chapter 9) which are: skill variety; task variety; task identity; task significance; autonomy; but probably not feedback.

The model suggests that the absence of these is likely to reduce the internal work motivation of employees; the quality of their work performance; and the satisfaction with their work. Absenteeism and turnover are likely to rise.

4. How might these problems be overcome?

At the individual level, the antidotes to job simplification are job rotation, job enlargement and job enrichment. At the group level, various forms of group or team work arrangements have been used which are discussed in chapter 13. Alternatively, the company can automate completely using robots and make all its staff redundant.

Key learning points 1. Relevance: The principles and practices of scientific management developed in the late nineteenth century by Taylor and his successors have had a great impact on work at the beginning of the twenty-first century. The design of work in warehouses, fast-food restaurants, assembly lines, tax offices and many other organizations has been influenced by it.

2. Technology: A major stimulus to scientific management’s popularity has been developments in technology. Computers, cameras, phones and various other mobile devices have increased the ability of companies to measure and ongoingly monitor their employees, at work and at home, in ways that Taylor would have thought unimaginable in his day.

3. Expansion: The changes have had a huge impact on the way that work is designed and workers are managed. The application of scientific management practices previously reserved for lowskilled, shop floor workers have been expanded to include white-collar and professional jobs (e.g. of managers, university lecturers, doctors).

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CHAPTER 15

Elements of structure Chapter 15: What’s new in this chapter?

Chapter 15: Learning outcomes and recap Chapter 15: Rationale Chapter 15: OB Cinema debrief – Joe Versus the Volcano, Experimenter Chapter 15: OB Cinema debrief – Aliens Chapter 15: Exercise 1 debrief – Invisible organization structure Chapter 15: Exercise 2 debrief – Span-of-control

Chapter 15: What’s new in this chapter?

Span of control – does this affect gender pay inequality?

The meeting after the meeting (MATM) – how can these informal events create new organization structures and change previous decisions?

Non-academics in academia – how to explain why half of all British higher education employees are not academics

Chapter 15: Learning outcomes and recap Recap 1. Explain how organization structure affects human behaviour in organizations.

•

The procedures employees are required to follow and the rules by which they have to abide, all control and direct their behaviour in specified directions.

•

The roles that people play, and the expectations that others have of role holders, also direct the behaviour of employees. Indeed, in the long term, these may even lead to a change in the personality of the employee.

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2. List the main elements of organization structure.

•

The main elements include: chain of command; hierarchical levels; line employees; rules; staff employees; role expectations; span of control; departmentalisation; authority; and job description.

3. Relate the concept of span of control to that of organization hierarchy.

•

The narrower the span of control, the taller the organization hierarchy (and vice versa); and the greater the number of employee promotion opportunities.

4. Identify line and staff relationships on an organization chart.

•

Line relationships are depicted vertically on an organization chart, indicating that those above possess the authority to direct the behaviours of those below.

•

Seniors have responsibility for the work of the juniors, while the juniors are accountable for their work to their seniors.

•

Staff relationships are depicted horizontally on an organization chart, indicating that those who possess specific expertise, for example, human resources, IT, advise those in line positions.

5. Distinguish between the formal and informal organization within a company.

•

The formal organization refers to the collection of work groups that have been consciously designed by senior management to maximise efficiency and achieve organizational goals.

•

The informal organization refers to the unofficial, network of relationships that spontaneously establish themselves between individuals in an organization on the basis of their common interests and friendships.

•

The two forms consist of the same people, albeit arranged in different ways.

Recap: What did they find?

•

Cathcart et al. (2004) discovered a relationship between group span of control and the engagement of its members. As the number of members in a work group supervised by a nurse manager increased, their employee engagement scores declined. These findings were independent of demographic variables such as job tenure (years in post), work status (full or part time), union membership, role (management or not) and job type (patient care or not).

•

The two points at which engagement scores dropped most noticeably was a span of control larger than 15:1, and then again, one larger than 40:1. What were the reasons for this? For the sub-15:1 groups, the differentiating factor was whether their opinions were taken into account, and for the over-40:1 groups, the key issue was the presence of a person who encouraged their development. The findings demonstrated the organizational risk of increasing spans of control without first carefully analysing the possible negative effects of it on employee engagement.

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•

To solve the problem in this organization, Cathcart reported that senior nurse administrators reviewed the work of nurse managers who were directly accountable for between 75 to 150 staff. They decided to add management positions in four patient care areas to decrease the manager’s span of control and increase the engagement of the nursing staff who worked in them. Before the change, each manager had 80 direct reports. The additions reduced their spans of control by between 30 and 50 per cent, and in these four areas, employee engagement rose by between 7 and 14 per cent. This health care system discovered that span of control did indeed matter.

Chapter 15: Rationale Students frequently experience the topic of organization structure as both highly abstract and not immediately relevant to their lives, as compared to other material presented in the individual and group sections of this textbook. The purpose of the chapter is threefold therefore: •

To provide the basic vocabulary with which to conduct a discussion of past, present and future organization structures.

•

To make students aware that organization structure is a ubiquitous and pervasive aspect of organizational life that is constantly encountered by all employees all the time.

•

To explain how the structure that is created and maintained within an organization can be seen as a means for both implementing an organization’s strategy to achieve its goal, and also as a vehicle for management control.

This chapter increases its coverage of sexuality in the workplace reflecting the developments reported with increasing frequency in the media. A majority of students, both undergraduates and practising managers on MBA programmes, will take for granted the organization structure within which they work. Many are unaware of it until its existence is pointed out to them. Even when it is, they rarely see it as device through which their behaviour within an organization is directed and controlled. Thus, achieving this realisation among students, using examples and illustrations from the textbook and from their own experience, can be considered a valuable learning outcome.

Before asking students to watch a film or analyse a case from the structural perspective, it is useful to take time to focus them on structural dimensions of an organization. This can be done by getting them simply to list ‘aspects of structure’, for example, roles, rules, authority, job position and so on.

By considering how job holders know what they can and cannot do, what authority they have and where such authority comes from can provide a valuable starting point for understanding the nature and effect of organization structure upon individual employees.

Organization structure focuses not only on the formal relationships between individual employees but also on their informal relationships. This second theme has tended to be neglected in textbooks but is addressed here in the section on sexuality and the informal organization which considers sexual attractiveness, gender stereotyping, sex typing of jobs, glass ceiling, office romances and sexual harassment in relation to the workplace.

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Chapter 15: Home viewing – Joe Versus the Volcano Joe Versus the Volcano (1990, director, John Patrick Shanley) DVD track 01: 0:00:35–0.11.20 (12 minutes) The opening scene of this film ends when Joe Banks (played by Tom Banks) says ‘I don’t know’. It contains examples of all seven elements of the organizational structure of American Panascope, the company that Hanks works for. Can you identify these?

Element

Definition

Movie example

Work specialisation

Division of work tasks

Joe is a marketing clerk in the department

Hierarchy

Levels of management levels in organization

Mr Waturi is the manager of the advertising department

Span of control

Number of workers supervised by a single manager

Mr Waturi supervises three employees which includes Joe (3 to 1)

Chain of command

Reporting relationships

Joe reports to Mr Waturi

Departmentalisation

Grouping of jobs

Joe works in the advertising department of American Panascope Company

Formalisation

Extent of rules

Workers ‘clock in’ in the morning when they arrive at work Joe is not allowed to place printing orders

Centralisation

Location of decision-making

Only Mr Waturi decides when to places printing orders and does it himself

Chapter 15: OB cinema debrief – Aliens Aliens (1986, directed by James Cameron) DVD track 15: 1:15:41 – 1:23:13 (8 minutes) The second film in this science fiction series is set in the distant future on planet LV-426. The characters include Lieutenant Gorman, the senior officer of space marines as well as Sergeant Apone, Corporal Hicks, Private Hudson and others. In addition to these military personnel, there is Burke, who represents the Weyland-Yutani Corporation which owns the facilities on the planet, and Ripley (played by Sigourney Weaver), who is employed by it. The clip begins with Ripley shouting at Gorman ‘Get them out of there, do it now’ and ends at the point at which Corporal Hicks says ‘It’s the only way to be sure. Let’s do it!’ Which concepts of organization structure are illustrated in this clip?

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Briefing Before showing the film clip to the class, in order to clarify to students what is meant by ‘concepts’ and thus what they should be looking out for, explain that a little before the start of this clip (at 1:13:30), the marines disobey their commander’s orders by shooting. Lt. Gorman says angrily: ‘I ordered to hold fire’. Question: Which concept from organization structure does this illustrate?

Answer: disobeying obeying orders given by a person with legitimate authority.

Debriefing The events below are sequenced in chronological order of the film clip: 1. Concept: chain-of-command The marines’ structure has Lieutenant Gorman, as the commanding officer; below him in seniority are Sergeant Apone, Corporal Hicks, Private Hudson and others.

2. Concepts: line and staff employees The marines under Lt. Gorman are the line employees, while Ripley and Burke, who are employed by the company, are there as staff employees (advisors).

3. Concepts: responsibility and accountability Lt. Gorman, as the commanding officer, has the responsibility for the mission. The marines in the building report back to him in the vehicle (using audio and video) about what they are doing and what they have found.

4. Concepts: authority, chain-of-command Ripley takes it upon herself to give instructions herself directly to the marines, despite the presence of their commanding officer.

5. Concepts: authority, leadership Ripley unilaterally takes over command of the military vehicle, despite lacking the authority to do so.

6. Concepts: structure as a vehicle to achieve organizational goals, leadership The existing organization structure is not perceived by some to be helping to achieve the operation’s objective (Burke about Gorman ‘You had your chance’).

7. Concept: chain-of-command With Lt. Gorman unconscious, and Sgt. Apone captured by the alien creature, the authority to make decisions about the operation passes to Corporal Hicks because he is ‘next in line’ and the operation is under military jurisdiction.

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Key learning points 1. Structure’s purpose: The purpose of organization structure is to facilitate the achievement of goals, maintain order by reducing conflict and fostering co-ordination between the contributions of different individuals and groups.

2. Ubiquitous structure: Structure is present in every organization context and determines its key feature such as relationships between employees, appropriateness of behaviour and issues of decision-making.

3. Invisible: That structure directs the behaviours of individuals without their being aware of it.

Change the structure and you change employee behaviour.

Chapter 15: Exercise 1 debrief – Invisible organization structure Objective 1. To make you aware of your existing experience of organization structures.

2. To allow you to consider how organization structures affects your behaviour.

Briefing Individually Think about the job that you currently have or have had in the past. If your work experience is limited, think about your ‘job’ as a pupil in school or a student at university. From this perspective, insert your answers to the questions below. Leave the concept column blank.

Item

Concept

Definition

1. Write the job title of the person to whom you report.

Accountability

Obligation of a subordinate to report back on their discharge of the duties for which they are responsible.

2. Write the job title of someone whose job in your organization is to make things or to provide a service to others.

Line employees

Those workers who are directly responsible for manufacturing goods or providing a service. In a shop, these will be shelf fillers and checkout assistants.

3. Write the job title of someone whose job it is to provide specialist advice or assistance to those people who make things or who provide a service to others.

Staff employees

In an organization, the student may encounter the human resources, accounting, IT or similar staff.

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4. If you share one boss with others, how many other people does this one person supervise?

Span of control

Number of employees reporting to a single supervisor or managers. Does your manager give you too much or too little direction?

5. Think of an instruction given to you by your boss, teacher or lecturer with which you complied.

Authority

The right to guide or direct the actions of others and extract from them responses that are appropriate to the attainment of an organization’s goals.

6. About how many levels of hierarchy are there between your position and the most senior person in the organization?

Hierarchy

The number of levels of authority to be found in an organization. The greater the number of levels, the slower and more problematic the communication between them.

7. Think of an organization rule that you have obeyed. What topic did it relate to?

Formalisation

The more rules an organization has, the more formalised it is. Rules are written down, neutral and direct the behaviour of employees specifying what they are or are not allowed to do.

8. Think of one thing that you did because of the position that you hold in your organization, rather than because of your natural inclinations.

Role performance

Carrying out the duties required by virtual of occupying that position in the company for example, team leader.

Responsibility

An obligation placed on a person who occupies a certain position in the organization structure to perform a task, function or assignment.

9. At work or university, you are a member of a department. On what basis is that department organised?

Departmentalisa tion

The process of grouping together employees who share a common supervisor and resources, who are jointly responsible for performance and who tend to identify and collaborate with each other.

10. Do you have a piece of paper that describes the tasks that you are required to perform in your job, and what decisions you can make on your own?

Job description

The job descriptions set the limits to the range of your responsibilities and to your decisionmaking power.

Job title

The title of the job as specified in the job description and shown on the organization chart.

Responsibility

An obligation placed on a person who occupies a certain position in the organization structure to perform a task, function or assignment.

In groups 1. Starting with the first item, compare the answers of the group members, highlighting the differences.

2. Move onto the second and later items as time allows.

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Debriefing Organizational structure is a very abstract topic while having a concrete effect on individuals’ behaviour within the workplace. The aim of this chapter exercises is simply to make this invisible phenomenon more visible to students by linking it to experiences that they have had and thus helping them understand how it affects their own and others’ day-to-day employees’ work behaviour.

Reassemble the groups ask the entire class for examples from the students’ lists. Following each response, ask how that aspect of organization either directs, guides or constrains the behaviour of employees in the workplace.

Key learning points 1. Invisible but present: Unlike some other, more overt factors affecting human behaviour such as personality, communication or perception, organization structure is much more covert and its existence and influence is underrated or totally ignored.

2. Covert but impactful: Despite being in the background, organization structure has a direct and ongoing impact on employees’ behaviour even time they follow a rule, implement their manager’s instruction, operate a procedure and so on.

3. Predictability: Structure provides organization with huge predictability of employee behaviour, and directs it towards organizational goals.

Chapter 15: Exercise 2 debrief – Span-of-control Objectives 1. Identify the circumstances in which spans of control will be wide or narrow.

Briefing 1. Individually, students work through the 10 situations in the list and, in each case, indicate whether, in their view, the span of control is likely to be wide or narrow. They also suggest a reason in each case.

2. In their group, students assign a spokesperson.

3. They then compare their choices and reasons, and agree a group-agreed response.

4. How has new technology, in all its various forms, affected span of control in organizations?

Debrief Groups reform, and the spokespersons present their group’s choices and reasons to the remainder of the class.

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Situation

Choice

Reason

1. Standardised procedures – The more standardised procedures there are, the more likely the span of control is to be ...

wide or narrow?

Wide – Procedures replace face-to-face supervision allowing wider control

2. Geographic proximity – The more physically dispersed subordinates are, the more likely the span of control is to be ...

wide or narrow?

Narrow – If face-to-face interaction is required, fewer staff can be controlled

3. Interaction requirements – The lower the interaction required with subordinates ... the more likely the span of control is to be ...

wide or narrow?

Wide – Fewer interactions allow more staff to be controlled

4. Task complexity – If the work activities to be performed by employees are complex ... the more likely the span of control is to be ...

wide or narrow?

Narrow – Complex tasks require more monitoring resulting in fewer staff being supervised

5. Similarities of tasks – The more similar the tasks carried out by subordinates are ... the more likely the span of control is to be ...

wide or narrow?

Wide – Most people doing the same thing allows more of them to be supervised

6. New problems – The higher the frequency of new problems experienced by subordinates ... the more likely the span of control is to be ...

wide or narrow?

Narrow – New challenges require more problem solving resulting in fewer staff being supervised

7. Subordinate characteristics – The more subordinates are competent, responsible and able ... the more likely the span of control is to be ...

wide or narrow?

Wide – Able staff need less management and more of them can be supervised by a single person

8. Planning and coordination – The less planning and less coordination that is required of subordinates’ work … the more likely the span of control is to be ...

wide or narrow?

Wide – The fewer of these management activities are required, the more staff can be supervised

9. Manager’s job – The greater the non-supervisory element in a manager’s job ... the more likely the span of control is to be ...

wide or narrow?

Narrow – Engaging in nonmanagement tasks reduces a manager’s ability to supervise others

10. Knowledge gap – The greater the gap between the manager’s and subordinates’ expertise ... the more likely the span of control is to be ...

wide or narrow?

Narrow – Manager has to spend more time sharing his/her knowledge with subordinate

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Key learning points 1. Ubiquitous: All managers in hierarchical organizations, from the supervisor level upwards, have subordinates reporting to them. The number that does so varies between companies.

2. Task and personal: Managers are responsible for the tasks performed by their subordinates as well as dealing with any work-related personal issues.

3. Technology: The face-to-face monitoring of employees is now being complimented (and often replaced) by technology-based automated systems, allowing more staff to be overseen by fewer managers with implications for the span of control.

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CHAPTER 16

Organization design Chapter 16: What’s new in this chapter?

Chapter 16: Learning outcomes and recap Chapter 16: Rationale Chapter 16: Home viewing – Brazil, Catch-22 Chapter 16: OB Cinema debrief – Crimson Tide Chapter 16: Exercise 1 debrief – Debra’s diary Chapter 16: Exercise 2 debrief – Personal structure preference test

Chapter 16: What’s new in this chapter?

Management burnout – is this a problem, what are the causes and how do managers compare with other employees?

Virtual working – how is this changing the nature of managerial work?

Chapter 16: Learning outcomes and recap Recap 1. Relate corporate strategy to organization design •

Corporate strategy refers to the aims of a company and organization design represents the means by which these will be achieved.

