Solution Manual For Linux+ and LPIC-1 Guide to Linux Certification 6th Edition by Jason Eckert Chapt

Solution and Answer Guide: Linux+ and LPIC-1 Guide to Linux Certification 6th Edition Jason Eckert 9798214000800; Chapter 01: Introduction to Linux

Solution and Answer Guide LINUX+ AND LPIC-1 GUIDE TO L INUX CERTIFICATION 6 TH EDITION JASON ECKERT CHAPTER 1-14 CHAPTER 01: INTRODUCTION TO LINUX

TABLE OF CONTENTS Review Questions ........................................................................................................................................ 1 Hands-On Projects ...................................................................................................................................... 6 Discovery Exercises ..................................................................................................................................... 6

REVIEW QUESTIONS 1.

Which of the following components comprise an operating system? (Choose all that apply.) a. user interface b. kernel c. device drivers d. services Answer: a, b, c, d An operating system is comprised of a kernel and associated hardware drivers, as well as software (user interfaces, frameworks, libraries, services, and applications).

2.

Which of the following kernels are development kernels? (Choose all that apply.) a. 2.3.4 b. 4.5.5 c. 5.10-rc5 d. 6.0.0 Answer: a, c For early Linux kernels (<2.6), odd minor numbers denoted a development kernel. Later Linux kernels appended release candidate (rc) numbers to development kernels.

3.

Many types of software are available today. Which type of software does Linux represent? a. open source b. closed source c. freeware d. shareware

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Solution and Answer Guide: Chapter 01: Introduction to Linux 9798214000800; Chapter 01: Introduction to Linux

Answer: a Linux is open source software.

4.

Which of the following are characteristics of OSS? (Choose all that apply.) a. The value of the software is directly related to its price. b. The software is developed collaboratively. c. The source code for software is available for a small fee. d. Bugs are fixed quickly.

Answer: b, d Open source software is developed collaboratively, and source code is distributed free of charge. As a result, bugs are fixed and new features added quickly.

5.

To which license does Linux adhere? a. BSD b. MIT c. GNU GPL d. Apache Answer: c Linux is licensed under the GNU General Public License (GPL).

6.

What are some good reasons for using Linux in a corporate environment? (Choose all that apply.) a. Linux software is unlikely to be abandoned by its developers. b. Linux is secure and has a lower total cost of ownership than other operating systems. c. Linux is widely available for many hardware platforms and supports many programming languages. d. Most Linux software is closed source.

Answer: a, b, c Because Linux is open source, it is supported for a long period of time, has greater security, lower costs, and supports nearly all hardware platforms and programming languages.

7.

Which of the following are common methods for gaining support for Linux? a. websites b. Linux User Groups c. online forums d. all these methods Answer: d You can find Linux support online at many different websites and forums, as well as at local Linux User Groups (LUGs).

8.

Which two people are credited with creating the UNIX operating system? (Choose two answers.) a. Dennis Ritchie b. Richard Stallman

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Solution and Answer Guide: Chapter 01: Introduction to Linux 9798214000800; Chapter 01: Introduction to Linux

c. d.

Linus Torvalds Ken Thompson

Answer: a, d UNIX was created by Ken Thompson and Dennis Ritchie.

9.

On which types of systems can Linux be installed? (Choose all that apply.) a. IoT devices b. supercomputers c. servers d. workstations Answer: a, b, c, d Linux can be installed on any type of computers from embedded/IoT devices to supercomputers.

10. Who formed the Free Software Foundation to promote open development? a. Dennis Ritchie b. Richard Stallman c. Linus Torvalds d. Ken Thompson Answer: b Richard Stallman created the Free Software Foundation (FSF).

11. Which culture embraced the term ―GNU‖ (GNU’s Not UNIX) and laid the free software groundwork for Linux? a. the hacker culture b. the BSD culture c. the cracker culture d. the artificial intelligence culture Answer: a The hacker culture from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) directly led to the free and open source software movement and Linux.

12. Linux was developed by _____ to resemble the _____ operating system. a. Linus Torvalds, MINIX b. Linus Torvalds, GNU c. Richard Stallman, GNU d. Richard Stallman, MINIX Answer: a Linus Torvalds created Linux as an improved version of the MINIX operating system.

13. When the core components of the Linux operating system are packaged together with other OSS, it is called a _____. © 2024 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.

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Solution and Answer Guide: Chapter 01: Introduction to Linux 9798214000800; Chapter 01: Introduction to Linux

a. b. c. d.

new kernel new platform Linux distribution GNU Project

Answer: c A Linux distribution consists of a Linux kernel alongside core open source software libraries and other software.

14. Which common desktop environments are available in most Linux distributions? (Choose all that apply.) a. GNOME b. CDE c. KDE d. RPM Answer: a, c GNOME and KDE are the two most common desktop environments on Linux systems.

15. Which of the following are factors that determine which Linux distribution a user will use? (Choose all that apply.) a. package manager support b. hardware platform c. kernel features d. language support Answer: a, b, c Different Linux distributions may support different package managers, hardware platforms, and kernel features.

16. What is a common open source web server available for Linux? a. Samba b. Apache c. Squid d. NFS Answer: b Apache is the most common web server used on Linux systems.

17. Which of the following components is required to run Linux virtual machines? a. container runtime b. desktop environment c. hypervisor d. orchestration software Answer: c To run a virtual machine, hypervisor software must be present on the system. © 2024 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.

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Solution and Answer Guide: Chapter 01: Introduction to Linux 9798214000800; Chapter 01: Introduction to Linux

18. Which of the following Linux distributions is likely to be used by a cybersecurity worker? a. Fedora b. Ubuntu c. Kali d. Gentoo Answer: c Kali Linux is a security-focused Linux distribution designed specifically for cybersecurity workers. It includes tools used for penetration testing and vulnerability assessments.

19. When Linux is hosted within a container on a cloud provider, what cloud delivery model is being used? a. IaaS b. PaaS c. XaaS d. SaaS Answer: b Containers are hosted on a cloud provider using the Platform as a Service (PaaS) delivery model.

20. What component within a CD workflow creates a new virtual machine or container to host the web app? a. orchestration server b. testing server c. code repository server d. build automation server Answer: d In a CD workflow, the build automation software creates new containers or virtual machines.

HANDS-ON PROJECTS [There are no Hands-On Projects for Chapter 1.]

DISCOVERY EXERCISES DISCOVERY EXERCISE 1-1 Prompt: You work for a large manufacturing company that is considering Linux as a solution for some or all servers in its IT Department. The company hosts an Oracle database on UNIX, and the UNIX servers that host this database contain several small programs that were custom made. Furthermore, Windows 11 is currently used on desktops throughout the company, and users store their data on Windows Server 2019 file servers. What considerations must you keep in mind before migrating your company’s servers to Linux?

Which distribution(s) and OSS would you choose to accomplish this? If you need to create a report

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Solution and Answer Guide: Chapter 01: Introduction to Linux 9798214000800; Chapter 01: Introduction to Linux

detailing the benefits of moving to an open source solution using Linux, what benefits would you list in the report to persuade others in the company that Linux lowers the total cost of ownership?

Solution: Answers will vary. Common considerations include total cost of ownership, whether Oracle can run on Linux, and whether hardware will be newly purchased or the Windows servers upgraded. The distribution to be chosen will likely be a major distribution, such as Red Hat, openSUSE, Ubuntu, or Debian. A report on Linux advantages could include the following points:      



Linux and Linux software are continuously developed and rarely become abandoned projects.

Bugs are fixed quickly in OSS. Hardware support is abundant.

Linux support and documentation are abundant.

Customizing Linux is easy.

The custom UNIX software used in the company can port to Linux easily.

Linux and most software needed for this task are freely obtainable.

DISCOVERY EXERCISE 1-2 Prompt: At a local Linux User Group (LUG) meeting, some people who are unfamiliar with Linux ask you to explain what the GPL is and how it relates to OSS. These people also don’t understand how OSS generates profit and are under the impression that the quality of OSS is poor compared to commercial software. They suggest that the potential for OSS in the future might be limited. How do you reply? Include examples to demonstrate your points. To which websites can you direct them for further information?

Solution: Answers will vary. The GPL stands for the GNU General Public License and allows OSS such as Linux to be freely available and improved for an indefinite period. The open source business model is different from conventional software; the value of software is based on its use and its use generates profit indirectly by means of support, hardware sales, and so on. OSS is scrutinized by several developers worldwide via the Internet; thus, software bugs and security loopholes are found and fixed quickly. This makes OSS very high-quality software compared to commercial software. Websites that can be used for more information include but are not limited to the following list: catb.org/~esr/writings/cathedral-bazaar/ gnu.org opensource.org

DISCOVERY EXERCISE 1-3 Prompt: As a software developer working for a large clothing store chain, you are responsible for creating software used to connect retail store computers to a central database at the head office. Recently, some friends of yours suggested that you publish your software under a permissive open source license. What are some direct benefits to publishing your software under a permissive open source license? To publish software made for a company under any open source license, you need the company’s permission because the company owns all software that it pays developers to create. When you approach people in your company regarding OSS and explain how companies benefit from releasing software as open source, you are asked what benefits the company will receive from funding an open source project over time. Your company also wants to know what the procedure is for releasing and maintaining OSS. What benefits will

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Solution and Answer Guide: Chapter 01: Introduction to Linux 9798214000800; Chapter 01: Introduction to Linux

you offer them? Where could you send them to gain more information on procedures involved in the open source community?

Solution: Answers will vary. Benefits to publishing software under an open source license include rapid collaborative development in new areas, regular feedback, greater usage, and low chance of obsolescence.

Permissive open source licenses specifically encourage adoption in other projects, thus maximizing the likelihood that other developers will work on the open source project. Companies can benefit from the free development of other open source developers and reduce the cost of creating software packages by contributing people to only those open source projects of corporate interest. To release software as open source, you must read the open source definition and either subscribe to a license or create a new one that is accepted at opensource.org. Then, you must coordinate the development by providing an Internetaccessible means of communication between developers (e.g., github.com). Both aforementioned websites also list the rules and resources available to those who want to gain more knowledge about the open source procedure.

DISCOVERY EXERCISE 1-4 Prompt: You are a network administrator who oversees a medium-sized network consisting of Linux servers, as well as Linux, macOS, and Windows clients. The company you work for asks you to implement Kerberos authentication in the network, a topic with which you are unfamiliar. Where could you go to learn what you must obtain to enable Kerberos on your network? Provided that you have a functional web browser and an Internet connection, explore this topic on the Internet and list the websites that you used to obtain the information required. This information might range from broad descriptions of what you need to do to accomplish a certain task to detailed guides and instructions on putting your plan into action. From these sources of information, devise a report outlining the major steps necessary to implement Kerberos on your network.

Solution: Answers will vary. In general, to implement Kerberos, you must first implement a Kerberos authentication server (or servers), such as Microsoft Active Directory. Next, you must configure each system to join the Kerberos realm (for Microsoft Active Directory, this would be called an Active Directory domain), as well as ensure that each user has credentials in the database that the Kerberos authentication system uses.

DISCOVERY EXERCISE 1-5 Prompt: At a company function, a top executive corners you and complains that your department is wasting too much money. The executive demands to know why the company must spend so much money on computers and software, especially operating systems and related licenses (for closed source programs and operating systems). Write a report that defends your department by explaining the nature of hardware, software, and operating systems. In the report, be sure to explain how OSS and the Linux operating system can be used to reduce these costs in the long term.

Solution: Answers will vary. In general, Linux lowers the total cost of ownership for an organization because it can be obtained free of charge (although some Linux distributions, such as Red Hat Enterprise Linux, have a paid support subscription). Additionally, Linux systems are more secure and stable due to the rapidly evolving nature of open source software in general.

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Solution and Answer Guide: Chapter 01: Introduction to Linux 9798214000800; Chapter 01: Introduction to Linux

DISCOVERY EXERCISE 1-6 Prompt: You are contacted by a project organizer for a university computer science fair. The project organizer asks you to hold a forum that discusses the origins of the Linux operating system, including how it has evolved and continues to develop. The main focus of this forum is to encourage university students toward participating in the open source community; therefore, it should detail the philosophy, major features, and methods of the hacker culture. Prepare a bulleted list of the major topics that you will discuss and write some sample questions that you anticipate from the participants as well as your responses.

Solution: Answers will vary. The philosophy of the hacker culture dictates that the sharing of knowledge advances computer science and enhances personal development. Software is distributed for free along with the source code; should one person change that source code, that person must redistribute that source code so that others can benefit from the changes or give appropriate feedback (for example, to fix bugs). The hacker culture is a global culture tied together by Internet communication (websites, email, forums, code repository websites, and so on) and produces high-quality software in short periods of time. The software produced by the hacker culture is developed to meet a certain demand and, thus, is rarely abandoned. The point-form list required for this Discovery Exercise should mention the previous topics but can also mention any other aspect of Linux, GNU, FSF, OSS, or UNIX. The anticipated questions will also vary but could include questions regarding the profit structure of OSS, personal benefits to developing OSS, and school-related benefits of developing OSS.

DISCOVERY EXERCISE 1-7 Prompt: Research three different distributions of Linux on the Internet that were not mentioned in this chapter. Record where you went to obtain your information. Compare and contrast the distributions with regard to their strengths and the packages available for each. After you finish, visit two Linux forums. How did you locate them and where did you obtain the information? What are the topics specific to each? Find two questions per forum posted by a user in need of a solution to a problem and follow the thread of responses suggested by others to find possible solutions to that problem.

Solution: Answers will vary. At any time, distrowatch.com lists over 250 actively supported Linux distributions, so the distributions that the students choose can vary tremendously from student to student.

However, each distribution will have distinct features, support, and focus (e.g., PearOS is designed to be a macOS replacement), and will provide an online forum (Reddit, GitHub, website) that students can use to research issues or obtain support.

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Solution and Answer Guide: Eckert, CompTIA Linux+ and LPIC-1: Guide to Linux Certification, 6e 2024, 9798214000800; Chapter 01: Introduction to Linux

Solution and Answer Guide ECKERT, COMPTIA LINUX + AND LPIC-1: GUIDE TO LINUX CERTIFICATION, 6E 2024, 9798214000800; CHAPTER 02: LINUX INSTALLATION AND USAGE

TABLE OF CONTENTS Review Questions ........................................................................................................................................ 1 Hands-On Projects ...................................................................................................................................... 6 Discovery Exercises ..................................................................................................................................... 8

REVIEW QUESTIONS 21. What is the default shell on most Linux systems called? a. SH b. BSH c. CSH d. BASH Answer: d The Bourne Again Shell (BASH) is the default shell used on most Linux systems.

22. What equivalent to the man command generally provides an easier-to-read description of the queried command and contains links to other related information? a. who b. man help c. man -descriptive d. info Answer: d The info command is an alternative to the man command and provides usage information in descriptive hypertext format.

23. What command can you use to safely shut down the Linux system immediately? a. shutdown -c b. shutdown -r c. down d. halt Answer: d

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Solution and Answer Guide: ; Chapter 02: Linux Installation and Usage 9798214000800; Chapter 01: Introduction to Linux

The halt and poweroff commands can be used to shut down a Linux system immediately.

24. What command is equivalent to the man –k keyword command? a. find keyword b. man keyword c. apropos keyword d. appaloosa keyword Answer: c The apropos command is equivalent to the man -k command.

25. Which of the following is not a piece of information that the Fedora installation program prompts you for? a. time zone b. installation destination c. firewall settings d. installation language Answer: c The Fedora installation program prompts you to select an installation destination (storage), language, time, and time zone settings, but does not prompt you to select firewall settings.

26. Linux commands entered via the command line are not case sensitive. a. True b. False Answer: b All Linux commands entered within a shell are case sensitive.

27. Which command blanks the terminal screen, erasing previously displayed output? a. erase b. clean c. blank d. clear Answer: d The clear command clears command output from the terminal screen.

28. When sitting at a computer running Linux, what key combination do you press to switch to a graphical login screen? a. Ctrl+Alt+F1 b. Ctrl+Alt+F4 c. Ctrl+Alt+F2 d. Ctrl+Alt+F7 Answer: a

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Solution and Answer Guide: ; Chapter 02: Linux Installation and Usage 9798214000800; Chapter 01: Introduction to Linux

The graphical login screen runs on tty1 by default. You can use Ctrl+Alt+F1 to switch to tty1.

29. To install Linux within a virtual machine, you can specify the path to an ISO image that contains the Linux installation media within virtualization software without having to first write the ISO image to a DVD or USB flash drive. a. True b. False Answer: a Virtual machines contain a virtual DVD device that can be attached directly to a DVD ISO image for use when installing operating systems in the virtual machine itself.

30. After you log in to a terminal, you receive a user interface called a _____. a. GUID b. shell c. text box d. command screen Answer: b The user interface on a Linux terminal is called a shell.

31. Users enter commands directly to the kernel of the Linux operating system. a. True b. False Answer: b A shell interprets user commands and runs them on the underlying Linux kernel.

32. How can you protect a metacharacter (such as the $ character) from shell interpretation? a. Precede it with a /. b. Precede it with a \. c. Precede it with a $. d. It cannot be done because metacharacters are essential.

Answer: b You can protect the next character from shell interpretation by preceding it with a backslash (\).

33. You know a Linux command will perform a desired function for you, but you cannot remember the full name of the command. You do remember it will flush a variable from your system. Which command typed at a command prompt displays a list of commands that would likely contain the command you desire? a. man –k flush b. man –k find all c. man flush d. man –key flush Answer: a

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Solution and Answer Guide: ; Chapter 02: Linux Installation and Usage 9798214000800; Chapter 01: Introduction to Linux

To search the manual pages by keyword, you can supply the keyword as an argument to the man -k or apropos command.

34. Which command displays the users who are currently logged in to the Linux system? a. finger b. who c. id d. date Answer: b The who command displays logged in users on the system.

35. Which prompt does the root user receive when logged in to the system? a. $ b. @ c. # d. !

Answer: c The root user receives a # prompt within a BASH shell.

36. Which prompt do regular users receive when logged in to the system? a. $ b. @ c. # d. !

Answer: a Regular users received a $ prompt within a BASH shell.

37. Which of the following refers to the third primary partition on the second SAS hard disk drive within Linux? a. hdb2 b. sda3 c. hdb3 d. sdb3 Answer: d The second SAS hard disk drive is sdb (sda would be the first SAS hard disk drive). The third partition on sdb is sdb3.

38. Which three partitions are typically created at minimum during a Fedora Workstation Linux installation on a system with a UEFI BIOS? (Choose three answers.) a. / b. /boot

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Solution and Answer Guide: ; Chapter 02: Linux Installation and Usage 9798214000800; Chapter 01: Introduction to Linux

c. d.

swap /boot/efi

Answer: a, b, and d A root (/) partition and /boot partition are mandatory on all Linux systems, while swap partitions are rarely created on modern Linux systems. On a system with a UEFI BIOS, a /boot/efi partition is also created to hold boot files.

39. If you boot your computer from Linux live media, you will be able to use a fully functional Linux system prior to installing Linux on permanent storage. a. True b. False Answer: b Linux live media contain a memory-resident Linux operating system that can be used to test software and hardware.

40. Which of the following is not an example of virtualization software that can be used to install Linux within another operating system? a. Oracle VirtualBox b. Microsoft Hyper-V c. Spiceworks d. UTM Answer: c Spiceworks is an IT inventory and ticketing software system and not a hypervisor product. Oracle VirtualBox, Microsoft Hyper-V, and UTM are common hypervisors.

HANDS-ON PROJECTS PROJECT 2-1 Solution: In this project, students installed Fedora Linux in a virtual machine, started it, and completed the Welcome to GNOME tour.

PROJECT 2-2 Solution: Step 1: The $ prompt as it is the standard prompt for regular user accounts.

Step 2: Not applicable.

Step 3: The shell is case sensitive; Date is not a valid command name. The error message came from the BASH shell.

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Solution and Answer Guide: ; Chapter 02: Linux Installation and Usage 9798214000800; Chapter 01: Introduction to Linux

Step 4: The # prompt as it is the standard prompt for the root user.

Step 5: The root user is logged in to tty5 and user1 is logged in to tty3.

Step 6: No login was required on tty3. The commands are still visible because the session is kept active even if the user is not interacting with it.

Step 7: The exit command ends the shell and returns you to a login prompt.

Step 8: Not applicable.

PROJECT 2-3 Solution: Step 1: Not applicable.

Step 2: The $ prompt as it is the standard prompt for regular user accounts.

Step 3: Not applicable.

Step 4: Yes, the GDM is still available to accept additional graphical logins.

Steps 5–7: Not applicable.

Step 8: The KDE desktop uses navigation similar to the Windows operating system (Start menu-based), whereas the GNOME desktop uses navigation that is more similar to the macOS operating system (topdown menus and a macOS-like app launcher at the bottom).

Step 9: Not applicable.

Step 10: No, because the Terminal app accesses a single underlying terminal.

Step 11: Not applicable.

PROJECT 2-4 Solution: Steps 1–8: Not applicable.

Step 9: No, tmux does not create pseudo terminal sessions.

Steps 10–13: Not applicable.

PROJECT 2-5 Solution: Step 1: Not applicable.

Step 2: The ; character acts as a command terminator allowing you to enter more than one command on the command line before execution.

Step 3: Not applicable.

Step 4: The single quote character needs protection.

Step 5: Don’t do this.

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Solution and Answer Guide: ; Chapter 02: Linux Installation and Usage 9798214000800; Chapter 01: Introduction to Linux

Step 6: Don’t do this.

Step 7: /bin/bash was displayed first; nothing was displayed second.

Step 8: You have .50, because $4 references an undefined variable. The $ needs protecting using either single quotes or a backslash character.

Step 9: You have $4.50. Yes, the single quotes protected the $ character.

Step 10: You have .50. No, the double quotes failed to protect the $ character.

Step 11: You have $4.50. Yes, the backslash protected the $ character.

Step 12: Backquotes perform command substitution (i.e., running a command within another command).

Step 13: Not applicable.

PROJECT 2-6 Solution: Step 1: Not applicable.

Step 2: There are 3 different manual pages for crontab (2 commands and 1 file format).

Steps 3–9: Not applicable.

PROJECT 2-7 Solution: Step 1: Not applicable.

Step 2: The halt, shutdown –H now, and shutdown –P now commands.

DISCOVERY EXERCISES DISCOVERY EXERCISE 2-1 Prompt: You are the network administrator for Slimjim, a peripheral device company. The network uses Linux, and you need information on some commands to perform your job. Open the manual pages and find all the commands that have the word ―copy‖ in their name or description. What command did you use to accomplish this task? Are there any commands in this list that only a root user can execute? How are they indicated? Select any two of them and compare their info and manual pages. Access and read the manual pages on three other commands that interest you either by using the command name or searching for them by related keyword (try using apropos).

Solution: Answers will vary. The command used is man –k copy or apropos copy. Commands that only the root user can execute are indicated with (8) and there are several of them. The remainder of this Discovery Exercise will vary.

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Solution and Answer Guide: Eckert, CompTIA Linux+ and LPIC-1: Exploring Linux Filesystems, 6e 2024, 9798214000800; Chapter 01: Introduction to Linux

DISCOVERY EXERCISE 2-2 Prompt: Identify the errors with the following commands and indicate possible solutions. (Hint: Try typing them at a shell prompt to view the error message.)

Echo ―This command does not work properly‖ date -z apropos man -k help date shutdown -c now echo ―I would like lots of $$$‖ man 8 date Solution: The correct commands are: echo "This command does not work properly" (echo must be spelled with a lowercase e) date (the date command does not take a -z option) apropos man (the apropos and man –k commands are identical in function but are separate commands) man date (because date is not a shell function, you must use man or info instead of help) shutdown –P now or shutdown –r now (the –c option to shutdown cancels a shutdown; however, the –P and –r options can be used to power off or reboot the system now) echo 'I would like lots of $$$' (the $ character is a shell metacharacter that needs to be protected) man 1 date or man date (because date is in section 1 of the manual pages)

DISCOVERY EXERCISE 2-3 Prompt: While the manual pages are the standard way to obtain help on Linux commands, it often takes a while to find the information necessary to run a particular command in the way that you would like. To find useful examples (or ―cheat sheets‖) for common Linux commands, you can instead use the cheat command. Use the dnf install cheat command to install this command on your system and then run the cheat date and cheat uname commands to view cheat sheets for the date and uname commands, respectively. Optionally run some of the commands suggested in these cheat sheets.

Solution: In this exercise, students install and use the cheat command to view some common date and uname commands. If this is graded, consider having students submit screenshots of the output from the two cheat commands and the specific date and uname command they chose.

Solution and Answer Guide ECKERT, COMPTIA LINUX + AND LPIC-1: EXPLORING LINUX FILESYSTEMS , 6E 2024, 9798214000800; CHAPTER 03: EXPLORING LINUX FILESYSTEMS

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Solution and Answer Guide: ; Chapter 03: Exploring Linux Filesystems 9798214000800; Chapter 01: Introduction to Linux

TABLE OF CONTENTS Review Questions ........................................................................................................................................ 1 Hands-On Projects ...................................................................................................................................... 6 Discovery Exercises ................................................................................................................................... 11

REVIEW QUESTIONS 41. A directory is a type of file. a. True b. False Answer: a Directories are special files that serve to group other files.

42. Which command would a user type on the command line to find out the current directory in the directory tree? a. pd b. cd c. where d. pwd Answer: d The pwd command displays the working directory of the user in the directory tree.

43. Which of the following is an absolute pathname? (Choose all that apply.) a. C:\myfolder\resume b. resume c. /home/resume d. C:home/resume Answer: a and c On a Windows system, absolute pathnames start from the root directory of a drive letter (e.g., C:\). On a Linux system, absolute pathnames start from the single root directory on the system (/).

44. A special device file is used to _____. a. enable proprietary custom-built devices to work with Linux b. represent hardware devices c. keep a list of device settings specific to each individual user d. do nothing in Linux

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Solution and Answer Guide: ; Chapter 03: Exploring Linux Filesystems 9798214000800; Chapter 01: Introduction to Linux

Answer: b Device files are special files that represent hardware devices on the system, such as hard disk drives.

45. If a user’s current directory is /home/mary/project1, which command could they use to move to the etc directory directly under the root? a. cd .. b. cd etc c. cd /etc d. cd \etc Answer: c The /etc path refers to the etc directory directly under the root. The relative path of .. would switch to /home/mary, while the relative path of etc would switch to /home/mary/project1/etc.

46. After typing the ls –a command, you notice a file whose filename begins with a period (.). What does this mean? a. It is a binary file. b. It is a system file. c. It is a file in the current directory. d. It is a hidden file.

Answer: d Hidden files have a filename that begin with a period character.

47. After typing the ls –F command, you notice a filename that ends with an * (asterisk) character. What does this mean? a. It is a hidden file. b. It is a linked file. c. It is a special device file. d. It is an executable file.

Answer: d The ls -F command appends an asterisk to executable files.

48. The vi editor can function in which two of the following modes? (Choose both that apply.) a. command b. input c. interactive d. insert Answer: a and d The two modes available within the vi editor are command mode and insert mode.

49. The less command offers less functionality than the more command. a. True

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Solution and Answer Guide: ; Chapter 03: Exploring Linux Filesystems 9798214000800; Chapter 01: Introduction to Linux

b.

False

Answer: b The less command offers greater functionality compared to the more command, including the ability to scroll contents using cursor keys.

50. Which command searches for and displays any text contents of a binary file? a. text b. strings c. od d. less Answer: b The strings command displays the text contents of any file type.

51. How can a user switch from insert mode to command mode when using the vi editor? a. Press the Ctrl+Alt+Del keys simultaneously. b. Press the Del key. c. Type a : character. d. Press the Esc key.

Answer: d You can press the Escape (Esc) key to switch from insert mode to command mode within the vi editor.