•

Organization design involves the integration of structure, people, rewards and processes to support the implementation of an organization’s corporate strategy.

2. State the main characteristics of a bureaucratic organization structure as specified by Max Weber.

•

Job specialization, authority hierarchy, formal selection, rules and procedures, impersonality and impartiality and recording of past decisions made

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3. Distinguish Fayol’s six managerial activities and the main ideas of the classical management school.

•

Fayol distinguished six managerial activities: forecasting, planning, organizing, commanding, coordinating and controlling.

•

The classical management school was based on the experience of managers and consultants rather than on the work of researchers.

4. Distinguish Mintzberg’s ten management roles.

•

His ten management roles are figurehead, leader, liaison, monitor, disseminator, spokesperson, entrepreneur, disturbance handler, resource allocator and negotiator.

5. Recognize the changes occurring in managerial work in the last half century.

•

Greater availability of information to employees; changed roles and interaction patterns with subordinates triggered by technological developments; restructuring has made managerial jobs more demanding, less secure and more stressful.

6. Identify the writers who comprise the contingency approach and state their individual contributions.

•

Contingency writers challenged Max Weber and Henri Fayol’s view that there was one best way to structure an organization.

•

They held that there was an optimum organization structure that would maximise company performance and profits, and that this structure would differ between firms.

•

Technological determinist contingency theorists Joan Woodward, James Thompson and Charles Perrow saw technology determining the most appropriate organization structure.

•

Environmental determinist contingency theorists Tom Burns, Graham Stalker, Paul Lawrence and Jay Lorsch saw the environment as determining the most appropriate organization structure.

7. Discuss the strengths and weaknesses of bureaucratic organization structures.

•

Bureaucracy provides a rationally designed organizational model that allows complex work tasks to be performed efficiently. Persons who are best qualified to do it carry out the work.

It provides safeguards against personal bias and individual favouritism.

•

Bureaucracy can also create dysfunctional consequences for individuals who may follow rules obsessively; and for the companies which may be slow to respond to changes.

Bureaucracies perpetuate themselves.

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8. Identify the influence of early organization design ideas on contemporary organizations.

•

Modern organizations continue to possess the features first described by Weber and Fayol to this day.

•

Early organization design principles have been successful; have helped large companies to survive and prosper; reflect the static social values of many nations and cultures; are capable of withstanding environmental turbulence; and allow senior management to retain power.

Recap What did they find?

Garvin (2013) reported what Project Oxygen team found what Google staff considered to be the most positive management behaviours. For them, a good manager: – Is a good coach – Helps with career development – Is productive and results oriented – Has the technical skills to advise their team – Has a clear vision and strategy for their team – Empowers the team and does not micromanage – Is a good communicator, listener and information sharer – Expresses interest and concern for members’ success and personal well-being The project used data-driven decision-making to pinpoint specific, desirable, measureable management behaviours, and translated these into detailed, hands-on guidance for company managers. The company discovered that data-driven cultures responded well to data-driven change.

Chapter 16: Rationale Chapter 15 provided a vocabulary with which to discuss both intra-organizational structural relations of the past and the inter-organizational structural relations of the present and the future.

Many undergraduates appear to have an antipathy to the historical material that instructors would consider to be ‘classics’ but which nevertheless provides them with a context within which to review contemporary developments so as to assess critically just how new such ‘new thinking’ really is. The implication is that when dealing with this and similar chapters, instructors have to work harder to engage and maintain the interest of students.

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This chapter remains fundamentally the same from the previous edition. It incorporates the ‘onebest-way’ organizational design ideas of classical writers such as Weber and Fayol, the early contingency theorists of the 1950s and 1960s and the strategic choice contribution of Child. There are a number of themes in this chapter which instructors can develop or disagree with in their lectures and tutorials. These are: 1. The bureaucratic forms of structural organization have had a profound effect on the operation of organizations in society, and on the nature of the work performed by employees within them.

2. That effect has been both positive and negative (depending on your perspective and definition) for the organizations as separate entitles, for their managers and for other types of employees, for example, professional, clerical staff.

3. The bureaucratic structural form continues to remain the dominant structural form for largescale organizations around the world. This is not to deny attempts by large companies to counter excessive bureaucratic tendencies, or to develop parallel, alternative structural forms.

4. There is little evidence of any wide-scale adoption of non-bureaucratic (‘agile’) structural forms for large organizations. It has been argued that, as a concept, bureaucracy is a fundamentally sound form of organizational design, but that its deficiencies stem from the way the concept has been (generally incorrectly) implemented.

By including the writings of Henri Fayol, this chapter provides a ready link from organizational behaviour to management through the question of ‘what do managers do?’ Fayol’s original answer to this question can usefully be combined with Henry Mintzberg’s later description. This topic has been updated by the inclusion Michael Porter and Nitin Nohria (2018) replication of Mintzberg’s study. Their 12-year investigation into how 27 chief executive officers managed their time was based on 60,000 hours of data. Examining their role, the authors describe it in terms of six dimensions of influence exercised by CEOs. Finally, early contingency structural theorists consider the effects of an organization’s environment and its technology on its structure. Thus, the work of environment-structure contingency theorists like Burns, Stalker, Lawrence and Lorsch can be considered in relation to the issues raised in the chapter on Environment. Similarly, the contributions of technology-structure writers like Woodward, Perrow and Thompson can be re-examined in the context of the ideas presented in the chapter on Technology.

Chapter 16: OB cinema debrief – Crimson Tide Crimson Tide (1995, director Tony Scott) DVD track 4: 0:26.49 to 0.33.30 (7 minutes) This is the story of how a global emergency provokes a power play onboard a nuclear submarine, between the battle-hardened Captain Frank Ramsay (played by Gene Hackman) who ‘goes by the book’, and his Executive Officer, Lieutenant Commander Ron Hunter (Denzel Washington).

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nuclear missiles. The clip begins with a loudspeaker announcement saying, ‘Attention all hands, the fire has been contained’, and ends with Ramsey saying to Hunter, ‘We’re here to defend democracy, not to practise it’.

As you watch this clip of the weapons test, identify an example of each of Weber’s six principles of bureaucracy.

Bureaucratic principle

Examples

1. Work specialization 2. Authority hierarchy 3. Employment and career 4. Recording 5. Rules and regulations 6. Impersonality and impartiality

Debrief Ask for examples of Weber’s six principles from the film clip and chart them up as students provide them.

Note that Principle No.4 – The bureaucratic principle of recording is not illustrated in this clip.

However, you can ask students how it features in another, different ‘ship’ – USS Enterprise in the Star Trek series – where the movie typically uses the phrase ‘Captain’s log’.

Bureaucratic principle

Examples

1. Work specialization

Captain Executive Officer ‘Clock man’ Communications officer

2. Authority hierarchy

Reference to ‘chain-of-command’ Uniforms and chevrons

3. Employment and career

Trained for job Qualifying examinations Junior seaman to Admiral of the Fleet

4. Recording

(Captain’s log)

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5. Rules and regulations

Elaborate procedure Ritualised speech Repetition of given order

6. Impersonality and impartiality

Illness among junior ranks Anybody can be charged with mutiny Promotion on merit

Key learning points 1. Weber continues: Despite much criticism, Weber’s bureaucratic principles of organization structure (developed a 100 years ago) continue to determine the structure of the majority of large organizations to this day.

2. Bureaucracy’s problems: Many problems experienced by organizations, for example, confusion about employees work tasks and decision-making responsibilities, inadequate staff training, the failure to retain accurate records or follow rules as well as issues of employee discrimination and unfair treatment of customers, all relate back to Weber’s principles.

3. Bureaucracy’s advantages: However, bureaucracy offers many advantages to those who control and direct large companies and there is a lack of a viable alternative structural model.

Chapter 16: Exercise 1 debrief – Debra’s diary Objectives 1. To contrast management roles with management activities.

2. To identify examples of each.

Briefing 1. Remind yourself of Mintzberg’s ten management roles and Fayol’s six managerial activities.

2. Form groups and nominate a spokesperson.

3. Read the case Debra’s Day and then: (a) Identify one example of each of Mintzberg’s ten roles played by Debra. (b) Identify one example of each of Fayol’s six managerial activities performed by Debra.

Debriefing Begin by checking that all students have a copy of the exercise. Distribute copies to those who have not.

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Whole class 1. Remind students of Mintzberg’s ten management roles and Fayol’s six managerial activities (Handout A) 2. Check that students have a copy of the scoring sheet from the textbook. Otherwise distribute Handout B. Groups Divide class into groups of 4–6 students and ask them to nominate a spokesperson Variations MBA student questions Think of a manager whom you observed.

•

Can you give examples of some of the roles she/he performed?

•

Were these roles performed effectively in your view?

•

How did this person’s role performance affect your work?

•

Consider your own work over the past week. Note down the tasks that you performed. Classify them using Mintzberg’s framework.

•

What does this tell you about your job?

Whole class Use these questions to continue the discussion if required.

1. What is the difference between management roles and management activities?

2. What is missing in Fayol’s list that can be found in Mintzberg’s?

3. How might the goals of an organization (e.g. public vs. private sector) affect the importance of the management roles? Which would be the most / least important management roles in these organizations?

4. How might the hierarchical level of the manager (senior, middle, junior manager, supervisor) affect the frequency with which the various management roles were played?

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Handout A Fayol’s six managerial activities Forecasting

(F)

Predicting what will happen in the future.

Planning

(P)

Devising a course of action to meet that expected demand.

Organizing

(O)

Mobilising materials and resources by allocating separate tasks to different departments, units and individuals.

Motivating

(M)

Providing direction to employees. Originally called commanding or directing.

Co-ordinating

(COO)

Making sure that activities and resources are working well together towards the common goal.

Controlling

(CON)

Monitoring progress to ensure that plans are being carried out properly.

Mintzberg’s ten managerial roles Role

Description

Examples

Interpersonal roles arise directly from a manager’s formal authority and concern relations with others.

Figurehead

(F)

Performs symbolic, representative obligatory ceremonial, legal and social duties.

Greets visitors; presents retirement gifts; signs contracts; takes clients to lunch; opens premises; attends annual dinners.

Leader

(LE)

Creates the necessary culture and structure to motivate employees to achieve organizational goals.

Increases productivity through hiring, staffing, developing, coaching, training and directing employees. Provides challenging assignments.

Liaison

(LI)

Maintains network of contacts with those inside and outside own unit or organization who provide information and favours.

Attends staff and professional meetings; lunches with customers; meets departmental managers. Also uses email and phone.

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Informational roles concern how information is used in the manager’s job, where it comes from and to whom it is communicated.

Monitor

(M)

Scans environment for information to understand the working of own organization and its environment.

Questions subordinates and contacts; receives information from network contacts; reads business magazines; talks to customers; and attends conferences.

Disseminator

(D)

Transmits information received from outsiders to the members of own organization (internal direction)

Makes phone calls; sends memos, and emails; writes reports; holds meetings with bosses, peers and subordinates.

Spokesperson

(S)

Transmits information to outsiders on organization’s views, policies, actions and results (external direction).

Gives press conferences; media interviews; speeches to external groups; prepares weekly status reports; conducts internal team briefings.

Decisional roles: their requirements are determined by the manager’s role, seniority and availability of information.

Entrepreneur

(E)

Searches the organization and its environment for new opportunities, and initiates planned, voluntary changes.

Develops new products, processes and procedures; reorganises departments; and implements innovative employee payment systems.

Disturbance handler

(DH)

Takes corrective action when organization has to react to important, involuntary, unexpected changes.

Intervenes to avoid a strike; deals with customer complaints; resolves personal conflicts between staff.

Resource allocator

(RA)

Allocates resources to different departments by making approval decisions.

Budgets; schedules programmes; assigns personnel; plans strategically; determines manpower load; sets targets.

Negotiator

(N)

Participates in sales or labour negotiations. Resolves interdepartmental arguments.

Negotiates merger details; supplier contracts; wage settlements and in internal disputes.

Item B Handout Mintzberg 1. Held a meeting with all staff to inform them about the government’s new requirements for the feeding and management of elderly patients.

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D

Fayol

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2. Closed the ward with the MRSA problem; instigated a ‘deep clean’ procedure to ensure that this outbreak within the hospital had been contained; and introduced a new hygiene management code of conduct.

DH

3. Had the opportunity to buy a CAT scanner at a huge discount price, if we acted immediately. I called each of the board members to get them to agree to the investment. Some were unsure, but I managed to persuade them.

E

4. Went to the local radio station to represent the hospital, to be interviewed about our work and answer listeners’ calls.

F

5. Gave a presentation to a training course which clarified hospital goals, and stressed the importance of staff’s role in achieving them.

LE

6. Had lunch with our local Member of Parliament and obtained advanced information about future trends in government health care policy and funding.

LI

7. Spent two hours surfing the web to discover how our hospital compares in terms of numbers of patients and staff as well as facilities, with our competitors here and abroad.

M

8. Acted to resolve a dispute between a doctor in charge of the X-Ray department and the union representative, concerning technicians.

N

9. Finalised the budgets for all the hospital departments in line with our income and organizational objectives.

RA

10. Gave a speech at the Effective Healthcare Conference describing our hospital’s approach to waste management.

S

11. Held a meeting with the different department heads to ensure nursing staff were being efficiently allocated to the different wards.

COO

12. Reviewed the food purchase data to ensure that all foodstuffs had been obtained in accordance with procedures laid down by the hospital, and that the quantities of food supplied by vendors had been specified.

CON

13. Used internet to discover illness trends among the population so as to anticipate increases and decreases for our various medical services.

F

14. Devised a new ‘pay for performance’ compensation system which ensured that those who had exceeded their targets were appropriately rewarded.

M

15. In anticipation of the upcoming annual inspection, I compiled a list of tasks to be completed then assigned these to the various senior managers.

O

16. Discussed with the board of directors how the expansion of our obesity care provision would be managed over the next five years.

P

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Key learning points 1. Provide analytical frameworks: Fayol’s management activities and Mintzberg’s managerial role frameworks offer ways of analysing managerial work.

2. Frequency analysis: Such analyses can reveal the frequency with which certain activities are engaged in or roles performed in a given managerial position.

3. Selection and training: Such data can be used to select new employees for specific managerial positions, and train them to perform their management activities and play their different roles effectively in their jobs.

Chapter 16: Exercise 2 debrief – Personal structure preference test Objectives 1. To allow you to assess your preference for working within a bureaucratic organization structure.

2. Introduce you to the characteristics of Max Weber’s bureaucracy.

Briefing Individually Below are 10 statements about an organization. Imagine you are an employee, which organizational characteristic is more appealing to you – A or B? Circle your preference.

1

Job descriptions should specify my work tasks in detail and be regularly updated so everyone can make their own unique contribution.

A

B

The company should specify my job goals but leave me free to decide what to do to achieve them.

2

I like a predictable organization with no dramatic changes from day to day.

A

B

Routine is boring. Changes in goals, procedures and team members add excitement, and make the job more interesting.

3

Organization charts should be regularly updated so that everyone understands where they fit into the organization’s structure.

A

B

Organization charts provide a static picture of a company, are outdated the moment they are constructed and should be dispensed with.

4

Relationships with colleagues at work should be distanced, formal and professional to avoid personal conflicts.

A

B

Relationships with co-workers should be informal, personal and authentic so as to develop mutual trust and confidence.

5

Having rules, policies and procedures provides me with guidance and direction.

A

B

Rules, policies and procedures only slow things down. Much effort is expended in going around them to achieve goals.

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6

Authority should be clearly assigned to a position so that everyone knows who is in charge and who can direct others.

A

B

Authority should be related to the task to be completed and assigned to the person most competent to complete that task satisfactorily.

7

Senior managers should set objectives and communicate these down the hierarchy to me.

A

B

Staff should be involved in the setting of objectives in order to tap their expertise and develop their commitment to those goals.

8

There should a hierarchy of positions, in ascending order of seniority, each with their own job title, and higher pay grade that I can be promoted to.

A

B

Organization structure should flat with co-workers at the same level, sharing the same job titles with similar pay.

9

Written reports, updates and committee meeting minutes provide an indispensable record of what has been done and decided.

A

B

Writing reports and minutes that go into the archives take up time that can be better spent getting on with the job in hand.

10

New appointments should be based on a rigorous selection process that conforms to the firm’s transparent diversity and equality rules.

A

B

Departing staff leave a gap that needs rapidly filling to avoid disrupting coworkers. If a person is known to possess the required knowledge and expertise, they should be fast-tracked to fill the post without delay.

TOTAL

In groups •

Compare your score with that of your fellow group members.

•

For each statement, discuss the advantages and disadvantages to you as an employee of that structural feature for example, either having a detailed job description or being free to decide yourself what to do.

•

Did anyone experience a conflict between option A and B for any item?

•

Consider these options from the manager’s and company’s point of view.

Debriefing Preference for working in a bureaucratic organization structure: All A responses Preference for working in an organic organization structure: All B responses The objective here is to get behind the students’ stereotype of the laid-back, low/no-hierarchy company and confront them with some real scenarios so as to gauge their true preferences.

Instructors should devise questions such as:

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How would you reply when someone challenged that you weren’t doing your ‘proper job’ in the company? (question 1) How would you feel if, having worked on a project intensively for a month, you discover that the project objectives have been changed at short notice and your efforts have been wasted?

Having prepared your material for the group presentation, you discover that half your team has been reassigned to another project, and you are introduced to two tally new team members. What would be your reaction? (question 2) You require advice or permission but do not know who to go to. How would you find out in the absence of an organization chart? (question 3) You made a risqué joke which was not well-received and now you are worried that being suspended for sexual harassment. (question 4) Since failed to follow the required rules and procedures and now your company is being sued by one of its clients. (question 5)

Key learning points 1. Ubiquitous structure: Every task that is complex and involves the participation of several people involves organising and this involves creating structure. Structure can be simple and temporary or complex and long-lasting. Which it is, it is necessary for successful task completion.

2. Structure choices: Whether it is a simple or a complex structure that is being designed, the choices that have to be made are always the same and relate to issues of specialisation, hierarchy, grouping, integration, control, location, communication and uncertainty.

3. Horses for courses: Different structures will be appropriate to different tasks, environments, people, technologies and company sizes. There is no ‘one best structure’.

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CHAPTER 17

Organizational architecture Chapter 17: What’s new in this chapter?

Chapter 17: Learning outcomes and recap Chapter 17: Rationale Chapter 17: OB Cinema debrief – The Godfather and Godfather Part II Chapter 17: Exercise 1 debrief – Fabulous Sports Enterprises Chapter 17: Exercise 2 debrief – University of Grantchester Business School

Chapter 17: What’s new in this chapter?

Agile working – how does this affect team performance and engagement?

Teslafication – the pandemic made companies reconsider outsourcing supplies, and switch to vertically integrated production – like Tesla Reshoring – how does this affect how employees feel about work and colleagues, and the implications for organization citizenship behaviour?

COVID-19 Genomics UK Consortium (COG-UK) – how is this group structured to perform the complex task of identifying SARS-Cov-2 variants?

Chapter 17: Learning outcomes and recap 1. Appreciate the reason for chief executives’ need to design and redesign their organization’s structure.

•

Organization structure is one of the ways of achieving organizational goals.

•

An organizations structure will be changed as a result of changes in its strategy, size, technology, environment, globalisation and diversification.

2. Distinguish eras of organizational design and what factors stimulated each.

•

Era 1: mid-1800s to the late 1970s – self-contained organization structures.

•

Era 2: 1980s-mid to the 1990s – horizontal organization structures.

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•

Era 3: mid-1990s to date – boundaryless organization structure (hollow, modular, virtual and collaborative).

•

Era 4: Experimental organizational structures.

3. Distinguish between functional, divisional, matrix and team-based organization structures.

•

A functional structure groups activities and people according to the similarities in their work, profession, expertise, goals or resources used.

•

A divisional structure split an organization up into self-contained entities based on their organizational outputs; geographical region operated in; or the customer groups served.

•

A matrix structure combines two different types of structure for example, function and product.

•

A team-based structure consists entirely of project-type teams that co-ordinate their activities and work directly with partners and customers to achieve their goals.

4. Distinguish between an outsourcing relationship and hollow, modular and virtual organization structures.

•

An outsourcing relationship involves contracting with external providers to supply the organization with the processes and products that were previously supplied internally.

•

A hollow organization structure is based on outsourcing an organization’s non-core processes which are then supplied to it by specialist, external providers.

•

A modular organization structure involves assembling product chunks (modules) provided by internal divisions and external providers.

•

A virtual organization structure uses technology to transcend the constraints of legal structures, physical conditions, place and time, and allows a network of separate participants to present themselves to customers as a single entity.

5. Understand the trend towards companies’ collaborative relationships with competitors and users.

•

Collaboration has become a matter of integrating activities rather than integrating organizations.

•

Factors contributing to increased collaboration include the rise of partnership strategies, the knowledge economy, the working style of generation Y and advances in collaborative technology.

•

The increasing speed of change means that individual organizations lack the necessary resources, knowledge or skill to respond individually so have to collaborate with others.

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6. Compare the current organization design experiments involving agile organizations, holacratic organizations and distributed innovation systems.

•

The structure of an agile organization allows it to quickly reconfigure strategy, structure, processes, people and technology towards value-creating and value-protecting opportunities.

•

The structure of a holacratic organization is not determined by hierarchical planning but by incremental bottom-up responses that enable employees to self-organise and self-manage themselves to achieve organizational goals.

•

The structure of a distributed innovation system is designed for a form of innovation that accesses the knowledge that resides outside the boundaries of any one organization.

Chapter 17: Rationale This chapter introduces the many new structural developments taking place in organization design around the world. Its organising framework is provided by an article by Anand and Daft (2007) that divides the history of organization structures into three eras. To these we have added a fourth. This chronological theme emphasises the change from an internal focus by a company on its own structure to an external focus in which different companies and their structures mesh with each other, and with various stakeholders, in an effort to achieve mutual goals.

Recent developments in technology have triggered innovations in intra-organizational relationships, as well as those between companies and many of their stakeholder groups. The previous edition of our textbook introduced the concept of the meta-organization which is defined as networks of firms or individuals not bound by authority-based relationships based on employment relationships but characterised by a system-level goal. Collaborators with suppliers, competitors and third parties have changed the way that companies operate, and different user contribution systems, for example, crowdsourcing, are currently changing our understanding of organizational structure. In this edition, these developments in this field are explored.

Organizational practices such as agile and holographic organization designs are running ahead of academic research. Reports of new structural company innovations are being found in business management magazines rather than in academic journals. In time, the latter will catch up with the former. The task for instructors is twofold. First, to encourage students to critically assess these writings offered by management consultants and consider just how ‘new’ these structural designs actually are. Second, get them to evaluate these new structural designs in terms of their costs and benefits, not just for the company and its shareholders but also for its employees and customers.

There are two new tutorial exercises included in this edition of the textbook. The first of these Fabulous Sports Enterprises contrasts functional and divisional forms of organising, and the second, University of Grantchester Business School considers the wide range of structural design options that are available to a university possessing a business school.

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Chapter 17: OB Cinema debrief – The Godfather and Godfather Part II The Godfather and Godfather Part II are considered to be among the greatest business films of all time. They deal with corporate strategy, organization structure, start-up and entrepreneurship, geographic expansion, product development, finance, disruption, corporate communication, information security, government relations, executive succession, restructuring, leadership and beating your competitors.

To use the film in the classroom, as opposed to a class discussion following students’ private viewing of the film, search Google for Teaching Using the Godfather movie in the classroom. This will provide various study guides and activity sheets which can be used by instructors.

Chapter 17: Exercise 1 debrief – Fabulous Sports Enterprises Objectives 1. To become acquainted with the advantages and disadvantages of functional and divisional forms of organising 2. To gain an understanding of the critical need for communication among groups in a multifaceted organization 3. To recognise the need for horizontal linking processes within organizations.

4. To appreciate how the acquisition of interpersonal affinity possible within one’s own work group creates barriers with other groups that can affect performance.

Instructor advice For a detailed discussion on the objectives of the exercise, how to run and debrief it, see: Fairfield, K.D. (2016), ‘Understanding functional and divisional organizational structure: A classroom exercise’, Management Teaching Review, 1(4): 242–251

Briefing 1. Form into groups as directed by your instructor.

2. Below are listed six events that can occur within a company. For each one, decide whether it would be easier for the company to deal with if it had a functional (F) or a divisional (D) organizational structure. Give the reason for your decision.

3. With your instructor, discuss (a) how you rated each event; and (b) what effect organizational groupings (Accounting, HR, Sales & Marketing, Operations) have on interpersonal relations within and between groups and for company performance as a whole.

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Functional organization structure

Divisional organization structure

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Easier for Event

F

1. You just learned that a consulting firm is offering 5-day training for accountants next week in Manchester. The £5,000 fee is being discounted to only £2,000 if registrations are submitted in the next 24 hours. Two accountants must be selected immediately to attend.



2. A critical flaw has just been discovered in the operations/production process. It is imperative that production be shut down at all plants for at least 48 hours to discover the root cause of the problem before producing any more products.



D

3. The corporate office has authorized a crash programme to develop a new line of children’s products for Sportswear.

This requires that the needed changes are worked out between Operations, Sales and Marketing, and HR managers who are associated with this product.



4. Due to sagging corporate-wide sales, it has been announced that each division must increase profits by 10 per cent.

This requires tight coordination among personnel in Operations, Sales, Human Resources and Accounting.



5. One division is being sued for a Human Resources violation of highly complex employment laws. It is necessary to discover the cause of the violation and revise the offending policies across all product lines in the company as quickly as possible.

6. A sales representative has found out that our largest competitor has piloted a drastic price reduction for their entry into our most important product line trainers. Industry sources say that they are about to take this strategy into all of our other product lines (sportswear, equipment, etc), requiring a response from each division.





Source: adapted from Fairfield (2016)

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Reason

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Debriefing 1. When all six events have been discussed, ask the students to return to the classroom.

2. Distribute the list of events (see above).

3. Conduct a discussion on how they rated each event. The table below provides suggested answers and the rationale for each.

Event

Preferred answer – Rationale

1. Easy – Concerns only accounting group, which is centralised in one place (or reporting structure). Head of accounting can decide.

2. Easy – Operations personnel work with and know each other, are positioned to devise and disseminate solution to the problem.

3. Difficult – Immediate collaboration required by members from each function; they may not be so accustomed to automatically working together.

4. Easy – Staff from each function is accustomed to working across functions within their division, under common leadership.

5. Difficult – HR staff is probably closest to divisional colleagues, not as accustomed to collaborating with HR people in other divisions.

6. Easy – Staff can collaborate with colleagues within their division to consider product pricing, sales, manufacturing, etc.

4. Debrief the overall issues. Remind them that organizational groupings can have a big effect on both hard business issues as well as softer interpersonal relations within and across groups. The following points can be made: Pride in one’s division – A divisional setup can strongly suggest the feeling of ‘running your own business’ which can engender pride in the division – which may be a product line we set up, or a particular geographic region. That can inspire hard work, persistence and ‘ownership’ on behalf of one’s division.

Divisional rivalry – The same pride in one’s division may give rise to rivalry between divisions (We’re the best division! Let’s hear it for the Golf Division!) which could detract from people’s interest in the company overall. Is it possible that one group is pleased with record performance in its own division, but at the same time, the whole company is losing its shirt?

Parochial functional views – Notice also that with the functional organization, rivalry, or at least a narrow view, could play out. For example, the operations people may be proud of having driven down unit cost of the product by 15 per cent last year, but gross profit still dropped by 50 per cent.

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Social affinity of a group – Note that if all the accounting (or HR or Sales or Operations) people are grouped together, those are the people most likely to go out to lunch together or get together for drinks after work. They are probably buddies, which can really help get work done together within their group. It would not be the same if accountants were assigned to work groups associating daily with people from Operations, Sales and Marketing and HR. A different kind of affinity is likely to emerge, for better or worse.

Linking mechanisms – Vertical linkages are explicitly shown on an organization chart.

However, less obviously, horizontal linkages are also needed as coordinating mechanisms for functional groups to work together. These coordinating mechanisms may entail simply walking to another office for face-to-face conversations, electronic systems or routine voice or video conferences. How do functional specialists cross functional lines to devise a children’s line of products, involving Marketing, Operations and HR? How do divisional personnel coordinate across divisions regarding changes in employment laws affecting the whole company?

Size requiring division – Functional organizations may eventually have to adopt some kind of divisional structure if they grow and contain several and diverse products, lines of business or regions. Students should know that the functional/divisional description essentially pertains to the ‘first cut’ below the topmost executive. In fact, within each division, there may be breakdowns of subgroups into a functional focus, unless that level, too, is divisional.

Matrix structure – What about the matrix organization structure? While full-fledged matrix forms are relatively rare today, modified versions exist when divisional forms retain the vestiges of functional units, such as ‘shared services’ with corporate-wide oversight of various divisions’ legal, HR, public relations, finance, IT or other specialties. One diagnostic of meaningful structure is ‘Who signs off on my staff appraisal form?’ If the corporate-level accounting staff signs off on the division head’s assessments of accountants, then one can assume that there is a ‘dotted line’ connection to the division personnel suggesting that a partial matrix exists. A blending of functional and divisional forms in medium- and large-scale enterprises is extremely common.

Reorganising considerations – reorganising an enterprise can be a highly complicated undertaking. Although rare it has become increasingly common. It is usually prompted by an ongoing pattern of problems. For example, management may detect that customer service under a functional form is not customised enough for varied product lines. Regional differences may create a need for customisation in sales and marketing, product development or production, which, in turn, calls for geographic divisions. The demands for increased technical expertise might suggest that law or finance would best be centralised in a partial matrix functional fashion, pulling those experts out of existing divisions. Such partial adjustments may indeed be made while retaining an overall divisional approach.

Key learning points 1. Choice: Functional and divisional structures are two of the most common examples of company structures. They can be converted into a matrix structure.

2. Costs-benefits: Each of the two structures has its own costs and benefits.

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3. Strategic choice: It is senior company executives who decide on the type of organization structure to be adopted, and who decide when and how to re-structure the company when circumstances change.

Chapter 17: Exercise 2 debrief – University of Grantchester Business School Objectives 1. To design alternative organization structures for a business school based on different criteria of departmentalization.

2. To assess their benefits to different stakeholders

Briefing 1. Form groups of 3–5 2. Read the information about the University of Grantchester Business School (UGBS) below 3. Using the abbreviations shown, draw alternative organizational charts for the UGBS depicting organizational structures based on the five criteria shown below. Duplicate the provision of products / services as required. (a) Academic subjects taught by academic staff (b) Products / services delivered by academic staff (c) Functions performed by academic staff (d) Geography, where the product / service is delivered (e) Clients who consume the product / service provided 4. Which organization structure would you prefer and why, if you were (a) a full-time undergraduate or postgraduate student (b) an academic staff member?

Information about the University of Grantchester Business School (a) Academic subjects taught: The 100 UGBS’s academic staff are equally divided between the four main subject areas (equivalent to company functions): human behaviour (HB); financial management (FM); strategy and marketing (SM); and operations management (OM) (b) Products offered: The UGBS offers the following products: (U) – Undergraduate teaching – BA full-time students who fund themselves, taught on the main campus 205 © 2023 Pearson Education Limited. All Rights Reserved.

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(P1) – Postgraduate teaching – MBA full-time students who fund themselves, taught on the main campus (P2) – Postgraduate teaching – MBA part time – working managers, funded by their companies, taught in the city centre campus (T) – Together, these three constitute business school teaching (T = U + P1 + P2); (R) – Research conducted by academics funding by the research councils (D) – Doctoral – supervision of conducted by doctoral (postgraduate) students who fund themselves, on the main campus (C) – Consultancy – consultancy provided by academics for companies, bought by them and provided on the companies’ own premises (S) – Short courses – short (non-graduating) courses, taught by academics for working managers, paid for by their companies and run on company premises (c) Services: The school performs three major functions: teaching (T), research (R) and consultancy (C) (d) Geography: Academics can work in four locations; main campus (MC); city centre (CC); seaside residential facility (SRF); or on the company’s own premises (COP). (e) Customers: The school has three classes of customers: non-managers (NM); research councilfunders (RCF) and companies (COM)

Debriefing There are a number of different possible business school structures as shown in the organizational charts that follow. Explain that the business school can be structured in at least five different ways.

Introduce each of the five and ask/tell students the advantages (+) and disadvantages (−) of each for the students, staff and the institution: 206 © 2023 Pearson Education Limited. All Rights Reserved.

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Subject-based

Clients 1. Students and companies receive specialist inputs from subject experts (+) 2. Staff may not be equally effective in each of their roles as teacher, researcher and consultant (−) 3. Neither business problems for study by students nor company difficulties are subject specific.

Most are interdisciplinary (−) Staff 1. Increases job satisfaction as they engage in a range of duties – teaching, researching and consulting (+) 2. Can develop personally by working alongside subject colleagues (+) 3. Lose out by not interacting with colleagues from different disciplines with other perspectives (−) 4. May not be equally comfortable with all their different roles (−) 5. Problems of role conflict (supervise a student or finish a research paper) (−) Institution 1. Gain flexibility by hiring multi-skilled individuals who can teach different classes, research, supervise dissertations, do consultancy and run short courses (+) 2. Multi-skilled individuals are more expensive to employ (−)

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Function-based

Clients 1. Clients receive high-quality service from staff who are either teachers, researchers or consultants (+) 2. Less convenient when client’s needs span a function (e.g. when research and teaching are required) (−) 3. Too much specialisation can reduce client satisfaction (−) Staff 1. Develop proficiency and confidence by repeating and honing their specialist skill of teaching, researching or consulting (+) 2. Job satisfaction may be reduced by being prevented to develop in the two other skill areas (−) 3. Promotion opportunities reduced if promoted post requires experience or proficiency in all three areas (−) 4. Provides a simple communication and decision network (+) 5. Gives status to major functional areas (+) 6. Co-ordination between functional areas difficult (−) 7. Fosters parochial view on departmental objectives (−) 8. Staff identification with a specialist group makes change difficult (−) 9. Creates very specialist staff unable to teach other topics (−)

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Institution 1. Staff for each functional area can be more accurately selected (+) 2. Recruited staff can be more efficiently and cheaply trained and developed (+) 3. Different functional specialists can be paid differently according to supply and demand (+) 4. Organizational resources can be more efficiently used (e.g. a teaching building, a research centre, etc.) (+) 5. Coordination between functions made more difficult (−) 6. Employee flexibility lost and demarcation disputes may arise (−) 7. Rivalry and resentment may develop between functions for resources (−) 8. Maximises functional interests within departmental units (+) 9. Facilitates the measurement of functional outputs and results (+) 10. Preserves strategic control at top management level (+/−) 11. Costs of coordination between departments can be high (−) 12. Encourages interdepartmental rivalry (−)

Product-based

Clients 1. Students/companies deal only with the persons servicing their needs (+) 2. Staff gain familiarity with the objectives and ethos of particular programmes (+) 209 © 2023 Pearson Education Limited. All Rights Reserved.