52. If ―resume‖ is the name of a file in the home directory off the root of the filesystem and your present working directory is home, what is the relative name for the file named resume? a. /home/resume b. /resume c. resume d. \home\resume Answer: c Since your working directory is /home, you can refer to the file called resume within the same directory by its name alone.

53. What will the following wildcard expression return: file[a-c]? a. filea-c b. filea, filec c. filea, fileb, filec d. fileabc Answer: c The square bracket metacharacters are used to refer to a single character, matching the contents within.

54. What will typing q! at the : prompt in command mode do when using the vi editor?

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Solution and Answer Guide: ; Chapter 03: Exploring Linux Filesystems 9798214000800; Chapter 01: Introduction to Linux

a. b. c. d.

quit as no changes were made quit after saving any changes nothing because the ! is a metacharacter quit without saving any changes

Answer: d The q! sequence instructs the vi editor to quit and discard any changes made.

55. A user types the command head /poems/mary. What will be displayed on the terminal screen? a. the first line of the file mary b. the first 10 lines of the file mary c. the header for the file mary d. the first 20 lines of the file mary Answer: b The head command displays the first 10 lines of a text file by default.

56. The tac command _____. a. displays the contents of a file in reverse order, last line first and first line last b. displays the contents of hidden files c. displays the contents of a file in reverse order, last word on the line first and first word on the line last d. is not a valid Linux command Answer: a The tac command performs the reverse of the cat command; it displays a file in reverse line order.

57. How can you specify a text pattern that must be at the beginning of a line of text using a regular expression? a. Precede the string with a /. b. Follow the string with a \. c. Precede the string with a $. d. Precede the string with a ^.

Answer: d The ^ regular expression specifies that the pattern to match must appear at the beginning of a line.

58. Linux has only one root directory per directory tree. a. True b. False Answer: a UNIX and Linux systems have a single root directory, regardless of the number of storage devices within the system.

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Solution and Answer Guide: ; Chapter 03: Exploring Linux Filesystems 9798214000800; Chapter 01: Introduction to Linux

59. Using a regular expression, how can you indicate a character that is not an a or b or c or d? a. [^abcd] b. not [a-d] c. [!a-d] d. !a-d Answer: a The square bracket regular expression metacharacters indicate a single character specified within, and the ^ regular expression metacharacter used within square brackets reverses the pattern matching.

60. A user typed the command pwd and saw the output: /home/jim/sales/pending. How could that user navigate to the /home/jim directory? a. cd .. b. cd /jim c. cd ../.. d. cd ./.

Answer: c Since the /home/jim directory is two parent directories closer to the root directory compared to /home/jim/sales/pending, you can specify a relative path of two parent directories (../..) as an argument to the cd command.

HANDS-ON PROJECTS PROJECT 3-1 Solution: Step 1: Not applicable.

Step 2: /root Step 3: No, because the cd command takes you to your home directory.

Step 4: No, because the . metacharacter refers to the current directory.

Step 5: Yes, the .. metacharacter refers to the parent directory (/).

Step 6: Yes, you used a relative pathname (root) to enter your home directory (/root).

Step 7: The error message indicates that the etc directory was not found as it is not underneath your current directory (/root).

Step 8: Yes, you used an absolute pathname to change to /etc.

Step 9: Yes, you used an absolute pathname to change to /.

Step 10: Yes, you used the ~ metacharacter to specify user1’s home directory (/home/user1); the same can be achieved by using the cd command.

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Solution and Answer Guide: ; Chapter 03: Exploring Linux Filesystems 9798214000800; Chapter 01: Introduction to Linux

Step 11: Yes, you used a relative pathname to change to /home/user1/Desktop.

Step 12: Not applicable.

Step 13: ../sysconfig navigated one parent directory toward the root then down to the sysconfig directory.

Step 14: Yes, you could have typed cd /home/user1/Desktop, which is shorter than the relative pathname we used.

Step 15: Not applicable.

PROJECT 3-2 Solution: Steps 1–2: Not applicable.

Step 3: cd /root/ is displayed because the /root directory is the only directory that starts with ro under the / directory.

Step 4: Not applicable.

Step 5: No, there must be more than one directory under the / directory that begins with the letter b.

Step 6: Two: /bin and /boot.

Step 7: cd /bin/ because the /bin directory is the only directory under the / directory that begins with the letters bi.

Step 8: Two: /mnt and /media.

Steps 9–11: Not applicable.

PROJECT 3-3 Solution: Steps 1–2: Not applicable.

Step 3: Not all files are listed from /etc as the terminal screen is too small; the most common file extension is .conf (configuration files).

Step 4: The files at the beginning of the directory listing are displayed.

Step 5: Not applicable.

Step 6: The files at the beginning of the directory listing are displayed.

Steps 7–8: Not applicable.

Step 9: /root.

Step 10: It displays the directory listing for the /etc directory without changing the current directory.

Step 11: No. The /etc/skel directory contains only hidden files and directories. The . represents the current directory and the .. represents the parent directory.

Step 12: There are hidden files and one hidden directory.

Step 13: The /bin directory contains executable and symbolically linked files.

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Solution and Answer Guide: ; Chapter 03: Exploring Linux Filesystems 9798214000800; Chapter 01: Introduction to Linux

Step 14: The -d option displays only directories and subdirectories.

Step 15: Information available includes file type, permissions, hard link count, owner, group owner, size, modification date, and filename. There are regular files, executable files, and directories in the /boot directory. The ll command gives the same output as the ls –l command.

Step 16: Yes, the file command displays the different types of regular files by content.

Step 17: A directory file.

Step 18: A symbolic link to another file (/usr/lib/issue).

Steps 19–20: Not applicable.

PROJECT 3-4 Solution: Step 1: Not applicable.

Step 2: Two lines.

Steps 3–4: Not applicable.

Step 5: The head command displays the first 10 lines by default.

Step 6: Five lines, three lines; the head command takes the number of lines to display as an option.

Step 7: The last 10 lines of /etc/services, the tail command displays the last 10 lines by default.

Step 8: Five lines, the tail command takes the number of lines to display as an option.

Step 9: A binary compiled executable. Text tools should only be run on text files.

Steps 10–11: Not applicable.

PROJECT 3-5 Solution: Steps 1–3: Not applicable.

Step 4: Because you are still in command mode, you can insert text in insert mode.

Step 5: The cursor moves one character backward (left), command mode, x deleted a character, i inserts before the character.

Steps 6–9: Not applicable.

Step 10: The filename and number of lines and characters.

Steps 11–12: Not applicable.

Step 13: ASCII text.

Step 14: The filename and number of lines and characters, this is the same information as in Step 10.

Step 15: Not applicable.

Step 16: The output of the date command appeared below the current line in the document.

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Solution and Answer Guide: ; Chapter 03: Exploring Linux Filesystems 9798214000800; Chapter 01: Introduction to Linux

Step 17: Yes. Steps 18–19: Not applicable.

Step 20: The document was saved as sample2 in the current directory.

Step 21: No. You must save or throw away your changes first.

Steps 22–27: Not applicable.

Step 28: The last function (changing ―to‖ to ―TO‖) was undone.

Steps 29–33: Not applicable.

Step 34: The pattern ―flies‖ was replaced with the pattern ―flies and bears‖ in the document.

Steps 35–39: Not applicable.

PROJECT 3-6 Solution: Step 1: Not applicable.

Step 2: Three files: sample1, sample2, and sample3.

Step 3: All files are listed: anaconda-ks.cfg, sample1, sample2, and sample3 because * matches 0 or more characters in the filename.

Step 4: sample1, sample2, and sample3 are listed.

Step 5: sample1, sample2, and sample3 are listed because ? matches 1 character.

Step 6: No files because ?? matches two characters.

Step 7: sample1 and sample3 are listed because [13] matches 1 or 3.

Step 8: sample2 is listed because [!13] matches anything except 1 or 3.

Step 9: sample1, sample2, and sample3 are listed because [1-3] matches 1, 2 or 3.

Step 10: No files are listed because [!1-3] matches anything except 1, 2 or 3.

Step 11: Not applicable.

PROJECT 3-7 Solution: Step 1: Not applicable.

Step 2: Any lines with the pattern "Inn": especially wished to see the model of the Highland Inn Inn was originally located on Cache Lake.

Step 3: Any lines which do not contain the pattern "Inn": Sun Apr 28 08:31:11 EDT 2015

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Solution and Answer Guide: ; Chapter 03: Exploring Linux Filesystems 9798214000800; Chapter 01: Introduction to Linux

Hi Bob, I hope this day finds you well.

Unfortunately, we were not able to make it to your dining room this year while vacationing in Algonquin Park - I and train station in the dining room.

I have been reading on the history of Algonquin Park but nowhere could I find a description of where the Highland

If it is no trouble, could you kindly let me know such that I need not wait until next year to visit your lodge?

Regards, Mackenzie Elizabeth P.S. How were the flies and bears this year?

Step 4: Nothing is displayed as the grep command is case sensitive.

Step 5: The output is the same as Step 2.

Step 6: Any lines that contain the I character: Hi Bob, I hope this day finds you well. room this year while vacationing in Algonquin Park - I especially wished to see the model of the Highland Inn I have been reading on the history of Algonquin Park but nowhere could I find a description of where the Highland Inn was originally located on Cache Lake.

If it is no trouble, could you kindly let me know such that I need not wait until next year to visit your lodge?

Step 7: Any lines that contain the I character surrounded by spaces: Hi Bob, I hope this day finds you well. nowhere could I find a description of where the Highland Step 8: Any lines that contain the letter t followed by any other character followed by the letter e: especially wished to see the model of the Highland Inn

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Solution and Answer Guide: ; Chapter 03: Exploring Linux Filesystems 9798214000800; Chapter 01: Introduction to Linux

and train station in the dining room.

I have been reading on the history of Algonquin Park but nowhere could I find a description of where the Highland P.S. How were the flies and bears this year?

Step 9: Any lines that contain the letter w followed by any three characters followed by the letter e: Unfortunately, we were not able to make it to your dining room this year while vacationing in Algonquin Park - I nowhere could I find a description of where the Highland Step 10: Any lines that start with the letter I: I have been reading on the history of Algonquin Park but Inn was originally located on Cache Lake.

If it is no trouble, could you kindly let me know such that I need not wait until next year to visit your lodge?

Step 11: Any lines that start with the letter I followed by a space character: I have been reading on the history of Algonquin Park but I need not wait until next year to visit your lodge?

Step 12: Nothing is displayed as the grep command cannot understand extended regular expressions.

Step 13: Any lines that have the letters "we" or "next": Hi Bob, I hope this day finds you well.

Unfortunately, we were not able to make it to your dining I need not wait until next year to visit your lodge?

P.S. How were the flies and bears this year?

Step 14: Any lines that end with the letters "Inn": especially wished to see the model of the Highland Inn Step 15: Any lines that end with ? because ? is an extended regular expression and only has meaning in the egrep command): I need not wait until next year to visit your lodge?

P.S. How were the flies and bears this year?

Step 16: Only blank lines are displayed; because there are five blank lines in the file, five blank lines are displayed because ^ indicates the beginning of the line and $ indicates the end of the line.

Step 17: Not applicable.

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Solution and Answer Guide: ; Chapter 03: Exploring Linux Filesystems 9798214000800; Chapter 01: Introduction to Linux

DISCOVERY EXERCISES DISCOVERY EXERCISE 3-1 Prompt: You are the systems administrator for a scientific research company that employs over 100 scientists who write and run Linux programs to analyze their work. All of these programs are stored in each scientist’s home directory on the Linux system. One scientist has left the company, and you are instructed to retrieve any work from that scientist’s home directory. When you enter the home directory for that user, you notice that there are very few files and only two directories (one named Projects and one named Lab).

List the commands that you would use to navigate through this user’s home directory and view filenames and file types. If there are any text files, what commands could you use to view their contents?

Solution: Answers will vary. Some common commands include: cd ~scientistname ls ls –a ls –aF ls –l file * cd projects (then repeat the ls and file commands) cd .. cd lab (then repeat the ls and file commands) *may need to enter subdirectories as well. *text files can be viewed with cat, more, less, head, tail *binary files can be viewed with strings

DISCOVERY EXERCISE 3-2 Prompt: When you type the pwd command, you notice that your current location on the Linux filesystem is the /usr/local directory. Answer the following questions, assuming that your current directory is /usr/local for each question. a)

Which command could you use to change to the /usr directory using an absolute pathname?

b) Which command could you use to change to the /usr directory using a relative pathname? c)

Which command could you use to change to the /usr/local/share/info directory using an absolute pathname?

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Solution and Answer Guide: ; Chapter 03: Exploring Linux Filesystems 9798214000800; Chapter 01: Introduction to Linux

d) Which command could you use to change to the /usr/local/share/info directory using a relative pathname? e) f)

Which command could you use to change to the /etc directory using an absolute pathname?

Which command could you use to change to the /etc directory using a relative pathname?

Solution: a) cd /usr b) cd .. c) cd /usr/local/share/info d) cd share/info e) cd /etc f) cd ../../etc

DISCOVERY EXERCISE 3-3 Prompt: Using wildcard metacharacters and options to the ls command, view the following: a) b) c) d) e) f)

All the files that end with .cfg under the /etc directory All hidden files in the /home/user1 directory The directory names that exist under the /var directory All the files that start with the letter ―a‖ under the /bin directory All the files that have exactly three letters in their filename in the /bin directory All files that have exactly three letters in their filename and end with either the letter ―t‖ or the letter ―h‖ in the /bin directory

Solution: a)

ls /etc/*.cfg

b) ls /home/user1/.* c)

ls –d /var/* (or tree -d /var)

d) ls /bin/a* e)

ls /bin/???

f)

ls /bin/??[th]

DISCOVERY EXERCISE 3-4 Prompt: Explore the manual pages for the ls, grep, cat, od, tac, head, tail, diff,

pwd , cd , strings, and vi commands. Experiment with what you learn using the file sample1 that you created earlier.

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Solution and Answer Guide: ; Chapter 03: Exploring Linux Filesystems 9798214000800; Chapter 01: Introduction to Linux

Solution: This exercise has students explore the manual pages for the ls, grep, cat, od, tac, head, tail, diff, pwd, cd, strings, and vi commands and practice file-related commands on the sample1 file created. If this exercise is graded, consider having students submit screenshots of 3-5 manual pages and 1-2 related commands.

DISCOVERY EXERCISE 3-5 Prompt: The famous quote from Shakespeare’s Hamlet ―To be or not to be‖ can be represented by the following regular expression: (2b|[^b]{2}) If you used this expression when searching a text file using the egrep command (egrep "(2b|[^b]{2})" filename), what would be displayed? Try this command on a file that you have created. Why does it display what it does? That is the question.

Solution: All lines except for blank lines will be displayed because the regular expression matches any two b characters or any characters that are not two b characters. This will match any two characters provided they exist!

DISCOVERY EXERCISE 3-6 Prompt: The vim-enhanced package you installed earlier in Hands-On Project 3-5 comes with a short 30minute tutorial on its usage. Start this tutorial by typing vimtutor at a command prompt and then follow the directions.

Solution: This exercise has students run the vim tutorial. If this exercise is graded, consider having students submit screenshots of two different parts of the tutorial (e.g., navigation commands and : prompt commands).

DISCOVERY EXERCISE 3-7 Prompt: Enter the following text into a new document called question7 using the vi editor. Next, use the vi editor to fix the mistakes in the file using the information in Tables 3-5, 3-6, and 3-7 as well as the examples provided in this chapter.

Hi there, Unfortunately we were not able to make it to your dining room Unfortunately we were not able to make it to your dining room this year while vacationing in Algonuin Park - I especially wished to see the model of the highland inn and the train station in the dining rooms.

I have been readng on the history of Algonuin Park but no where could I find a description of where the Highland Inn was originally located on Cache lake.

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Solution and Answer Guide: Eckert, CompTIA Linux+ and LPIC-1: Linux Filesystem Management, 6e 2024, 9798214000800; Chapter 01: Introduction to Linux

If it is not trouble, could you kindly let me that I need not wait until next year when we visit Lodge?

I hope this day finds you well.

Regard Elizabeth Mackenzie Solution: This exercise has students fix mistakes in the sample output using the vi editor. If this exercise is graded, consider having students submit a screenshot of the end result.

DISCOVERY EXERCISE 3-8 Prompt: The knowledge gained from using the vi editor can be transferred easily to the Emacs editor.

Perform Discovery Exercise 3-7 using the Emacs editor instead of the vi editor.

Solution: This exercise has students fix mistakes in the sample output from the previous exercise using the emacs editor. If this exercise is graded, consider having students submit a screenshot of the end result.

DISCOVERY EXERCISE 3-9 Prompt: When you use the vi editor and change environment settings at the : prompt, such as :set number to enable line numbering, those changes are lost when you exit the vi editor. To continuously apply the same environment settings, you can choose to put any vi commands that can be entered at the : prompt in a special hidden file in your home directory called either .vimrc or .exrc. Each time the vi (vim) editor is opened, it looks for these files and automatically executes the commands within. Enter the vi editor and find two environment settings that you want to change in addition to line numbering. Then create a new file called .exrc in your home directory and enter the three lines changing these vi environment settings (do not start each line with a : character, just enter the set command—e.g., set number).

When finished, open the vi editor to edit a new file and test to see whether the settings were applied automatically.

Solution: This exercise has students edit and test their .vimrc or .exrc configuration. If this exercise is graded, consider having students submit a screenshot of their .vimrc or .exrc file while open in the vi editor.

Solution and Answer Guide ECKERT, COMPTIA LINUX + AND LPIC-1: LINUX FILESYSTEM MANAGEMENT, 6E 2024, 9798214000800; CHAPTER 04: LINUX FILESYSTEM MANAGEMENT

TABLE OF CONTENTS Review Questions ........................................................................................................................................ 1 Hands-On Projects ...................................................................................................................................... 6 © 2024 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.

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Solution and Answer Guide: ; Chapter 04: Linux Filesystem Management 9798214000800; Chapter 01: Introduction to Linux

Discovery Exercises ................................................................................................................................... 12

REVIEW QUESTIONS 61. A symbolic link is depicted by an @ symbol appearing at the beginning of the filename when viewed using the ls –l command. a. True b. False Answer: b A symbolic link is indicated by l (lowercase L) at the beginning of a long file listing.

62. What was created to define a standard directory structure and common file location for UNIX and Linux systems? a. POSIX b. X.500 c. FHS d. OOBLA Answer: c The Filesystem Hierarchy Standard (FHS) is referenced by UNIX and Linux systems.

63. There is no real difference between the ―S‖ and ―s‖ special permissions when displayed using the ls –l command. One just means it is on a file, and the other means that it is on a directory. a. True b. False Answer: b The S special permission indicates that an underlying x permission has not been set, while the s special permission indicates that an underlying x permission has been set.

64. The default permissions given by the system prior to analyzing the umask are _____ for newly created directories and _____ for newly created files. a. rw-rw-rw- and rw-rw-rwb. rw-rw-rw- and r--r--r-c. rw-rw-rw- and rwxrwxrwx d. rwxrwxrwx and rw-rw-rwAnswer: d The system assigns all permissions (rwxrwxrwx) to new directories, and all permissions except for execute (rw-rw-rw-) to new files.

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Solution and Answer Guide: ; Chapter 04: Linux Filesystem Management 9798214000800; Chapter 01: Introduction to Linux

65. What must a Fedora Linux user do to run cp or mv interactively and be asked whether to overwrite an existing file? a. Just run cp or mv because they run in interactive mode by default. b. Run interactive cp or interactive mv. c. Run cp -i or mv -i. d. Run cp –interactive or mv -interactive.

Answer: a On Fedora Linux systems, a default alias is configured to ensure that the cp and mv commands run their interactive counterparts: cp -i and mv -i, respectively.

66. The root user utilizes the chown command to give ownership of a file to another user. What must the root user do to regain ownership of the file? a. Have the new owner run chgrp and list the root user as the new owner. b. Run chgrp again listing the root user as the new owner. c. Nothing, because this is a one-way, one-time action. d. Run chown and list the root user as the new owner.

Answer: d The root user can modify the ownership of any file or directory on the system.

67. After typing the ls –F command, you see the following line in the output: -rw-r-xr--

1 user1

root

0 Apr 29 15:40 file1

How do you interpret the mode of file1? a. User1 has read and write, members of the root group have read and execute, and all others have read permissions to the file. b. Members of the root group have read and write, user1 has read and execute, and all others have read permissions to the file. c. All users have read and write, members of the root group have read and execute, and user1 has read permissions to the file. d. User1 has read and write, all others have read and execute, and members of the root group have read permissions to the file.

Answer: a The first three permissions apply to the owner (user1), the second three permissions apply to members of the group owner (root), and the remaining permissions apply to everyone else.

68. After typing the command umask 731, the permissions on all subsequently created files and directories will be affected. In this case, what will be the permissions on all new files? a. rw-rw-rwb. rwxrw-r-c. ---r--rwd. ----wx--x Answer: c

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Solution and Answer Guide: ; Chapter 04: Linux Filesystem Management 9798214000800; Chapter 01: Introduction to Linux

New files receive rw-rw-rw- from the system less the umask. A umask of 731 will remove rwx-wx--x from these permissions (if present), leaving ---r--rw-.

69. You noticed a file in your home directory that has a + symbol appended to the mode. What does this indicate? a. Special permissions have been set on the file. b. The file has one or more files on the filesystem that are hard linked to it. c. The sticky bit directory permission has been set on the file and will remain inactive as a result. d. Additional entries exist within the ACL of the file that can be viewed using the getfacl command.

Answer: d A + symbol next to the mode of a file indicates that additional users and/or groups have been added to the access control list (ACL). You can use the getfacl command to view the full ACL. 70. When you change the data in a file that is hard-linked to three others, _____. a. the data in the file you modified and the data in all hard-linked files are modified because they have different inodes b. the data in the file you modified as well as the data in all hard-linked files are modified because they share the same data and inode c. only the data in the file you modified is affected d. only the data in the file you modified and any hard-linked files in the same directory are affected Answer: b Because hard links share the same inode and data section, all hard linked files are updated when you modify a single one.

71. The command chmod 317 file1 would produce which of the following lines in the ls command? a. --w-r--rwx 1 user1 root 0 Apr 29 15:40 file1 b. --wx--xrwx 1 user1 root 0 Apr 29 15:40 file1 c. -rwxrw-r-x 1 user1 root 0 Apr 29 15:40 file1 d. --w-rw-r-e 1 user1 root 0 Apr 29 15:40 file1 Answer: b The permissions in a mode are represented by the numbers r (4), w (2), and x (1). Thus, 3 = wx (2+1), 1 = x, and 7 = rwx (4+2+1).

72. Which of the following commands will change the user ownership and group ownership of file1 to user1 and root, respectively? a. chown user1:root file1 b. chown user1 : root file1 c. chown root:user1 file1 d. chown root : user1 file1 Answer: a

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Solution and Answer Guide: ; Chapter 04: Linux Filesystem Management 9798214000800; Chapter 01: Introduction to Linux

You can specify either user1:root or user1.root as the first argument to the chown command to change the ownership of a file to the user1 user and root group.

73. What does the /var directory contain? a. various additional programs b. log files and spool directories c. temporary files d. files that are architecture-independent Answer: b The /var directory contains files that grow in size, such as log files and spool directories (e.g., print spools).

74. What does the mv command do? (Choose all that apply.) a. It renames a file. b. It renames a directory. c. It moves a directory to another location on the filesystem. d. It moves a file to another location on the filesystem.

Answer: a, b, c, and d The mv command can be used to rename files and directories within the same directory or move files and directories to a different directory.

75. A file has the following permissions: r----x-w-. The command chmod 143 file1 would have the same effect as the command _____. (Choose all that apply.) a. chmod u+x-r,g+r-x,o+x file1 b. chmod u=w,g=rw,o=rx file1 c. chmod u-r-w,g+r-w,o+r-x file1 d. chmod u=x,g=r,o=wx file1 e. chmod u+w,g+r-w,o+r-x file1 Answer: a, and d The 143 permissions (--xr---wx) can be obtained by subtracting r and adding x to the user category, subtracting x and adding r to the group category, and adding x to the other category. Alternatively, you can use the = symbol to set the target permissions for the user, group, and other categories to x, r, and wx, respectively.

76. The which command _____. a. can only be used to search for aliases b. searches for a file in all directories, starting from the root c. is not a valid Linux command d. searches for a file only in directories that are in the PATH variable Answer: d The which command only searches for files within the directories listed in the PATH variable.

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Solution and Answer Guide: ; Chapter 04: Linux Filesystem Management 9798214000800; Chapter 01: Introduction to Linux

77. Hard links need to reside on the same filesystem, whereas symbolic links need not be on the same filesystem as their target. a. True b. False Answer: a Since hard links share the same inode number, and inode numbers are unique to their filesystem, hard links cannot be made to files on other filesystems. Symbolic links do not share the same inode number and can be made to any file on any filesystem.

78. When applied to a directory, the SGID special permission _____. a. allows users the ability to use more than two groups for files that they create within the directory b. causes all new files created in the directory to have the same group membership as the directory, and not the entity that created them c. causes users to have their permissions checked before they are allowed to access files in the directory d. cannot be used because it is applied only to files Answer: b When set on a directory, the SGID ensures that newly created files and subdirectories within are configured with the same group owner of the directory.

79. Given the following output from the ls command, how many other files are hard linked with file3? drwxr-xr-x 3 root root 4096 Apr 8 07:12 Desktop -rw-r--r-3 root root 282 Apr 29 22:06 file1 -rw-r--r-1 root root 282 Apr 29 22:06 file2 -rw-r--r-4 root root 282 Apr 29 22:06 file3 -rw-r--r-2 root root 282 Apr 29 22:06 file4 -rw-r--r-1 root root 282 Apr 29 22:06 file5 -rw-r--r-1 user1 sys 282 Apr 29 22:06 file6 a. b. c. d.

one two three four

Answer: c A link count of 4 indicates that four files share the same inode. Thus, there must be three other files that share the same inode as file3.

80. Only the root user can modify a file that has the immutable attribute set. a. True b. False Answer: b The immutable attribute ensures that a file cannot be modified by any user or process on the system.

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Solution and Answer Guide: ; Chapter 04: Linux Filesystem Management 9798214000800; Chapter 01: Introduction to Linux

HANDS-ON PROJECTS PROJECT 4-1 Solution: Steps 1-3: Not applicable.

Step 4: Nothing; it is empty.

Step 5: undermysamples/ is displayed.

Step 6: Yes. Step 7: Not applicable.

Step 8: /.

Step 9: Yes. Step10: Not applicable.

PROJECT 4-2 Solution: Steps 1-2: Not applicable.

Step 3: ―missing destination file‖; the cp command requires two arguments: a source and a target at minimum.

Step 4: Four, sample1, sample2, sample3, and sample1A (because a new file, sample1A, which is a copy of sample1 was created) Step 5: Four, sample1, sample2, sample3, and sample1A, because the new file sample1B was created in the subdirectory mysamples.

Step 6: Yes. Step 7: Two, sample1B and sample2, which was copied to this directory using the . notation.

Step 8: Yes. Step 9: You are prompted to overwrite the existing sample2 file in the mysamples directory because it already exists; four (sample1, sample2, sample3, and sample1B) Step 10: It warns you that mysamples is a directory; you must use the –r or -R option to copy directories.

Step 11: Yes; yes.

Step 12: Not applicable.

PROJECT 4-3 Solution: Steps 1-2: Not applicable.

Step 3: ―missing file argument‖; the cp command requires two arguments: a source and a target at minimum. © 2024 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.

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Solution and Answer Guide: ; Chapter 04: Linux Filesystem Management 9798214000800; Chapter 01: Introduction to Linux

Step 4: five; sample1A, sample1B, sample2, sample3, and sample4; because the source directory was the same as the target directory, the file sample1 was not moved, but rather renamed to sample4.