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3. Service received is likely to be more customised, thereby meeting client needs (+) 4. Depending on the programme status, the staff allocated may be best or worst (+/−) Staff 1. Can focus their attention on, and identify with a single programme (+) 2. Are limited to a narrow range of tasks (−) 3. Promotion opportunities reduced if promoted post requires experience or proficiency in contributing to all four types of programmes (−) 4. Facilitates coordination among functions for rapid response (+) 5. Develops more broadly trained staff (+) 6. Increases coordination problems between specialised product areas (−) 7. Leads to decreased communication among specialist staff (−) Institution 1. Opportunity to subcontract work to outsiders and gain flexibility and reduce costs (+) 2. Recruitment can be specialized (+) 3. Departments can be evaluated and compared as independent product areas (+) 4. Produces duplication in teaching as different programmes often require same materials (−) 5. Evaluates departments as autonomous profit centres (+) 6. Adds flexibility to an institution’s structure (+) 7. Contributes to a duplication of services in each division (−) 8. Accommodates growth (+)

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Geography-based

Clients 1. Can choose the supply point that best suits their needs (+) 2. Allows them to change the supply point as circumstances change without interruption (+) Staff' 1. Unless each location is fully staffed, staff travel time increased between locations (−) 2. Provides staff at each location with a wide range of programmes to teach and skills to employ (+) Institution 1. Duplicates scarce and expensive resources at a number of locations (−) 2. Allows charging clients premium rates for providing parallel programmes at different locations (+) 3. Allows divisions to make better responses and adapt to local needs (+)

Client-based

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Clients 1. Focuses on client needs and adapts most closely to client backgrounds (+) 2. Offers the range of products which are likely to be acceptable to each client group (+) Staff 1. Can develop an in-depth understanding of particular clients by focusing on a small number of client categories (+) 2. The groups which constitute the category may have little in common, for example, 18-year-old undergraduates and 30-year-old doctoral research students (−) 3. Pressured to provide special treatment for certain clients (−) Institution 1. Can ‘sell-on’ products relevant to that client category (e.g. consultancy following in-house courses) (+) 2. Departmental performance dependent on performance of the market segments (−) 3. Establishing business school-wide practices with all three client categories is difficult (−) 4. Client categories may develop at an unequal pace leading to some resources being over- and under-utilized. Little flexibility available to switch resources in response to demand (−)

Key learning points 1. Options: The management of every organization has a choice as to what type of organization structure to adopt.

2. Cost-benefit: Every organization structure comes with its own costs and benefits. There is no one ideal structure.

3. Context : The choice of structure is made by an organization’s chief executives. It is influenced by political, economic, technological and other environment factors. As the context changes, so too can its structure.

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CHAPTER 18

Leadership Chapter 18: What’s new in this chapter?

Chapter 18: Learning outcomes and recap Chapter 18: Rationale Chapter 18: OB cinema debrief – The Devil Wears Prada Chapter 18: Exercise 1 debrief – Management or leadership?

Chapter 18: Exercise 2 debrief – Leadership in practice

Chapter 18: What’s new in this chapter?

Should leaders be chosen for their style?

Why are diverse top management teams more effective?

Why does a company’s market value fall when a woman is recruited to the top team?

What is holding women back – even when they have corporate support?

Leadership lessons from The Walking Dead Are female leaders more in effective in a crisis? – lessons from the Covid-19 pandemic Appearing confident can get you the leadership job – but overconfidence leads to mistakes How team leaders use eye contact to increase team performance The token female – how does she affect the performance of a male-dominated team?

Holacracy – flatten your structure and empower staff, but how well does this work?

Chapter 18: Learning outcomes and recap 1. Explain the apparent difference between the concepts of leadership and management.

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Leaders are typically portrayed as inspiring, change-oriented visionaries.

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Managers are typically portrayed as planners, organizers and controllers.

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In practice, the roles overlap, are complementary, and can be difficult to distinguish.

2. Understand the challenges facing ethnic minorities and women who aspire to leadership roles, and the case for boardroom diversity.

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Women are traditionally powerless due to discrimination and exclusion by men.

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Ethnic minorities have also been excluded from senior roles, but this is starting to change.

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Women have social and interpersonal leadership qualities, and are now more likely to be promoted on merit.

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Board gender diversity is seen in many countries as socially desirable for equality reasons.

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Diversity brings fresh perspectives and ideas, and contributes to corporate performance.

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Women often hit a glass ceiling, preventing their progress into more senior management roles.

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When organizations are in financial difficulty, they often appoint women to senior roles, where they are then vulnerable to failure; this has been described as a ‘glass cliff’.

3. Understand the relationships between personality traits and effective leadership.

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Many factors, besides personality traits, influence leadership effectiveness.

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It has proved difficult to establish a consensus on specific traits.

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The characteristics of the leader’s role also influence behaviour and effectiveness.

4. Understand why effective leaders either adapt their style to fit the organizational and cultural context in which they operate, or else find contexts which fit their personal style.

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Considerate behaviour reduces labour turnover and improves job satisfaction.

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Initiating structure improves performance but reduces job satisfaction.

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Effective leaders combine consideration with initiating structure.

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Contingency theory argues that leaders are more or less effective depending on how structured the task is, how powerful the leader is and how good the relationships are.

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Situational leadership advises the manager to use telling, selling, participating and delegating styles depending on the task, relationships and employee readiness.

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Some commentators argue that leaders cannot change their behaviour, and that to be effective they have to find organizational contexts that are suitable for their leadership style.

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Most commentators argue that leaders can and should adapt their behaviour to fit the context and the culture in which they are operating.

5. Explain contemporary trends in this field concerning new leadership, the dispersal of leadership, and the argument that leaders are unnecessary.

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One trend emphasises charismatic, visionary, inspirational new leaders.

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New leadership, superleader and transformational leadership are close synonyms.

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Distributed or shared leadership can be observed at all organizational levels.

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The new visionary leader helps to develop leadership capability in others.

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The new leader has the right traits, and the right style, for the contemporary context, thus combining notions of trait-spotting, style-counselling and context-fitting.

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Some charismatic, visionary leaders are potentially dangerous, because they can destabilise an organization; management capabilities are more important.

Chapter 18: Rationale This chapter has been revised with new research. In particular, look out for studies showing that women make better leaders than men, especially in a crisis, based on evidence from the Covid-19 pandemic. Do you use movies and television series as learning aids? If so, we suggest that The Walking Dead (2010–2022; authors Robert Kirkman, Tony Moore and Charlie Adlard) offers a laboratory for exploring the effectiveness of different leadership styles in managing crises.

The structure of the chapter is largely unchanged from the previous edition, and concerns the evolution of leadership thinking through six main phases: 1. trait-spotting; 2. style-counselling; 3. context-fitting; 4. new leadership; 5. distributed leadership; 6. who needs leaders?

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The barriers facing women who aspire to senior leadership positions have attracted a lot of recent attention. Among those barriers are popular movies that reinforce overt and unconscious gender bias. We report research exploring why African American women are under-represented in senior leadership roles in big American companies. However, the ‘hard and soft’ benefits of gender diversity in the boardroom are now widely recognised. Research also suggests that women behave more ethically than men. The section on women in management and leadership roles has thus been updated, with research on women in company board-level positions and the effectiveness of more diverse boards. Also included is discussion of the ways in which women are affected by issues such as the ‘glass ceiling’, the ‘glass slope’, the ‘glass cliff’ and the ‘labyrinth’ that women seeking senior positions have to negotiate (in contrast with the ‘glass escalator’ that takes men to the top).

The development of leadership thinking follows the treatment in previous editions. Those six perspectives are set out as though they are both chronological and developmental. Research initially attempted (and failed) to identify leadership traits, so attention switched to the identification of different leadership (and management) styles, progressing to the understanding that ‘effective’ leadership is contingent on a number of contextual factors in addition to the personality and skills of the individual leader. Contemporary thinking has given leaders a ‘visionary’ or ‘transformational’ role, while simultaneously recognising that leadership behaviours are distributed and can be observed at all organizational levels.

The chapter argues, however, that this progressive sequence is misleading. Much of the commentary surrounding new leaders, superleaders and transformational leaders returns to traitspotting, seeking to identify the critical characteristics, personality traits, attributes and competencies that contribute to leadership effectiveness. As the opening section of the chapter indicates, much of the ‘historical’ material on leadership is actually ‘current’. The concept of leadership is widely recognised as significant in what appears to be an increasingly turbulent and unpredictable world. It is perhaps disappointing to observe that, in this context, it appears that oversimplified and outdated recipes for leadership effectiveness and success continue to displace theoretically more complex and contextually sensitive contingency perspectives.

Chapter 18: OB cinema debrief – The Devil Wears Prada The Devil Wears Prada (2006, director David Frankel): DVD track 2: 0:03:20 to 0:09:47 (7 minutes). Track 2 begins with Andy coming out of the lift and heading for the office reception desk. Clip ends when she is called back into the office as she is walking away.

Based on the novel by Lauren Weisberger, this movie tells the story of a naive, young aspiring journalist, Andrea (Andy) Sachs (played by Anne Hathaway) who gets a job as assistant to the famous editor-in-chief of the fashion magazine Runway. The magazine’s powerful and ruthless editor, Miranda Priestly (Meryl Streep) is a legend. In this clip, we see Andy arriving for her job interview as ‘second assistant’ with Miranda’s ‘first assistant’ Emily Charlton (Emily Blunt).

Miranda, however, decides to conduct the interview herself.

1. How would you describe Miranda Priestley’s leadership style?

Identify specific behaviours to support your conclusions.

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2. What impact does Miranda’s leadership style have on those around her?

Identify specific employee behaviours to support your conclusions.

3. Good boss or bad boss: what is your assessment of this leadership style?

Cite specific evidence of her impact on individual performance and organizational effectiveness to support your judgement.

4. To what extent does this leadership style apply in the real world, beyond Hollywood?

Consider aspects of individual personality, organizational context and industry sector in making this judgement.

5. Why do you think Miranda Priestly gave Andy the job?

Copy this table for your students to complete as they watch this clip: Leadership behaviours

Impact on employees

Debriefing 1 and 2: How would you describe Miranda Priestley’s leadership style, and what is the impact of this leadership style on those around her? Responses should include: Leadership behaviours

Impact on employees

Miranda is cold, impersonal, distant and aloof.

She talks down to her subordinates, especially to her assistants, and she has little eye contact.

She avoids greetings and ‘small talk’ when she meets up with someone and her conversation goes straight to work topics.

She does the talking; others listen.

She is immaculately dressed with fashionable and expensive clothing, shoes and accessories.

Those around her are fearful of her presence.

There is a warning system in place to alert staff that she is coming.

Knowing that her arrival is imminent, staff rush around tidying, and hiding items (such as unfashionable shoes) that she may not want to see in the office.

They clearly feel the need to have everything ‘right and proper’ before she arrives.

A member of staff steps out of the elevator on the ground, with an apology, so that Miranda can travel to her floor in private.

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She (or her stylist) has taken great care with her hair and makeup.

She is intimidating and bullying.

She expects rapid responses, creativity and high levels of proficiency in her staff.

She is impatient with those who do not act or react quickly enough.

She is quick to offer criticisms and insults.

Those around her want to work for her.

They want to please her.

To achieve this they strive to improve their performance, working faster and smarter.

A good reference from Miranda is a careermaker.

3. Good or bad boss? The evidence is mixed. While we may not condone intimidation and bullying, these behaviours have a motivational impact. The line between intimidation, on the one hand, and high performance expectations, on the other, is blurred. Asked if they would like to work for a manager with this style, students tend to be divided, and those who respond positively may add, ‘for a limited period’.

4. Roderick Kramer cites evidence and examples which suggest that this is a widespread and potentially effective leadership or management style. At a personal level, intimidators have political intelligence, which allows them to exploit the weaknesses and insecurities of others.

They are prepared to act in an abrasive manner to get things moving, to make things happen.

This can be particularly appropriate when time is short and the stakes are high. The business of a fashion magazine is always operating to the looming copy deadline for the next edition, while seeking not only to be up to date with fashion trends but also to be setting those trends for the rest of the sector in order to maintain a leading market position. Miranda’s style may thus also be appropriate to this particular sector.

5. Andy appears to be especially unsuited for the job of assistant to Miranda Priestley. She has no personal fashion sense, and has no knowledge of either the magazine or the industry. Miranda at first dismisses Andy, who turns around and leaves. But Miranda changes her mind, and tells her assistant Emily to call her back and give her the job. We don’t know why Miranda gives Andy the job, but we can guess. Was it because Andy isn’t the same as all the other previous assistants, because she isn’t prepared to submit to and to agree with Miranda, because she is different?

Key learning points 1. Intimidation works: Contrary to expectations, and to most practical advice on the matter, an intimidating leadership style can motivate others to higher levels of performance.

2. Break rules to get things done: Intimidating leaders are prepared to ‘break the rules’ and to act in an abrasive manner in order to make things happen and to get things done.

3. A context-dependent style: The effectiveness of this style of leadership depends on the context, and may be more appropriate in high-pressure settings where time is short and the stakes are high.

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Chapter 18: Exercise 1 debrief – Management or leadership?

Objectives 1. To explore differences in the definition of the concepts of management and leadership.

2. To consider whether and how our understanding and use of these terms is changing.

Briefing Are leadership and management different roles, or do they overlap? Look at this list of responsibilities. Are these management or leadership responsibilities, or could they fall into both categories? Use the checklist to locate each of these responsibilities, depending on whether you feel they are management-oriented, leadership-oriented or both.

Responsibilities list 1. Consult staff about hybrid working

2. Monitor and control budgets 3. Assign work tasks to others

4. Forecast business trends using big data

5. Design induction procedures for new recruits

6. Set business goals

7. Analyse causes of cost overruns

8. Write a five-year strategic plan

9. Give orders when things go wrong

10. Coach staff with weak skills 11. Introduce updated systems and procedures

12. Coordinate several major change projects

13. Launch new corporate values

15. Take steps to motivate and inspire staff

14. Fire someone for sexist or racist behaviour

16. Develop a retention strategy 17. Prioritise the corporate 18. Embark on a corporate to keep valuable older social responsibility agenda digital transformation workers 19. Describe your vision of the business in 10 years’ time

20. Reallocate budgets to 21. Coordinate the work of incentivise diversity in frontdifferent teams line staff recruitment

22. Prioritise objectives

23. Monitor performance and take corrective action if necessary

24. Develop a new product or service

25. Create a board-level role responsible for achieving the company’s ‘net zero’ target

26. Introduce equality, diversity and inclusivity policies

27. Discipline someone for poor timekeeping

28. Interview job applicants

29. Chair meetings

30. Set standards

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Responsibilities checklist management responsibility

aspects of both management and leadership responsibility

leadership responsibility

Class discussion Consider why you placed each of those activities in those categories: 1. What makes an activity a management activity?

2. What is distinctive about leadership activities?

3. If you put some activities in the middle, why did you do that?

4. In what ways, if at all, is society’s view of leadership changing, and why?

5. Are there any current trends and developments which encourage managers to monitor and control rather than to exercise leadership?

Debriefing This exercise helps to identify perceived differences between management and leadership. Some commentators (John Kotter) argue for a clear distinction. Others (Henry Mintzberg) argue that, in practice, these concepts and roles overlap. It is also possible to argue that these are socially constructed roles and that the differences lie in our use of language rather than in substantive differences in behaviour. The discussion generated by this exercise helps to expose these conceptual issues, and also to relate them to personal beliefs and behaviours as well as to the observation of managers and leaders in action.

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Do we still have a stereotype of the leader as the lone charismatic hero with an inspiring vision? Or do we now recognise leadership in the actions of managers and staff at all levels of the organization? The aim of this discussion is to identify the assumptions that underpin our judgements concerning the differences between management and leadership. Typically, management is seen as being concerned with administration and control, while leadership is concerned with progress and change. Managers are seen as rational; do this and you will be rewarded. Leaders are seen as emotional; follow me and you will feel good.

But are these false distinctions? Surely management and leadership activities need to combine in order to get results. Leaders who don’t manage and managers who don’t lead are likely to achieve very little.

Key learning points 1. Rational managers: We tend to think of management as a rational activity which achieves results through control.

2. Emotional leaders: We tend to think of leadership as an emotional activity which achieves results through inspiration.

3. Overlap in practice: In practice the distinction between management and leadership is not clear, and there are different perceptions of how these roles differ, with some commentators arguing that there is no difference. These are just different and complementary facets of the same role.

4. The changing view of leadership: Our views of management and leadership seem to be changing, with less emphasis on charismatic senior figures, and widespread recognition of the interactions of management and staff at all organizational levels.

5. The power of combination: However these terms are defined, management and leadership probably need to combine in order to achieve results in an organization.

Chapter 18: Exercise 2 debrief – Leadership in practice Objectives 1. To relate the theory and concepts of leadership to practice.

2. To assess critically how leaders are typically seen and portrayed.

Briefing 1. Identify two business, sports or political leaders, one male and one female, past or present, with whom you are familiar through the media, or through movies based on their lives.

2. What traits and other characteristics do they have? To what extent do they conform to traditional female and male leadership stereotypes?