Step 5: four; sample1A, sample1B, sample2, and sample3; sample4 was moved to the target directory mysamples.

Step 6: Not applicable.

Step 7: four; sample1, sample1B, sample2, and sample3; sample4 was moved to the parent directory /root specified as the target directory by the .. used in the command.

Step 8: Not applicable.

Step 9: ―overwrite mysamples/sample4?‖ because you are trying to move a file called sample4 into a directory and rename it sample2, yet that file already exists in the directory.

Steps 10-11: Not applicable.

Step 12: two; sample1A and sample 1B, the ―?‖ wildcard in the command matched any filename only one character after sample, thus sample2 and sample3 were moved whereas sample1A and sample 1B remained.

Steps 13-15: Not applicable.

Step 16: The mv command simply renames the directory only—not all files recursively in that directory.

Step 17: Not applicable.

PROJECT 4-4 Solution: Step 1: Not applicable.

Step 2: sample1, sample1A, sample1B, sample2, sample3; the link count for sample1 is 1.

Step 3: No, the ls –F command does not indicate hard links. Yes, the link count for both files is 2 in the output of the ls -l command, and the output of the ls -li command indicates that they both share the same inode number.

Step 4: 3 because there are three files that now share the same inode.

Step 5: Not applicable.

Step 6: Yes, because hard-linked files share the same data.

Step 7: Yes, ls –F indicates symbolic links by appending an @ symbol to the filename. The ls –l command displays an arrow to indicate the target beside the filename and an l character in the type column. Both files have different inode numbers in the output of the ls -li command.

Step 8: Not applicable.

Step 9: symlink sample is much smaller than sample2 because symlinks are merely pointers to target files; when you used the cat command to view symlink sample, you are actually viewing the sample2 file.

Step 10: samba is a directory symbolic link; when the pwd command is executed, it indicates the /root/samba directory although the actual directory is /etc/samba—this type of linking makes distant directories easier to access from a common location, such as your home directory.

Step 11: Not applicable.

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Solution and Answer Guide: ; Chapter 04: Linux Filesystem Management 9798214000800; Chapter 01: Introduction to Linux

PROJECT 4-5 Solution: Step 1: Not applicable.

Step 2: No, because the locate database does not contain the information for newfile.

Step 3: Yes, because the locate database contains the information for newfile. It was found quickly because the database of filenames is searched only.

Step 4: Yes, but it takes longer than locate because it checks the entire system.

Step 5: Yes, it took less time because only the /root directory was searched.

Step 6: No. The /root directory is not in $PATH, but the /usr/bin directory is listed in $PATH. Step 7: Yes, because the grep command is in the /usr/bin directory, which is listed in $PATH. Step 8: The type command returns less (only the first match), and the where is command returns more (location of info and man pages, but no alias).

Step 9: All of the files starting with ―sample‖ used earlier in the exercise because the wildcard was used.

Step 10: Only the symlink sample and samba symbolic links.

Step 11: Empty files, including the empty sample* files created previously using the touch command.

Step 12: Not applicable.

PROJECT 4-6 Solution: Steps 1-2: Not applicable.

Step 3: Yes, because both directories were empty.

Step 4: The rm command prompts the user to confirm each deletion.

Step 5: All three files are deleted immediately because the –f switch does not prompt the user to confirm each deletion. The unlink command can also be used to delete Linux files.

Step 6: The rmdir command cannot delete a directory unless it is empty.

Step 7: Yes. Step 8: Not applicable.

PROJECT 4-7 Solution: Steps 1-2: Not applicable.

Step 3: Everyone.

Step 4: Nobody.

Step 5: Yes, because you have the write permission to the directory that contains the file.

Step 6: Not applicable.

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Solution and Answer Guide: ; Chapter 04: Linux Filesystem Management 9798214000800; Chapter 01: Introduction to Linux

Step 7: root and root; user1 belongs to the ―other‖ category, which has r-x permissions.

Step 8: No. Step 9: Not applicable.

Step 10: Yes, because the x permission allows the user to change to the directory. Yes, because the r permission allows the user to list files within. Because user1 does not have w permission to the directory, user1 is unable to delete the hosts file inside it.

Step 11: Not applicable.

Step 12: Yes, the root user can change any permissions.

Step 13: Not applicable.

Step 14: Yes, because user1 has w permission to the directory.

Step 15-16: Not applicable.

Step 17: root and root; user1 belongs to the ―other‖ category, which has r-- to the file.

Step 18: Not applicable.

Step 19: Yes, because user1 has r permission. No, the vi editor was unable to save changes because user1 does not have w permission.

Steps 20-22: Not applicable.

Step 23: Yes, the w permission allows user1 to save changes to the file.

Step 24: No. No, text files should not be executed. All files in /bin are executable by all users and should have execute for the other category. Yes, because they contain binary data.

Steps 25-27: Not applicable.

PROJECT 4-8 Solution: Step 1: Not applicable.

Step 2: 022.

Step 3: utest1 has rw-r--r-- and udir1 has rwxr-xr-x (as predicted in Figure 4-4) Step 4: Not applicable.

Step 5: utest2 has rw-rw---- and udir2 has rwxrwx--- (as predicted in Figure 4-5).

Step 6: Not applicable.

PROJECT 4-9 Solution: Steps 1-2: Not applicable.

Step 3: You were the original owner of the file and directory (and also the root user).

Step 4: You were the original owner of the file and directory (and also the root user).

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Solution and Answer Guide: ; Chapter 04: Linux Filesystem Management 9798214000800; Chapter 01: Introduction to Linux

Step 5: You are the root user.

Step 6: Not applicable.

Step 7: user1.

Step 8: Because you have the write permission to the directory that it is in (and also the root user).

Step 9: Not applicable.

PROJECT 4-10 Solution: Step 1: Not applicable.

Step 2: user1 and user1.

Step 3: The SUID bit is set, which allows others to execute the file as the user1 user.

Step 4: The SUID and SGID bits are set, which allows others to execute the file as the user1 user and a member of the user1 group.

Step 5: Without execute, the special permission is capitalized (S) for the SGID and SUID and they won’t work.

Step 6: Not applicable.

Step 7: The sticky bit is set; all users can add files, but only the owner of a file can delete it.

Steps 8-10: Not applicable.

Step 11: rootfile (owned by root) and user1file (owned by user1).

Step 12: No. Steps 13-15: Not applicable.

Step 16: No additional permissions are shown.

Step 17: Yes; a + symbol should follow the mode; the permissions set would be useful if user1 cannot be assigned membership to the default group (root) or obtain permissions through the other group (e.g., if the other group must not have permissions set).

Step 18: No. Step 19: Not applicable.

PROJECT 4-11 Solution: Step 1: Not applicable.

Step 2: The e attribute (block writes).

Step 3: Yes. Step 4: The vi editor should warn you of a read-only file; the root user cannot save to an immutable file.

Step 5: No, because the file is immutable, and file permissions do not supersede filesystem attributes.

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Solution and Answer Guide: ; Chapter 04: Linux Filesystem Management 9798214000800; Chapter 01: Introduction to Linux

Step 6: Yes, because the immutable attribute was removed.

Step 7: The c attribute is used for compression; the s attribute is used to clear data blocks upon deletion.

Step 8: Not applicable.

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Solution and Answer Guide: ; Chapter 04: Linux Filesystem Management 9798214000800; Chapter 01: Introduction to Linux

DISCOVERY EXERCISES DISCOVERY EXERCISE 4-1 Prompt: Use the ls command with the -F option to explore directories described in the Filesystem Hierarchy Standard starting with /bin. Do you recognize any of the commands in /bin? Explore several other FHS directories and note their contents. Refer to Table 4-1 for a list of directories to explore. Further, visit www.pathname.com/fhs and read about the Filesystem Hierarchy Standard. What benefits does it offer Linux?

Solution: FHS provides a standard set of reference directories on UNIX and Linux systems. While some UNIX flavors and Linux distributions may vary slightly from the FHS, it provides users a consistent experience and makes it easier to develop software for UNIX and Linux systems.

DISCOVERY EXERCISE 4-2 Prompt: Write the commands required for the following tasks. Try out each command on your system to ensure that it is correct: a) Make a hierarchical directory structure under /root that consists of one directory containing three subdirectories. b) Copy two files into each of the subdirectories. c) Create one more directory with three subdirectories beneath it and move files from the subdirectories containing them to the counterparts you just created. d) Hard-link three of the files. Examine their inodes. e) Symbolically link two of the files and examine their link count and inode information. f) Make symbolic links from your home directory to two directories in this structure and examine the results. g) Delete the symbolic links in your home directory and the directory structure you created under /root.

Solution: mkdir name; mkdir name/name (three times) cp file1 file2 name/name (three times) Repeat a), mv name/name/name name/name/name ln name newname (repeat three times), ls -l name newname ln -s name newname (repeat twice), ls -l name newname ln -s directory newdirectory, ls -ld newdirectory, ls -l newdirectory m) rm -Rf name (repeat for each file and directory) g) h) i) j) k) l)

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Solution and Answer Guide: ; Chapter 04: Linux Filesystem Management 9798214000800; Chapter 01: Introduction to Linux

DISCOVERY EXERCISE 4-3 Prompt: Write the command that can be used to answer the following questions. (Hint: Try each on the system to check your results.) a) b) c) d) e) f) g) h)

i)

Find all files on the system that have the word ―test‖ as part of their filename.

Search the PATH variable for the pathname to the awk command.

Find all files in the /usr directory and subdirectories that are larger than 50 kilobytes in size.

Find all files in the /usr directory and subdirectories that are less than 70 kilobytes in size.

Find all files in the / directory and subdirectories that are symbolic links.

Find all files in the /var directory and subdirectories that were accessed less than 60 minutes ago.

Find all files in the /var directory and subdirectories that were accessed less than six days ago.

Find all files in the /home directory and subdirectories that are empty.

Find all files in the /etc directory and subdirectories that are owned by the group bin.

Solution: a) find / -name "*test*" b) which awk c) find /usr –size +50k d) find /usr –size -70k e) find / -type l f) find /var –amin -60 g) find /var –atime -6 h) find /home –size 0 i) find /etc –group bin

DISCOVERY EXERCISE 4-4 Prompt: For each of the following modes, write the numeric equivalent (e.g., 777): a) rw-r--r-b) r--r--r-c) ---rwxrwd) -wxr-xrwe) rw-rw-rwx f) -w-r-----

Solution: a) b) c) d)

644 444 076 356

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Solution and Answer Guide: ; Chapter 04: Linux Filesystem Management 9798214000800; Chapter 01: Introduction to Linux

e) f)

667 240

DISCOVERY EXERCISE 4-5 Prompt: Fill in the permissions in Table 4-7 with checkmarks, assuming that all four files are in the directory /public, which has a mode of rwxr-xr-x.

Solution: Filename

Mode

Read

Edit

sample1

rw-rw-rw-

User Group Other

* * *

* * *

sample2

r--r-----

User Group Other

* *

sample3

rwxr-x---

User Group Other

* *

sample4

r-x------

User Group Other

*

*

Execute

List

Delete

* * *

*

* * *

*

* *

* * *

*

*

* * *

*

DISCOVERY EXERCISE 4-6 Prompt: Fill in the permissions in Table 4-8 with checkmarks, assuming that all four files are in the directory /public, which has a mode of rwx--x---.

Solution: Filename Mode sample1

rwxr--r--

User Group

Read

Edit

Execute

List

Delete

*

*

*

*

*

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Solution and Answer Guide: ; Chapter 04: Linux Filesystem Management 9798214000800; Chapter 01: Introduction to Linux

sample2

r-xr--rw-

sample3

--xr-x---

sample4

r-xr--r--

Other

*

User Group Other

*

User Group Other

*

User Group Other

*

*

*

*

*

*

*

*

*

* * *

*

DISCOVERY EXERCISE 4-7 Prompt: For each of the following umasks, calculate the default permissions given to new files and new directories: a) b) c) d) e) f)

017 272 777 000 077 027

Solution: a) b) c) d) e) f)

directories: 760 files: 660 directories: 505 files: 404 directories: 000 files: 000 directories: 777 files: 666 directories: 700 files: 600 directories: 750 files: 640

DISCOVERY EXERCISE 4-8 Prompt: For each of the umasks in Discovery Exercise 4-7, list the umasks that are reasonable to use to increase security on your Linux system and explain why.

Solution: While answers will vary, 077 and 027 increase security but still allow the owner access permissions.

DISCOVERY EXERCISE 4-9

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Solution and Answer Guide: ; Chapter 04: Linux Filesystem Management 9798214000800; Chapter 01: Introduction to Linux

Prompt: Starting from the Linux default permissions for file and directories, what umask would you use to ensure that for all new________________? a) b) c) d) e) f) g) h)

i)

directories, the owner would have read, write, and execute; members of the group would have read and execute; and others would have read files, the owner would have read and execute; the group would have read, write, and execute; and -others would have execute files, the owner would have write; the group would have read, write, and execute; and others would have read and write directories, the owner would have read, write, and execute; the group would have read, write, and execute; and others would have read, write, and execute directories, the owner would have execute; the group would have read, write, and execute; and others would have no permissions files, the owner would have read and write; the group would have no permissions; and others would have write directories, the owner would have read, write, and execute; the group would have read; and others would have read and execute directories, the owner would have write; the group would have read, write, and execute; and others would have read, write, and execute files, the owner would have no permissions; the group would have no permissions; and others would have no permissions

Solution: a) b) c) d) e) f) g) h) i)

023 impossible because x permission is never given to files upon creation impossible because x permission is never given to files upon creation 000 607 064 (many other valid answers exist, including 075, 164, and 175) 032 500 666 or 777

DISCOVERY EXERCISE 4-10 Prompt: What permissions argument to the chmod command would you use to impose the following permissions? a)

on a directory such that: the owner would have read, write, and execute; the group would have read and execute; and others would have read b) on a file such that: the owner would have read and write; the group would have no permissions; and others would have write c) on a file such that: the owner would have write; the group would have read, write, and execute; and others would have read and write d) on a file such that: the owner would have read and execute; the group would have read, write, and execute; and others would have execute

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46

Solution and Answer Guide: Eckert, CompTIA Linux+ and LPIC-1: Linux Filesystem Administration, 6e 2024, 9798214000800; Chapter 01: Introduction to Linux

e)

on a directory such that: the owner would have execute; the group would have read, write, and execute; and others would have no permissions f) on a directory such that: the owner would have write; the group would have read, write, and execute; and others would have read, write, and execute g) on a directory such that: the owner would have read, write, and execute; the group would have read; and others would have read and execute h) on a directory such that: the owner would have read, write, and execute; the group would have read, write, and execute; and others would have read, write, and execute i) on a file such that: the owner would have no permissions; the group would have no permissions; and others would have no permissions

Solution: a) b) c) d) e) f) g) h) i)

754 or u=rwx,g=rw,o=r 602 or u=rw,g=,o=2 276 or u=w,g=rwx,o=rw 671 or u=rw,g=rwx,o=x 170 or u=x,g=rwx,o= 277 or u=w,g=rwx,o=rwx 745 or u=rwx,g=r,o=rx 777 or a=rwx or u=rwx,g=rwx,o=rwx 000 or a= or u=,g=,o=

Solution and Answer Guide ECKERT, COMPTIA LINUX + AND LPIC-1: LINUX FILESYSTEM ADMINISTRATION, 6E 2024, 9798214000800; CHAPTER 05: LINUX FILESYSTEM ADMINISTRATION

TABLE OF CONTENTS Review Questions ........................................................................................................................................ 1 Hands-On Projects ...................................................................................................................................... 6 Discovery Exercises ..................................................................................................................................... 9

REVIEW QUESTIONS 81. Which of the following commands can only be used to create partitions on a GPT storage device? a. gdisk b. cfdisk c. fdisk d. parted Answer: a

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Solution and Answer Guide: ; Chapter 05: Linux Filesystem Administration 9798214000800; Chapter 01: Introduction to Linux

The gdisk command can only be used to partition GPT devices.

82. After a partition on a storage device is formatted with a filesystem, all partitions on that storage device must use the same filesystem. a. True b. False Answer: b Each partition on a storage device can use a different filesystem, if desired.

83. You want to see the filesystems that are in use on the system. What command could you use? (Choose all that apply.) a. cat /etc/fstab b. df -hT c. cat /etc/mtab d. ls /sys/block Answer: b and c The df command displays mounted filesystems using information from the /etc/mtab file.

84. Jaime has just installed two new SAS SSDs in his system. He properly installs the hardware in his machine.

Before he can use them for data storage and retrieval, what must he do? (Choose all that apply.) a. Mount the two SSDs so they are accessible by the operating system. b. Mount a filesystem to each of the SSDs. c. Create one or more partitions on each of the SSDs. d. Use the vi editor to edit /etc/mtab and create an entry for the SSDs. e. Mount any partitions created on the two SSDs such that they are accessible by the operating system. f. Format any partitions created on the SSDs with a valid filesystem recognized by Linux.

Answer: c, e, and f After installing a new storage device, you must create at least one or more partitions on it, format the partitions with a filesystem, and then mount the filesystems to a mount point directory under the root directory (/).

85. Given the following output from /etc/fstab, which filesystems will be automatically checked on boot by the fsck command? /dev/sda1 /boot ext4 defaults 1 1 /dev/sda2 swap swap defaults 1 0 /dev/sda3 / ext4 defaults 0 1 /dev/sda4 /var ext4 defaults 1 0 /dev/sda1 /home ext4 defaults 0 1 /dev/sr0 /media/dvd iso9660 noauto,ro 0 0 a. b.

none, as fsck must be run manually for each filesystem /, swap, and /var

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Solution and Answer Guide: ; Chapter 05: Linux Filesystem Administration 9798214000800; Chapter 01: Introduction to Linux

c. d.

/, /boot, and /home all of them, as fsck is run automatically at boot for all filesystems

Answer: c A 1 in the sixth field indicates that the filesystem will be checked using the fsck command by default.

86. A user mounts a device to a mount point directory and realizes afterward they need files previously found within the mount point directory. What should this user do? a. Nothing; the files are lost and cannot ever be accessed. b. Nothing; the files could not have been there because you can only mount to empty directories. c. Unmount the device from the directory. d. Run the fsck command to recover the files. e. Look in the lost+found directory for the files.

Answer: c Mounting a filesystem to a directory is nondestructive as it merely redirects users in that directory to the root of a filesystem on a device. After a device is unmounted from a directory, users will be able to access the original files and subfolders within that directory.

87. Which command is used to display the amount of free space that exists on a filesystem? a. fsck b. quota c. du d. df Answer: d The df command displays the amount of free and used space on each mounted filesystem.

88. What must you do to successfully run the fsck command on a filesystem? a. Run the fsck command with the -u option to automatically unmount the filesystem first. b. Choose yes when warned that running fsck on a mounted filesystem can cause damage. c. Unmount the filesystem. d. Ensure that the filesystem is mounted.

Answer: c To check a filesystem for errors using fsck, you must first unmount the filesystem.

89. Character devices typically transfer data more quickly than block devices. a. True b. False Answer: b Since block devices can transfer information block-by-block instead of character-by-character, they can transfer information faster than character devices.

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Solution and Answer Guide: ; Chapter 05: Linux Filesystem Administration 9798214000800; Chapter 01: Introduction to Linux

90. What does the du -hs /var command do? a. shows the users connected to the /var directory b. shows the size of all directories within the /var directory c. dumps the /var directory d. displays the total size of the /var directory Answer: d The du command displays disk usage by directory. The -h option displays this usage in a humanreadable format, while the -s option shows a summary of the total directory size.

91. What does the command df –i do? a. displays mounted filesystems using human-readable size formats b. displays the number of used and available inodes on each mounted filesystem c. displays mounted filesystems interactively, line by line d. nothing; it is not a valid command Answer: b The -i option to the df command displays free and used inodes for each mounted filesystem.

92. Which command can be used to repair an XFS filesystem? a. fsck -t xfs /dev/sdb1 b. e2fsck /dev/sdb1 c. fsck.xfs /dev/sdb1 d. xfs_repair /dev/sdb1 Answer: d You can use the xfs_repair command to repair an XFS filesystem.

93. Which of the following statements are true? (Choose all that apply.) a. Quotas can only limit user space. b. Quotas can only limit the number of files a user can own. c. Quotas can limit both user space and the number of files a user can own. d. Hard limits can never be exceeded. e. Hard limits allow a user to exceed them for a certain period of time. f. Soft limits can never be exceeded. g. Soft limits allow a user to exceed them for a certain period of time. h. Either a hard limit or a soft limit can be set, but not both concurrently.

Answer: c, d, and g Quota limits can be applied to both inodes (number of files and directories) and blocks (total size of files and directories). Hard quotas cannot be exceeded, while soft quotas can be exceeded for a period of time.

94. A device file _____. (Choose all that apply.) a. has no inode section

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Solution and Answer Guide: ; Chapter 05: Linux Filesystem Administration 9798214000800; Chapter 01: Introduction to Linux

b. c. d.

has no data section displays a major and minor number in place of a file size has a fixed size of 300 KB

Answer: b, and c Device files are comprised of inodes only. As a result, they have no data section and instead display the major and minor number they refer to in place of a file size.

95. Which of the following statements regarding LVM structure is correct? a. PVs are collections of VGs. b. LVs are created from the free space available within PVs. c. VGs are comprised of one or more PVs. d. PVs use the space within LVs to create VGs. Answer: c Volume groups (VGs) are pools of storage that are made up of individual physical volumes (PVs).

Logical volumes (LVs) are created from the free space within VGs. 96. The lvextend command can be used to add unused space within a volume group to an existing logical volume. a. True b. False Answer: a You can use the lvextend command to extend the size of a logical volume, provided there is sufficient free space available within a volume group.

97. You plug a USB flash drive into a system that has two SATA hard disk drives. How will the partition on this USB flash drive be identified by Linux? a. /dev/sda1 b. /dev/sda2 c. /dev/sdb1 d. /dev/sdc1 Answer: d The first and second SATA hard disk drive will be recognized as sda and sdb, respectively. Thus, a USB flash drive will take the next available device file (/dev/sdc) and the first partition on that drive will be /dev/sdc1.

98. Which command mounts all existing filesystems in /etc/fstab? a. mount -f b. mount -a c. mount /etc/fstab d. mount /etc/mtab Answer: b

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Solution and Answer Guide: ; Chapter 05: Linux Filesystem Administration 9798214000800; Chapter 01: Introduction to Linux

The -a option to the mount command will mount all filesystems listed in /etc/fstab.

99. A user runs the fsck command with the -f option on an ext4 filesystem that is showing signs of corruption. How would that user locate any files the system was unable to repair? a. Look in the root of the filesystem. b. The system prompts the user for a target location when it comes across a file it cannot repair. c. Mount the filesystem and check the lost+found directory underneath the mount point. d. View the contents of the directory /lost+found.

Answer: c Any files that the fsck command cannot repair are moved to the lost+found directory on the filesystem itself.

100. Which command is used to format a partition on a hard disk drive with the ext4 filesystem? a. e2mkfs –t ext4 device b. makeext4FS device c. format_ext4 device d. ext4mkfs device Answer: a The e2mkfs command can be used to create an ext4 filesystem. All other commands listed in the answers do not exist.

HANDS-ON PROJECTS PROJECT 5-1 Solution: Step 1: Not applicable.

Step 2: The 6th local terminal; it is a character device because it does not contain a filesystem; major number=4, minor number=6.

Step 3: Yes. Step 4: No. Step 5: mknod re-created the tty6 device file; Yes. Step 6: Yes, because the tty6 file exists again.

Step 7: The major number is the same for all terminal devices because they share the same device driver in the kernel; however, the minor number is different to represent the different terminal devices.

Step 8: There are many files in the /dev directory; however, these files use 0K in total because device files are only inodes.

Step 9: vc, tty, and ttyS devices have a major number of 4 just like the major number displayed in Step 2.

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Solution and Answer Guide: ; Chapter 05: Linux Filesystem Administration 9798214000800; Chapter 01: Introduction to Linux

Step 10: Not applicable.

PROJECT 5-2 Solution: Step 1: Not applicable.

Step 2: Yes, it should be mounted to /run/media/user1/ISOimagelabel.

Step 3: Not applicable.

Step 4: Yes, the DVD is still mounted – it uses the iso9660 filesystem and the device file /dev/sr0, and /dev/cdrom is a shortcut to /dev/sr0.

Steps 5-6: Not applicable.

Step 7: You received a warning that the filesystem is read-only (because you did not use the -r option to the mount command).

Step 8: Yes, the output is more verbose.

Step 9: Yes, the contents are the same.

Step 10: You received an error stating that the mount point was busy.

Step 11: Not applicable.

Step 12: Yes, the hosts file is available again.

Step 13: Not applicable.

PROJECT 5-3 Solution: Steps 1-3: Not applicable.

Step 4: Yes, these partitions should match the output from Step 2.

Steps 5-7: Not applicable.

Step 8: The t character changes the type.

Steps 9-13: Not applicable.

Step 14: Yes. Steps 15-18: Not applicable.

Step 19: Yes. Step 20: Not applicable.

Step 21: Yes, it should be mounted because the –a option to the mount command mounts all partitions listed in /etc/fstab that are currently not mounted.

Step 22: Not applicable.

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Solution and Answer Guide: ; Chapter 05: Linux Filesystem Administration 9798214000800; Chapter 01: Introduction to Linux

PROJECT 5-4 Solution: Steps 1-14: Not applicable.

Step 15: Yes, because the lost+found directory was created when the LV was formatted with ext4.

Steps 16-24: Not applicable.

PROJECT 5-5 Solution: Step 1: Not applicable.

Step 2: Answers will vary, but /boot, /, /newmount, and /newdata are visible at minimum.

Step 3: Not applicable.

Step 4: You must unmount the filesystem before running fsck.

Step 5: A short moment; only a short check was performed.

Step 6: Longer than a short moment; a full check was performed.

Step 7: Checks the filesystem for bad blocks and updates the bad blocks table.

Step 8: Yes, because it is journaling, it does not need to be checked for errors frequently.

Step 9: The mount command worked because it checks /etc/fstab for information that was not specified on the command line.

Step 10: Not applicable.

PROJECT 5-6 Solution: Steps 1-9: Not applicable.

Step 10: It updates the quota database files; you should see the aquota.user and aquota.group files, but their sizes may vary because volume information is also stored in them.

Step 11: Not applicable.

Step 12: No; 400 inodes; 60000 KB. Steps 13-15: Not applicable.

Step 16: Yes; 1 inode (file); 0 KB (because we created an empty file with no contents in Step 4).

Step 17: The same as the previous step.

Step 18: Not applicable.

PROJECT 5-7 Solution: Steps 1-5: Not applicable.

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Solution and Answer Guide: ; Chapter 05: Linux Filesystem Administration 9798214000800; Chapter 01: Introduction to Linux

Step 6: The XFS filesystem doesn’t use the fsck command for checking; hence no lost+found directory is created.

Step 7: You received an error because fsck cannot check an XFS filesystem.

Steps 8-11: Not applicable.

Step 12: Yes. Step 13: Not applicable.

DISCOVERY EXERCISES DISCOVERY EXERCISE 5-1 Prompt: Answer the following questions regarding your system by using the commands listed in this chapter. For each question, write the command you used to obtain the answer. If there are multiple commands that can be used to obtain the answer, list all of the commands available. a)

What are the total number of inodes in the root filesystem? How many are currently utilized? How many are available for use? b) What filesystems are currently mounted on your system? c) What filesystems are available to be mounted on your system? d) What filesystems will be automatically mounted at boot time?

Solution: Answers will vary. Some common commands include: g) df -i h) mount or cat /etc/mtab or df or lsblk i)

cat /etc/fstab or lsblk or fdisk -l

j) cat /etc/fstab

DISCOVERY EXERCISE 5-2 Prompt: Power off your virtual machine. Next, use your virtualization software to add a second 8 GB virtual hard disk drive to your virtual machine (e.g., /dev/sdb). Create two 4 GB partitions on this device. a)

For the first partition, use the appropriate commands to add the available space to the vg00 VG that you created in Project 5-4, and extend your newdata LV to use the additional space. b) For the second partition, create an exFAT filesystem and mount it to the /exFATdata directory.

Modify the /etc/fstab file to mount the filesystem automatically at boot time by label. Finally, perform a -filesystem check on your new exFAT filesystem.

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Solution and Answer Guide: ; Chapter 05: Linux Filesystem Administration 9798214000800; Chapter 01: Introduction to Linux

Solution: In general, the following tasks will be performed:      

Creating partitions using fdisk, cfdisk, gdisk, or parted Using the pvcreate /dev/sdb1 command Using the vgextend vg00 /dev/sdb1 command Using the lvextend -L +3.9G -r /dev/vg00/newdata command Installing exFAT support using the commands referenced within the chapter Using the mkfs -t exfat /dev/sdb2 command

   

Using the fsck -f /dev/sdb2 command Using the mkdir /exFATdata command Using the mount /dev/sdb2 /exFATdata command Using the vi /etc/fstab command

DISCOVERY EXERCISE 5-3 Prompt: Provided that your virtualization software allows for USB device pass-through, connect a USB flash drive to your system. Use the appropriate commands to locate the device file used by the device, mount the filesystem to a directory of your choice, and check the filesystem for errors. Finally, add a line to /etc/fstab to ensure that the filesystem can be easily mounted in the future (this line should not automount the filesystem at boot time).

Solution: Depending on the system configuration, device, and filesystem used on the personal USB flash memory drive, common commands will include: a) lsusb b) mount device_file mount_point c) fsck -f device_file

d) vi /etc/fstab (field 4 should list ―noauto‖)

DISCOVERY EXERCISE 5-4 Prompt: Provided that your virtualization software supports the creation of NVMe SSDs, attach an NVMe controller and SSD to your virtual machine and create a partition within the first namespace that is formatted using XFS. Next, create a mount point directory for it called /SSD and mount your new filesystem to this directory, ensuring that it is mounted automatically by UUID at boot time from the appropriate entry within /etc/fstab. Note that Oracle VirtualBox requires that you first download and install the Oracle VirtualBox Extension Pack in order to obtain NVMe support.

Solution: Depending on the system configuration, device, and filesystem used on the personal USB flash memory drive, common commands will include: a) fdisk /dev/nvme0n1 b) fsck -t xfs /dev/nvme0n1p1 c) mount /dev/nvme0n1p1 /SSD d) blkid

e) vi /etc/fstab (field 1 should list the UUID of the filesystem) © 2024 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.

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Solution and Answer Guide: ; Chapter 05: Linux Filesystem Administration 9798214000800; Chapter 01: Introduction to Linux

DISCOVERY EXERCISE 5-5 Prompt: Use the Internet to gather information on four filesystems compatible with Linux. For each filesystem, list the situations for which the filesystem was designed and the key features that the filesystem provides.

Solution: Answers will vary considerably. Common answers may include reiserfs, hfs, ntfs, vxfs, ufs, and apfs and include the features listed at https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_file_systems.

DISCOVERY EXERCISE 5-6 Prompt: You have a Linux system that has a 2 TB SSD, which has a 90 GB partition containing an ext4 filesystem mounted to the / directory and a 4 GB swap partition. Currently, this Linux system is only used by a few users for storing small files; however, the department manager wants to upgrade this system and use it to run a database -application that will be used by 100 users. The database application and the associated data will take up over 600 GB of hard disk drive space. In addition, these 100 users will store their personal files on the hard disk drive of the system. Each user must have a maximum of 5 GB of storage space. The department manager has made it very clear that this system must not exhibit any downtime as a result of storage device errors. How much space will you require, and what partitions would you need to ensure that the system will perform as needed? Where would these partitions be mounted?

What quotas would you implement? What commands would you need to run and what entries to /etc/fstab would you need to create? Justify your answers.

Solution: Answers will vary. Generally, you require more than one hard disk to reduce the likelihood that a hard disk failure will greatly impact the system, but you can use the existing hard disk if necessary because it has enough space. The /var, /usr, /opt, /home, /boot, and / directories should be mounted to their own partition (preferably on separate hard disks). The /home directory should have quotas enabled that have a hard limit of 5 GB for all users.

DISCOVERY EXERCISE 5-7 Prompt: You have several filesystems on your hard disk drive that are mounted to separate directories on the Linux directory tree. The /dev/sdc6 filesystem was unable to be mounted at boot time. What could have caused this? What commands could you use to find more information about the nature of the problem?

Solution: Answers will vary. Possible causes include:   

A corrupted filesystem on /dev/sdc6 Incorrect parameters in /etc/fstab A corrupted hard disk

Some commands to diagnose the problem include:  fsck –f /dev/sdc6 (or equivalent)  fdisk /dev/sdc6 (or equivalent)  vi /etc/fstab

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Solution and Answer Guide: Eckert, CompTIA Linux+ and LPIC-1: Guide to Linux Certification, 6e 2024, 9798214000800; Chapter 01: Introduction to Linux

Solution and Answer Guide ECKERT, COMPTIA LINUX + AND LPIC-1: GUIDE TO LINUX CERTIFICATION, 6E 2024, 9798214000800; CHAPTER 06: LINUX SERVER DEPLOYMENT

TABLE OF CONTENTS Review Questions ........................................................................................................................................ 1 Hands-On Projects ...................................................................................................................................... 6 Discovery Exercises ..................................................................................................................................... 8

REVIEW QUESTIONS 101. BTRFS filesystems do not need to be checked for errors as they are resilient to data corruption. a. True b. False Answer: b Unlike ZFS, the BTRFS filesystem is not resilient to data corruption and must be checked for errors periodically.

102. Which of the following describes a computer that is used to access iSCSI storage across the network? a. iSCSI target b. iSCSI requestor c. iSCSI initiator d. iSCSI terminator Answer: c An iSCSI initiator is a system that connects to an iSCSI target storage device across a SAN. 103. You want to view log files to get information about a problem that occurred during a Linux installation. In which directory will you likely find the log files? a. /root/log b. /sys/log c. /var/log d. /etc/log Answer: c Log files are typically stored under the /var/log directory.

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Solution and Answer Guide: ; Chapter 06: Linux Server Deployment 9798214000800; Chapter 01: Introduction to Linux

104. Which of the following RAID levels is not fault tolerant? a. RAID 0 b. RAID 1 c. RAID 4 d. RAID 5 Answer: a RAID level 0 refers to disk configurations that are not fault tolerant.

105. Which command can you use during a system rescue to switch from the root of the live Linux system to the root of the Linux system installed on the hard disk drive? a. mount b. sysimage c. chroot d. rescue Answer: c The chroot command can be used to change the root directory of the system.

106. Which of the following is not a type of RAID? a. hardware RAID b. software RAID c. firmware RAID d. serial RAID Answer: d RAID can be provided by hardware, software, or firmware.

107. Where is the /proc filesystem stored? a. in RAM b. on the hard disk drive in the / directory c. on the hard disk drive in the /etc directory d. on the hard disk drive in the /var directory Answer: a The /proc filesystem is a special filesystem that is located in memory.

108. When configuring a virtual hard disk file, which term refers to the feature that allows the virtual hard disk file to expand dynamically as space is requested by the guest operating system? a. thick provisioning b. Type 1 c. thin provisioning d. Type 2 Answer: c

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Solution and Answer Guide: ; Chapter 06: Linux Server Deployment 9798214000800; Chapter 01: Introduction to Linux

Thin provisioned storage dynamically expands as necessary when additional space is requested.

109. DM-MPIO can be configured to provide multiple, redundant connections to data stored on a SAN. a. True b. False Answer: a Device Mapper Multipath Input/Output (DM-MPIO) is a technology that can be used to provide multiple connections to SAN devices for performance and fault tolerance.

110. What component of a Linux server is used to connect to a Fibre Channel SAN? a. FC initiator b. FC target c. FC HBA d. WWPN Answer: c To connect to a Fibre Channel (FC) SAN, your system must have a special network interface called a Host Bus Adapter (HBA).

111. Which type of RAID can be entirely configured during the Linux installation process? a. hardware RAID b. software RAID c. firmware RAID d. serial RAID Answer: b Software RAID can be configured during or following a Linux installation program. Hardware RAID is configured using a manufacturer-provided program, while firmware RAID is configured within the system BIOS. 112. What command can be used to create a ZFS volume called test from the space on /dev/sdb and /dev/sdc that functions like RAID level 1? a. zpool create test /dev/sdb /dev/sdc b. zpool create test mirror /dev/sdb /dev/sdc c. zpool create test raidz /dev/sdb /dev/sdc d. zpool create test raidz2 /dev/sdb /dev/sdc Answer: b The mirror keyword must be specified within the zpool command to create a RAID level 1.

113. To which directory will the test ZFS volume from the previous question be mounted by the ZFS system? a. /mnt/test b. /media/test c. /zfs/test d. /test

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Solution and Answer Guide: ; Chapter 06: Linux Server Deployment 9798214000800; Chapter 01: Introduction to Linux

Answer: d By default, ZFS volumes are mounted to a directory under the root named for the volume name. A volume called test will be mounted to /test.

114. Linux servers are typically installed in a rack using rackmount server hardware. Which of the following describes the minimum height of a rackmount server? a. 1U b. Series A c. Type A d. Level 5 Answer: a The minimum height of a rackmount server is identified by 1 unit (1U), which equates to a height of 1.75 inches.

115. Which of the following commands can quickly determine whether your network hardware was detected properly following a Linux installation? a. cat /proc/modules/network b. lspci c. lshw -class network d. dmesg Answer: c The lshw command can be used to display details for a specific category of hardware supplied as an argument to the -class option.

116. ZFS volumes are mounted at boot time from entries within /etc/fstab by default. a. True b. False Answer: b ZFS volumes are automatically detected and mounted by the Linux ZFS kernel module at boot time.

117. Which of the following could result in a segmentation fault (fatal signal 11) during a Fedora installation? a. RAM problems b. overclocked CPU c. faulty hardware components d. all of these Answer: d Any hardware-related problems and misconfigurations can cause a fatal signal 11 during a Linux installation.

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Solution and Answer Guide: ; Chapter 06: Linux Server Deployment 9798214000800; Chapter 01: Introduction to Linux

118. When viewing the output of the lsmod command, you notice several modules that start with vmw. What does this indicate? a. Linux is running as a guest operating system. b. Device drivers need to be installed on your system. c. There is no virtual memory in your system. d. The system is running the KVM/QEMU hypervisor.

Answer: a Kernel modules that are prefixed with vmw provide device drivers for the VMWare hypervisor and will only be loaded within a virtual machine as a result.

119. What type of redundant storage configuration is most common for hosting the operating system and applications on a server? a. RAID 5 b. ZFS c. RAID 1 d. SAN + DM-MPIO Answer: c RAID level 1 is most used to provide fault tolerance for the operating system and applications on a server.

120. Which of the following commands can be used on a modern Linux system to view hardware information that was captured at the beginning of the boot process? a. less /var/log/boot.log b. less /var/log/messages c. less /var/log/syslog d. journalctl -k Answer: d You can use the journalctl -k command on a modern Linux system that uses Systemd-journal to view kernel messages at boot time.

HANDS-ON PROJECTS PROJECT 6-1 Steps 1-20: Not applicable.

PROJECT 6-2 Solution: Steps 1-5: Not applicable.

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Solution and Answer Guide: ; Chapter 06: Linux Server Deployment 9798214000800; Chapter 01: Introduction to Linux

Step 6: Yes Step 7: No Steps 8-10: Not applicable.

Step 11: The lost+found directory was also created because the filesystem type is ext4.

Step 12: It should be approx. 3 GB (~2.9 GB due to overhead) because RAID 5 uses the equivalent of one disk device (1 GB) for storing parity information.

Step 13: Yes. Step 14: Yes. Step 15: Not applicable.

Step 16: Yes, because the system is recalculating the missing data using parity information.

Steps 17-22: Not applicable.

PROJECT 6-3 Solution: Steps 1-6: Not applicable.

Step 7: No. Step 8: Not applicable.

Step 9: Yes – the first disk should list corruption.

Step 10: Not applicable.

Step 11: Yes. Steps 12-14: Not applicable.

Step 15: No, because they are only subdirectories and not ZFS datasets.

Step 16: Yes, because they are now unique ZFS datasets.

Steps 17-20: Not applicable.

PROJECT 6-4 Solution: Steps 1-6: Not applicable.

Step 7: No. Steps 8-9: Not applicable.

Step 10: Yes. Steps 11-19: Not applicable.

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Solution and Answer Guide: ; Chapter 06: Linux Server Deployment 9798214000800; Chapter 01: Introduction to Linux

Step 20: The btrfsck command.

Step 21: Not applicable.

PROJECT 6-5 Solution: Steps 1-3: Not applicable.

Step 4: Normally, the CPU is detected correctly within virtualization software.

Step 5: Not applicable.

Step 6: Answers will vary, but yes, each module can be associated with the appropriate hardware device.

Virtualized modules should be present and there should be modules for ZFS, RAID, and BTRFS present.

Step 7: Not applicable.

Step 8: Yes, dummy should be listed.

Step 9: The files in these directories are used to load modules manually at boot time.

Step 10: Not applicable.

Step 11: Yes, dummy should be listed.

Step 12: They should correspond to the hardware listed within this project.

Step 13: The information is equivalent.

Step 14: Each entry represents system and software loading events during boot time.

Step 15: The information starts with the same information present in dmesg, but later lists the same information present in /var/log/syslog.

Step 16: Not applicable.

PROJECT 6-6 Solution: Steps 1-5: Not applicable.

Step 6: No. Steps 7-10: Not applicable.

Step 11: Yes, the files should be the ones created in previous chapter projects within the root user’s home directory.

Step 12: You should receive a warning indicating that the password contains a common dictionary word, but it still allows you to set the password as you are the root user.

Step 13-14: Not applicable.

Step 15: Yes, because you changed the password during system rescue.

Steps 16-17: Not applicable.

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Solution and Answer Guide: ; Chapter 06: Linux Server Deployment 9798214000800; Chapter 01: Introduction to Linux

DISCOVERY EXERCISES DISCOVERY EXERCISE 6-1 Prompt: Project 6-5 was performed on your Ubuntu Linux virtual machine. Perform the same project using your Fedora Linux virtual machine and note any differences.

Solution: While answers will vary, Step 2 will need to be adjusted for /var/log/anaconda/* and Step 5 will require that some commands are installed from Table 6-2 (typing these commands will cause Fedora to ask you whether you wish to install the command using dnf).

DISCOVERY EXERCISE 6-2 Prompt: Modern Linux distributions often allow you to create fault tolerant BTRFS volumes during installation to host the Linux operating system and applications. Provided that you have adequate storage space on your host operating system, create a new virtual machine called Fedora BTRFS that has the following characteristics: a) 4 GB of memory (not dynamically allocated) b) An Internet connection via your PC’s network card (preferably using an external virtual switch or bridged mode) c) Two 50 GB SATA/SAS/SCSI virtual hard disk drives (both dynamically allocated) d) The virtual machine DVD drive attached to the live media ISO image of Fedora Workstation Linux Next, perform an installation of Fedora Linux that contains a / (root) filesystem that uses BTRFS RAID 1 fault tolerance for both data and metadata from space on both virtual hard disk files. In order to configure this during the Fedora installation program, you will need to choose the Advanced Custom (Blivet-GUI) option on the Installation Destination screen. Also note that the /boot filesystem cannot use BTRFS. Following the installation, verify your BTRFS configuration using the appropriate commands. When finished, remove your virtual machine and both virtual hard disk files.

Solution: In this exercise, students install a new Fedora Workstation virtual machine that uses BTRFS RAID 1. If this exercise is graded, consider having students submit a screenshot of the output of the lsblk or btrfs commands.

DISCOVERY EXERCISE 6-3 Prompt: An alternative to BTRFS RAID 1 for operating system and application fault tolerance is software RAID 1. Perform Discovery Exercise 6-2 again, but instead of using a BTRFS RAID 1 volume for the / (root) filesystem, select the appropriate options to create a software RAID 1 volume formatted with ext4.

Solution: In this exercise, students install a new Fedora Workstation virtual machine that uses software RAID 1. If this exercise is graded, consider having students submit a screenshot of the output of the lsblk or mdadm commands.

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Solution and Answer Guide: Eckert, CompTIA Linux+ and LPIC-1: Guide to Linux Certification, 6e 2024, 9798214000800; Chapter 01: Introduction to Linux

DISCOVERY EXERCISE 6-4 Prompt: The LVM can also be used to provide RAID for logical volumes, provided that the underlying volume group consists of multiple physical volumes. View the lvmraid manual page to learn how to implement LVM RAID 0, 1, and 5 using the lvcreate command. Next, add three 10 GB SATA/SCSI/SAS virtual hard disk files (dynamically expanding) to your Fedora Linux virtual machine, and configure them as a single LVM RAID 5 logical volume.

Solution: In this exercise, students set up LVM RAID. If this exercise is graded, consider having students submit a screenshot of the output of the lsblk command.

DISCOVERY EXERCISE 6-5 Prompt: Search the Internet for information about five Linux installation problems that are different from those described in this chapter. How have other people solved these problems? If you had similar difficulties during installation, how could you get help?

Solution: Answers will vary depending on the results of the web or forum search. If this exercise is graded, consider having students submit a screenshot of the website or forum post that identifies the issue and solution in addition to the summary they provide.

DISCOVERY EXERCISE 6-6 Prompt: Linux servers are typically stored in a locked server closet to prevent physical access by unauthorized persons. Given the steps that you performed in Project 6-6, describe why these physical restrictions are warranted.

Solution: With physical access to a Linux server, anyone could boot the system from a DVD and perform a system rescue to change the root user’s password to compromise the system. All servers, regardless of operating system (Windows, UNIX, Linux, macOS) are vulnerable to this type of security breach and should be locked in a server closet as a result.

Solution and Answer Guide ECKERT, COMPTIA LINUX + AND LPIC-1: GUIDE TO LINUX CERTIFICATION, 6E 2024, 9798214000800; CHAPTER 07: WORKING WITH THE SHELL

TABLE OF CONTENTS Review Questions ........................................................................................................................................ 1 Hands-On Projects ...................................................................................................................................... 6 Discovery Exercises ................................................................................................................................... 10

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Solution and Answer Guide: ; Chapter 07: Working with the Shell 9798214000800; Chapter 01: Introduction to Linux

REVIEW QUESTIONS 121. Because stderr and stdout represent the results of a command and stdin represents the input required for a command, only stderr and stdout can be redirected to/from a file. a. True b. False Answer: b You can redirect stdin from a file.

122. Before a user-defined variable can be used by processes that run in subshells, that variable must be _____. a. imported b. validated by running the env command c. exported d. redirected to the shell Answer: c Only exported variables will run within subshells.

123. Both aliases and functions can be used to store commands that can be executed, but functions can also accept positional parameters. a. True b. False Answer: a Functions can accept arguments (positional parameters) while aliases cannot.

124. Which of the following files is always executed immediately after any user logs in to a Linux system and receives a BASH shell? a. /etc/profile b. ~/.bash_profile c. ~/.bash_login d. ~/.profile Answer: a The first file executed by a BASH shell is /etc/profile.

125. Which command could you use to see a list of all environment and user-defined shell variables as well as their current values? a. ls /var b. env c. set d. echo

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Answer: c The set command displays all variables in the current shell. The env command only displays exported variables in the current shell.

126. Every if construct begins with if and must be terminated with _____. a. end b. endif c. stop d. fi Answer: d You must end an if statement with fi (backwards if) within a shell script.

127. Which of the following will display the message welcome home if the cd /home/user1 command is successfully executed? a. cd /home/user1 && echo "welcome home" b. cat "welcome home" || cd /home/user1 c. cd /home/user1 || cat "welcome home" d. echo "welcome home" && cd /home/user1 Answer: a The conditional AND operator (&&) executes the right command only if the left command was successful (i.e., returned a true exit status).

128. The current value for the HOME variable is displayed by which of the following commands? (Choose all that apply.) a. echo HOME= b. echo ~ c. echo $HOME d. echo ls HOME Answer: b and c Both the ~ metacharacter and HOME variable list the current user’s home directory.

129. Which of the following variables could access the value ―/etc‖ within the sample shell script, if the sample shell script was executed using the bash sample /var /etc /bin command? a. $0 b. $1 c. $2 d. $3 Answer: c

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The $2 positional parameter refers to the second argument to the shell script. For the sample shell script in this question, ―/etc‖ is the second argument.

130. Which of the following operators reverses the meaning of a test statement? a. #! b. -o c. -a d. !

Answer: d You can use the ! metacharacter to reverse the condition used within a test statement.

131. What would be the effect of using the alias command to make an alias for the date command named cat in honor of your favorite pet? a. It cannot be done because there already is an environment variable cat associated with the cat command. b. It cannot be done because there already is a command cat on the system. c. When you use the cat command at the command prompt with the intention of viewing a text file, the date appears instead. d. There is no effect until the alias is imported because it is a user-declared variable.

Answer: c Because aliases are searched for and executed before commands listed within the PATH variable, an alias for cat will always be executed before the cat command on the system.

132. How do you indicate a comment line in a shell script? a. There are no comment lines in a shell script. b. Begin the line with #!. c. Begin the line with !. d. Begin the line with #.

Answer: d Any lines that start with a # are not executed by the shell and are used to provide comments within a shell script.

133. You have redirected stderr to a file called Errors. You view the contents of this file afterward and notice that there are six error messages. After repeating the procedure, you notice that there are only two error messages in this file. Why? a. After you open the file and view the contents, the contents are lost. b. The system generated different stdout. c. You did not append the stderr to the Error file, and, as a result, it was overwritten when the command was run a second time. d. You must specify a new file each time you redirect because the system creates the specified file by default.

Answer: c

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When using the > symbol for output redirection, existing files are first cleared by the shell before the command is executed.

134. The sed and awk commands are filter commands commonly used to format data within a pipe. a. True b. False Answer: a Both sed and awk are commonly used to modify and format the output of data within a pipe.

135. A user attempts to perform the git commit -m "Added listdir function" but the command fails. What are possible reasons for the failure? (Choose all that apply.) a. The user performing the commit has not set their Git user information. b. No files were added to the Git index beforehand. c. The user performing the commit is not running the command from within the Git repo directory. d. The main branch was not specified within the command itself.

Answer: a, b, and c Before creating a Git commit, you must first be within the Git repo directory and have already staged the appropriate files to the Git index and have Git user information set.

136. Which of the following lines can be used to perform command substitution within a shell script? (Choose all that apply.) a. `command` b. ${command} c. ${!command} d. $(command) Answer: a and d You can surround a command with backquotes (`) or use $(command) syntax to perform command substitution.

137. Which construct can be used in a shell script to read stdin and place it in a variable? a. read b. sum c. verify d. test Answer: a The read command prompts the user for input and saves that input to a variable supplied as an argument.

138. A for construct is a loop construct that processes a specified list of objects. As a result, it is executed as long as there are remaining objects to process. a. True b. False

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Answer: a A for loop executes a series of commands for a finite list of objects.

139. What does &> accomplish when entered on the command line after a command? a. It redirects stderr and stdout to the same location. b. It does not accomplish anything. c. It redirects stderr and stdin to the same location. d. It appends stdout to a file.

Answer: a You can use the &> syntax to perform stdout and stderr redirection to a single file.

140. Consider the following shell script: echo -e "What is your favorite color?--> \c" read REPLY if [ "$REPLY" = "red" –o "$REPLY" = "blue" ] then echo "The answer is red or blue." else echo "The answer is not red nor blue." fi What would be displayed if a user executes this shell script and answers Blue when prompted? a. The answer is red or blue. b. The answer is not red nor blue. c. The code would cause an error. d. The answer is red or blue. The answer is not red nor blue.

Answer: b Because Linux commands are case sensitive, and the user entered ―Blue‖ instead of ―blue‖, the else condition is processed in the if statement.

HANDS-ON PROJECTS PROJECT 7-1 Solution: Steps 1-2: Not applicable.

Step 3: Both stdout (the listing of sample1 and sample2) and stderr (sample3 does not exist and cannot be listed) are displayed.

Step 4: No stdout is displayed due to redirection, but stderr is displayed.

Step 5: The contents include the stdout of the previous command due to redirection.

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Step 6: No stderr is displayed as it has been redirected, but stdout is displayed.

Step 7: The contents include the stderr of the previous command due to redirection. The previous contents were overwritten because two redirection symbols (>>) were not used.

Step 8: No output is displayed as both stdout and stderr have been redirected.

Step 9: The contents include the stdout of the Step 8 command due to redirection.

Step 10: The contents include the stderr of the Step 8 command due to redirection.

Step 11: No output is displayed as both stdout and stderr have been redirected.

Step 12: The contents include the stdout and stderr of the previous command due to redirection.

Step 13: No output is displayed as both stdout and stderr have been redirected.

Step 14: The contents include the stdout and stderr of the previous command due to redirection.

Step 15: Not applicable.

Step 16: The contents include the stdout of the date command as the file is rewritten with normal redirection.

Step 17: Not applicable.

Step 18: The contents include the stdout of the date commands run in Steps 15 and 17 as the append operator was used; the output of the date command should indicate different times as a result.

Step 19: You receive an extra operand error because tr does not accept a filename as an argument.

Step 20: You see the contents of the /etc/hosts file with capital O instead of lowercase o characters, because the contents of /etc/hosts was redirected to the tr command as stdin.

Step 21: This type of input redirection is called a here document.

Step 22: Not applicable.

PROJECT 7-2 Solution: Step 1: Not applicable.

Step 2: It pipes the stdout of the cat command to the less command. It differs as one of the commands uses stdin redirection.

Step 3: Seven lines are displayed. A filename was not needed because it was replaced by the piped stdin.

Step 4: The same output as in Step 3 is shown, but with all F characters replaced with f characters, as the stdout was further piped to the tr command.

Step 5: The same output as in Step 4 is shown, but with the results reverse sorted, as the stdout was further piped to the sort -r command.

Step 6: The same as in Step 5 because the output was not only sent to the screen, but a copy was simultaneously sent to file; thus, when you use cat file you see the same output as was displayed to the screen.

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Step 7: The output is 7 (the number of results). The contents of the file should list the results.

Step 8: The command searched for lines that had the word NFS in /etc/services, replaced F characters with f characters, reverse sorted the results, deleted lines that have the pattern ―udp‖ in them, and then replaced the pattern ―mount‖ with ―MOUNT‖ on lines that have the pattern ―tcp‖ in them, before displaying the results to the terminal screen. This could not be obtained by using grep and tr commands because tr is designed to replace single characters only.

Step 9: The command displays the first and third space-delimited fields of lines that contain localhost in the /etc/hosts file.

Step 10: Not applicable.

PROJECT 7-3 Solution: Steps 1-2: Not applicable.

Step 3: Smaller as not all shell variables are exported.

Step 4: Your prompt changed to Hello There : because PS1 is the variable for your primary BASH prompt.

Step 5: You receive your default prompt – to receive the prompt from Step 4, you’d need to add it to an environment file.

Step 6: The shell script changes your prompt to Hello There: only if the user answers y or Y to the decision construct when prompted.

Step 7: You receive a Hello There: prompt because you executed the decision construct.

Steps 8-9: Not applicable.

Step 10: Yes, because set displays all variables, including the MYVAR variable created in Step 9.

Step 11: No, as MYVAR is not exported.

Step 12: Yes, as it is exported.

Step 13: Not applicable.

Step 14: Nothing is listed as MYVAR was destroyed when you exited your previous BASH shell.

Steps 15-16: Not applicable.