3. How are their leadership styles portrayed: participative, considerate, task-oriented, autocratic, transformational, for example? How do their styles influence their effectiveness?

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4. What conclusions can you draw about leadership effectiveness, and about the way in which society sees leaders?

Debrief First check that all students have a copy of the four discussion questions. Distribute copies to those who have not. This exercise can be run using a classic tutorial sequence: Individual reflection (10 minutes); Group discussion to share, combine and record views (20 minutes); Plenary feedback (20 minutes); Instructor’s debriefing (10 minutes). The nature of the group discussion and plenary feedback will of course depend on the leaders identified in question 1.

Key learning points 1. Traits and characteristics: Depending on the size of the student group, and the range of leaders chosen for analysis, the list of traits and characteristics that your group generates could be extremely diverse. This reflects the findings of early research that used a ‘trait spotting’ approach, and failed to find much common ground in terms of shared leadership characteristics.

This variety thus highlights the argument that leaders do not all share the same profile, and reinforced the view that effective leadership is contingent – that performance or success depends on the context. The ‘identikit’ approach – still popular – that tries to specify the ‘characteristics of effective leaders’ is therefore suspect. It is possible that students may dispute the characteristics attributed to selected leaders. Is that football club manager really decisive?

Can that politician really be described as inspirational? Those disagreements can be useful in exploring the argument that leadership is as much about style as substance: acting in ways that appear to inspire and to display decisiveness, for example.

2. Traditional stereotypes: The discussion under this heading will once again depend on the size and gender composition of the student group, as well as on the leaders chosen for analysis.

Some evidence is likely to conform to more traditional ‘alpha’ or ‘macho’ male leadership stereotypes. However, this topic has attracted much popular media attention and commentary, as well research. The list of traits and characteristics discussed here is likely to be as wide as under the previous heading, thus challenging the notion of simple male/female stereotyping in this area.

3. Portrayals and effectiveness: We want our leaders to be charismatic, considerate, participative and transformational – but we also want them to take charge, and to be decisive and directive in a crisis. The media pictures of leaders in action are thus important in shaping our views, not only of their characters, but also of how effective they are in dealing with particular situations and problems. Daniel Kahneman argues that many successful leaders are just lucky: leaders own accounts, and media stories, rarely use that explanation, attributing success to experience, character and expertise.

4. Society’s view of effective leaders: Two of the main conclusions to emphasise here concern the contingent nature of leadership effectiveness, and the contribution of luck, opportunity and chance to a leader’s performance. Are these evidence-informed views consistent with media portrayals and our socially constructed view of the concept of ‘effective leadership’? Invite students to view more critically media accounts of leaders’ characters and performance.

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CHAPTER 19

Change Chapter 19: What’s new in this chapter?

Chapter 19: Learning outcomes and recap Chapter 19: Rationale Chapter 19: OB cinema debrief – Charlie’s Angels Chapter 19: Exercise 1 debrief – Mis-managing change Chapter 19: Exercise 2 debrief – Force-field analysis

Chapter 19: What’s new in this chapter?

We need to talk about organizational change–why do 75 per cent of programmes fail?

Too stressed to be effective? – or are you not stressed enough?

Pragmatic resistance – the benefits of undermining a poorly designed change initiative Best Buy, Etsy, Thai Union, Levi’s, Kodak – case studies of change

Chapter 19: Learning outcomes and recap 1. Explain why effective change management is important, to organizations and to individuals.

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Organizations that do not adapt to changing circumstances may see their performance deteriorate, and may go out of business.

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The pace of organizational change means that individuals need to ‘future proof’ their careers by constantly gaining new knowledge and skills.

2. Identify the main external and internal triggers of organizational change.

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Change can be triggered by factors internal and external to the organization, and can also be proactive by anticipating trends and events.

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Change varies in depth, from shallow fine tuning, to deep transformational change.

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The broad direction of change in most organizations is towards becoming less mechanistic and bureaucratic, and more adaptive, responsive and organic.

3. Explain the issues that management must take into account to ensure that change is successful.

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The ‘basics’ of change implementation include clear benefits, strong leadership, powerful change agents, constant communication, employee engagement, short-term wins and making sure that change is embedded in the culture.

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The timing and pacing of change are also important: too slow, and organizational survival may be at risk, but too fast, and staff may be overloaded, and demotivated.

4. Understand the typical characteristics of human responses to change.

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Change typically begins with high expectation which, if the process is not managed effectively, can plunge into a ‘valley of despair’.

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The Yerkes–Dodson Law states that the initial response to pressure is improved performance, and that increasing pressure leads to fatigue, and ultimately breakdown.

5. Understand the nature of resistance to change and approaches to overcoming it.

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Resistance is valuable, in preventing bad ideas from being implemented. Also valuable is pragmatic resistance which deliberately sabotages poor initiatives in order to replace them with more effective changes.

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Resistance to change has many sources, including self-interest, lack of trust and understanding, competing assessments of the outcomes and low tolerance of change.

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One technique for addressing possible resistance to change, as well as identifying and strengthening support for change, is stakeholder analysis.

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The main prescribed approach for avoiding or dealing with resistance is participative management, in which those affected are involved in implementation.

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The use of manipulation and coercion to implement change are advocated by some commentators, but the ‘political’ role of management in change is controversial.

6. Explain the advantages and limitations of participative methods of change management.

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Participative methods can generate creative thinking and increase employee commitment to change, but this process is time-consuming.

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Some commentators argue that rapid and major corporate transformations are more successful when implemented using a dictatorial or coercive style.

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7. Understand the significance of innovation, and the distinction between sustaining, disruptive, and operational innovations.

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Innovation has become a strategic imperative in order to compete and to survive.

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Sustaining innovations are those which improve existing services and products.

•

Disruptive innovations introduce completely new services and products.

•

Operational innovations concern new ways of organising, managing and working.

8. Explain the organizational properties that stimulate and stifle innovation respectively.

•

Innovations can be sustaining, disruptive or operational.

•

New ideas are not automatically adopted. The perceptions of adopters are as important as the innovation itself.

•

The diffusion of innovation is influenced by five groups: innovators, early adopters, early majority, late majority and laggards.

9. Recognize the challenges facing innovative change leaders.

•

The successful development of something new is exciting and challenging, but can involve a high rate of failure before the winning design is found.

•

Organizations vary in their tolerance for and treatment of failure; even ‘praiseworthy’ failures can attract blame and punishment.

•

We can become more innovative by practising the five habits of associating, questioning, observing, experimenting and networking.

Chapter 19: Rationale This is one of the more complex and perhaps difficult chapters in this text. The contemporary nature and significance of organizational change, however, makes this topic particularly important, as a high proportion of planned change efforts fail (allegedly). How can this high failure rate be explained? The chapter covers different aspects of change and different levels of analysis, exploring individual emotional responses to change, the causes of resistance, practical change implementation guidelines and the nature of the demanding role of the change agent. The continuing debate concerning the need for agility and adaptability, versus the dangers of ‘the acceleration trap’ is retained.

Although complex, this topic is eminently practical, with clear organizational and individual implications. It is therefore not difficult to find ways to apply either the theoretical perspectives or the practical analytical tools in this chapter to concrete settings with which students will be familiar.

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including Best Buy, Etsy, Thai Union, Levi’s and Kodak. Other research which has been added to this chapter demonstrates links between organizational change and counter-productive work behaviour, and suggests that the best resourced changes are not always successful.

Chapter 19: OB cinema debrief – Charlie’s Angels Charlie’s Angels (2000, director Joseph McGinty Nichols – ‘McG’ – 2000): DVD track 14: 0:35:57 to 0:38:10 (3 minutes). Clip begins with the Angels’ car pulling up outside the company headquarters. Clip ends when Alex says, ‘Better yet, can anyone show me?’

Alex (played by Lucy Liu) masquerading as an ‘efficiency expert’ leads the Angels into the Red Star corporation headquarters, in an attempt to penetrate their security systems. As you watch this 3minute clip, consider the following questions: 1. Is this an organization that stimulates or smothers creativity and innovation?

2. How do you know? What are the clues, visual and spoken, that support your assessment of the organization culture?

This short clip is an entertaining and memorable introduction to the role that organizational properties play in stifling and stimulating innovation. The evidence from this clip suggests that The Red Star Corporation has an ‘innovation stifling’ culture; the clues pointing in this direction are summarised below along with their implications. Copy this table for students to complete as they watch the movie: Clues e.g. all-male workforce

Implications e.g. no diversity

Here is a transcript of Alex’s presentation to the company’s engineers. This can be reproduced as a handout as a memory aide and to stimulate further ideas:

Alex’s presentation Your methodologies are antiquated and weak.

Your procedures of approval ensure that only the least radical ideas are rewarded.

Meanwhile, your competition is innovating.

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You! What was the last suggestion you made to your boss?

I thought the Coke machine should be free.

Why? Because caffeine helps us programme.

Perfect, smart, simple and logical. And what did your boss say?

He said no.

Question! Who builds the products of this company? You do. Engineers do. Not managers. They should be answering to you, not you to them.

Who else has an idea like this man’s Coke machine? [all hands are raised] All right! Tell me! Better yet, can anyone show me?

Debriefing After watching the clip, ask students to shout out the clues which suggest whether this organization is innovation stimulating or innovation smothering. As each clue is identified, record on whiteboard or flipchart, and ask for an explanation of the implications of that piece of evidence for creativity and innovation. The clues and their implications are: Clues

Implications

straight rows of equally spaced desks facing in the same direction with identical tidy desktop layouts

order, discipline, routine, standardization, regimentation, don’t ‘step out of line’

absence of colour, everything white, flat bright lighting

no distractions, no colours, no stimulations, focus on the task in hand

all-male workforce

no diversity; these are software engineers, forgive them, it’s not their fault

a ditzy female administrator

even less diversity, women limited to subordinate ‘backroom’ positions

identical male office wear

no freedom of expression, suppression of personal identity by ‘uniform’

tiered formal lecture theatre

one-way, top-down communication is the norm using this layout

procedures reward mediocrity

radical thinking is discouraged

managers reject ideas from below

don’t challenge your boss, keep those great ideas to yourself, you’ll only get into trouble

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With regard to an organization’s culture, it is interesting to note how much evidence can be generated in just 3 minutes of observation. Beyond Hollywood, similar evidence is available to us every time we walk into an organization, if we are prepared to pay attention.

Key learning points 1. Everyone is creative: We are all capable of generating creative, innovative ideas.

2. Context matters: Organization culture and management style can smother creativity and innovation.

3. The external sock factor: It often takes an ‘external shock’ (or person), to recognise the need to change the organization culture, to become more innovative.

4. Show me, don’t tell me: If you come up with a great idea, don’t tell me, show me.

Chapter 19: Exercise 1 debrief – Mis-managing change Objectives 1. To identify tactics that can be used to delay, modify or sabotage organizational changes.

2. To establish how easy it is to disrupt organizational changes.

3. To identify ‘best practice’ guidelines for effectively managing change, by reversing the mismanagement advice.

Briefing This exercise involves ‘reverse brainstorming’: finding bad solutions to a problem rather than, as usual, looking at ‘best practice’ (Hagen et al., 2016). The problem is this. Senior management has announced plans for a radical organizational restructuring. The aims are to reduce hierarchy, streamline decision-making, cut costs and give customers a better service. You have seen the plans, and you don’t like them. Some people will lose their jobs. Many people – including you – will have bigger workloads and will have to learn new skills. Customers will no longer have a named company contact. Response to customer queries will be slower than before.

Divide into groups of 3 or 4 to decide if there anything that can be done about this. You may have personal experience – on which you can draw – of previous organizational changes that did not go well. What happened in those cases? Your team brief is as follows: •

Identify the tactics that you or others in the organization could use in order to delay, modify or sabotage management’s reorganization plans.

•

These tactics could involve not doing certain things, as well as taking active steps.

•

Be creative: draw up as wide a range of spoiling tactics as possible – but they must be practical and realistic.

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•

Assess what the use of these tactics will cost, in financial terms.

•

Assess the probability of these spoiling tactics having the desired result.

Present your findings to the whole class. If time allows, reverse the question, turning your thinking into positives: what should be the ‘best practice’ guidelines for effectively managing change?

Debriefing Students typically find the concept of ‘reverse brainstorming’ – identifying bad solutions to a problem – unusual and entertaining. However, most groups have little difficulty in generating an appropriate list of spoiling tactics, which may include active steps or, as the briefing suggests, doing nothing at all in some areas; don’t provide resources, don’t explain, don’t communicate and so on.

As this is a creative task, based on experience, the chapter content may not be of much help. But having demonstrated how to sabotage a change initiative, it is not difficult to turn that advice around – ‘reverse engineering’ – to identify what should be done to ensure the success of the initiative. This is likely to be close to Kotter’s eight-step model or to Stouten’s ten-step approach. The similarities and differences between those tidy textbook models and students’ thinking can make a valuable discussion. Why for example if the advice is straightforward do so many changes fail?

Key learning points 1. Sabotage is cheap and easy: Most groups identify a long list of spoiling tactics quickly and without difficulty. Pressed on the costing of those tactics, it turns out that most if not all of them are free. In other words, if you want to derail a change programme, it won’t be difficult, and it won’t be expensive. This observation may hold part of the answer to the high failure rate of planned organizational change.

2. Knowing how not to do it helps us understand how to get it right: Turning the list of tactics generated by group discussion into a recipe for success is not problematic in this exercise. One variant on this exercise, depending on the number of syndicate or table groups, is to assign the positive question – ‘how should management go about introducing the changes effectively’ – to one or more groups, and assigning the ‘sabotage’ question to the others.

3. Reverse brainstorming: This can sometimes be a novel and creative way to identify solutions to difficult challenges, especially when traditional methods have not produced results. Thinking of how not to do something that is potentially useful is an unusual way of thinking, which can unlock creative ideas. This approach can be applied to many other problems area, and to the topics of other chapters in this text (how to make a team fail; how to really demotivate employees; what makes a really lousy leader).

For a further discussion of the nature and uses of the technique of reverse brainstorming see: Hagen, M., Bernard, A. and Grube, E. (2016). ‘Do it all wrong!: using reverse brainstorming to generate ideas, improve discussions, and move students to action’, Management Teaching Review, 1 (2): 85–90.

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Chapter 19: Exercise 2 debrief – Force-field analysis Objective 1. To demonstrate the technique of force-field analysis in planning change.

Briefing Force-field analysis is a method for assessing the issues supporting and blocking movement towards a given set of desirable outcomes, called the ‘target situation’. The forces can be scored, say from 1 (weak) to 10 (strong), to calculate (approximately) the balance of forces.

If the driving forces are overwhelming, then the change can go ahead without significant problems.

If the resisting forces are overwhelming, then the change may have to be abandoned, or delayed until conditions have improved.

If the driving and resisting forces are more or less in balance, then the force-field analysis can be used to plan appropriate action. The extent to which the force field is balanced is a matter of judgement. Used in a group setting, this method provides a valuable way to structure what can often be an untidy discussion covering a wide range of factors and differing perceptions.

For this analysis, your target situation is ‘to double the time that I spend studying organizational behaviour’. In groups of 3, complete the analysis using the following table as a guide. First identify as many driving and restraining forces as you can. Then, reach a group consensus on a score for each of those forces, from 1 (weak) to 10 (strong). Finally for this stage of the analysis, calculate the totals for each side of the force field.

When you have completed this analysis, and added the scores, estimate the probability (high, medium or low) of reaching your target situation if the force-field stays the same.

Target situation: to double the time that I spend studying organizational behaviour Scores

Driving forces >>>>>

= total driving forces score

<<<<< Restraining forces

total restraining forces score =

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Scores

Buchanan and Huczynski, Organizational Behaviour 11e, Instructor’s Manual

Draw up a practical action plan for managing the field of forces in order to increase the probability of reaching the target situation. In devising your plan, remember that: •

Increasing the driving forces can often result in an increase in the resisting forces. This means that the current equilibrium does not change, but is maintained with increased tension.

•

Reducing the resisting forces is preferable as this allows movement towards the desired outcomes or target situation without increasing tension.

•

Group norms are an important force in shaping and resisting change.

Debriefing First check that all students have a copy of the exercise. Distribute copies to those who have not.

This should be a ‘fun’ exercise, given that some students may not entirely agree with the ‘target situation’. The point, of course, is to demonstrate how the method can be applied to other proposed changes and target situations, and to illustrate the strengths and limitations of the approach. It may be necessary to emphasise that the main aim of the scoring process is to expose differences in opinion among those who are conducting the analysis, to stimulate debate and, if possible, consensus. The scoring is not designed to produce ‘hard numbers’ on which to base decisions. You may also point out that the same issues or factors can appear as both driving and restraining forces (in this case stress, and peer pressure, perhaps). Finally, the force-field analysis does not lead logically to any particular set of actions. As with the design of change in general, management of the force field can be informed by this analysis, but identifying appropriate action is also a creative process.

Key learning points 1. Useful diagnostic: Force-field analysis can be a useful technique for identifying and assessing the factors promoting and blocking change, improving problem definition and understanding.

2. Context-dependent: The technique cannot be applied to all settings, and does not work well where the target situation is poorly defined.

3. False rigour: The analysis has a false appearance of scientific rigour; the ‘arithmetic’ of the method has low credibility, and the scores are only indicative.

4. Indirect link to action: The analysis does not point automatically or directly to appropriate action.

5. Drivers are resistors: This can become confusing, as some driving factors can occasionally appear also on the resisting side of the analysis.