Step 17: The contents of MYVAR are listed because MYVAR was created by an environment file when you started your BASH shell.

Step 18: Not applicable.

Step 19: Creates the alias called asample that changes to the /etc directory, views the host file, changes to the user’s home directory, and does a listing of its contents.

Step 20: It ran the commands in Step 19 because you executed the asample alias. You could add the alias to the ~/.bashrc file in order to ensure that it is executed when each new BASH shell is created.

Step 21: Not applicable.

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PROJECT 7-4 Solution: Steps 1-3: Not applicable.

Step 4:. -rw-r--r—Yes, it executed because running a new bash shell to execute a script only requires read permission. The \t escape sequence is a horizontal tab and \a is an audible system beep (which may not be heard depending on your virtual machine software).

Step 5: You receive a Permission denied error as execute permission is required for direct execution.

Step 6: Yes, because you now have execute permission for the shell script (rwxr--r--).

Step 7: Not applicable.

PROJECT 7-5 Solution: Step 1: Not applicable.

Step 2: A .sh extension makes it easier to identify as a shell script from a directory listing.

Steps 3-4: Not applicable.

Step 5: Yes, because it saves to a file named for the system hostname.

Steps 6-8: Not applicable.

Step 9: Yes. Steps 10-15: Not applicable.

Step 16: Yes, the menu appears because of a continuous while loop.

Step 17: Not applicable.

PROJECT 7-6 Solution: Steps 1-7: Not applicable.

Step 8: Yes, Git detected the change.

Step 9: Yes, the RAID addition was removed as you reverted to a previous commit.

Step 10: Not applicable.

Step 11: The default branch is main, the active branch has a * next to it.

Steps 12-13: Not applicable.

Step 14: The RAID modification is not visible in the main branch as it was created in the AddRAID branch.

Steps 15-16: Not applicable.

Step 17: Yes, the RAID modification is visible.

Step 18: Yes, the pull was successful.

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Step 19: Not applicable.

PROJECT 7-7 Solution: Steps 1-3: Not applicable.

Step 4: You receive a % prompt because you are logged into the Z shell as a regular user.

Step 5: Not applicable.

Step 6: You could open a new Z shell or run the ―. .zshrc‖ command.

Step 7: Yes, because you redirected the same output to both file1 and file2.

Step 8: No, because the stdout was modified after the pipe before being saved to file2.

Step 9: Yes. Steps 10-11: Not applicable.

Step 12: /home/user1.

Step 13: Not applicable.

DISCOVERY EXERCISES DISCOVERY EXERCISE 7-1 Prompt: Name the command that can be used to do each of the following: a. Create an alias called mm that displays only those filesystems that are mounted and contain an ext4 filesystem. b. Create and export a variable called NEWHOME that is equivalent to the value contained in the HOME variable. c. Find all files that start with the word ―host‖ starting from the /etc directory and save the Standard Output to a file called file1 and the Standard Error to the same file. d. Display only the lines from the output of the set command that have the word ―bash‖ in them. This output on the terminal screen should be sorted alphabetically. e. Display only the user name (first field) in the colon-delimited /etc/passwd file and save the output to a file called users in the current directory.

Solution: a. b. c. d.

alias mm="df -hT | grep ext4" (or equivalent command to df -hT) export NEWHOME="$HOME" grep host /etc >file1 2>&1 or grep host /etc 2>file1 >&2 or grep host /etc &>file1 set | grep -i bash | sort

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e.

cat /etc/passwd | awk –F: '{print $1}' >users

DISCOVERY EXERCISE 7-2 Prompt: What would happen if the user executed the following commands? cp /etc/hosts ~ cd tr a A <hosts | sort –r | pr –d >hosts Explain the output.

Solution: The first command creates a copy of /etc/hosts in your home directory and the second command switches the current directory to your home directory. The third command translates each lowercase ―a‖ to capital ―A‖ in the file hosts, then sorts all the lines in reverse order, formats the file for printing doublespaced, and saves the results in the file hosts. Unfortunately, because the contents of existing files with output redirection are cleared before the rest of the command is executed, the BASH shell cleared the contents of the hosts file prior to executing the third command, so the third command actually results in an empty hosts file in your home directory.

DISCOVERY EXERCISE 7-3 Prompt: Recall that only Standard Output can be sent across a pipe to another command. Using the information presented in this chapter, how could you send Standard Error across the pipe in the following command? ls /etc/hosts /etc/h | tr h H

Solution: ls /etc/hosts /etc/h 2>&1 | tr h H

DISCOVERY EXERCISE 7-4 Prompt: Name the test statement that can be used to test the following scenarios: a. b. c. d. e. f.

The user has read permission to the /etc/hosts file.

The user has read and execute permission to the /etc directory.

The contents of the variable $TEST are equal to the string ―success.‖ The contents of the variable $TEST are numerically equal to the contents of the variable $RESULT. The contents of the variable $TEST are equal to the string ―success‖ and the file /etc/hosts exists.

The contents of the variable $TEST are equal to the string ―success,‖ or the number 5, or the contents of the variable $RESULT.

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Solution: Note that test can be used at the beginning of each of these answers as an alternative to using square brackets ( [] ) surrounding the test statement. a. [ -r /etc/hosts ] b. [ -r /etc/hosts –a

-x /etc/hosts ]

c. [ $TEST="success" ] d. [ $TEST –eq "$RESULT" ] e. [ $TEST="success" –a –f /etc/hosts ] f.

[ $TEST="success" –o

$TEST –eq "5" –o $TEST="$RESULT" ]

DISCOVERY EXERCISE 7-5 Prompt: Examine the sample /root/.bash_profile file shown next. Using the information presented in this chapter, describe what each line of this file does. # .bash_profile # Get the aliases and functions if [ -f ~/.bashrc ]; then . ~/.bashrc fi # User specific environment and startup programs PATH=$PATH:$HOME/bin BASH_ENV=$HOME/.bashrc USERNAME="root" export USERNAME BASH_ENV PATH

Solution: First two lines are comments, the next three are an if statement that executes the .bashrc file in the user’s home directory if it exists only. The next line is a comment, and the following three set environment variables (the path statement, shell, and user name). The last line exports these variables so they can be used within subshells.

DISCOVERY EXERCISE 7-6 Prompt: Examine the following shell script and describe its function line-by-line: #!/bin/bash echo –e "This program copies a file to the /stuff directory.\n" echo –e "Which file would you like to copy? --> \c"

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read FILENAME mkdir /stuff || echo "The /stuff directory could not be created." cp –f $FILENAME /stuff && echo "$FILENAME was successfully copied to /stuff"

Solution: The first line ensures that a BASH shell is run to process all lines within the file.

The second and third lines display text to the user regarding the program purpose and prompt the user to supply a filename.

The third line accepts user input and places it into the FILENAME variable.

The fourth line makes the /stuff directory (or prints an error if the /stuff directory could not be created).

The fifth line copies the file to the /stuff directory and prints a message if the copy was successful.

DISCOVERY EXERCISE 7-7 Prompt: Examine the following shell script and describe its function line-by-line: #!/bin/bash #This script backs up the Oracle DB rm -f /SAN/backup-oracle* if tar -zcvf /SAN/backup-oracle-'date +%F'.tar.gz /oracledb/* then echo "Oracle backup completed on 'date'" >>/var/log/oraclelog else echo "Oracle backup failed on 'date'" >>/var/log/oraclelog mail -s ALERT jason.eckert@trios.com </var/log/oraclelog fi Solution: The first line ensures that a BASH shell is run to process all lines within the file, and the second line is a comment that indicates the script’s purpose.

The third line removes any files within the /SAN directory that start with backup-oracle.

The fourth through tenth lines are a decision construct that: a)

Attempts to perform a backup of the files in the /oracledb directory to a file in the /SAN directory that includes the backup-oracle prefix, current date, and tar.gz extension.

b) If the backup is successful, then a success message is appended to the /var/log/oraclelog file. c)

If the backup is not successful, then a failure message is appended to the /var/log/oraclelog file, and the contents of the log are emailed to jason.eckert@trios.com with the subject line ―ALERT‖

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Solution and Answer Guide: Eckert, CompTIA Linux+ and LPIC-1: Guide to Linux Certification, 6e 2024, 9798214000800; Chapter 01: Introduction to Linux

DISCOVERY EXERCISE 7-8 Prompt: Navigate to GitHub.com using a web browser and create a free account by navigating the appropriate options provided. Following this, create a public repository called shellscripts. Next, create a personal access token by navigating to user Settings, Developer settings, Personal access tokens.

On your Fedora Linux virtual machine, run the following commands as root (where name is your GitHub account name) to push the contents of the /shellscripts repo from Project 7-6 to GitHub and set GitHub as the original repo. Supply your GitHub user name and personal access token when prompted. cd /shellscripts git remote add origin https://github.com/name/shellscripts.git git push -u origin main Finally, log into another terminal as user1 on your Fedora Linux virtual machine and clone your public shellscripts repository from GitHub using the following command (where name is your GitHub account name): git clone https://github.com/name/shellscripts.git Verify the results when finished.

Solution: In this exercise, students create a GitHub account and upload their scripts to a new repository on it. If this exercise is graded, consider having students provide you with the URL for the repository or a screenshot of its contents.

DISCOVERY EXERCISE 7-9 Prompt: In addition to those available at github.com/ohmyzsh/ohmyzsh, there are many other Z shell plugins and themes available on other GitHub repositories. One of the most popular Z shell themes is Powerlevel10k. While logged into GNOME as user1, visit github.com/romkatv/powerlevel10k and follow the instructions to perform a manual installation of Powerlevel10k. Next, open a new Z shell as user1 and follow the setup wizard to configure the Powerlevel10k theme to your liking. Finally, explore the entries added to ~user1/.zshrc that configure the Powerlevel10k theme.

Solution: In this exercise, students install and explore the Powerlevel10k Z shell theme. If this exercise is graded, consider having students provide you with a screenshot of a shell displaying the theme with the output of a command that identifies them, such as echo name.

Solution and Answer Guide ECKERT, COMPTIA LINUX + AND LPIC-1: GUIDE TO LINUX CERTIFICATION, 6E 2024, 9798214000800; CHAPTER 08: SYSTEM INITIALIZATION , X WINDOWS, AND LOCALIZATION

TABLE OF CONTENTS Review Questions ........................................................................................................................................ 1 Hands-On Projects ...................................................................................................................................... 5 © 2024 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.

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Solution and Answer Guide: ; Chapter 08: System Initialization, X Windows, and Localization 9798214000800; Chapter 01: Introduction to Linux

Discovery Exercises ..................................................................................................................................... 8

REVIEW QUESTIONS 141. Which command can be used to modify the default locale on the system? a. tzselect b. cmdline c. localectl d. export LANG=C Answer: c You can use the localectl to configure the default system locale for all users.

142. Which of the following statements is true? a. GRUB Legacy can be loaded from a MBR or GPT. b. After modifying /etc/default/grub, you must run the grub2-mkconfig command before the changes are made to GRUB2. c. GRUB2 can only be loaded from a UEFI System Partition. d. GRUB needs to be reinstalled after it has been modified.

Answer: b After modifying /etc/default/grub, you must rebuild the GRUB configuration files using the grub2mkconfig command.

143. Which runlevel starts a display manager, such as GDM? a. 1 b. 6 c. 0 d. 5 Answer: d Display managers are normally started in runlevel 5.

144. Which of the following Systemd units is functionally equivalent to a runlevel? a. service b. target c. timer d. mount Answer: b Target units are the Systemd equivalent of SysV init runlevels.

145. Which command can be used to start X Windows, the window manager, and the default desktop environment? a. startgui

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b. startgdm c. startx d. gstart Answer: c The startx command will start X Windows and the default desktop environment and/or window manager.

146. Which of the following statements is true? a. Unicode provides the least localization support for different languages. b. ASCII is the most common character set used today. c. UTF-8 is commonly used to provide Unicode character set support. d. ASCII is an extension of the ISO-8859 standard.

Answer: c UTF-8 is the most common format used to provide Unicode character set support on Linux systems.

147. Which of the following indicates the second MBR partition on the third hard disk drive to GRUB2? a. hd2,msdos2 b. hd4,mbr3 c. hd3,mbr2 d. hd2,msdos1 Answer: a MBR partitions are labelled using msdos followed by the partition number within GRUB2, while hard disk drives are labelled using hd followed by the hard disk drive number (starting from 0).

148. Which two implementations of X Windows are commonly used in Linux? (Choose two answers.) a. X.org b. XFCE c. winX d. Wayland Answer: a, d X.org is the traditional X Windows system used on Linux systems, while Wayland is a recent replacement for X.org.

149. What is the name of the directory that contains symbolic links to UNIX SysV rc scripts for runlevel 2? a. /etc/rc2.d b. /etc/init.d/rc2.d c. /etc/runlevel/2 d. /etc/inittab/rc2/d Answer: a The symbolic links to rc scripts for runlevel 2 are stored within the /etc/rc2.d directory.

150. Under what directory is Stage 2 of the GRUB2 boot loader stored? a. /boot b. /root c. /bin d. /

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Answer: a Stage 2 of the GRUB2 boot loader is stored under the /boot directory on systems that do not have a UEFI BIOS, or under /boot/efi on systems that have a UEFI BIOS. 151. Which command instructs the UNIX SysV init or Systemd daemon to reboot the system? a. init 0 b. telinit 1 c. init 6 d. telinit 5 Answer: c Runlevel 6 instructs SysV init to reboot the system. Since Systemd is backwards-compatible to SysV init, entering runlevel 6 will instruct Systemd to enter reboot.target.

152. Which assistive technology will make a desktop environment more accessible to a person with low vision? a. High Contrast b. Visual Alerts c. Repeat Keys d. Click Assist Answer: a High Contrast is an assistive technology designed for people with vision-impairment.

153. You have recently modified the system time using the date command. What command can you run to ensure that the same time is updated within the system BIOS? a. timedatectl --update b. tzselect c. hwclock -w d. date --set Answer: c You can use the -w option to the hwclock command to write the current system time to the system BIOS. 154. You want to configure the runlevels that a particular upstart daemon is started in. What should you do? a. Run the appropriate update-rc.d command. b. Modify the contents of the /etc/rc#.d directories. c. Modify the daemon configuration file within the /etc/init directory. d. Run the appropriate systemctl command.

Answer: c The upstart init system uses daemon configuration files under the /etc/init directory to configure the runlevels that daemons are started in.

155. Which of the following Systemd commands can be used to stop a daemon called lala? a. service stop lala b. systemctl stop lala.service c. chkconfig stop lala d. stop lala Answer: b

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Solution and Answer Guide: ; Chapter 08: System Initialization, X Windows, and Localization 9798214000800; Chapter 01: Introduction to Linux

The systemctl command can be used to stop Systemd daemons.

156. Which of the following commands can be used to start a UNIX SysV daemon called lala in runlevels 1, 2, and 3? a. chkconfig --level 123 lala on b. update-rc.d lala defaults c. systemctl enable lala 123 d. service enable lala 123 Answer: a The chkconfig command can be used to configure a SysV init daemon to start in specific runlevels.

157. You have created a Systemd mount unit file that mounts a filesystem upon entering the multi-user target.

However, when you switch to the multi-user target, you notice that the filesystem is not mounted. Which of the following troubleshooting steps should you take? (Choose all that apply.) a. Verify that the filesystem was specified using a UUID in the mount unit file. b. Remove any entries for the filesystem from /etc/fstab. c. Ensure that the mount unit is activated using the systemctl enable command. d. Run the update-rc.d command to reindex all unit files.

Answer: a and c Systemd mount unit files must specify the filesystem to mount by filesystem or partition UUID. Additionally, each mount unit must be enabled to start in the desired target.

158. What kernel option can be specified within a boot loader to force the system to boot to Single User Mode? a. init b. rescue c. single d. telinit Answer: c You can specify the single kernel option within the GRUB boot loader to ensure that the system boots to single user mode.

159. What variable is often set at the beginning of a shell script to set a specific locale? a. LC b. LANG c. LOCALE d. CMDLINE Answer: b The LANG variable configures the locale for the duration of the shell (and shell script).

160. What desktop environment is most likely to be installed on a Linux server system? a. XFCE b. XDM c. KDE d. GNOME Answer: a

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Solution and Answer Guide: ; Chapter 08: System Initialization, X Windows, and Localization 9798214000800; Chapter 01: Introduction to Linux

Linux servers that contain a desktop environment will likely contain a lightweight desktop environment to minimize unnecessary resource usage. XFCE is a common lightweight desktop environment.

HANDS-ON PROJECTS PROJECT 8-1 Solution: Steps 1-2: Not applicable.

Step 3: set timeout=5, no because the BootLoaderSpec module (blscfg) is used.

Step 4: These files represent the GRUB menu entries.

Steps 5-6: Not applicable.

Step 7: 30 seconds.

Step 8: Yes, the blscfg module is loaded.

Step 9: In the contents of /boot/loader/entries/*64.conf.

Step 10: Advises the kernel to boot to single user mode instead of the default runlevel/target.

Step 11: Not applicable.

Step 12: The current runlevel is 1, the most recent runlevel is non-existent (N) because your kernel booted directly to runlevel 1.

Steps 13-14: Not applicable.

PROJECT 8-2 Solution: Step 1: Not applicable.

Step 2: 5, non-existent (N).

Step 3: Because Fedora uses Systemd instead of UNIX SysV init.

Step 4: Unit files for starting system components such as daemons.

Step 5: Yes. Not all daemons are compatible with Systemd and thus Fedora must use UNIX SysV to initialize them.

Step 6: livesys and livesys-late.

Step 7: Runlevels 3, 4, and 5.

Step 8: Yes, because S forces the rc script to start livesys in runlevels 2 through 5.

Steps 9-10: Not applicable.

Step 11: current=3, most recent=5.

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Solution and Answer Guide: ; Chapter 08: System Initialization, X Windows, and Localization 9798214000800; Chapter 01: Introduction to Linux

Step 12: Not applicable.

Step 13: 1, 3.

Steps 14: Not applicable.

Step 15: Yes. Step 16: Not applicable.

Step 17: Because graphical.target first loads all daemons from multi-user.target. This allows graphical.target to only contain the GDM and supporting daemons.

Step 18: Yes. Steps 19-21: Not applicable.

PROJECT 8-3 Solution: Steps 1-4: Not applicable.

Step 5: Yes, because ―Boot script started‖ was echoed to /tmp/bootscript.txt.

Step 6: Not applicable.

Step 7: Because the [Install] section of the unit file listed WantedBy=multi-user.target.

Step 8: Not applicable.

Step 9: Yes. Step 10: Not applicable.

PROJECT 8-4 Solution: Steps 1-6: Not applicable.

Step 7: Yes /newmount was mounted by Systemd. No it will not be mounted in other targets.

Step 8: Not applicable.

PROJECT 8-5 Solution: Steps 1-2: Not applicable.

Step 3: GNOME was loaded as it is the default desktop in Fedora, a warning should indicate that GNOME should not be run as the root user.

Step 4: Not applicable.

Step 5: Yes, because you originally started X Windows on tty5.

Steps 6-9: Not applicable.

Step 10: en_US.UTF-8.

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Solution and Answer Guide: ; Chapter 08: System Initialization, X Windows, and Localization 9798214000800; Chapter 01: Introduction to Linux

Step 11: Yes. Step 12: Yes. Step 13: Not applicable.

DISCOVERY EXERCISES DISCOVERY EXERCISE 8-1 Prompt: Describe what would happen if you changed the default runlevel/target on your system to runlevel 6 or reboot.target.

Solution: The UNIX SysV init or Systemd daemon will continuously reboot the system.

DISCOVERY EXERCISE 8-2 Prompt: Create a timer unit on your Fedora Linux virtual machine that runs the bootscript.service that you created in Hands-on Project 8-3 every day at noon and 5 minutes following system initialization. Reboot your -system and review the output of the journalctl | grep bootscript command 5 minutes following system initialization to verify that your timer unit is working successfully.

Solution: Although answers will differ, the timer unit should contain the following contents at minimum: [Unit] ConditionVirtualization=!container [Timer] Unit=bootscript.service OnCalendar=Mon..Sun 12:00 OnBootSec=300 [Install] WantedBy=timers.target

DISCOVERY EXERCISE 8-3 Prompt: On the Ubuntu Linux virtual machine that you installed in Hands-On Project 6-1: a.

Perform the same steps that you performed in Project 8-1. To accomplish this, you’ll need to remember that Ubuntu Server uses slightly different names for GRUB2 configuration files and commands.

b.

Use the appropriate commands to view, start, and stop daemons, as well as configure them to start within a particular runlevel/target.

Use the appropriate commands to explore the localization files, commands, and options available.

c.

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Solution and Answer Guide: Eckert, CompTIA Linux+ and LPIC-1: Guide to Linux Certification, 6e 2024, 9798214000800; Chapter 01: Introduction to Linux

Solution: Ubuntu Server uses some different GRUB file and command name conventions compared to Fedora Workstation. Ubuntu uses /boot/grub instead of /boot/grub2, as well as grub-* commands instead of grub2-* commands.

DISCOVERY EXERCISE 8-4 Prompt: Download the ISO image for the Ubuntu Server 14.04 LTS distribution from oldreleases.ubuntu.com. Next, install a new virtual machine called Legacy Ubuntu Linux from this ISO image that uses 1 GB of memory (not dynamically allocated) and a 50 GB SATA/SAS/SCSI virtual hard disk drive (dynamically allocated). Following installation, set the root user password and then switch to the root user. Next, use the appropriate commands to explore the upstart system initialization system. At minimum, ensure that you perform the following actions: a.

View and configure upstart configuration files.

b.

View, start, and stop upstart daemons.

c.

Configure upstart daemons to start and stop in a particular runlevel.

Solution: At minimum, students should explore the start/stop/restart/reload/status commands, view and modify select configuration files in /etc/init directory, as well as run the update-rc.d command to enable/disable daemons.

DISCOVERY EXERCISE 8-5 Prompt: On your Fedora Linux virtual machine, run the dnf -y install i3-gaps command as the root user to install the i3 tiling window manager with window gap support. Once the installation has finished, reboot your system and log into the i3 tiling window manager from the GDM. Follow the prompts to generate an i3 configuration using the default selections. Next, follow the guide at i3wm.org/docs/userguide.html to learn how to use and configure it.

Solution: In this exercise, students install and configure the i3 window manager. If this exercise is graded, consider having students provide you with a screenshot of their desktop configuration.

Solution and Answer Guide ECKERT, COMPTIA LINUX + AND LPIC-1: GUIDE TO LINUX CERTIFICATION, 6E 2024, 9798214000800; CHAPTER 09: MANAGING LINUX PROCESSES

TABLE OF CONTENTS Review Questions ........................................................................................................................................ 1 Hands-On Projects ...................................................................................................................................... 5 Discovery Exercises ..................................................................................................................................... 7

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Solution and Answer Guide: ; Chapter 09: Managing Linux Processes 9798214000800; Chapter 01: Introduction to Linux

REVIEW QUESTIONS 161. Which command entered without arguments is used to display a list of processes running in the current shell? a. pgrep b. list c. pid d. ps Answer: d The ps command lists processes in the current shell by default.

162. Which of the following statements is true? (Choose all that apply.) a. If /etc/at.allow exists, only users listed in it can use the at command. b. If /etc/cron.allow exists, only users listed in it can use the cron command. c. If /etc/cron.deny exists and /etc/cron.allow does not exist, any user not listed in /etc/cron.deny can use the cron command. d. If /etc/cron.allow and /etc/cron.deny exist, only users listed in the former can use the cron command, and any users listed in the latter are denied access to the cron command. e. If a user is listed in both /etc/cron.allow and /etc/cron.deny, then /etc/cron.deny takes precedence and the user cannot access the crontab command.

Answer: a, b, c The at.allow and cron.allow files list allowed at and cron users, respectively, and will take precedence over at.deny and cron.deny files. In the absence of at.allow and cron.allow files, only users not listed within at.deny and cron.deny can schedule jobs. If both cron.allow and cron.deny files exist, only cron.allow will be processed.

163. Where are individual user tasks scheduled to run with the cron daemon stored on a Fedora system? a. /etc/crontab b. /etc/cron/username c. /var/spool/cron d. /var/spool/cron/username Answer: d The /var/spool/cron directory stores cron jobs on a Fedora system.

164. Which process has a PID of 1 and a PPID of 0? a. the kernel itself b. ps c. init/systemd d. top Answer: c The SysV init and Systemd daemons always have a PID of 0.

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Solution and Answer Guide: ; Chapter 09: Managing Linux Processes 9798214000800; Chapter 01: Introduction to Linux

165. A process spawning or initiating another process is referred to as _____. a. a child process b. forking c. branching d. parenting Answer: b Forking is the spawning of another child process.

166. As daemon processes are not associated with terminals, you must use an option such as –e alongside the ps command to view them. a. True b. False Answer: a To view daemon processes, you must display all processes on the system. The -e option to the ps command can be used for this purpose.

167. Which of the following commands will most likely increase the chance of a process receiving more time slices? a. renice 0 b. renice 15 c. renice -12 d. renice 19 Answer: c Nice values between -1 and -20 will increase the priority of a process on the system.

168. How can you bypass the wait function and send a user process to the background? a. This cannot happen once a process is executing; it can be done only when the command is started by placing an ampersand (&) after it. b. This cannot happen; only daemon processes can run in the background. c. You can use the ps command. d. You can use the Ctrl+z key combination and the bg command.

Answer: d You can pause a running process using the Ctrl+z key combination, and then use the paused job ID as an argument to the bg command to start it in the background.

169. The at command is used to _____. a. schedule processes to run periodically in the background b. schedule processes to run periodically on a recurring basis in the future c. schedule processes to run at a single instance in the future d. schedule processes to run in the foreground Answer: c The at command schedules one or more processes for a specific time.

170. What command is used to view and modify user jobs scheduled to run with cron? a. crontab

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Solution and Answer Guide: ; Chapter 09: Managing Linux Processes 9798214000800; Chapter 01: Introduction to Linux

b. cron c. ps d. sched Answer: a Users can use the crontab command to create and manage their own cron jobs.

171. Every process has a process ID and a _____. a. fork process b. daemon c. child process d. parent process ID Answer: d Every process must be started by another process that is identified by a parent process ID (PPID).

172. The pkill command terminates _____. a. all instances of a process with the same PPID b. all instances of a process with the same PID c. all instances of a process with the same priority d. all instances of a process with the same name matched by a regular expression Answer: d The pkill command can be used to kill processes that match a regular expression.

173. Nice values are used to affect process priorities using a range between _____. a. 0 and 20 b. 0 and –19 c. –19 and 20 d. –20 and 19 Answer: d Nice values range from –20 (high priority) to 19 (low priority).

174. What is the name given to a process not associated with a terminal? a. child process b. parent process c. user process d. daemon process Answer: d Daemon processes are not associated with a terminal and display a ? in the TTY column of ps and top command output.

175. To kill a process running in the background, you must place a % character before its process ID. a. True b. False Answer: b

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Solution and Answer Guide: ; Chapter 09: Managing Linux Processes 9798214000800; Chapter 01: Introduction to Linux

The % character identifies the background job ID. Thus, to kill background job 4, you could run the kill %4 command.

176. What kill level signal cannot be trapped? a. 1 b. 9 c. 3 d. 15 Answer: b A kill level 9 (SIGKILL) cannot be trapped by a process.

177. A runaway process that is faulty and consuming mass amounts of system resources _____. a. is a zombie process b. is an orphaned process c. has a PPID of Z d. is a rogue process Answer: d Rogue processes are faulty processes that consume large amounts of system resources.

178. When you run the ps command, how are daemon processes recognized? a. The terminal is listed as tty0. b. There is a question mark in the TTY column. c. There is an asterisk in the STIME column. d. There is a ―d‖ for daemon in the terminal identification column.

Answer: b Daemon processes list a ? in the TTY column as they are not associated with a terminal.