6. Can constrain creativity: Critical and creative thinking can be constrained by this framework.

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7. Platform for debate: The analysis captures and exposes critical factors and issues for debate.

8. Platform for group consensus: Used in group setting, the method serves as a platform for establishing consensus, and it also helps to locate and define disagreement, so those involved know where they stand.

9. Platform for action planning: The technique is a useful platform for action planning.

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CHAPTER 20

Decision-making Chapter 20: What’s new in this chapter?

Chapter 20: Learning outcomes and recap Chapter 20: Rationale Chapter 20: Home viewing – Moneyball, Thirteen Days, The Age of Innocence, The Rescue, Thirteen Lives Chapter 20: OB in films debrief – Margin Call Chapter 20: Exercise 1 debrief – Decision types Chapter 20: Exercise 2 debrief – Which is better – Brainstorming or NGT?

Chapter 20: What’s new in this chapter?

Crisis management – participative and directive leadership compared Team performance assessment – using subjective evaluations to decide employee rewards Decision fatigue – leads to choices that are easier and safer, and involve little mental effort, but which are not necessarily better Gender bias – leads to decision-making mistakes that harm gender equality

Chapter 20: Learning outcomes and recap 1. Distinguish prescriptive, descriptive and explanatory models of decision-making and provide an example of each.

•

Prescriptive models of decision-making recommend how individuals should behave in order to achieve a desired outcome. The original prescriptive model is the rational model, while a later one was devised by Victor Vroom and Philip Yetton.

•

Descriptive models of decision-making reveal how individuals actually make decisions.

The behavioural theory of decision-making is the earliest and most influential descriptive model and was developed by Herbert Simon, John March and Richard Cyert.

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•

Explanatory models of decision-making look at what decisions were made and aim to provide an explanation of how they occurred. The heuristics and biases model developed by Kahneman, Tversky and Thaler, as well as Janis’s groupthink, illustrate these.

2. Distinguish different decision conditions on the basis of risk and programmability.

•

Decision conditions can be classified as those involving: certainty, risk and uncertainty.

•

Decisions can be classified as routine, adaptive and innovative.

3. Consider the advantages and disadvantages of group decision-making.

•

Groups offer the advantages of a greater pool of knowledge; different perspectives; greater problem comprehension; and increased acceptance of decisions.

•

Disadvantages of groups can be considered under the headings of personality factors; social conformity; diffusion of responsibility; minority domination; logrolling; goal displacement; group brainstorming, groupthink and satisficing.

4. Identify the factors used to decide whether to adopt individual or group decision-making.

•

Individual or group decision-making has been made on the basis of the following factors: type of problem or task, acceptance of decision; quality of the solution; characteristics of the individuals; and decision-making climate.

5. Match organizational conditions with the decision-making model that favour them.

•

Combining a belief about the relationship between the causes and effects of a problem with the degree of consensus about the goals of actions can direct one to choose one of four strategies with its associated decision-making model – computational / rational; judgemental/ incremental; compromise / political; or inspirational / garbage can.

Chapter 20: Rationale In managerialist textbooks, decision-making tends to be synonymous with managerial decisionmaking. The way in which managers made decisions, sometimes dubbed ‘leadership style’ is examined in detail in the chapter on Leadership. However, everyone in life, and within organizations, makes decisions, from the cleaner to the chief executive officer. How they do it, and the quality and outcomes of their decisions affect those around them.

The chapter begins by distinguishing decision-making at the individual, group and organizational levels and goes on to classify the vast amount of writing about decision-making under four main headings – rational, prescriptive, descriptive and behavioural – emphasising the differences between them. This introduction gives instructors the choice of which ‘level’ of decision-making to focus on, and which models of decision-making they wish to explore with their students.

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The environment in which decisions are made affects their process and outcome, and thus the environmental conditions of stable equilibrium, bounded instability and explosive instability are contrasted and exemplified, together with their respective decision-making conditions of certainty, risk and uncertainty.

Focusing broadly on individual decision-making, the chapter considers how the heuristics that we all use can lead to bias in our decision-making. This topic of cognitive psychology typically generates a huge interest among students as they recognise how their own views and choices have been coloured by the different biases described. Stepping up a level, the emphasis on teamworking and empowerment, discussed in the chapter on that topic, has raised the question of how teams make decisions. The problems and opportunities presented by such decision-making are examined.

Finally, and perhaps most abstractly, we consider organization-level decision-making. This is the point at which power and politics enter the picture. This section includes a brief introduction to ‘garbage can’ model of decision-making, which has challenged the established rational model of the decision-making process.

Chapter 20: Home viewing For a detailed discussion on the objectives of the exercise, how to run and debrief it, see: – Moneyball Cannon, M. and Doyle, C. (2020), ‘Challenges to advancing evidence-based management in organizations: Lessons from Moneyball’, Management Teaching Review, 5(4): 363–373.

–Thirteen Days Buchanan D. and Huczynski A. (2004), ‘Images of influence: 12 Angry Men and Thirteen Days’, Journal of Management Inquiry, 13(4): 312–323.

–The Age of Innocence Ross, J. (1996), ‘Scorcese’s The Age of Innocence: An escalation interpretation’, Journal of Management Education, 20(2): 276–285 –The Rescue A documentary film telling the daring story of the against-all-odds rescue in 2018 of 12 boys and their coach from deep inside a flooded cave in Northern Thailand (2021, directors Jimmy Chin and Elizabeth Chai Vasarhelyi).

– Thirteen Lives A movie about the rescue mission assembled in Thailand where a group of young boys and their soccer coach are trapped in a system of underground caves that are flooding (2022, director Ron Howard).

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Chapter 20: OB cinema debrief – Margin Call Instructor advice For a detailed discussion on the objectives of the exercise, how to run and debrief it, see: Werner, A. (2014), ‘Margin Call: Using film to explore behavioural aspects of the financial crisis’, Journal of Business Ethics, 122(4): 643–654 In the film, the characters have to decide whether or not to sell vast numbers of risky assets that they know to be worthless to unsuspecting buyers, in a fire sale the next morning. They use language to rationalise their behaviour and distance themselves from the moral content of their actions. The six linguistic neutralization techniques they use are: •

Denial of responsibility – the perpetrator thinks that what happened was outside their control, that they had no choice

•

Denial of injury – the perpetrator denies that any harm was done by their actions

•

Denial of the victim – the perpetrator considers those harmed by their actions to be unworthy of concern

•

Appeal to higher loyalty – the perpetrator claims that their act was done out of a sense of moral obligation

•

Everyone else is doing it – the perpetrator assumes that it is unreasonable to expect legal/ethical behaviour because others are engaging in this practice too

•

Claim to entitlement – referring to a moral obligation or a misdeed perpetrated by the victim that entitles the perpetrator to act in a particular way

The four key scenes in the film in which these techniques are found are the two night-time meetings at which the possibility of a fire sale is discussed. As you watch each clip identify which of these neutralization techniques are being used.

Chapter 20: Exercise 1 debrief – Decision types Objectives 1. To allow you to distinguish between different types of decisions.

2. To make you aware of the requirements of each type of decision.

Debriefing Begin by checking that all students have a copy of the exercise. Distribute copies to those who have not.

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The chapter defined and distinguished between routine (R), adaptive (A) and innovative (I) types of decisions. With the issues described, the following types of decisions appear most appropriate.

Decision type

Reason

Parking spaces

A

Decision required is new. The committee will have to justify it.

Thus they will have to make their criteria transparent, and producing an explanation that relates staff numbers to parking spaces available.

Special bonus

A

Normal bonus payments are usually covered by pre-set rules.

Special bonus relates to exceptional circumstances requiring subjective judgement. Such a decision is likely to set precedents.

Health club

R

The categories of employees eligible to use the company health club facilities are likely to be specified in existing rules.

New office

A/I

This is an exceptional decision that is likely to have a high cost and long-term implications. It has the characteristics of an adaptive decision, but the involvement of senior management suggests that it might qualify as an innovative decision.

Foodstuff suppliers

R

The manager is likely to have been given guidance on food quality, quantity and price. In combination, this will provide a rule set that will enable the selection of an appropriate supplier.

New product

I

This suggests an innovative decision that addresses a new problem. Product development requires a go-ahead from senior management.

Overtime

R

A failure to establish clear criteria for allocation of overtime can lead to employee relations problems. For this reason, it is likely that established rules already exist as to how this should be done.

Desktop or laptop

A

This decision draws heavily on quantitative analysis of financial and marketing data in relation to agreed criteria. In the end, however, it requires human judgement.

Memory chip

I

This is the kind of decision that senior managers are made to make. It is a ‘judgement call’ based on their experience and intuition.

Retail outlets

A

This is similar to situation 8. Quantitative data can be obtained and analysed with respect to agreed criteria. This however does not negate the need to an element of human judgement.

Issue

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If time is available in the tutorial, students can be asked to: •

Provide other examples, from their personal experience or reading, of routine, adaptive and innovative types of decisions.

•

Consider the implications of these three types of decisions on (a) individuals who make them and (b) on the organization within which they are made.

Key learning points 1. Differences in decision: Although one talks about decision-making, it is a process that involves different numbers of people; is made in different circumstances; and is made with varying degrees of guidance.

2. Decisions and job satisfaction: The ability of an individual or group to make a decision of their own is a key element in empowerment and an important element in job satisfactions.

3. Ubiquitous process: Organizational members make decisions in an ongoing way in order to get their jobs done. From both an employee and an organizational perspective, the issue is often that of making the most appropriate decision.

Chapter 20: Exercise 2 debrief – Which is better – Brainstorming or NGT? Objectives 1. Compare brainstorming and nominal group technique as ways of generating creative ideas.

2. Consider the reasons for any differences in group performance that are demonstrated.

3. Half of the groups use the brainstorming structure and the other half follow NGT technique.

Briefing Instructor introduces exercise to the whole class.

1. Students are divided into small groups of 3–5 members. Half are directed to use the brainstorming method and the other half to use the nominal group technique (NGT).

2. Brainstorming and NGT groups are assigned to different rooms (if possible). The departing groups and remaining groups are then given their respective instructions.

3. Within each group, its technique instructions are read out; ideas are generated; and results are recorded.

4. Groups reform to compare the quantity of ideas generated using the two techniques. They discuss possible reasons for any differences observed.

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5. They consider how, when using NGT, after individual idea generation in stage 1 has been completed, interactive discussion by the group as a whole can be used in stage 2 to evaluate the generated ideas and select the best ones.

Instructions for brainstorming groups One of your team members should read steps 1–4 out loud to the rest of the group 1. Choose someone to be the group’s timekeeper. This person will need a watch that measures seconds, has a countdown function and an alarm. The timekeeper should generate suggestions just like any other group member.

2. Choose someone who will record the ideas that the group generates.

3. Your group’s goal is to generate as many uses of a brick. To do this, your group will use the technique called ‘brainstorming’. Specifically, this means that your group should: •

Share your ideas with each other out loud.

•

Try to come up with as many wild and crazy ideas as possible.

•

Be sure not to criticise each other – sometimes a ‘stupid’ or ‘off-the-wall’ idea can become the seed for a terrific idea.

•

Feel free to build on each other’s ideas.

•

Remember, the goal is quantity – your group should list as many brick uses as possible.

4. Once everyone understands the directions and is ready to begin, the timekeeper says ‘Go’ and makes a note of the starting time. After 10 minutes, when the alarm rings, they shout ‘Time up’.

5. Once time up is announced spend 5 minutes counting how many different ideas your group was able to generate. As ideas are being reviewed and counted, group members may think of some additional brick uses and these can be added to the group’s total.

6. Insert the numbers on response sheet and return it to your instructor: (a) Technique used (brainstorming or NGT):

___

(b) Number of brick uses generated:

___

(c) Number of group members:

___

(d) Average number of brick uses per group member:

___

Instructions for nominal groups One of your team members should read steps 1–4 out loud to the rest of the group.

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1. Choose someone to be the group’s timekeeper. This person will need a watch that measures seconds, has a countdown function and an alarm. The timekeeper should generate suggestions just like any other group member.

2. Group members should not start writing anything until the timekeeper says ‘Go’.

3. Your group’s goal is to suggest as many different uses of a brick as possible. To do this, your group will use the nominal group technique. Specifically, this means that each group member will have 10 minutes to write down individually and quietly their own suggestions without interacting with other group members. Afterwards, spend 5 minutes sharing your ideas with others. Remember the goal is quantity – each person should list as many uses of a brick as they can.

4. Once everyone understands the directions and is ready to begin, the timekeeper says ‘Go’ and makes a note of the starting time. After 10 minutes, when the alarm rings, they shout ‘Time up’.

5. Once time up is announced, spend 5 minutes counting how many different brick use suggestions were generated. Because individuals worked separately, some suggestions will be duplicated. Hence, lists need to be read out loud and ‘doublers’ removed before a total for the whole group is obtained. As the members read their lists, others may think of some additional brick uses, and these can be added to the group’s total.

6. Insert the numbers on response sheet and return it to your instructor: (a) Technique used (brainstorming or NGT):

___

(b) Number of brick uses generated:

___

(c) Number of group members:

___

(d) Average number of brick uses per group member:

___

Debriefing Read aloud the instructions were given to the brainstorming groups, and emphasize that they are intended to reduce group members’ inhibitions and encourage them to generate as many ideas as possible.

Explain that despite the widely held belief that brainstorming is an effective group technique research has not found it to be a particularly helpful way to produce either a large number of ideas or even better quality ideas (‘illusion of group productivity or effectiveness’). To demonstrate this, present the results for brainstorming and NGT groups that the author provides.

Read aloud the instructions followed by the nominal groups in the class. Explain that the NGT technique can be changed into a two-stage approach – individual thought followed by group interaction for evaluating and selecting ideas.

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Explain that this particular NGT variation has group members, after the first stage of individual private idea generation, members come together to (a) share ideas in a round-robin fashion to ensure that reluctant group members also disclose their ideas; (b) discuss and evaluate the ideas, add new ones that ‘piggy back’ on earlier ones to capitalise on the group’s potential for synergy; and (c) select the best idea through an anonymous voting procedure to reduce pressures to conform to high status or domineering individuals.

Ask students what, in their own experiences, as the downsides of group decision-making. They respond with problems to do with idea production blocking (e.g. socialising wastes time, it’s hard to think and listen at the same time); evaluation apprehension (e.g. people afraid to speak up, not wanting to disagree with others); and social loafing (e.g. some people let others do all the work, you don’t feel like doing a lot if no one else is).

Discuss using NGT to generate ideas overcomes most of the student-suggested problems negatives associated with interactive (brainstorming) group decision-making.

Remind students that this exercise focused on the quantity of ideas and that there was no assessment of their quality. However, a consideration of the ideas that the groups selected as their favourites shows students that both the NGT and brainstorming groups were quite creative. Research shows that having a large pool of ideas in general means that one is likely to have a larger pool of ‘good’ ideas from which to choose.

Key learning points 1. Illusion of group productivity or effectiveness: Research has challenged the widely held belief that brainstorming is an effective group technique.

2. Obstacles: Brainstorming’s productivity losses are likely to be the result of production blocking, social loafing and evaluation apprehension.

3. Political: Brainstorming’s continued popularity may be due to management’s need to be seen to be participative and inclusive, and its desire to gain employee buy-in for decisions that it might have already made.

Other useful exercises Speights, S. L. and Dunn, A. M. (2022), ‘Understanding the process: Using in-class data to reflect on a decision-making exercise’, Management Teaching Review (published early online) Critical thinking box Instructor advice For a detailed discussion of this box see: Frederick, S. (2005), ‘Cognitive reflection and decision making’, Journal of Economic Perspectives, 19(4): 27–42

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These three examples illustrate the difference between thinking fast and thinking slow. It is important to ensure that students first answer the three questions individually and commit to an answer in writing, before subsequently discussing each question within the group and then perhaps coming to a different answer. The correct answers and explanations are as follows: Question 1: A bat and ball cost £1.10 in total. The bat costs £1.00 more than the ball. How much does the ball cost? (5 cents not 10) The intuitive answer that springs quickly to mind is ‘10 cents’. But this ‘impulsive’ answer is wrong. Anyone who reflects upon it for even a moment would recognise that the difference between $1.00 and 10 cents is only 90 cents, not $1.00 as the problem stipulates. In this case, catching that error is tantamount to solving the problem, since nearly everyone who does not respond ‘10 cents’ does, in fact, give the correct response: ‘5 cents’. In a study conducted at Princeton, which measured time preferences using both real and hypothetical rewards, those answering ‘10 cents’ were found to be significantly less patient than those answering ‘5 cents’.

If the ball costs X then the bat costs $1 more, so it is X + 1. So we have bat + ball = X + (X + 1) = 1.1 because together they cost $1.10. This means 2X + 1 = 1.1, then 2X = 0.1, so X = 0.05. This means the ball costs 5 cents and the bat costs $1.05 Question 2: It takes 5 machines 5 minutes to make 5 widgets, how long would it take 100 machines to make 100 widgets? (5 minutes not 100) If it takes 5 machines 5 minutes to make 5 widgets, then it takes 1 machine 5 minutes to make 1 widget (each machine is making a widget in 5 minutes). If we have 100 machines working together, then each can make a widget in 5 minutes. So there will be 100 widgets in 5 minutes.

Question 3: In a pond is a patch of lily pads. Every day, the patch doubles in size. If it takes 48 days for the patch to cover the entire pond, how long would it take for the patch to cover half the pond?