179. Which command is used to gain real-time information about processes running on the system, with the most processor-intensive processes appearing at the beginning of the list? a. ps b. ps -elf c. top d. pstree Answer: c The top command lists process statistics and the top processes on the system by CPU and memory usage.

180. Which command can be used to see processes running in the background? a. bg b. jobs c. ps -% d. fg Answer: b The jobs command displays background jobs running on a Linux system.

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Solution and Answer Guide: ; Chapter 09: Managing Linux Processes 9798214000800; Chapter 01: Introduction to Linux

HANDS-ON PROJECTS PROJECT 9-1 Solution: Steps 1-2: Not applicable.

Step 3: a. b. c. d. e.

systemd ? daemon root kthreadd

Step 4: Not applicable.

Step 5: a. b. c.

S – sleeping (interruptible sleep) –20 to +19 systemd and potentially some others – started by root

Step 6: Answers will vary.

Step 7: Not applicable.

PROJECT 9-2 Solution: Steps 1-2: Not applicable.

Step 3: Yes. Step 4: Not applicable.

Step 5: No. Step 6: No. Step 7: No. Step 8: Yes. The other kill signals were trapped by the shell.

PROJECT 9-3 Solution: Step 1: Not applicable.

Step 2: No – the sleep command must finish before the parent process (your shell) resumes.

Steps 3-5: Not applicable.

Step 6: The most recent job.

Steps 7-15: Not applicable.

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Solution and Answer Guide: ; Chapter 09: Managing Linux Processes 9798214000800; Chapter 01: Introduction to Linux

PROJECT 9-4 Solution: Steps 1-5: Not applicable.

Step 6: Yes, it takes effect immediately.

Step 7: Yes. Steps 8-9: Not applicable.

Step 10: No. Steps 11-14: Not applicable.

PROJECT 9-5 Solution: Steps 1-4: Not applicable.

Step 5: In 1 minute; output will be sent to /root/datefile.

Step 6: Not applicable.

Step 7: No. Steps 8-9: Not applicable.

Step 10: 8:30 PM every Friday.

Step 11: Yes. Step 12: Not applicable.

Step 13: No. Step 14: Yes, hourly.

Step 15: 1 minute past the hour, every hour, every day.

Step 16: Not applicable.

PROJECT 9-6 Solution: Step 1: Not applicable.

Step 2: They represent PIDs. Step 3: They are the same.

Step 4: They are the same.

Step 5: Not applicable.

Step 6: The state may vary (normally, it is sleeping), yes.

Step 7: Not applicable.

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Solution and Answer Guide: ; Chapter 09: Managing Linux Processes 9798214000800; Chapter 01: Introduction to Linux

DISCOVERY EXERCISES DISCOVERY EXERCISE 9-1 Prompt: Type the command sleep 5 at a command prompt and press Enter. When did you receive your shell prompt? Explain the events that occurred by referencing Figure 9-3. Next, type exec sleep 5 at a command prompt and press Enter. What happened? Can you explain the results using Figure 9-3? Redraw Figure 9-3 to indicate what happens when a command is directly executed.

Solution: Answers will vary. The sleep 5 command forks normally as depicted in Figure 9-3 and you receive your shell prompt when the command exits 5 seconds later; however, the exec sleep 5 command does not fork at all. The system directly executes the sleep 5 command and then proceeds to run the exit() function, as shown in Figure 9-3, which then terminates the current shell.

DISCOVERY EXERCISE 9-2 Prompt: Using the man or info pages, research four more options to the ps command. What processes does each option display? What information is given about each process?

Solution: In this exercise, student research four additional options to the ps command. If this exercise is graded, ensure that students provide a valid option and associated description according to the manual page.

DISCOVERY EXERCISE 9-3 Prompt: Log in to the GNOME desktop on your Fedora system as user1, open a command-line terminal and switch to the root user. At the shell prompt, run dnf -y install xeyes to install the xeyes program, and then run xeyes to execute it. Does the terminal window stay open? Click the terminal window to bring it to the foreground. Do you see your shell prompt? Why? Close your terminal window.

What happened to the xeyes program and why?

Next, open another command-line terminal and type xeyes& at the command prompt to execute the xeyes program in the background. Click the terminal window to bring it to the foreground. Do you see your shell prompt? Why? Close your terminal window. What happened to the xeyes program and why?

Finally, open another command-line terminal and type nohup xeyes& at the command prompt to execute the xeyes program in the background from the nohup command. Click the terminal window to bring it to the foreground and press Enter. Close your terminal. Visit the nohup manual page to explain why the xeyes program is still available.

Solution: Because the xeyes program was not started in the background, its parent process (the terminal) waits for it to complete; thus, you do not get the prompt back.

The xeyes program terminated because its parent process (the terminal) was terminated.

Because the xeyes program was started in the background, its parent process (the terminal) does not wait for it to terminate; thus, you get the prompt back.

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Solution and Answer Guide: ; Chapter 09: Managing Linux Processes 9798214000800; Chapter 01: Introduction to Linux

The xeyes program terminated because its parent process (the terminal) was terminated.

The nohup command traps kill signals sent from the parent process. As a result, the xeyes program was not terminated when its parent process (the terminal) was terminated.

DISCOVERY EXERCISE 9-4 Prompt: You are the systems administrator for a large trust company. Most of the Linux servers in the company host databases that are accessed frequently by company employees. One particular Linux server has been reported as being very slow today. Upon further investigation using the top utility, you have found a rogue process that is wasting a great deal of system resources. Unfortunately, the rogue process is a database maintenance program and should be killed with caution. Which kill signal would you send this process and why? If the rogue process traps this signal, which other kill signals would you try? Which command could you use as a last resort to kill the rogue process? What command can list the files that could be impacted if you terminate the rogue process?

Solution: Answers will vary. You should try to send the process a weak kill signal, such as SIGINT, first, which allows the program to clean up any resources safely. Next, you could try a SIGQUIT or SIGTERM. Only use SIGKILL as a last resort as it prevents resources from being cleaned up safely. The lsof command can determine which files were opened by a process that you plan to terminate.

DISCOVERY EXERCISE 9-5 Prompt: Write the lines that you could use in your user cron table to schedule the /bin/myscript command to run: a.

every Wednesday afternoon at 2:15 PM

b.

every hour on the hour every day of the week

c.

every 15 minutes on the first of every month

d.

only on February 25th at 6:00 PM

e.

on the first Monday of every month at 12:10 PM

Solution: a. b. c. d. e.

15 14 * * 3 /bin/myscript 0 * * * * /bin/myscript 0,15,30,45 * 1 * * /bin/myscript (or */15 * 1 * * /bin/myscript) 0 18 25 2 * /bin/myscript 10 12 1-7 * 1 /bin/myscript

DISCOVERY EXERCISE 9-6 Prompt: Time-permitting, perform Project 9-1 through 9-6 on your Ubuntu Linux virtual machine. You will need to run the apt install at command as the root user to install the at daemon and related commands. Note any differences between the Fedora and Ubuntu distributions with regards to process management.

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Solution and Answer Guide: Eckert, CompTIA Linux+ and LPIC-1: Guide to Linux Certification, 6e 2024, 9798214000800; Chapter 01: Introduction to Linux

Solution: Nearly all Project steps should be identical, with different values produced (e.g., PIDs). Cron jobs on Ubuntu are located in /var/spool/cron/crontabs.

Solution and Answer Guide ECKERT, COMPTIA LINUX + AND LPIC-1: GUIDE TO LINUX CERTIFICATION, 6E 2024, 9798214000800; CHAPTER 10: COMMON ADMINISTRATIVE T ASKS

TABLE OF CONTENTS Review Questions ...................................................................................................................................... 96 Hands-On Projects .................................................................................................................................. 101 Discovery Exercises ................................................................................................................................. 105

REVIEW QUESTIONS 181. The process of sending print jobs from the print queue to the printer is called _____. a. b. c. d.

spooling queuing redirecting printing

Answer: d Spooling refers to sending a print job to a print spool, whereas printing refers to sending a print job from a print spool to a physical printer.

182. You can clear a log file simply by redirecting nothing into it. a. b.

True False

Answer: a You can use the >logfile command to clear a log file.

183. When a printer is disabled, _____. a. b. c. d.

the print queue does not accept jobs and sends a message to the user noting that the printer is unavailable the print queue accepts jobs into the print queue and holds them there until the printer is enabled again the printer appears as offline when an lp request is sent the print queue redirects all print jobs sent to it to /dev/null

Answer: b

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Solution and Answer Guide: ; Chapter 10: Common Administrative Tasks 9798214000800; Chapter 01: Introduction to Linux

Disabling a printer disables the printing process but not the spooling process.

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Solution and Answer Guide: ; Chapter 10: Common Administrative Tasks 9798214000800; Chapter 01: Introduction to Linux

184. What is the term used to describe a user providing a user name and password to log in to a system? a. b. c. d.

validation authorization login authentication

Answer: d Authentication refers to the validation of a user identity.

185. Which command can you use to lock a user account? a. b. c. d.

lock username secure username usermod –L username useradd –L username

Answer: c You can use the -L option to the usermod command to lock a user account.

186. Which command can be used to temporarily alter the primary group associated with a given user? a. b. c. d.

usermod chggrp gpasswd newgrp

Answer: d The newgrp command can be used to modify a user’s primary group for the duration of the shell.

187. Which command can be used to send a print job to the default printer named Printer1? (Choose all that apply.) a. b. c. d.

lp –d Printer1 file lp Printer1 file lp file lp –m Printer1 file

Answer: a, c The -d option of the lp command followed by the printer name can be used to send a file to a printer. If the printer is the default system printer, the -d option is not required.

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Solution and Answer Guide: ; Chapter 10: Common Administrative Tasks 9798214000800; Chapter 01: Introduction to Linux

188. What is the name of the file that contains a listing of all users on the system and their home directories? a. b. c. d.

/etc/passwd /etc/users /etc/shadow /etc/password

Answer: a The /etc/passwd file stores all public user information, including user home directory locations.

189. UIDs and GIDs are unique to the system and, once used, can never be reused. a. b.

True False

Answer: b You can reuse the UIDs and GIDs of deleted users and groups for new users and groups.

190. What is the name of the utility used to rotate log files? a. syslog b. jetpack c. logrotate d. logbackup Answer: c The logrotate command is used to rotate log files.

191. You can lock a user account by changing the default login shell to an invalid shell in /etc/passwd. a. b.

True False

Answer: a A user with an invalid shell cannot log into the system.

192. When a printer is rejecting requests, _____. a. b. c. d.

the print queue does not accept jobs and sends a message to the user noting that the printer is unavailable the print queue accepts jobs into the print queue and holds them there until the printer is accepting requests again the printer appears as offline when an lp request is sent the print queue redirects all print jobs sent to it to /dev/null

Answer: a Printers that are configured to reject requests will display an error to users that submit print jobs.

193. When referring to the /etc/rsyslog.conf file, _____ specifies information from a certain area of the system, whereas _____ is the level of importance of that information. a. b. c.

section, priority service, precedents process, degree

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Solution and Answer Guide: ; Chapter 10: Common Administrative Tasks 9798214000800; Chapter 01: Introduction to Linux

d.

facility, priority

Answer: d The rsyslogd daemon logs events of a specific priority from a system facility.

194. Most log files on the system are found in which directory? a. b. c. d.

/etc/logfiles /etc/log /var/log /dev/log

Answer: c The /var/log directory stores most log files on a system.

195. Which file contains default information such as UID and GID ranges and minimum password length to be used at user creation? a. b. c. d.

/etc/skel /etc/passwd /etc/login.defs /etc/default/useradd

Answer: c Most default user configuration, including UID and GID ranges, are specified within /etc/login.defs.

196. What command can you use to view journald log entries on a system that uses Systemd? a. b. c. d.

less journalctl syslog catlog

Answer: b The journalctl command displays the events stored within the Systemd-journald database.

197. Which command would you use to unlock a user account? a. b. c. d.

unlock username open username passwd -u username useradd –U username

Answer: c The -u option to the passwd command can be used to unlock a user account that was locked using the -l option to the passwd command.

198. Along with a listing of user accounts, the /etc/passwd file contains information on account expiry. a. b.

True False

Answer: b

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Solution and Answer Guide: ; Chapter 10: Common Administrative Tasks 9798214000800; Chapter 01: Introduction to Linux

Password expiry information is stored within /etc/shadow.

199. You use lpstat and determine that a user named User1 has placed two large print jobs in the queue for Printer1 that have yet to start printing. They have print job IDs of Printer1-17 and Printer1-21, respectively.

Which command would you use to remove these two jobs from the print queue? a. b. c. d.

cancel Printer1-17 Printer1-21 cancel –u Printer1-17 Printer1-21 cancel –a Printer1-17 Printer1-21 cancel 17 21

Answer: a You can specify print job IDs as arguments to the cancel command to remove them.

200. Which command is used to delete a user account? a. b. c. d.

usermod –d username del username userdel username rm username

Answer: c You can use the userdel command to remove a user account from the system.

HANDS-ON PROJECTS PROJECT 10-1 Solution: Steps 1-3: Not applicable.

Step 4: Yes. Step 5: Yes, yes, yes.

Step 6: Yes. Step 7: printer1-1, printer1 is the default printer on the system.

Step 8: printer1-2.

Step 9: printer1-3.

Step 10: Yes, they will remain in the queue until they are deleted or printing is enabled.

Step 11: The contents of /etc/issue should be shown because that is the data from the first print job.

Step 12: Yes. Step 13: Yes, yes, yes, yes.

Step 14: Yes, 4.

Step 15: Yes.

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Step 16: Not applicable.

PROJECT 10-2 Solution: Step 1: Not applicable.

Step 2: Yes. Step 3: Not applicable.

Step 4: The other two jobs are not shown as they were submitted by the root user (you are logged in as user1).

Step 5-9: Not applicable.

Step 10: Yes, yes.

Step 11: Yes. Step 12: Not applicable.

Step 13 Yes, user1 submitted the print job earlier in Step 2.

Step 14: Because a printer class is a separate printer collection that users can submit print jobs to for printing to the first available printer in the collection.

Step 15 Yes. Steps 16-17: Not applicable.

PROJECT 10-3 Solution: Steps 1-2: Not applicable.

Step 3: From the Systemd Journal Daemon, socket.

Step 4: No, the last line loads entries from files in the /etc/rsyslog.d directory.

Step 5: /var/log/kern.log, new entries are written immediately to the disk.

Steps 6-7: Not applicable.

Step 8: Yes, yes, because events are always logged to journald and copied to rsyslogd if rsyslogd is installed on the same system.

Step 9: The CUPS daemon.

Step 10: Not applicable.

Step 11: 4.

Step 12: Yes. Step 13: 7; no.

Step 14: Not applicable.

PROJECT 10-4 Solution: Step 1: Not applicable.

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Step 2: Yes. Step 3: SystemMaxUse. Step 4: gdm, yes.

Steps 5-6: Not applicable.

Step 7: /usr/sbin/crond.

Step 8: Yes. Step 9: No, subdirectories are made to ensure that you can later configure daemons to log manually to directories under /var/log while standard log files are generated to allow the relevant commands that query them to work as well as for ease of administration.

Step 10: Yes. Step 11: Weekly, 4.

Step 12: Yes. Step 13: 1 copy, rotated monthly.

Step 14: Not applicable.

PROJECT 10-5 Solution: Step 1: Not applicable.

Step 2: First line, last line, yes, x is in the password field.

Step 3: root, root, everyone (mode=644).

Step 4: Encrypted password; !!

Step 5: root, root, only the root user (mode=000), the shadow file should not be readable by non-root users as it stores hashed passwords.

Step 6: File does not exist because all information is now stored in /etc/passwd.

Step 7: Encrypted password, because the /etc/shadow no longer exists to store the encrypted password.

Step 8: Configures system to store password information in the /etc/shadow file.

Step 9: Not applicable.

Step 10: /bin/bash, /etc/skel, /home.

Step 11: All files within /etc/skel are copied to new user home directories to provide environment variables and files.

Step 12: Not applicable.

Step 13: -m makes the home directory, /etc/default/useradd.

Step 14: No, because there is a parameter in /etc/login.defs that creates home directories by default.

Step 15: /bin/bash, /home/bozo, 1001.

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Step 16: No, no.

Step 17: Not applicable.

Step 18: All files in Step 11 are present plus the issue file.

Step 19: Not applicable.

PROJECT 10-6 Solution: Steps 1-3: Not applicable.

Step 4: Only the login name changed.

Step 5: Not applicable.

Step 6: Yes. Step 7: The 7th field.

Step 8: The 8th field, the number of days since January 1, 1970.

Step 9: The 4th field.

Step 10: The 5th field.

Step 11: The 6th field.

Step 12: Not applicable.

PROJECT 10-7 Solution: Steps 1-3: Not applicable.

Step 4: A ! character was placed at the beginning.

Step 5: No. Step 6-7: Not applicable.

Step 8: They are identical.

Step 9: Yes. Steps 10-11: Not applicable.

Step 12: /bin/false is not listed in /etc/shells, yes.

Step 13: No. Steps 14-15: Not applicable.

Step 16: Yes. Steps 17-19: Not applicable.

PROJECT 10-8 Solution: Step 1: Not applicable.

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Step 2: bozo, users typically manage their own files.

Step 3: No. Step 4: 666, because that was bozo’s old UID. Step 5: Make a home directory and assign a UID. Step 6: Not applicable.

Step 7: /home/bozoette, 666.

Step 8: bozoette, because her account was created with the UID 666, yes.

Step 9: Not applicable.

PROJECT 10-9 Solution: Steps 1-3: Not applicable.

Step 4: bozoette, groupies.

Step 5: bozoette.

Step 6: Not applicable.

Step 7: bozoette, bozoette, because bozoette is the owner and bozoette is the primary group.

Steps 8-9: Not applicable.

Step 10: bozoette, groupies because bozoette is the owner and groupies is the primary group.

Steps 11-12: Not applicable.

Step 13: /etc/group.

Step 14: Not applicable.

DISCOVERY EXERCISES DISCOVERY EXERCISE 10-1 Prompt: Write the entry you could add to /etc/rsyslog.conf to: a.

Log all critical messages from the kernel to /var/log/alert

b.

Log all messages from the user processes to /var/log/userlog

c.

Log all debug messages and more serious from the printing daemon to /var/log/printer

d.

Log all messages except notices from the mail daemon to /var/log/mailman

e.

Log all alerts and critical error messages to /var/log/serious

f.

Log all warnings and errors from the kernel and the printing daemon to /var/log/shared

Solution: a) kern.=crit

/var/log/alert

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b)

user.*

/var/log/userlog

c)

lpr.debug

/var/log/printer

d)

mail.*;mail.!=notice /var/log/mailman

e)

*.=alert;*.=crit

f)

kern,lpr.=warn; kern,lpr.=error

/var/log/serious /var/log/shared

DISCOVERY EXERCISE 10-2 Prompt: Use the man or info pages to find a description of the –D option to the useradd command. What does this option do? What file does it edit? Use this option with the useradd command to set the date that all new user accounts will be disabled to March 5, 2055. What command did you use?

Solution: The –D option modifies /etc/default/useradd to set default options for future account additions. The command used to set the expiry for all new accounts is useradd –D –e "2055-03-05".

DISCOVERY EXERCISE 10-3 Prompt: In Project 10-2, you enabled the remote administration and IPP print sharing options within the CUPS remote administration tool on your Fedora Linux virtual machine. However, in order to access CUPS remotely or print to your shared IPP printers, you must allow the ports for the HTTP (TCP port 80), HTTPS (TCP port 443), and IPP (TCP port 631) protocols in the firewall that is enabled by default in Fedora. Run the following commands to enable those ports: firewall-cmd --add-service http firewall-cmd --add-service https firewall-cmd --add-service ipp Next, use the ip addr show command to determine the IP address of your Fedora Linux virtual machine.

Following this, access the CUPS administration website using the web browser on your Windows or macOS host computer by navigating to http://IPaddress:631 where IPaddress is the IP address of your Fedora virtual machine. Finally, add a new printer within the Settings app on Windows or the System Preferences app on macOS that prints to the URL http://IPaddress:631/printers/printer1. Print to this new printer from a Windows or macOS program of your choice and verify that the job was submitted to the printer1 print queue using the lpstat –t command on your Fedora Linux virtual machine.

Solution: In this exercise, students allow IPP in their Fedora firewall and configure their Windows or macOS host to print to a shared printer on their Fedora Workstation system. If this exercise is graded, consider having students provide you with a screenshot of the printer settings (listing the location of the printer) from Windows Settings or macOS System Preferences, as well as screenshots of the CUPS web administration tool listing the sharing options and printer definitions.

DISCOVERY EXERCISE 10-4 Prompt: The CUPS commands introduced in this chapter work identically on both Fedora and Ubuntu systems.

Because remote administration of the CUPS web administration tool is disabled by default and Ubuntu Server does not contain a desktop environment that allows you to access a web browser and the CUPS web administration tool, you must manually enable remote administration within the /etc/cups/cupsd.conf file.

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On your Ubuntu Server Linux virtual machine, edit the /etc/cups/cupsd.conf file and change the line that reads Listen localhost:631 to Port 631 as well as add three Allow from all lines within the access sections, as shown here: # Restrict access to the server... <Location /> Order allow,deny Allow from all </Location> # Restrict access to the admin pages... <Location /admin> Order allow,deny Allow from all </Location> # Restrict access to configuration files... <Location /admin/conf> AuthType Default Require user @SYSTEM Order allow,deny Allow from all </Location> Next, save your changes, run the systemctl restart cups.service command to restart the CUPS daemon, and run the ip addr show command to determine the IP address of your Ubuntu Linux virtual machine. Since Ubuntu Server does not enable a firewall by default, there is no need to open ports to allow CUPS access. Finally, access the CUPS administration website using the web browser on your Windows or macOS host computer by navigating to http://IPaddress:631 where IPaddress is the IP address of your Ubuntu virtual machine.

Solution: In this exercise, students allow for remote connectivity in CUPS on their Ubuntu virtual machine. If this exercise is graded, consider having students provide you with screenshots of the CUPS web administration tool from a Windows or macOS web browser that lists the sharing options and printer definitions.

DISCOVERY EXERCISE 10-5 Prompt: When adding several user accounts, you might want to use the newusers utility, which can process a text file full of entries to add user accounts. Use the man or info page to find out how to use this utility and use it to add three users. When finished, view the /etc/passwd, /etc/shadow, and /etc/group files to verify that the users were added successfully.

Solution: In this exercise, students run the newusers wizard. If this exercise is graded, consider having students provide you with screenshots of this wizard for the three users they create.

DISCOVERY EXERCISE 10-6 Prompt: Write commands to accomplish the following (use the manual or info pages if necessary): a.

Create a user with a login name of bsmith, a UID of 733, a GECOS field entry of ―accounting manager,‖ and a password of Gxj234.

b.

Delete the user jdoe but leave the home directory intact.

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Solution and Answer Guide: Eckert, CompTIA Linux+ and LPIC-1: Guide to Linux Certification, 6e 2024, 9798214000800; Chapter 01: Introduction to Linux

c.

Change the properties of the existing user wjones such that the user has a new comment field of ―shipping‖ and an account expiry of March 23, 2032.

d.

Lock the account of wjenkins.

e.

Change the password of bsmith to We34Rt.

f.

Change the properties of the existing user tbanks such that the user is a member of the managers group and has a login name of artbanks.

g.

Create a user with the same UID and primary group as root and a login name of wjones.

h.

Change the primary group of the user wsmith to root.

i.

Add the users tbanks and jdoe to the group acctg while preserving existing group memberships.

Solution: a)

useradd –u 733 –c "accounting manager" –p Gxj234

bsmith

b) userdel jdoe c)

usermod –c "shipping" –e "2032-03-23"

d) passwd –l wjenkins (or usermod -L wjenkins) e)

passwd bsmith (specify the correct password)

f)

usermod –l artbanks –G managers tbanks

g) useradd –u 0 –g root –o –r wjones h) usermod –g root wsmith i)

usermod –aG acctg jdoe ; usermod –aG acctg tbanks

Solution and Answer Guide ECKERT, COMPTIA LINUX + AND LPIC-1: GUIDE TO LINUX CERTIFICATION, 6E 2024, 9798214000800; CHAPTER 11: COMPRESSION, SYSTEM BACKUP , AND SOFTWARE INSTALLATION

TABLE OF CONTENTS Review Questions .................................................................................................................................... 108 Hands-On Projects .................................................................................................................................. 113 Discovery Exercises ................................................................................................................................. 117

REVIEW QUESTIONS 201. Most source code is typically available on the Internet in tarball format or as a git repository.

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a. b.

True False

Answer: a Most source code is distributed via Git repos or tarballs hosted on websites.

202. Which of the following are package managers that can be used to install sandboxed applications? (Choose all that apply.) a. b. c. d.

Snap RPM Flatpak DPM

Answer: a and c Snap and Flatpak are sandbox package managers, while RPM and DPM are not.

203. Which filename extension indicates a tarball? a. b. c. d.

.tar.xz .cpio .dump .tar

Answer: a Tarballs are compressed tar archives. A tar archive compressed using xz often has a .tar.xz extension.

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Solution and Answer Guide: ; Chapter 11: Compression, System Backup, and Software Installation 9798214000800; Chapter 01: Introduction to Linux

204. Files that have been compressed using the xz utility typically have the _____ extension. a. b. c. d.

.zip .gz .xz .bz2

Answer: c The xz utility uses the .xz for compressed files.

205. AppImage applications have a .app extension and can be executed directly on a system. a. b.

True False

Answer: b AppImage applications have a .appimage extension.

206. When compiling source code into a binary program, which command does the compiling of the program itself? a. b. c. d.

tar ./configure make make install

Answer: c The make command compiles the source code using the compiler specified in the Makefile.

207. The -9 option to the gzip command results in a higher compression ratio. a. b.

True False

Answer: a The -9 or --best option to gzip provides the maximum compression ratio.

208. You have created a full backup and four incremental backups using dump. In which order must you restore these backups based on their dump level? a. b. c. d.

0, 1, 2, 3, 4 0, 4, 3, 2, 1 4, 3, 2, 1, 0 1, 2, 3, 4, 0

Answer: a Full backups are taken first and have a dump level 0. Each subsequent incremental backup is numbered starting from 1. After a system failure, backups must be restored in the same order they were taken.

209. Which of the following commands extracts an archive? a. b.

cpio –vocBL archive.cpio cpio –vicdu –I archive.cpio

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c. d.

cpio –vicdu –O archive.cpio cpio –vti –I archive.cpio

Answer: b The -I option to cpio indicates an input device when extracting an archive, while the -i option performs the extraction. The -t option displays the contents of the archive instead of extracting it.

210. The Debian Package Manager (DPM) is the default package manager used by Ubuntu Linux. a. b.

True False

Answer: a Ubuntu systems use the DPM by default.

211. Which of the following commands can be used to list the files contained within an installed RPM package? a. b. c. d.

rpm –qa packagename rpm –qi packagename rpm –ql packagename rpm –q packagename

Answer: c You can use the -ql (query, list files) options to the rpm command to list files within an installed RPM package.

212. Which of the following commands can be used to remove the test DPM package, including any test configuration files? a. b. c. d.

dpkg remove test apt remove test dpkg purge test apt purge test

Answer: d The purge option of the apt command (or the -P option to the dpkg command) can be used to remove a package and its configuration files.

213. To install a new program from RPM software repositories on the Internet, you can use the dnf get programname command. a. b.

True False

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Answer: b You can use dnf install programname to install RPM software from an Internet repository.

214. Which command can be used to create an image backup of a partition? a. b. c. d.

tar dd dump cpio

Answer: b The dd command can create an image backup from a partition.

215. Which of the following commands should be run following the installation of a shared library to update the /etc/ld.so.conf and /etc/ld.so.cache files? a. b. c. d.

ldd updatedb ldconfig dpkg-reconfigure

Answer: c The ldconfig command updates the information stored within the /etc/ld.so.conf and /etc/ld.so.cache files.

216. Which option to the dpkg command can be used to list the files that comprise a package? a. –l b. –L c. –s d. -i Answer: b The -L option to the dpkg command displays files within a DPM package.

217. Which option to the rpm command can be used to remove a package from the system? a. b. c. d.

–r –e –u -U

Answer: b The -e option to the rpm command can be used to remove (erase) an RPM package.

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218. Which of the following commands creates an archive? a. b. c. d.

tar –cvf /dev/st0 tar –xvf /dev/st0 tar –tvf /dev/st0 tar –zcvf /dev/st0 *

Answer: d The -c option to the tar command creates an archive. At minimum the tar command requires two arguments: the location of the archive, and the files to add to the archive.

219. Which command will list the Flatpak applications available on a remote Flatpak repository? a. b. c. d.

flatpak remote-ls flatpak info flatpak list flatpak query

Answer: a The remote-ls option to flatpak displays the contents of a remote Flatpak repository.

220. Which of the following commands can be used to search for packages that contain the word ―oobla‖ on RPM software repositories? a. b. c. d.

dnf search oobla rpm –qS oobla dnf list oobla rpm –ql oobla

Answer: a You can use the search option of the dnf command to search for RPM packages in an online software repository.

HANDS-ON PROJECTS PROJECT 11-1 Solution: Steps 1-3: Not applicable.

Step 4: Yes. Steps 5-6: Not applicable.

Step 7: All contents of the compressed folder were compressed (hosts & services), the –f option can be used to force the compression.

Steps 8-12: Not applicable.

Step 13: It is higher than in Step 4 (better compression with gzip).

Step 14: Not applicable.

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Step 15: Yes. Step 16: Not applicable.

Step 17: Yes. Step 18: Not applicable.

Step 19: Yes, xz is a more efficient replacement for gzip.

Step 20: Not applicable.

Step 21: It should be higher than Step 4 and 13, but less than Step 19.

Steps 22-23: Not applicable.

PROJECT 11-2 Solution: Steps 1-2: Not applicable.

Step 3: The contents of the tarball test1.tar (contents of the /etc/samba directory).

Step 4: Not applicable.

Step 5: Yes. Step 6: Not applicable.

Step 7: Yes, much smaller as you used gzip on the tarred file.

Step 8: The contents of the test2.tar.gz file (contents of the /etc/samba directory).

Step 9: Not applicable.

Step 10: Yes. Steps 11-14: Not applicable.

PROJECT 11-3 Solution: Step 1: Not applicable.

Step 2: o-create a new file, v-verbose, c-supports filesystems with larger number of inodes, B-sets I/O block size to 5120 bytes, L-copy files links point to not just the link, -O-archive file out Step 3: Contents of the test.cpio file were displayed (contents of the /etc/samba directory), i-extract, v-verbose, t-list contents, B-sets I/O block size to 5120 bytes, –I-archive file in

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Step 4: To the current directory (overwriting any existing files if present), i-extract, v-verbose, c-supports filesystems with larger number of inodes, d-creates directories as needed, u-unconditionally replaces files, mdoes not change modification times on file, B-sets I/O block size to 5120 bytes Step 5: Not applicable.

Step 6: Full, yes.

Step 7: Yes. Steps 8-9: Not applicable.

Step 10: Yes, relative pathnames were used.

Steps 11-12: Not applicable.

Step 13: An image backup copies every block on the filesystem, regardless of whether it contains file contents or not, whereas other backups copy only the files that are stored on the filesystem.

Steps 14-16: Not applicable.

PROJECT 11-4 Solution: Steps 1-3: Not applicable.

Step 4: Because there is already a Makefile present, there is a README.md file.

Steps 5-6: Not applicable.

Step 7: Copies the compiled program, supporting files, and man pages to the correct directories.

Step 8: Not applicable.

Step 9: /usr/local/bin, no.

Steps 10-14: Not applicable.

PROJECT 11-5 Solution: Step 1: Not applicable.

Step 2: Yes. Step 3: Yes, in Project 11-1.

Step 4: Public Domain.

Step 5: /usr/bin.

Step 6: No. Step 7: Removes the package from the system.

Step 8: No. Step 9: Yes. Step 10: Yes.

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Steps 11-12: Not applicable.

Step 13: /usr/bin.

Steps 14-15: Not applicable.

PROJECT 11-6 Solution: Step 1: Not applicable.

Step 2: Yes. Step 3: No. Step 4: Yes, apt.

Step 5: apt-get.

Step 6: Not applicable.

Step 7: Removes the package (including configuration files), apt-get purge ncompress.

Steps 8-12: Not applicable.

PROJECT 11-7 Solution: Step 1: Not applicable.

Step 2: Yes. Step 3: Not applicable.

Step 4: core20, lxd, powershell, and snapd.

Step 5: powershell.

Steps 6-7: Not applicable.

PROJECT 11-8 Solution: Steps 1-2: Not applicable.

Step 3: Yes. Steps 4-7: Not applicable.

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PROJECT 11-9 Solution: Steps 1-4: Not applicable.

Step 5: Yes. Steps 6-7: Not applicable.

DISCOVERY EXERCISES DISCOVERY EXERCISE 11-1 Prompt: Write the command that can be used to perform the following: a.

Compress the symbolic link /root/sfile using the compress utility and display the compression ratio.

b.

Compress the contents of the directory /root/dir1 using the gzip utility and display the compression ratio.

c.

View the contents of the file /root/letter.zip.

d.

Compress the file /root/letter using xz fast compression.

e.

Find the compression ratio of the file /root/letter.gz.

f.

Perform a test compression of the file /root/sample using the bzip2 utility.

g.

Compress the file /root/sample using the bzip2 utility while minimizing memory usage during the compression.

Solution: a) compress –fv /root/sfile b) gzip –rv /root/dir1 c) unzip -v /root/letter.zip d) xz -1 /root/letter e) gzip –l /root/letter.gz f) bzip2 –t /root/sample g) bzip2 –s /root/sample

DISCOVERY EXERCISE 11-2 Prompt: Write the command that can be used to perform the following: a.

Back up the contents of the /var directory (which contains symbolically linked files) to the second nonrewinding SCSI tape device on the system using the tar utility.

b.

Append the file /etc/inittab to the archive created in Exercise 2a.

c.

Create a tarball called /stuff.tar.gz that contains all files in the /root/stuff directory.

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d.

Use the cpio utility to back up all files in the /var directory (which contains symbolically linked files) to the first rewinding IDE tape device that has a block size of 5 KB.

e.

Perform a full filesystem backup of the /var filesystem using the dump utility and record the event in the /etc/dumpdates file.

f.

Create an image of the /dev/sdb4 filesystem to the /sdb4.img file.

g.

View the contents of the archives created in Exercises 2a, 2c, 2d, and 2e.

h.

Extract the contents of the archives created in Exercises 2a and 2c to the /root directory.

i.

Extract the contents of the archives created in Exercises 2d and 2e to their original locations.

j.

Restore the image of the /dev/sdb4 filesystem created in Exercise 2f.

Solution: a) tar –cvf /dev/nst1 /var/* b) tar –rvf /dev/nst1 /etc/inittab c) tar –zcvf /stuff.tar.gz /root/stuff/* d) find /var | cpio –vocBL –O /dev/ht0 e) dump -0uf /path/to/some/device /var f) dd if=/dev/sdb4 of=/sdb4.img g) tar –tvf /dev/nst1 tar –ztvf /stuff.tar.gz cpio –Bitv –I /dev/ht0 dump –f /path/to/some/device -t h) cd /root; tar –xvf /dev/nst1 cd root; tar –zxvf /stuff.tar.gz i) cpio –vicdumB –I /dev/ht0 dump –f /path/to/some/device –r j) umount /dev/sdb4; dd if=/sdb4.img of=/dev/sdb4

DISCOVERY EXERCISE 11-3 Prompt: Install and explore the graphical Aptitude tool on your Ubuntu Linux virtual machine. Next, use Aptitude to search for and install Cockpit (a remote web admin tool that is commonly installed on Linux servers). After Cockpit has been installed, run the ip addr show command to determine the IP address of your Ubuntu system. Next, navigate to http://IP:9090 within a web browser on your Windows or macOS system, where IP is the IP address of your Ubuntu system. Log in as the root user and explore the functionality provided

by Cockpit.

Solution: In this exercise, students use the Aptitude utility to install Cockpit. If this exercise is graded, consider having students provide you with a screenshot of the Aptitude utility displaying the Cockpit package, as well as

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a screenshot from their Windows or macOS web browser displaying the Cockpit web portal running on their Ubuntu system.

DISCOVERY EXERCISE 11-4 Prompt: On your Fedora Linux virtual machine, log into a GNOME desktop and use your Firefox web browser to download the xbill (a graphical game) RPM package for your version of Fedora from fedora.pkgs.org. Use the Files application to open and install your RPM package using the Software utility, which will download any dependencies necessary for the xbill package. Finally, use the appropriate rpm and dnf commands to explore the installed program and execute the xbill program within a graphical terminal, as well as using the application icon within the GNOME desktop.

Solution: In this exercise, students install the Xbill RPM package. If this exercise is graded, consider having students provide you with a screenshots of the rpm -qi xbill command as well as a screenshot of the running Xbill program.

DISCOVERY EXERCISE 11-5 Prompt: Download the installation ISO image for the latest openSUSE Leap Linux distribution for your architecture from opensuse.org. Next, create and install a new virtual machine called openSUSE Linux from this ISO image that uses 4 GB of memory (not dynamically allocated), an Internet connection via your PC’s network card (preferably using an external virtual switch or bridged mode), and a 50 GB SATA/SAS/SCSI virtual hard disk drive (dynamically allocated). Following installation, explore the man page for the zypper command. Are the options similar to yum and dnf? Search for and install a software package of your choice using the zypper command from an Internet software repository. Next, use the appropriate zypper and rpm commands to view package information. Finally use the zipper command to remove your package.

Solution: The zypper command contains many of the same options as the yum and dnf commands.

Solution and Answer Guide ECKERT, COMPTIA LINUX + AND LPIC-1: GUIDE TO LINUX CERTIFICATION, 6E 2024, 9798214000800; CHAPTER 12: NETWORK CONFIGURATION

TABLE OF CONTENTS Review Questions .................................................................................................................................... 119 Hands-On Projects .................................................................................................................................. 124 Discovery Exercises ................................................................................................................................. 127

REVIEW QUESTIONS 221. The NetworkManager or Systemd-networkd components must be installed on a Linux system in order to configure an IP address on a network interface. a.

True

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b.

False

Answer: b Both NetworkManager and Systemd-networkd are optional components that help configure network interfaces and connections.

222. Which Windows program is often used to connect to a Linux server via SSH? a. b. c. d.

SSHD Putty Rdesktop mstsc

Answer: b The Putty program can be used on a Windows system to connect to a Linux server using telnet or SSH. 223. Network daemons are started on demand using inetd, xinetd, or Systemd socket units. a. b.

True False

Answer: True Internet super daemons started by inetd/xinetd are started on demand, as are Systemd socket units.

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224. Which file stores the IP addresses of the DNS servers used to resolve host names if no DNS servers are specified within the network configuration file for the network interface? a. b. c. d.

/etc/hosts /etc/host.conf /etc/resolve /etc/resolv.conf

Answer: d The DNS servers used on the system are listed in /etc/resolv.conf.

225. To test DNS configuration by resolving a host name to an IP address, which command or commands can you use? (Choose all that apply.) a. b. c. d.

nslookup hostname dig hostname host hostname resolvectl query hostname

Answer: a, b, c, and d The nslookup, dig, host, and resolvectl query commands can all be used to test name resolution on a system.

226. Which two commands can be used to modify the route table on a Linux computer? (Choose two answers.) a. b. c. d.

route ipconfig ip traceroute

Answer: a, c The route command can be used to modify the route table on a system that has the net-tools package installed, while the ip command can be used to modify the route table on a system that has the iproute/iproute2 package installed.

227. Which file holds the methods to be used and the order in which they will be applied for host name resolution? a. b. c. d.

/etc/nsswitch.conf /etc/resolve.conf /etc/hosts /etc/dns.conf

Answer: a The methods and order of name resolution are listed in /etc/nsswitch.conf.

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228. What are two means available to resolve a host name to the appropriate IP address? (Choose two answers.) a. b. c. d.

DHCP DNS /etc/hosts /etc/resolve.conf

Answer: b and c Lines within /etc/hosts and DNS servers can be used to resolve host names to IP addresses.

229. SSH encrypts all traffic that passes across the network, whereas telnet does not. a. b.

True False

Answer: a Secure Shell (SSH) is a secure replacement for telnet that encrypts all traffic.

230. You want to generate SSH keys for your user account and copy them to a remote computer to simplify future SSH authentication. What two commands can you use to perform these actions? (Choose two answers.) a. b. c. d.

ssh-keygen ssh-add ssh-copy-id ssh-agent

Answer: a and c The ssh-keygen command can be used to generate SSH user keys, while the ssh-copy-id command can be used to copy SSH user keys to a remote server for authentication.

231. Which of the following can be used to provide graphical remote administration? (Choose all that apply.) a. b. c. d.

telnet ssh -X ssh VNC

Answer: b and d You can use the -X option of the ssh command to tunnel X Windows traffic through an SSH session.

Virtual Network Connection (VNC) servers can also be used to provide a remote desktop to VNC viewer software running on remote systems.

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232. The daemons associated with network services listen for network traffic associated with a particular _____. a. b. c. d.

station port IP address allocation number

Answer: b Each network service on a server listens to a unique port number.

233. The IP address of 127.0.0.1 is also referred to as the _____. a. b. c. d.

local address lookup address local host loopback address

Answer: d The IPv4 loopback address is 127.0.0.1.

234. The line that configures the host name for the computer at boot time can be found in /etc/hostname. a. b.

True False

Answer: a The system host name is stored within the /etc/hostname file.

235. Which commands can be used to display TCP/IP connections on your Linux system? (Choose all that apply.) a. b. c. d.

netstat -t mtr traceroute show ss -t

Answer: a and d The netstat -t command displays TCP/IP connections on a system with the net-tools package installed, while the ss -t command displays TCP/IP connections on a system with the iproute/iproute2 package installed.

236. Which of the following port numbers is associated with SSH? a. b. c. d.

22 137 49 23

Answer: a SSH uses port 22.

237. Which file would you modify to permanently change the IP configuration of a network interface on a modern Fedora Workstation system?

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a. b. c. d.

/etc/NetworkManager/system-connections/name.nmconnection /etc/sysconfig/network /etc/netplan/00-installer-config.yaml /etc/network/interfaces

Answer: a Modern Fedora systems store their network configuration in .nmconnection files under the /etc/NetworkManager/system-connections directory.

238. Before a computer can use a router, with what configuration information must it be provided? a. b. c. d.

routing table subnet mask default gateway default router

Answer: c The default gateway specifies the router to which a system sends traffic destined for remote networks.

239. Which of the following are stand-alone daemons? (Choose all that apply.) a. b. c. d.

Apache (httpd) Washington University FTP (in.ftpd) telnet (in.telnetd) DNS (named)

Answer: a and d The httpd and named daemons are stand-alone daemons.

240. Which of the following utilities can be used to view and configure a network renderer? (Choose all that apply.) a. b. c. d.

ifconfig ip networkctl nmcli

Answer: c and d Explanation: You can use the nmcli command to view and configure NetworkManager, and the networkctl command to configure Systemd-networkd.

HANDS-ON PROJECTS PROJECT 12-1 Solution: Step 1: Not applicable.

Step 2: Answers will vary depending on the hypervisor used.

Step 3: Yes, from a DHCP server on the network.

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Step 4: If no files exist in the /etc/NetworkManager/system-connections directory, NetworkManager will obtain IP configuration automatically for each interface using DHCP (the default configuration).

Steps 5-9: Not applicable.

Step 10: No. Step 11: Yes. Step 12: Yes. Step 13: Yes. Steps 14-17: Not applicable.

Step 18: Yes. Step 19: No, from a DHCP server on the network.

Step 20: Yes, not applicable (answers will vary but should follow the example output shown for this file in the module).

Step 21: You would run this command after editing the /etc/netplan/00-installer-config.yaml file to activate your changes.

Step 22: Not applicable.

PROJECT 12-2 Solution: Step 1: Not applicable.

Step 2: Fedora Workstation was not configured with a manual hostname during installation and receives one automatically from DHCP or from the localhost lines in /etc/hosts otherwise.

Step 3: Yes. Step 4: Systemd-resolved.

Step 5: Yes. Step 6: Not applicable.

Step 7: Yes, yes.

Step 8: Yes, geo.source.kernel.org (note that this name is likely to change over time and by region).

Step 9: Yes. Step 10: nslookup lists the IP that Systemd-resolved listens to (127.0.0.53) as the DNS server.

Step 11: Detailed query information and statistics.

Step 12: Not applicable.

PROJECT 12-3 Solution: Step 1: Not applicable.

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Step 2: netstat -rn.

Step 3: Not applicable.

Step 4: Yes, it will not interfere because all traffic that is not destined for local networks is sent to the default gateway anyway.

Step 5: Not applicable (answers will vary).

Step 6: Not applicable (answers will vary), Internet packets may take different routes at different times.

Step 7: Results of ping operations.

Step 8: No, no, /etc/sysctl.conf (or a file under the /etc/sysctl.d directory).

Step 9: Not applicable.

PROJECT 12-4 Solution: Steps 1-3: Not applicable.

Step 4: Yes. Steps 5-9: Not applicable.

Step 10: Yes, the source IP address of the Ubuntu Linux system.

Steps 11-12: Not applicable.

Step 13: SSH is the default connection type, the source IP address of the Windows host system.

Steps 14-16: Not applicable.

Step 17: Yes, the source IP address of the macOS system.

Step 18: Not applicable.

PROJECT 12-5 Solution: Step 1: Not applicable.

Step 2: No. Step 3: Not applicable.

Step 4: SSH-2.0-OpenSSH_8.8 (at the time of this writing), which indicates that you are successfully interacting with the SSH daemon on localhost.

Steps 5-7: Not applicable.

Step 8: Yes, yes, IPv6.

Step 9: No. Steps 10-13: Not applicable.

Step 14: Servers are typically managed remotely using SSH.

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Steps 15-19: Not applicable.

Step 20: It copies the current (root) user’s SSH keys on the Fedora Linux system to the .ssh/authorized_keys file in the home directory for the root user on the Ubuntu Linux system.

Step 21: No, because the target home directory contained your SSH user keys in the .ssh/authorized_keys file.

Step 22: Yes. Steps 23-28: Not applicable.

PROJECT 12-6 Solution: Steps 1-11: Not applicable.

DISCOVERY EXERCISES DISCOVERY EXERCISE 12-1 Prompt: Assuming that your company uses the Class A network 100.0.0.0/8, with what subnet mask would you need to configure all computers on the network to divide this network 11 times to match the company’s 11 departments? How many hosts can you have per network? What are the first five ranges of addresses that you can assign to different departments?

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Solution: Subnet mask = 255.240.0.0 Hosts per network = 220-2 First five ranges are: 100.0.0.1–100.15.255.254 100.16.0.1–100.31.255.254 100.32.0.1–100.47.255.254 100.48.0.1–100.63.255.254 100.64.0.1–100.79.255.254

DISCOVERY EXERCISE 12-2 Prompt: In Project 12-1, you manually configured the IPv4 settings for the network interface on your Fedora Linux virtual machine, as well as viewed the IPv4 configuration for the network interfaces on your Ubuntu Linux virtual machine. On your Ubuntu Linux virtual machine, perform a manual IPv4 configuration of the network interface using values appropriate for your classroom network, and test your configuration when finished.

Solution: In this exercise, students configure IP statically on their Ubuntu virtual machine. If this exercise is graded, consider having students provide you with a screenshot displaying the contents of their .yaml network configuration file, as well as a screenshot of the matching configuration from the output of the ip addr command.

DISCOVERY EXERCISE 12-3 Prompt: In Project 12-5, you used the following method to transfer a file from a remote system to your local computer: ssh remotecomputer cat remotefile > localfile Using your knowledge of redirection, briefly describe how this command achieves this transfer. Can this command be used to transfer a binary file? Explain. What scp command would be an alternative to this command?

Solution: The cat command is run on the remote system; to display the results of a text file to the local terminal on your machine, you just save this to a file on the local machine instead using redirection in your current shell processing the ssh command. It can be used to save a binary file in this manner because the process is simply transferring information rather than displaying it. The scp equivalent would be scp remotecomputer:remotefile localfile.

DISCOVERY EXERCISE 12-4 Prompt: If your host computer runs Windows, you used the Putty SSH client in Project 12-5 to perform remote administration of two Linux systems. Windows 10 and 11 (Professional, Education, and Enterprise editions) also include the Windows Subsystem for Linux (WSL) feature that allows you to install a full Linux system and kernel that runs concurrently with your Windows kernel for development use (not virtualized). IT administrators often take advantage of this feature to perform remote administration of Linux systems from their Windows desktop.

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If your host is running Windows, open a Windows PowerShell (Run as Administrator) app and run the wsl -install command. This will install the WSL feature as well as download and integrate an Ubuntu Linux system into Windows. When finished, select Ubuntu on Windows from the Windows Start menu and follow the prompts to create a local user account of your choice.

Take a few moments to explore the system. Next, connect to your Linux virtual machines using SSH from your WSL Ubuntu Linux system. Finally, generate SSH user keys within your WSL Ubuntu Linux system and add them to your Fedora and Ubuntu Linux virtual machines to allow for easy authentication from Windows. Note that you can access your WSL Ubuntu Linux system by choosing Ubuntu on Windows from the Start menu or by running the Terminal app and choosing Ubuntu from the drop-down menu.

Solution: In this exercise, students configure the WSL on their Windows system. If this exercise is graded, consider having students provide you with a screenshot of the Windows Terminal app connected to the WSL Ubuntu distribution listing the output of the uname -a command.

DISCOVERY EXERCISE 12-5 Prompt: In Project 12-6, you configured a VNC server on your Fedora Linux virtual machine for graphical remote management. The GNOME desktop also includes the gnome-remote-desktop-daemon that provides graphical remote access using the Microsoft Remote Desktop Protocol (RDP).

In the GNOME desktop, navigate to Activities, All Applications, Settings, click Sharing and then turn on sharing using the slider button. Next, click Remote Desktop and ensure that both Remote Desktop and Remote Control are enabled. Finally, specify user1 and the password LINUXrocks! in the Authentication section and close Settings when finished.

If your host is running Windows, open the Remote Desktop Connection app from your Start menu. Enter the IP address of your Fedora Linux virtual machine in the Computer dialog box and click Connect. Click Yes when prompted to allow an unencrypted connection. Explore your GNOME desktop and close the Remote Desktop Connection app when finished.

If your host is running macOS, download and install the Microsoft Remote Desktop app from the App Store. Open the Microsoft Remote Desktop app, select PC Quick Connect from the Connections menu, enter the IP address of your Fedora Linux virtual machine in the PC Name dialog box and click Connect. Click Continue when prompted that the connection will be unencrypted. Explore your GNOME desktop and close the Microsoft Remote Desktop app when finished.

Solution: In this exercise, students configure RDP on their Fedora virtual machine and connect to it from an RDP app on their Windows or macOS system. If this exercise is graded, consider having students provide you with a screenshot of the RDP app connected to their Fedora desktop.

Solution and Answer Guide ECKERT, COMPTIA LINUX + AND LPIC-1: GUIDE TO LINUX CERTIFICATION, 6E 2024, 9798214000800; CHAPTER 13: CONFIGURING NETWORK SERVICES AND CLOUD T ECHNOLOGIES

TABLE OF CONTENTS Review Questions .................................................................................................................................... 130 Hands-On Projects .................................................................................................................................. 134

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Discovery Exercises ................................................................................................................................. 138

REVIEW QUESTIONS 241. Cloud providers use the PaaS delivery model to host web apps using containers for scalability. a. b.

True False

Answer: a Containers are hosted on cloud providers using the Platform as a Service (PaaS) delivery model.

242. Which file stores the Apache configuration in Fedora? a. b. c. d.

/etc/apache2/httpd.conf /etc/apache2.conf /etc/httpd.conf /etc/httpd/conf/httpd.conf

Answer: d The default location for the main Apache configuration file on Fedora systems is /etc/httpd/conf/httpd.conf.

243. Which DNS resource record is an alias to other records? a. b. c. d.

A AAAA CNAME NS

Answer: c CNAME records are aliases for other A or AAAA records.

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244. You can purchase object storage from a cloud provider to provide persistent filesystem-based storage. a. b.

True False

Answer: b Object storage provides access to storage via HTTP instead of persistent access to a filesystem.

245. Which command can be used to connect to check the /etc/samba/smb.conf file for syntax errors? a. b. c. d.

apachectl sambactl testparm psql

Answer: c The testparm command tests the syntax of the Samba configuration file.

246. You have modified the /etc/aliases file to include a new email alias. However, when you send email to the alias, it cannot be delivered. What should you do? a. b. c. d.

Add the line to the /etc/aliases.db file instead.

Run the newaliases command.

Restart the Postfix daemon.

Log out of the system and then log back into the system and resend the email.

Answer: b After modifying /etc/aliases, you must run the newaliases command for the configuration to take effect.

247. Which command within the command-line FTP utility can be used to change the current directory on the local computer? a. b. c. d.

cd dir lcd get

Answer: c The lcd command within an FTP utility changes the local current directory.

248. Which command can be used to list containers that are currently running on the operating system only? a. b. c. d.

docker ps docker ps -a docker run docker exec

Answer: a The ps option to the docker command displays only running containers by default.

249. Which of the following must you perform to share a directory using NFS? (Choose all that apply.)

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a. b. c. d.

Edit the /etc/exports file.

Mount the directory to the /etc/exports directory using the mount command.

Run the exportfs –a command.

Start or restart the NFS daemons.

Answer: a, c, and d To share a folder using NFS, you must list it in the /etc/exports file, run the exportfs command to copy the file to memory, and restart the NFS daemons.

250. DHCP clients send a DHCPREQUEST packet when they require a new IP configuration. a. b.

True False

Answer: b DHCP clients send a DHCPDISCOVER packet when they require a new IP configuration.

251. Which command can be used to connect to a remote Windows share called data on the server called fileserver? a. b. c. d.

smbclient –L fileserver:data smbclient –L //fileserver/data smbclient //fileserver/data smbclient \\fileserver\data

Answer: c You must use the //fileserver/data path alongside the smbclient command to connect to the data share on fileserver.

252. To create a container using the docker build command, you must first create a Dockerfile. a. b.

True False

Answer: a A Dockerfile specifies the configuration performed by the docker build command when building a container.

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253. Which of the following can be used to create a database within PostgreSQL? (Choose all that apply.) a. b. c. d.

the CREATE DATABASE statement within the PostgreSQL utility the ADD DATABASE statement within the PostgreSQL utility the adddb command the createdb command

Answer: a and d You can use the CREATE DATABASE statement within a SQL query, or the createdb command to create a PostgreSQL database.

254. Stratum 1 NTP servers do not obtain time information from other NTP servers. a. b.

True False

Answer: a Stratum 1 NTP servers obtain their information directly from a reliable time source (e.g., atomic clock).

255. What must you do to transform your computer into a DNS server? (Choose all that apply.) a. b. c. d.

Create zone files.

Create resource records for DNS lookups.

Create NIS maps.

Run the name daemon (named).

Answer: a, b, and d To provide DNS services, you must configure zone files that contain the appropriate resource records and start the name daemon.

256. What directory are you placed in when you log in as the anonymous user to an Ubuntu FTP server? a. b. c. d.

/srv/ftp /var/www/ftp /home/anonymous /var/ftp/pub

Answer: a On an Ubuntu system, the anonymous FTP directory is /srv/ftp.