(47 days not 24) Every day FORWARD the patch doubles in size. So every day BACKWARDS means the patch halves in size, so on day 47 the lake is half full.

Frederick’s research found that: •

83 per cent of students got at least one answer wrong

•

33 per cent got all three answers wrong

•

48 per cent of MIT students sampled got three answers correct.

On YouTube, search for ‘The Cognitive Reflection Test – 3 Riddles that Stump Most People’ by Shane Frederick. This is a 3-minute exposition and explanation of the test. If you then search the internet more widely for the ‘Cognitive Reflection Test’, you will find numerous learning resources that distinguish ‘thinking fast’ (System 1) from ‘thinking slow’ (System 2) which can be incorporated into the tutorial discussion.

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After students that decided on their individual answers and shared them with their group, you should go around and ensure that everyone knows the correct answers (5, 5 and 47) and how they are arrived at. The subsequent discussion should focus on how incorrect answers were arrived at and subsequently changed. The mental processes involved demonstrated the differences between fast and slow thinking.

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CHAPTER 21

Conflict Chapter 21: What’s new in this chapter?

Chapter 21: Learning outcomes and recap Chapter 21: Rationale Chapter 21: Home viewing – 12 Angry Men, There Will be Blood Chapter 21: OB Cinema – Metallica: Some Kind of Monster Chapter 21: Exercise 1 debrief – Counter-productive work behaviours Chapter 21: Exercise 2: Organizational citizenship behaviour

Chapter 21: What’s new in this chapter?

Dyads or teams? – where do task and relationship conflicts originate most often?

Pragmatic resistance – helps employees get on with the ‘real work’ by opposing unnecessary bureaucracy Gaming – how university academics resist management control by ‘gaming’ appraisal systems for their own benefit Conflict management styles – how do the different styles of team members affect group functioning?

Pro-social unethical behaviours – negatively affect teams and organizations Work hacking – counter-productive or an employee survival strategy?

Chapter 21: Learning outcomes and recap 1. Identify the four major frames of reference on conflict.

•

The unitarist frame sees organizations as essentially harmonious and any conflict as bad.

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The pluralist frame sees organizations as a collection of groups, each with their own interests.

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The interactionist sees conflict as a positive and necessary force for effective performance.

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The radical frame sees conflict sees as an inevitable outcome of capitalism.

2. Distinguish between functional and dysfunctional conflict.

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Functional conflict is considered by management to support organizational goals and improves organizational performance.

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Dysfunctional conflict is considered to impede the achievement of organizational goals and reduces company performance.

3. Distinguish between different conflict levels and conflict causes.

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Conflict can be studied at the level of the dyad (two people) for example, between a manager and subordinate; at the level of the group (e.g. face-to-face or virtual team); or at the level of the organization (e.g. inter-departmental conflict).

•

Conflict can caused by relationship differences (e.g. personality clashes); task differences (e.g. about the outcomes of tasks); or process differences (e.g. delegation of tasks or responsibilities).

4. Explain the mechanisms of group conflict contagion and how member differences can be revealed.

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Coalition forming, emotionally charged behaviour and threats to team outcomes have all been found to be conflict-spreading mechanisms within a work group.

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The Five Questions technique helps a team identify how different members look, act, speak, think and display their emotions.

5. Explain the relationship between organizing, coordinating and conflict.

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Organizing concerns dividing up a large task into sub-tasks, and assigning them to groups.

Coordination brings those previously divided sub-tasks together to ensure that all activities are directed towards organizational goals. In the process of sub-division, departments acquire their own, subordinate goals and interests, which differ from organizational ones.

Conflict ensues when these divergent interests and goals clash.

6. Distinguish the different organizational coordination devices.

•

Coordination devices include rules, policies and procedures; using hierarchy; goal clarification and communication; temporary task force; permanent project teams; liaison roles and integrator roles.

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7. List Thomas’s five conflict resolution approaches and Gelfand’s four conflict resolution cultures.

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Thomas’s five conflict resolution approaches are avoidance, accommodation, compromise, collaboration and competition.

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Gelfand’s four conflict resolution cultures are dominating (active and disagreeable); collaborative (active and agreeable); avoidant (passive and agreeable); and passiveaggressive (passive and disagreeable).

8. Distinguish between distributive and integrative bargaining.

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Distributive bargaining refers to a negotiation situation in which a fixed sum of resources is divided up. It leads to win-lose situation between the parties.

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Integrative bargaining, seeks to increase the total amount of resources and it creates a winwin situation between the parties.

9. Contrast the three dimensions of organizational justice.

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Distributive justice concerns employees’ judgments about the fairness of outcomes; procedural justice relates to employees’ evaluations of the way in which decisions are made, irrespective of their outcome; and interactional justice involves employees’ perceptions of the interpersonal treatment they receive from those in authority.

10. Distinguish two classes of unethical pro-social behaviour.

•

The first is unethical pro-social group behaviour where group members gain benefits for their group, but at a cost to other stakeholders. The other is unethical pro-social organizational behaviour where employees act to promote the interests of the organization or its leaders while violating societal values.

11. List four types of counterproductive work behaviour.

•

These are Production deviance behaviours that impede production; inter-personal deviance behaviours that involve other people; political deviance behaviours that involve deceit; and property deviance behaviours that relate to physical items.

Chapter 21: Rationale The chapter is structured in two ways. First, around the four major frames of reference on conflict – unitarist, pluralist, interactionist and radical. Its theme is that the frame of reference that is adopted will influence where and how conflict is recognised and how it is responded to. The word ‘recognised’ is used to stress that whether or not a conflict exists depends on an individual’s subjective judgement. This is why perception plays such an important part in conflict recognition.

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Second, the chapter is structured in terms of conflict levels: By dyad (conflict between two people); group (conflict between the members of a workgroup or a team); and organization (conflict within a company). No position is taken as to whether or not conflict within an organization is good or bad.

Instead, we note how the different perspectives approach its value, and how they define it.

Generally, our focus is on conflict that evolves through the way in which an organization is structured, tasks are defined, responsibilities are allocated and performance is measured. However, the fact that interpersonal conflict may be the result of a personality clash is also important.

Nevertheless, institutionally triggered conflict can result in face-to-face confrontations.

This broad approach to conflict allows, at one extreme, a consideration of topics traditionally at the forefront of management agenda – conflict resolution and conflict stimulation. The former provides a way of introducing the processes of negotiation and mediation; while the latter suggest ideas for ‘shaking things up’. At the opposite end, the examination of the radical frame of reference permits issues that critical school instructors may wish to explore with their students, specifically counterproductive work behaviour and resistance.

This updated chapter includes four new and updated sections. The first of these is on organizational justice. Its three facets are considered – distributive, procedural and interactional. In addition, a new end of chapter exercise (‘Organizational citizenship behaviour’) is included to allow students to experience and discuss this concept.

The second change is a new section on two categories of organizational work behaviours – organizational citizenship behaviour (OCB) – individual’s behaviour that is discretionary, informal and which contributes to organizational effectiveness; and counter-productive work behaviour (CWB) – any intentional employee behaviour viewed by the organization as harmful to its legitimate interests. In the case of the latter, we focus on Christine Porath’s (2016) researched incivility in the workplace – rudeness, bullying and similar counter-productive behaviours that result in employees becoming disengaged at work, undertaking acts of sabotage against the company and taking their frustrations out on their families.

The third change to the chapter is to the section on negotiation and culture which now includes Gelfand’s (2012) research on conflict resolution cultures, and the more recent work of Brett and her colleagues (2017) on cultural differences in negotiating strategies. Finally, the OB Cinema includes a new film which is Quijada’s (2016) analysis of the documentary Metallica: Some Kind of Monster (2004). It allows students consider conflicts at the group level.

Chapter 21: Home viewing: There Will Be Blood (2007) Search Google for There Will Be Blood, Issue 74,Philosophy Now

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Chapter 21: OB cinema debrief – Metallica: Some Kind of Monster Instructor advice For a detailed discussion on the objectives of the exercise, how to run and debrief it, see: Quijada, M.A. (2016), ‘Heavy metal conflict management’, Management Teaching Review, 1(3): 155–163 Metallica: Some Kind of Monster (2004, directors Joe Berlinger and Bruce Sinofsky) is a documentary that shows the heavy metal band Metallica producing an album and the many conflicts that arise during the two-year process.

Clip 1: 0:29:10 to 0:31:40. After a long day of playing, the band listens to the resulting song.

What is the key problem the band is discussing? What type of conflict is taking place?

Clip 2: 1:00:46 to 1:07:30. What was the issue the band discussed? What type of conflict is taking place? What unspoken assumptions do you think Lars and James have about working after 4 p.m.?

Clip 3: 1:38:11 to 1:39:47. What is different in how the band handles this disagreement over the ones before? Can you identify one good practice of conflict management in this clip?

Clip 4: 1:58:24 to 2:01:40. Are you surprised by Lars’s strong defence of James’s concerns? Can you identify one good practice of conflict management in this clip?

Chapter 21: Home viewing: 12 Angry Men For a detailed discussion on the use of this film see: Rabinowitz, S. and Fender, C. M. (2020), ‘Seeing is believing – But is it accurate? Eyewitness lessons from 12 Angry Men’, Management Teaching Review, 5(4): 302–310.

Babcock B. A. and Sassoubre T. M. (2007), ‘Deliberation in 12 Angry Men’, Chicago-Kent Law Review, 82, 633–642.

Hackley, S. (2007), ‘One reasonable and inquiring man: 12 Angry Men as a negotiation‐teaching tool’, Negotiation Journal, 23(4): 463–468.

Buchanan D. and Huczynski A. (2004), ‘Images of influence: 12 Angry Men and Thirteen Days’, Journal of Management Inquiry, 13(4): 312–323.

McCambridge, J. (2003), ‘12 Angry Men: A study in dialogue’, Journal of Management Education, 27(3): 384–401.

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Other For a detailed discussion on exercises on managing conflict resolution styles see: Miller, L.E. (2022), ‘How can we resolve this? Two classroom exercises on conflict management’, Management Teaching Review (published early online)

Chapter 21: Exercise 1 debrief – Counter-productive work behaviours Objectives 1. To find examples of counter productive work behaviours in organizations.

2. To suggest reasons for their occurrence in the workplace.

3. To propose management actions to prevent them.

Briefing 1. Make a list of employee counter-productive work behaviours that you have engaged in yourself while at work, observed others engaging in or which you have read about.

2. Form into groups and discuss: a. What are the causes of such counter-productive work behaviours? b. What options do employees have who either engage in counter-productive work behaviours? c. What actions can senior management take to eliminate or reduce counter-productive work behaviours?

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Debriefing 1. Class reforms.

2. Headings of the four categories of counter-productive work behaviours are charted up and students are invited to share examples of their CWBs indicating into which of the categories their example best fits.

Production deviance

Inter-personal deviance

Political deviance

– behaviours that impede production

– behaviours that involve other people

– behaviours that involve deceit

Property deviance – behaviours that relate to physical items

3. For each CWB, students discuss the causes of the behaviour, the options available to employees and actions that management might take to eliminate or reduce such counter-productive work behaviours.

4. Remind the whole class of the definition of counter-productive work behaviour (CWB) from the textbook: any intentional employee behaviour viewed by the organization as being harmful to its legitimate interests.

5. Ask the whole class to suggest examples of organization misbehaviour from their own work experience or reading. Examples can include: •

‘soldiering’ – not working as hard as you can

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sabotage

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late coming

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absenteeism

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theft

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breaching confidentiality

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embezzlement

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improper use of company property

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fiddling

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sexual harassment

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(a) What are the causes of such counter-productive work behaviours (CWB)?

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Insufficient management checking (allowing employees to get away with it)

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Job dissatisfaction (not being paid enough, lack of recognition, boring repetitive work)

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Belief company not providing employee with a ‘fair deal’ – to ‘even the score’ (equity theory)

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Copying others in the company (such behaviour modelled by co-workers, or a cultural norm in company)

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Pressured to engage in such behaviour by co-workers (group pressure)

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No respect for immediate boss (desire to get even)

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Desire to retaliate against company management in general (revenge)

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Apparently a victimless crime

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Personal gain

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Thrill, excitement, entertainment as antidote to job boredom

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Way of reducing tension or frustration caused by work stress

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Boundary between acceptable–unacceptable behaviour unclear

(b) What options do employees who see co-workers doing it? Nielsen (1987, 1996) suggested the following options: •

Actively engage in, and don’t think about it

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Quietly conform

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Conform reluctantly, under protest

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Quietly refrain from doing it

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Object, and loudly refuse to participate

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Tell offenders that you will not cover their actions

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Resign

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Become a secret whistleblower inside the organization

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Become a discrete whistleblower inside company (inform a responsible manager)

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Threaten to report offenders

What can you do if you see your manager engaging in CWB? •

Threaten to report him/her to senior management

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Secretly blow whistle on them outside organization (report to media, police)

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Prevent offending behaviour by making it impossible for person to do it.

The above options provide three choices: •

Telling the offender or the management

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Communicating secretly or publicly

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Directing communication inside or outside the organization

(b) What actions can senior management take to eliminate or reduce counter-productive work behaviours?

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Communicate consequences of organizational misbehaviour for all employees.

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Increase spot-checking, monitoring, testing and auditing of employees – generally to increase the risk of discovery.

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Actively encourage and reward whistle blowing – make employees monitor each other.

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Punish publicly – make all employees aware of the actions of offenders, for example, call in police, take suspected offenders to court to face criminal charges.

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Redesign jobs – to increase job satisfaction, reducing boredom, thereby reducing need for distractions.

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Select for honesty – use psychometric questionnaires to identify honest candidates during selection process.

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Increased socialisation of new employees through induction – to promote loyalty, to make staff feel committed to company.

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Additional Here are nine CWBs that employees might engage in. If you were their manager, which two would rate as least acceptable and most acceptable?

1. Making private phone calls 2. Surfing the internet at work 3. Taking company software home 4. Minor fiddling of travel expenses 5. Taking pens and pencils from work 6. Favouring family or friends on contracts 7. Using company fuel for personal mileage 8. Taking a day off sick after an office party 9. Charging personal entertainment expenses

Key learning point 1. Ubiquitous: CWB is a ubiquitous feature of all organizations.

2. Multi-faceted: CWB takes many forms, varies between different levels of employees and has varied consequences for organizations.

3. Action: Management can take a variety of steps to counter the negative consequences of employees’ CWB.

References Nielsen, R.P. (1987). ‘What can managers do about unethical management’, Journal of Business Ethics, 6, 309–320.

Nielsen, R.P. (1996). ‘Changing unethical organizational behaviour’, Academy of Management Executive, 3(2), 123–130.

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CHAPTER 22

Power and politics Chapter 22: What’s new in this chapter?

Chapter 22: Learning outcomes and recap Chapter 22: Rationale Chapter 22: OB in cinema debrief – Dirty Rotten Scoundrels Chapter 22: Exercise 1 debrief – Power in a changing environment Chapter 22: Exercise 2 debrief – Politics in decision-making

Chapter 22: What’s new in this chapter?

This topic has not attracted much new research since our previous edition. The structure and contents of the chapter, therefore, remain much the same.

Political skill – improves performance, leadership effectiveness and career success, and reduces stress, burnout and interpersonal conflict Women describe their capabilities to potential employers less favourably than equally capable men.

Chapter 22: Learning outcomes and recap 1. Appreciate the importance of power and politics in organizations •

Organizations seem to be experiencing more change, uncertainty, ambiguity and discontinuity, creating a context that makes political skill more important.

2. Compare and contrast different perspectives on power •

Power can be considered from the ‘power-as-property’; a ‘faces of power’; and a ‘disciplinary power’ viewpoint.

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The power-as-property viewpoint regards power as a characteristic of individuals, of relationships and of the structures of society and organizations.

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The faces of power viewpoint regard power as overt and observable, as covert and unobservable and as internalized by employees.

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•

Disciplinary power reduces employees’ ability to dissent by creating and managing meanings for them.

3. Distinguish different bases of power •

The five bases of power are reward, coercion, referent, legitimate and expert.

4. Identify organizational factors which enhance the power of departments •

Factors enhancing the power of departments in organizations include dependency-creation, financial resources, centrality, non-substitutability and uncertainty reduction.

5. Differentiate between influencing tactics and political tactics •

Influencing tactics include assertiveness, ingratiation, rational appeal, sanctions, exchange, upward appeal, blocking and coalition.

•

Political tactics include image building, information games, structure games, scapegoating, alliances, networking, compromise, rule games, positioning, issue selling and ‘dirty tricks’.

6. Identify the characteristics of individuals most likely to engage in political behaviour •

Those who are most likely to engage in political behaviour have a high need for power (nPow), a high Machiavellian score, an internal locus of control and risk-seeking propensity.

7. Explain how women use and are affected by organizational politics •

Sex role stereotyping associates management with masculinity leading to a systematic underestimation of women’s abilities.

•

Women appear to use power, influencing and impression management tactics differently from men; women tend to be less comfortable with self-promotion tactics which men use routinely.

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Women can find it difficult to develop influence due to individual, social and structural factors; women often do not develop useful professional networks in the way that men do.

Chapter 22: Rationale Bertrand Russel observed that, ‘the fundamental concept in social science is power, in the same sense in which energy is the fundamental concept in physics’. The importance of the topic, however, does not make it easy to teach to undergraduates, most of whom will have little or no experience of having to deal with organizational power and politics. In addition, power and politics are taboo topics for some managers and commentators. The challenge is therefore how to introduce the topic to inexperienced students, and to encourage working managers to reflect on the influence of power on their own and others’ behaviour. Staying with the negative stereotype, we have 255 © 2023 Pearson Education Limited. All Rights Reserved.