257. Docker Hub is an example of a container registry. a. b.

True False

Answer: a Docker Hub maintains a repository of container images and is called a container registry.

258. Which of the following terms refers to a single copy of a web app that is run within a Kubernetes cluster? a. b. c.

service pod node

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d.

ingress

Answer: b Web apps are called pods in Kubernetes.

259. Which command can you use to synchronize ntpd with an NTP time source? a. b. c. d.

ntp ntpquery ntpq hwclock

Answer: c The ntpq command can be used to manually synchronize the system time with another time source.

260. Mary is a system administrator in your organization. She has recently made changes to the DHCP configuration file, but the DHCP daemon does not seem to recognize the new changes. What should she do? a. b. c. d.

Log in as the root user and edit the configuration file.

Run the dhcpconf command to reload the configuration file.

Restart the DHCP daemon.

Disable and enable the network interface.

Answer: c After modifying the DHCP configuration file, you must restart the DHCP daemon for the changes to take effect.

HANDS-ON PROJECTS PROJECT 13-1 Solution: Steps 1-8: Not applicable.

Step 9: Answers will vary.

Step 10: Not applicable.

Step 11: You would obtain the manual IP configuration listed in /etc/netplan/00-installer-config.yaml if you completed Discovery Exercise 12-2. Otherwise, you will receive a DHCP lease from your LAN DHCP server.

PROJECT 13-2 Solution: Steps 1-8: Not applicable.

Step 9: Yes. Step 10: Yes. Step 11: Yes. Step 12: Yes.

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Step 13: Yes. Step 14: The forwarders option in /etc/named.conf was used to forward any requests for zones that are not present on the local DNS server to your LAN DNS server for name resolution.

Step 15: The top level (root) DNS servers for the Domain Name Space on the Internet.

Step 16: Not applicable.

PROJECT 13-3 Solution: Steps 1-2: Not applicable.

Step 3: Lines that start with the word server (there should be 4), ntpd is not configured as an NTP server as it only allows the loopback adapter to query time (127.0.0.1 and ::1), but you can modify the ―restrict‖ line to include allowed networks for NTP clients to ensure that ntpd provides time information to other systems as an NTP server.

Steps 4-9: Not applicable.

Step 10: Yes. Steps 11-12: Not applicable.

Step 13: Lines that start with the word pool (there should be 1), chronyd is not configured as an NTP server (only the local system is allowed by default), but you can uncomment and modify the ―allow‖ line to include allowed networks for NTP clients to ensure that chronyd provides time information to other systems as an NTP server.

Steps 14-15: Not applicable.

PROJECT 13-4 Solution: Steps 1-2: Not applicable.

Step 3: /var/www/html Step 4: index.html Step 5: apache Step 6: apache.

Step 7: No. Step 8: No, because it is a new file.

Step 9: Not applicable.

Step 10: Yes. Step 11: Answers will vary, but it should be a fraction of a millisecond.

Step 12: Because you have sent 1 request in Step 10 and 1000 requests in Step 11.

Step 13: Not applicable.

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Step 14: Yes. Step 15: root, root, other.

Step 16: Not applicable.

Step 17: Forbidden, because Apache no longer has permission via the other category in the ACL. Step 18: Not applicable.

Step 19: Yes. Step 20: Not applicable.

PROJECT 13-5 Solution: Steps 1-10: Not applicable.

Step 11: Yes, yes.

Step 12: Not applicable.

Step 13: Yes. Steps 14-15: Not applicable.

Step 16: Yes. Step 17: Yes.

PROJECT 13-6 Solution: Steps 1-7: Not applicable.

Step 8: The /etc directory on your remote Ubuntu Linux virtual machine (by IP).

Step 9: The remote /etc directory; yes because it contains an Ubuntu header.

Steps 10-11: Not applicable.

PROJECT 13-7 Solution: Steps 1-9: Not applicable.

Step 10: Yes. Steps 11-15: Not applicable.

Step 16: Yes. Steps 17-21: Not applicable.

Step 22: Yes. Step 23: No. Steps 24-31: Not applicable.

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Step 32: Yes. Steps 33-34: Not applicable.

Step 35: Yes. Step 36-37: Not applicable.

PROJECT 13-8 Solution: Steps 1-9: Not applicable.

Step 10: Yes, because the word Postfix is in the banner line.

Step 11: Yes, because it is listed in the connection output.

Step 12: Not applicable.

PROJECT 13-9 Solution: Steps 1-8: Not applicable.

Step 9: Yes. Step 10: Name contains 20 characters, Address contains 40 characters, and Balance contains 10 characters.

Steps 11-20: Not applicable.

PROJECT 13-10 Solution: Steps 1-4: Not applicable.

Step 5: Yes. Step 6: Not applicable.

Step 7: No. Steps 8-9: Not applicable.

Step 10: 40 bytes (because containers only store changes from the container image they are based on), no.

Step 11-12: Not applicable.

Step 13: Yes. Step 14-15: Not applicable.

Step 16: Yes, the underlying operating system is identified by the IP address 0.0.0.0.

Step 17-22: Not applicable.

Step 23: Yes, yes.

Step 24: Not applicable.

Step 25: No.

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Step 26: Not applicable.

Step 27: Yes. Steps 28-30: Not applicable.

PROJECT 13-11 Solution: Steps 1-6: Not applicable.

Step 7: Yes. Step 8: Not applicable.

Step 9: Yes. Steps 10-12: Not applicable.

PROJECT 13-12 Solution: Steps 1-2: Not applicable.

Step 3: Yes. Steps 4-13: Not applicable.

Step 14: Yes. Step 15: Yes. Steps 16-17: Not applicable.

DISCOVERY EXERCISES DISCOVERY EXERCISE 13-1 Prompt: In Project 13-3, you examined the NTP configuration on your Ubuntu and Fedora Linux virtual machines. Configure the Chrony NTP daemon on your Fedora Linux virtual machine to share time information to other computers on your LAN. Next, edit the NTP daemon configuration file on your Ubuntu Linux virtual machine to obtain time information from your Fedora Linux virtual machine and test the results using the appropriate commands. Finally, restore your original configuration.

Solution: In this exercise, students configure NTP on their Ubuntu system to obtain time information from NTP on their Fedora Workstation system. If this exercise is graded, consider having students provide you with a screenshot of the output of the ntpq command on their Ubuntu system listing their Fedora system as the time source.

DISCOVERY EXERCISE 13-2 Prompt: In Project 13-4, you installed and configured the Apache web server on your Fedora Linux virtual machine. Install the Apache web server on your Ubuntu Linux virtual machine and perform the same configuration tasks. Note any pathname and configuration file differences.

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Solution: In this exercise, students configure the Apache web server on their Ubuntu system. If this exercise is graded, consider having students provide you with a screenshot of their Windows or macOS web browser accessing the default Ubuntu webpage. This webpage also lists the differences between Fedora and Ubuntu Apache paths and configuration files.

DISCOVERY EXERCISE 13-3 Prompt: The file sharing servers discussed in this chapter (vsftpd, NFS, and Samba) were installed and configured on your Ubuntu Linux virtual machine during Projects 13-5, 13-6, and 13-7. Install the same filesharing servers on your Fedora Linux virtual machine and perform the same configuration tasks. Note any pathname and configuration file differences.

Solution: In this exercise, students configure the FTP, SMB, and NFS file sharing protocols on their Fedora Workstation system. If this exercise is graded, consider having students provide you with screenshots of their Windows or macOS system connected to FTP, SMB and NFS shares that they have created and listed. Fedora uses nearly all of the same paths and configuration files for these services with the exception of the /var/ftp directory for anonymous FTP.

DISCOVERY EXERCISE 13-4 Prompt: You can use the SSH filesystem (sshfs) to provide NFS-like file sharing functionality using SSH. Like AppImage packages, sshfs uses Filesystem in Userspace (FUSE) and creates a virtual filesystem that represents a remote directory without relying on support from the Linux kernel. On your Fedora Linux virtual machine, run the dnf install sshfs command to install SSH filesystem support and then run the command sshfs user1@IPaddress:/etc /mnt (where IPaddress is the IP address of your Ubuntu Linux virtual machine) to access the /etc directory on your Ubuntu system as user1 via the /mnt directory on your Fedora system. View the mounted SSH filesystem using the df -hT command, explore its contents, and unmount it when finished.

Solution: In this exercise, students install and use sshfs on their Fedora Workstation system to connect to their Ubuntu system. If this exercise is graded, consider having students provide you with a screenshot of the output of the df-hT command on their Fedora Workstation system while connected to their Ubuntu system using sshfs.

DISCOVERY EXERCISE 13-5 Prompt: Ansible is one of the most common CM software tools used today for agentless configuration of systems; it stores the configuration that needs to be applied to each inventory member using YAML files called Ansible Playbooks. Use the Internet to research the installation, configuration, and usage of Ansible. Next, install Ansible on your Fedora Linux virtual machine and create an Ansible Playbook that can be used to create a new user called AnsibleTest on your Ubuntu Linux virtual machine. Test your configuration when finished.

Solution: In this exercise, students configure an Ansible playbook that creates a user account. If this exercise is graded, consider having students provide you with a screenshot of the output of the ansible-playbook command running the playbook, as well as a screenshot of their system displaying the contents of the playbook itself.

DISCOVERY EXERCISE 13-6 Prompt: Visit the Wikipedia webpage for the UNIX philosophy (en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unix_philosophy).

Next, describe how containerized microservices are an example of the UNIX philosophy in practice.

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Solution: Containerized services implement the UNIX philosophy by keeping each component as small as possible and combining multiple components to form larger services.

DISCOVERY EXERCISE 13-7 Prompt: There are many different cloud roles, technologies, and processes beyond those introduced in this chapter. Search the Internet to answer the following questions: a.

How does the Site Reliability Engineer (SRE) role differ from the DevOp role?

b.

What is GitOps and how does it simplify the CD workflow? Give two examples of technologies that provide GitOps.

c.

What is DevSecOps? Give two examples of technologies that provide for DevSecOps.

d.

What does the phrase ―shifting left‖ mean when it comes to the development of web apps in the cloud?

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Solution and Answer Guide: Eckert, CompTIA Linux+ and LPIC-1: Guide to Linux Certification, 6e 2024, 9798214000800; Chapter 01: Introduction to Linux

Solution: a)

The term ―DevOp‖ is a generic term that refers to anyone who works with any part of a CD workflow.

SREs are a type of DevOp that manages containerized web apps and related software (e.g., Kubernetes) within a cloud provider environment only. SREs often fix problems with web apps once they are running in the cloud, as well as configure and manage the other components in a cloud datacenter (storage, networking, authentication, security, and so on).

b) GitOps refers to CD that is performed automatically via instructions that are part of the web app code.

GitHub Actions and GitLab Runners are two common GitOps systems today. A developer simply adds an extra text file (in YAML format) that specifies the appropriate CD configuration to their web app code stored in the GitHub or GitLab code repository to have it automatically deployed on a cloud provider when changes are made. c)

DevSecOps is a term used to describe the incorporation of security measures in all CI and CD components. There are many different security products and scanners on the market designed specifically for DevOps workflows; two examples include Aqua and Snyk.

d) The phrase ―shifting left‖ describes how more and more tasks during the CD workflow are being done by software developers today (which are represented on the ―left‖ side of the CD workflow depicted in Figure 1-13). These tasks include security and web app testing, as well as the building and deployment of containers.

Solution and Answer Guide ECKERT, COMPTIA LINUX + AND LPIC-1: GUIDE TO LINUX CERTIFICATION, 6E 2024, 9798214000800; CHAPTER 14: SECURITY, T ROUBLESHOOTING, AND PERFORMANCE

TABLE OF CONTENTS Review Questions .................................................................................................................................... 141 Hands-On Projects .................................................................................................................................. 146 Discovery Exercises ................................................................................................................................. 150

REVIEW QUESTIONS 261. On which part of the maintenance cycle do Linux administrators spend the most time? a. b. c. d.

monitoring proactive maintenance reactive maintenance documentation

Answer: a Monitoring is the part of the maintenance cycle that consumes the most time for Linux administrators.

262. Which of the following files is likely to be found in the /var/log/sa directory on a Fedora system over time?

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a. b. c. d.

15 sa39 sa19 00

Answer: c Files in the /var/log/sa directory start with sa and are followed by the day of the month. Thus, sa19 would represent the 19th day of the month.

263. Network latency issues are often caused by SELinux or AppArmor restrictions. a. b.

True False

Answer: b Network latency is often caused by network device congestion. SELinux and AppArmor restrictions may block network services from accessing files, but do not slow the transmission of data on the network.

264. Which of the following commands can be used to display memory statistics? (Choose all that apply.) a. b. c. d.

free sar vmstat iostat

Answer: a, b, and c The free, sar, and vmstat commands display memory statistics, while the iostat command displays storage device I/O statistics.

265. Which option can be added to the ls or ps command to view the SELinux label? a. b. c. d.

-s -S -L -Z

Answer: d You can add the -Z option to the ls or ps command to view the SELinux label.

266. To set udev rules on a Linux system, you must add the appropriate line to a file within the /etc/udev/rules.d directory. a. b.

True False

Answer: a Udev rules are stored within files under the /etc/udev/rules.d directory.

267. What type of iptables chain targets traffic that is destined for the local computer? a. b.

INPUT ROUTE

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c. d.

FORWARD OUTPUT

Answer: a The INPUT chain matches traffic destined for the local computer from other systems on the network.

268. Which of the following steps is not a common troubleshooting procedure? a. b. c. d.

Test the solution.

Isolate the problem.

Delegate responsibility.

Collect information.

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Answer: c Troubleshooting procedures involve collecting information, isolating problems, and testing potential solutions.

269. Which of the following firewalld commands can be used to allow incoming SSH connections the next time the system is booted? a. firewall-cmd --add-service ssh b. firewall-cmd --add-port 22/tcp c. firewall-cmd --add-port 22/udp d. firewall-cmd --add-service ssh --permanent Answer: d The --permanent option to the firewall-cmd command ensures that firewall rules are loaded at subsequent system initializations.

270. Which file contains information regarding the users, computers, and commands used by the sudo command? a. b. c. d.

/etc/sudo /etc/su.cfg /etc/sudo.cfg /etc/sudoers

Answer: d Rules processed by the sudo command are stored within /etc/sudoers.

271. Which command can increase the number of file handles that programs can open in a shell? a. b. c. d.

ldd ulimit lba32 top

Answer: b The ulimit command can modify system parameters, such as the number of file handles allowed by programs.

272. The pam_tally2.so PAM can be used to enforce complex passwords on a Linux system. a. b.

True False

Answer: b The pam_cracklib.so PAM can be used to enforce complex passwords on a Linux system.

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Solution and Answer Guide: ; Chapter 14: Security, Troubleshooting, and Performance 9798214000800; Chapter 01: Introduction to Linux

273. Which of the following actions should you first take to secure your Linux computer against network attacks? a. b. c. d.

Change permissions on key system files.

Ensure that only necessary services are running.

Run a checksum for each file used by network services.

Configure entries in the /etc/sudoers file.

Answer: b The first step to securing a system against network attacks is to reduce the attack surface by ensuring that only necessary services are run.

274. What will the command sar –W 3 50 do? a. b. c. d.

Take 3 swap statistics every 50 seconds.

Take 50 swap statistics every 3 seconds.

Take 3 CPU statistics every 50 seconds.

Take 50 CPU statistics every 3 seconds.

Answer: b The -W option to sar takes swap statistics. The first argument is the interval in seconds between measurements, and the second argument is the number of measurements to take.

275. Which of the following commands can be used to scan the available ports on computers within your organization? a. b. c. d.

traceroute tracert nmap sudo

Answer: c The nmap command can be used to scan open (available) ports on network systems.

276. Which of the following UFW commands can be used to view configured firewall rules? a. b. c. d.

ufw ufw status ufw show ufwdisplay

Answer: b You can use the status option to the ufw command to view configured UFW firewall rules.

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277. Which of the following technologies can encrypt files stored on a filesystem within a Linux system?

(Choose all that apply.) a. b. c. d.

SSL/TLS LUKS GPG L2TP

Answer: b and c LUKS can encrypt entire partitions on a storage device, while GPG can be used to encrypt individual files and folders.

278. When the fsck command cannot repair a non-root filesystem, you should immediately restore all data from backup. a. b.

True False

Answer: b You should not restore a backup to a damaged filesystem. Before restoring a backup, you should first recreate the filesystem.

279. When performing a sar –u command, you notice that %idle is consistently 10 percent. Is this good or bad? a. b. c. d.

Good, because the processor should be idle more than 5 percent of the time Good, because the processor is idle 90 percent of the time Bad, because the processor is idle 10 percent of the time and perhaps a faster CPU is required Bad, because the processor is idle 10 percent of the time and perhaps a new hard disk drive is required

Answer: c A %idle of under 20 percent for an extended period of time indicates a high CPU load.

280. What are best practices for securing a Linux server? (Choose all that apply.) a. b. c. d.

Lock the server in a server closet.

Ensure that you are logged in as the root user to the server at all times.

Ensure that SELinux or AppArmor is used to protect key services.

Use encryption for files and network traffic.

Answer: a, c, and d Restricting physical server access to a server closet, using security services such as SELinux or AppArmor, and encrypting files and network traffic are security best practices. Additionally, you should minimize the use of root logins to those times you must perform administrative tasks.

HANDS-ON PROJECTS PROJECT 14-1 Solution: Steps 1-3: Not applicable.

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Step 4: Answers will vary. % idle should be over 25.

Step 5: Answers will vary.

Step 6: Not applicable.

Step 7: Answers will vary, but there should be different values to account for the increased CPU activity related to the graphical applications.

Steps 8-10: Not applicable.

Step 11: Answers will vary, but there should be different values to account for the increased I/O activity related to the graphical applications.

Step 12: Not applicable.

Step 13: Answers will vary.

Step 14: The same CPU usage statistics shown by mpstat.

Step 15: Every 10 minutes since system initialization, /var/log/sa/sa# (where # is the day of the month).

Step 16: Answers will vary.

Step 17: Not applicable.

Step 18: Answers will vary, but there may be different values to account for the increased queue activity related to the graphical applications.

Steps 19-21: Not applicable.

Step 22: Answers will vary, but there may be different values to account for the increased swap activity related to the graphical applications.

Step 23: Not applicable.

PROJECT 14-2 Solution: Step 1: Not applicable.

Step 2: Answers will vary.

Step 3: Not applicable.

Step 4: More information, the values should be comparable to Step 2.

Step 5: More information, the values should be comparable to Step 2.

Step 6: The values should be comparable to Step 2.

Step 7: Not applicable.

Step 8: Answers will vary.

Step 9: Not applicable.

Step 10: To create a baseline of normal system performance.

Step 11: Not applicable.

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PROJECT 14-3 Solution: Steps 1-4: Not applicable.

Step 5: You configured most of these services in Chapter 13, ipp is associated with 631/tcp.

Step 6: Internet Printing Protocol.

Steps 7-8: Not applicable.

Step 9: Ports 139/tcp and 445/tcp for Samba, port 21/tcp for Very Secure FTP (22/tcp for SFTP was already enabled because of SSH).

Step 10: Not applicable.

PROJECT 14-4 Solution: Steps 1-3: Not applicable.

Step 4: The admin and sudo groups.

Step 5: Not applicable.

Step 6: No. Step 7: Yes. Step 8: Owner and group are both root because you ran the touch command as the root user via sudo.

Step 9: Not applicable.

PROJECT 14-5 Solution: Step 1: Not applicable.

Step 2: ACCEPT for INPUT/OUTPUT, DROP for FORWARD. Step 3: Not applicable.

Step 4: Yes. Step 5: Sets the default action for any packets destined for the local computer to DROP. Step 6: DROP. Step 7: No. Step 8: Specifies that packets will be accepted from the Windows computer via the INPUT chain.

Step 9: Yes. Step 10: Yes. Step 11: Yes. Step 12: Remove all rules from all chains and set the chains to the default action.

Steps 13-16: Not applicable.

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Solution and Answer Guide: ; Chapter 14: Security, Troubleshooting, and Performance 9798214000800; Chapter 01: Introduction to Linux

PROJECT 14-6 Solution: Step 1: Not applicable.

Step 2: No. Step 3: Not applicable.

Step 4: FedoraWorkstation.

Step 5: Apache is listed because we configured the --permanent option using the firewall exception in Project 13-4.

Step 6: Not applicable.

Step 7: Yes. Step 8: No. Step 9: No. Step 10: Not applicable.

Step 11: Yes. Step 12: Not applicable.

PROJECT 14-7 Solution: Steps 1-3: Not applicable.

Step 4: No. Step 5: Yes, 3 invalid login attempts in total were made prior to lockout.

Step 6: No. Step 7: Yes. Steps 8-9: Not applicable.

PROJECT 14-8 Solution: Steps 1-2: Not applicable.

Step 3: Yes. Steps 4-8: Not applicable.

Step 9: You receive a 403 Forbidden error.

Step 10: Yes, yes.

Step 11: httpd_user_content, httpd_t.

Step 12: off.

Step 13: Yes. Step 14: Yes.

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Step 15: Not applicable.

DISCOVERY EXERCISES DISCOVERY EXERCISE 14-1 Prompt: Given the following situations, list any log files or commands that you would use when collecting information during the troubleshooting process. a.

A USB device that worked previously with Linux does not respond to the mount command.

b.

The system was unable to mount the /home filesystem (/dev/sda6).

c.

A new database application fails to start successfully.

d.

All applications on a system open very slowly.

e.

You have installed a new network interface in the Linux system, but it is not displayed within the graphical Network utility within Fedora Linux.

Solution: Answers will vary for each answer. In general, commands should include using the appropriate service unit or process alongside the journalctl command, either with the appropriate argument or via | grep keyword. Alternatively, students may list log files such as /var/log/messages, /var/log/boot.log, or /var/log/dmesg when searching for errors. For performance issues, commands such as sar, mpstat, iostat, top, and htop will list those processes using the most system resources.

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Solution and Answer Guide: ; Chapter 14: Security, Troubleshooting, and Performance 9798214000800; Chapter 01: Introduction to Linux

DISCOVERY EXERCISE 14-2 Prompt: For each problem in Exercise 1, list as many possible causes and solutions that you can think of, given the material presented throughout this book. Next, research other possible causes using the Internet.

Solution: Answers will vary. If this exercise is graded, ensure that possible causes correlate to the issues listed in Discovery Exercise 14-1, and that the source of Internet searches are provided. Some common causes include: a)

A restrictive udev rule (modify rule), USB hardware or device failure (replace hardware or device), incompatible driver module (install proper driver module)

b) Corrupted /home filesystem (repair filesystem), invalid mount options (alter /etc/fstab or System mount unit) c)

Corrupted database (restore database from backup), missing DBMS dependency (reinstall dependency)

d) Too many applications for the available resources on the system (move some services to another system), storage device bottleneck (replace storage device with a faster one) e)

Network interface driver not installed (install proper driver module)

DISCOVERY EXERCISE 14-3 Prompt: You are the administrator of a Linux system that provides file and print services to over 100 clients in your company. The system uses several fast SSD hard disk drives and has a Xeon processor with 128 GB of RAM. Since its installation, you have installed database software that is used by only a few users.

Unfortunately, you have rarely monitored and documented performance information of this system in the past.

Recently, users complained that the performance of the server is very poor. What commands could you use to narrow down the problem? Are there any other troubleshooting methods that might be useful when solving this problem?

Solution: Answers will vary. In general, running the same commands used to create the baseline and comparing the results to the baseline results will identify the area of the system that requires upgrading. In the absence of a baseline, running the top or htop command will identify whether CPU or RAM is a key issue, and running iostat or ioping on each storage device will identify I/O bottlenecks. Alternatively, you can run the sar command with the -W, -u, -q, -d, and -b options to obtain this same information.

DISCOVERY EXERCISE 14-4 Prompt: Briefly describe the purpose of a baseline. What areas of the system would you include in a baseline for your Linux system? Which commands would you use to obtain the information about these areas? Use these commands to generate baseline information for your system (for the current day only) and place this information in a folder on your system for later use. Next, monitor the normal activity of your system for three consecutive days and compare the results to the baseline that you have printed. Are there any differences? Incorporate this new information into your baseline by averaging the results. Are these new values a more accurate indication of normal activity? Why or why not?

Solution: The purpose of a baseline is to obtain information about a ―normal‖ system such that it may be compared to information obtained when there is a system performance problem in order to isolate the problem.

Any command discussed in this chapter (plus more) may be used to obtain a baseline.

Answers will vary for the remainder of this discovery exercise.

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DISCOVERY EXERCISE 14-5 Prompt: You are a Linux administrator for your organization and are required to plan and deploy a new Linux file and print server that will service Windows, Linux, and macOS client computers. In addition, the server will provide DHCP services on the network and host a small website listing company information. In a brief document, draft the services that you plan to implement for this server and the methods that you will use to maximize the security of the system.

Solution: Answers will vary. However, key elements should include restrictive service configuration, a reduction of the attack surface (few other services running), the inclusion of a firewall, and the inclusion of security services (SELinux or AppArmor).

DISCOVERY EXERCISE 14-6 Prompt: Add a virtual hard disk file to your Fedora Linux virtual machine. Next, configure this virtual hard disk drive with a single partition that uses LUKS encryption and an ext4 filesystem. Ensure that the filesystem is automatically mounted at system initialization to a mount point directory of your choice. Briefly describe situations in which LUKS encryption is commonly used.

Solution: LUKS encryption is often used on portable computers, or computers within a public area that have a higher risk of data theft. Users that do not wish to encrypt key files often choose LUKS to protect their data in the event of data theft.

DISCOVERY EXERCISE 14-7 Prompt: On your Ubuntu Linux virtual machine, create GPG keys for your user account and encrypt and digitally sign a file of your choice using GPG. Next, decrypt this file within another directory. Briefly describe situations in which GPG encryption is commonly used.

Solution: GPG encryption is often used to encrypt a single file, or a small number of files that contain sensitive content.

DISCOVERY EXERCISE 14-8 Prompt: Install the iperf command on your Ubuntu Linux and Fedora Linux virtual machines. Next, use the iperf command to test the bandwidth between your two virtual machines and interpret the results.

Solution: In this exercise, students run the iperf command to measure the bandwidth between their Ubuntu and Fedora Workstation systems. If this exercise is graded, consider having students provide you with a screenshot of the output of the iperf results.

DISCOVERY EXERCISE 14-9 Prompt: Examine the default AppArmor configuration on your Ubuntu Linux virtual machine. Note the AppArmor profiles that are enforced, and their settings. Next, summarize the differences you noticed between exploring AppArmor and SELinux in a short memo.

Solution: Answers will vary. At minimum, students should note that AppArmor provides daemon-specific profiles instead of type enforcement like SELinux does.

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DISCOVERY EXERCISE 14-10 Prompt: If your network contains an Active Directory domain for which you have a user account, join your Ubuntu Linux virtual machine to the Active Directory domain. You must first run apt install sssdad sssd-tools realmd adcli to install the packages needed for sssd and realmd, as well as run pamauth-update --enable mkhomedir to ensure that local home directories are automatically created for Active Directory users that authenticate to your system. Following this, you can join a domain using the realm join domainname -v command. Next, access your system from a Windows system on the network by entering \\ubuntu within the File Explorer app search dialog box. Note that a home directory share is available for your Windows user and copy some files to it. Next, log into a terminal on your Ubuntu Linux virtual machine as the same domain user and view the contents of your home directory. Finally, use the klist command to view your Kerberos ticket information.

Solution: In this exercise, students configure their Ubuntu system to join an Active Directory domain. If this exercise is graded, consider having students provide you with a screenshot of the output of the klist command on their Ubuntu system listing their Kerberos ticket in the domain.

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