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research from Dacher Keltner into what he calls ‘the power paradox’; people show empathy, openness, fairness and a willingness to collaborate in order to achieve power – and then become rude, selfish and unethical. Keltner takes this as evidence that power does corrupt, citing studies which show that the most aggressive and rude drivers are those with the most expensive cars.

The chapter begins by defining the concept of power, then presents different viewpoints from which to consider it.

•

power as a property of the individual

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power as a property of the relationship

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power as a property of social and organizational structures

In our tenth edition, we introduced the concept of new power, which acts more like a current than a currency, is generated by many, and is open, participative, dispersed and peer-driven, based on and driven by social media. The French ‘gilets jaunes’ protests in 2018–19 are a good example of the nature and effectiveness of new power. The concepts of power tells and power priming (how to look and feel more powerful and confident) are explored. We have attempted to bring this often abstract topic into personal experience and behaviours, with research showing how non-conforming style of dress affects how others perceive our status and power, in job interviews, for example.

The chapter also discusses how effective leaders need to be able to ‘play politics’. This is accompanied by an explanation of one model of political skill. Power is often discussed along with the concept of influencing. For this reason, we devote a section of the chapter to the theory and research on influencing tactics. There is also a summary of recent research on ‘influencing from the middle’, explaining techniques that middle managers can use to win support for ideas. Finally we consider politics and political behaviour within organizations, providing the foundation for more detailed explorations by instructors.

Chapter 22: OB cinema debrief – Dirty Rotten Scoundrels Dirty Rotten Scoundrels (1988, director Frank Oz) DVD track 2: 0:07:42 –0:10:55 (4 minutes).

In the film, Freddy Benson (played by Steve Martin) is a conman working on the French Riviera.

The clip begins with a shot of Zurich railway station platform and ends with Benson saying ‘Three beers. Thank you’. Benson persuades a woman on a train, a complete stranger, to buy him a meal.

How does he achieve this?

1. What impression management techniques does he use?

2. What influencing tactics does he employ?

Debriefing Impression management methods used

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•

casual, crumpled, inexpensive appearance

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a humble, unassuming demeanour, both hands on hat, bowing

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pleasant, slow, clear and friendly voice

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unhurried body movements, slowly eating bread roll

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resigned tone of voice

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prayer gesture with hands, appealing to ‘higher values’

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self-critical, self-disclosure, appearance of honesty and integrity

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positive non-verbal behaviour, full-on position, smiling, eye contact, nodding

Influencing techniques employed •

careful selection of target – or victim

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appropriate timing and context

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a gradual build-up of case, pulls target gradually into the story

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an interesting, believable story

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a story that the target will sympathise with

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irrelevant details to strengthen credibility

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‘honest’ self-criticism

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unselfish legitimation: ‘I’m doing it for my grandmother’

Freddy Benson does nothing extraordinary. The effectiveness of his technique relies on the mundane ordinariness of his behaviour. But he has carefully chosen the context, the timing and the target or victim, and these factors combined with his behaviour pattern lead to the desired outcome.

He gets a free meal, and even ‘buys’ his victim a beer.

Chapter 22: Exercise 1 debrief – Power in a changing environment Objectives 1. To introduce different types of power.

2. To explore the PESTLE change drivers in the environment which impact on the power of employees.

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3. To understand how power in organizations is gained and lost as a result of these environment changes.

Briefing 1. Form groups and nominate a spokesperson. Read the description of your organization.

2. Read each of the Five environmental change scenarios in order. For each one, decide: a) Which environment change driver is affecting your organization in this scenario? b) What types of activities are likely to increase / become more important in the company, as a result? c) Which five company employees’ power bases will increase most in the light of this changed environmental condition? d) Why did you select these persons?

Each scenario is separate from the others. Make any reasonable assumptions as you discuss the matter.

3. Each group’s spokesperson presents and justifies their conclusions to the entire class.

Your organization Your medium-sized company manufactures portable, petrol-driven, electric power generators that are sold to domestic and office customers, often for use in emergencies Advertising expert (m) Chief financial offer (f) Operations manager (f) Industrial engineer (m) Product designer (m) Public relations expert (m) Company trainer (m)

Charted accountant (m) General manager (m) Marketing manager (f) Computer programmer (f) Industrial chemist (m) In-house legal advisor (m) Human resources manager (f) Employees (m) = male; (f) = female

Five environmental change scenarios 1. The existing small batch production of generators will be replaced by a state-of-the-art, automated assembly line.

2. New laws about engine and factory emissions are being passed by the European Parliament.

3. Sales are greatly reduced, and the industrial sector seems to be shrinking.

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4. The company is planning to go international in the next year or two.

5. The Equality Commission is pressing companies to establish better male–female balance in senior posts and is threatening to ‘name-and-shame’ companies.

(This exercise is adapted from J.E. Barbuto, 2000, ‘Power and the changing environment’, Journal of Management Education, 24(2), pp.288–96.)

Debriefing SCENARIO 1: TECHNOLOGICAL (MANUFACTURING METHODS) The existing small batch production of generators will be replaced by a state-of-the-art, automated assembly line.

The first scenario features technological changes in the environment. With such changes, the computer programmer, product designer, corporate trainer, accountant and industrial engineer frequently experience an increase in power. If the information and manufacturing technologies are being upgraded, then computer programmers gain importance. The product designer importance will increase if the product needs to be redesigned after the technological changes. A corporate trainer will be vital in a period of technology upgrades as workers need to be trained to use new systems and equipment. The accountant is important because the information systems being upgraded are very much the source of the accountant’s power. The industrial engineer will also gain importance as new uses of the technologies will likely be the engineer’s forte. These five positions represent perhaps the most obvious choices. However cases can be made for the operations manager, financial analyst, generic manager, office manager, industrial chemist and even the human resources manager. The discussion should emphasise the rationale for the groups’ choices rather than the choices themselves.

SCENARIO 2: LEGAL/POLITICAL CHANGE (EMISSION LAWS) New laws about engine and factory emissions are being passed by the European Parliament.

The second scenario features government regulations in the legal environment for the company.

With pending emission standards, it is likely that such members as the industrial chemist, engineer, product designer, computer programmer and operations manager will become more powerful. The industrial chemist’s importance increases because the company needs to focus on the chemical makeup of its emissions. The industrial engineer becomes more important because the carts may need to be reengineered to produce acceptable emissions. The product designer will gain power because the product must be redesigned to meet these standards. The computer programmer may become more powerful because the computer systems in place to regulate emissions likely need reprogramming to accommodate the new standards. The operations manager may become more powerful because the workmanship may be under heavy scrutiny given the new, emission standards.

Cases have also been made for the in-house legal advisor, public relations expert and the general manager.

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SCENARIO 3: ECONOMIC CHANGE (SALES DECLINE) Sales are greatly reduced, and the industrial sector seems to be shrinking.

The economic environment is the change driver in Scenario 3. It is likely that the marketing manager, advertising expert, chief financial officer, operations manager and general manager will gain the most power. The marketing manager will become more important in a shrinking industry as assessment and marketing strategies are necessary to protect the market share and increase demand.

The advertising expert would likely gain power as well, given the emphasis on marketing efforts.

The chief financial officer will become more important because funds are scarce, leaving expenditures, investments and cost-cutting opportunities heavily scrutinised. The operations manager will gain power because productivity and efficiency are instrumental to the organization success during lean times. The general manager may play an important role in the company by keeping spirits high and providing stability in the organization. The general manager may also offer important solutions to a crisis and map out the organizational direction necessary for continued success of the company. Cases for securities analyst and perhaps the product designer can also be made.

SCENARIO 4: ECONOMIC CHANGE (GLOBAL EXPANSION) The company is planning to go international in the next year or two.

In this scenario, the company may soon experience international expansion. Given this period of expansion in the global market, it is likely that the general manager, chief financial officer, in-house legal advisor, human resources manager and company trainer will gain power. The general manager gains importance by articulating a vision and spearheading the expansion. The chief financial officer increases in importance because expansion requires generation of funds and capital. In-house legal advisor becomes more important because of the legal considerations of international expansion, such as international trade laws, tariffs and foreign government regulations. The human resources manager will also gain power during international expansion as large-scale recruiting efforts may be necessary to fill key positions. The company trainer will likely become more important during this time as new employees need training and orientation, whereas existing employees need to be kept abreast of the new systems of communications and potential cultural issues with international affiliates. Cases also can be made for the securities analyst, marketing manager, advertising expert and product designer.

SCENARIO 5: SOCIAL CHANGE The Equality Commission is pressing companies to establish better male–female balance in senior posts and is threatening to ‘name-and-shame’ companies.

The last scenario challenges students to consider equal opportunity in the workplace. It is likely that the human resources manager, in-house legal advisor, general manager, marketing manager and the public relations expert will gain some power. The human resources manager may be charged with evaluating the current makeup of the workforce to identify unfair hiring practices. The in-house legal advisor will increase in importance by defending the legal and social integrity of the company.

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thus increasing the general manager’s importance. The public relations expert will be more important because the reputation of the company is on the line. Public announcements and communications would become increasingly more important for the company. The marketing manager may become more powerful because she represents a female in upper management. Her reactions to this situation will carry great weight with the organization and the public. Arguments also can be made for the company trainer, engineer, industrial chemist, computer programmer and office manager because each position is filled by a woman.

Key learning points 1. Environmental uncertainty: A changing environment creates uncertainty and disrupts existing power structures within an organization.

2. Power grab opportunity: In such unstable circumstances, individuals can grab increased power or else have their status enhanced.

3. Create instability: Politically aware individuals will be attuned to such changing circumstances and may even seek to create instability internally for their own advantage.

Chapter 22: Exercise 2 debrief – Politics in decision-making Objectives 1. To contrast perceptions about the use of politics in decision-making.

2. To predict when and where politics will be used in organizations.

3. To contrast political with rational processes decision-making processes.

Briefing 1. Individually, using the worksheet, rank each of the 11 organizational decisions (a to k) in terms of the extent to which you think politics play a part. Rank the most political decision as ‘1’ and the least political as ‘11’. Enter your ranking in the first column on your worksheet – ‘Individual Ranking’.

2. Form groups of 4 to 7 members. Rank the 11 items again, this time as a group. Use consensus to reach agreement, that is, listen to each person’s ideas and rationale before deciding. Do not vote, bargain, average or toss a coin. Base your decision on the logical arguments made by group members rather than your personal preference. Enter your rankings in the second column on the scoresheet – ‘Team Ranking’.

3. After all teams have finished, your instructor will read out the rankings produced by a survey of managers which indicates the frequency with which they believe that politics plays a part in each type of decision. As these are read out, enter them in column three on the scoresheet – ‘Manager Ranking’.

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4. Still in your groups: (a) Compare the individual rankings (column 1) of group members. On which decisions did group members’ perceptions differ significantly? Why might that be? (b) Compare your group ranking (column 2) with the manager ranking (column 3). On which decisions did group and managers’ perceptions differ significantly? Why might that be?

Scoresheet ‘To what extent do you believe politics plays a part in the decision’ 1 = most political Decision

11 = least political 1 Individual ranking

2 Team ranking

3 Manager ranking

a. Management promotions and transfers b. Entry level hiring c.

Amount of pay

d. Annual budgets e. Allocation of facilities, equipment, offices f.

Delegation of authority among managers

g. Inter-departmental co-ordination h. Specification of personnel policies i.

Penalties for disciplinary infractions

j.

Performance appraisals

k.

Grievances and complaints

5. In plenary, answer the questions as directed by your instructor: (i)

What distinguishes the most political decision items (ranked 1–4 in column 3) from the least political (ranked 8–11)?

(ii) In what circumstances might a rational decision process be used in making a decision, and when would a political process be used? (iii) Research suggests that that political behaviour occurs more frequently at higher rather than lower levels in organizations. Why should this be so?

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(iv) How would you: apply rationality to those decisions currently possessing a large political element? politicise decisions currently made using rational processes? (v) How would you advise a manager who felt that politics was bad for the organization and should be avoided at all costs?

This exercise is based on Gandz, J. and Murray, V.V., 1980, ‘The experience of workplace politics’, Academy of Management Journal, 23(2): 237–51.

Debriefing 1. Before dividing up the class into groups, ask them first to complete the ranking task individually (5 minutes).

2. Distribute copies of the score sheet.

3. Check that everyone has entered their ranking in the first column on their score sheet – ‘Individual ranking’.

4. Form groups of 4 to 7 students.

5. Ask them to rank the 11 items again, this time as a group.

6. Remind them to use consensus to reach agreement. That is, to listen to each person’s ideas and rationale before deciding; not to vote, bargain, average or toss a coin; and to base their decision on the logical arguments made by other group members rather than their personal preferences (15 minutes).

7. Check that everyone has entered their group’s ranking in second column on their score sheet – ‘Group ranking’.

8. Read out the rankings produced by a survey of managers which indicates the frequency with which they believe that politics plays a part in each type of decision (Item B overhead below).

9. Instruct them to enter these in column three of their score sheet – ‘Manager ranking’.

10. While still in their groups, ask them to discuss the following two questions: i.

Compare the individual rankings (Column 1) of group members. On which decisions did group members’ perceptions differ significantly? Why might that be?

ii. Compare your group ranking (Column 2) with the manager ranking (Column 3). On which decisions did the groups’ and managers’ perceptions differ significantly? Why might that be?

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Buchanan and Huczynski, Organizational Behaviour 11e, Instructor’s Manual

Plenary Bring the groups back into the whole class, and consider these four questions: (a) What distinguishes the most political decision items (ranked 1–4 in column 3) from the least political (ranked 8–11)?

The following table shows managers’ rankings ordered in terms of reducing politicisation.

The most political decisions are those which are most complex; about which there is most uncertainty; on which there is most disagreement; where there is most competition between employees; and where there are few or no rules to guide action. The most political decisions possess one or more of these characteristics. Inter-department co-ordination (ranked 1) is typically the least well-defined activity in most organisations. It occurs at different levels and in different ways and rules do not cover inter-departmental relationships in detail. Similarly, there is competition between employees for promotions and transfers (ranked 2). Assessing individuals is a complex and subjective process with few rules. In both cases politics plays a major role in the final decision.

Score sheet ‘To what extent do you believe politics plays a part in the decision’ 1= most political 11= least political

Decision

1 Individual ranking

2 Group ranking

3 Manager ranking

Inter-departmental co-ordination

1

Management promotions and transfers

2

Delegation of authority among managers

3

Allocation of facilities, equipment, offices

4

Performance appraisals

5

Annual budgets

6

Grievances and complaints

7

Amount of pay

8

Specification of personnel policies

9

Entry level hiring

10

Penalties for disciplinary infractions

11

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In contrast, disciplinary infractions (ranked 11) are penalised using a detailed company procedure which is usually based on legislation. Similarly, decisions concerning the appointment of junior staff are well-defined and prescribed. The task is simple and straightforward, there is agreement on the type of person required; current employees are not competing with each other. The decision is made in accordance with pre-specified criteria which are assessed using applications forms, references, psychometric testing and interviews. Virtually no political processes are used. (b) Research suggests that that political behaviour occurs more frequently at higher rather than lower levels. Why should this be so?

Employees at the very lowest levels in an organization have jobs which are simple (often repetitive) and they make no decisions whatsoever. They just follow procedures. This is also true to jobs higher up the hierarchy as well. However, these jobs can involve an intermittent element of decision-making. In these cases, the employee can refer to rules, precedent or ask their boss what to do. At the most senior levels however, decisions to be made are often unique, complex; uncertainty pervades; disagreement widespread; and there is competition among senior managers. (c) How would you •

apply rationality to those decisions which currently a large element of politics?

You would have to introduce and agree objective, well-defined (perhaps measurable) criteria and rules to apply to decisions, in order to replace subjective judgement that leads to politicking. Even then, it is unlikely that you would eliminate diverse interests. Alternatively, you could become an autocrat, making your own rational decisions, and impose them on others.

•

politicize decisions currently made using rational processes?

Argue that the objective, well-defined (perhaps measurable) criteria and rules that are currently being applied to decisions are actually designed to benefit certain individuals and groups in the organization. Since they disadvantage others, these should be given an opportunity to make an input. (d) What would you say to a manager who felt that politics was bad for the organization and should be avoided at all costs?

Given the nature of organizations, politicking within them is inevitable – it will always be there.

While it may be ‘bad’ for certain individuals and groups at some times, it is ‘good’ for others, at other times. Politics is a driver of organizational change. To get them to consider the pros and cons, suggest they read: Buchanan, D.A. and Badham, R.J. (2019) Power, Politics, and Organizational Change. London: Sage Publications (third edn).

Key learning points 1. Politicking is inevitable: Politicking is an inevitable aspect of all organizations and has both positive and negative consequences.

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2. Politics replaces rules: The most political decisions involve a high degree of complexity; uncertainty; disagreement; and competition between employees, in a situation where there are few or no rules to guide action.

3. Politicking at top: Politicking occurs most frequently between senior managers at the top of the organization, where such circumstances occur.

This exercise is based on R.L. Daft and M.P. Sharfman. (1990). Organization Theory: Cases and Applications, West Publishing Company, pp. 339–341. Reproduced in H.E. Baker and S.K. Paulson. (1995). Experiential Exercises in Organization Theory, Prentice Hall, pp. 18–22.

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